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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Teachers' Manuals: Nature Study, by 
+Ontario Ministry of Education
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ontario Teachers' Manuals: Nature Study
+
+Author: Ontario Ministry of Education
+
+Release Date: July 28, 2008 [EBook #26139]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS: NATURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, Josephine Paolucci and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net.
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS
+
+NATURE STUDY
+
+
+AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION
+
+
+TORONTO
+THE RYERSON PRESS
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, CANADA, 1915, BY
+THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION FOR ONTARIO
+Second Printing, 1918
+Third Printing, 1923
+Fourth Printing, 1924
+
+Transcriber's note: Minor typos have been corrected. Italics are
+indicated by subscripts (_) and bold words are indicated by tildes (~).
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                 PAGE
+PREFATORY NOTE                                                      1
+
+COURSE OF STUDY--DETAILS                                            3
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+The Aims of Nature Study; General Methods                          13
+  Concrete Material                                                15
+    Topics and material must suit the season;
+    matter suited to the child; use of the commonplace;
+    order of development of lesson; problems in observation;
+    note-books and records                                         15
+
+The School Garden                                                  19
+  Suggestions; Garden Expenses                                     20
+
+The Excursion                                                      23
+    Its value; difficulties; frequency;
+    suggestions for ungraded schools;
+    the teacher's excursions; a type excursion                     23
+  Collections                                                      29
+
+Animal Studies                                                     29
+  Domestic animals; references                                     29
+  Birds; references                                                30
+  Insects; insect collections                                      34
+  Butterfly and moth collections                                   37
+
+Plant Collections                                                  39
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+Physical Science Phase of Nature Study                             42
+
+Instructions and General Method                                    42
+    Value of such lessons; conditions under which experiments
+    should be performed                                            42
+    Correlations of physical science phase                         44
+  List of Reference Books and Bulletins on garden and plant
+  study, physical science, and animal study                        45
+
+Physical Science--Equipment for Forms III and IV                   47
+  Desirable apparatus                                              47
+
+Chemicals                                                          48
+
+Apparatus                                                          50
+  Grenet cells; decomposition apparatus; pneumatic trough;
+  spirit-lamp; barometer; hygrometer; hints                        50
+
+Time Apportioned to Nature Study                                   53
+
+
+CHAPTER III. FORM I: AUTUMN
+
+Garden Work                                                        54
+  Lessons on a Garden Plant--Pansy                                 55
+  Observation Exercises on the Dandelion                           57
+    Correlation with literature and reading                        59
+  Dwarf Nasturtium                                                 59
+
+Seeds                                                              60
+    Field exercise; class-room lesson based on the collection      60
+  Seed Dispersal                                                   61
+    Lesson on seeds that fly; correlations                         62
+
+Twigs and Buds                                                     62
+  Lesson on Twigs                                                  62
+    Further study of twigs; review lesson                          63
+  Lesson on Buds                                                   65
+    Review lesson; correlations                                    65
+
+Leaves                                                             66
+  Field exercises; class-room lesson on leaves                     66
+
+Garden Studies                                                     68
+  Studies in the Pupil's individual Plot                           68
+  Studies from the Garden as a Whole                               69
+
+Bulb Planting                                                      69
+  Lesson on Bulbs and Bulb Planting                                69
+    Planting the bulb                                              70
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. FORM I: WINTER
+
+Pet Animals                                                        72
+  The Rabbit--Lesson on; correlations                              72
+  The Domestic Cat--detailed study                                 75
+  The Pigeon--detailed study                                       76
+
+Winter-blooming Plants--Observation and care of                    78
+
+Trees                                                              79
+  Pines of the Locality                                            79
+  The White Pine                                                   79
+    Field exercises; class-room lesson                             79
+  The Elm--field exercise                                          82
+
+Domestic Animals                                                   83
+  The Horse; correlations                                          83
+
+Domestic Birds                                                     85
+  The Duck--class-room lesson                                      85
+
+
+CHAPTER V. FORM I: SPRING
+
+Garden Work                                                        87
+  Garden Studies--window garden                                    88
+
+Wild Flowers                                                       90
+  Recognition of Wild Flowers                                      91
+  Lesson in Outline--Bloodroot; correlations                       91
+
+Insect Study                                                       93
+  Cecropia, or Emperor-moth                                        93
+  Dragon-fly                                                       94
+  Other Conspicuous Insects                                        95
+
+Birds                                                              95
+  The Robin                                                        96
+    Field exercises; the nest, eggs, and young                     96
+  The Song-sparrow                                                 97
+    Field exercises; class-room lesson                             97
+
+The Sheep                                                          99
+  Problems for Field Work                                          99
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. FORM II: AUTUMN
+
+Bulb Planting Out-of-Doors                                        101
+  Bed for growing bulbs; planting of bulbs indoors                101
+
+Garden Work                                                       103
+  Seed selection; storing seeds;
+  harvesting and storing of garden crops; class-room lesson;
+  autumn cultivation                                              103
+
+Garden Studies                                                    106
+    Garden Records; correlations                                  107
+
+Climbing Plants                                                   108
+
+Trees                                                             109
+  Storing of Tree Seeds                                           110
+
+A Flower                                                          110
+  Type--Nasturtium                                                110
+
+Soil Studies                                                      112
+  Kinds of Soil                                                   112
+
+Animal Studies                                                    113
+  Bird Migration; correlations                                    113
+  Common Wild Animals                                             114
+    General method for field work                                 114
+  The Wood-chuck                                                  116
+  The Chipmunk--field exercises                                   117
+  The Eastern Swallow-tail Butterfly                              118
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. FORM II: WINTER
+
+Care of Plants in the Home                                        120
+
+Trees                                                             121
+  Collection of Wood Specimens                                    122
+
+Related Reading                                                   122
+
+The Dog                                                           123
+  Class-room lesson; observation exercises; correlations          123
+
+Lessons Involving Comparison                                      125
+  Cat and dog; experiments for assisting in the study
+  of the cat; comparison of the horse and cow                     126
+
+The Squirrel                                                      129
+  Field exercises; class-room lesson                              129
+
+Winter Birds                                                      130
+  Field exercises; class-room lesson; correlations                130
+
+Animals of the Zoological Gardens                                 132
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII. FORM II: SPRING
+
+Garden Work                                                       133
+  Combating Garden Pests                                          134
+    Cutworms; root-maggots; flea-beetles                          134
+  Seed Germination                                                135
+
+Plants for Individual Plots                                       137
+  Studies Based on Observations of Growing Plants                 137
+    Planting and care of sweet-peas                               138
+
+Wild Flowers                                                      139
+
+Weeds                                                             140
+
+The Apple Tree                                                    141
+  Field exercise; class-room lesson;
+  field exercise following class-room lesson                      141
+
+Bird Study                                                        143
+
+The Toad                                                          143
+  Field exercises; class-room lesson; detailed study;
+  life history of the toad                                        143
+
+The Earthworm                                                     147
+  Class-room lesson; references                                   148
+
+The Aquarium                                                      149
+  Aquarium Specimens                                              150
+    Mosquito; study of adult form; the development; references    150
+    Caddice-fly                                                   152
+
+Insects Suitable for Lessons in Form II                           153
+
+
+CHAPTER IX. FORM III: AUTUMN
+
+Garden Work                                                       154
+  Treatment of Fungi                                              154
+  Treatment of Insects--cabbage-worm                              156
+
+Plants                                                            158
+  Annuals, Biennials, and Perennials                              158
+    Class-room lesson                                             158
+  Garden Studies                                                  159
+    Annuals, biennials, perennials                                159
+  Special Study of Garden Plants                                  160
+    Sweet-pea; pumpkin; corn; correlations                        160
+
+Seed Dispersal--Lesson                                            164
+  Detailed Study of Seed Dispersal--class-room lesson             165
+    Seed collections; man as a disperser of seeds                 166
+
+The Sugar Maple--field exercises                                  168
+  Maple Leaves--class-room lesson; correlations                   169
+
+Weed Studies                                                      170
+  Observation lesson on weed seeds                                171
+
+Grasshopper--field exercises; class-room lesson                   172
+
+Aphides                                                           174
+
+Tomato Worm--the adult; the chrysalis                             175
+
+The Crow; correlations                                            177
+
+
+CHAPTER X. FORM III: WINTER
+
+Care of Plants in the Home                                        178
+  Plant Cuttings                                                  179
+    Selection of cuttings; potting of rooted cuttings             179
+
+Evergreens--class-room lesson                                     181
+
+Collection of Wood Specimens                                      182
+
+Related Reading                                                   183
+
+How Animals Prepare for Winter                                    183
+  Summary of Lessons; correlations                                184
+
+Chickens                                                          185
+  Conversation lesson; arithmetic lesson;
+  care and food of chickens                                       185
+
+Physical Science Phase of Nature Study                            188
+
+Solids, Liquids, and Gases                                        188
+  Change of State                                                 189
+  Expansion of Solids                                             189
+    Practical applications; questions for further investigation   190
+  Expansion of Liquids--applications                              192
+  The Thermometer                                                 193
+  Expansion of Air                                                194
+  Sources of Heat and Light                                       194
+    Notes for a Series of Lessons                                 194
+  Conduction--problems                                            196
+  Convection--problems, convection in gases; applications         198
+  Radiation of Heat--problems                                     199
+
+
+CHAPTER XI. FORM III: SPRING
+
+Window Boxes                                                      201
+
+Window Gardens                                                    201
+  Suitable Plants; Fertilizer                                     202
+
+Soil Studies--constituents                                        203
+
+Garden Work                                                       206
+  Tree Seeds                                                      207
+  Transplanting--flowers, vegetables, tree seedlings              208
+  Budding                                                         209
+  Cuttings--leaf cuttings, root cuttings, layering                211
+  Planting and Care of Herbaceous Perennials                      212
+  Garden Studies--biennials                                       212
+
+Wild Flowers                                                      213
+  Study of the Trillium                                           213
+    Class-room lesson on the specimens                            213
+
+Adaptations of Animals                                            215
+
+Bird Types                                                        217
+  Woodpeckers--the downy woodpecker; observations                 217
+  Flycatchers                                                     219
+  Wrens                                                           219
+
+Insect Types                                                      220
+  Cabbage-butterfly                                               220
+  Tussock-moth                                                    221
+  Potato beetle                                                   222
+    References                                                    222
+
+Fish--Observations; problems; references                          223
+
+
+CHAPTER XII. FORM IV: AUTUMN
+
+Garden Work                                                       225
+  Herbaceous Perennials from Seed                                 226
+
+Trees--Deciduous; references                                      227
+  Trees in Relation to their Environment                          228
+
+Fruits--Excursion to a well-kept orchard                          229
+  Small Fruits                                                    230
+
+Autumn Wild Flowers--Milkweed; correlations                       230
+
+Trees--The White Pine                                             232
+  Outline of a class-room lesson on the white pine;
+  correlations; references                                        235
+
+Apples--Comparative Lesson on Winter Varieties                    239
+  King, Baldwin, Northern Spy                                     239
+  Codling moth; references                                        240
+
+Some Common Animal Forms; references                              242
+  Centipeds and millipeds                                         243
+  Salamanders or newts                                            243
+  Spiders                                                         244
+
+Bird Studies                                                      245
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII. FORM IV: WINTER
+
+Forest Trees                                                      246
+  Evergreens; Wood Specimens                                      246
+
+Fruits                                                            247
+
+Weeds and Weed Seeds                                              248
+
+Physical Science Phase of Nature Study                            248
+  Water Pressure--exercises                                       248
+  Study of Air                                                    249
+    The barometer; the common pump; expansive
+    force of air; composition of air;
+    oxygen; carbon dioxide; impurities of air                     250
+  Solutions of Solids                                             255
+  Solutions of Liquids                                            256
+  Solutions of Gases                                              256
+  Limestone                                                       256
+  Carbon                                                          257
+  Hydrogen                                                        258
+  Magnets                                                         258
+  Electricity                                                     259
+  Steam                                                           260
+  Farm tools--machines; problems                                  260
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV. FORM IV: SPRING
+
+Method of Improving Home and School Grounds                       263
+  Making and Care of a Lawn; References                           264
+
+Soil Studies                                                      265
+  Weight                                                          265
+  Subsoils                                                        266
+  Fertilizers--experiments                                        268
+  Soil-forming Agents                                             268
+  Tilling the Soil                                                269
+  Garden Work--experiments in plots out-of-doors                  270
+  Function of Parts of Plants                                     273
+    How the plant gets its food from the soil;
+    germination of some of the common grains                      274
+  Weeds                                                           278
+  Vines                                                           279
+  Wild Flowers                                                    279
+  Planting of Trees, Shrubs, and Herbaceous
+    Perennials in Home and School Grounds                         280
+      Shade trees; transplanting                                  281
+
+Animal Studies                                                    283
+  Scale Insects                                                   283
+  San José scale; oyster-shell bark-louse; cutworms; white grubs  283
+  Crayfish                                                        285
+  Freshwater Mussel                                               286
+
+Bird Study                                                        287
+
+Different Aspects of Nature Study                                 288
+
+
+
+
+PREFATORY NOTE
+
+
+This Manual is placed in the hands of the teachers in the hope that the
+suggestions which it contains on lesson topics, materials, books of
+reference, and methods in teaching will be found helpful to all teachers
+and in particular to those who have had little or no instruction in
+Nature Study during their academic or professional training.
+
+The first Chapter of the Manual discusses topics which have general
+reference to the subject as a whole. The remaining part of the Manual
+deals more particularly with the subject in its application to the
+different Public and Separate School Forms. While this division of the
+matter into Forms is convenient for general classification, it is not to
+be regarded as arbitrary. Materials and methods of presentation suitable
+for one class of pupils in a certain Form might, under different
+conditions, be quite unsuitable for another class of pupils in the same
+Form. For example, work which would be suitable for a class in Form I
+made up of pupils admitted to a school at seven or eight years of age,
+after two years' training in a kindergarten where nature lessons
+received special attention, would not be suitable for a Form I class
+made up of pupils admitted to a school at five years of age with no such
+previous training. In selecting work for any class the teacher,
+therefore, should not be guided solely by the arbitrary divisions of the
+Manual, but should exercise his own judgment, taking into account his
+environment and the attainments of his pupils. To facilitate such a
+selection, page references are given in the details of the Course of
+Study, which in reality forms a detailed expansion of the Public and
+Separate School Course in Nature Study. By means of these references,
+the teacher may find, in any department of the subject, typical matter
+suited to the development of his pupils.
+
+The numerous type lessons that are contained in the Manual are intended
+to suggest principles of method that are to be applied in lessons upon
+the same and similar topics, but the teacher is cautioned against
+attempting to imitate these lessons. This error can be avoided by the
+teacher's careful preparation of the lesson. This preparation should
+include the careful study of the concrete materials that are to be used.
+The books, bulletins, etc., that are named in the Manual as references
+will be found helpful.
+
+To facilitate teaching through the experimental and investigation
+methods, special attention has been given to the improvising of simple
+apparatus from materials within the reach of every teacher.
+
+From the character of the subject the Course of Study must be more or
+less elastic, and the topics detailed in the programme are intended to
+be suggestive rather than prescriptive. It may be that, owing to local
+conditions, topics not named are among the best that can be used, but
+all substitutions and changes should be made a subject of consultation
+with the Inspector. The treatment of the subject must always be suited
+to the age and experience of the pupils, to the seasons of the year,
+accessibility of materials, etc. Notes should not be dictated by the
+teacher. Mere information, whether from book, written note, or teacher,
+is not Nature Study. The acquisition of knowledge must be made secondary
+to awakening and maintaining the pupil's interest in nature and to
+training him to habits of observation and investigation.
+
+As a guide to the minimum of work required, it is suggested that at
+least one lesson be taught from the subjects outlined under each general
+heading in the detailed Course of Study, with a minimum average of three
+lessons from the subjects under each general heading.
+
+
+
+
+PUBLIC AND SEPARATE SCHOOL
+
+COURSE OF STUDY
+
+DETAILS
+
+
+FORM I
+
+AUTUMN
+
+GARDEN WORK AND GARDEN STUDIES:
+
+Division of the garden plots, removal of weeds and observations on these
+weeds, identification of garden plants, observation lessons based on
+garden plants, selection of seeds, harvesting and disposing of the crop.
+(See pp. 54-9.)
+
+STUDY OF PLANTS:
+
+Class lessons based on a flowering garden plant, as pansy, aster,
+nasturtium; study of a field plant, as buttercup, goldenrod, dandelion.
+(See pp. 55-9.)
+
+Potted and garden plants: Observation lesson based on a bulb; planting
+bulbs in pots, or in the garden. (See pp. 69-71.)
+
+BIRDS AND CONSPICUOUS INSECTS:
+
+Identification of a few common birds, as robin, English sparrow,
+meadow-lark; observation lessons on the habits of these birds;
+collection of the adult forms, the larvæ and the cocoons of a few common
+moths and butterflies, as emperor-moth, promothea moth, eastern
+swallow-tail butterfly. (See pp. 30-9 and 93-8.)
+
+COMMON TREES:
+
+Identification of a few common trees, as white pine, elm, maple;
+observations on the general shape, branches, leaves, and bark of these
+trees. (See pp. 62-7 and 79-82.)
+
+WINTER
+
+FARM ANIMALS, INCLUDING FOWLS:
+
+Habits and characteristics of a few domestic animals, as horse, cow,
+sheep, hen, duck; the uses of these animals, and how to take care of
+them. (See pp. 83-6.)
+
+PET ANIMALS:
+
+Observations on the habits, movements, and characteristics of pet
+animals, as cat, pigeon, bantam, rabbit, etc.; conversations about the
+natural homes and habits of these animals, and inferences upon their
+care. (See pp. 72-7.)
+
+COMMON TREES:
+
+Observations on the branching of common trees. (See pp. 79-82.)
+
+SPRING
+
+GARDEN WORK:
+
+Preparation, planting, and care of the garden plot; observations on the
+growing plants. (See pp. 87-90.)
+
+FLOWERS:
+
+Identification and study of a few spring flowers, as trillium,
+bloodroot, hepatica, spring-beauty. (See pp. 90-2.)
+
+BIRDS AND INSECTS:
+
+Identification and study of the habits of a few common birds, as
+song-sparrow, blue-bird, wren; observations of the form and habits of a
+few common insects, as house-fly, dragon-fly. (See pp. 30-3 and 93-9.)
+
+COMMON TREES:
+
+Observations on the opening buds of the trees which were studied in the
+Autumn. (See p. 65.)
+
+
+FORM II
+
+AUTUMN
+
+BIRDS AND INSECTS:
+
+Autumn migration of birds; identification and observations on the habits
+and movements of a few common insects, including their larval forms, as
+grasshopper, eastern swallow-tail butterfly. (See pp. 113-4 and 118-9.)
+
+ANIMALS OF THE FARM, FIELD, AND WOOD:
+
+Observations on the homes and habits of wild animals, as frog, toad,
+squirrel, ground-hog; habits and structures, including adaptive
+features, of domestic animals, as dog, cat, horse, cow. (See pp. 83 and
+123-30.)
+
+TREES OF THE FARM, ROADSIDE, WOOD, AND ORCHARD:
+
+Observations on the shapes, sizes, rate of growth, and usefulness of
+common orchard, shade, and forest trees, as apple, elm, horse-chestnut.
+(See pp. 109-10.)
+
+WILD FLOWERS AND WEEDS:
+
+Identification and study of a few common weeds, noting their means of
+persistence and dispersal. (See pp. 139-40.)
+
+CARE OF POTTED AND GARDEN PLANTS:
+
+Preparation of pots and garden beds for bulbs; selecting and storing
+garden seeds; observations on the habits of climbing plants, and
+application of the knowledge gained to the care required for these
+plants. (See pp. 101-9 and 120.)
+
+WINTER
+
+BIRDS:
+
+Identification of winter birds and study of their means of protection
+and of obtaining food. (See pp. 130-2.)
+
+ANIMALS OF THE FARM:
+
+Comparative study of the horse and cow, of the dog and cat, and of the
+duck and hen. (See pp. 123-8.)
+
+ANIMALS OF THE PARK AND ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN:
+
+Observations on the general structural features, noting the natural
+adaptations of such animals as bear, lion, deer, tiger, etc. (See p.
+132.)
+
+TREES:
+
+Winter study of trees, noting buds, branches, and foliage of spruce,
+cedar, horse-chestnut, etc. (See pp. 121-3.)
+
+SPRING
+
+BIRDS AND INSECTS:
+
+Observations on the structure, adaptations and development of insect
+larvæ kept in an aquarium, as larva of mosquito, dragon-fly,
+caddice-fly; spring migration of birds. (See pp. 149-153.)
+
+ANIMALS OF THE FIELD AND WOODS:
+
+Observations on the forms, homes, habits, and foods of wild animals,
+continued. (See pp. 114-8, 143-9.)
+
+ORCHARD TREES:
+
+The buds and blossoms of apple, and cherry or plum, observed through the
+stages up to fruit formation. (See pp. 141-3.)
+
+EXPERIMENTS IN THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS:
+
+Germination of seeds and general observations on the stages of
+development; testing the conditions required for seed germination;
+introductory exercises in soil study as a preparation for seed planting.
+(See pp. 133-8 and 112-3.)
+
+WILD FLOWERS AND WEEDS:
+
+Field and class-room study of marsh marigold, Jack-in-the-pulpit,
+violet, etc. (See pp. 139-40.)
+
+
+FORM III
+
+AUTUMN
+
+BIRDS AND INSECTS:
+
+Observations on the habits and the ravages of common noxious insects, as
+cabbage-worm, grasshopper, tussock-moth, etc.; discussion of means of
+checking these insects. (See pp. 156-7 and 172-7.)
+
+FARM AND WILD ANIMALS OF THE LOCALITY:
+
+Field study and class-room lessons on the habits and structure,
+including adaptive features, of common animals, as musk-rat, fox, fish,
+sheep. (See pp. 99 and 183-5.)
+
+GARDEN AND EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS:
+
+Harvesting of garden and field crops; preparation of cuttings from
+geraniums, begonia, currant, etc.; identification of garden plants; seed
+dispersal. (See pp. 154, 179-80, and 164-8.)
+
+STUDY OF COMMON FLOWERS, TREES, AND FRUITS:
+
+Characteristics of annuals, biennials, and perennials; life histories of
+common plants, as sweet-pea, Indian corn, etc. (See pp. 158-64 and
+168-70.)
+
+STUDY OF WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION:
+
+Identification of the common noxious weeds of the locality; collection,
+description, and identification of weed seeds; cause of the prevalence
+of the weeds studied, and means of checking them. (See pp. 164-8 and
+170-2.)
+
+WINTER
+
+FARM AND WILD ANIMALS OF THE LOCALITY:
+
+Habits and instincts of common domestic animals, as fowls, sheep, and
+hogs; the economic values of these animals. (See pp. 185-8.)
+
+GARDEN WORK AND EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS:
+
+The characteristics of common house plants, and care of these plants.
+(See pp. 178-9.)
+
+STUDY OF COMMON FLOWERS, TREES, AND FRUITS:
+
+Comparative study of common evergreens, as balsam, spruce, hemlock,
+etc.; collection of wood specimens. (See pp. 181-3.)
+
+OBSERVATIONS OF NATURAL PHENOMENA:
+
+Simple experiments to show the nature of solids, liquids, and gases.
+(See pp. 188-9.)
+
+HEAT PHENOMENA:
+
+Source of heat, changes of volume in solids, liquids, and gases,
+accompanying changes in temperature; heat transmission; the thermometer
+and its uses. (See pp. 189-200.)
+
+SPRING
+
+BIRDS AND INSECTS:
+
+Field and class lessons on the habits, movements, and foods of common
+birds, as crow, woodpecker, king-bird, phoebe, blackbird, etc. (See pp.
+217-22.)
+
+GARDEN WORK AND EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS:
+
+Care of garden plots; transplanting; testing best varieties; making of,
+and caring for, window boxes; propagation of plants by budding,
+cuttings, and layering. (See pp. 201-3 and 208-13.)
+
+COMMON WILD FLOWERS:
+
+Field lessons on the habitat of common wild flowers; class-room study of
+the plant organs including floral organs; study of weeds and weed seeds
+continued, also the study of garden and field annuals, biennials, and
+perennials. (See Autumn.) (See pp. 170-2 and 212-5.)
+
+SOIL STUDIES AND EXPERIMENTS:
+
+The components of soils, their origin, properties, and especially their
+water absorbing and retaining properties; the relation of soils to plant
+growth; experiments demonstrating the benefits of mulching and of
+drainage. (See pp. 203-6.)
+
+
+FORM IV
+
+AUTUMN
+
+INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL INSECTS AND BIRDS:
+
+Identification of common insects and observations on their habits; means
+of combating such insects, as codling moth, etc.; bird identification,
+and study of typical members of some common families, as woodpeckers,
+flycatchers; spiders. (See pp. 217-22 and 240-5.)
+
+ORNAMENTAL AND EXPERIMENTAL GARDEN PLOTS:
+
+Observations and conclusions based upon experimental plots; common
+shrubs, vines, and trees, and how to grow them. (See pp. 225-30 and
+279.)
+
+FUNCTIONS OF PLANT ORGANS:
+
+Simple experiments illustrating roots as organs of absorption, stems as
+organs of transmission, and leaves as organs of respiration,
+transpiration, and food building. (See pp. 273-8.)
+
+ECONOMIC STUDY OF PLANTS:
+
+Comparative study of varieties of winter apples, of fall apples, or of
+other fruits of the locality; visits to orchards; weed studies
+continued. (See Form III.) (See pp. 229-30 and 239-40.)
+
+RELATION OF SOIL AND SOIL TILLAGE TO FARM CROPS:
+
+Soil-forming agents, as running water, ice, frost, heat, wind, plants,
+and animals, and inferences as to methods of tillage. (See pp. 268-70.)
+
+WINTER
+
+AIR AND LIQUID PRESSURE:
+
+Simple illustrations of the buoyancy of liquids and of air; simple tests
+to demonstrate that air fills space and exerts pressure; the application
+of air pressure in the barometer, the common pump, the bicycle tire,
+etc. (See pp. 248-52.)
+
+OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE:
+
+Generate each of these gases and test for properties, as colour, odour,
+combustion, action with lime-water; the place occupied by these gases in
+nature. (See pp. 252-5.)
+
+PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF HEAT, STEAM, AND ELECTRICITY:
+
+Making a simple voltaic cell, an electro-magnet, and a simple
+electroscope. Test the current by means of the two latter and also with
+an electric bell. Explain the application of the above in the electric
+telegraph and motor. Simple demonstration of pressure of steam; history
+and uses of the steam-engine. (See pp. 259-60.)
+
+SPRING
+
+INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL INSECTS AND BIRDS:
+
+Identification of noxious insects and observations thereon; study of
+representatives of common families of birds, as thrushes, warblers,
+sparrows; economic values of birds. (See pp. 283-5 and 286-7.)
+
+AQUATIC ANIMALS:
+
+Observation exercises upon the habits, movements, and structures,
+including adaptive features of aquatic animals, as crayfish, mussel,
+tadpole, etc. (See pp. 285-6.)
+
+ORNAMENTAL AND EXPERIMENTAL GARDEN PLOTS:
+
+Experimental plots demonstrating the benefits of seed selection;
+ornamental plots of flowering perennials and bulbous plants; how to
+improve the school grounds and the home lawns. (See pp. 270-3 and
+263-5.)
+
+TREE STUDIES:
+
+Comparison of the values of the common varieties of shade trees, how to
+plant and how to take care of shade trees. (See pp. 280-2.)
+
+THE FUNCTIONS OF PLANT ORGANS:
+
+Examination of the organs of common flowers; use of root, flower organs,
+fruit, and seed. (See pp. 273-8.)
+
+ECONOMIC STUDY OF PLANTS:
+
+Plants of the lawn and garden; weed studies. (See pp. 263-5, 270-3, and
+278-9.)
+
+RELATION OF SOIL AND SOIL TILLAGE TO FARM CROPS:
+
+Study of subsoils; capillarity in soils; benefits of crop rotations and
+mulching; experiments in fertilizing, mulching, depth of planting, and
+closeness of planting. (See pp. 265-7.)
+
+
+
+
+NATURE STUDY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+
+THE AIMS OF NATURE STUDY
+
+Nature Study means primarily the study of natural things and preferably
+of living things. Like all other subjects, it must justify its position
+on the school curriculum by proving its power to equip the pupil for the
+responsibilities of citizenship. That citizen is best prepared for life
+who lives in most sympathetic and intelligent relation to his
+environment, and it is the primary aim of Nature Study to maintain the
+bond of interest which unites the child's life to the objects and
+phenomena which surround him. To this end it is necessary to adapt the
+teaching, in matter and method, to the conditions of the child's life,
+that he may learn to understand the secrets of nature and be the better
+able to control and utilize the forces of his natural environment.
+
+At all times, the teacher must keep in mind the fact that it is not the
+quantity of matter taught but the interest aroused and the spirit of
+investigation fostered, together with carefulness and thoroughness,
+which are the important ends to be sought. With a mind trained to
+experiment and stimulated by a glimpse into nature's secrets, the worker
+finds in his labour a scientific interest that lifts it above drudgery,
+while, from a fuller understanding of the forces which he must combat
+or with which he must co-operate, he reaps better rewards for his
+labours.
+
+The claims of Nature Study to an educative value are based not upon a
+desire to displace conventional education, but to supplement it, and to
+lay a foundation for subsequent reading. Constant exercise of the senses
+strengthens these sources of information and develops alertness, and at
+the same time the child is kept on familiar ground--the world of
+realities. It is for these reasons that Nature Study is frequently
+defined as "The Natural Method of Study". Independent observation and
+inference should be encouraged to the fullest degree, for one of the
+most important, though one of the rarer accomplishments of the modern
+intellect, is to think independently and to avoid the easier mode of
+accepting the opinions of others. Reading from nature books, the study
+of pictures, and other such matter, is not Nature Study. These may
+supplement Nature Study, but must not displace the actual vitalizing
+contact between the child and natural objects and forces.
+
+It is this contact which is at the basis of clear, definite knowledge;
+and clearness of thought and a feeling of at-homeness with the subject
+is conducive to clearness and freedom of expression. The Nature Study
+lesson should therefore be used as a basis for language lessons.
+
+Undoubtedly one of the most important educative values that can be
+claimed for Nature Study is its influence in training the pupil to
+appreciate natural objects and phenomena. This implies the widening and
+enriching of human interests through nurturing the innate tendency of
+the child to love the fields and woods and birds; the checking of the
+selfish and destructive impulses by leading him to see the usefulness of
+each creature, the harmony of its relation to its environment, and the
+significance of its every part. Nor is it a mistake to cultivate the
+more sentimental love of nature which belongs to the artist and the
+poet. John Ruskin emphasizes this value in these words: "All other
+efforts are futile unless you have taught the children to love trees and
+birds and flowers".
+
+
+GENERAL METHODS IN NATURE STUDY
+
+
+CONCRETE MATERIAL
+
+It is evident that concrete material must be provided and so distributed
+that each member of the class will have a direct opportunity to exercise
+his senses, and, from his observations, to deduce inferences and form
+judgments. The objects chosen should be mainly from the common things of
+the locality. The teacher should be guided in the selection by the
+interests of the pupils, first finding out from them the things upon
+which they are expending their wonder and inquiry. Trees, field crops,
+flowers, birds, animals of the parks, woods, or farmyard, all form
+suitable subjects for study.
+
+TOPICS AND MATERIAL MUST SUIT THE SEASON
+
+The material should be selected not only with reference to locality but
+also with due regard to season. For example, better Nature Study lessons
+can be taught on the elm tree of the school grounds than on the giant
+Douglas fir of British Columbia; and on the oriole whose nest is in the
+elm tree than on the eagle portrayed in Roberts' animal stories; and it
+is manifestly unwise to teach lessons on snow in summer, or on flowers
+and ants in winter.
+
+MATTER MUST BE SUITED TO THE CHILD
+
+For the urban pupil the treatment of the material must be different from
+that in the case of the pupil of the rural school. Rural school pupils
+have already formed an extensive acquaintance with many plants and
+animals which are entirely unknown to the children of the city. The
+simpler facts which are interesting and instructive to the pupils of the
+urban classes would prove commonplace and trivial to rural pupils. For
+example, while it is necessary to show the city child a squirrel that he
+may learn the size, colour, and general appearance of the animal, the
+efforts of the pupil of the rural school should be directed to the
+discovery of the less evident facts of squirrel life.
+
+USE OF THE COMMONPLACE
+
+It must be kept in mind that besides leading the pupils to discover new
+sources of interest, the teacher should strive to accomplish that which
+is even greater, namely, to lead them to discover new truth and new
+beauty in old, familiar objects. It may be true that "familiarity breeds
+contempt" and there is always a danger that the objects with which
+children have associated in early life may be passed by as uninteresting
+while they go in search of something "new and interesting".
+
+For example, to be able to recognize many plants and to call them by
+name is no doubt something of an accomplishment, but it should not be
+the chief aim of the teacher in conducting Nature Study lessons on
+plants. It is of much greater importance that the child should be led to
+love the flowers and to appreciate their beauty and their utility. Such
+appreciation will result in the desire to protect and to produce fine
+flowers and useful plants, and this end can be reached only through
+intelligent acquaintanceship. There can be no true appreciation without
+knowledge, and this the child gets chiefly by personal observation and
+experiment. With reference to the wild flowers of the woods and fields,
+the method employed is that of continuous observation.
+
+ORDER OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE LESSON
+
+Each animal or plant should be studied as a living, active organism. The
+attention of the pupils should be focused upon activities; for these
+appeal to the child nature and afford the best means for securing
+interest and attention. What does this animal do? How does it do it? How
+is it fitted for doing this? How does this plant grow? What fits it for
+growing in this way? These are questions which should exercise the mind
+of the child. They are questions natural in the spirit of inquiry in
+child nature and give vitality to nature teaching. They are an effective
+means of establishing a bond of sympathy between the child and nature.
+The child who takes care of a plant or animal because it is his own,
+does so at first from a purely personal motive, which is perfectly
+natural to childhood; but while he studies its needs and observes its
+movements and changes, gradually and unconsciously this interest will be
+transferred to the plant or animal for its own sake. The nature of the
+child is thus broadened during the process.
+
+PROBLEMS IN OBSERVATION
+
+In studying the material provided, whether it be in the class-room, or
+during a nature excursion, or by observations made in the farmyard at
+home, the teacher must guide the efforts of the pupils by assigning to
+them definite and suitable problems. Care must be taken to reach the
+happy mean of giving specific directions without depriving the pupils of
+the pleasure of making original discovery. For example, instead of
+asking them to study the foot of the horse and learn all they can about
+it, more specific problems should be assigned, such as: Observe how the
+hoof is placed on the ground in walking. What are the arrangements for
+lessening the shock when the hoof strikes the ground? Examine the under
+surface of the hoof and discover what prevents the unshod horse from
+slipping.
+
+NOTE-BOOKS AND RECORDS
+
+In Grades higher than Form I, written exercises should be required and
+also sketches representing the objects studied. For this purpose a
+Nature Study note-book is necessary--a loose-leaf note-book being
+preferable because of necessary corrections, rearrangements, additions,
+or omissions.
+
+In all records and reports, independence of thought and of expression
+should be encouraged. The drawing and the oral or written description
+should express what is actually observed, not what the book or some
+member of the class says has been, or should be, observed. The
+descriptions should be in the pupil's own words, because these are most
+in keeping with his own ideas on the subject. More correct forms of
+expression may be obtained when notes are taken from the teacher's
+dictation, but this is fatal to the development of originality.
+
+The disparity of the results in individual work gives opportunity for
+impressing upon the pupil, in the first place, the necessity for more
+accurate observation and, secondly, the impossibility of reaching a
+correct general conclusion without having studied a large number of
+examples. The development of critical and judicious minds, which may
+result from carefully observing many examples and generalizing from
+these observations, is vastly more important than the memorizing of many
+facts.
+
+
+THE SCHOOL GARDEN
+
+In the study of garden plants there is added a certain new interest
+arising out of experimentation, cultivation, and ownership. The love of
+the gardener has in it elements that the love of the naturalist does not
+usually possess--a sort of paternal love and care for the plants
+produced in his garden; but every gardener should be a naturalist as
+well. Most people have a higher appreciation for that which they own and
+which they have produced or acquired at some expense or personal
+sacrifice; therefore it is that the growing of plants in home and school
+gardens or in pots and window boxes is so strongly advocated throughout
+this Course. Ownership always implies responsibility, which is at once
+the chief safeguard of society and the foundation of citizenship. A
+careless boy will never respect the property of others so much as when
+he himself has proprietary interests involved. We believe, therefore,
+that every teacher should encourage his pupils to cultivate plants and,
+if possible, to own a plot of ground however small.
+
+The teacher should not merely aim at _making_ a garden in the school
+grounds. The great question is rather how best to use a school garden in
+connection with the training of boys and girls. To learn to do garden
+work well is indeed worth while and provides a highly beneficial kind of
+manual training. To understand something of soils and methods of
+cultivation, of fertilizers and drainage, the best kinds of flowers,
+vegetables, fruits, and farm crops, and how to grow them successfully,
+is very important in such a great agricultural country as this; but the
+greatest of all results which we may hope to realize in connection with
+school gardening is the ennobling of life and character. The pupils are
+taught to observe the growing plants with great care, noting
+developments day by day. This adds to their appreciation of the beauties
+and adaptations found among plants on every side, and cannot fail to
+produce good results in moral as well as in mental development. The
+teachers must always remember that the gardeners with whom they are
+working are more important than the gardens which they cultivate.
+
+The best garden is not always the largest and most elaborate one. It is
+rather the garden that both teacher and pupils have been most deeply
+interested in. It is the garden in which they have experienced most
+pleasure and profit that makes them want to have another better than the
+last. No school is too small to have a garden of some kind, and no
+garden is too small to become the joy and pride of some boy or girl.
+
+SUGGESTIONS
+
+For the benefit of teachers beginning their duties on the first of
+September, in school sections where school gardening has never been
+carried on, the following suggestions are offered:
+
+1. See if the grounds will permit of a part being used for a garden. To
+ascertain this, note the size of the present grounds and see if they
+meet the requirements of the Department as laid down in the Regulations.
+If they do not, consult your Inspector at once and acquaint him with
+your plans. If the grounds are to be enlarged, try to take in sufficient
+land of good quality to make a good garden. The part chosen for the
+garden should be both convenient and safe. Examine the soil to see if it
+is well drained and sufficiently deep to permit of good cultivation.
+Lack of fertility can be overcome by good fertilizing.
+
+2. See that the fences and gates are in good repair. When circumstances
+will permit, a woven wire fence that will exclude dogs, pigs, and
+poultry is most desirable. If not used to inclose the whole grounds, it
+should at least inclose the part used for gardening.
+
+3. Begin modestly and provide room for extension as the work progresses.
+Sow clover on the part to be held in reserve for future gardening
+operations.
+
+4. If local public sentiment is not strongly in favour of school
+gardening, or is somewhat adverse, begin on a small scale. If the work
+is well done, you will soon have both moral and financial support.
+
+5. See that the land is well drained. Plough it early in the autumn and,
+if a load of well-rotted manure is available, spread it on the land
+before ploughing. Commercial fertilizer may also be used on the plots
+the following spring, but no stable manure.
+
+6. In spring, when dry enough, cultivate thoroughly with disc and drag
+harrows. Build up a compost heap in the rear of the garden with sods and
+stable manure, for use in the autumn and also the following spring.
+
+GARDEN EXPENSES
+
+In connection with those schools where the teacher holds a diploma from
+the Ontario Agricultural College in Elementary Agriculture and
+Horticulture, there is no difficulty in meeting the expenses for seeds,
+tools, fertilizers, and labour, as the Government grant for such
+purposes is sufficient. In other schools, however, where the teacher
+holds no such diploma (and such is the case in most of the schools as
+yet), other means of meeting the expenses must be resorted to. The
+following are offered as suggestions along this line:
+
+1. Part of the grant made to every school for the maintaining of the
+school grounds should be available for school garden expenses.
+
+2. An occasional school entertainment may add funds that could not be
+used to better advantage.
+
+3. An occasional load of stable manure supplied free from neighbouring
+farms will help to solve the fertilizer problem.
+
+4. Donations of plants and seeds by the parents and other interested
+persons and societies will be forthcoming, if the teacher is in earnest
+and his pupils interested.
+
+5. If it is required, the trustees could make a small grant each year
+toward the cost of tools.
+
+6. Fencing and cultivation of the garden can often be provided for by
+volunteer assistance from the men of the school section.
+
+7. It is often possible to grow a garden crop on a fairly large scale,
+the school being formed into a company for this purpose and the proceeds
+to be used to meet garden expenses.
+
+8. The pupils can readily bring the necessary tools from home for the
+first season's work.
+
+9. Many Agricultural and Horticultural societies offer very substantial
+cash prizes for school garden exhibits, and all funds so obtained should
+be used to improve the garden from which the exhibits were taken.
+
+10. An earnest, resourceful teacher will find a way of meeting the
+necessary expenses.
+
+
+THE EXCURSION
+
+Nature Study is essentially an outdoor subject. While it is true that a
+considerable amount of valuable work may be done in the class-room by
+the aid of aquaria, insectaria, and window boxes, yet the great book of
+nature lies outside the school-house walls. The teacher must lead or
+direct his pupils to that book and help them to read with reverent
+spirit what is written there by its great Author.
+
+~Value.~--The school excursion is valuable chiefly because it brings the
+pupil into close contact with the objects that he is studying, permits
+him to get his knowledge at first hand, and gives him an opportunity of
+studying these objects in their natural environment. Incidentally the
+excursion yields outdoor exercise under the very best conditions--no
+slight advantage for city children especially; and it gives the teacher
+a good opportunity to study the pupils from a new standpoint. It also
+provides a means of gathering Nature Study material.
+
+~Difficulties.~--Where is the time to be found? How can a large class of
+children be managed in the woods or fields? If only one class be taken,
+how, in an ungraded school, are the rest of the children to be employed?
+Will the excursion not degenerate into a mere outing? What if the woods
+are miles away? These are all real problems, and the Nature Study
+teacher, desirous of doing his work well, will have to face some of them
+at least.
+
+SHORT EXCURSIONS
+
+The excursion need not occupy much time. It should be well planned
+beforehand. _One_ object only should be kept in view and announced to
+the class before starting. Matters foreign or subordinate to this
+should be neglected for the time. The following are suggested as objects
+for excursions:
+
+~Objects.~--A bird's nest in an adjacent meadow; a ground-hog's hole; a
+musk-rat's home; crayfish or clams in the stream near by; a pine (or
+other) tree; a toad's day-resort; the soil of a field; the pests of a
+neighbouring orchard; a stone-heap or quarry; ants' nests or earthworms'
+holes; the weeds of the school yard; buds; the vegetable or animal life
+of a pond; sounds of spring; tracks in the snow; a spider's web.
+
+Such excursions may be accomplished at the expenditure of very little
+time. Many of them will take the pupils no farther than the boundaries
+of the school yard.
+
+Of course the locality will influence the character of the excursion, as
+it will that of the whole of the work done in Nature Study, but in any
+place the thoughtful teacher may find material for open-air work at his
+very door.
+
+Much outside work can be done without interfering with the regular
+programme. The teacher may arrange a systematic list of questions and
+problems for the pupils to solve from their own observations, and these
+observations may be made by the pupils at play hours, or while coming or
+going from school, or on Saturdays. The following will serve as an
+example of the treatment that may be followed:
+
+~Pests of Apple Trees.~--Look on the twigs of your apple trees for little
+scales. Bring an infected branch to school. Note whether
+unhealthy-looking or dead branches are infected. Examine scales with a
+lens. Loosen one, turn it over, and examine with a lens the under side.
+
+For eggs, look closely at the twigs in June. Do you see white specks
+moving? If so examine them with a lens.
+
+Are there any small, prematurely ripe apples on the ground in the
+orchard? Cut into one of these and look for a "worm". Look for apples
+with worm holes in the side. Are there worms in these apples? What is in
+them? Note the dirty marks that the larva has left. Keep several apples
+in a close box and watch for the "worms" to come out. Examine the bark
+of apple trees for pupæ in the fall.
+
+FREQUENCY OF EXCURSIONS
+
+As to the frequency of excursions, the teacher will be the best judge.
+It is desirable that they occur naturally in the course of the Nature
+Study work as the need for them arises. One short trip each week with a
+single object in view is much more satisfactory than a whole afternoon
+each term spent in aimless wandering about the woods.
+
+EXCURSIONS TO A DISTANCE
+
+Long-distance excursions will of necessity be infrequent. If the woods
+are far away, one such trip in May or June would prove valuable to
+enable the pupils to become acquainted with wild flowers, and another in
+October to gather tree seeds, autumn leaves, pupæ, and other material
+for winter study. When a large class is to be taken on an excursion,
+preparations must be made with special care. The teacher and one or two
+assistants should go over the ground beforehand and arrange for the work
+to be done. Some work must be given to every pupil, and prompt obedience
+to every command and signal must be required. The class, for example,
+may decide to search a small wood or meadow to find out what flowers are
+there. The pupils should be dispersed throughout the field to hunt for
+specimens and to meet at a known signal to compare notes.
+
+SUGGESTIONS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS
+
+1. The teacher may take all the classes, choosing an object of study
+from which he can teach lessons suitable to all ages, a bird's nest, for
+example.
+
+2. In many sections, the little ones are dismissed at 3.30 p.m.
+Opportunity is thus given for an excursion with the seniors.
+
+3. The older pupils may be assigned work and left in charge of a
+monitor, elected by themselves, who shall be responsible for their
+conduct, while the teacher is working outside with the lower Forms.
+
+4. Boys who are naturally interested in outdoor work should be
+encouraged to show the others anything of interest they may have found.
+
+5. An occasional Saturday excursion may be arranged.
+
+~Discipline.~--The teacher should insist on making the excursion a serious
+part of the school work, not merely recreation. School-room behaviour
+cannot be expected, but the boisterous conduct of the playground should
+give place to earnest expectancy. The pupils should keep within sound of
+the teacher's voice (a sharp whistle may be used) and should promptly
+respond to every call. Topics of conversations should as far as possible
+be restricted to those pertaining to the object of the excursion or
+related matters.
+
+In visiting woods, children should be trained to study flowers in their
+environment and leave them there, plucking or digging for none except
+for some excellent reason. The same respect should be shown to birds and
+their nests, and to insects, and all other living things encountered.
+
+THE TEACHER'S EXCURSIONS
+
+As soon as possible after coming to a section, the teacher should
+acquaint himself with the woods, groves, streams, or other haunts that
+may provide him with material for his indoor or outdoor work. He can
+then direct the pupils effectively. The teacher should go over the route
+of an excursion shortly before it takes place. This prevents waste of
+time in looking for the objects that he wishes his pupils to see. If the
+teacher wishes to increase his love for nature, he must take many walks
+without his pupils.
+
+The school garden offers a partial solution of the difficulties
+mentioned above. It brings a large amount of material to the doors of
+the school. Plants of the farm or the garden may be studied under
+various changeable conditions, and it will be seen that insect pests,
+weeds, and fungous diseases follow the lessons on plants, while lessons
+on birds and toads follow those on insects. With sections of the garden
+devoted to the cultivation of wild flowers, ferns, and forest trees, the
+specially organized excursion will become less of a necessity, although
+it will still continue to be a valuable factor in Nature Study work.
+
+After an excursion is over, it should be discussed in class. The various
+facts learned should be reviewed and related. If any pupils have made
+inaccurate observations, they should be required to observe again to
+correct their errors. Finally, the excursion may form the subject of a
+composition.
+
+A TYPE EXCURSION
+
+~A Bird's Nest.~--The children have been instructed to study the
+meadow-lark, beginning about March twenty-first. While engaged in this
+work, a nest is discovered near the school. The teacher is informed and
+the pupils are conducted to the spot.
+
+What is growing in the field? Is there a long or a short growth? Did the
+mother bird make much noise as she rose from the nest? Did this help to
+reveal its presence? Is the nest easy to see? The class will halt a few
+paces from it and try to find it. How many eggs? Their colour? Note the
+arch of grass so beautifully concealing the nest.
+
+Returning to school, the facts observed are reviewed. The pupils may
+then express themselves by written composition or by drawings,
+paintings, or modellings of the nest, the eggs, or the surroundings.
+Frequent visits to the nest should not be made, and the pupils should be
+warned not to disturb the bird, as she may desert the nest on slight
+provocation.
+
+A second excursion may be made, when the eggs are hatched, to see the
+young birds.
+
+~A Wasp's Nest.~--A nest having been discovered, the pupils note how it is
+suspended and how it is situated with regard to concealment or to
+protection from rain, its colour, the material of the nest, and the
+position of the entrance. Is the opening ever deserted? How many wasps
+enter and how many leave the nest in a minute? Try to follow one and
+watch what he does. Wasps may be found biting wood from an old board
+fence. This they chew into pulp, and from this pulp their paper is made.
+Get the children to verify this by observations. If the nest is likely
+to become a nuisance, smoke out the wasps, take the nest carefully down,
+and use it for indoor study, examining the inside of the nest to
+ascertain the nature and the structure of the comb which, in this case
+is entirely devoted to larvæ.
+
+COLLECTIONS
+
+General school collections of such objects as noxious weeds, weed seeds,
+wild flowers, noxious insects, leaves of forest trees, rocks or stones
+of the locality, etc., should be undertaken.
+
+All the pupils should contribute as many specimens as possible to each
+collection and should assist in the work of preparing them.
+
+In addition to the above collections it is advisable that pupils who
+show special interest in this phase of nature work should be encouraged
+to make individual collections.
+
+Collections, when properly prepared, have a value within themselves,
+because of the beauty and variety of the forms that they contain, and
+also because of their usefulness in illustrating nature lessons and in
+the identifying of insects, weeds, etc. Nevertheless the chief value of
+the collection rests in the making of it, because of the training that
+it gives the collector in carefulness and thoroughness, and also because
+it causes the child to study natural objects in their natural
+surroundings.
+
+
+ANIMAL STUDIES
+
+DOMESTIC ANIMALS
+
+The teacher, before attempting to teach lessons on domestic animals,
+should carefully consider how his lessons will best fulfil the following
+important aims:
+
+1. The cultivation of a deeper sympathy for, and a more complete
+understanding of, farm animals.
+
+2. The development of more kindly treatment of domestic animals through
+awakened sympathy and more intelligent understanding.
+
+3. Implanting the idea that the best varieties are the most interesting
+and profitable.
+
+The following domestic animals are suggested as being suitable for
+study: horse, cow, sheep, dog, cat, goose, duck, hen.
+
+There are two practical methods of observation work; namely, home
+observation and class-room observation.
+
+The observation work on some of the animals named must of necessity be
+done out of school. In this the teacher can direct the efforts of the
+pupils by assigning to them definite problems to be solved by their
+study of the animals.
+
+The results of their observations can be discussed in the class in
+lessons of ten or fifteen minutes length. It may frequently be necessary
+to re-assign the problems in order that the pupils may correct their
+observations.
+
+It is possible for the teacher or the pupils to bring to the school-room
+certain of the animals, as the dog, cat, duck, hen, and the observations
+may then be made by the whole class directly under the guidance of the
+teacher.
+
+REFERENCES
+
+Crawford: _Guide to Nature Study._ Copp Clark Co., 90 cents.
+
+Dearness: _How to Teach the Nature Study Course._ Copp Clark Co., 60
+cents.
+
+Shaler: _Domesticated Animals._ Scribners, $2.50.
+
+Smith: _The Uses and Abuses of Domestic Animals._ Jarrold & Sons, 50
+cents.
+
+
+BIRDS
+
+The chief aims in developing lessons on birds are:
+
+1. To teach the children to recognize their bird neighbours, to love
+them for their beauty, and sweet songs, and their sprightly ways.
+
+2. To train the pupils to appreciate them for their usefulness in
+destroying insect pests.
+
+Many persons spend their lives surrounded by singing birds, yet they
+never hear their songs. Many children see and hear the birds, but if
+they have not been brought into sympathetic relation with them, they
+never learn to appreciate them; on the contrary, their attitude becomes
+one of indifference or of destructiveness. Too often, boys cruelly
+destroy the nests and young and persecute the old birds with stone and
+catapult. The cowardice of such acts should be condemned, but more
+effective lessons may be taught through leading the children to find in
+the birds assistants and companions that contribute to their material
+progress and to their joy in life.
+
+With these aims in view, the teacher will readily perceive that the most
+effective work in bird study results from observing the living birds in
+their natural environment. Field excursions are valuable for this, but
+good results can seldom be attained when the class is large, for birds
+are shy and will hide or fly away from the unusual excitement. Quietness
+is absolutely necessary for success. Better results are obtained when
+only one or two accompany the teacher. If the teacher selects a few who
+are interested in birds, and there are always some pupils in every
+school who are readily interested in bird study, these few can soon be
+made sufficiently acquainted with the more common birds, so that they
+will be able to point them out to the other pupils of the school, and
+thus they become the teacher's assistants in the work.
+
+By beginning with the most common and conspicuous birds, an acquaintance
+grows rapidly. Early spring is a good time to begin, when the first
+birds return from their winter sojourn. The teacher and pupils may now
+learn to recognize the birds, because there are only a few, and these
+are easily seen, as the robin, blue-bird, junco, meadow-lark, goldfinch,
+bronzed grackle, sapsucker, blue jay, downy woodpecker, and flicker.
+
+The teacher, assisted by the pupils who already know these birds,
+directs the younger pupils to where these birds may be seen, and they
+are also required to describe the birds observed and to identify them by
+means of the bird chart or colour key.
+
+The description should include:
+
+Size (compare with some common bird); shape; colour of head, back, and
+breast; conspicuous markings, as crest, stripes, bright patches of
+feathers; movements in flight or on the ground; song, call notes;
+whether in flocks, or pairs, or single birds.
+
+Later in spring, other birds will attract attention, as the
+song-sparrow, phoebe, wren, horned lark, cowbird, and red-winged
+blackbird; while in summer the oriole, catbird, vesper sparrow, American
+redstart, night hawk, scarlet tanager, and crested flycatcher are some
+of the birds that will call for attention, because of their plumage,
+songs, or peculiar habits.
+
+When a nest has been found by a pupil, he should report it to the
+teacher, and the other pupils should be permitted to visit it only upon
+promising not to molest the nest or to annoy the mother bird by
+remaining too long near it. While it is well that the pupils should see
+the nest with the young birds, they should be taught to respect the
+desire of the bird for quietness and seclusion.
+
+In studying the nest, observe: Concealment, protection, size, comfort,
+number and colour of eggs, young birds, size, colour, covering, food.
+The pupils should be asked to observe the feeding of birds thus:
+
+Watch the wrens returning to the nest; what do they carry to their
+young? Where do the wrens get the snails and grubs? Observe how the
+robins find the worms and how they pull them out of the ground. Follow
+the downy woodpecker to the apple tree and find out what he was pecking.
+Watch the crow in the pasture field and learn whether this bird kills
+grasshoppers and crickets.
+
+Observe the birds that pick seeds out of the weeds.
+
+Collecting birds' eggs should be condemned, because it nearly always
+leads to the robbing of the nests. The practice of exchanging eggs is
+the chief cause of this; for although an occasional boy will collect
+wisely, the greater number are simply anxious to add to their collection
+without regard for the sacredness of the birds' homes.
+
+A collection of birds' nests may be made after the nests have been
+abandoned for the season, and it will be found useful for interesting
+the pupils in the ingenuity, neatness, and instinctive foresight of the
+builders.
+
+REFERENCES
+
+Chapman and Reed: _Colour Key to North American Birds_ $2.75
+
+Reed: _Bird Guide, Pts. I and II_ .75
+
+Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_ .75
+
+Cornish: _Thirty Lessons in Nature Study on Birds._ Dominion Book
+Company 1.00
+
+_Canadian Birds in Relation to Agriculture._ This chart has pictures in
+colours of eighty-eight Canadian birds. G. M. Hendry Co., $3.00.
+
+_The Audubon Charts._ These three charts have pictures of fifty-five
+birds; the pictures are larger in the latter charts than in the first
+named. G. M. Hendry Co., $2.00 each.
+
+_Coloured Bird Pictures_, Mumford, Chicago, (separate coloured pictures)
+are very suitable for illustrating nature lessons on birds.
+
+
+INSECTS
+
+There are three classes of insects that are of immediate interest to the
+pupils of the Junior Grades, and the teacher who makes direct use of
+this natural interest has taken possession of the key to success in
+insect study in the primary classes.
+
+The three classes, basing the classification upon their power to attract
+attention, are:
+
+The beautiful insects, including moths, butterflies, and beetles,
+
+The wonderful insects, including such insects as ants, ant-lions,
+caddice-flies, etc.,
+
+The economic insects, including bees, silk-worms, codling-moths, etc.
+
+Economic insects are interesting because of their relations to the
+occupations of the home. The successful growing of farm, orchard, and
+garden crops practically depends upon keeping a proper balance of insect
+and bird life.
+
+The teacher who feels that his knowledge of insects is too limited to
+allow him to undertake the teaching of this branch of Nature Study
+should cast his misgivings aside; for it is not difficult for the
+teacher who knows nothing about insects at the outset to become
+acquainted with such members of the three classes named above as attract
+the attention of the pupils of the Nature Study classes.
+
+The following suggestions in insect study are offered as guides to
+teacher or pupil:
+
+Obtain books and pamphlets from the Department of Agriculture, Toronto,
+on the subject of Insect Pests on Farm Crops and Fruit Trees.
+
+Secure a good general book on insects. _Modern Nature Study_, by Silcox
+and Stevenson, contains illustrations of several of the most common
+moths and butterflies, which are clear enough to make possible the
+identification of the forms represented. Comstock's _Manual for the
+Study of Insects_ is the best general book on the subject. This, and
+Holland's _The Moth Book_ and _The Butterfly Book_, are valuable for
+those who wish to follow the study of insects at any length.
+
+Begin by studying the more conspicuous moths, butterflies, and beetles,
+and especially by studying the injurious forms which thrust themselves
+into prominence by causing destruction of grain, vegetable, or fruit
+crops in the locality. The utility phase of lessons on these insects
+will appeal to the older children and also to their parents. Moreover,
+these are the easiest insects to identify and upon which to obtain
+literature dealing with their life histories and habits.
+
+Carefully observe the colour, size, and shape of the insect, and note
+the plant on which it is feeding and its manner of feeding. Consult
+available books on plant pests to find descriptions of the insects that
+feed upon this plant, and study carefully what is said about the insect
+observed. If this method is persistently followed, the teacher will be
+surprised at the rapidity with which his acquaintance with insects
+broadens.
+
+Pictures of moths, butterflies, and beetles are of great assistance in
+the identification of these insects.
+
+A school collection, made from the insects studied, is useful for future
+collection and for identification of insects. Do not allow any insect to
+be killed unless it is a good specimen intended to fill a place in the
+collection, or unless it is known to be an injurious insect. The
+teacher, by exercising proper control of the collecting, has an
+efficient means of teaching the sacredness of life. The fact should be
+emphasized that killing even an insect, when there is no good reason for
+doing so, is the act of a mean and selfish coward.
+
+In addition to a collection of insects, including larval and pupal
+forms, collections of insect nests, of plant galls, of markings of
+engraver beetles, of burrows of tree borers, and of samples of the
+destructive workings of insect pests should be made.
+
+While nothing is more beautiful than a carefully prepared collection of
+moths, butterflies, and beetles with their infinite variety of form and
+colour, nothing is more disgusting than a badly preserved collection of
+distorted, shrivelled, vermin-infested specimens. The teacher should
+avail himself of the collecting instinct which is prominent in boys of
+nine to fourteen years of age and of their desire to have things done
+well, to develop in them habits of carefulness, neatness, and
+thoroughness.
+
+INSECT COLLECTIONS
+
+See Manual on _Manual Training_, for details for making collecting
+appliances.
+
+Agricultural Bulletin No. 8, _Nature Collections for Schools_,
+Department of Education, Ontario, for detailed instructions on making
+insect collections.
+
+The outfit for collecting is neither expensive nor hard to prepare. It
+consists of (1) an insect net for catching the insects, made by sewing a
+bag of cheese-cloth to a stout ring one foot in diameter, which is
+fastened to a broom handle; (2) a cyanide bottle for killing the
+insects, prepared by pouring some soft plaster-paris over a few lumps of
+potassium cyanide (three pieces, each of the size of a pea) in a
+wide-mouthed bottle. When the plaster has set, keep the bottle tightly
+corked to retain the poisonous gases. (3) Pins to mount the specimens.
+Entomological pins, Nos. 2, 3, and 4, are the best for general use.
+Beetles are usually pinned through the right wing-cover at about one
+fourth of its length from the front end of it. Moths and butterflies are
+pinned through the thorax. Small insects may be fastened to a very small
+pin, which in turn is set into a bit of cork, supported by a pin of
+ordinary size. (4) Spreading board for moths and butterflies. (5) Insect
+boxes to hold the specimens. This should be secured before the
+collection is begun. It is a common mistake to believe that any box
+whatever will do for storing insects. It is necessary to encourage
+effort in drying, spreading, pinning, and labelling, by providing an
+effective means of permanently preserving the specimens. In cigar-boxes,
+pasteboard boxes, and such makeshifts, the specimens soon become broken,
+covered with dust, and marred in other ways, and the collectors become
+discouraged; hence it is necessary to secure good boxes from dealers in
+entomological supplies.
+
+A sponge saturated with carbon bisulphide should be placed in the box at
+intervals of not more than three months, to ensure the killing of
+parasites that destroy the specimens.
+
+Entomological supplies may be obtained from Chapman & Co., London, Ont.,
+or from G. M. Hendry Co., Toronto, Ont., or from Messrs. Watters Bros.,
+Guelph, Ont.
+
+BUTTERFLY AND MOTH COLLECTIONS
+
+For a study of the metamorphosis of butterflies and moths, it is
+necessary to have an insect cage. This can be purchased from any dealer
+in entomological supplies or it may be made by the pupils in the Manual
+Training Class. See Manual on _Manual Training_. A very satisfactory
+cage may be made, by the teacher or larger pupils, from a soap box, by
+tacking wire gauze over the open surface of the box, removing the nails
+from one of the boards of the bottom, and converting this board into a
+door by attaching it in its former position by light hinges and a hook
+and staple. The box, if now placed on end with two inches of loose soil
+in the bottom, will constitute a satisfactory insect cage, or vivarium.
+
+A large lamp chimney with gauze tied over the upper end is useful for
+inclosing a small plant upon which eggs or insect larvæ are developing.
+The base of the chimney may be thrust an inch into the soil and the
+development of the larva as it feeds upon the growing plant can be
+studied.
+
+The following are larvæ suitable for study and may be found in the
+places named:
+
+The tomato worm on tomato or tobacco plants. (Look for stems whose
+leaves have been stripped off.)
+
+The milkweed butterfly larvæ on milkweed,
+
+The potato beetle on potato vines,
+
+The eastern swallow-tail butterfly on parsnip or carrot plants,
+
+The tussock-moth on horse-chestnuts,
+
+The promothea moth on lilac bushes,
+
+The cabbage-butterfly on cabbage or mustard plants,
+
+The red-spotted purple, banded purple, and viceroy butterfly larvæ on
+willow and alder,
+
+Cocoons of tussock-moth and tiger-moth under bark, logs, and rubbish in
+early autumn.
+
+Larvæ of the emperor-moth (cecropia) may be found wandering about,
+apparently aimlessly, in September; but they are searching for suitable
+places for attaching their cocoons to orchard and forest trees.
+
+After the leaves have fallen from shrubs and trees, cocoons can be found
+more easily on the naked twigs or in withered, rolled-up leaves that are
+fastened by the silk of the cocoon to the branches.
+
+Larvæ, when placed in the cage, should be supplied with green plant food
+such as they were found feeding upon, and the pupils should be
+instructed to observe the chrysalis building or the cocoon weaving. It
+will be found that some larvæ burrow into the soil.
+
+During winter the cage should be kept in a cool place, such as a shed,
+so that the winter conditions may be as nearly natural as possible.
+
+In a few cases, the development within the cocoon is quite rapid; and
+the adult form hatches out in a few weeks, for example, the
+cabbage-butterfly, monarch or milkweed butterfly, and tussock-moth. For
+this reason these are preferable for study by Form I pupils. In April
+the cage should be placed in the school-room, that the pupils may
+observe the emergence of the insects and the spreading of the wings. The
+insects can be fed with syrup or honey until they are strong, then the
+pupils should set them free.
+
+Reference.--_Reports of the Entomological Society of Ontario_,
+Department of Agriculture.
+
+
+PLANT COLLECTIONS
+
+The instructions given below for collecting, pressing, and mounting
+plants are applicable to wild flowers, grains, grasses, and weeds.
+
+~The specimen.~--Select a plant which in form and size is typical of its
+species and which is in full flower. Care must be taken to dig down and
+secure the root.
+
+If the plant is too large for the mounting sheet, cut out the central
+part, and use the root, lower leaves, upper leaves, and flower. If the
+root is very thick, cut slices lengthwise off the sides so as to reduce
+it to a flat form that is not too bulky.
+
+Before the plant has had time to wither, spread it out flat on a sheet
+of paper and spread another sheet over it, taking care to straighten the
+leaves and flower out. Blotting-paper is preferable, but any soft paper
+that will absorb moisture will make a very good substitute.
+
+~Pressing and drying.~--Place several sheets of paper above and below the
+specimen. Any number of specimens prepared as described in the last
+paragraph may be placed in a pile, one over another, resting on the
+floor or on a table. Place on top of the pile a board which is large
+enough to cover the surface of the pile, and on the board place a weight
+of about fifteen pounds of bricks, or other convenient material. A box
+containing sand, stones, or coal may be used in place of the board and
+weights. The weight prevents the shrivelling and distortion of the
+plants.
+
+To prevent discoloration and mildewing of the plants, the papers around
+them must be changed at the end of the following successive intervals:
+two days, three days, five days, one week, etc., until they are quite
+dry. The length of time required for pressing and drying depends upon
+the quantity of sap in the plants and also upon the dryness or humidity
+of the atmosphere.
+
+~Mounting.~--When dry, the specimens are mounted on sheets of heavy white
+paper. These sheets are cut to a standard size, eleven inches by
+fourteen inches, or sheets of half this size, namely, seven inches by
+eleven inches; are permissible. The best method of attaching the plant
+to the sheet is by pasting narrow strips of gummed paper across the
+plant in such positions as will serve to hold all parts of it in
+position.
+
+~Labelling.~--The name of the specimen, the date of collection, the place
+from which collected, and the name of the collector are to be neatly
+written in a column in the lower right-hand corner of the sheet. Printed
+labels which are pasted on this corner of the sheet are also used.
+
+Collections of leaves may be prepared by the same process as that given
+for plants. Leaves will retain their autumn tints if their surface is
+covered with varnish or paraffin, which will prevent the admission of
+air.
+
+To cover with paraffin dip the leaf for a moment into melted paraffin.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PHYSICAL SCIENCE PHASE OF NATURE STUDY
+
+
+INSTRUCTIONS AND GENERAL METHOD
+
+The preceding portions of this Manual dealt with living things. There is
+another phase of Nature Study which has a more direct relation to the
+physical sciences, Chemistry and Physics, two subjects that are
+essentially experimental in their methods.
+
+Although the lessons that follow are grouped in one portion of this
+book, the teacher should understand that he is to introduce them into
+his work as the occasion demands. They may be used to throw light on
+other parts of the school work. The experimental method is somewhat
+advanced for young children, hence no lessons are outlined for Forms I
+and II. In ungraded schools, Forms III and IV may be combined for the
+subject. It will be found most convenient to take this portion of the
+Nature Study during the winter months.
+
+VALUE OF SUCH LESSONS
+
+1. They are _interesting_, hence there is attention. The senses must be
+alert, hence pupils are trained to observe accurately.
+
+2. After the experiment comes the inference, hence reasoning powers are
+developed.
+
+3. They enable the teacher to make exceedingly _concrete_ some very
+difficult abstract principles.
+
+4. They can be _correlated_ with a large number of other subjects and
+made to have a beneficial influence on the whole of the school work.
+
+5. The great advance that is being made in all useful inventions to-day
+is largely due to the study of the physical sciences. Many boys and
+girls (seventy-five per cent.) never attend the High School. The
+Elementary School owes them a taste at least of these sciences that have
+such a bearing on their lives, that have surrounded them with so many
+mechanical contrivances for their comfort and convenience, and that
+explain so many common natural phenomena. Give a boy a taste for
+experimental science, and there is some chance that after leaving school
+he will not throw aside his studies to subsist intellectually on the
+newspaper, but that he will continue to investigate for himself, and
+make himself a well-informed man, an influential man in his section. The
+Elementary School must aim at fitting the boys and girls for life.
+
+6. The advent of the experiment marks the downfall of superstition,
+prejudice, and reliance on authority and tradition. To lead a child to
+think for himself is a great achievement.
+
+7. The use of the experiment in gaining knowledge will result in a
+cautiousness in accepting statements and making decisions.
+
+CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH EXPERIMENTS SHOULD BE PERFORMED
+
+1. They should be introduced into the school work naturally, as answers
+to questions which arise either in the regular course of the work or
+from suggestions made by the teacher at appropriate times.
+
+2. As far as possible, the pupils should assist in performing the
+experiment. In small rural schools the scarcity of apparatus will
+necessitate the teacher's doing most of the work. In Form V classes and
+Continuation Schools the pupils may do the experiments individually.
+
+3. The bearing of an experiment is not always evident; the teacher must
+be ready with judicious questions to lead the class to the proper
+conclusions.
+
+4. The pupils must be acquainted with all the apparatus used. They must
+know what the teacher is doing and must be near enough to see the
+result.
+
+5. A problem may be suggested, and a few days allowed for the pupils to
+think out a means of solution. If they invent and make their own
+apparatus, so much the better.
+
+6. Whenever possible, the experiment should be applied to some natural
+phenomenon or everyday occurrence.
+
+CORRELATIONS OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE PHASE
+
+Geography.--The value of Physical Science in the Elementary School is
+largely due to the light it throws on geographical data. Numerous
+examples will appear in the succeeding pages.
+
+Hygiene.--Experiments in carbon dioxide, oxygen, air, water, sound, and
+light, are absolutely necessary, if the children are to grasp with any
+degree of clearness the principles of respiration and ventilation, and
+the phenomena of hearing and seeing.
+
+Manual Training.--Many pieces of apparatus may be made by the boys in
+their work with wood or iron. Some of the elementary principles of
+chemistry enable the girls to do their cooking intelligently. A
+knowledge of some of the principles of machines will help the pupils to
+understand the tools they may use in any employment.
+
+Drawing.--Careful drawing of the apparatus used helps to fix the
+experiment in the mind and at the same time gives practice in art.
+
+Composition.--Pupils must have ideas before they can write. The
+description of the experiment will make a good composition exercise,
+oral or written.
+
+
+LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS AND BULLETINS
+
+
+GARDEN AND PLANT STUDY
+
+Bulletins of the Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto.
+
+Bulletins of the Dominion Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.
+
+Improvement of School Grounds. Department of Education, Toronto.
+
+Atkinson. First Studies of Plant Life. Ginn & Co. 60 cents.
+
+Bailey. Manual of Gardening. Macmillan Co. $2.00.
+
+Blanchan. Nature's Garden. Doubleday Co. $2.00.
+
+Comstock, A. M. Handbook of Nature Study. Comstock Pub. Co. $3.25.
+
+Gray. Field, Forest, and Garden Botany. Amer. Book Co. $1.40.
+
+Green, Louise. Among School Gardens. Charities Pub. Co. $1.25.
+
+Hodge. Nature Study and Life. Ginn & Co. $1.50.
+
+Holtz. Nature Study. Scribners' Sons. $1.50.
+
+Jackson and Dougherty. Agriculture through the Laboratory and School
+Garden. Judd. $1.50.
+
+James. Agriculture. Appleton & Co. 80 cents.
+
+Keeler. Our Native Trees. Scribners' Sons. $2.00.
+
+Osterhout. Experiments with Plants. Macmillan Co. $1.50.
+
+Parsons. How to Plan the Home Grounds. Doubleday Co. $1.00.
+
+Sergeant. Corn Plants. Houghton, Mifflin Co. 75 cents.
+
+
+PHYSICAL SCIENCE
+
+Miller. Minerals and How They Occur. The Copp, Clark Co. $1.50.
+
+Milliken and Gale. First Course in Physics. Ginn & Co. $2.00.
+
+Newman. Laboratory Exercises. Ginn & Co. 10c. each.
+
+Remsen. College Chemistry. Am. Pub. Co. $2.50.
+
+Simmons and Syenhouse. Science of Common Life. The Macmillan Company,
+$1.00.
+
+Woodhull. Home-made Apparatus.
+
+High School Text-books.
+
+
+ANIMAL STUDY
+
+Bulletin No. 52. Dominion Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.
+
+Bulletin No. 134. Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto.
+
+Bulletin No. 161. Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto.
+
+Bulletin No. 124. Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto.
+
+Reports of Entomological Society of Ontario. Department of Education.
+
+Fishes of Ontario. Nash. Department of Education.
+
+Bailey and Coleman. First Course in Biology. The Macmillan Company.
+$1.25.
+
+Buchanan. Senior Country Reader. The Macmillan Company. 40 cents.
+
+Chapman. Bird Life. Appleton. $2.00.
+
+Crawford. Guide to Nature Study. The Copp, Clark Co. 90 cents.
+
+Dearness. How to Teach the Nature Study Course. The Copp, Clark Co. 60
+cents.
+
+Jordan and Kellogg. Animal Life. Appleton & Co. $1.20.
+
+Kellogg. Elementary Zoology. Holt & Co. $1.35.
+
+Reed. Bird Guide--Parts I and II. Musson Book Co., Toronto. 40 cents
+each.
+
+Shaler. Domesticated Animals. Scribners' Sons. $2.50.
+
+Silcox and Stevenson. Modern Nature Study. The Macmillan Company. 75
+cents.
+
+NOTE.--The bulletins named above are supplied free to schools. Chemical
+and Physical Apparatus and Entomological Supplies may be obtained from
+G. M. Hendry Co., Victoria Street, Toronto. Rocks and Minerals may be
+obtained from the Ward Natural Science establishment, Rochester, or from
+the Central Scientific Co., Chicago.
+
+
+PHYSICAL SCIENCE
+
+FORMS III AND IV
+
+DESIRABLE APPARATUS
+
+1 lb. glass tubing in 3 ft. lengths 3/16 in. to 1/4 in. outside diameter.
+6 Florence flasks, 4 oz. to 8 oz.                               $ .50
+1 Funnel, 3 in. diameter                                          .10
+1 Beaker, 8 oz.                                                   .10
+1 Evaporating dish                                                .10
+3 ft. pure gum rubber tubing 1/8 in. inside                       .25
+1/2 sq. foot thin sheet rubber                                    .20
+1 doz. test-tubes 6 in. by 5/8 in.                                .20
+1/2 doz. test-tubes 6 in. by 7/8 in.                              .10
+Capillary glass tubing, 3 sizes                                   .10
+2 rubber stoppers No. 2, one hole
+1   "       "      "  4,  "   "
+1   "       "      "  7, two holes                                .30
+2 watch glasses                                                   .10
+Ball and ring                                                    1.00
+2 Dry cells                                                       .60
+2 Bar magnets                                                     .50
+1 Chemical thermometer 212 deg. F. to 0 deg. F.                   .40
+1 Spirit-lamp                                                     .20
+1 Retort, 4 oz. stoppered                                         .15
+Wax candles                                                       .10
+Retort stand of iron, two rings                                   .85
+1 Thistle tube                                                    .10
+Common corks, assorted                                            .10
+Filter paper 5 in. diameter                                       .05
+Test-tube holder                                                  .10
+Test-tube rack                                                    .10
+Test-tube cleaner                                                 .10
+1 piece glass tubing 30 in. long, 1/4 in. inside, for barometer   .20
+1 clamp for closing rubber tube                                   .10
+Covered copper wire                                               .10
+Small compass                                                     .50
+Glass model of common pump                                       1.00
+Globe for weighing air                                           2.50
+Small piece of platinum foil, 1/2 in. by 2 in.                    .25
+Glass prism 60                                                    .50
+Tuning fork 4-1/2 in.                                             .50
+Electric bell                                                     .50
+Motor (Ajax)                                                     1.50
+Balance                                                         10.00
+Air-pump                                                        15.00
+Iron wire gauze                                                   .05
+Sheet metals, iron, copper, zinc, lead, aluminum                  .25
+2 lamp chimneys, straight ones preferred, at 10c                  .20
+Iron ball, 2 in. in diameter                                      .20
+2 dairy thermometers at 15c                                       .30
+
+CHEMICALS
+
+Sulphuric acid, 1 lb.                                             .10
+Hydrochloric acid, 8 oz.                                          .10
+Nitric acid, 4 oz.                                                .10
+Washing soda                                                      .05
+Sugar                                                             .05
+Salt                                                              .05
+Blue vitriol                                                      .10
+Alum                                                              .05
+Saltpetre                                                         .05
+Sulphur                                                           .05
+Potass. permanganate                                              .05
+Lime                                                              .05
+Plaster-paris                                                     .05
+Potass. bichromate                                                .10
+Methylated spirits, 1 pt.                                         .10
+Alcohol, 95%                                                      .10
+Iodine crystals                                                   .10
+Mercury, 1 lb.                                                   1.00
+Pot. chlorate                                                     .15
+Manganese dioxide                                                 .10
+Phosphorus                                                        .10
+Sweet oil, 2 oz.                                                  .10
+Benzine, 2 oz.                                                    .10
+
+The following tools will be found very valuable: saw, square, plane,
+brace and bit, knife, hammer, glass cutter, files--round, flat, and
+triangular.
+
+Where the circumstances will not allow of the purchase of the preceding
+list, the following apparatus is recommended as sufficient for the
+performance of a large number of the experiments:
+
+1/2 lb. glass tubing in 3 ft. lengths, 3/16 in.
+  and 1/4 in. outside                                           $ .20
+2 Florence flasks, 4 oz.                                          .15
+1 Funnel                                                          .10
+2 ft. pure gum rubber tubing, 1/8 in. inside                      .15
+1/2 doz. test-tubes assorted, 5/8 to 7/8 diameter, 6 in. long     .20
+2 rubber stoppers, No. 2, one hole                                .10
+1 rubber stopper, No. 4, one hole                                 .10
+Expansion of heat apparatus (made at blacksmith's)                .10
+Common corks, assorted                                            .10
+1 chemical thermometer 0 deg. F. to 212 deg. F.                   .40
+1 spirit-lamp, 4 oz.                                              .10
+1 thistle tube                                                    .10
+Covered wire, copper                                              .10
+
+CHEMICALS
+
+Iodine crystals                                                   .10
+Sulphuric acid, 1 lb.                                             .10
+Methylated spirits 1 pt.                                          .20
+Alcohol, 95%                                                      .10
+Mercury, 1/2 lb.                                                  .50
+Pot. chlorate                                                     .15
+Manganese dioxide                                                 .10
+
+The following may be obtained, for either list, at little or no cost
+from household stores or home-made sources: washing soda, sugar, salt,
+ammonia, coal, coke, saltpetre, sulphur, blue vitriol, alum, potass.
+bichromate, blueing, lime, pickle-jars, wire gauze, candles, wire, sheet
+metals, test-tube holder and rack, balance, battery cells, horse-shoe
+magnet, pneumatic trough, lamp chimneys, tin cans, melting spoon,
+bicycle pump, baking-powder.
+
+For home-made apparatus, consult _Laboratory Exercises in Physics_ by
+Newman, Ginn & Co., 50c., and Manual on _Manual Training_.
+
+Reference has been made in the preceding experiments to the use of
+simple and easily contrived apparatus. The more of this the pupils can
+contrive and make under the direction of the teacher, the more valuable
+will be the course in Physical Science.
+
+GRENET CELLS
+
+Into a pint gem-jar put water 10 parts, sulphuric acid 1 part, potass,
+bichromate 1 part. Have jar three quarters full. Cut a piece of board 4
+in. square, bore two holes in it, and through the holes thrust two
+pieces of electric light carbon, 5 in. or 6 in. long. The outer edges of
+the carbons should not be more than two inches apart. With a saw, cut a
+slit in the board between the holes and insert a strip of zinc 2 in. by
+7 in. previously rubbed over with mercury. Set the three elements in the
+jar, connect the two carbons to one wire, and the zinc to another.
+
+One cell of this kind will run a small motor, operate a telegraph
+sounder, make a simple electro-magnet, or ring an electric bell; two
+cells will decompose water: three will heat a piece of fine iron wire
+red-hot.
+
+DECOMPOSITION APPARATUS
+
+1. Cut the neck end from a pickle bottle. Get a No. 1 stopper, (rubber)
+with two holes in it and insert a piece of platinum foil 2 in. by 1/8
+in. into each hole so that 1/2 in. projects above and below. Insert a
+tight plug beside each strip, thus holding it fast and making the
+stopper watertight. Insert the stopper into the neck of the jar. Pour
+into the vessel thus formed enough water to cover the platinums, and add
+a few drops of sulphuric acid. Touch the wires from the battery to the
+lower ends of the strips. Note bubbles of gas arise from the platinums.
+These may be collected in test-tubes and found by test to be oxygen and
+hydrogen.
+
+2. Fasten a strip of platinum 1 in. by 1/8 in. to each wire from the
+battery and dip these into some acidulated water contained in a tumbler.
+The decomposition of the water into two gases can be seen, but the gases
+cannot be collected so readily as in 1 above. Bits of electric light
+carbon will do instead of platinum if the current is not too weak.
+
+PNEUMATIC TROUGH
+
+When oxygen or other gas is to be collected over water, use a milk pan
+or similarly shaped vessel.
+
+SPIRIT-LAMP
+
+Use an ink-bottle to contain the alcohol and several strands of string
+for the wick; make a hole in a piece of tin and draw the wick through;
+then let the tin rest on the neck of the bottle to support the wick.
+
+BAROMETER
+
+A siphon barometer takes less mercury than a cistern barometer. To the
+open end of the barometer tube attach a piece of strong rubber tubing 4
+in. long and to this a piece of glass tubing 3 in. long. Fill the tube
+thus formed with mercury to within 3 in. from the top. Holding the short
+glass tube open end up, turn the long tube closed end up. (A tube of 1/8
+in. bore needs only one quarter of the mercury required to fill a tube
+1/4 in. bore.)
+
+HYGROMETER
+
+For a hygrometer, suspend two dairy thermometers side by side against
+the wall, cover the bulb of one with thin muslin, and let the muslin
+hang down and dip into water in some small vessel placed about three
+inches below the bulb on a little shelf.
+
+HINTS
+
+To avoid explosions, a spirit-lamp should be kept filled.
+
+Toy rubber balloons answer well for sheet rubber.
+
+Red ink makes good colouring matter.
+
+Make touch-paper by soaking any porous paper in a solution of saltpetre,
+and drying it.
+
+Instead of bending glass tubes, join them with rubber tubing.
+
+To make a test-tube holder, fold a sheet of paper until it is about half
+an inch wide and wrap this around the tube.
+
+To bend glass tubing, hold in the flame of the spirit-lamp and rotate
+between the fingers till it becomes soft and flexible, remove from the
+flame, and bend.
+
+To break glass tubing, first scratch with a file.
+
+To break glass bottles, make neatly a deep cut with a file, then touch
+the glass near the cut with a red-hot wire. When a crack appears, move
+the hot wire and the crack will follow. Several heatings may be
+necessary.
+
+In the case of a heavy glass bottle, file the cut as before, wrap the
+bottle with string dipped in alcohol, light it, and after it has burned,
+plunge the bottle vertically into cold water.
+
+Melted paraffin is good for closing small leaks.
+
+
+TIME APPORTIONED TO NATURE STUDY
+
+The Nature Study lesson should be given a definite place on the
+time-table. It is recommended that each class should have at least one
+lesson of fifteen minutes in length, a week. In addition to this, about
+five minutes a week should be spent in assigning problems for
+out-of-door work and in discussing the observations which the pupils
+have made on problems previously assigned.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+FORM I
+
+AUTUMN
+
+
+GARDEN WORK
+
+On the re-opening of school after the summer holidays, the pupils should
+see that their plots are put into good order without delay. If they have
+been neglected during the holidays, a good deal of attention will be
+needed, and in some cases it may not be possible to reclaim them because
+of prolonged neglect. If such plots are found, they should be cleaned
+off completely, spaded up, and left in readiness for planting the
+following spring. All plots should be cultivated throughout the month of
+September to keep the soil mellow and prevent the growth of weeds. The
+pupils should be allowed to pick flowers from their own plots, but
+should always leave a few in bloom for the sake of the general
+appearance of the garden. Paths should be kept clean, and all rubbish,
+weeds, dead plants, etc., removed to the compost heap, which should be
+in the least conspicuous part of the garden. Hoes, rakes, and claw-hand
+weeders should be used in cleaning up and cultivating the plots. The
+soil should be kept fine and loose on top to prevent drying out.
+
+LESSONS ON A GARDEN PLANT
+
+PANSY
+
+LESSON I
+
+~Materials.~--A flower for each pupil
+              A plant set into a flower-pot
+              A leaf for each pupil
+              A pile of leaves containing a few pansy
+                leaves and several of other kinds.
+
+~Introduction.~--A conversation with the pupils about their favourite
+flowers.
+
+~Observations.~--The pansy flowers are now distributed and the general
+form of the flower is first noted. The resemblance to the face of an
+animal will be discovered. The name _corolla_ is given, but no other
+botanical terms are to be introduced in this lesson.
+
+The details of colours, perfumes, velvety feeling of the corolla, and
+the number of leaflets in it are next _discovered_ and described by the
+_pupils_. Lastly, in a withering flower they discover the seed cases and
+the little seeds.
+
+LESSON II
+
+The conception of the relationship between the flower, root, and stem is
+developed by a method similar to the following:
+
+What soon happens to a pansy flower after it is broken from the plant?
+Are the flowers that you have in your hands withering?
+
+How can you keep them from withering?
+
+Hence, what must the flower get from the stem?
+
+Where does the stem get the moisture?
+
+Hence, what is one use of the root?
+
+A pupil is asked to pull the plant out of the soil in the flower-pot.
+What is another use that you have discovered for the root?
+
+The plant is now uprooted from the soil, and the pupils examine the root
+to find how it is fitted for gathering water and food from the soil and
+for holding the plant in place.
+
+Note the number of branches touching a great deal of soil and also the
+twisted form of the roots for grasping the soil.
+
+The form of the leaves is studied by the pupils, and, as a test of the
+accuracy of their observation, they are asked to pick out the pansy
+leaves from the pile of leaves.
+
+_To the teacher._--The pupils must be active participants in the lesson.
+They must use their eyes, hands, and even their noses in gaining
+first-hand impressions, and they are to be required to express in their
+own way the things that they discover. The beautiful flower with its
+face like that of an animal is an appeal to the child's imagination, and
+the child's interest in the _use_ of things is utilized in the study of
+the relations of root, stem, and flower.
+
+This lesson may be used as the basis for busy work by means of the
+following correlations:
+
+1. With art:
+
+Represent the flower in colours.
+
+2. With reading and literature:
+
+The pupils are required to express the meaning and sentiment of the
+following stanza:
+
+    The pansy wakes in early spring
+      To make our world more bright;
+    All summer long its happy face
+      Fills children with delight,
+
+Lessons similar to those on the pansy may be based upon the following
+plants of the garden or field: dandelion, aster, buttercup, nasturtium,
+goldenrod. The teacher in preparing the lesson should read a description
+of the plant from a Nature Study book and should also study the plant
+itself until he is familiar with all the phases of its life.
+
+OBSERVATION EXERCISES ON THE DANDELION
+
+The exercises given below are suggestive for out of school observation
+work, but must not be too long. By way of preparation for an exercise of
+this kind, the interest of the pupils in the dandelion must first be
+aroused.
+
+FIRST EXERCISE
+
+The teacher places the pupils at the school windows from which
+dandelions are visible and asks them to name any flower that they can
+see. A short conversation about the brightness of the flower follows.
+
+The pupils are next instructed to:
+
+1. Find dandelions late in the evening, and find out how they prepare to
+go to sleep and how they are tucked in for the night.
+
+2. Find where the leaves of the dandelion are, and bring a leaf to
+school next morning, and also observe how the leaves are grouped or
+placed.
+
+_To the teacher._--Dandelion flowers close up in the evening; the green
+leaves beneath the head wrap closely around the flowers to form a snug
+covering. The leaves have margins with teeth shaped like those of a
+lion, and from this the plant gets its name, for the name is the French
+_dent de lion_, which is pronounced very much like the word dandelion.
+The use of the leaf cluster as a system of rain-spouts for guiding the
+rain toward the root should be noted.
+
+SECOND EXERCISE
+
+1. Why is the dandelion easy to find?
+
+2. What makes it easy to find even in long grass?
+
+3. What insect friends visit the dandelion?
+
+4. Find out just how these visitors act during their visits, and find
+whether they carry anything to or away from the flowers.
+
+_To the teacher._--The bright yellow colour of the dandelion attracts
+attention. When it grows in long grass, the flower stalk grows long, so
+that the flower surmounts its obstructions and climbs up to the
+sunshine. The flowers are visited by ants, bees, and wasps, and these
+may be seen burrowing into the flowers in search of honey. If their
+bodies and legs be touched, the yellow pollen of the flowers will be
+found sticking to them.
+
+THIRD EXERCISE
+
+1. Look for flower heads that do not open to the sun. Do not disturb
+them, but watch them for a few days and find out what they become.
+
+2. Examine the large white balls of the dandelions and find out what
+they are.
+
+3. Blow the down away. What does it carry with it?
+
+_To the teacher._--In this exercise the pupils will learn that the large
+white balls are the mature, or ripened, flowers and are composed of
+little brown seeds, each being a little airship for wafting it away.
+
+CORRELATION WITH LITERATURE AND READING
+
+When the above exercises have been completed, the pupil's knowledge of
+the dandelion may be utilized in interpreting the following stanzas:
+
+    Oh dandelion! yellow as gold,
+      What do you do all day?
+    I just wait here in the tall green grass
+      Till the children come to play.
+
+    And what do you do when your hair is white
+      And the children come to play?
+    They take me up in their dimpled hands
+      And blow my hair away.
+
+In addition to the dandelion, the following plants are suitable for
+observation exercises: morning-glory, wild balsam, sweet-pea,
+snap-dragon, nasturtium.
+
+DWARF NASTURTIUM
+
+~Observations.~--The size of the plant at the time of flowering; its
+leaves--size, colour, shape, length of petiole and how arranged; colours
+found in the flower, comparison with others of same species found in the
+garden; size and shape of the flower and the length of its stems. Do the
+flowers grow higher than the leaves? Do they look better when with the
+leaves or when alone? Note the perfume and taste of the flower stem, the
+insect visitors, and what part of the flower they tried to get at, when
+the first blossom was seen, and how long the blossoms continued to come
+out. Do they keep well in bouquets? Do they stand hot, dry weather as
+well as other flowers? When did the frost kill them? Compare with the
+climbing nasturtium. Find the seeds.
+
+
+SEEDS
+
+The autumn months are the best for seed studies, for almost all annuals
+are ripening their seeds at this time of year.
+
+FIELD EXERCISE
+
+Assign to the pupils the following exercise:
+
+Collect the seed pods from as many plants of your garden plots, or home
+gardens, or wild plants, as possible, and be careful to write the name
+of each plant on the paper in which you put the seed pod of that plant.
+Notice the part of the plant from which the seed pod is formed.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON BASED ON THIS COLLECTION
+
+The pupils place the seed pods on their desks, and observations and
+problems are dealt with of which the following are representative:
+
+How does each seed case open?
+
+What are the seeds for?
+
+How many seeds are in each case?
+
+Why should a plant have so many seeds?
+
+How are the seed cases fitted for protecting the seeds?
+
+Are any two seeds alike in shape?
+
+Are the seeds easy to find if they are spilled upon the ground?
+
+What makes them hard to find?
+
+Where do nearly all seeds spend the winter?
+
+Of what use is the hard shell of the seed?
+
+SEED DISPERSAL
+
+Study only a few of the more striking examples of seed dispersal with
+the Form I class. Seeds that fly and seeds that steal rides are good
+examples of classes of seeds whose methods of dispersal will prove of
+interest to children.
+
+LESSON ON SEEDS THAT FLY
+
+~Materials.~--A milkweed pod; a ripe dandelion head.
+
+~Introduction.~--A short conversation about the effects of the crowding of
+plants, as carrots and turnips, in a garden plot, and hence the need for
+the scattering of seeds.
+
+~Observations.~--Open a milkweed pod in the presence of the class, so that
+they may see how the pod opens, how beautifully the seeds are arranged,
+and how the silk tufts are so closely packed in together.
+
+Allow a pupil to lift a seed out, blow it in the air, and observe how
+the silk opens out like an umbrella. Distribute seeds, one to each
+pupil. Ask the pupils to find out why this little airship is able to
+carry the seed. They will find that the seeds though broad, are thin and
+light, and the silky plumes very light.
+
+Ask the pupils to release their milkweed seeds at recess, when out of
+school, and find out how far they can fly. This is an interesting
+experiment for a windy day.
+
+The white balls of the dandelion are next examined, the tiny seeds are
+found standing on tiptoe on a raised platform, each grasping a tiny
+parachute and waiting for a puff of wind to start them off. A pupil is
+permitted to give the puff. Seeds are distributed, and the means of
+flight is compared with that of the milkweed. The shape of the seeds is
+observed and also the tiny anchor points at the lower end of the seed
+for clutching the ground when the seed alights.
+
+Another lesson on seeds that fly can be based on the study of tree
+seeds, using those of the maple, elm, basswood, pine, and spruce.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+1. Drawing of milkweed pods and seeds, and drawing of the dandelion
+seed-ball and the seeds when floating in the air.
+
+2. Reading and literature. Interpret the thought and read expressively:
+
+    Dainty milkweed babies, wrapped in cradles green,
+    Rocked by Mother Nature, fed by hands unseen,
+    Brown coats have the darlings, slips of milky white,
+    And wings, but that's a secret, they're folded out of sight.
+
+
+TWIGS AND BUDS
+
+The study of buds is a part of tree study and may be taken as
+observation work in the class-room. This somewhat detailed study should
+follow the general lessons on tree study.
+
+The materials for the lessons may be collected by the pupils at the time
+of the field lesson and kept fresh in a jar of water until required for
+use.
+
+LESSON ON TWIGS
+
+~Materials.~--A twig of horse-chestnut about six inches long, for each
+pupil.
+
+A twig of the same tree with the leaves still on it.
+
+~Observations.~--The twigs are distributed and the teacher asks the pupils
+to examine them and to describe all marks and projections that can be
+found on the twig.
+
+Answers are required from the pupils separately. The pupil's answer in
+each case should be sufficiently clear for all the class to recognize
+the feature that the answer is intended to describe. A few brief
+questions will guide the answerer in making his description more
+definite, but the description should be the result of the pupil's
+observation and expressed in his own words.
+
+The meaning or use of each feature should be discussed, when possible,
+immediately after it has been described.
+
+The following features will be discovered and the problems suggested
+will be solved:
+
+The brown or greenish-brown bark.
+
+The buds.
+
+One bud (sometimes two) is at the end of the twig.
+
+Some buds are along the side of the twig.
+
+What caused the end bud to grow larger than the others?
+
+There is a leaf scar under each bud.
+
+Of what use is it to the bud to be between the twig and the leaf stalk?
+
+The bands of rings, one or more on each twig.
+
+The tiny oval pores, each surrounded by a little raised band.
+
+The detailed study of the buds is left for a separate lesson.
+
+FURTHER STUDY OF TWIGS
+
+The study in detail of various features is illustrated in the following:
+
+Look closely at the leaf scars and describe them fully, as to shape,
+colour, and marks.
+
+Do the scars look like fresh wounds, or are they healed over? Of what
+use to the tree is the healing of the scar?
+
+We will learn later that the part of the twig between each pair of bands
+of rings represents one year's growth. How old is your twig? Who has the
+oldest twig?
+
+Do all twigs grow at the same rate?
+
+Who has the twig that had the most rapid growth?
+
+_To the teacher._--The bud at the end of the twig or its branches is
+called the end bud; there are two leaf scars underneath it. The buds
+along the sides of the stem are called side buds, the latter are smaller
+than the end bud. The bud situated between the stem of the leaf and the
+twig is in a sheltered position. This position also puts the bud close
+to the pantry door, for the plant food is prepared in the leaf. The leaf
+scars are yellowish-brown, or if they are the scars from the leaves of
+former years, are dark brown in colour. Each scar is shaped like a
+horse-shoe and tiny dots are found in the position that the horse-shoe
+nails would have. Even before the leaf falls, a layer of corklike
+substance has formed over the scar. This layer is a protection against
+the entrance of frost and rain and germs of fungi and it also prevents
+the loss of sap from the scar. The tiny oval pores, each as large as the
+point of a needle, are the breathing pores of the twig. The bands of
+rings are the scars of the scales of the end buds of successive years.
+This latter fact can be discovered when the bud is opening.
+
+REVIEW LESSON
+
+The review lesson should consist of a review of the points taken up in
+the lessons that were based on the horse-chestnut twig, supplemented by
+the examination of the twigs of elm, apple, or lilac.
+
+LESSON ON BUDS
+
+~Materials.~--Twigs and buds of horse-chestnut, one for each pupil. An
+opening bud. (A bud or a twig placed in water in a warm room will
+develop rapidly.)
+
+~Lesson.~--Distribute specimens, and review the positions of the buds.
+
+Pupils examine the buds and tell all they can about them. They describe
+the colour, shape, and size of the buds, and also their gummy and
+scalelike covering.
+
+Of what use are the gum and scales? Of what use is the brown colour of
+the bud?
+
+They next find out what is inside the little brown house. They open the
+buds and try to identify the contents. There will be some uncertainty as
+to the meaning of the contents. Leave this over till spring.
+
+_To the teacher._--The brown colour of the bud makes it an absorbent of
+sunlight, and also serves as a protection from observation by the sharp
+eyes of bud-eating birds. The gummy scales are waterproof, and the
+scales, by spreading open gradually, cause the waterproof property to be
+retained even after the bud has grown quite large. The inner part of the
+bud is composed of two, four, or six tiny leaves folded up and supported
+on a short bit of stem. Some of the buds have, in addition to leaves, a
+tiny young flower cluster. All of these things are densely covered with
+white down. The down is the fur coat to protect the tender parts from
+the cold.
+
+REVIEW LESSON
+
+Review the lesson on buds, but substitute buds of the lilac or apple for
+the horse-chestnut buds of the original lesson.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+The observational study of the buds and twigs is a good preparation for
+busy work in art and manual training, and the pupils may be assigned
+exercises, such as charcoal drawing of a horse-chestnut twig, paper
+cutting of a lilac twig and buds, clay or plasticine modelling of twigs
+and buds.
+
+For oral and written language exercises, enlarge the vocabulary of the
+pupils by requiring sentences containing the words--scales, twigs, buds,
+protection, terminal, lateral, leaf stalk, blade, etc.
+
+
+LEAVES
+
+Leaves, because of their abundance and the ease with which they may be
+obtained, are valuable for Nature Study work. It is possible to arouse
+the interest of even young children in the study of leaves, but care
+must be taken not to make the observation work too minute and the
+descriptions too technical for the primary classes.
+
+FIELD EXERCISES
+
+An excursion to the school grounds or to some neighbouring park will
+suffice to bring the pupils into direct contact with the following
+plants: a maple tree, a Boston ivy (or other climbing vine), a
+nasturtium, a geranium.
+
+Ask the pupils to find out where and how leaves are placed on each of
+these plants, that is, whether they are on the inner parts of the
+branches of the tree or out at the ends of the branches. Do the leaves
+overlap one another or does each make room for its neighbours? Are the
+leaves spread out flat or curled up? What holds the leaves out straight
+and flat? What do the leaves need to make them green and healthy?
+
+Are the leaves placed in the right way, and are they of the right form
+to get these things?
+
+_To the teacher._--The leaves of the plants named are quite noticeably
+so placed on the plants, have such relations to one another, and are of
+such outline that they present the greatest possible surface to the
+_air_ and _sunshine_ and _rain_. The leaf stalk and midrib and veins are
+stiff and strong to keep the leaves spread out. Compare with the ribs of
+an umbrella. The benefit of sunshine to leaves and plants can be
+developed by discussing with the pupils the paleness and delicateness of
+plants that have been kept in a dark place, such as in a dark cellar.
+They are also acquainted with the refreshing effect of rains upon
+leaves. The use of air to the leaves is not so easy to develop with
+pupils of this age, but the use of air for breathing just as boys and
+girls need air for breathing may be told them.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON ON LEAVES
+
+~Introduction.~--Tell me all the things that you know upon which leaves
+grow. On trees, bushes, flowers, plants, vegetables, etc.
+
+Are leaves all of the same shape?
+
+To-day we are going to learn the names of some of the shapes of leaves.
+
+~Observations.~--Show the class the heart-shaped leaf of catalpa or lilac,
+and obtain from the pupils the name _heart-shape_. Use the following
+types:
+
+    Maple leaf as star-shape,
+    Grass or wheat or corn as ribbon-shape,
+    Nasturtium or water-lily as shield-shape,
+    Ash or rowan, as feather-shape.
+
+~Drill.~--Pupils pick out the shape named. Pupils name the plant to which
+each belongs. Which shape do you think is the prettiest?
+
+
+GARDEN STUDIES
+
+If the pupils of this Form have planted and cared for garden plots of
+their own, they will have a greater love for the flowers or vegetables
+that grow in them than for any others in the garden, because they have
+watched their development throughout. For them such continuous
+observation cannot but result in a quickening of perception and a
+deepening of interest and appreciation.
+
+STUDIES IN THE PUPIL'S INDIVIDUAL PLOT
+
+What plant is the first to appear above ground? What plant is the last
+to appear? Describe what each plant was like when it first appeared
+above ground. What plants grow the fastest? What effect has cold
+weather, warm weather, dry weather, on the growth of the plants?
+
+What weeds grow in the plot?
+
+Why do these weeds obstruct the growth of the other plants?
+
+What kind of root has each weed?
+
+Find out what kind of seeds each weed produces?
+
+Why is each weed hard to keep out of fields?
+
+What garden plants produce flowers?
+
+How are the seeds protected?
+
+Compare the seeds with those that you planted.
+
+Select the seeds of the largest plants and finest flowers for next
+year's seeding.
+
+STUDIES FROM THE GARDEN AS A WHOLE
+
+What plants grow tallest?
+
+What plants are most suitable for borders?
+
+What plants are valuable for their flowers?
+
+What plants are valuable for their edible roots, for their edible
+leaves, for their edible seeds?
+
+How are the edible parts stored for winter use?
+
+Compare the plants that are crowded, with others of the same kind that
+are not crowded.
+
+Compare the rate of growth of the plants in a plot that is kept hoed and
+raked with the rate of growth of plants in a neglected plot.
+
+
+BULB PLANTING
+
+The planting of bulbs in pots for winter blooming should be commenced
+with pupils in Form I and continued in the higher Forms. As a rule, the
+potted bulbs will be stored and cared for in the home, as most
+school-rooms are not heated continuously during the winter. Paper-white
+narcissus and freesia are most suitable and should be planted about the
+fifteenth of October, so that the plants will be in bloom for Christmas.
+
+LESSON ON BULBS AND BULB PLANTING
+
+~Materials.~--The bulbs to be planted.
+
+As many four-inch flower-pots or tomato cans as are required.
+
+Soil, composed of garden loam, sand, and well-rotted manure in equal
+proportions. Stones for drainage.
+
+Sticks for labels (smooth pieces of shingle, one and a half inches wide
+and sharpened at one end, will answer).
+
+Pictures of the plants in bloom.
+
+~Observations.~--The attention of the pupils is directed to the bulbs, and
+they are asked to describe the size, form, and colour of each kind of
+bulb.
+
+A bulb is cut across to make possible the study of the parts, and the
+pupils observe the scales or rings which are the bases of the leaves of
+the plant from which the bulb grew. The use of the fleshy mass of the
+bulb as a store of food for the plant that will grow from it is
+discussed.
+
+The sprout in the centre of the scales with its yellowish-green tip is
+observed, and its meaning inferred.
+
+The picture is shown to illustrate the possibilities within the bulb.
+
+PLANTING THE BULB
+
+The teacher directs, but the work is done by the pupils, and the reasons
+for the following operations are developed:
+
+What is the use of the one-inch layer of pebbles, or broken brick, or
+stone, that is placed in the bottom of the pot?
+
+Why are the bulbs planted near the top of the soil?
+
+Why is the soil packed firmly around the bulbs?
+
+Why must the soil be well wetted?
+
+Why is the pot set in a cool, dark place for a month or more?
+
+_To the teacher._--The pebbles or broken bricks are for giving drainage.
+The bulbs are planted with their tips just showing above the surface of
+the soil and there is about half an inch of space between the top of the
+soil and the upper edge of the pot in order to facilitate watering. The
+potted bulbs must be set in a cool, dark place until they are well
+rooted. This is subjecting them to their natural winter conditions, and
+it will cause them to yield larger flowers, a great number of flowers,
+and flowers that are more lasting. Sand in the soil permits of the more
+free passing of air through the soil. Basements and cellars are usually
+suited for storing bulbs until they have rooted, but they must not be
+warm enough to promote rapid growth. The pots when stored should be
+covered with leaves, sawdust, or coarse sand to prevent drying out. The
+soil must be kept moist, but not wet. Paper-white narcissus, if brought
+out of the dark after three or four weeks, will be in bloom at the end
+of another month if kept in the window of a warm room. Care must be
+taken not to expose the plants to bright light until they have become
+green. The bulbs of the white narcissus are to be thrown away after the
+flowers have withered, as they will not bloom again, but freesia bulbs
+may be kept and planted again the following year.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+FORM I
+
+WINTER
+
+
+LESSONS ON A PET ANIMAL: THE RABBIT
+
+I
+
+The lesson is introduced by a conversation with the pupils about their
+various pets.
+
+Since we are to have a rabbit brought to the school we must learn how to
+take care of it, and the proper method of taking care of it is based
+upon a knowledge of the habits of the wild rabbit.
+
+Where do wild rabbits live?
+
+What sort of home does a rabbit have?
+
+In what ways does this home protect the rabbit?
+
+Hence, what kind of home must we have ready for the rabbit?
+
+What does the rabbit eat?
+
+Are there any of these foods that are not good for its health?
+
+Give a list of foods that you can bring for the rabbit. Why will the
+rabbit, when kept in a hutch, require less food than one that runs
+about?
+
+Since the rabbit likes a soft bed, what can you bring for its bed?
+
+II
+
+~Observations.~--The teacher or a pupil brings a rabbit to the
+school-room, where, during recreation periods, the pupils make
+observations on topics suggested by the teacher, such as:
+
+Its choice of food; its timidity; its movements--hopping, squatting,
+listening, scratching, and gnawing.
+
+These observations are discussed in the class and are corrected or
+verified.
+
+_To the teacher._--Wild rabbits live in the woods or in shrubbery at the
+edges of fields. The home of the rabbit is either a burrow under ground
+or a sheltered place under a root or log closely concealed among the
+bushes. This home is dry and affords a shelter from enemies, and from
+wind, rain, and snow. From this we know that we must provide a dry bed
+for our rabbit in a strong box in which it will feel secure, and in
+which it will be protected from wind and rain. The food of the rabbit
+consists of vegetables and soft young clover and grains. It also gnaws
+the bark of trees, and in winter it feeds upon buds. We can, therefore,
+feed our rabbit on carrots, beets, apples, oats, bran, grass, and leaves
+of plants, and we must provide it with some twigs to gnaw, for gnawing
+helps to keep its large chisel-shaped teeth in good condition. We must
+be careful not to give it too much exercise, and we must not give it any
+cabbage, because this is not good for the rabbit's health. A dish of
+water must be placed in the hutch, for the rabbit needs water to drink.
+
+III
+
+Details, if studied in isolation, are uninteresting to Form I pupils.
+Detailed study should be based upon the animal's habits, movements, and
+instincts, and each detail should be studied as an answer to questions
+such as: How is the animal able to perform these movements? How is the
+animal fitted for this habit of life, etc.?
+
+Watch the rabbit moving. How does a rabbit move?
+
+Which legs are the more useful for hopping? How are the hind legs fitted
+for making long hops?
+
+Why is the rabbit able to defend itself by kicking with its hind feet?
+Find out how the rabbit is fitted for burrowing.
+
+Listen carefully and find out whether the rabbit makes much noise while
+moving. Of what advantage is it to the rabbit to move silently?
+
+Find out, by examining the feet of the rabbit, what causes it to make
+very little noise.
+
+How are rabbits prepared for living during cold weather?
+
+Test the ability of the rabbit to hear faint noises. Why is it necessary
+for the rabbit to be able to hear faint sounds?
+
+How is it fitted for hearing faint sounds?
+
+Examine the teeth and find out how they are fitted for gnawing.
+
+_To the teacher._--The long, strong, hind legs of the rabbit are bent in
+the form of levers and enable the animal to take long, quick hops.
+
+When the rabbit attacks, it frequently defends itself by vigorous kicks
+with its hind feet, which are armed with long, strong claws. Ernest
+Thompson-Seton's story of Molly Cottontail and "Raggylug", in _Wild
+Animals I Have Known_, contains an interesting account of how Molly
+rescued Raggy from a snake by this manner of fighting. The rabbit has
+many enemies, hence it has need of large, movable ears to aid its acute
+sense of hearing. The thick pads of hair on the soles of its feet enable
+it to move noiselessly. The thick, soft, inner hair keeps the animal
+warm, while the longer, stiffer, outer hair sheds the rain.
+
+Impress upon the pupils the cruelty of rough handling of the rabbit and
+of neglecting to provide it with a place for exercise and with a clean,
+dry home.
+
+The following pet animals may be studied, using the same order and
+general method of treatment: pigeon, cat, canary, guinea pig, white
+mouse, raccoon, squirrel, parrot.
+
+In many cases these animals can be brought to school by the pupils.
+Encourage the keeping of pet animals by the pupils, for the best lessons
+grow out of the actual care of the pets. The study of a pet bird may be
+conducted along lines similar to the outline given below for the study
+of the pigeon.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+With literature and reading: Ernest Thompson-Seton's "Raggylug".
+
+With art: Charcoal drawing representing the rabbit in various attitudes,
+as squatting, listening, hopping.
+
+With modelling in clay or plasticine.
+
+With paper cutting.
+
+With language: The vocabulary of the pupils is enlarged by the
+introduction of new words whose meaning is made clear by means of the
+concrete illustration furnished by direct observation of the rabbit.
+
+They use these new words in sentences which they form in describing the
+rabbit; for example: hutch, gnaw, padded, cleft lip, timid.
+
+The rabbit has padded feet so that it can walk without noise. The rabbit
+has a soft bed in its hutch.
+
+THE DOMESTIC CAT
+
+The following facts are suggested as topics for a first lesson on the
+domestic cat. The teacher can rely upon the pupil's knowledge of the
+cat to furnish these statements of fact during a conversation lesson:
+
+The cat goes about at night as readily as during the day.
+
+The cat can hear faint noises quite readily.
+
+The cat can walk noiselessly.
+
+The cat creeps along until it is close to its prey, then pounces upon
+it, and seizes it with its claws.
+
+The cat enjoys attention and purrs if it is stroked gently.
+
+The cat likes to sleep in a warm place.
+
+The cat can fight viciously with her claws.
+
+The cat keeps her fur smooth and clean and her whiskers well brushed
+with her paws.
+
+The cat eats birds, mice, rats, meat, fish, milk, bread, and cake.
+
+DETAILED STUDY
+
+Base the study of the details upon the facts of habit, movements,
+instincts, etc., which were developed in the preceding lesson.
+
+~Observations.~--Find out how the cat's feet are fitted for giving a
+noiseless tread.
+
+Find the claws.
+
+How are the claws fitted for seizing prey?
+
+How are the claws protected from being made dull by striking against
+objects when the cat is walking?
+
+THE PIGEON
+
+A pigeon is kept in a cage in the school-room and the pupils observe:
+its size as compared with that of other birds; outline of body,
+including shape of head; the feathers, noting quill feathers, and
+covering or contour feathers; manner of feeding and drinking; movements,
+as walking, flying, tumbling.
+
+The owner or the teacher describes the dove-cot, the necessity of
+keeping it clean, the use of tobacco stems for killing vermin in the
+nest, the two white eggs, the habits of male and female in taking turns
+in hatching, the parents' habit of half digesting the food in their own
+crops and then pouring it into the crops of the young, the rapid growth
+of the young, the next pair of young hatched before the first pair is
+full-fledged.
+
+Descriptions of the habits of one or more well-known varieties--pouters,
+fantails, homing pigeons, etc. Read stories of the training and flights
+of homing pigeons, from Ernest Thompson-Seton's _Arnex_.
+
+MORE DETAILED STUDY FOR CLASS WORK
+
+Compare the uses of the quill and contour feathers. Find out how these
+two kinds differ in texture; the differences fitting them for their
+difference in function. The names quill and contour may be replaced by
+some simple names, as feathers for flying and feathers for covering the
+body.
+
+Study the adaptations for flight, noting the smooth body surface, the
+overlapping feathers of the wing for lifting the bird upward as the wing
+comes down, the long wing bones, the strong breast, and the covering of
+feathers giving lightness and warmth. The warmth and lightness of
+feathers is illustrated by the feather boas worn by ladies.
+
+Examine the feet and find out why pigeons are able to perch on trees.
+
+Examine the beak, mouth, tongue, nostrils, eyes, ears. How is the bill
+adapted for picking up grains and seeds?
+
+
+OBSERVATION AND CARE OF WINTER-BLOOMING PLANTS
+
+Children are most interested in things which they own and care for
+themselves. If a child plants a bulb or a slip and succeeds in bringing
+it to maturity, it will be to him the most interesting and, at the same
+time, will bring him more into sympathy with plants wherever he may find
+them. The teacher should impress upon the pupil the desirability of
+having beautiful flowers in the home in winter, when there are none to
+be had out-of-doors.
+
+Every pupil should be encouraged to have one plant at least, and the
+bulbs planted in October and stored away in the dark in the home cellar
+will require a good deal of care and afford an excellent opportunity for
+observing plant growth and the development of flowers. If the pots have
+been stored in a cool cellar and have been kept slightly moist, the
+bulbs will have made sufficient root growth in a month and should be
+brought up into a warmer room where they can get some sunshine every
+day. The pupils will make a report each week as to what changes are
+noticeable in the growing plant. They will note the appearance of pale
+green shoots, which later develop into leaves and at least one flower
+stalk. They should make a drawing once every week and show it to the
+teacher, and the teacher should make it a point to see a number of the
+pupils' plants by calling at their homes. In this way the pupils come to
+know what plants need for their development in the way of soil, water,
+light, and heat. This interest will soon be extended, until, in a very
+few years, the children will add new and beautiful plants to the home
+collection and assume the responsibility of caring for all of them.
+
+
+TREES
+
+PINES OF THE LOCALITY
+
+This study may be commenced in November after the deciduous trees have
+lost their leaves and have entered their quiescent winter period. This
+is the time when the evergreens stand out so prominently on the
+landscape in such sharp contrast with the others that have been stripped
+of their broad leaves and now look bare and lifeless. If no pines are to
+be found in the vicinity, balsam or spruce may be substituted. The
+lessons should, as far as possible, be observational. The pupils should
+be encouraged to make some observations for themselves out of school. At
+least one lesson should be conducted out-of-doors, a suitable pine tree
+having been selected beforehand for the purpose. The following method
+might serve as a guide in the study of any species of tree.
+
+THE WHITE PINE
+
+FIELD EXERCISES
+
+Have the pupils observe the shape and height of the tree from a
+distance, tracing the outline with the finger. Compare the shape of this
+tree with that of other evergreens and also with that of the
+broad-leafed trees. Have them describe in what particulars the shapes
+differ in different trees. They will come to realize that the difference
+in shape results from difference in length, direction, and arrangement
+of branches. They may notice that other evergreen trees resemble the
+pine in that the stems are all straight and extend as a gradually
+tapering shaft from the bottom to the top, that all have a more or less
+conical shape, and that the branches grow more or less straight out
+from the main stem, not slanting off as in the case of the maples and
+elms.
+
+Coming close to the tree, the pupils may first examine the trunk. By
+using a string or tape-line, find its diameter and how big it is around.
+Tell them how big some evergreens are (the giant trees of the Pacific
+Coast are sometimes over forty feet around). Have them notice where the
+trunk is largest, and let them find out why a tree needs to be so strong
+at the ground. Heavy wind puts a great strain on it just at this point.
+Illustrate by taking a long slat or lath, drive it into the ground
+firmly, and then, catching it by the top, push it over. It will break
+off just at the ground. If a little pine tree could be taken up, the
+pupils would be interested in seeing what long, strong, fibrous roots
+the pine has.
+
+Let them examine the bark of the trunk and describe its colour and
+roughness. The fissures in the bark, which are caused by the enlarging
+of the tree by the formation of new wood under the bark, are deeper at
+the bottom of the tree than at the top, the tree being younger and the
+bark thinner the nearer to the top we go.
+
+Let the pupils look up into the tree from beneath and then go a little
+distance away and look at it. They will notice how bare the branches are
+on the inside, and the teacher will probably have to explain why this is
+so. They will discover that the leaves are nearly all out toward the
+ends of the branches as they get light there, while the centre of the
+tree top is shaded, and the great question that every tree must try to
+solve is how to get most light for its leaves. The pupils will now see
+an additional reason why the lower limbs should be longer than the upper
+ones. The greater length of the lower limbs brings the leaves out into
+the sunlight.
+
+The reason for calling this tree an "evergreen" may now be considered.
+Why it retains its leaves all winter is a problem for more advanced
+classes; but if the question is asked, the teacher may get over the
+difficulty by explaining to the class that the leaves are so small, and
+yet so hardy, that wind, frost, or snow does not injure them. Each pupil
+may bring a small branch or twig back to the school-room for use in a
+class-room lesson.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+~Materials.~--Small branches--one for each pupil, cones, bark, pieces of
+pine board.
+
+~Introduction.~--Review the general features of the pine that were
+observed in the field lesson.
+
+~Observations.~--The branches are distributed. Pupils test the strength
+and suppleness of the branches and find the gummy nature of the surface.
+
+Of what value are these qualities to the tree during winter storms?
+
+Examine the texture, stiffness, and fineness of the needles.
+
+Note that the needles are in little bunches. How many are in each bunch?
+
+Are there any buds on the branches?
+
+If so, where are the buds?
+
+How are the buds protected from rain?
+
+The pupils examine the cones and describe their general shape.
+
+The pupils are asked to break open the tough scales and find the seeds.
+
+Allow the seeds to fall through the air, and thus the pupils will
+discover the use of the wings attached to the seeds.
+
+The wood is next examined, its colour and odour are noted, and its
+hardness is tested.
+
+Find articles in the school-room that are made of pine wood.
+
+ELM
+
+The following topics are suggested for aiding in the selection of matter
+for a lesson on a typical broad-leafed tree:
+
+The height of the tree.
+
+The part of the height that is composed of tree tops.
+
+The umbrella shape or dome shape of the top.
+
+The gracefully drooping branches of the outer part of the top.
+
+Try to find other trees with tops like that of the elm.
+
+The diameter of the trunk.
+
+The diameter is almost uniform up to the branches.
+
+The branches all come off from one point, like the ribs of an umbrella.
+
+The thick bark, that of the old trees being marked by deep furrows.
+
+The birds that make their nests in the elm.
+
+In spring find and examine the flowers, fruits, seeds, and also the
+leaves.
+
+FIELD EXERCISE
+
+A good out-of-door exercise to follow the general lesson outlined above,
+is to require the pupils to find all the elm trees or a number of elm
+trees growing in the locality and to describe their location and the
+kind of soil on which they grow.
+
+The maple, oak, horse-chestnut, and apple are also suitable trees upon
+which to base lessons for Form I.
+
+
+DOMESTIC ANIMALS
+
+Domestic animals not only furnish suitable subjects for observation
+work, but also afford good opportunities for developing that sympathetic
+interest in animal life which will cause the pupils to more nearly
+appreciate the useful animals and to treat them more humanely.
+
+THE HORSE
+
+I
+
+~Introduction.~--By means of a conversation with the pupils, find out what
+they know about the horse and lead them to think about his proper
+treatment.
+
+~Lesson.~--The matter and method are suggested by the following:
+
+What are the different things for which horses are useful?
+
+What kinds of horses are most useful for hauling heavy loads?
+
+Why are they most useful?
+
+What kinds are the most useful for general farm work? Why are they the
+most useful?
+
+What kinds are the most useful for driving?
+
+Are there any other animals that would be as useful as the horse for all
+these things?
+
+What causes some horses to be lean and weary while others are fat and
+brisk?
+
+What kinds of stables should horses have as to warmth, dryness, and
+fresh air?
+
+Why is it cruel to put a frosty bit into a horse's mouth?
+
+When a horse is warm from driving on a cold day, how should he be
+protected if hitched out-of-doors?
+
+Why, when he is warm from driving, should the blanket not be put on
+until he has been in the stable for a little while?
+
+Correlate with reading from _Black Beauty_.
+
+II
+
+~Preparation.~--I want you to find out some more things about the horse,
+but you will understand these things better if you remember that long
+ago all horses were wild, just as some horses are wild on the prairies
+to-day, and that the habits learned by wild horses remain in our tame
+horses.
+
+     The teacher should read to the class parts of "The Pacing
+     Mustang" from Ernest Thompson-Seton's _Wild Animals I Have
+     Known_, or "Kaweah's Run" from _Neighbours with Claws and
+     Hoofs_. This will give the pupils a motive for making the
+     required observations.
+
+~Observations.~--Compare the length of the legs of the horse with his
+height.
+
+Of what use were these long legs to the wild horses?
+
+What causes horses to "shy"? Of what use was this habit to wild horses?
+
+In how many directions can a horse move his ears? Of what use was this
+to wild horses?
+
+When horses in a field are alarmed, do they rush together or keep apart,
+and where are the young foals found at this time? Of what use were these
+habits to wild horses? Are the eyes of the horse so placed that he can
+see behind him and to either side as well as in front? Of what use was
+this to wild horses?
+
+_To the teacher._--The horse is an animal which is strong, swift,
+graceful, gentle, obedient, docile. The pupils should learn that, in
+return for his good services, the horse should be treated with kindness
+and consideration.
+
+The legs of the horse are long, straight, and strong, and the single toe
+(or hoof) means that the horse walks on the tip of one toe, and the hoof
+is in reality a large toe nail developed to protect the tip of the toe.
+To these features is due the great speed of the horse. Horses gather
+together in the field with the foals in the most protected part of the
+group, just as wild horses found it necessary to do for protection. The
+wild horses "shied" at a fierce enemy concealed in the grass, and the
+tame horse shies at a strange object.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+With literature and reading: By interpretation of _The Bell of Atri_.
+
+With language: By exercise on new words, as graceful, etc.
+
+
+DOMESTIC BIRDS
+
+THE DUCK
+
+~Home Observations.~--Compare the duck and the drake as to size,
+colouring, calls, and other sounds.
+
+Observe the position of the birds when standing. Observe their mode of
+walking, of swimming, and of flying. Where do they prefer to make their
+nests? Why is the duck more plain in dress than the drake? What is the
+shape, size, and build of the nest? Describe the eggs. When does the
+duck sleep? Why can it not sleep upon a perch as hens do? How do ducks
+feed on land? Compare with the feeding of hens. Observe how ducks feed
+when in water. Observe the various sounds, as alarm notes, call notes,
+social sounds.
+
+Describe the preening of the feathers and explain the meaning of it.
+
+Compare the appearance of the young ducks with that of the older ones.
+Do the young ducks need to be taught to swim?
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+Provide, where convenient, a duck for class study.
+
+~Observations.~--Colour, size, general shape of the body, and the relation
+of the shape to ease of swimming; divisions of the body.
+
+Size of head, length of neck, and the relation of the length of the neck
+to the habit of feeding in water.
+
+The legs and web feet, and the relation of these to the bird's awkward
+walking and ease in swimming.
+
+The bill and its relation to the bird's habits of feeding by scooping
+things from the bottom of the water and then straining the water out.
+The sensitive tip of the bill by which the duck can feel the food.
+
+The feathers, their warmth, and compactness for shedding water. The oil
+spread over them during the preening is useful as a protection against
+water.
+
+The bill, feet, and feathers should be compared with those of the hen
+and goose, and reasons for the similarities and differences should be
+discussed.
+
+The uses that people make of ducks and their feathers and eggs; the
+gathering of eider-down.
+
+For desk work, make drawings of the duck when swimming, flying, and
+standing.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+FORM I
+
+SPRING
+
+
+GARDEN WORK
+
+The pupils in Form I cannot be expected to do heavy work, such as
+spading plots or making paths. In some cases the larger boys will
+undertake to line out the walks and do the spading or digging. Sometimes
+it may be best to engage a man to do the spading. In any case the boys
+and girls should do the measuring and marking out of the plots. If
+stable manure is used in fertilizing the plots, it must be well rotted
+and then carefully spaded into the plots. The rest of the work should be
+done by the pupils themselves under the direction of the teacher. This
+work will include the levelling of the plots with hoes and rakes, and
+the trimming of the edges to the exact size of the plots, as determined
+by a string drawn taut about the four corner pickets. If the pupils in
+this Form have individual plots, each pupil will mark out his drills,
+put in the seeds, and cover them. The teacher may give demonstrations in
+connection with the work but should not do the work for the pupils.
+
+The teacher must use his own judgment as to what seeds to allow the
+pupils to plant. One variety of vegetable and one of flowers is
+sufficient for Form I pupils, and it is desirable that large seeds be
+chosen for them and such as are pretty sure to grow under ordinary
+circumstances. Beans, beets, radishes, or lettuces are suitable as
+vegetables, and nasturtiums, balsams, or four-o'clocks as flowers.
+These seeds should be planted at least an inch apart in the drill and
+the drills, twelve to fifteen inches apart. Large seeds may have an inch
+of soil over them and smaller seeds much less. Unless the soil is very
+dry, watering should not be allowed, and in any case it is better to
+water the plot thoroughly the day before planting the seed instead of
+after, as is commonly done. The pupils must not allow a crust to form
+over the plot either before the seeds come up or after. Claw-hand
+weeders are convenient for loosening the soil close to the plants, and
+small-sized garden rakes can be used between the rows as soon as the
+seedlings appear. It is always better to cultivate before the weeds get
+a start, and thus prevent their growth. Usually the young plants will be
+too thick in the row, so that thinning should be begun when the plants
+are about two inches high. The edges of the plots should be kept
+straight and the paths clean and level. Each plot should have a wooden
+label bearing the owner's name or number and Form. The teacher is
+referred to _Circular 13_ of the Ontario Department of Education,
+_Elementary Agriculture and Horticulture_, for lists of seeds, tools,
+etc.
+
+GARDEN STUDIES
+
+The pupils should be in the garden every day as soon as gardening
+commences. In this way only will they be able to follow and appreciate
+the whole life of the plant from seed to seed again. The teacher should
+give a few minutes daily to receiving verbal reports from the pupils.
+All new developments that the pupils notice should be reported for the
+good of all. The teacher should make a practice of visiting the garden
+for a few minutes daily before or after school, in order that he may be
+in a position to direct the pupils in their studies in the garden. The
+pupils should watch for the first appearance of the young plants above
+ground, noting how they get through the soil, and the size, shape, and
+colour of the first leaves. They can readily determine whether all of
+the seeds grow. They will then watch for the opening of the second pair
+of leaves and compare them with the first pair. They should report the
+amount of growth made from day to day, and also what insect enemies
+attack the plants, and what animals, such as toads and birds, are seen
+during the season. They will also have occasion to note the effect of
+rain and sun upon the soil and upon the plants. The first vegetables fit
+for use and the first flowers in bloom will be reported. While they give
+special attention to the development of the plants in their own plots,
+they will of course observe what is going on in the garden generally.
+
+Correlate with the interpretation of "The Seed" in _Nature in
+Verse_.--Lovejoy. Silver, Burdett & Co., 60 cents.
+
+WINDOW GARDEN
+
+The pupils should plant some seeds in sand or moist sawdust in boxes or
+pots in the school-room, so that they may be able to examine the
+progress of germination. In this way they will come to realize that
+every good seed has in it a tiny plant asleep and that warmth and
+moisture are needed to awaken it and help it to grow. It sends one
+delicate shoot down into the soil and another up into the light. Another
+interesting way to plant seeds is in egg-shells filled with fine, moist
+soil, which are set in rows in a box of sand. One seed only should be
+put in a shell. The plants may be grown to quite a size and then set out
+in the garden plot, the shell having first been broken off and the ball
+of earth containing the roots carefully set down in a small hole, packed
+about with garden soil, and watered. The pupils should draw diagrams or
+maps of their plots and afterwards of the whole garden. (See Manual on
+_Geography_.) They can mark the lines of plants, and those who can write
+can give in short, simple sentences the main things noticed from day to
+day. They should give the day and date when the seeds were planted, when
+plants came up, when rain storms occurred, when work in weeding,
+thinning, and cultivating was done, when the plants were fit to use, and
+how they were disposed of, etc. This will serve as profitable seat work
+in writing, drawing, and language. Simple problems based upon dimensions
+of plots and the value of vegetables, etc., afford excellent
+supplementary exercises in arithmetic.
+
+
+WILD FLOWERS
+
+The admiration that even little children have for the wild flowers of
+the woods and their delight in finding and gathering them is sufficient
+justification for including them in studies for Form I. The teacher must
+be careful, however, lest he go too far in the critical examination of
+the parts of the flowers, forgetting that little children are not
+interested in stamens and petals, but in the fresh, fragrant, and
+delicate blossoms that beautify the little banks and hollows of every
+woodland and that brighten up the fields and roadsides in spring time.
+The teacher should aim to deepen that childish admiration and give to
+the child a more intelligent appreciation of the beauties of the wild
+flowers and a desire to protect them from extermination.
+
+No attempt should be made to prohibit the picking of wild flowers, but
+the pupils should be instructed not to pull up plants by the roots. The
+picking of flowers in moderation does not injure the plants, but rather
+tends to increase their vigour. Pupils should pick flowers with some
+purpose in view, rather than to see how big a bunch each can gather. The
+teacher should show them how to arrange a few flowers in a neat bouquet
+and emphasize the fact that a great mass of blossoms crushed closely
+together is far from being artistic or ornamental. Pupils should then be
+encouraged to make up pretty bouquets for the teacher's desk, for the
+home dining-room, and for old or invalid people who love
+flowers--especially those plucked by the hands of thoughtful children.
+
+RECOGNITION OF WILD FLOWERS
+
+The pupils should learn to recognize each year a few species of wild
+flowers by name as well as by sight. This may be accomplished in two
+ways, (1) by means of excursions to the woods a few times each year
+during the spring and summer months, and (2) by having occasional
+observation lessons in the school-room based upon the flowers gathered
+for the school-room bouquets. Both methods are to be recommended, but it
+must be borne in mind that a wilted, lacerated flower has no interest
+for a little child.
+
+LESSON IN OUTLINE
+
+BLOODROOT
+
+Plants are always most interesting when studied in their natural
+environment, and this is one reason why the school excursion deserves
+the highest commendation as a method of studying wild flowers. When
+studying wild flowers out-of-doors, the pupils should notice what seems
+to be the favourite or usual location for the particular species under
+consideration.
+
+Have the pupils observe the following about the bloodroot:
+
+It seems to prefer fairly dry, rich soil, on or near a hillside. It
+opens its beautiful white blossoms early in the spring, as if to enjoy
+the bright sunshine before the trees put out their thick coat of leaves
+to shade it. It, like many another early spring flower, comes into bloom
+so early in the spring because it got ready the summer before. The
+teacher should carefully dig up a specimen--root and all--as young
+pupils cannot be depended on to get up all of the underground part. Note
+the large amount of plant food stored up in the underground stem, how
+the flower was protected before it opened out, and what becomes of the
+protection. Note the peculiar beauty of the snow-white blossoms with
+their yellow centres, and how beautiful they look as they nestle amongst
+the handsome green leaves with their pinkish-tinted stems. Wound the
+root, and notice the reddish, bloodlike juice whence the plant derives
+its name. Indians sometimes use this juice for war-paint, and some
+mothers give it to their children on sugar as a cure for coughs and
+colds.
+
+Other wild flowers suitable for Form I are buttercup, spring beauty,
+dog's-tooth violet, hepatica, and trillium.
+
+If there is a corner of the school ground that is partly shaded, and if
+the soil is fairly mellow and moist, some of these wild flowers should
+be transplanted there where they will grow well and can be seen every
+day during the blooming period.
+
+The leaves and flowers of the bloodroot and the above-mentioned wild
+flowers can be used for drawing.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+Oral and written descriptions of the flowers studied afford suitable
+exercises in language and composition.
+
+
+INSECT STUDY
+
+CECROPIA, OR EMPEROR-MOTH
+
+The larvæ of this, the largest of Canadian moths, may be found early in
+September, as they wander about in search of a suitable branch upon
+which to fasten their cocoons. If the pupils are not successful in
+finding the larvæ, the cocoons can be found after the leaves have
+fallen, because their size makes them conspicuous. The only difficulty
+in finding them is due to their being of the same colour as the withered
+leaves, so that they are easily mistaken for the latter.
+
+The pupils should be directed to look carefully at what appears at first
+sight to be a withered leaf attached to a tree or shrub, and in this way
+many cocoons of various moths will be found.
+
+~Observe.~--The large size--from three to four inches long; the greenish
+colour; the stumpy legs; movements, as walking, feeling, clinging; the
+rows of warts, and short, stiff spines on these; the feeding habits,
+biting or sucking; eggs of parasites, for frequently these are found on
+the larvæ.
+
+Place the larva in a box covered with gauze, and observe the spinning
+and weaving of the cocoon.
+
+From what part of the body is the silk obtained? With what organs are
+the threads placed in position? What part of the cocoon is made first
+and what part is made last? What time is required for making the cocoon?
+How is the cocoon fastened to the tree? What provision is made in the
+cocoon for warmth, for protection from birds, for shelter from rain?
+
+Cut open a cocoon and examine the pupa, noting the mummy-like case on
+which can be seen the impressions of the wings developing within.
+
+If the cocoon is kept in the vivarium in a cool place, so that the
+conditions may be as nearly as possible like the natural conditions, the
+adult moth will emerge about the first of May. In April the cocoon
+should be wetted occasionally, as it would be if exposed to rains; this
+ensures more perfect development of the insect.
+
+~Observe.~--At what part of the cocoon the moth makes an opening; the slow
+spreading and strengthening of the wings; the size and coloration of the
+moth; the feathery feelers; the position of the wings and sucking mouth
+parts when at rest.
+
+Require the pupils to make drawings of the cocoon, larva, and adult.
+
+The promothea moth, whose cocoons are common on lilac bushes, may be
+studied in the same way as the emperor.
+
+Reference.--Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_
+
+DRAGON-FLY
+
+The larvæ of this insect may be obtained in May or June by scraping
+leaves, weeds, and mud from the bottom of ponds and allowing the mud and
+water to settle in a pail or tub. The larvæ may be distinguished from
+other aquatic creatures by the long insect-like body, three pairs of
+legs, and the "mask"--a flap with pincers at the end. This mask can be
+turned under the head and body when not in use, or it can be projected
+in front of the larva for catching prey. At the rear end are three
+tubes, which fit together to form the breathing tube.
+
+The pupils should observe the above features, and also the movements,
+seizing of prey, breathing, moulting, semi-resting or pupa stage, at the
+close of which the pupa climbs up a reed or stalk of grass and bursts
+the skin from which the adult emerges.
+
+The pupils should put into the aquarium various kinds of insects and
+decide what foods are preferred by the larva and the adult.
+
+~Observe.~--The size, length of body, movements in flight, lace-like
+wings, and insect-killing habits of the dragon-fly.
+
+Should dragon-flies be protected? Give reasons. Are all dragon-flies of
+the same size, build, and colour? At what time of year are dragon-flies
+most numerous?
+
+~Reference.~--Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_.
+
+OTHER CONSPICUOUS INSECTS
+
+The potato-beetle, giant water-bug, eastern swallow-tail butterfly, and
+promothea moth are insects suitable as types to be studied by the pupils
+of Form I. The giant water-bug is the large, broad, grayish-brown insect
+that is found on the sidewalks in May and June mornings. (For
+information on the eastern swallow-tail and promothea see Metamorphosis,
+in Butterfly and Moth Collections.)
+
+
+BIRDS
+
+Bird studies for Form I should be limited to observations made directly
+upon a few common birds, such as the robin, house-sparrow (English),
+song-sparrow, flicker, house-wren, crow, bronzed grackle, and
+meadow-lark. These are easily reached by the pupils of every rural and
+village school, and the purpose of the lessons should be to teach the
+pupils to recognize these birds, and by making use of child interest in
+living active creatures, to develop their interest in birds.
+
+THE ROBIN
+
+FIELD EXERCISES
+
+I
+
+Observe the robins and find out the following things:
+
+1. Are all robins of the same colour? If not of the same colour, what
+difference do you note?
+
+2. Does the bird run or hop? Imitate its movements.
+
+3. Listen to its song. Is it sweet or harsh? Is it loud or low? Is it
+cheerful or gloomy?
+
+4. Watch the robin as it moves along the grass and learn how it finds
+out where the worms are.
+
+_To the teacher._--The pupils should be given a few days in which to
+find out answers to these questions, and at the end of that time the
+answers should be discussed in the class.
+
+Male robins have more pronounced colours than female robins. The beak is
+yellower, the breast is brighter, the back and the top of the head are
+darker. Robins both run and hop. The sense of sight of the robin is very
+acute, but its sense of hearing is even more keen. The bird may be
+observed turning its head to one side to listen for the sound of a worm
+which is still inside its burrow.
+
+II
+
+A second set of exercises may now be assigned which will demand a more
+detailed study of the bird, namely, a study of the size, colour, form of
+body, manner of flight, and length of beak.
+
+III
+
+THE NEST, EGGS, AND YOUNG
+
+1. Find out various places in which robins build their nests. In what
+ways are these places all alike? Examine the materials of the nest and
+find out why the nests are built in the kind of places in which they are
+found.
+
+2. Describe the eggs.
+
+3. What kinds of food do the parent birds bring to the young? Does the
+father bird aid in bringing food to the young?
+
+_To the teacher._--The nests are found in well-sheltered parts of apple
+trees and evergreens, in sheds, under ledges of roofs, and in other
+sheltered places. The nests, since they are composed largely of mud and
+grass, would easily be washed away if exposed to rain storms. The food
+brought to the young consists of worms and insect larvæ, and the father
+bird is very industrious in helping to take care of his family. It is
+the father bird that sings, and the mother bird devotes all her energies
+to working and scolding.
+
+THE SONG-SPARROW
+
+FIELD EXERCISES
+
+In early March, when the streams are just beginning to break from
+underneath the ice and spots of ground peep here and there through the
+snow, assign to the pupils an exercise such as the following:
+
+Watch for a small, gray-brown bird which perches near the top of a bush,
+or small tree, and sings the "Tea-kettle Song".
+
+Try to interpret the song in the words:
+
+"Maids! Maids! Maids! Put on the tea-kettle, tea-kettle, tea-kettle,
+tea-kettle, tea-kettle-ettle."
+
+Is the song bright and cheerful or dull and gloomy? Does the bird sing
+this song often?
+
+Approach close to the bird. Are there any stripes or spots on its breast
+or head?
+
+Describe the flight of the bird from its perch, when it is disturbed.
+
+_To the teacher._--It is possible for the pupils to distinguish the
+song-sparrow by means of the above exercises. It is one of the first
+birds to return in the spring, and, as it is a lusty singer, it will
+attract the attention of all who are looking for birds. The dark brown
+spot in the centre of the breast is a distinguishing mark, and the more
+observant will find the three ashy-gray stripes on its head and the dark
+line through the eye.
+
+When disturbed, it does not rise into the air, but flies downward and
+disappears with a swish of its tail. The nest is usually built on the
+ground or in a low bush or tree. It is composed of grass, fine roots, or
+weed stems, and lined with fine grass or hair. The eggs are usually four
+or five, but sometimes there are as many as seven. They are white with a
+greenish-blue tint and are closely spotted with brown.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+Discuss with the pupils the observations that they have made on the
+field exercises.
+
+Generalize as to the similarity of the places in which the pupils have
+seen the sparrow singing, and as to the times of day in which the bird
+sings.
+
+Teach the marks of identification which some have discovered, using for
+this purpose pictures of the bird or black-board drawings; and encourage
+those who have not yet seen the song-sparrow to try again and to secure
+the assistance of those who have succeeded.
+
+Compare the size and form of the song-sparrow with that of the
+house-sparrow (English).
+
+Tell the pupils the great value of the bird in killing cutworms,
+plant-lice, caterpillars, ground-beetles, grasshoppers, flies, and other
+insects. It also helps to prevent the spread of weeds by eating
+thousands of seeds of noxious weeds.
+
+Assign the pupils some other things to discover, as for example: Through
+how many months of the summer does the bird sing? Find the nest. Why is
+it hard to find? Describe the eggs, as to size, colour, and number. Do
+not disturb the nest and do not visit it very often.
+
+_To the teacher._--Base lessons in bird study upon the English sparrow,
+flicker, wren, and meadow-lark.
+
+
+THE SHEEP
+
+PROBLEMS FOR FIELD WORK
+
+How do sheep find one another when they have become separated?
+
+How old are the lambs before they can keep up with the old sheep when
+running? What fits the lamb for running so well?
+
+Watch the lambs when they are playing, and find out whether they play:
+
+1. I'm the king of the castle.
+
+2. Follow the leader.
+
+Find out by watching a flock of sheep what is meant by "Men follow one
+another like a flock of sheep".
+
+Describe how sheep move when they are going very fast.
+
+Why should sheep be kept in a well-ventilated building that protects
+them from snow and rain but is not very warm?
+
+_To the teacher._--Each movement, habit, and instinct implied in this
+exercise is explained by the life of the wild sheep. Their natural home
+is in the mountain, and their swift movement is that of bounding from
+rock to rock as they follow the strongest and boldest (their leader) to
+a place of safety. The legs of the lamb grow rapidly, beyond all
+proportion to the rate of growth of the body, so that within two weeks
+after birth the young lamb is almost as strong of limb and fleet of foot
+as its mother. In their games the lambs are fitting themselves for their
+place in the flock, and these games very much resemble those named in
+the exercise.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+FORM II
+
+AUTUMN
+
+
+BULB PLANTING OUT-OF-DOORS
+
+Tulips and daffodils (narcissus) are the most suitable bulbs for
+out-of-door planting. The best varieties for outdoor culture are usually
+designated in catalogues. Bulbs should not be planted in individual
+plots, but in borders and ornamental beds. The latter should not be
+placed in the centre of a lawn, as is frequently done. Bulbs should be
+planted before the last of October.
+
+BEDS FOR GROWING BULBS
+
+To make a bulb bed, throw out the top soil to a depth of eight or nine
+inches, put about three inches of well-rotted stable manure in the
+bottom, and cover it with about three inches of the soil which was
+thrown out. Rake the plot level and then place the bulbs about eight
+inches apart on the top of the soil, arranging them in any design
+chosen. Cover them with the rest of the soil and rake it level. There
+will be about five inches of soil over the bulbs. When a solid crust has
+formed over the bed, put on a covering of leaves, straw, or branches of
+evergreens, and some pieces of boards to hold them in place. This
+covering does not protect the bulbs from freezing, but prevents too
+rapid thawing out in the spring. This covering should remain until the
+tips of the bulbs are showing above ground, when it should be removed.
+Ordinarily the bulbs may be left a second year before digging up. They
+should then be re-set or replaced with new ones, and the bed made and
+fertilized as before.
+
+In clay soil the bulbs should not be set quite so deep as in sandy soil,
+and the bulbs have better drainage about their roots if a handful of
+sand is placed under each bulb in planting.
+
+Crocus bulbs may be planted in clumps anywhere about the grounds or
+borders by simply making a small hole about five inches deep, dropping
+the bulb in, and covering it. Lily of the valley grows best in partial
+shade in some unfrequented corner.
+
+PLANTING OF BULBS INDOORS
+
+Read again the instructions given under this heading in Form I work,
+regarding soil, planting, and care. The Chinese sacred lily and trumpet
+narcissus may be chosen for the pupils of this Form. The narcissus, also
+called daffodil, may be held back until early spring if kept in a cool,
+dark cellar, but the Chinese sacred lily, which is also a variety of
+narcissus, comes into bloom from four to six weeks after planting. It is
+usually grown in water in a bowl of suitable size. Place a few pieces of
+charcoal in the bottom of the bowl, set the bulb upon them, and pack
+coloured stones and shells around it as a support. Keep the bowl about
+two thirds full of water and set it in a warm, sunny place. It does not
+need to be set in the dark, as is the case with other bulbs. These may
+also be grown in soil in the same way as other varieties of narcissus.
+When blooming is over, the bulbs may be thrown away, as they cannot be
+used again.
+
+
+GARDEN WORK
+
+(See Autumn work for Form I.)
+
+The pupils in Form II should be given more responsibility with reference
+to the care and management of their garden plots. If they have had a
+couple of years in gardening while in Form I, they will have gained
+sufficient knowledge as to the needs of plants and sufficient practice
+in garden craft to do a certain amount of work quite independently. The
+boys of Form II are able, with suitable garden tools, to do all the work
+needed in the management of their own plots and may even be allowed to
+do some of the harder work for the girls of their Form.
+
+SEED SELECTION
+
+Besides the usual work of weeding, cultivating, and harvesting of their
+crops, the pupils should undertake some work in seed selection. This
+work not only results in the improvement of the plants grown from year
+to year, but also helps to train the pupils in painstaking observation
+and the discerning of minute points of excellence. The ambition to
+produce, by careful selection and thorough cultivation, a grain or
+flower better than has been, is aroused, and, as the pupil's interest
+increases, his love for the art increases and his efforts meet with
+greater success.
+
+The teacher should aim from the first to use only the best available
+seed even if the cost be greater. He should send for a number of
+catalogues and carefully choose those varieties of seeds that possess
+evident merit for the purpose intended. In the case of flowers, the
+pupils should be asked to decide what individual plants showed greatest
+excellence, and these should be marked, and the seed from them
+preserved for next season's planting. When the flower is in full bloom,
+a small string tag should be tied to the flower stem (string tags can be
+got from a local merchant). On this tag should be written in lead-pencil
+the name of the species, the shade, and date of flowering. These flowers
+should be left to ripen thoroughly, and then the seed picked and sealed
+up in small envelopes, which the pupils should make as part of their
+manual training work. The date on the tag should be transferred to the
+seed envelope.
+
+STORING SEEDS
+
+All the envelopes should be collected, placed in a mouse-proof box, and
+stored in a cool, dry place until time to plant in the spring. Small
+bottles are excellent for holding seed and safer than envelopes. If such
+selection is carried on systematically, it will result in an increase of
+yield and of quality not to be equalled by even the best seed that the
+markets have to offer. Thus the school garden may become the centre of
+interest for the community. Seeds of good varieties can be distributed
+to the ratepayers, and the standard of gardening and horticulture
+raised. Here, as elsewhere, much--almost everything--depends upon the
+teacher's interest and ability to lead as well as to instruct.
+
+HARVESTING AND STORING OF GARDEN CROPS
+
+As soon as the vegetables reach their best stage of development, they
+should be taken from the garden by the owner. All dead plants and refuse
+should be removed and covered up in a compost heap. The boys of this
+Form should also assist in doing part of the general work of the school
+garden. They might take up from the garden border such tender plants as
+dahlias, gladioli, and Canna lilies. These should be dried off and
+stored in a cool, dry cellar. If the cellar be warm, it is necessary to
+cover the bulbs with garden soil to prevent their drying out too much.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+The pupils are led, through conversation, to state their experiences and
+observations. The teacher assists them in interpreting their
+observations and organizing their knowledge and stimulates them to
+thoughtful search for further information.
+
+Discuss with the pupils such questions as:
+
+What are people busy doing on their farms and in their gardens at this
+time of year? Why do they harvest and store the wheat, oats, corn,
+potatoes, and apples, etc.? Are there any countries in which people do
+not need to gather in the grains, vegetables, and fruits?
+
+The discussion of these questions will direct their thought to the need
+of storing sufficient food for animals and for man to last through the
+winter, when these things do not grow. They must be gathered to protect
+them from destruction by storms of wind and rain and the severe frosts
+of winter. People who live in very warm countries find foods growing all
+the year round, and they do not need to prepare for winter, but these
+people are always lazy and unprogressive.
+
+Discuss the means taken to protect the various crops, as follows:
+
+Why can grain be kept in barns or granaries or in stacks? Why can
+apples, turnips, and potatoes not be kept in the same way as grains?
+What are the conditions that are best suited for keeping the latter
+products? Name some kinds of crops that cannot be kept in any of the
+ways already discussed. Why can they not be kept in these ways?
+
+These discussions will develop the idea of the necessity of keeping
+apples, potatoes, and turnips, in cellars, root-houses, and pits, where
+they cannot freeze, but where they are kept at uniformly low
+temperatures which are as close as possible to their freezing points.
+The air must not be too dry, as dryness causes them to shrivel up. In
+dry cellars they should be covered with fine soil. Very delicate fruits,
+such as cherries, grapes, peaches, plums, strawberries, etc., can only
+be kept for a length of time by preserving or canning them.
+
+Correlate with lessons in Household Management on preserving and
+canning.
+
+FALL CULTIVATION
+
+When the garden has been finally cleaned out, the plot should be spaded
+up and left without raking. Clay soil especially is much improved in
+physical qualities by thus being exposed to the air and frost. All
+garden tools should receive a special cleaning up before storing for
+winter.
+
+
+GARDEN STUDIES
+
+The observational studies suggested under this head for Form I will be
+followed also in Form II. The pupils of Form II will be expected to make
+more critical observations in connection not only with the plants
+growing in their own individual plots, but also with those plants which
+other pupils have been growing. They should give some attention also to
+the plants in the perennial flower border.
+
+GARDEN RECORDS.
+
+In this Form the pupils should begin to make garden records on such
+points as the following:
+
+1. Description of the plant--size, habit of growth, kind of leaves and
+their arrangement, date of flowering, form, size and colouring of the
+flowers, points of merit or the reverse, description of the seed and how
+scattered, how disposed of, and the value.
+
+2. The work done in the garden from day to day, with dates.
+
+3. The effect of rain, drought, or other weather conditions on the
+growth of the plants.
+
+4. What insects were seen visiting the flowers and what they were
+doing--whether beneficial or harmful.
+
+5. What birds or other animals were found frequenting the garden. (See
+Animal Studies, pp. 30, 96, 217.)
+
+6. What plants suffered from earliest frosts; what from subsequent
+frosts; what ones proved to be most hardy, etc.
+
+7. What plants the pupils like most in the garden, and what ones seem to
+suit the soil and weather conditions best.
+
+The pupils in this Form, by direct observation, should come to
+appreciate the development of the fruit and seed from the flower. Their
+work in seed selection, based upon the excellence of the flower, helps
+to ensure this line of observation.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+Art: Drawing of leaves, flowers, and vegetables, in colour when
+possible.
+
+Arithmetic: Calculations as to dimensions, number of plants, number of
+flowers on a plant and seeds in a flower, value of products of flowers
+and vegetables. Cost of seeds, fertilizer, and labour, gross and net
+proceeds. Statement showing the above.
+
+Composition: General connected account or story of the work done and the
+things learned during the season, as taken from the garden diary and
+from memory.
+
+Exercises in writing and spelling, as suitable seat work.
+
+Geography: Weather observations, as related to the garden work and to
+plant growth. Comparison of the soil of the garden with other samples
+from the district, as to composition and origin. Direction, as related
+to the paths or walks in the garden.
+
+Map drawing: Plans of plots and of whole garden and grounds, represented
+on sand-table, paper, or black-board. Map drawing on a horizontal
+surface is best for the first year or two.
+
+The products of the garden, as compared with home products, as food
+supplies for man and beast.
+
+Manual Training: Making of seed envelopes and boxes, modelling in clay
+of fruits and vegetables.
+
+
+CLIMBING PLANTS
+
+Observe particularly the sweet-pea and morning-glory.
+
+Consider the following points:
+
+1. Advantages gained by climbing, such as securing of more light,
+production of many leaves and flowers, and not so much stem.
+
+2. Method of climbing--sweet-pea by tendrils that wind around the
+support; morning-glory by twining its rough stem closely around its
+support. Do all morning-glory vines twine in the same direction? Find
+other vines that climb. Examine their modes of climbing.
+
+3. Time of flowering and notes on how to plant.
+
+Make drawings of the leaves and blossoms.
+
+
+TREES
+
+     (See type lesson on trees under Form I.)
+
+In this Form it is better to follow closely the development of one or
+two selected trees in school or on the home grounds than to attempt to
+observe many different species. Allow the pupils to choose their own
+trees for study and, if possible, have them select one at home and
+another near the school or on the way to school. The following points
+might receive attention: The name of the species, whence obtained and by
+whom planted if known; its approximate height, size, and age; its
+location, and the nature of the soil; its general shape, and whether or
+not influenced at present or at some time in the past by proximity to
+other trees; description and arrangement of its branches, leaves, and
+buds, its bark, flowers, and fruit; time of leafing out and blossoming;
+colouring and falling of leaves and ripening of seeds; the amount of
+growth for the year compared with that of previous years as shown by the
+younger branches; qualities of beauty and usefulness of the tree.
+Drawing exercises.
+
+At least two visits should be made to the woods during the autumn
+months, one when the leaves of the trees begin to colour and another
+when the leaves have fallen. Consider the preparation made for winter in
+the woods and fields, the use of dead leaves in the woods as a
+protection to forest vegetation and as soil-making material. Bring back
+samples of leaves and of leaf mould or humus for class-room observation.
+Note the effect of frost in hastening the falling of leaves--frost does
+not give the brilliant hues to leaves, as many people think. Consider
+the relationship of the forest trees to animal life.
+
+STORING OF TREE SEEDS
+
+Make a collection of nuts and other tree seeds, some of which should be
+put in the school collection and the rest planted in the garden or
+stored away for spring planting. The seeds of evergreens should be kept
+dry and cold, but other seeds, as a rule, are best packed in a box of
+slightly moist sand set in a cold place or buried in the ground.
+
+
+A FLOWER
+
+TYPE: NASTURTIUM
+
+I
+
+Teacher and pupils visit the nasturtium bed, where the flowers stand up
+boldly, surrounded by the shield-shaped leaves. A search for the young
+flower buds and for the very old flowers leads to the discovery that
+these are snugly sheltered under the shields.
+
+The greenish-yellow calyx, which is closely wrapped around the bud, is
+next examined. Its name is given, and its use as a protector is
+discussed.
+
+The strong seed cases are opened and the seeds are discovered. The
+pupils are instructed to watch the insects that visit the bright
+flowers. Name the insects. Describe their movements. Catch a few and
+find the yellow powder on their furry little bodies and legs.
+
+II
+
+Each member of the class brings a flower to the school-room. The
+varieties of colours of the flowers are discussed. The cave-like form of
+each flower is noted. The velvety feeling of the corolla and the
+delicate perfume are likewise sensed by the pupils.
+
+The pupils nip off the point of the cave and taste the nectar (honey),
+and thus learn why the insects visit the flowers. They next trace the
+course of the coloured lines on the corolla and find that they all point
+into the cave.
+
+Continuing their explorations of the mouth of the cave, the pupils will
+discover the little boxes containing the yellow powder that the flower
+dusts upon the insects. The names _pollen_ and _pollen boxes_ are given.
+
+The fringe on the edges of the leaves of the corolla for the purpose of
+preventing the insects stealing into the cave without receiving their
+baptism of pollen, is discovered.
+
+The teacher should, at this point, give a brief explanation of the
+valuable work done by the insects in carrying pollen to cause seeds to
+grow in the next flower that the insect visits. The position of the tiny
+brush (stigma, but do not give this name) held up by the seed case for
+rubbing the pollen off the insect, should also be observed.
+
+~Summary.~--Name and point out the parts of the flower (calyx, corolla,
+pollen boxes, seed cases).
+
+What useful work do insects do for the flower?
+
+What reward do they receive for their work?
+
+What advertisements do the flowers put out for attracting themselves?
+(Bright colours, sweet perfumes, and honey)
+
+Flowers suitable for lessons in Form II are nasturtium, larkspur,
+snap-dragon, morning-glory, and sweet-pea.
+
+NOTE.--Botanical names should be reduced to a minimum.
+
+
+SOIL STUDIES
+
+     (See _Soils_ by Fletcher.)
+
+Soil should have a place in a Nature Study Course because:
+
+1. It is so closely related to life.
+
+2. It lends itself so admirably to the experimental method.
+
+3. It is so liable to be overlooked and considered as common and
+valueless.
+
+KINDS OF SOIL
+
+_Gravel_ is composed of small, rounded stones of various colours, sizes,
+and shapes. Occurs in beds, generally mixed with sand. Get a sample and
+examine the constituents. Lead the pupils to see that the pebbles are
+the result of the breaking up of larger rocks. What has made the corners
+smooth and rounded? What use is made of gravel? Have the pupils find
+some gravelly land.
+
+_Sand_ is composed of small angular pieces of hard rock. Have a few
+samples from different places brought to school, note fineness and
+colours, examine with a lens and note resemblance to pieces of broken
+stone. Draw a magnet through the sand and note black particles adhering,
+showing presence of iron in some form. Show the hardness by rubbing
+against the surface of a piece of glass. Sand is used for mortar,
+concrete, and glass. The chief sand-forming rocks are quartz and
+granite. Show pupils how to recognize these. Examine a sample of sand
+under a lens.
+
+_Clay._ Note colour and odour of fresh sample. Dry and pulverize and
+note extreme fineness of the particles by rubbing between the fingers
+(an ounce of clay contains about four and one half million particles).
+Clay is made from crushed rocks, chiefly feldspars. Mix clay with a
+little water and note sticky character. Compare with sand in this
+respect. Which makes the best road in wet weather, gravel, sand, or
+clay? Note how hard the clay bakes after being moistened. Uses of
+clay--pottery, bricks, tile. Pupils should visit a brick- or tile-yard
+and watch the process of manufacture. In many parts of the world there
+are beds of clay of extreme fineness and whiteness, from which beautiful
+china is made.
+
+_Humus_ is decayed vegetable matter. Pupils should gather soil from the
+forest, bog, or marsh. Note dark colour. Examine carefully and see what
+you can find in it that is not in sand or clay.
+
+Most of our farm land consists of these four soils mixed in various
+proportions, and it gets its name from the one that preponderates. Thus
+we have our sandy, gravelly, or clay _loams_. Humus is likely to be
+present in all fields, because vegetable matter grows, to some extent,
+everywhere; but freshly broken land, reclaimed swamps, and prairie lands
+are likely to be especially well supplied. The great value of humus in
+the soil will appear in later studies.
+
+
+ANIMAL STUDIES
+
+BIRD MIGRATION
+
+     (Consult _Bird Life_ by Frank M. Chapman, and _Bird Studies_
+     by G. A. Cornish.)
+
+In the autumn, direct attention to the flight of wild ducks and geese
+and to the gathering into flocks of robins, crows, bronze grackles,
+blue herons, sparrows, and other birds in preparation for migration.
+
+Discuss with the pupils the reasons for migration, namely, scarcity of
+food, the cold, the snow. In the spring, the return is stimulated by the
+nesting instinct.
+
+Note how the birds are guided--some, for example the ducks and geese, by
+their leaders, while others have no guides but their instincts.
+
+In winter, require the pupils to observe the kinds of birds that are to
+be seen in the gardens, fields, orchards, and woods, having them note
+the scarcity of birds and the absence of many forms that are with us in
+the summer.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+Geography: By pointing out on the map the countries into which the birds
+go, namely, Central America, Brazil, etc.
+
+Reading and literature: By interpreting
+
+    Where did you spend the dreary winter?
+    In a green and sunny land,
+    By the warm sea-breezes fanned,
+    Where orange trees with fruit are bent,
+    There the dreary time I've spent.
+
+COMMON WILD ANIMALS
+
+GENERAL METHOD FOR FIELD WORK
+
+The best method for studying wild animals is to assign to each pupil
+some animal as his particular subject of study.
+
+Begin by finding out from the pupils the wild animals that each one
+knows to be near his home, and assign to each pupil a number of problems
+on the animal which is most convenient for him to study.
+
+In some cases, only one pupil will be studying a particular kind of
+animal, while in other cases several pupils may be studying the same
+kind of animal. The latter method has the advantage of giving
+opportunity for comparison of results. Differences should serve as
+stimuli to more careful observation, in order to verify or disprove
+previous conclusions.
+
+The observations and inferences, together with drawings illustrating the
+animals, their homes, etc., are recorded in the Nature Study note-books.
+These are discussed in the class, verified or corrected, and
+supplemented by descriptions of lives and habits of the animals from
+nature writers or naturalists, such as Charles G. D. Roberts, Ernest
+Thompson-Seton, etc.
+
+When pupils become interested in this form of study, they become nature
+students in the true meaning of the term. The pupil is brought into
+contact with the animal in its natural environment and, under these
+conditions, the natural habits, interests, and activities of the wild
+creatures are more likely to appeal to the sympathy of child nature than
+under any other method of study. The method has also the advantage of
+being one of original discovery, and consequently it trains in
+self-reliance and independence of thought.
+
+Finally, since close and careful observation is necessary, the child
+learns that it is unwise to alarm the animal, and thus a better
+relationship between child life and animal life is fostered.
+
+It may be objected that this method is slow and that little is
+accomplished. This may be true from the view-point of matter learned,
+but from the view-point of child training more can be accomplished from
+the study of a single living animal than from the study of a score of
+pictures or stuffed skins.
+
+A second method that is recommended is the study of tame animals. By
+conversations with the boys of the school the teacher will find what
+tame squirrels, ground-hogs, raccoons, foxes, and other animals are
+available for class-room work. The possessors of these animals are
+usually quite willing to bring them to school for the class to study.
+
+The movements, habits, food, and other topics, may be studied by direct
+observations guided by the teacher's questions or problems.
+
+A third method and, unfortunately, the one which is in most general use,
+is the study of animals by means of stuffed specimens and pictures,
+supplemented by descriptions and stories by the teacher. These lessons
+may be called information lessons, but they are not worthy of the name
+Nature Study. Indeed, if conditions are such that it is the only method
+available for animal study, it is advised that the time be spent on
+other branches of the subject; but if living animals are made the basis
+of study, stuffed specimens may be found useful for identification and
+for confirming observations on minute structural features, colour, etc.
+
+THE WOOD-CHUCK
+
+The problems outlined below are intended to illustrate the plan of study
+suggested in the first general method. They are assigned to a boy who
+has discovered a ground-hog burrow, in order to direct him in his
+observations on the animal.
+
+What is the kind of soil dug out in making the burrow? Why is this soil
+suitable for the burrow? What size of stones are dug out in burrowing?
+Are there more entrances than one?
+
+By slowly approaching the animal, find out how close it will permit you
+to come. At what times of day does the ground-hog come out? Give reasons
+for its coming out at these times rather than at mid-day. Upon what does
+the animal feed? Describe the colour of the animal and find out any
+advantages in this colour. Observe the following actions: running,
+hiding, keeping sentry, and scouting.
+
+Do more wood-chucks than one live in one burrow? When do the young
+wood-chucks first come out of the burrow? Describe their size, colour,
+and habits. Are wood-chucks ever seen during the winter? Do they use the
+same burrow year after year? Describe the sounds made by the animal.
+What injury does the animal cause to the fields?
+
+Describe the fur, teeth, and claws, and show their relation to the
+animal's habits of life.
+
+Dig out a burrow and draw a plan of it. Make pictures showing the
+various attitudes of the animal.
+
+THE CHIPMUNK
+
+FIELD EXERCISES
+
+Describe the size, colour, shape, length of tail, and movements of the
+chipmunk. Compare with the red squirrel.
+
+Have all chipmunks the same number of stripes?
+
+Discover its home; method of carrying grain, nuts, or other foods;
+whether it is found most commonly on the ground, in trees, or among logs
+and stones. Try to tame it by placing food where it can reach it and,
+finally, try to have it feed from your hand.
+
+Find out why there is no loose soil around the entrance to its burrow,
+whether more families than one live in one burrow, whether the chipmunk
+comes out during winter, or how early in the spring. Learn to
+distinguish the sounds of the animal, as expressing alarm, surprise,
+anger, playfulness.
+
+_To the teacher._--Chipmunks carry grain, etc., in their cheeks.
+Frequently these are so full that they must be emptied to permit them to
+enter their burrows. It is not uncommon for several to spend the winter
+in the same burrow, having a common storehouse connected by passages to
+the main burrow. These little animals are easily tamed and soon learn to
+take food from the hand. They are not hibernating animals, for they
+store food for winter, and though they are not asleep all winter, yet
+they rarely come out of their burrows while there is snow on the ground.
+
+EASTERN SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLY
+
+No butterfly is more suitable for study by the Junior Forms than the
+Eastern Swallow-tail. It is one of the most beautiful and attractive of
+our butterflies and lays its eggs so accommodatingly on every carrot or
+parsnip bed that it gives ample opportunity for observation.
+
+If possible, have the pupils observe the insect in the act of placing
+the eggs, one here and one there, on the under surface of the leaves of
+the plants, noting the busy movements; discuss the advantage of
+scattering the eggs, and also that of placing them on the under surface
+of the leaves.
+
+If the egg placing cannot be observed, there will be little difficulty
+in finding the large yellow and green larva with a head shaped like
+that of a miniature sea-horse. If the larva itself is not easily found,
+the leaves stripped bare of green blade and the droppings on the ground
+will reveal its presence.
+
+Why was it difficult to see such a large, and now that it is seen,
+conspicuous object? Lead the pupils to notice that the yellow and green
+bands harmonize in colour with the green leaves and alternate streaks of
+golden sunlight.
+
+Does the larva feed by biting or by sucking? How many legs has the
+larva? Cover the plant and larva with a paper bag, or inverted bottle,
+or a lamp chimney with a gauze top until the larva is full grown; or
+place the larva in a vivarium, feed it on carrot leaves, and observe its
+growth.
+
+When full grown, the larva builds for itself a snail-shaped, fairly firm
+case, fastened by a slender girdle of silk to a piece of wood or other
+support. Keep this over winter, and in March, or early April, the
+black-and-blue-and-gold insect emerges.
+
+Observe the movements of the wings in flight, the long tube with which
+it sucks honey from flowers, the three pairs of legs, the position of
+the wings when at rest; compare the structure with that of the larva.
+Make drawings of the butterfly and paint its colours.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+FORM II
+
+WINTER
+
+
+CARE OF PLANTS IN THE HOME
+
+The care of flowering bulbs, which was begun in Form I, will be
+continued in Form II. The growing of new plants from cuttings will now
+be taken up. In those schools which are kept continuously heated, potted
+plants may be kept throughout the year. The pupils will come to
+appreciate the plants' needs and learn how to meet them in the supply of
+good soil, water, and sunlight. The following points should be observed:
+
+1. Good potting soil can be made by building up alternating layers of
+sods and stable manure and allowing this compost to stand until
+thoroughly rotted. A little sharp sand mixed with this forms an
+excellent soil for most house plants.
+
+2. Thorough watering twice a week is better than adding a little water
+every day.
+
+3. The leaves should be showered with water once a week to free them
+from dust.
+
+4. An ounce of whale-oil soap dissolved in a quart of water may be used
+to destroy plant-lice. Common soap-suds may also be used for this
+purpose, but care should be taken to rinse the plants in clean water
+after using a soap wash.
+
+5. Most plants need some direct sunlight every day if possible, although
+most of the ferns grow without it.
+
+6. Plants usually need re-potting once a year. Many kinds may be set
+out-of-doors in flower beds in May and left until September, when they
+may be taken up and placed in pots, or cuttings may be made from them
+for potting.
+
+7. A flower exhibition at the school once or twice a year, or at a local
+exhibition, adds to the interest.
+
+8. The pupils should report to the teacher, from time to time, the
+progress of their plants and make many drawings showing their
+development.
+
+
+TREES
+
+In November or December make a study of Canadian evergreens, choosing
+spruce, balsam, and cedar if available. The pupils should learn to
+distinguish the different species by an examination of the leaves, buds,
+arrangement of branches, bark, seeds, and cones. The age of young trees
+can be determined by noting the successive whorls of branches. In this
+way also the age of the leaves may be determined. On some trees the
+leaves persist for seven or eight years. Evergreens are frequently used
+as Christmas trees and their branches for house decorations. On which
+species do the leaves persist longest? How do they compare with the
+pines? The leaves are always as old as the wood upon which they grow.
+
+Have the pupils notice how the small leaves and horizontal branches
+resist the clinging of snow in winter. Each branch bends down enough to
+cause the snow to slide off on to the one next below, and so on, until
+it reaches the ground. The conical shape of the tree also facilitates
+this action of dislodging the snow. They will also notice that these
+trees are well adapted to withstand wind, as the top part, which is most
+exposed to the wind, is much smaller and more pliable than the part next
+the bottom. The gum, or resinous covering, of the buds protects them
+from injury by rain or snow. Some kinds of pine, such as the pitch pine,
+have a great abundance of gum and turpentine. Resin and pine tar are
+made chiefly from this species. Heat a piece of pine wood--a knot or
+root is best. The gum will be seen oozing out of the wood. Pine torches
+were much used in the early days of settlement in Canada. Examine the
+gum "blisters" in the bark of the balsam tree. From this source the
+"Canada Balsam" gum of commerce is taken. The gum and resin in the wood
+and bark help to preserve the wood from decay.
+
+COLLECTION OF WOOD SPECIMENS
+
+During the winter months the boys may prepare specimens of wood for the
+school collection. These specimens should be cut green and dried. They
+should be uniform in length--not more than six inches--and should show
+the bark at one side. The side showing the bark should be two inches
+wide at most, six inches long, and running in a V-shaped, radial section
+toward the pith. A tangential section also shows well the annual layers.
+A piece of slab as cut lengthwise off a round stick is tangential. Also
+visit wood-working factories for specimens of rare or foreign woods. In
+securing these specimens, care should be taken not to mutilate trees.
+
+
+RELATED READING
+
+Winter is nature's quiescent period. Continuous active observation
+out-of-doors among the plants of the forest and garden gives place for
+a time to indoor work and reflection. Pupils need time for reading and
+reflection, and no time is so opportune as the quiet winter season.
+During these months some time should be devoted to the reading of nature
+stories and extracts from magazines and books dealing with plant as well
+as animal life. Pupils should review their gardening experiences and
+discuss plans of improvement for the approaching spring and summer. Let
+them write letters to the Form II pupils of other schools where similar
+work has been carried on, giving some of their experiences in gardening
+and plant and animal studies. A certain Friday afternoon might be
+appointed for hearing the letters read which have been received in
+reply. Suitable short poems that have a direct bearing upon their
+outdoor studies should be read from time to time. Good pictures come in
+here also as an aid in helping the children to appreciate written
+descriptions. The first-hand observations made by the pupils will form a
+basis for the better and more appreciative interpretation of these
+literature selections.
+
+
+THE DOG
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+Use the conversation method, since this is an animal that is well known
+to all the pupils. By natural, easy conversation with the pupils,
+encourage them to tell what they know about the usefulness and the other
+qualities of their canine friends.
+
+The pupils know that some dogs are useful for hunting wild animals,
+others for driving or herding cattle and sheep, others for guarding
+their master's property, others for hauling sleighs and wagons, while
+others are of use as pets or playfellows.
+
+Discuss with the pupils the qualities that make the dog so generally
+useful to us. In this discussion, guide the thoughts of the pupils to
+the qualities of faithfulness, loyalty to his friends, and docility--few
+animals are so easily taught. Note his strength and swiftness--he can
+continue in a race until he catches almost any other animal. Note also
+his bravery--for he does not hesitate to attack an animal many times
+larger than himself.
+
+Short stories of the following type may be told, to illustrate the chief
+qualities of the dog:
+
+     A dog was trained to guard any article that his master
+     placed under his charge, and not to permit any one to touch
+     it until his master gave his consent. One day, when
+     returning from the mill, the master placed a sack of flour
+     inside the gate for a neighbour who had asked him to do so,
+     and then continued on his way without noticing that his dog
+     had taken charge of the sack. All through the afternoon of
+     that day and through the long, cold night that followed, the
+     faithful animal remained at his post. When the owner of the
+     sack came next morning to get it, the dog, although numb
+     with cold and famished with hunger, would not permit him to
+     take the flour. Nor could the stout-hearted creature be
+     persuaded either by threats or by coaxing, until his master
+     was brought, when, at his first word of command, the dog
+     bounded joyfully toward him.
+
+Conclude the lesson by a short discussion of the proper care and
+treatment that should be given to dogs. The dog requires a fairly warm
+but dry kennel, with a soft bed of straw or rugs. The food should
+consist chiefly of porridge, milk, bread, biscuit, and a little meat.
+Only dogs that are running a great deal out of doors should be given
+much meat. The dog should be given bones to pick; picking bones is as
+good for a dog's teeth as a tooth-brush is for a boy's.
+
+OBSERVATION EXERCISES
+
+By making observations upon your dog at home, find answers to these
+problems:
+
+1. How does a dog hold a bone while he is picking it, and how does he
+get the meat off the bone?
+
+2. Examine the dog's feet and find out:
+
+(1) Why he does not slip while running.
+
+(2) What protects the soles of his feet from injury as he bounds over
+rough ground.
+
+3. Which is the sharper, a dog's eye or his nose? Watch how he finds his
+master in a crowd or finds an object that you have hidden.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+Language:
+
+1. Require oral or written reproduction of the stories used in
+illustration in the lesson on The Dog.
+
+2. Require the pupils to relate incidents from dog life that have come
+within their own experiences.
+
+Art and Modelling:
+
+1. A sleeping dog.
+
+2. A dog waiting for his master.
+
+
+LESSONS INVOLVING COMPARISON
+
+It will be found helpful, both for increasing interest in the
+observations and for fixing the facts in memory, to study an animal by
+comparing its habits, qualities, and physical peculiarities with those
+of another animal which is somewhat similar. Where differences are
+discovered, explanations of the differences should be developed in such
+a way that a tendency may be cultivated for interpreting the adaptation
+of structure to use and of life habits to surrounding conditions.
+
+CAT AND DOG
+
+Compare the movement of a cat when approaching its prey with the
+movement of the dog when chasing a squirrel.
+
+Account for the difference.
+
+The natural habit of the cat is to hunt alone and rely upon stealth,
+while dogs hunt in packs and tire their prey by running and by
+terrifying noises.
+
+Other differences and their explanations, which the pupils should be led
+to discover are:
+
+The dog is a more useful animal to man than is the cat.
+
+The cat's body is longer and more slender, and this gives it greater
+suppleness in crawling and leaping.
+
+The cat's eye is larger and the pupil is especially large at night, to
+enable it to see.
+
+The cat's whiskers are longer; they help in guiding it at night.
+
+The cat's tongue is rougher; it uses it for cleaning bones.
+
+The pads on the cat's feet are softer, so that it can move more silently
+in stealing upon its prey.
+
+The cat's claws are sharper, because it uses them for seizing its prey,
+while the dog seizes its prey with its teeth.
+
+The dog is more faithful to its master because it is a more sociable
+animal. In its natural state every dog is faithful to the pack and to
+the leader; the cat is not a social animal, but is by nature solitary
+and independent.
+
+The dog's sense of smell is keener than that of the cat, but its sense
+of hearing is less acute. Account for these differences from the
+animals' habits of hunting. Why does the cat bring home living animals
+to her kittens, while the dog buries dead animals? The cat trains the
+kittens to approach by stealth and then to pounce on the right spot.
+Wild animals related to the dog bury the "kill" which is too large to be
+eaten at one meal.
+
+EXPERIMENTS FOR ASSISTING IN THE STUDY OF THE CAT
+
+1. Gently scratch with a pin at some distance from where a cat is lying.
+What do the movements of the cat indicate?
+
+2. Put a fish in water and watch a cat trying to get it.
+
+3. Sprinkle water on a cat's fur and find out why she dislikes being
+wetted.
+
+4. Attach a ball to a string and move it near a cat. Describe the
+movements, as stalking, springing, seizing, retreating.
+
+5. Put some catnip in a room out of reach of the cat and observe the
+movements of the animal.
+
+Nearly all children make pets of the house cat, and although the cat is
+a domestic animal of thieving propensities and an enemy of birds, yet it
+would be unwise to teach the younger children any enmity toward her.
+The establishment of sympathy with animal life, the humanizing effect
+upon child nature of having a kitty for a playfellow, will offset many
+times over the amount of depredation of which she may be guilty.
+
+COMPARISON OF THE HORSE AND COW
+
+Assign problems for the pupils to solve by observations made upon the
+animals in the field or farmyard.
+
+1. What features of build give to the horse greater speed than the cow?
+
+2. Compare the movements of the heads of the horse and cow while
+cropping grass. Account for the difference.
+
+3. How has nature fitted the cow and the horse respectively, for
+defence?
+
+4. Which end of the body does the horse raise first when it is getting
+up? Which end of its body does the cow raise first? Account for the
+difference.
+
+_To the teacher._--The horse is the swifter and more graceful runner
+because the body is less bulky and the legs are longer and straighter.
+In cropping grass the cow pushes its nose forward and breaks the grass
+off, a process which is made necessary because the cow has no upper
+front teeth. The strong, sharp horns, short, powerful neck, and heavy
+shoulders are an efficient equipment for the cow's method of defence,
+while the long, strong legs and powerful hindquarters of the horse
+enable it to deal terrific blows with its hard hoofs. The horse rises
+upon its forelegs before raising the rear of its body, while the cow
+raises its hindquarters first.
+
+
+THE SQUIRREL
+
+FIELD EXERCISES
+
+~Problems~:
+
+Is it true that squirrels have little roads along the ground?
+
+Does the squirrel come down a tree head foremost, or tail foremost?
+
+Are a squirrel's feet close together or wide apart when it is climbing?
+
+How many kinds of feeling can a squirrel express by its voice?
+
+How does a squirrel open a nut?
+
+Examine a squirrel's tracks in the snow; which foot-prints are in front?
+
+Try to gain the confidence of a squirrel by never chasing it and by
+placing some favourite food for it.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+A tame squirrel is very desirable for concrete study.
+
+Describe the shape, size, and colour.
+
+Find out how the legs and feet are fitted for climbing and leaping.
+
+Compare the length of the tail with that of the body. Of what use is the
+tail in cold weather? Of what use is the tail in leaping?
+
+Examine the teeth and find out how they are fitted for opening nuts;
+gnawing wood.
+
+_To the teacher._--The legs of the squirrel are short so that it can
+press its body close to the tree when climbing. The claws are strong and
+sharp and the hindquarters are very strong, and are, in consequence,
+well fitted for leaping. The tail of the squirrel is very long and
+bushy and serves as a fur for keeping the squirrel's nose warm in
+winter. The tail is also used for balancing the body when the animal is
+leaping from bough to bough.
+
+The front teeth of the squirrel are very large and strong and are shaped
+like chisels.
+
+
+WINTER BIRDS
+
+In the class lesson on winter birds, take up the birds that the pupils
+have seen, such as chickadee, blue jay, quail, ruffed grouse, hairy
+woodpecker, downy woodpecker, great horned owl, house-sparrow, snow
+bunting (snow bird), pine grosbeak, snowy owl, and purple finch. The
+four latter are to be noted as winter visitors. Use pictures for
+illustrating these birds. The habits and winter food of the birds should
+also be described from the view-point of how these adapt the birds for
+spending the winter in a cold climate. Direct the children to look for
+grosbeaks in the pine and rowan trees, where they may be seen feeding on
+the seeds. The ruffed grouse (commonly called partridge) feeds on the
+buds of trees in winter; its legs and feet are thickly covered with
+feathers in winter but are bare in summer.
+
+FIELD EXERCISES
+
+Arouse the interest of the pupils by a conversation of about three
+minutes on birds that they have seen during the winter, and assign the
+following exercise:
+
+Take a walk through the orchards and woods on a bright winter day. What
+birds do you see? What are these birds doing? Are they found singly or
+in flocks? What bird sounds do you hear?
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+The method is conversational and based upon the observations made by the
+pupils during the field exercises.
+
+The discussion would involve the winter habits of some of the more
+common birds, as, for example, the ruffed grouse (commonly though
+incorrectly called the partridge). This bird takes shelter from the
+winter storms in the centre of a dense evergreen or burrows deep into a
+snow bank. The close covering of feathers upon its feet serves not only
+to keep the feet warm, but also as snow-shoes. In the evenings these
+birds may frequently be seen in the tops of such trees as maple, birch,
+cherry, and poplar, the buds of which form the greater part of their
+winter food.
+
+The snow bird, or snow bunting, is another bird commonly seen in winter.
+Flocks of these hardy little winter visitors frequent the roads and
+fields during winter. Its summer home is in the far north.
+
+Another visitor from the sub-arctic regions is the pine grosbeak, which
+is often mistaken for the robin, for these two birds are nearly equal in
+size. The carmine colour of the upper surface of the male grosbeak
+distinguishes it from the grays and blacks of the upper part of the
+robin. The grosbeak frequents the rowan trees.
+
+The bird sounds which attract attention during the winter are the
+cheerful notes of the chickadee, the bold clarion call of the blue jay,
+and the sharp tap, tap, tap, of the downy woodpecker.
+
+The downy woodpecker and the chickadee have snug winter homes within
+hollow trees, but, when the weather is favourable, they go about
+searching industriously for the eggs and larvæ of insects that infest
+forest and orchard trees.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+Literature:
+
+    Do you know the chickadee,
+      In his brownish ashen coat,
+    With a cap so black and jaunty,
+      And a black patch on his throat?
+
+Language: Write a story about the winter experiences of a downy
+woodpecker.
+
+Geography: Describe the summer home of the snow bird.
+
+
+ANIMALS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS
+
+Pupils who have an opportunity to visit museums or zoological gardens
+will observe more intelligently if the visit is preceded by such a
+discussion in the class-room as will arouse their curiosity respecting
+the habits, movements, and adaptive features of the animals about to be
+studied.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+Name the kinds of bears you have seen or have read about. What kind was
+the largest?
+
+Are all bears wholly flesh-eating animals? Find out what food the
+keepers give these animals.
+
+What features give to the bear his great strength? Observe the length of
+his "arms", teeth, claws.
+
+Does the bear climb a pole in the same way that a boy does?
+
+Read:
+
+Rogers. Wild Animals Every Child Should Know. McClelland, Goodchild, &
+Stewart. 50 cents.
+
+Thompson-Seton. Wild Animals I Have Known. Briggs. $1.50.
+
+Roberts. Children of the Wild. Macmillan. $1.35.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+FORM II
+
+SPRING
+
+
+GARDEN WORK
+
+The pupils have now arrived at an age when they are able to do most of
+the work of preparing and planting their own plots. The seeds have been
+selected and placed in readiness for planting long before the ground is
+ready. The plans for the garden and the varieties to be sown in the
+different plots have likewise been arranged. Fertilizers, lines, tools,
+and labels are made ready for use. With such thorough preparation the
+making and planting of the garden becomes a pleasure and a delight to
+both teacher and pupils. The garden diary should begin as soon as the
+snow disappears from the garden and be continued until all the work is
+completed in the autumn, and the garden again blanketed in snow.
+
+The main points to be safeguarded are:
+
+1. Thorough cultivation and fertilization.
+
+2. The best available seed carefully planted. Guard against thick sowing
+and deep covering.
+
+3. Frequent cultivation and careful thinning while the plants are quite
+small.
+
+4. Vigilance in detecting the appearance of cutworms or other injurious
+insects and promptness in combating them.
+
+5. Protection of the garden against injury from dogs, pigs, poultry, and
+English sparrows.
+
+6. Failure of some plots, through the owner's absence from school for
+long periods.
+
+COMBATING GARDEN PESTS
+
+CUTWORMS
+
+In gardens where the soil is light or sandy, cutworms are most likely to
+be troublesome. Watch for them about the time that the plants are nicely
+above ground. They come up at night and cut the young plants off just
+above the ground. They are about an inch long, gray and brown, fat and
+greasy-looking. To protect the plants put one quarter of a pound of
+paris-green with twenty-five pounds of slightly moistened bran, using a
+little sugar in the water and stirring the paris-green into the bran
+very thoroughly. If too wet, add more dry bran. It should crumble
+through the fingers. Sprinkle a little of this mixture with the fingers
+along the row close to the plants. The cutworms eat this poisoned bran
+quite readily. Care must be exercised in using this poison lest poultry
+should get at it. On the other hand, poultry should not be allowed to
+get into the garden. Wrapping a piece of paper around the stem when
+transplanting young plants will help to save them from cutworms.
+
+ROOT MAGGOTS
+
+Root maggots of cabbage, radish, and onions are the larvæ of flies
+similar in appearance to house-flies but a little smaller. When the
+plants are young, the flies lay their white eggs on the stem close to
+the ground. When the eggs hatch, the larvæ crawl down under the ground
+and cause the plants to decay. The wilting of the leaves is the first
+sign of the trouble. Prevention is better than cure in this case. Dust
+some dry white hellebore along the rows of onions or radishes and around
+the cabbage plants; or, for radishes, make a decoction of insect powder
+(Pyrethrum), four ounces to one gallon of water, and pour around the
+root, using half a teacupful to each plant.
+
+FLEA-BEETLES
+
+The turnip flea-beetle quickly destroys young plants of the cruciferæ
+family by eating their leaves. Paris-green, one part to twenty parts of
+pulverized gypsum (land plaster) dusted on the plants while damp, helps
+to destroy these insects.
+
+_To the teacher._--When pupils who are absent find it impossible to give
+the necessary attention to their garden plots at school, they should
+turn them over to other pupils or to the teacher, who may at his own
+discretion use the produce for purposes of general garden revenue.
+
+SEED GERMINATION
+
+The seeds for the garden should be purchased quite early in the spring.
+As the planting of poor seed is often the cause of much disappointment,
+it is well to test the germinating power of the different varieties to
+be planted. The pupils of this Form should test especially those
+varieties which they have chosen. To do this, place about twenty-five
+seeds in a germinating dish, which may be made as follows: Take a deep
+plate, such as a soup plate, fill it about half full of moist sand, and
+spread over this a piece of moist cloth. Put the seeds upon this cloth
+and cover them with a second piece of damp cloth or moss. To prevent
+drying out invert over it another plate and set all in a warm dry place
+(about 70 to 80 degrees F.). After a few days count the number of seeds
+that have germinated. This will be a guide in planting as to how thick
+the seed should be sown.
+
+The pupils should watch the development of germinating grains, such as
+corn and beans, germinated in the same way as in the last exercise. The
+following points may be observed:
+
+1. The first change noticed. (Swelling of the seed)
+
+2. The appearance of a growing shoot and its direction. (Root)
+
+3. The second shoot and its direction. (Stem)
+
+4. The appearance of the first pair of leaves.
+
+5. The appearance of root-hairs and rootlets.
+
+6. What becomes of the main body of the seed.
+
+7. How the second pair of leaves differs from the first pair.
+
+8. Length of time required to produce the first pair of leaves.
+
+Pupils may be taught the conditions that are necessary for the
+germination of seeds by means of a few simple experiments which can be
+carried on in the school-room.
+
+1. In February, plant a few seeds of the pea, or oat, or wheat, in a box
+of soil, and place the box outside the school window.
+
+2. In April, plant a few seeds similar to those used in No. 1, in a box
+of perfectly dry soil, and set the box inside the school window.
+
+3. Plant a few seeds similar to those used in No. 1, in a jar containing
+soil that is kept very wet, and set the jar in the school window.
+
+4. Plant a few seeds, similar to those used in No. 1. in a box
+containing soil that is moist but not wet, and set the box in the school
+window.
+
+5. Plant seeds as in No. 4, except that the box is kept in a dark
+cupboard.
+
+Compare the results of the above with reference to:
+
+1. The number of seeds that germinate.
+
+2. The growth and condition of the plants.
+
+Form conclusions with reference to:
+
+1. The conditions that are required for seed germination.
+
+2. The benefits of well-drained soil.
+
+Pupils make drawings showing the boxes and plants.
+
+
+PLANTS FOR INDIVIDUAL PLOTS
+
+The pupils of this Form should not attempt to grow more than two
+varieties of flowers and two of vegetables. Of flowers, mixed asters and
+Shirley poppy are to be recommended, the poppy being an early blooming
+flower and the aster late blooming. Carrots and radishes are desirable
+vegetables, as the carrot matures late and the radish early. Two or
+three crops of radishes may be grown on the same ground in one season.
+Besides these, a few others should be chosen for special study, such as
+the potato, onion, corn, and sunflower.
+
+STUDIES BASED ON OBSERVATIONS OF GROWING PLANTS
+
+Attention should be given to the growing habits of plants, the size and
+rate of development, the method of multiplying and propagation, and the
+part used for food. The potato is a tuber which is nothing more than
+the swollen end of an underground stem; the onion a bulb composed of the
+bases of thickened leaves; the corn an example of a jointed stem or
+grass having two kinds of flowers, the tassels being the staminate
+flowers and the cob with its silk the pistillate ones; the sunflower an
+example of a compound flower made up of many little flowers each of
+which produces a single seed.
+
+Observations should also be made upon the progress in germination of the
+nuts and other tree seeds collected in the fall. When the seeds fall
+from the elms and soft maples in the spring, some of them should be
+collected and planted in the forestry plot, or nursery.
+
+PLANTING AND CARE OF SWEET-PEAS
+
+1. Sow as early as possible in spring.
+
+2. Sow on well-drained land and never in the shade or near grass. Grass
+roots rob the sweet-pea roots of water.
+
+3. Use a small amount of fertilizer--well-rotted manure spaded deeply
+into the soil. This is best done in the autumn.
+
+4. Make the trench in the fall about five or six inches deep.
+
+5. Plant in a trench in April from half an inch to an inch apart.
+
+6. Cover from three inches to four inches deep.
+
+7. Water thoroughly once or twice a week, and have the soil lower along
+the row than farther out, so as to hold the water.
+
+8. Put a mulch of lawn clippings along the row on each side to prevent
+drying out.
+
+
+WILD FLOWERS
+
+Arrange an excursion to the woods when the spring flowers are in bloom.
+Keep a flower calendar, showing:
+
+1. The date when a plant was first found in bloom
+
+2. The name of the plant
+
+3. Place where found
+
+4. Name of the pupil who found it.
+
+When in the woods discuss the following points:
+
+1. Why these wild flowers come into bloom so early in spring. They have
+a large supply of food stored up from the previous summer.
+
+2. Dig down with a trowel or heavy knife and find this storehouse of
+food. It may be in the form of bulb, corm, or rhizome.
+
+3. The blooming of the spring flowers in the woods before the leaves of
+the trees reach their full development, thus taking advantage of the
+sunlight.
+
+4. Mark a few clumps or individual plants and visit them again after a
+month. Look for the growing fruit with its seeds.
+
+5. The leaves of the hepatica seen at the time when the blossoms appear
+are leaves which grew the previous season. Dig up a plant and notice the
+new leaves starting.
+
+6. The kind of soil each seems to grow best in and the amount of light
+it receives.
+
+7. Have the pupils examine the flowers and leave them growing. They
+should gather a few for the school-room.
+
+8. Have the pupils write a short account of their visit to the woods.
+Have them make drawings of the different flowers collected.
+
+Dig up a few specimens of wild flowers and transplant in a shady corner
+in the grounds or school garden. The following varieties are suggested
+for special observation and study: hepatica, violet, anemone, columbine,
+Indian turnip, marsh marigold.
+
+Teach one or two lessons on wild flowers, similar to the lessons
+illustrated for the nasturtium.
+
+
+WEEDS
+
+Pupils in this Form should learn to identify most of the weeds that are
+found in the garden plots and a few of those commonly found in fields
+and along roadsides. The large bulletin _Farm Weeds_, published by the
+Dominion Department of Agriculture, will be of great value in helping to
+identify the weeds and also in gaining useful information regarding them
+and the best means of eradicating them.
+
+The following species are recommended for special study during the
+season: mustard (such varieties as are found in the vicinity), Canada
+thistle, purslane, lamb's quarter, pink-rooted pigweed, and quack grass.
+The pupils should be familiar with the general appearance of the plant;
+its appearance when coming up in the spring; whether annual, biennial,
+or perennial; nature of the root, and whether hard to pull up; if hard
+to eradicate, why so; its rate of growth compared with the garden
+plants; the number of seeds produced by a single plant; how the seeds
+are scattered.
+
+
+THE APPLE TREE
+
+(When the buds are beginning to open)
+
+
+FIELD EXERCISE
+
+The pupils, during an excursion that is conducted by the teacher or
+while making individual observations, obtain answers to problems of the
+following type:
+
+What is the shape of the top of the apple tree?
+
+Are all apple trees of the same shape?
+
+What is the height of the trunk?
+
+Measure the girth of the trunk of the largest?
+
+Are the leaf buds and flower buds more numerous near the inside of the
+tree top or more numerous at the outer part of the top?
+
+_To the teacher._--When discussing the answers to the above problems,
+develop the conception of the convenience of the low stature of the tree
+for gathering the apples, of the wide-spreading branches for bearing a
+large crop, of the stoutness of the trunk for supporting the weight, and
+also of the position of the buds as adapting them for securing sunshine.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON ON THE APPLE TREE
+
+~Materials.~--Twigs bearing flower and leaf buds. These are gathered by
+the pupils from the apple trees that were studied during the field
+exercises.
+
+Each pupil finds on his twig the objects and markings, etc., as in the
+following outline:
+
+Describe the shape of the twig.
+
+Where were the apples that grew last year attached?
+
+Describe the positions of the buds on the twigs.
+
+Which buds are the larger, those at the end or those on the side of the
+twig?
+
+Describe the condition of the bud scales.
+
+Open the buds and find what they contain.
+
+Of what use are the bud scales?
+
+How many blossoms are in one bud?
+
+Of what use to the young leaves is the downy covering?
+
+FIELD EXERCISE FOLLOWING CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+(Just after the blossoms are fully open)
+
+What is the colour of the apple blossom?
+
+Find the little green cup on which the petals rest.
+
+Describe the cup.
+
+Find the other things that are on the rim of, or that are within, the
+cup. What are they?
+
+What insects visit the flowers?
+
+Does the cup fall off when the petals fall?
+
+Does the cup close up as soon as the petals fall?
+
+What does the green cup grow to be?
+
+_To the teacher._--Apple trees have somewhat round or pyramid-shaped
+tops, varying in detail with the variety of apple tree. The twigs are
+short and usually crooked. The fruit twigs are called spurs. The buds at
+the ends of the twigs and spurs are the largest and contain both leaves
+and blossoms, and there are usually several blossoms in each bud. The
+bud scales burst apart and drop off as the leaves and blossoms develop.
+The side buds produce leaves only. The petals and pollen boxes are borne
+on the rim of the green cup, and inside the cup are found the five tips
+of the seed cases. When the petals drop off, the rim of the cup remains
+spread out for a short time. This is the proper time for spraying, so
+that the cup may hold a drop of poison to kill the tiny worms which
+cause apples to be wormy. It is the green cup that grows and forms the
+flesh of the apple.
+
+Orchard trees suitable for lessons for Form II are apple, plum, pear,
+peach, and cherry.
+
+
+BIRD STUDY
+
+A valuable exercise in bird study, suitable for the pupils of Form II,
+is the study of a pair of birds and the history of their home through
+the entire season.
+
+A record, with dates, should be kept, and the following topics are
+suggested for observation:
+
+Where the nest is located, protection of the nest, part of building done
+by each bird; eggs, number, colour, size, time required for hatching;
+young birds, number, description, how fed and upon what foods, time
+required before ready to leave the nest; history for a time after
+leaving the nest.
+
+Birds suitable for study by the pupils of Form II are the crow, flicker,
+downy woodpecker, blue-bird, chipping-sparrow, phoebe, wren.
+
+Correlate with art, by requiring drawings and models of the nest and its
+surroundings, and with language, by having pupils write the history of
+the nest and family.
+
+
+THE TOAD
+
+FIELD EXERCISES
+
+Direct the pupils to watch for toads under the street lamps and on the
+lawns in the evenings, and to observe what they are doing.
+
+Find out, by turning over boards, logs of wood, stones, and old stumps,
+where toads spend the daytime.
+
+If there is a sandy beach near by, an interesting nature lesson is to
+trace a toad to its daytime retreat under a log or stone. Its wanderings
+and adventures during the night can be traced from the record that its
+trail makes in the sand.
+
+Are toads that live in light-coloured sand of the same colour as those
+that live in black clay? Of what value to the toad are these differences
+in colour?
+
+The pupils are thus led to see that although the toad is not a handsome
+animal, yet its rough, dark skin is of great value to it for concealment
+among the lumps of soil with which it harmonizes.
+
+Can a dog be induced to seize a toad? Will he seize it as readily a
+second time as he did the first? The secretion from the glands of the
+toad have a biting, acid effect on the dog's mouth. This secretion will
+not injure a person's hands unless the skin is broken, and even then it
+does not "cause warts".
+
+How many toads can you find on your lawn in one evening? How many in the
+vegetable garden? How many in the flower beds?
+
+Place a toad on loose soil among some weeds and observe how it proceeds
+to get out of sight.
+
+Is it true that a toad is attracted by music? Give reasons for your
+answer.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+Secure a few living toads and keep them in a box covered with a pane of
+glass. Be sure to put moist soil and damp moss in the bottom of the box
+in which toads, frogs, newts, or snakes are kept. This enables these
+animals to live in comfort, and they soon become sufficiently accustomed
+to their surroundings to act in a normal way.
+
+~Observation.~--By flicking in front of a toad a small feather or a bit of
+meat attached to a thread, the darting out of the tongue for catching
+prey on its adhesive surface may be observed.
+
+The children, by bringing slugs, caterpillars, grubs, and various
+insects for the toads, may learn what composes the food of the animal.
+It is to be observed that the toad does not snap at an object until it
+moves.
+
+DETAILED STUDY
+
+~Observation.~--General shape; division into head, trunk, and limbs; size
+of head and mouth; position and structure of eyes and ears; difference
+in the size of the fore and hind limbs, and explanation of this
+difference by references to the use of the limbs; the hind foot, uses of
+the web; the glands on the surface of the body and their uses for
+protection.
+
+Why is a large mouth useful? How are the ears fitted for life in water?
+
+In conclusion, the teacher should make sure that the pupils appreciate
+the usefulness of the toad and also the beauty represented in its
+adaptations to its conditions of life. In these particulars the toad is
+a good illustration of the adage "Handsome is that handsome does".
+
+LIFE HISTORY OF THE TOAD
+
+In early spring look for the toads on the surface of the water in ponds.
+The music of the toads at this time of year has been described by one
+naturalist as "one of the sweetest sounds of nature".
+
+The eggs may be found in these ponds at this time. They are attached to
+long strings of jelly which entwine among grasses and other objects in
+the ponds. (Frogs' eggs are in masses of jelly, not in strings.) Place
+some of the eggs in a jar of water and set the jar in the window of the
+school-room. A great mass of eggs is too much to put in a jar, a few
+dozen eggs in a pint of water will be more likely to develop. The water
+in the jar should be changed twice a week.
+
+~Observations.~--The light and dark areas of the eggs, the dark area
+gradually increasing in size; the increase in the length of the egg; the
+gradual change of the dark area into the general shape of a tadpole with
+head and tail, the first appearance of the gills, the separation from
+the jelly, the movement by means of the tail, the disappearance of the
+gills, the growth of the hind legs and, later, of the forelegs, and the
+disappearance of the tail.
+
+~Questions and Observations.~--What is the use of the dark colour of the
+area from which the tadpole is formed?
+
+Explain the uses of the strings of jelly.
+
+Describe how the tadpole swims.
+
+Upon what does the young tadpole feed?
+
+What is the advantage of external gills at this stage in the tadpole's
+life?
+
+~Later Observations.~--The disappearance of the gills, the budding out of
+the hind legs and, later, the forelegs. While the legs are growing out,
+the tail gradually becomes smaller, at the same time the shape changes
+to that of the adult toad with a broad body and large mouth and eyes.
+
+~Questions.~--What movements has the toad which the tadpole did not have?
+
+What makes these movements possible?
+
+Why is the mouth of the toad better suited to its manner of life than
+the small mouth of the tadpole would be?
+
+Of what advantage to the tadpole was the smooth outline of its body, and
+why is the rougher outline of the toad's body better suited for the life
+of the latter?
+
+Why would gills be unsuitable for the life of the toad?
+
+_To the teacher._--From the dark area of the egg the tadpole develops,
+the dark colour absorbs the sunlight, and this causes growth. The jelly
+holds the eggs up so that the sun can reach them and it also keeps them
+from being swept away by the water. The tadpole is very small, and
+external gills are needed to keep it in very close contact with the
+water. The tail does not drop off, the substance in it is absorbed into
+the body of the growing toad to serve as nutriment.
+
+Since all the changes in the development of the toad from egg to adult
+form take place in about one month, this comparatively rapid development
+makes the life history of the toad particularly suitable for observation
+work.
+
+The development of the eggs of the frog or newt may be studied from
+preparations made in precisely the same way as those for the study of
+the development of the toad.
+
+If observations on the developments of two forms are carried on at one
+time, interesting comparisons can be made on such points as, shape and
+size of the eggs, time required for development, shapes and colours of
+the tadpoles, activity of the tadpoles, etc.
+
+
+THE EARTHWORM
+
+~Time.~--May or June, in connection with gardening, when the working of
+the worms in the moist soil of the garden is quite noticeable.
+
+Outdoor studies may be assigned, as:
+
+Observe the loose soil at the entrance to the burrows. Insert a straw in
+the burrow and, following it, dig downward with a garden trowel and
+learn the nature of the earthworm's home.
+
+Are earthworms ever found out of their burrows during the day? If so, on
+what kind of days? Why do earthworms burrow deep in dry weather?
+
+Earthworms can breathe only when the surfaces of their bodies are in
+moist conditions.
+
+Go out at night with a lantern to where earthworms are known to have
+burrows, observe the worms stretched out with the rear ends of their
+bodies attached to the burrows, and note how quickly they draw back when
+they are touched. Do they draw back if the ground is jarred near them?
+Do they draw back when the light falls upon them?
+
+State the facts which are taught by the observations which were made on
+the above topics.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+Put two or three earthworms into a jar of rich, damp soil, on top of
+which there is a layer of sand a quarter of an inch thick. Put bits of
+cabbage, onion, grass, and other plants on the surface and cover the jar
+with a glass slip or cardboard.
+
+After a few days, examine the jar, noting the number of burrows, the
+foods selected, the castings, the food dragged into the burrows. Pour
+water into the jar and observe the actions of the worms. Can an
+earthworm live in water?
+
+Place an earthworm on a moist plate or board and direct the pupils to
+study it, as follows:
+
+Distinguish the head from the rear end, the upper from the lower
+surface. Observe the means of living. To assist in the latter
+observation, stroke the worm from rear to head and find the four double
+rows of bristles. Why is it difficult to pull an earthworm out of its
+burrow?
+
+Find the mouth. Has the earthworm any eyes, ears, or nose? Place a pin
+in the path of a moving worm and try to explain why it turns aside
+before touching the obstacle. Test the sensitiveness to feeling. Why is
+it cruel to put an earthworm on a fishhook?
+
+From the soil castings found in the jar, infer the value of earthworms
+for enriching and pulverizing soil. (See "Soil Studies", p. 269.)
+
+REFERENCES
+
+Bailey and Coleman: _First Course in Biology._ Macmillan Co. $1.25.
+
+Crawford: _Guide to Nature Study._ The Copp, Clark Co. 90 cents.
+
+Kellogg: _Elementary Zoology._ Holt & Co. $1.35.
+
+
+THE AQUARIUM
+
+A large glass aquarium may be purchased from any School Supply Company
+at a cost of a few dollars, but a small globe-shaped aquarium such as is
+used for gold-fishes will be found suitable for school purposes. If it
+is not possible to secure either of these, a large glass jar, such as a
+battery jar or large fruit jar, will be found to answer quite well.
+
+To set up the aquarium, put into the jar about two inches of clean shore
+sand (sand from a sand pit, washed until the water comes away clear,
+will do). Secure from a pond some water-plants, place these in the jar
+with their roots covered with sand and secured in position by small
+stones. Pour in water until the jar is nearly full, taking care not to
+wash the roots out of place, and then put in a freshwater clam and a few
+water snails. These are scavengers, for the clam feeds upon organisms
+that float in the water, while the snails eat the green scum that grows
+on the glass.
+
+The other aquarium specimens may now be put in. One fish about three
+inches long to a gallon of water is about the right proportion. When
+there is a sufficient quantity of plant life to keep the water properly
+oxygenated and enough animal life to supply the carbon dioxide necessary
+to keep the plants growing well, the aquarium is said to be _balanced_.
+
+The balanced aquarium does not require that the water be changed more
+often than once in two months.
+
+Too much direct sunlight causes too rapid growth of green slime, hence
+the aquarium should not be set in a window. Close to a window through
+which the sun shines upon it for an hour or longer each day is the best
+position.
+
+Do not supply more food to the animals in the aquarium than they can eat
+up clean.
+
+Crayfish, perch, trout, and other freshwater fishes are destructive of
+insect larvæ and other aquarium specimens, hence care must be taken in
+selecting the specimens that are put together into an aquarium.
+
+Suitable animals for the aquarium: mosquito larvæ, dragon-fly larvæ,
+caddice-fly larvæ, crayfish, clam, water snails, tadpoles, fish, frog,
+turtle.
+
+
+AQUARIUM SPECIMENS
+
+MOSQUITO
+
+Time.--May or June.
+
+~Questions and Observations.~--At what time of the year are mosquitoes
+most plentiful? In what localities are they most plentiful? Why are
+they most plentiful in these places? Are mosquitoes ever seen during
+fall or winter? How do you account for their rapid increase in number
+early in summer?
+
+How do mosquitoes find their victims? Observe the humming noise and try
+to discover how it is made.
+
+Watch a mosquito as it draws blood from your hand. Does the point of the
+beak pierce the skin?
+
+Capture a number of mosquitoes and place them in a jar containing some
+water and a few straws or sticks standing upright out of the water.
+Cover the mouth of the jar with a glass plate or fine gauze. Watch for
+the rafts of mosquitoes' eggs on the surface of the water.
+
+The eggs may also be found on the surface of ponds or open rain barrels,
+and may be transferred to water in a jar in the laboratory.
+
+STUDY OF THE ADULT FORM
+
+Note the shape, colour, sucking tube, wings, and legs. Compare with the
+house-fly.
+
+Distinguish the male insect from the female; the former has feathery
+feelers, and has mouth parts unsuited for biting.
+
+How many kinds of mosquitoes have you seen? Direct attention to the kind
+which causes the spread of malaria. It is recognized by its habit of
+standing with its body pointing at right angles to the surface on which
+its feet are placed or, in other words, it appears to stand on its head.
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT
+
+Describe the egg raft.
+
+Observe the wigglers (hatched in about a day); the divisions of the
+body of the wigglers; position of the wigglers when at rest. Observe
+that the tail end is upward. Lead the pupils to perceive that this is
+the means of getting air.
+
+Observe the rapid movement toward the bottom when disturbed; the means
+of causing this movement; the change into the large-headed pupæ--a
+change which takes place about ten days after hatching; the almost
+motionless character of the pupæ; the change from the pupæ forms into
+the adult--a change which takes place at about the fourth day of pupæ
+life.
+
+Put some mosquito larvæ (wigglers) into the fish aquarium. Are
+mosquitoes of any use? The wigglers are the food on which some young
+fishes live. Young bass and trout feed upon them.
+
+Put some kerosene on the surface of a jar in which there are mosquito
+larvæ. Describe a method of destroying mosquitoes.
+
+The teacher tells about the mosquito as the cause of the spread of
+malaria. From the fact that the eggs hatch on stagnant water, deduce a
+benefit arising from the draining of land.
+
+REFERENCES
+
+Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_
+
+Hodge: _Nature Study and Life_
+
+CADDICE-FLY
+
+Time: May.
+
+The caddice-flies are very interesting insects, owing to the habits of
+the larvæ of building little cases of wood, stones, or shells, in which
+they pass their development stages under water.
+
+These larvæ are easily found during the month of May in little streams
+of water everywhere throughout the Province. Look for what at first
+sight appears to be a bit of twig or a cylinder of stone about an inch
+long moving along the bottom as though carried by currents. Closer
+observation will result in the discovery that this is a little case
+composed of grains, of bits of stick, or of sand and tiny shells, and
+the head of the occupant may be seen projecting from one end.
+
+Collect some of these larvæ in a jar of water and transfer them to the
+aquarium. Direct the pupils to look for others in the streams, so that
+they may observe their appearances and movements in their natural
+environment. If kept in jars, the water must be changed every day, and
+the top should be covered to prevent the escape of the adults.
+
+~Observe.~--The shape of the various kinds of cases; the materials, and
+how fastened together (chiefly by silk); the part of the larva that
+protrudes from the case; the movement, and how caused; the fitness of
+the case as a protection. Note hardness, colour, and shape as protective
+features.
+
+The pupils will be fortunate if they observe the sudden rise of the
+larva to the surface of the water and the almost instantaneous change
+into the four-winged fly.
+
+
+INSECTS SUITABLE FOR LESSONS IN FORM II
+
+Walking-stick insect, katydid, cricket, mole-cricket, clothes-moth,
+giant water-bug, potato beetle, click-beetle, luna moth, and
+swallow-tail butterfly.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+FORM III
+
+AUTUMN
+
+
+GARDEN WORK
+
+The pupils in this Form should be able to do all of the work required of
+them in the garden without assistance. They should aim at intensive and
+thorough cultivation and, in the autumn, when the plants of their
+gardens ripen, these should be removed and the soil carefully spaded.
+They should continue the work of selecting the seed from the best
+flowers, as indicated in the work for Form II, and should grow some seed
+from vegetables and perennials seen to be particularly good.
+
+Boys in this Form may also wish to do some gardening for profit. In some
+cases where there is plenty of space, this may be carried on in a part
+of the school garden set aside for that purpose. Usually, however, it
+will be found most convenient to carry it on in the home garden. Best
+varieties for local markets should then be grown and attention given to
+the proper time and manner of marketing or storing for a later market.
+Cool, well-ventilated cellars are best for most fruits and vegetables.
+
+
+TREATMENT OF FUNGI
+
+During the summer and early autumn months attention should be given to
+the spraying of plants for blight and for injurious insects. The potato
+is commonly affected by a fungous disease which causes the stalks to
+blacken and die before the tubers have matured. This disease may be
+prevented in large measure by the use of a fungicide known as Bordeaux
+mixture. This may be prepared as follows:
+
+Take one pound of copper sulphate (blue vitriol); make it fine by
+pounding it in a bag or cloth and then dissolve it in water, using a
+wooden pail. It dissolves rapidly if put in a little cheese-cloth sack,
+which is suspended near the top of the pail by putting a stick across
+the pail and tying the sack of copper sulphate to it. Dilute this
+solution to five gallons. Take also a pound of unslaked or quick-lime
+and add a cupful of water to it. When it begins to swell up and get hot,
+add more water slowly, and, when the action ceases, dilute to five
+gallons. Mix these two solutions together in a tub or barrel, and churn
+them up, or stir them together vigorously. They give a deep
+robin's-egg-blue mixture, which is slightly alkaline and should be used
+at once. The solutions can be kept separate as stock solutions
+throughout the summer and then diluted and mixed whenever needed. Care
+should be observed in not mixing the solutions before each has been
+diluted to the strength, one pound to five gallons. A piece of blue
+litmus paper will be convenient to prove that the mixture is alkaline.
+If alkaline, as it should be, the paper remains blue when dipped in it.
+If the mixture turns the litmus paper red, it must have more lime-water
+added to make it alkaline. The potato tops should be thoroughly sprayed
+with this mixture when about ten inches high and then once every two
+weeks, until they have been treated three or four times. This is to
+prevent blight and not to kill bugs. If the potato-beetle is troubling
+the potatoes, add paris-green to the Bordeaux mixture--a teaspoonful to
+every two gallons. To prove the value of this treatment have a trial
+plot of potatoes which receive all attention save spraying with Bordeaux
+mixture. If a heavy rain should follow the spraying, it should be
+repeated.
+
+Potato-scab may be prevented to a large degree by soaking the tubers
+before cutting for planting in a solution of formalin (a 40-per cent.
+solution of formaldehyde) one-half pint to fifteen gallons of water.
+Seed grain is frequently treated this way before sowing, to destroy smut
+spores. A pound of formalin is put in forty gallons of water in a large
+barrel. A bag full of the grain to be treated is set in the barrel of
+formalin mixture for about two hours and then taken and dried on a floor
+that has been previously washed with water containing formalin. A
+solution of copper sulphate (bluestone), one pound in twenty gallons of
+water is sometimes used. The grain is left in this solution for twelve
+hours and then dried for sowing. All bags and utensils should also be
+disinfected with this formalin solution.
+
+TREATMENT OF INSECTS
+
+In order to poison insects successfully, it is necessary to determine
+how the insect feeds. If it is a biting insect, that is one that eats
+the leaf, such as the potato beetle, paris-green should be used.
+Paris-green sometimes burns the tender leaves. This may be prevented by
+adding a tablespoonful of lime to each pail of water used. It may also
+be used dry with flour or dust.
+
+If the insect feeds by sucking the juices from the leaf, as is the case
+with plant-lice, then a solution that kills by contact must be used,
+such as whale-oil soap, one ounce to a quart of water. Tobacco-water is
+sometimes mixed with the soap solution as follows:
+
+Four pounds of tobacco-waste is steeped in nine gallons of hot water for
+five hours; this is then strained, and to the tobacco-water one pound of
+whale-oil soap dissolved in one gallon of hot water is added and mixed
+thoroughly.
+
+Kerosene emulsion, which is made as follows, is very destructive to
+plant-lice and scale insects:
+
+Dissolve a quarter of a pound of common laundry soap in half a gallon of
+rain-water and, while hot, mix with one gallon of coal-oil and churn
+vigorously for five minutes to get a smooth, creamy mixture. On cooling,
+it thickens and is diluted before using by adding nine quarts of warm
+water to one quart of the emulsion. Use smaller quantities in correct
+proportions when only a few plants are to be treated.
+
+CABBAGE-WORM
+
+The larvæ of the cabbage-butterfly sometimes do a great deal of harm by
+eating the cabbage leaves. It will not do to use paris-green on cabbage,
+as the leaves are for eating. Instead, use pyrethrum or insect powder,
+which may be diluted by mixing with cheap flour--one ounce of insect
+powder to five of flour. Mix thoroughly and leave in a closed tin over
+night. Dust the mixture on the leaves from a cheese-cloth bag by tapping
+with a small stick or from a dusting-pan. If used while the dew is on
+the leaves, it sticks better. Insect powder is not poisonous to man as
+is paris-green, and so may be used freely on cabbage or other similar
+plants.
+
+
+PLANTS
+
+ANNUALS, BIENNIALS, AND PERENNIALS
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+By means of questions based upon the pupils' knowledge of a few common
+annuals, such as the oat, sweet-pea, and garden aster, develop the
+following points:
+
+1. These plants are always grown from seeds.
+
+2. These plants produce flowers and ripe seeds during one season's
+growth.
+
+3. These plants wither and die in the autumn.
+
+Plants having these characteristics are called _annuals_. The teacher
+explains the meaning of the word and requires the pupils to name a few
+other annuals.
+
+In a similar way, discuss a few common types of _biennials_, such as
+turnip, cabbage, hollyhock, and develop the following points:
+
+1. These plants produce no flowers and seeds during the first year of
+their life.
+
+2. These plants, during the first year, lay up a store of food in roots,
+leaves, or stems.
+
+3. The food is used in the second year of the plant's life to nourish
+the flowers and seeds.
+
+A biennial should be grown for two years in the school garden to furnish
+material for concrete study.
+
+In a similar way discuss a few common types of _perennials_, such as
+rhubarb, dahlia, apple tree, and develop the following points:
+
+1. These plants may or may not produce seeds during the first year's
+growth.
+
+2. Some of these plants are herbs, but most of them are trees and
+shrubs.
+
+3. Food is stored in roots or stems to provide for early spring growth.
+
+4. These plants live on from year to year.
+
+GARDEN STUDIES
+
+ANNUALS
+
+~Observations.~--Some plants, such as poppy and candy-tuft, are early
+blooming, while others, such as aster and cosmos, bloom in late summer,
+hence a selection should be made that will yield a succession of bloom
+throughout the season.
+
+Some are hardy annuals which can be grown from open planting, even when
+the weather is cold. These often seed themselves; for example,
+sweet-pea, morning-glory, phlox, poppy, sweet-alyssum.
+
+Some are half-hardy annuals, such as asters, balsams, stocks, and
+nasturtiums. These must be started indoors or in hotbeds, or if in
+plots, not until the soil is quite warm.
+
+The heights of annuals vary, and consequently they must be arranged in
+the bed in such a way that tall plants will not shade the short ones.
+
+BIENNIALS
+
+~Observations.~--During the first year food is stored in the root of the
+turnip, carrot, parsnip, and beet, in the leaves of the cabbage, and in
+the stem of the hollyhock.
+
+Flowers and seeds are produced during the second year, and the
+storehouse becomes empty, dry, and woody. Preparation for winter is
+therefore, in the case of biennials, preparation for a renewal of growth
+the following spring.
+
+PERENNIALS
+
+~Observations.~--The highest forms of plant life are found in this class;
+namely, the strong, large, hardy trees and shrubs.
+
+The herbaceous perennials are equipped with underground parts that act
+as storehouses of food to ensure the growth of the plant through
+successive seasons. Examples: the roots of dahlia, rhubarb, dandelion,
+and chicory; the underground stems of potato, onion, tulip,
+scutch-grass, Canada thistle, etc.
+
+Many of the wild flowers that bloom in early spring belong to this
+class, and their rapid growth then is made possible by the store of food
+in the underground parts. Examples: trillium, bloodroot, squirrel-corn,
+Indian turnip, Solomon's seal, etc.
+
+SPECIAL STUDY OF GARDEN PLANTS
+
+A few plants should be selected for special study, and the following are
+recommended: annuals--sweet-pea, pumpkin, and corn; biennials--cabbage,
+parsnip, and carrot; perennials--dahlia, rhubarb, and couch-grass.
+
+It is desirable that the observations be made upon the plants in the
+garden, but they may be conducted in the class-room upon specimens
+brought into the room by the pupils.
+
+SWEET-PEA
+
+Examine the stem of the sweet-pea and describe its form, its uniform
+slender structure, and the fact that it climbs. Find out just how it
+climbs. The pupils will observe the tendrils, which are extensions of
+the midribs of the leaves.
+
+Describe the leaves, noting what is meant by calling them _compound_.
+
+Observe the position of the flower, its colours, odour, size, and form.
+What insect does it resemble in shape? What different features of the
+flower enable it to attract attention?
+
+The names and uses of the floral organs may be taught to this class. For
+example:
+
+Pupils find the green blanket that protects the bud. This is the
+_calyx_.
+
+The beautiful, attractive part is the _corolla_.
+
+The parts that produce the pollen are called _stamens_.
+
+The case that holds the seeds is the _pistil_.
+
+Examine flowers of different ages and trace the change from the minute
+pistil to the pod.
+
+Study, comparatively, the flowers of the field-pea, bean, or wild vetch.
+
+Select a few of the finest blossoms of the sweet-pea and put tags on
+them while they are still in bloom. When they ripen, collect the seeds
+and preserve them for spring planting.
+
+Conduct observation lessons on the pumpkin and corn, in which the pupils
+will discover such facts as those given below.
+
+PUMPKIN
+
+Notice the method of growth--the stem no stronger than that of the
+sweet-pea, but lying flat on the ground. Notice the little roots sent
+out here and there where the stem touches the ground. This gives extra
+nourishment. The leaves are not numerous and grow only in one direction,
+but are very large--entirely too large to be borne upon an upright stem.
+Notice the large funnel-like flowers and that not all of them set fruit.
+Examine the flowers. Some of them have stamens for producing pollen, but
+no pistil. These never produce fruit, for pumpkins are simply enlarged
+and ripened pistils. Look for insects and examine them to find out
+whether they are carrying pollen. Notice younger pumpkins and even
+blossoms toward the end of the vine. Pick all the blossoms and small
+pumpkins off a vine, leaving only one of the best growing pumpkins. See
+whether this one grows larger than one of equal age on a vine having
+young pumpkins developing on it. Notice the arrangement of the seeds
+inside a ripe pumpkin. Collect some seeds, wash clean, and dry for
+spring planting. It is desirable to plant pumpkins late in May, so that
+they will have flowers on their vines as late as September.
+
+Study the flowers of the cucumber and compare them with those of the
+pumpkin.
+
+CORN
+
+This plant is native to America, was greatly prized by the aborigines,
+and even worshipped by some of them. Note the upright character of the
+plant and how the stalk is divided into sections by the joints, or
+nodes. Count these joints and also the leaves, and note the relationship
+of leaves and joints in the stalk, and how the leaves come off in
+different directions so as not to shade each other. Note the strong,
+stringy threads in the leaf, which give strength to the leaf as well as
+circulation of sap. They are strong and elastic, allowing of movement.
+The same strengthening fibres are seen in the stalk when it is broken
+across. In the stalk these fibres are arranged in a tubular form, as
+this gives greatest strength, the centre being soft and weak. The stalks
+are largest near the base, where the greatest stiffness is required. The
+nodes are also closer together here for strength. The stem is made much
+stronger by the bases of the leaves being wrapped so firmly around for a
+distance above the point of attachment at the node. Notice the
+close-fitting sheath or rain-guard, where the blade of the leaf leaves
+the stalk. This prevents rain soaking down inside the leaf sheath, but
+lets it run down the outside to the root where it is needed. As the
+plant gets older and taller, new roots come out from the node next above
+the root and sometimes from the second node above. These prop-roots are
+needed for support as the stalk lengthens, and they also reinforce the
+feeding capacity.
+
+Note the appearance of little cobs in the axils of the leaves. As soon
+as the silk appears, take a cob off and open it carefully. The little
+cob, which corresponds to the pistil in other plants, is covered with
+small and undeveloped kernels, and to each kernel one of the strands of
+so-called silk is attached. Whilst this little cob is forming, a bunch,
+or tassel, of flowers is forming on the top of the corn plant. Open one
+of these flowers and find the stamens with pollen-grains inside. This
+pollen, when shed, falls upon the silk, and each grain sends a tiny tube
+down inside the silk to the delicate ovules on the cob, fertilizing them
+and starting them to develop. The silk then withers. The wind carries
+this pollen.
+
+Find out how the silk is fitted for catching the pollen. What is the
+need for the great quantity of pollen that the plant produces?
+
+Strip off the husks and compare the tough, hard husks that are found on
+the outside with the soft paper-like husks found close to the cob. Show
+how each kind is fitted for its particular work.
+
+Pupils make experiments in the corn plot to find:
+
+1. Whether the corn grows faster:
+
+(1) When the soil is kept mellow or when the soil is hard;
+
+(2) When the days are warm or when they are cool;
+
+(3) When the nights are cool or when they are warm.
+
+2. The effect of growing black corn and golden corn in the same or in
+adjoining plots. Account for the result.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+Art: Clay-modelling and drawing exercises on the whole plant, and also
+upon the ear.
+
+Literature: Interpretation and reading of "Blessing the Corn-fields",
+from _Hiawatha_.
+
+History: The name Indian corn originated in the early colonial days of
+the Eastern and Central States, when the pioneers obtained corn from the
+Indians. The Indians showed the settlers how to kill the trees by
+girdling and how to plant the corn among the standing trunks, and thus
+have corn ready for roasting by August, and for grinding into meal or
+for boiling to make hominy by September.
+
+
+SEED DISPERSAL
+
+The lessons on seed dispersal which were begun in Form I should be
+continued in this Form.
+
+I. LESSON
+
+Select a few weeds belonging to species which produce large numbers of
+seeds, such as wild mustard, white cockle, false-flax, etc. Distribute
+the seed pods among the pupils of the class and require them to estimate
+the number of seeds produced by each plant.
+
+By references to observations made in the garden, help the pupils to
+recall the bad results, both to parent plants and to young seedlings, of
+improper scattering of seeds, namely:
+
+1. The excessive crowding and shading, which causes the plants to become
+weak.
+
+2. Insufficient food and moisture for the large number of plants, which
+causes the plants to be small and worthless.
+
+Discuss how the crowding of cultivated plants is prevented and, in a
+general way, how nature provides for the scattering of seeds.
+
+The great work of the plant is the production and dispersal of its
+seeds.
+
+Ask the pupils to be on the alert to find examples of plants in which
+provision is made for the dispersal of the seeds, and to bring these
+plants to the class for the next lesson.
+
+DETAILED STUDY OF SEED DISPERSAL
+
+II. CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+Make use of the specimens gathered by the pupils and by the teacher for
+observing and classifying as follows:
+
+1. Seeds that steal rides. Examples--burdock, blue burr, pitch-fork
+weed, barley, stick-tight, hound's tongue.
+
+2. Seeds that are carried in edible fruits which have attractive
+colours, tastes, etc. Examples--apple, grape, cherry, rowan, hawthorn.
+
+3. Seeds that are carried by the wind. Examples--dandelion, thistle,
+milkweed, maple, pine, elm.
+
+4. Seeds that are scattered by being shot from bursting pods.
+Examples--violet, jewel-weed (touch-me-not), sweet-pea, witch-hazel.
+
+5. Seeds that are scattered by plants which are rolled along by the
+wind. Examples--Russian thistle, tumble-mustard, tumble-grass.
+
+6. Seeds that float. Very many seeds float, although not specially
+fitted for floating, and some, such as the cocoa-nut and water-lily, are
+especially adapted for dispersal by water.
+
+_To the teacher._--Require the pupils to observe the special structure
+that facilitates the dispersal of the seed. As an illustration, ask the
+pupils to find the seeds of the burdock and to describe what the burr is
+really like. They find that the burr is a little basket filled with
+seeds. The basket has many little hooks which catch on the hair of
+animals and, since these hooks turn inwards, they serve to hold the
+basket in such a position that all the seeds are not likely to drop out
+at one time. The pupils should also observe that these baskets are quite
+firmly attached to the parent plant until the seeds are ripe; after that
+the baskets break off the plant at the slightest pull.
+
+SEED COLLECTIONS
+
+During late summer and in the autumn the seeds of the weeds that have
+been identified by the pupils should be collected.
+
+Instruct the pupils to rub the ripened seed pods between the hands until
+the seeds are thrashed out, at the same time blowing away the chaff. The
+seeds are now placed in small phials or in small envelopes and these are
+carefully labelled. If possible, fill each phial so that there may be
+sufficient seed for use by all the members of the class in the lessons
+on seed description and identification which are to be taken during the
+winter months, when Nature Study material is less plentiful than it is
+in the summer and autumn. The phials or envelopes may be stored in a
+shallow box, or the phials may be mounted on a stout card. They may be
+attached to this card either by stout thread sewed through the card and
+passing around the phial, or by brass cleats, which may be obtained with
+the phials from dealers in Nature Study supplies.
+
+MAN AS A DISPERSER OF SEEDS
+
+Man as an agent in the dispersal of seeds should be made a topic for
+discussion.
+
+Obtain, through the pupils, samples of seed-grain, clover seed, timothy
+seed, turnip seed, etc. Ask the pupils to examine these and count the
+number of weed seeds found in each.
+
+The results will reveal a very common way in which the seeds of noxious
+weeds are introduced.
+
+Describe the introduction from Europe to the wheat-fields of the Prairie
+Provinces of such weeds as Russian thistle, false-flax, French-weed. The
+seeds of these weeds were carried in seed-grain, fodder for animals, and
+also in the hay and straw used by the immigrants as packing for their
+household goods.
+
+Careful farmers will not allow thrashing-machines, seed drills,
+fanning-mills, etc., to come from farms infested with noxious weeds to
+do work upon their farms, nor will they buy manure, straw, or hay that
+was produced on dirty farms.
+
+
+THE SUGAR MAPLE
+
+FIELD EXERCISES
+
+Select a convenient sugar maple as a type. Ask the pupils to observe and
+to describe the height of the tree, the height of the trunk below the
+branches, the shape and size of the crown, the diameter of the trunk,
+the colour of the bark, the markings on the bark, the number and
+direction of the branches, and the density of the foliage. Compare the
+density of the foliage with that of other kinds of trees. Require the
+pupils to make a crayon drawing of the tree.
+
+Examine the crop of grain produced near a shade tree. Compare the crop
+on the north side of the tree with that on the south side. Account for
+the difference.
+
+Is the crop around the tree inferior to that in the rest of the field?
+
+Find out how long the various sugar maple shade trees in the locality
+have been planted. Is it a tree of rapid or slow growth? Are these sugar
+maples infested with insects or attacked by fungi?
+
+Do these trees yield sap that is suitable for making maple syrup?
+
+Examine trees that have been tapped and find whether the old wounds
+become overgrown or cause decay.
+
+Find out all you can about the uses that are made of maple wood.
+
+_To the teacher._--The sugar maple is the most highly prized of our
+native trees for ornament and shade. It grows fairly rapidly and
+becomes a goodly-sized tree within twenty years after it is planted. The
+symmetrical dome-shaped crown and the dense foliage of restful dark
+green give to it a fine appearance. It is hardy and has few insect
+pests, and its value is enhanced by the abundant yield of rich sap.
+
+As a commercial tree it has few superiors; the wood is hard and durable
+and takes a high polish. It is used for flooring, furniture, boat
+building, for the wooden parts of machinery and tools, and for making
+shoe-pegs and shoe lasts. As fuel maple wood is surpassed only by
+hickory.
+
+MAPLE LEAVES
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+The pupils bring to the class leaves of the sugar maple. Each pupil is
+provided with a leaf and makes direct observations under the guidance of
+the teacher.
+
+~Observations.~--Colour, dark green on the upper surface, lighter green on
+the lower surface. Surface smooth and shiny.
+
+Shape: star-shaped, broader than long.
+
+Lobes: usually five, often three; each lobe has usually two large teeth.
+
+Base has a heart-shaped notch; petiole long and slender, usually red.
+
+Veins are stiff and run out to the points of the teeth.
+
+Distribute leaves of the _red_ maple and ask the pupils to note the
+general resemblance. Next ask them to compare the leaves as to shape,
+texture, and teeth on the margin.
+
+Ask the pupils to find red maple trees and also to find maples with
+leaves that are different from those of the red maple and those of the
+sugar maple.
+
+Make a collection of maple leaves when they are in autumn colours. (See
+Collections, page 33, in General Method.)
+
+_To the teacher._--The leaves of the red maple are longer than broad,
+and are not so smooth and shiny as the leaves of the sugar maple. There
+are numerous "saw teeth" on the margins of the lobes. The silver maple,
+with leaves having silver-white under surfaces, is another common
+species.
+
+A lesson similar to that on leaf studies may be based on the fruits
+(keys) of the maples.
+
+The oak, ash, elm, beech, or birch may be taken up in lessons similar to
+those outlined for the study of the maple.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+With literature and reading: By interpreting "The Maple", _The Ontario
+Readers, Third Book_, page 179;
+
+With art: By sketching the tree and reproducing the autumn leaves in
+colour work.
+
+
+WEED STUDIES
+
+In every locality there are about a dozen weeds that are particularly
+troublesome, and the pupils of Form III should be taught to identify
+these and to understand the characteristics which make each weed
+persistent.
+
+To produce these results it will be necessary to have exercises such as
+the following:
+
+1. The teacher exhibits a weed to the pupils and directs their attention
+to a few of the outstanding features of the plant.
+
+2. The pupils are required, as a field exercise, to observe where the
+weed is abundant; and whether in hay field, pasture, hoe crop, or in
+grain. The pupils will bring specimens to the class.
+
+3. Detailed study in the class of specimens of the weed brought by the
+pupils to find offensive odours and prickles, also the character of the
+leaves, flowers, seed pods, and seeds, including the means of dispersal;
+the underground parts, whether underground stem, tap-root, or fibrous
+root, and the value of the underground parts as a means of persistence.
+
+4. The pupils make a collection of the weeds that have been studied.
+(See Plant Collection, page 39, in General Method.)
+
+5. The pupils make collections of the seeds of the weeds that have been
+studied.
+
+OBSERVATION LESSON ON WEED SEEDS
+
+The seed of a weed should always be exhibited and studied in association
+with a fresh or a mounted specimen of the weed.
+
+Each pupil should use a hand lens in examining the seed.
+
+The pupils examine the seed of each species and describe it according to
+the following scheme:
+
+NAME OF SEED
+
+    _Colour:_
+    _Size:_ (in fractions of an inch)
+    _Shape:_
+    _Details:_
+    _Occurrence:_
+
+The results of the pupils' study of the ox-eye daisy would then appear
+in the following form:
+
+SEED OF OX-EYE DAISY
+
+    _Colour:_ Black and greenish-white in stripes,
+    _Size:_ One sixteenth of an inch,
+    _Shape:_ Club-shaped,
+    _Details_: Grooved lengthwise, yellow peg in large end,
+    _Occurrence:_ A common impurity in grass seed.
+
+
+GRASSHOPPER
+
+     (Consult the Manual on _Suggestions for Teachers of
+     Science_: Zoology, First year.)
+
+The ease with which this insect may be obtained in August or September,
+together with its fairly large size, makes it a suitable specimen for
+insect study. It is also a typical insect, so that a careful study
+serves as a basis for a knowledge of the class _insecta_.
+
+FIELD EXERCISES
+
+Problems to be assigned for outdoor observation: Locomotion by flying,
+leaping, walking; protective coloration and habit of "lying low"; its
+behaviour when caught; in what kinds of fields it is most plentiful; in
+what kinds of weather it is most active; its position on the grass or
+grain when feeding; the nature and extent of the damage done by it.
+
+Use a class period for discussion of the above. Confirm, correct, or
+incite to more careful observation.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+(Studied as a typical insect)
+
+~Observations.~--The three divisions of the body--head, thorax, abdomen;
+the segmental division of the two latter parts; the hard, protecting
+covering; the movements of the abdomen; the two large compound eyes and
+three small eyes; the feelers; the two pairs of mouth feelers; the
+cutting mandibles; the three pairs of legs (one pair for leaping) and
+two pairs of wings on the thorax; the breathing pores, the ears,
+ovipositors of the female.
+
+The young grasshoppers may be found in spring or early summer, and a few
+even in late summer, among the grass of old meadows and pastures. They
+are easily recognized because of their general resemblance to the adult
+and are in the stage of development called the _nymph_ phase. Note the
+hairy body and the absence of wings.
+
+_To the teacher._--The moulting of the nymph is a very interesting
+process to observe and so is the laying of the eggs by the female in a
+burrow that she prepares in the soil. If females secured in July are
+kept in a jar having two inches of soil in the bottom, they will lay
+their eggs in the soil; the nests and eggs may then be taken up and
+examined.
+
+In order that we may not destroy our friends and helpers, it is
+expedient to know what creatures help to hold pests in check.
+
+The enemies of grasshoppers are birds and insect parasites. Under the
+wings of grasshoppers may frequently be found little red mites; these
+kill the grasshoppers to which they are attached. The blister-beetles
+lay their eggs in the grasshoppers' nests, and the larvæ of the beetles
+feed upon and destroy the eggs.
+
+The birds that are especially useful in destroying grasshoppers are the
+meadow-lark, crow, bobolink, quail, grasshopper sparrow.
+
+The curious hairlike worms known to the school boys as "hair snakes"
+because of the belief that they are parts of horse hairs turned into
+snakes, are worms that pass the early part of their life within the
+bodies of grasshoppers and, when the insects die, the worms escape and
+are washed by rains into troughs and ponds where their movements attract
+attention.
+
+Study the cricket and house-fly and compare the cricket with the
+grasshopper.
+
+
+APHIDES
+
+In September obtain leaves of sweet-pea, apple, rose bush, maple, oak,
+turnip, etc., on which the insects are feeding; also provide specimens
+of woolly aphides on the bark of apple trees or stems of goldenrod or
+alder.
+
+Observe the nature of the injury to the leaves and plants on which these
+insects feed.
+
+Do the insects bite the leaves or suck the juices? Give evidence in
+support of your answer.
+
+Sprinkle paris-green on the leaves; does this kill the insects? Why does
+it not? Spray the insects with a little oil, such as kerosene, or with
+water in which the stub of a cigar has been soaked; what is the effect?
+
+Insects that suck juices from inside the leaf escape the poisoning from
+solutions in the leaf surfaces; such insects are killed by oils which
+enter the breathing pores and cause poisoning.
+
+Search in the garden, orchard, and forest for plants attacked by
+aphides. Carefully observe the lady-birds that are frequently found
+where there are aphides. Lady-birds (also called lady-bugs), are small,
+spotted beetles, broad oval in form, of bright colours, red and black,
+or yellow and black, or black and white.
+
+They are of great service to the farmer and gardener because their foods
+consists largely of plant-lice (aphides).
+
+Watch the action of ants which are found among the aphides. The ants may
+be observed stroking the aphides with their feelers, causing the aphides
+to excrete a sweet fluid on which the ant feeds. Aphides are sometimes
+called ant-cows.
+
+Direct the attention of the pupils to the difference between the male
+and female aphides; the males have wings, but the females are wingless.
+
+
+TOMATO WORM
+
+THE ADULT
+
+The adult moth may be captured on spring evenings when the lilacs are in
+bloom, as it buzzes about among the lilac blossoms sucking their honey.
+It is frequently mistaken for the humming-bird when thus engaged. It may
+also be observed during the summer evenings laying its eggs on the
+leaves of tomato vines.
+
+Observe the worms that hatch from these eggs and note their rapid
+growth. Keep the larvæ in a box in the school-room and feed them on
+tomato leaves. Note their size and colour, the oblique stripes on the
+sides, the horn which is used for terrifying assailants, the habit of
+remaining rigid for hours--hence the name sphinx moth.
+
+The larvæ burrow into the ground in September to form the chrysalides,
+hence there should be soil in the vivarium in which they are kept.
+
+THE CHRYSALIS
+
+~Observations.~--The shape, colour, nature of the covering, the long
+handle, the wing impressions, the segmental part, the emergence of the
+adult in May or early June.
+
+What organ of the insect was contained in the "handle" of the chrysalis?
+
+The adult is one of the handsomest of moths, because of its graceful,
+clear-cut shape and the variegated grays and yellows of its dress. Look
+on poplar, cotton-wood, plum, and pine trees, and on tobacco plants for
+relatives of the tomato worm, the large green larvæ whose chrysalis and
+adult forms resemble those of the tomato worm.
+
+
+THE CROW
+
+Crows are so plentiful that there will be no difficulty in making
+observations on the living birds in the free state in spring or summer.
+(As the crow is a bird that is easily tamed, it may be possible to have
+a tame crow in the class-room for more careful study of the details of
+structure.)
+
+~Observations.~--Describe its attitude when perched, movements of the
+wings in flight, speed of flight. Why does the crow perch high up in
+trees? What gives to the crow its swift flight?
+
+Study the various calls of the crow and note the alarm, threat, summons,
+and expression of fear.
+
+Find the nest and note its position, size, build, materials, eggs, and
+young. How is the nest concealed? What makes it strong?
+
+Are crows often seen on the ground? Do they walk or hop?
+
+Observe and report on the crow's habits of feeding. It eats corn,
+potatoes, oats, beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, cutworms, and
+occasionally birds' eggs or young birds.
+
+Why do king-birds chase and thrash the crow? Are scarecrows effective in
+keeping crows off the grain fields?
+
+Note the sentinels that are on the watch to warn other crows of danger.
+
+Give reasons for the belief that the crow is a wise bird.
+
+Give reasons for regarding the crow as a neighbour of doubtful
+character. Give reasons why crows should be protected.
+
+NOTE.--Crows will not pull up corn and seed that has been covered with
+coal-tar before it is planted.
+
+In addition to the animals already named, the musk-rat, raccoon, fox,
+flying-squirrel, robin, wren, and king-bird will be found convenient for
+study in many localities.
+
+The swimming of the musk-rat, and how its shape, fur, feet, and tail fit
+it for a life in water are topics suitable for observational exercises,
+as are also its food, its winter home, and the burrows leading from the
+water into the banks. In the case of the winter home, the location, the
+structure, the submerged entrance, the living-room, and the surrounding
+moat, are topics of interest.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+With literature: By reading animal stories, such as, _The Kindred of the
+Wild_ and "Red Fox," by Charles G. D. Roberts; and _Wild Animals I Have
+Known_, by Ernest Thompson-Seton.
+
+With language: By oral and written descriptions of the animals that have
+been observed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+FORM III
+
+WINTER
+
+
+CARE OF PLANTS IN THE HOME
+
+The care of flowering bulbs which was begun in Form I will be continued
+in Form II. The growing of new plants from cuttings will now be taken
+up. In those schools which are kept continuously heated, potted plants
+may be kept throughout the year. The pupils will come to appreciate the
+plant's needs and learn how to meet them in the supply of good soil,
+water, and sunlight. The following points should be observed:
+
+1. Good potting soil can be made by building up alternating layers of
+sods and stable manure and allowing this compost to stand until
+thoroughly rotted. A little sharp sand mixed with this forms an
+excellent soil for most house plants.
+
+2. Thorough watering twice a week is better than adding a little water
+every day.
+
+3. The leaves should be showered with water once a week to cleanse them
+from dust.
+
+4. An ounce of whale-oil soap dissolved in a quart of water may be used
+to destroy plant-lice. Common soap-suds may also be used for this
+purpose, but care should be taken to rinse the plants in clean water
+after using a soap wash.
+
+5. Most plants need some direct sunlight every day if possible, although
+most of the ferns grow without it.
+
+6. Plants usually need re-potting once a year. Many kinds may be set
+out-of-doors in flower beds in May and left until September, when they
+may be taken up and placed in pots, or cuttings made from them for
+potting.
+
+7. A flower exhibition at the school once or twice a year, or at a local
+exhibition, adds to the interest.
+
+8. The pupils should report to the teacher from time to time the
+progress of their plants and make many drawings showing their
+development.
+
+PLANT CUTTINGS
+
+The pupils will be interested to know that it is possible to produce new
+plants without waiting for them to grow up from the seed. It will indeed
+be quite a surprise to them to see a new plant complete in all its parts
+grow up from a small piece of stem, root, or even leaf. With a little
+care even children may propagate plants in this way.
+
+SELECTION OF CUTTINGS
+
+Begin with some of the common herbaceous bedding-plants, such as
+geranium, coleus, or fuschia. These are such common bedding-plants that
+they are easily obtained in the autumn. Only well-matured stems of the
+season's growth, such as will break with a slight snap when bent, should
+be used.
+
+Let the pupils provide themselves with sharp knives for the lesson, with
+small boxes or pots, and with some moist, clean sand--not potting soil.
+A few holes should be bored in the bottom of the box, then a layer of
+fine gravel put in to provide for good drainage, and over it layers of
+moist sand. Take a slip or growing end of a stem about three inches in
+length, always cutting it at or just below a node, or joint, and
+leaving only a couple of small leaves on the top of the slip. Insert it
+to about half its depth in the box of moist sand. These cuttings may be
+placed a few inches apart in the box, which should then be placed in a
+warm, light room for a few weeks until the roots develop. The cuttings
+should be partly shaded by papers from the strong sunlight, and the sand
+kept slightly moist but not wet. Bottom heat and a moist, warm
+atmosphere hasten their development.
+
+Another very convenient and very successful method of starting cuttings
+is to take a six-inch flower-pot, put two inches of fine gravel in the
+bottom, set a four-inch unglazed flower-pot in the centre, and fill up
+the space around it with sand and garden-loam, mixed. Put a cork in the
+hole in the bottom of the small flower-pot, and then fill it with water.
+Put the cuttings around in the space between the two pots and set in a
+fairly warm room in moderate light.
+
+POTTING OF ROOTED CUTTINGS
+
+When the cuttings are well rooted, which requires from three to six
+weeks according to the variety and growth conditions furnished, they
+should be carefully lifted with a trowel and each set in a small pot or
+can. First put in the bottom a few small stones to secure drainage, and
+then a little good potting soil. Set the plant in place and fill in
+around with more soil and pack this firmly around the roots. Keep room
+in the top of the pot for water. When the new plant has made some
+growth, it may be shifted to a larger pot. Geraniums and coleus (foliage
+plants) should not be kept more than two seasons. Take cuttings off the
+old plants and then throw the latter away.
+
+
+EVERGREENS
+
+In December make a study of Canadian evergreens, choosing spruce,
+balsam, and cedar, if available, or substitute hemlock for any one of
+these.
+
+Compare the general features of these trees, such as shape, direction of
+branches, colour, persistence of leaves through the winter.
+
+Have the pupils notice how nature fits these trees to endure the snows
+and storms of winter by:
+
+1. The tapering cone which causes the snow to slide off the tree.
+
+2. The fine, needle-shaped leaves to which only very sticky snow will
+adhere.
+
+3. The very tough, flexible, and elastic branches, which bend in the
+wind and under the weight of snow, but spring back to their old
+positions.
+
+4. The resin in leaves, stems, and buds, which enables the trees to
+resist frost and rain.
+
+Teach the pupils to distinguish these trees by their differences in
+colour and form and also by the differences in their leaves and cones.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+Distribute small twigs of balsam and require the pupils to observe and
+describe the length, shape, and colour of the leaves.
+
+Next distribute small twigs of spruce and require the pupils to compare
+the spruce leaves with those of the balsam in length, shape, and colour.
+
+Next distribute twigs of cedar and proceed similarly.
+
+The cones may be dealt with in a similar manner. Require the pupils to
+make a census of the evergreens of the locality, recording the class of
+evergreen, the size, and the use of each kind for shade, ornament, or
+for commercial purposes.
+
+_To the teacher._--The balsam, spruce, and hemlock are difficult for the
+beginner to distinguish, but this may be done by noting the following
+points of difference in their leaves:
+
+The leaf of the hemlock is the only one that has a distinct leaf-stalk.
+Look for this tiny stalk.
+
+The leaf of the hemlock, like that of the balsam, is flat, but the
+hemlock leaf is much the shorter.
+
+The leaf of the spruce is not flat, but is three-sided or nearly so. Its
+colour is uniform, while the under surface of the hemlock leaf, and also
+of the balsam leaf, is of a decidedly lighter colour than the upper
+surface.
+
+Note that the spruce _type_ is studied; no attempt is made at this stage
+to differentiate the several species of spruce.
+
+
+COLLECTION OF WOOD SPECIMENS
+
+During the winter months the boys may prepare specimens of wood for the
+school collection. These specimens should be cut when green, and dried
+afterwards. They should be uniform in length--not more than six
+inches--and should show the bark on one side. The side showing the bark
+should be two inches wide at most, six inches long, and running in a
+V-shaped, radial section toward the pith. A tangential section also
+shows well the rounded layers. A piece of slab as cut lengthwise off a
+round stick is tangential. Care should be taken not to mutilate trees in
+taking these specimens. Specimens of rare or foreign woods may be
+obtained at wood-working factories.
+
+RELATED READING
+
+Winter is Nature's quiescent period. Continuous active observation in
+the out-of-doors among the plants of the forest and garden gives place
+for a time to indoor work and reflection. Pupils need time for reading
+and reflection, and no time is so opportune as the quiet winter season.
+During these months some time should be devoted to the reading of nature
+stories and extracts from magazines and books dealing with plant as well
+as with animal life.
+
+Pupils should review their gardening experiences and discuss plans of
+improvement for the approaching spring and summer. Let them write
+letters to the Form II pupils of other schools where similar work has
+been carried on, and give some of their experiences in gardening and
+other plant studies, and also in animal studies. A certain Friday
+afternoon might be appointed for hearing the letters read which were
+received in reply. Suitable short poems that have a direct bearing upon
+the outdoor studies should be read from time to time. Good pictures also
+come in here as an aid in helping the pupils to appreciate written
+descriptions. The first-hand observations made by them will form a basis
+for the better and more appreciative interpretation of these literature
+selections.
+
+For Observation Lesson on Weed Seeds, see page 171.
+
+
+HOW ANIMALS PREPARE FOR WINTER
+
+~Introduction.~--Discuss the preparations that people make for winter,
+such as the storing of food and the providing of warmer clothes and
+homes.
+
+~Method.~--The teacher questions the pupils and encourages them to tell
+what they have learned through their own observation of animals. The
+knowledge of the pupils is supplemented by information given by the
+teacher, but the pupils are left to find out more facts by further
+observations. Thus:
+
+Do you ever see ground-hogs out during winter?
+
+What do they feed upon during the winter?
+
+What is the condition of ground-hogs in late summer and in autumn?
+
+What is the use of the great store of fat that they have in their
+bodies?
+
+Examine the snow near the burrows of ground-hogs and find whether they
+ever come out in mid-winter.
+
+_To the teacher._--The hibernating animals prepare a home or nest and
+lay up a store of food in the form of fat within their bodies. To
+hibernate does not mean the same as to sleep. The hibernating animals
+have much less active organs than the sleeping animals. The heart-beat
+and the respiratory movements are very slow and feeble, consequently a
+very little nourishment suffices to sustain life.
+
+SUMMARY OF LESSONS
+
+(Two lessons of twenty minutes)
+
+     1. Some animals migrate:
+
+     Examples--many birds, butterflies, and some bats; the
+     cariboo, and buffalo.
+
+     2. Some animals hibernate:
+
+     Examples--bear, ground-hog, raccoon, frogs, toads, snakes,
+     and some bats.
+
+     NOTE.--Flies, mosquitoes, and some other insects crawl into
+     crevices and remain at rest during winter, but their bodies
+     are not stored with food.
+
+     3. Some animals build houses and store foods:
+
+     Examples--beaver, squirrel, chipmunk, honey-bee, deer-mouse.
+
+     4. Some animals build homes convenient to food:
+
+     Examples--musk-rat, field-mouse.
+
+     5. Some animals put on warmer clothing:
+
+     Examples--fox, mink, otter, rabbit, horse, cow, partridge,
+     chickadee. The rabbit and weasel turn white, a colour
+     protection.
+
+     6. Many insect larvæ form cocoons or pupæ cases:
+
+     Examples--emperor-moth, codling moth, tomato worm.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+With literature, reading, and language.
+
+With geography: By a lesson on "The influence of climate upon animal and
+plant life."
+
+
+CHICKENS
+
+     (Consult _Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture_ by
+     Robinson. Ginn & Co., $2.00.)
+
+CONVERSATION LESSON
+
+How many of you keep chickens at your homes?
+
+Why do many kinds of people keep chickens?
+
+What breeds of chickens do you keep?
+
+How many other breeds do you know?
+
+Describe the appearance of a few of the commoner breeds.
+
+Why are there so many different breeds?
+
+Name those that are good laying breeds.
+
+Name breeds that are not usually considered good laying breeds.
+
+_To the teacher._--Chickens are kept by all classes of people. Many keep
+them for the profit in eggs and meat, others keep them as a fad, and
+others to gratify a craving for animal companionship. There are one
+hundred and seventy-five recognized breeds, varying in size from that of
+the Japanese bantam weighing ten ounces to that of the huge Brahma which
+weighs fourteen pounds. The shapes and colours present as great a
+variation as the sizes. The breeds that are usually regarded as good
+layers are White Leghorn, Barred Bock, and Rhode Island Red, while the
+Game breeds are usually regarded as poor layers. Careful tests prove,
+however, that there are good laying and poor laying strains in every
+breed, and care must be taken to select from good strains, since the
+breed is not a sufficient guide.
+
+At the close of the first lesson, assign to the pupils the task of
+making a chicken census of the district as follows:
+
+1. Request each pupil to count the number of hens under two years old at
+his home and also to count the hens that are more than two years old.
+
+2. Request each pupil to find out, if possible, the number of eggs
+obtained at his home during the whole year.
+
+ARITHMETIC LESSON BASED ON THE CHICKEN CENSUS
+
+1. Using the data collected by the pupils, calculate the total number of
+chickens under two years old in the district.
+
+Calculate the number over two years old. (The latter are classed as
+unprofitable.)
+
+2. Using the data obtained by the pupils (provided sufficient data was
+obtained to make it reasonably reliable), calculate the average number
+of eggs laid a year by each hen.
+
+3. If the data collected by the pupils as to the number of eggs is
+thought to be unreliable, make use of the following:
+
+The average number of eggs laid each year by each hen in Ontario is
+seven dozen. Use this average number, and:
+
+(1) Calculate the value of the eggs produced in this district in a year,
+the average price of eggs being twenty cents a dozen.
+
+(2) If the average production of eggs were increased to ten dozen (a
+number that is easily possible under improved management), find the
+value of the eggs that would be produced in a year, and find the gain
+that would result from this better management.
+
+4. If it costs ninety cents a year to feed a hen, find the net annual
+profit to this district from the egg production.
+
+CARE OF CHICKENS
+
+The method of developing conceptions of how to take proper care of
+chickens is based partly upon the pupils' experiences and partly upon a
+knowledge of the history of the original wild hens.
+
+Information can be gathered from the pupils as to the date of hatching
+of the earliest chickens and the date at which the pullets begin to lay.
+Chickens that are hatched in April begin to lay in November or December
+and lay throughout the winter when eggs bring the highest price.
+
+The original wild hens lived in the dry, grassy, and shrubby jungles of
+India. They were free to move about in the open air, and at night they
+perched in the trees, which sheltered them from rain. Hence may be
+inferred what kind of quarters should be provided for chickens.
+
+CARE AND FOOD OF CHICKENS
+
+Points developed
+
+Chickens must have plenty of fresh air without draughts.
+
+Heat is not necessary.
+
+Their quarters must be dry, clean, and well lighted.
+
+They require exercise.
+
+Their food must have in it the materials that are needed to make the
+substance of the egg.
+
+Breakfast: Wheat or corn scattered among straw--the scratching affords
+exercise.
+
+Dinner: Meat scraps, slaughter-house refuse, vegetables, sour milk, and
+rolled oats.
+
+Supper: As at breakfast.
+
+
+PHYSICAL SCIENCE PHASE OF NATURE STUDY
+
+The teacher is advised to read carefully the instructions and General
+Method of Experimental Science, Chapter I, before beginning the lessons
+in Physical Science.
+
+
+SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND GASES
+
+Arrange a collection of objects of various shapes, sizes, colours, and
+weights, as cork, glass, lead, iron, copper, stone, coal, chalk. Show
+that these are alike in one respect, namely, that they have a shape not
+easily changed, that is, they are _solids_. Compare these solids with
+such substances as water, alcohol, oil, molasses, mercury, milk, tar,
+honey, glycerine, gasolene. These latter will pour, and depend for their
+shape on the containing vessel. They are _liquids_. Compare air with
+solids and liquids. Such a material as air is called a _gas_. Other
+examples of illuminating gas, and dentists' "gas"; others will be
+studied in future lessons. Pupils may think all gases are invisible. To
+show that some are not, put a few pieces of copper in a test-tube or
+tumbler and add a little nitric acid. Watch the brown gas fall through
+the air; note how it spreads in all directions. Some gases fall because
+they are heavier than air; others rise because lighter. All gases spread
+out as soon as liberated and try to fill all the available space. Spill
+a little ammonia and note how soon the odour of the gas is smelled in
+all parts of the room.
+
+CHANGE OF STATE
+
+Heat some lead or solder in a spoon till liquid. Let it cool. Do the
+same with wax.
+
+Heat some water in a flask till it becomes steam. Steam is a gas. Cool
+the steam and form water again. (See distillation.) Refer to lava
+(melted rock), moulding iron, melting ice and snow, softening of butter.
+
+All solids may be changed to liquids and even to gases if sufficiently
+heated. Likewise all gases may be changed into liquids and then to
+solids.
+
+EXPANSION OF SOLIDS
+
+In winter pupils may find that the ink is frozen. The teacher directs
+attention to this and inquires why it has occurred. It may be that in a
+lesson on rocks the teacher will ask the pupils to account for all the
+little stones. The following _experiments_ will aim at solving the
+foregoing problems:
+
+1. A brass ball and ring are shown. Pupils handle these and note that
+both are cold and that the ball just passes through the ring. They are
+asked to compare the size of the ball with that of the ring.
+
+2. The spirit-lamp is lighted and examined. Pupils hold their hands over
+the flame to note the heat.
+
+3. The ball is heated in the flame for a short time by one of the
+pupils, and felt cautiously. An attempt is made to pass it through the
+ring. How has the ball changed in feeling? In size? How does one know it
+is larger? What has caused these changes?
+
+4. Cool the ball. Feel it. Try to pass it through the ring now. How has
+it changed in feeling? In size? What caused these changes? How does heat
+affect the ball? How does cold affect it?
+
+The teacher may now give the words _expand_ and _contract_, writing them
+on the black-board and explaining their use. Pupils may then state their
+conclusions: _A brass ball expands when heated and contracts when
+cooled._
+
+A blacksmith can make the following very serviceable apparatus: A scrap
+of iron about eleven inches long, one inch wide, and one-eighth inch
+thick, has one inch bent up at each end. A rod one-eighth inch in
+diameter is made just long enough to pass between the upturned ends of
+the first piece when both are cold. The rod is heated and the experiment
+conducted as in the case of the ball. Two additional facts are learned:
+(1) Iron expands as well as brass; (2) solids expand in length as well
+as in volume. The pupils may now be told that other solids have been
+tried and expansion has invariably followed heating. The conclusion may
+then be made general.
+
+PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
+
+1. When your ink-bottle was placed on the stove, which end became
+warmer? Which expanded the more. Why then did it crack?
+
+2. What other examples like this have you noticed? (Lamp chimneys, fruit
+jars, stove plates)
+
+3. The earth was once very hot and is now cooling. How is the size of
+the earth changing? Does it ever crack? What causes earthquakes?
+
+4. Find out by observation how a blacksmith sets tires.
+
+5. Invent a way to loosen a glass stopper stuck in the neck of a bottle.
+
+6. What does your mother do if the metal rim refuses to come off the
+fruit jar?
+
+7. Next time you cross a railway, notice whether the ends of the rails
+touch. Explain.
+
+8. What allowance is made for contraction in a wire fence? A railway
+bridge? Why?
+
+9. Why do the stove-pipes crack when the fire is first started?
+
+10. Why does the house go "thump" on a very cold night?
+
+11. Draw the ball, ring, and spirit-lamp in position.
+
+12. Describe in writing the experiments we have made.
+
+QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION
+
+You have seen that iron and brass both expand. Do they expand equally?
+Let pupils have a few days to invent a way of answering the question.
+The experiment may then be tried with the compound bar. See _The Ontario
+High School Physics_, pages 217-218, also _First Course in Physics_,
+Milliken and Gale, page 144.
+
+If the equipment of the school is limited, it may be necessary to
+dispense with the ball and ring and generalize from one experiment.
+
+Another easily made apparatus consists of two iron rings with handles.
+One ring will just pass through the other when both are cold. The stove
+may take the place of the spirit-lamp.
+
+A still simpler plan consists in driving two nails into a block at such
+a distance apart that an iron rod (six-inch nail, poker, bolt, etc.)
+will just pass between. On heating the rod the increase in length
+becomes evident.
+
+EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS
+
+Fill a common bottle with coloured water; insert a rubber stopper
+through which passes a glass tube about sixteen inches long. Set the
+bottle in a pan of water and gradually warm the water. The rise of the
+liquid in the tube will indicate expansion. On setting the bottle in
+cold water the fall of the column of coloured water shows contraction.
+See _The Ontario High School Physics_, page 218, also _Science of Common
+Life_, page 48. Macmillan Co., 60 cents.
+
+Set the flask or bottle in a mixture of ice and salt and note that the
+extreme cold causes contraction for a while, then expansion. Note that
+when expansion begins, the water has not begun to freeze, but that it
+does so soon after.
+
+The night before this experiment the children should set out in the cold
+air, tightly corked bottles of water. In the morning they will be found
+burst by the expansion.
+
+APPLICATIONS
+
+1. Why did some of the ink-bottles burst in the cold room?
+
+2. Find large stones split up into two or more fragments. Explain.
+
+3. Why is fall-ploughed land so mellow in spring?
+
+4. Why does ice float? Think what would happen if it did not.
+
+5. Explain the heaving of oats, clover, wheat.
+
+6. Do all liquids expand on freezing? Try melted paraffin.
+
+THE THERMOMETER
+
+Besides the ordinary thermometer the school should possess a chemical
+thermometer graduated from 0° Fahrenheit to 212°.
+
+1. Our sensations vary so much under different circumstances and in
+different individuals that they cannot be depended on. Find examples of
+this and show the need of a measuring instrument.
+
+2. The pupils can learn, by examination of the common wall instrument,
+the parts of the thermometer--tube, bulb, liquid (alcohol or mercury),
+and scale.
+
+3. Repeat the experiment for expansion of liquids, showing wherein the
+apparatus resembles the thermometer, warm the thermometer bulb and watch
+the column rise; cool it and note the fall.
+
+4. Set the bulb of the chemical thermometer in boiling water. The
+mercury comes to rest near 212°. Bury the bulb in melting snow and
+notice that the column falls to 32°. Give names for these points.
+Explain that a degree is one of the 180 equal parts which lie between
+boiling point and freezing-point. Show that 32° below freezing must be
+0°, or zero.
+
+5. The uses of thermometers for indoors and outdoors; for dairy, sick
+room, incubator, and soils; maximum and minimum. Dairy thermometers
+registering 212° Fahrenheit may be obtained; they are cheaper than
+chemical thermometers.
+
+EXPANSION OF AIR
+
+Half fill a flask with water and invert it uncorked over water in a
+plate. Apply a cloth soaked in boiling water to the part that contains
+air. Why does the water leave the flask? Apply cold water. Why does the
+water return? Any ordinary bottle may be used in place of the flask, but
+it is more liable to crack.
+
+Make an air thermometer. See _The Ontario High School Physics_, page
+223, also _Science of Common Life_, page 41. Try to graduate it from the
+mercurial thermometer. Have the boys make a stand for it.
+
+_Inferences._--Heated gases rise because they expand. Hot-air balloons,
+winds, and heating with hot-air furnaces, all depend on this principle.
+
+SOURCES OF HEAT AND LIGHT
+
+NOTES FOR A SERIES OF LESSONS
+
+1. THE SUN.--Our dependence on it. Valuable results of its heat. Simple
+notions as to its size, distance, and nature. Our earth catches a very
+small fraction of the sun's heat; our sun is but one of millions--the
+fixed stars. Show the burning effect of a lens.
+
+2. FUELS.--Wood, oil, coal, alcohol, gas, peat, straw: where obtained;
+special uses of each under varying conditions; need of economy. (This is
+closely related to geography.)
+
+3. ELECTRICITY.--In urban schools use the electric light or some heating
+device for illustration. In rural schools a battery of two or three
+cells (see "Apparatus") will melt a fine strand drawn from a picture
+wire.
+
+Applications: ironing, toasting, cooking; advantages or disadvantages
+compared with gas or wood.
+
+4. FRICTION.--Pupils rub hands together; rub a button on a cloth; saw a
+string across the edge of a board or across the hand; bore a hole
+through a hardwood plank, then feel the auger-bit.
+
+Applications: restoring circulation; "hot-boxes" in machinery;
+lubricants and their uses; lighting matches.
+
+5. POUNDING.--Hammer a nail flat on an anvil or stone; feel it. Bullets
+fired against an iron or stone surface may be picked up very hot. Note
+sparks that can be struck from a stone; percussion caps, flint-lock
+muskets.
+
+6. PRESSURE.--After using a bicycle pump for some time, feel the bottom,
+also the top. If possible, examine an air-compressor and find out the
+means used for cooling the air.
+
+7. SOURCES OF LIGHT.--Sun, moon, oil, tallow, gas, electricity, wax,
+acetylene; advantages of each; relative cost.
+
+PRIMITIVE METHODS OF OBTAINING FIRE: Most savages obtain fire by
+friction; rubbing two pieces of wood together till hot enough to set
+fire to some dry, light material. The natives of Australia placed a flat
+piece of wood on the ground and pressed against this the end of a round
+piece, which they twirled rapidly with their hands till fire was
+produced. The North American Indians did the twirling with their bow
+strings; the Eskimo's plan is somewhat similar. It is impossible to say
+when flint and steel were first used, but we know they continued to be
+the chief means of producing fire till about 1834, when matches were
+invented. Let pupils try to produce fire by these means.
+
+The earliest lamps consisted of shells, skulls of animals, and
+cup-shaped stones filled with fat or fish oils which burned on a wick of
+cloth or the pith of rushes. The Tibetans burn butter, the Eskimos
+whale- or seal-oil, the Arabians palm- or olive-oil. For outdoor
+lighting, torches carried in the hand were used till gas came into
+general use about 1792.
+
+CONDUCTION
+
+Give to four boys strips of copper, aluminium, wood, and glass,
+respectively. They hold these by one end and heat the other end till one
+or more are forced to drop the piece on account of the heat. The boys
+with the metals will soon find them hot throughout, but the other two
+will be able to hold on indefinitely. The teacher gives the terms "good
+conductor" and "poor conductor".
+
+PROBLEMS
+
+1. Are metals generally good conductors? Try with strips of zinc, lead,
+iron, a silver spoon.
+
+2. Are all good conductors equally good? Devise a means of ascertaining.
+See _Science of Common Life_, Chapter VI; also _The Ontario High School
+Physics_, page 274.
+
+3. Is water a good conductor?
+
+Lists of good and poor conductors may then be made, the teacher adding
+to the list. Good: metals; poor: wood, horn, bone, cloth, leather, air,
+water, hair, asbestos, ashes, rock, earth.
+
+PROBLEMS
+
+1. If the interior of the earth is very hot, why do we not feel it?
+
+2. How can the cold snow keep the earth warm?
+
+3. Why does your hand freeze to metals but not to wood?
+
+4. Let the children try to find other instances: wools or furs for
+clothing, fur coats on northern animals, feathers on birds, down quilts,
+tea cosies, sawdust for packing ice, double windows, wooden handles for
+hot irons, asbestos coating for steam pipes.
+
+THE MINERS' SAFETY-LAMP: This is a most important application of
+conduction. Get from the tinsmith a piece of brass gauze six inches
+square. Raise the wick of the spirit-lamp causing it to give a high
+flame and bring the gauze down upon the flame till it touches the wick.
+Note that the flame does not rise above the gauze. Hold a piece of paper
+above the gauze near the flame and note that it does not take fire. Note
+also that the gauze soon becomes hot. The brass wires conduct the heat
+of the flame rapidly away so that there is not heat enough above the
+gauze to cause combustion. Now roll the gauze into a hollow cylinder,
+pin the edges together, insert a cork at each end, and have a short
+candle fastened to the lower one. Try to light the candle with the lamp
+through the gauze. It is not easily done.
+
+The miner carries a lamp made like this, so that if he should be in the
+presence of the explosive gas, "fire damp", it would not explode because
+of the wire gauze shield.
+
+CONVECTION
+
+Water is not a conductor, how then is it heated?
+
+Drop a few pieces of solid colouring matter, (analine blue, blueing, or
+potassium permanganate) into a beaker of cold water. Place the beaker
+over a heater and observe the coloured portion rise.
+
+Wet sawdust will make a good substitute for the colouring matter. A
+sealing jar or even a tin cup will do instead of the beaker. The stove
+or a dish of hot water will take the place of the lamp.
+
+PROBLEMS
+
+1. Using a thermometer, see whether the water at the bottom is warmer
+than that at the top while the beaker is being heated.
+
+2. Heat some oil and pour it over the surface of some cold water. Lower
+a thermometer into this. Does the water at the bottom soon become warm?
+
+3. If your kitchen is provided with a hot-water tank, find out what part
+of the tank first becomes warm after the fire is lighted.
+
+4. In bathing, where do you find the coldest water of a pond or still
+river? See _Science of Common Life_, Chapter VI; also _The Ontario High
+School Physics_, page 280.
+
+CONVECTION IN GASES
+
+A good apparatus may be made by cutting two holes one inch in diameter
+in one side of a chalk box, replace the lid with a piece of glass, place
+a lamp chimney over each hole and a lighted candle under one of the
+chimneys. Hold a piece of smoking touch-paper at each chimney in turn
+and note direction of air current.
+
+APPLICATIONS
+
+1. Winds are caused by the rising of air over heated areas, allowing
+cooler currents to take its place. (Geography)
+
+2. Rooms are ventilated by heating some of the air more than the rest,
+thus producing a current. (Hygiene) Winds are nature's means of
+ventilating the earth.
+
+RADIATION OF HEAT
+
+This should be taken up as an introduction to dew, frost, winds,
+climate, etc.
+
+1. Make an iron ball hot (the end of a poker will answer). Hold the hand
+a few inches below the iron. Does the heat reach the hand by convection?
+By conduction? By means of suitable questions, lead the pupil to see
+that it is not by convection, for the hand is below the hot object while
+heated air rises; it is not by conduction, for air is one of the very
+poorest conductors; moreover, the heat is felt instantly from the poker,
+but it takes an appreciable time for it to come by conduction and
+convection. We say this heat is _radiated_ from the iron. The velocity
+of radiated heat is about 186,000 miles a second.
+
+2. The above experiment may be varied by bringing the hot iron gradually
+toward the bulb of the air thermometer and noting the greatest distance
+at which it will affect the thermometer.
+
+It is by radiation that the sun's heat and light reach us. We get much
+of the heat of stoves, fire-places, and radiators by the same means.
+
+Why does the earth cool off at night? Why does dew form? Why can no dew
+form on a cloudy night? Why is a mountain top or a desert so cold,
+especially at night?
+
+3. Take two tin cans (baking powder boxes will answer) and make holes in
+the lids large enough to admit a thermometer. Blacken one box in the
+flame of an oil lamp. Fill both with boiling water and put in a cool
+place. Test with a thermometer from time to time. Which cools most
+rapidly?
+
+4. Fill the tin cans with cold water, find the temperature, and then
+place them near a hot stove. Which warms faster? Usually dark or rough
+surfaces radiate heat and absorb heat faster than bright or smooth ones.
+An excellent way of testing this is to lay a black cloth and a white one
+side by side on the snow where the sun is shining brightly. The snow
+will melt more rapidly under the black cloth. Painted shingles may be
+substituted for the cloths. Try different colours. The day chosen should
+not be extremely cold.
+
+PROBLEMS
+
+1. Why should we have the outside of a tea-kettle, teapot, or hot-air
+shaft of a bright colour? Why should we have stoves and stove-pipes dull
+black?
+
+2. Why does a coat of snow keep the earth warm?
+
+3. Which is the warmest colour to wear in winter? Does this account for
+the colour of Arctic animals?
+
+4. Which is the coolest colour to wear in the hot sun?
+
+5. Gardeners sometimes strew the ground with coal-dust to help ripen
+their melons. Show the value of this.
+
+6. Suggest a method of protecting a wall from the heat of a stove.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+FORM III
+
+SPRING
+
+
+WINDOW BOXES
+
+Many garden plants should be started in a box of earth in a warm, sunny
+window. In some schools this can be done with a little care in heating
+on cold nights. Small boxes or grape baskets full of rich sandy loam
+with an inch of gravel in the bottom for drainage may be used. Sow the
+seeds in rows or broadcast. To prevent the soil from drying out too
+quickly, cover the box with a pane of glass. When the plants are up,
+give them plenty of light and not too much warmth. On very mild days set
+them in a warm, sheltered place out-of-doors and bring them in again
+early in the evening. This tends to make them hardy. When about three
+inches high, pick the young plants out and set them in other boxes a few
+inches apart. This moving causes the formation of numerous fibrous roots
+and makes stronger plants.
+
+
+WINDOW GARDENS
+
+Window boxes may be used for a whole season on the inside of the
+building in cold weather, and on the outside in warm weather. There is
+almost no limit to the kinds of plants that can be grown in them, but
+they are most suitable for flowers.
+
+Good boxes may be made of dressed lumber so as to fit on the
+window-sill. They should be six inches deep, ten inches wide, and the
+required length. They should have a few small holes in the bottom to
+allow excess water to drain off and should be painted dark green or some
+quiet colour. There should be an inch of gravel in the bottom, some
+rotted sods covering this, and then the box filled with rich sandy loam.
+
+SUITABLE PLANTS
+
+Some flowers suitable for growing in window boxes outside in summer are
+those of drooping habit: lobelia, Kenilworth ivy, verbena, tropeolum,
+petunia, and sweet-alyssum toward the front, and behind, more erect
+plants, such as geranium, heliotrope, begonia, phlox, and nasturtium.
+The box must not be too much crowded.
+
+For inside and in shady situations the following are suitable:
+tradescantia, parlour ivy, moneywort, vinca smilax, climbing fern,
+asparagus fern, dracæna, coleus, centaurea, sword fern, and Boston fern.
+For indoor boxes in winter, the following may be used: abutilon,
+calceolaria, cyclamen, violets, primroses, petunias, geraniums, freesia,
+and such foliage plants as dracæna, cannas, dusty miller, and coleus.
+The following climbing plants may be trained up the window cases:
+asparagus plumosus fern, cobea scandens, smilax, maurandia, and English
+ivy. If drooping or trailing plants are desired, the following may be
+used: oxalis, sweet-alyssum, lobelia, ivy, geranium, Kenilworth ivy, and
+Wandering Jew.
+
+FERTILIZER
+
+As the amount of soil is limited and the number of plants that it has to
+support is great, the soil should be made quite rich and should be
+further fertilized from time to time with a little liquid manure. This
+can be best obtained by taking a strong barrel or large keg and filling
+it about half full of water. Then fill an ordinary coarse potato sack
+with cow-stable manure and set the sack in the barrel for a few days. A
+tap in the bottom of the barrel is most convenient for drawing off the
+liquid manure. A little of this will also be found valuable for watering
+dahlias, roses, and other garden plants during the summer.
+
+
+SOIL STUDIES
+
+The classes of soil should be reviewed. Pupils should gather examples
+from many places. The samples may be kept in bottles of uniform size and
+should include not only the four types but varieties of each, also
+various kinds of loam.
+
+EXERCISES AND EXPERIMENTS
+
+SOIL CONSTITUENTS
+
+1. With a sharp spade, cut a piece about twelve inches deep from (1) the
+forest floor, (2) an old pasture field. Note character and order of the
+layers of soil in (1) leaves, humus, loam, sand, or clay; in (2) grass,
+dead grass, humus, loam, sand, or clay. Observe soils shown in railway
+cuttings, freshly dug wells, post holes.
+
+2. Note the effect produced on the soil of a field by (1) leaving it a
+few years in pasture, (2) ploughing in heavy crops, (3) applying
+barn-yard manure. In all these cases vegetable matter is mixed with the
+soil.
+
+3. Dry some good leaf-mould. Throw a handful on the surface of some
+water. The mineral matter sinks, while the vegetable portion remains
+suspended for some time. Try this experiment with gravel, sand, and
+clay. Note that the gravel sinks rapidly, the sand less rapidly, and
+that the clay takes a long time to settle. If the water be kept in rapid
+motion, the finer soils will all remain suspended till motion becomes
+slower. Apply this in geography. The bed of a stream will consist of
+stones if it be swift, of sand if less swift, and of clay if very slow.
+How are alluvial plains formed?
+
+4. Place half an ounce of dry humus on an iron plate or fire-shovel and
+heat strongly in a stove. Note that it begins to smoke and a large part
+smoulders away to ashes; the mineral portion remains. Weigh the part
+left and find what fraction of the humus consisted of vegetable
+material.
+
+Try to find the proportion of vegetable matter in each of the following:
+loams from various sources, sand, clay, gravel. The last three will show
+scarcely any change. This experiment will give rise to some good
+arithmetical problems in fractions.
+
+WATER IN SOILS
+
+5. Compare a handful of fresh garden soil with the same soil dried. Note
+the glistening of the fresh soil, also its weight and darker colour. The
+fresh soil admits of packing though no water can be squeezed from it. In
+its best condition, the water of the soil adheres as a film of moisture
+about every particle. Free water is to be avoided since it excludes the
+air from the soil.
+
+6. Equal weights of soils of different kinds and degrees of fineness are
+placed in funnels or in inverted bottles with bottoms removed. Water is
+then slowly added to each until it begins to drop from the lower end.
+From this is seen (1) the great value of humus as a water holder, (2)
+the advantage of fine soil over coarse. For retention of water by
+absorption, consult _Nature Study and Life_, Hodge, page 382.
+
+7. Take two wooden boxes (chalk boxes will do), fill one box with moist
+sand and the other with moist leaf-mould. Weigh the boxes separately and
+leave them for three or four days in a warm room. Weigh again and note
+decrease from evaporation. The sand dries out much faster than the
+humus. Test with clay, gravel, and loam, also with mixtures of these and
+leaf-mould.
+
+8. Take three paint cans; punch holes in the bottoms. Fill each with
+good soil well shaken down. Stand the cans in water till the tops are
+moist, then place them in a warm, dry place. Loosen the soil on the top
+of No. 1 to a depth of one inch; on No. 2 to a depth of two inches;
+leave No. 3 untouched. Find out after a few days which is drying out
+fastest. How may soil be treated so as to lessen evaporation of water?
+
+DRAINAGE
+
+9. Gravel and sand allow water to run away rapidly, but where the soil
+is fine or closely packed as in clay soils, under-drains are necessary
+(1) to carry off the surplus water, (2) to allow air to enter the soil,
+(3) to warm the soil (wet soil is colder than dry).
+
+Take two equal-sized tin cans, make several holes in the bottom of one,
+place therein a layer of broken pottery or stones, and fill with good
+soil. Fill the other with similar soil but make no holes for drainage.
+Plant in each can a healthy plant of the same size and kind. Water both
+till the soil is saturated and continue watering every two or three
+days for six weeks. Note (1) the progress of the plants, (2) the
+temperature of the soils, (3) which plant has the largest and deepest
+roots. (See _Bulletin 174_, Ontario Department of Agriculture.)
+
+10. Take five equal-sized boxes, provide for drainage, and fill No. 1
+with wood, earth, or humus, No. 2 with clay, No. 3 with sand, No. 4 with
+a mixture of clay and humus, No. 5 with a mixture of sand and humus.
+Plant corn in each box, set in a warm room, and keep watered for two or
+three weeks. Note in which case growth is most rapid. Set boxes in a dry
+place and cease watering. Which suffers most from the drought? Which
+bakes hardest in the sun? Test the temperature of each after watering
+and standing in the sun for an hour. Sand is warmer than clay, also the
+presence of humus raises the temperature. This item is important, since
+most seeds decay instead of sprouting if the temperature is below 45°
+Fahrenheit.
+
+11. Enumerate the services rendered to the soil by humus.
+
+12. In Experiment 10, let the corn grow for some time and determine
+whether the very rich humus is the best in the end. Sand and clay are
+almost altogether mineral; leaf-mould almost entirely organic; neither
+alone is good, but a mixture gives the best results.
+
+
+GARDEN WORK
+
+The boys of this Form should attend to the fertilizing and spading of
+the plots belonging to the girls of their Form. The girls themselves can
+do all the rest of the work, and they should try to keep the plots
+level, uniform in size, and in a straight line. If the corner posts are
+kept in line and the plots made up the exact size, the appearance of
+the garden will be greatly improved.
+
+The pupils are now old enough to make their own choice of flowers and
+vegetables. Very tall growing plants, such as corn and sunflowers, are
+not desirable in individual plots as they shade other plants near them.
+Corn is best grown in a large plot about twenty feet square. The same
+may be said of vines, such as cucumbers, melons, squash, etc. If the
+plots are small, it is better to plant but a single variety, but in
+large plots from two to four varieties may be arranged to advantage.
+Usually rows of vegetables, such as carrots and beets, may be placed a
+foot apart, cabbage about twice that distance, and tomatoes a little
+farther apart than cabbage.
+
+Generally speaking, plants should be placed so that when full grown they
+will just touch, cover the ground completely, and thus prevent the
+growth of weeds.
+
+As soon as the young plants appear above the ground, light cultivation
+with rakes and claw-hand weeders should be started, so as to keep weeds
+from growing and at the same time to provide a loose surface or earth
+mulch for conserving the moisture and aerating the soil. Thinning should
+also be begun when the plants are quite small, but it should not all be
+done at once. As the plants increase in size, the best ones should be
+left and the poor ones taken out. In some cases plants thus removed may
+be re-set to fill vacant places.
+
+TREE SEEDS
+
+Tree seeds that have been stored over winter should now be planted in
+rows in a small plot. The rows should be a foot apart and the seeds
+quite close together in the row. A cheese-cloth or slat shade should be
+used on this plot, as the hot sun is too strong for tree seedlings when
+they first come up. They should have cultivation every week and watering
+in dry weather. Always water in the evening after school, or even later
+when possible.
+
+TRANSPLANTING
+
+Pupils in this Form should have practice in transplanting, as well as in
+sowing seed. For this purpose seeds should be started about the first of
+April in hotbeds or window boxes, seedlings transplanted into cold
+frames when two or three inches high, and then set out in the garden in
+the latter part of May when danger of frost is past.
+
+TRANSPLANTING FLOWERS AND VEGETABLES
+
+Choose, if possible, a cool cloudy day. Water the plants thoroughly in
+the hotbed or cold frame a few hours before lifting them. Lift them with
+a trowel or small spade, and keep as much earth on their roots as
+possible. With a transplanting trowel, make holes deep enough so that
+the plant will be a little deeper in the soil than before transplanting.
+Unless the soil is moist, a little water put in the hole with the plant
+is beneficial. The evening is considered best for transplanting if the
+weather is clear. If the sun is very hot, the plants should be shaded
+for a few days until the roots become established and begin their work.
+Shingles slanting over the plants from the south side and driven into
+the ground to hold them in position are best. Papers held by means of
+two stones also give good results. The practice of covering them with
+inverted cans is not a good one, as the light is almost completely cut
+off. A few holes in the can would help considerably. Care must be taken
+to pack the earth firmly about the roots. Watering again twenty-four
+hours after transplanting is often necessary. If the plant has a leafy
+top, it is best to take off some of the leaves, as they tend to give off
+water more rapidly than the roots can at first take it in.
+
+TRANSPLANTING TREE SEEDLINGS
+
+Nuts and other tree seeds collected the previous autumn should now be
+planted in the forestry plots in rows a foot apart. As the seeds may not
+all grow, they may be planted close together in the row and thinned out
+the following spring if necessary. They need some shelter from the sun
+the first summer. In large plots this is provided by means of a slat
+covering, but in a small plot cheese-cloth tacked on strips and fastened
+on corner posts is satisfactory. When a shower comes, this cheese-cloth
+screen should be removed so that the rain may moisten the plot evenly.
+Seedlings may be transplanted from the woods or from the forestry rows
+before the leaves open out.
+
+BUDDING
+
+In budding, a slit like the letter T is made in the side of the young
+seedling close to the ground. The bark is raised a little at the point
+where the vertical slit meets the horizontal one, and a bud of desired
+variety with a shield-shaped bit of bark (and perhaps a little wood)
+attached to it is shoved in and the sides of the slit bound down upon
+it. After the bud, or scion, has started to grow, the stock is cut off
+an inch above the point where the bud was inserted. The bud then makes
+rapid growth, and in two years the resulting tree is large enough to set
+in its permanent place in the orchard.
+
+CUTTINGS
+
+Pupils in this Form should try to grow such woody plants as roses and
+grapes from cuttings. Roses are frequently propagated by budding, as in
+the case of apples and peaches. They may also be grown upon their own
+roots or from stem cuttings. Such cuttings should be from well-matured
+wood of the present year taken in the autumn and packed in moist sand
+over the winter. Make the cuttings about three inches in length. The top
+end should be cut off immediately above a bud and the bottom end just
+below a bud, as roots seem to start more readily from a node, or bud.
+Such a cutting may have three or four buds of which only the upper two
+need be left. If both of these grow, the poorer one may afterwards be
+removed.
+
+These rose cuttings should then be inserted in a box of clean, moist
+sand to a depth of two inches, kept in a warm room, and shaded with a
+sheet of newspaper when the sun is very bright. Keep the sand moist but
+not wet, and when possible have gentle bottom heat. When roots have made
+some growth, transplant carefully into small flower-pots, using fairly
+rich, clay loam. In a few weeks they will be ready to plant out in the
+garden.
+
+Grape cuttings should be taken late in the fall when the vines are well
+matured. Such a cutting includes only two joints, the upper one being
+the growing end and the lower the rooting end. They must be stored over
+winter in cold, moist sand, but should not be permitted to freeze. As
+soon as the ground can be prepared in the spring, set them out. They
+should be placed on a slant of about forty-five degrees and covered all
+but the top bud.
+
+LEAF CUTTINGS
+
+Some plants with large and vigorous leaves, such as many of the
+begonias, may be propagated by means of leaf cuttings. Buds readily
+develop from cuts made in the large veins. Take a full-grown healthy
+leaf and remove the stem all but about half an inch. Make a few cuts
+across the larger veins on the under side of the leaves at points where
+main veins branch. Press the leaf firmly down on the top of a box of
+moist sand with the under side next the sand. Keep the leaf in this
+position, using small stones or little pegs pushed through the leaf into
+the sand. Put the box in a warm room and do not let the sand become dry.
+When roots strike into the sand and buds develop from the points where
+the veins were wounded, take a sharp knife and cut out the new plant
+from the old leaf and transplant it into a small flower-pot in good
+soil. Sink the pot in a box of moist sand to prevent its drying out.
+
+ROOT CUTTINGS
+
+Such plants as "sprout from the roots" may be propagated by root
+cuttings. Sections of underground stems may also come under this
+heading, as in the case of horseradish cuttings. But real roots may be
+used for cuttings, as in the case of the blackberry and raspberry. The
+roots should be cut in pieces three or four inches long, planted in a
+horizontal position, and entirely covered with two or three inches of
+soil.
+
+LAYERING
+
+Bush fruits, such as currants and gooseberries, are frequently
+propagated by stem cuttings, as in the case of roses. Another method,
+which is known as layering, consists in bending one or more of the
+lowest branches down against the ground, fastening it there by means of
+a forked stick, and then covering it with two or three inches of earth.
+The part in contact with the moist earth will send out roots, while one
+or more shoots will come up. When roots and shoots have developed, the
+branch is severed from the parent bush and the new plant set in its
+permanent place. Strawberries exhibit a sort of natural layering.
+
+PLANTING AND CARE OF HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS
+
+Perennials grown from seed the previous summer should now be set in
+clumps two or three feet apart in the perennial border or here and there
+beside the fences or walks. The soil should be made fine and fertilized
+with well-rotted manure from the compost heap before setting out the
+young perennials. Dahlias and gladioli which were taken in in the autumn
+should now be set out. The dahlias should be divided and only the best
+roots used. Other perennials that have grown into large clumps should be
+dug up, divided, and re-set in well-fertilized soil.
+
+GARDEN STUDIES
+
+Pupils in this Form have now had enough experience in the growing of
+vegetables and flowers to allow them to make intelligent variety tests.
+They should grow some of the less familiar varieties and report on the
+merits of each variety tested. This, however, should not be carried on
+to the exclusion of the well-known standard varieties. Let the pupils
+consult the best seed catalogues available and choose for themselves
+some varieties not already known to them. They should keep a systematic
+record of all varieties grown and the methods used in cultivating,
+fertilizing, etc. The knowledge thus gained will be of value in after
+years, and the homes will also benefit by it.
+
+BIENNIALS
+
+The pupils should observe the second year's growth of biennials. A
+special plot in the school garden should be set apart for this purpose.
+Have them plant in it a turnip, a carrot, a beet, a cabbage, or any
+other garden biennial saved over winter for the purpose. If desired, the
+pupils might grow their own seed of these varieties. Notice (1) what
+part of the plant has become enlarged with stored up food and how big it
+is when planted, (2) how this part changes in size and texture as the
+flowers and seeds develop, (3) in what way this extra food seems to have
+been used.
+
+
+WILD FLOWERS
+
+STUDY OF THE TRILLIUM
+
+The pupils bring the plants for the lesson. There should be a few purple
+trilliums among the white, and some of the plants should have the
+underground parts intact.
+
+Discuss with the collectors their observations on where the trilliums
+grow, the kind of soil, the depth of the root-stocks below the surface,
+the uses of the root-stocks, insect visitors.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+The pupils are directed to examine the plant and flowers and find out
+all the means for attracting insects.
+
+Find out why the purple trillium attracts flies and beetles, while the
+white trillium attracts bees and butterflies.
+
+Look into the top of the flower; what figure do the tips of the six
+flower leaves form?
+
+Using the names calyx and corolla, describe the circle of flower leaves
+as to number, colour, and relative position.
+
+Find the stamens and describe as to number and position; find out how
+the stamens are fitted to ensure that the pollen will get upon the
+visiting insects.
+
+Find the pistil and describe its shape. How is the stigma fitted for
+receiving the pollen that is carried by the insect visitors.
+
+_To the teacher._--The trilliums attract insects by their large white
+and purple flowers, which are held up by their long stalks high above
+the three broad leaves. The strong carrion-like odour of the purple
+trillium is attractive to flies and beetles, while bees and butterflies
+find the fragrance of the white trillium more to their liking.
+
+The root-stock serves as a buried store of food to tide the plant over
+the drought of late summer and the severe cold of winter. The
+well-stocked cellar also explains the flourishing condition of the plant
+in early spring. The six stamens stand on close guard around the pistil,
+and insects forcing their way to the nectaries are well peppered with
+pollen.
+
+Continue the observation work by means of field exercises such as the
+following:
+
+What change takes place in the colour of the white trillium as it grows
+old?
+
+Find the ripened seed pods of the trillium, open them, count the number
+of chambers, and examine the seeds.
+
+Do trilliums grow from the same root-stock year after year?
+
+As correlations, represent the trillium in colour and design an
+embroidery pattern based on it.
+
+Lessons similar to that on the trillium may be based on adder's tongue,
+Indian turnip, Dutchman's breeches, violet, and clover.
+
+
+ADAPTATIONS OF ANIMALS
+
+It is not considered necessary to go outside the list of ordinary
+animals to find sufficient illustrations of adaptations, and it is
+recommended that attention be given to these during the study of animals
+prescribed for the regular Course. This may be supplemented by an
+occasional review of adaptive features for the purpose of emphasizing
+the general fitness of animals for their varied habits and surroundings.
+Care must be taken lest the attempt to explain structures by adaptation
+be carried to an extreme, for it is impossible to account for all the
+variations in animal forms.
+
+The following list contains a few of the many examples of adaptations to
+be met with in the Course prescribed for Forms II and III.
+
+The horse walks and runs on the tips of its toes; this gives greater
+speed.
+
+Wild animals of the cow and deer kind can swallow their food hastily so
+that they may retire to a safe retreat; there they regurgitate the food
+and chew it. The domesticated animal retains this habit, though there is
+no longer a need for it.
+
+The wood-hare's fur is brown in summer, hence its enemies cannot see it
+against the brown grass and moss; in winter its colour is white, which,
+against the snow, is a protective colour.
+
+The porcupine is very slow, but its colour and shape make it almost
+impossible to distinguish from a knot on a log. Its quills form an
+effective protection when it is discovered.
+
+The feet of the squirrel are adapted for climbing and its teeth for
+gnawing wood and for opening nuts. The tail serves as a balancing pole
+for leaping from tree to tree and in winter it acts as a protection from
+cold.
+
+The earthworm's shape and movements are suited to its habits of
+burrowing through the soil. Its habits of swallowing the soil fit it for
+burrowing and for obtaining its food at the same time.
+
+Many insect larvæ, as the tomato worm and the cabbage-worm, are of the
+same colour as the plants on which they feed, and this enables them to
+escape detection by birds.
+
+The larvæ of dragon-flies and May-flies breathe in water by means of
+gills very much as fishes do, but the adult forms are suited for
+breathing in air.
+
+Female birds are usually dull gray or mottled, so that their colours
+blend with their surroundings while they are nesting, and hence they do
+not attract the notice of their enemies.
+
+Birds that swim have webbed feet, which act as oars for pushing them
+through the water. Their feathers are compact and soft for warmth, and
+these properties, together with oil on their surfaces, make them
+waterproof.
+
+The tongue of the woodpecker is long, spear-shaped, and sticky; hence it
+is adapted for catching insects in the holes pecked into the wood.
+
+The tongue of the toad is fastened at the front end, so that a flap can
+be shot out for more than an inch in front of the animal, thus enabling
+it to catch insects on its sticky surface.
+
+The toes of the frog are webbed to make them more serviceable in
+swimming.
+
+The tail of the musk-rat is strong and broad like the blade of an oar
+and serves the same purpose as an oar.
+
+The tail of the fish is more serviceable for swimming than legs would
+be.
+
+
+BIRD TYPES
+
+WOODPECKERS
+
+Woodpeckers are easily distinguished from other birds by their habit of
+perching in a vertical position on the trunks of trees with the tips of
+their tails pressed against the bark. While in this position, they tap
+upon the tree with their sharp, pointed beaks.
+
+THE DOWNY WOODPECKER
+
+Learn to recognize the smallest of our woodpeckers, the Downy. Winter or
+summer it may be found among the apple trees and shade trees, a tiny
+black and white bird little bigger than a wren.
+
+OBSERVATIONS
+
+I
+
+Why is "checkerboard" a good name for this bird?
+
+Are there any distinct lines of white?
+
+Are there any patches of red?
+
+Do its movements reveal energy or listlessness?
+
+How does it move up a tree trunk?
+
+How does it move down a tree trunk?
+
+Find out how it can hold so firmly to the trunk.
+
+Does it use its sharp beak as a drill or as a pick?
+
+_To the teacher._--The downy is spotted black and white, with barred
+wings and a white line down the centre of the back. A bright scarlet
+crown is the colour distinction of the male. This little bird is the
+embodiment of energy and perseverance. It hops nimbly up the trunk,
+tapping here and there with its beak, and then listening for the
+movements of the disturbed wood-borers. If it wishes to descend, it
+wastes no time in turning around, but hops backward down the trunk, or
+jumps off and flies down.
+
+II
+
+Examine an apple tree upon which a downy has been at work and find out
+what it was doing there.
+
+Do you find the birds in pairs during winter? During summer? Distinguish
+the male from the female.
+
+Tie a beef bone with scraps of meat adhering to it to a tree. What birds
+come to it?
+
+Find the nest of the downy and describe the nest and the eggs.
+
+Do the holes made by the downy injure the trees?
+
+Why should the downy be welcomed in our orchards?
+
+Describe the sounds made by the birds.
+
+_To the teacher._--Discuss the pupils' answers to the above problems in
+the class lesson, using a picture of a woodpecker to illustrate the
+features of the bird that adapt it for its habits. Examples: the
+straight, sharp beak suited for drilling; the two backward, projecting
+toes for perching; the spines on the tips of the tail feathers to act as
+a prop.
+
+The downy woodpecker is very useful in the orchard, because it destroys
+great numbers of larvæ of the tussock-moth and other insects. The holes
+made in the bark have never been found to injure the trees. The nest is
+made in a hollow tree, the entrance to it being almost perfectly round
+and about one and one-quarter inches in diameter.
+
+The downy woodpecker has a very unmusical voice, but fortunately he is
+aware of this deficiency, and his only attempt at music is drumming with
+his beak upon a hollow limb or tree.
+
+The hairy woodpecker, redheaded woodpecker, flicker, and yellow-bellied
+woodpecker (sapsucker) are other varieties which visit the orchards and
+are suitable for lessons similar to these on the downy woodpecker. They
+are all beneficial birds.
+
+FLYCATCHERS
+
+Members common to this class are: king-bird; house-phoebe, wood-phoebe,
+or pewee; whip-poor-will; least fly-catcher; giant fly-catcher.
+
+Direct the observations of the pupils to the following type features:
+
+Brownish or grayish colours; fringe of long bristles around the mouth
+(explain their use); whistling notes, varying with the different members
+of the family; habit of jumping from the perch, catching an insect while
+on the wing, and returning to the spot from which the flight began;
+nests, chiefly of mud built in a protected place, as under a bridge,
+ledge of rock, or projecting log.
+
+WRENS
+
+The house wren may be studied as a type. Observe its brownish colour,
+faintly mottled; its small size and energetic movements, its tail
+turned nearly vertically upward. Observe and report on other wrens,
+noting any differences.
+
+
+CABBAGE-BUTTERFLY
+
+Have a plant of wild mustard or a cabbage growing in a pot. In June,
+have the pupils, by means of the insect net, catch a number of the white
+butterflies, the adults of the cabbage-worm.
+
+Place the butterflies in jars or bottles and observe them. Make drawings
+of them.
+
+Direct the attention of the pupils to the difference between the wings
+of the male and those of the female. The former has only one dark spot
+on the front wing, while the female has two spots on this wing.
+
+Release the males and put the females in a vivarium with the potted
+plant. (A pasteboard box, with a large piece cut out and the opening
+covered with gauze, makes a good substitute for a vivarium in this
+case.)
+
+Observe the laying of the eggs. How many are placed at one spot? How are
+the eggs protected? The eggs may be gathered from the cabbage plants in
+the garden.
+
+Observe and record the hatching of the tiny worm, its feeding, growth,
+forming of chrysalis, development into adult.
+
+Frequently little yellow silken cocoons are found in vivaria where
+cabbage-worms are kept; these are cocoons of a parasite (braconid) that
+infests the worm.
+
+Because of the ease with which the cabbage-butterfly may be obtained and
+the rapidity of its development in the various stages, it is very
+suitable as a type for the study of metamorphosis.
+
+The sulphur, or puddler (called by the latter name because of its habit
+of settling in groups around the edges of the water holes), is also a
+suitable type. The larvæ in this case must be fed on clover.
+
+THE TUSSOCK-MOTH
+
+Begin the study of this insect in June and July by observing the larvæ
+feeding on the foliage of the horse-chestnut and other shade trees, and
+direct attention to their destructiveness.
+
+In observing the larvæ, note the size, movements, legs, colour, coral
+red head, tufts of hair on the back, and the three long plumes.
+
+Watch the birds among the trees to discover whether they eat the larvæ.
+
+Of what use are the tufts of hair? Do the larvæ feed by biting or by
+sucking? Describe the damage done by the larvæ.
+
+Collect a number of these larvæ and place them in the vivarium with some
+twigs of horse-chestnut. Observe the spinning of the cocoon and, about
+two weeks later, look for the emergence of the adult moths.
+
+Observe the two kinds of insects. Describe each. Are there any
+differences in the cocoons from which they emerge?
+
+Which form of insect places the egg mass and is therefore the female?
+Note the number and shape of the eggs and how they are protected.
+
+The female moths have no wings and do not move far from the cocoons from
+which they emerge, while the males have the power of flight.
+
+As outdoor work, look for the egg masses on trees and fences and devise
+means of combating the tussock-moth.
+
+Gathering and destroying the egg masses during the winter is found to be
+fairly effective in checking these insects. Since the cocoons
+frequently contain parasites that prey upon the larvæ, it is advisable
+that only the cocoons that have egg masses attached to them should be
+destroyed; the others are harmless and may contain the useful parasites.
+
+The egg masses may be kept over winter in a box in a cool place, and the
+hatching of the tiny larvæ and their subsequent rapid growth observed.
+
+POTATO BEETLE
+
+The eggs of this beetle may be found in early summer in clusters on the
+under surfaces of the leaves of potato plants.
+
+EGG.--Observe the size, colour, shape, position, and number in a
+cluster; appearance of head from outer end after a week.
+
+LARVA.--Observe the colour, shape, head, legs, voracious appetite,
+movements, rapid growth, destructiveness.
+
+PUPA.--Observe the larvæ disappear from the plants; a search underground
+reveals the resting stage, or pupæ. After ten days, the adult beetles
+emerge.
+
+ADULT.--Observe the colour, the hard shell covering the head; the hard
+outer wings and membraneous inner wings; the hard shell on the under
+surface of the body; the feelers, and legs.
+
+Why will spraying with a poison, such as paris-green, kill these
+insects?
+
+REFERENCES
+
+Dearness: _How to Teach the Nature Study Course Stories in Agriculture,
+Bulletin No. 124._
+
+
+FISH
+
+The Nature Study lessons must be based upon observations of the living
+fish, preferably in May or June, September or October. The best place
+for this is on the bank of a clear stream from which it is possible to
+observe the fish in their natural environment. Here their life
+activities, their struggles, their conquests, and silent tragedies are
+enacted before the eyes of the observer. Many observations may be made
+in this way which will create a life-long interest in these reticent,
+yet active creatures. Since this method of study is practicable in but
+few cases, the study of the living fish in the aquarium is the best
+available substitute.
+
+The teacher or the boys of the class can catch a few fish of three or
+four inches in length and carry them in a jar of water to the aquarium.
+Minnows, chub, perch, catfish, or other common forms will do.
+
+OBSERVATIONS
+
+I
+
+The general shape, and the suitability of the shape for swimming.
+
+The surface of the body and the protection it affords. Note the scales
+and the slime, the latter a protection against the growth of fungi, etc.
+
+The gills--two openings behind the flaps at the rear of the head. The
+colours, and their value in concealing the fish. The dark upper surface
+makes it inconspicuous from above; the light under surface blends with
+the shadow and dims it.
+
+The divisions of the body--head, trunk, and tail.
+
+Movements of the fish and the part that the various fins play in these
+movements.
+
+Note that the broad tail fin is the most useful fin for locomotion, the
+others act as balancers or as brakes, or for causing currents of water
+near the gills. Observe the movements of the pair of fins nearest the
+gills, the movements of the mouth, and the currents of water entering
+the mouth and passing through the gill slits. When a fish is kept in a
+very small quantity of water, observe the effect produced on the
+movements of the mouth and gill flaps. What are the uses of these
+movements? The pupils will thus discover the nature of the respiration
+of the fish. Why do fish die if many are kept in a jar of water?
+
+II
+
+By supplying various foods learn what kinds are preferred. Find in the
+actions or habits of the living fish evidences of a sense of smell, of
+sight, of hearing, and of taste.
+
+Nearly all the following points of detailed study can be observed from
+the living fish: shape; size; tongue; teeth; gill slits leading from the
+mouth to the gills; nostrils, number and position; eyes, absence of
+eyelids; fins, size, build; the arrangement of the scales.
+
+PROBLEMS
+
+Why does the fish require a large mouth?
+
+How are the eyes protected? Compare the shape of the eye with the shape
+of the eye of a land animal.
+
+Why are there no openings from the surface directly into the ears? Show
+the suitability of the fins as organs of locomotion in water.
+
+REFERENCES
+
+Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_
+
+Nash: _Fishes of Ontario_ (from Department of Education, free)
+
+Kellogg: _Elementary Zoology_
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+FORM IV
+
+AUTUMN
+
+
+GARDEN WORK
+
+The regular work of cultivation of garden and experimental plots should
+be carefully attended to. Pupils in this Form should be able to do all
+kinds of garden work with a good deal of proficiency. The work of
+selecting the best flowers for seed production should be continued.
+These should be used for planting in the school garden and in home
+gardens as well. This part of the work might be left to the girls. The
+boys should be encouraged to take up the systematic selection of seed
+grain. To get good seed to start with, two methods may be used:
+
+1. Decide upon the kind of grain to be selected and choose from one of
+the best fields a hundred of the best heads--those that are vigorous,
+clean, free from rust or smut, and standing up straight. When the heads
+are dried a little, shell the grain off them and preserve it in a jar in
+a cold, dry place until spring.
+
+2. Take a quart of oats and pick it carefully, keeping only the largest
+and most plump kernels. Keep this for spring planting. At the same time,
+a sample of the poorer grains should be kept for comparison. A regular
+system of selection should be followed from year to year, taking enough
+of the largest, brightest, and most compact heads from the plot each
+autumn to sow a plot of equal size the next spring. After the selection
+of heads has been made, the remainder of the crop may be harvested, and
+the grain from this known as general crop from hand-selected seed of the
+first, second, third year, etc. If the value per acre is required, the
+plots should be made of a certain size easy to compute, such as one rod
+square or one rod by two rods. (10-1/2 ft. by 21 ft. is about 1/200
+acre.) Samples of each crop should be kept in uniform bottles and
+labelled; for example--"From selected heads of 1911". The yield per acre
+in the plot from which the selected heads came should also be noted.
+These will be interesting for purposes of comparison and for testing
+duration of vitality later. If the same amount of grain is used in
+planting a plot each time, the change in bushels per acre may be
+ascertained and also in pounds per bushel. Some of the boys in this Form
+may wish to continue this work of improvement by selection and, if so,
+they should communicate with the Secretary of the Canadian Seed Growers'
+Association, Canadian Building, Ottawa, and receive full instructions to
+enable them to carry on their work practically as well as
+scientifically.
+
+HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS FROM SEED
+
+The teacher should encourage the growing of herbaceous perennials for
+the purpose of beautifying the school grounds. Many plants may be
+started from seed at the school and given to the pupils for home
+planting. These plants require but little attention and provide
+excellent bloom in gardens and home grounds from early in spring before
+annuals are in bloom, on into the autumn. A list of the best varieties
+will be found in Circular 13, on _Elementary Agriculture and
+Horticulture_, a copy of which should be in every school. The seed plot
+should be fertilized and prepared in the usual way, and the seeds
+planted before the first of September. They may be started in June also,
+in which case they make more growth before winter. The plot should be
+well fertilized with thoroughly rotted manure and, if the soil is very
+dry, the plot should be well watered the day before the seeds are
+planted. The seeds are usually quite small and should be covered very
+lightly. The plot should be protected from the hot sun by means of
+cheese-cloth tacked on a frame. The plants should be watered twice a
+week in dry weather. In the late autumn, when the ground freezes, the
+plot should be covered with leaves or straw and some boards, which
+should be removed when the frost comes out in the spring.
+
+
+DECIDUOUS TREES
+
+Before the pupils of this Form leave school they should be able to
+recognize, by name as well as by sight, all of the species of trees
+found in their vicinity. To this end the teacher should help them to
+prepare an inventory of species of trees, shrubs, and vines of the
+vicinity. They should learn to distinguish the different species of
+maples, elms, birches, etc. A named collection of leaves helps
+materially in doing this. The influence of environment upon the growth
+and shape of trees and how trees adapt themselves to the conditions in
+which they live is a most interesting and profitable study, demanding
+careful observation, reflection, and judgment.
+
+REFERENCES
+
+Muldrew: _Sylvan Ontario._ Briggs.
+
+Keeler: _Our Native Trees._ Scribners' Sons. $2.00.
+
+TREES IN RELATION TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT
+
+Consider the influences at work and their effect under the following
+heads:
+
+1. CHARACTER OF THE SOIL AND SUBSOIL.--It may be gravelly, pure sand,
+sandy loam, clay or clay loam, muck or humus, shallow or rocky, and the
+subsoil may be sand, clay or hard clay with stones (hard-pan). Notice
+what species are most common in each kind of soil.
+
+2. WATER SUPPLY.--What species are found naturally in moist ravines or
+along the margins of rivers and lakes, in bogs or swamps, on dry, sandy
+plains, or rocky hillsides. Consider also the rainfall.
+
+3. EXPOSURE TO SUNLIGHT.--Account for the lack of symmetry in the shapes
+of trees. Branches grow only where their leaves can get the light.
+Account for the pith in many tree stems not being in the geometric
+centre. Account for the rapid growth in height made by young trees in
+the woods. Their light supply is chiefly from above, and they stretch up
+toward it as rapidly as possible. Dim light causes rapid growth at the
+expense, however, of strength of tissue, but as these young trees are
+protected in the woods from the strain of wind storms, their slimness
+and lack of toughness is a benefit rather than a hindrance to them.
+Also, the limbs near the ground die off while the trees are still young
+and small, giving us the clear timber tree, free from large knots, tall
+and straight. Make further application of this principle of light in
+relation to the planting of trees for shade and for wood or lumber.
+Account for the large size of the leaves of young trees in the dimly
+lighted woods as compared with the leaves of older trees. The principle
+of rapid growth in dim light is seen here also. It will be noticed that
+the large leaves of the young trees are more thin, soft, and flexible.
+
+4. WIND.--Observe the tops of tall trees that have always been exposed
+to a strong prevailing wind as, for instance, those growing on the tops
+of hills or the eastern shore of a lake which has a prevailing west
+wind. The tops lean in the direction in which the prevailing wind blows.
+Does strong wind help or hinder the growth of a tree? Examples of
+stunted trees on wind swept hills or shores readily show this. It will
+be seen also that the higher branches are poorest on the side most
+exposed to the wind.
+
+5. SUITABILITY OF THE SPECIES TO THE CLIMATE.--Observe that some trees
+retain their leaves much later in the autumn than do others. The beech,
+hickory, red oak, and chestnut are good examples. These are on the
+northern extreme of their territory of growth. The tree best suited to a
+rigorous climate is the one that finishes its work early in the autumn
+and has all its tissues well matured before cold weather sets in.
+Examples: maple, elm, birch, and willow.
+
+
+FRUITS
+
+EXCURSION TO A WELL-KEPT ORCHARD
+
+If the teacher can arrange to take the pupils to see a well-kept orchard
+about the time of the apple harvest, it will help to arouse interest in
+the study of fruits. The trees, as well as the fruit, frequently show
+distinguishing marks whereby they may be identified. Have the pupils
+notice the following points: general shape of tree, colour of bark,
+shape of leaf, method of cultivation, fertilizing, pruning and grafting,
+spraying and its need, orchard pests, method of picking and packing
+apples in barrels and boxes for market.
+
+SMALL FRUITS
+
+Study the method of propagating strawberries and such bush fruits as
+currants, gooseberries, raspberries, and blackberries. Reports issued
+from the Fruit Division of the Experimental Farm at Ottawa give
+information regarding the best varieties suitable for different parts of
+Ontario and Quebec. Have the pupils try propagating strawberries by
+taking the stolons or runners; currants and gooseberries, by means of
+layers or stem cuttings; and raspberries or blackberries, by root
+cuttings or the detaching of root shoots or suckers. Stem and root
+cuttings, when taken in the autumn, may be planted at once or may be
+stored in damp moss or sand in a cold cellar over winter. Stem cuttings
+should be about the size and length of a lead-pencil and root cuttings
+about half that size.
+
+
+AUTUMN WILD FLOWERS
+
+Observations made with garden flowers should be supplemented by
+observation lessons on a few selected wild flowers of the woods, fields,
+and roadsides. Although the spring months afford a much greater variety
+of wild flowers than do the autumn months, they do not afford quite as
+good an opportunity for finding and studying them. The woods and fields
+are drier and more easily reached in the autumn and the fall flowers
+last much longer. Some of the species seen blooming in spring and early
+summer are now in fruit and scattering their seed, so that the pupils
+have a chance to follow out the whole life history of a few chosen
+species. The pupils in this Form might select for special study the
+milkweed, worm-seed mustard, wild aster, and goldenrod. These should be
+observed out-of-doors, preferably, but suitable class-room lessons may
+be taught by using similar matter.
+
+MILKWEED
+
+Taking the milkweed as a type, the following points are to be
+considered:
+
+The kind of soil, where found, and whether in sun or shade.
+
+Try to pull up a small-sized plant. Dig one up and notice the
+underground part.
+
+Note the size of the largest plant seen, also the size of the leaves,
+and how they are arranged to prevent overshadowing.
+
+Break off a leaf and note the white sticky juice, whence the name
+"milkweed". Discuss this milk as a protection to the plant.
+
+Note time of first and last flowering of the plant and the colour and
+odour of the flowers. Watch insects gathering honey on a bright day.
+Note the little sacks of pollen that cling to their feet. They sometimes
+get their feet caught in little slits in the flower and perish.
+
+After the flowers disappear, note the forming of the little boat-shaped
+pods in pairs. Select one that is ripe and notice that it bursts along
+one side which is most protected. Open a pod carefully and notice how
+beautifully the flat, brown seeds are arranged in overlapping rows and
+how each seed has a large tuft of silky down that serves to carry it far
+away in the wind. This silk-like down is sometimes used to stuff
+cushions, and because of it the plant is sometimes called silk weed.
+
+One species of butterfly in particular feeds upon this plant--the
+monarch, or milkweed, butterfly. This is one of the few butterflies that
+birds do not eat. It is protected by a distasteful fluid. Look on the
+under side of the leaves of several plants until you find a pretty, pale
+green cocoon with golden dots, hanging by a thread-like attachment.
+Early in the season the larvæ may be found feeding on the leaves.
+
+This plant is troublesome in some fields and gardens and so is classed
+as a weed. When the stems come up in the spring, they are soft and
+tender and are sometimes used as pot herbs.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+Draw a leaf, a flower, a pair of pods, and a seed with its tuft.
+
+Write an account of a visit to the woods to study wild flowers.
+
+
+TREES
+
+A study of the pines of the locality may be commenced in November, after
+the deciduous trees have lost their leaves and have entered their
+quiescent winter period. This is the time when the evergreens stand out
+prominently on the landscape, in sharp contrast with the other trees
+that have been stripped of their broad leaves and now look bare and
+lifeless. If no pines are to be found in the vicinity, cedar or hemlock
+may be substituted. The lessons should, as far as possible, be
+observational. The pupils should be encouraged to make observations for
+themselves out of school. At least one lesson should be conducted
+out-of-doors, a suitable pine tree having been selected beforehand for
+the purpose. The following method will serve as a guide in the outdoor
+study of any species of tree:
+
+THE WHITE PINE
+
+Have the pupils observe the shape and height of the tree from a distance
+and trace the outline with the finger. Compare the shape of this tree
+with others near by of the same species and then with members of other
+species. Have the pupils describe in what particulars the shapes differ
+in different trees. They will come to realize that the difference in
+shape results from differences in length, direction, and arrangement of
+branches. They may notice that other evergreens resemble the pine in
+that the stems are all straight and extend as a gradually tapering shaft
+from the bottom to the top, that all have a more or less conical shape,
+and that the branches grow straight out from the main stem and not
+slanting off as in the case of the maples and elms.
+
+Coming close to the tree, the pupils may first examine the trunk. By
+using a string or tape-line, they may find out how big it is around and
+the length of the diameter. Tell them how big some evergreens are (the
+giant trees of the Pacific Coast are sometimes over forty feet around).
+Have them notice where the trunk is largest, and let them find out why a
+tree needs to be so strong at the ground. Heavy wind puts a great strain
+on it just at this point. Illustrate by driving a long slat or lath into
+the ground firmly: then catching it by the top, push it over, and it
+will break off just at the ground. If a little pine tree could be taken
+up, the pupils would be interested in seeing what long, strong, fibrous
+roots the pine has.
+
+Let them examine the bark of the trunk and describe its colour and
+roughness. The fissures in the bark, which are caused by the enlarging
+of the tree through the formation of new wood under the bark, are deeper
+at the bottom of the tree than at the top--the tree being younger and
+the bark thinner, the nearer to the top we go. How old is the very top,
+down to the first whorl of branches? How old is the stem between the
+first and second whorls? Between the third and fourth? Let the pupils
+find out in this way the age of a little pine that is regular and
+unbroken. The whorls of branches near the ground are usually small and
+dead in young trees and in old trees have completely disappeared. Relate
+the size of the trunk to its age, and also relate the size and length of
+the branches to their age. Where are the youngest branches and how old
+are they? What branches are oldest? Notice how the branch is noticeably
+larger just where it joins the trunk, as this is the point of greatest
+strain. Are the branches the same length on all sides of the trunk? If
+not, find one where branches are shorter on one side than on the other
+and try to discover the cause. Usually, if other trees are near enough
+to shade a certain tree, the branches are shorter and smaller on the
+shaded side.
+
+Let the pupils look up into the tree from beneath and then go a little
+distance away and look at it. They will notice how bare the branches are
+on the inside, and the teacher will probably have to explain why this is
+so. They will discover that the leaves are nearly all out toward the
+ends of the branches. The leaves get light there while the centre of the
+tree top is shaded, and the great question that every tree must try to
+solve is how to get most light for its leaves. The pupils will now see
+an additional reason why the lower limbs should be longer than the upper
+ones. The greater length of the lower limbs brings the leaves out into
+the sunlight.
+
+Why this tree is called an evergreen may now be considered. Why it
+retains its leaves all winter is a problem for more advanced classes,
+but if the question is asked, the teacher may get over the difficulty by
+explaining to the class that the leaves are so small and yet so hardy
+that wind and frost and snow do not injure them.
+
+The pupils may each bring a small branch of twig back to the
+school-room, if the white pine is growing commonly about, otherwise the
+teacher may provide himself with a branch upon which to base another
+observation lesson in the class-room.
+
+If the tree has cones on it, an effort should be made to get a few, as
+they will also be considered in a subsequent class-room lesson. If the
+cones have not yet opened when they are picked, so much the better, as
+they will soon open in a warm room, and the pupils will be able to
+examine the seeds and notice how they whirl through the air in falling.
+If possible, let the pupils have an opportunity of seeing pine trees
+growing in the woods as well as in the open.
+
+OUTLINE OF A CLASS-ROOM LESSON ON THE WHITE PINE
+
+~Inferences.~--If possible, each pupil is supplied with a small branch of
+the white pine and the teacher with a larger branch which can easily be
+seen by all the pupils. Before proceeding to examine the specimens, give
+the pupils a chance to tell what they now know about the white pine, and
+thus review the lesson taken out-of-doors. Then ask a few questions
+bearing upon their own observations, such as: What was the soil like
+where you found the pine tree growing? (They are found most commonly on
+light, sandy soil.) Did you notice any difference between the shapes of
+the pines in the deep woods and the pines in the open fields? Did you
+notice any dead limbs on those in the woods? Why did they die? The
+pupils may conclude that branches whose leaves cannot get the sunlight
+must die. Show that this causes knots in the lumber and exhibit samples.
+This explains also why the trees of the forest have such tall stems
+without branches for a long distance up from the ground. They get the
+light only from above and seem to strive with the surrounding trees to
+reach it. If we want trees to grow tall, how should we plant them?
+(Close together) What would such trees be good for? (Making timber or
+lumber) If we want trees to grow low and have thick and bushy tops, how
+should we plant them? (Far apart) What would such trees be good for?
+(Their shade and their beauty) Good shade trees should be thirty to
+forty feet apart.
+
+Ask the pupils if they have ever been near a pine tree when a gentle
+breeze was blowing, and have them tell the cause of the sound that they
+heard. They may decide that the shape and size of the leaves caused the
+sound when the wind was blowing through the tree top. Have them examine
+the branches in order to discover the following points:
+
+LEAVES.--These are in bunches of five, two to three inches long,
+three-cornered, and with little teeth pointing toward the tip, light
+green near the tip of the bough (young leaves) and darker further down
+(older leaves); age of a leaf the same as the age of the wood it grows
+on, therefore some leaves are one year, some two, and a few three years
+old. No leaves on four-year-old wood, therefore the leaves fall off the
+white pine the third year. Ask pupils to try to find out by observation
+when the leaves fall off the pines. Note the fragrance of the leaves,
+and that they are sometimes put into "pine" cushions, also, how slippery
+they are to walk on.
+
+BUDS.--These are found at the tips of the branches, one large one in the
+centre and several smaller ones grouped around it. Note their
+reddish-brown colour and that they are made up of scales overlapping and
+covered with gum which keeps out the rain, thus protecting the little
+growing tip inside. When buds grow, they become little twigs with leaves
+on. Find where the buds were a year ago. Notice the light colour of the
+twigs that grow during the present season and the darker colour of the
+twigs of the previous year. Where were the buds two years ago? What did
+the centre bud become? (A continuation of the stem) What did the other
+buds, called lateral buds, become? (New branches) Compare the growth
+made in different years.
+
+Notice also how white the wood of the twigs is--the probable reason for
+calling it "white pine".
+
+CONES.--Note the length and shape of the cones and how the seeds are
+placed in them inside the large scales. Get some of the seeds and note
+the wing-like attachment. Take the wing off a seed and drop it from a
+height at the same instant with one that has its wing attached. Note the
+whirling motion and infer what purpose the wing serves in scattering
+seed. Taste the kernel of a pine seed and discover why squirrels are
+fond of them. Burn a pine cone.
+
+Find out what birds like to live in this tree. What has been noticed
+about them and their nests?
+
+Have the pupils keep the seeds until the following spring by putting
+them in a box of dry sand and setting them in a cold place. They should
+then plant them in a corner where they can be partly shaded when the sun
+is bright. Plant them about half an inch deep and keep them watered if
+the weather is dry during the first summer.
+
+NOTE.--The cones drop their seeds from high up in the tree so that the
+wind can carry the seeds long distances. The cones usually stay on the
+trees for a couple of years after they lose their seeds.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+Draw a pine tree, a bunch of pine needles, a pine cone, and a pine
+seed.
+
+Write a description of a pine tree seen in the woods; also of one found
+in the open.
+
+Write a list of things for which the white pine is useful.
+
+_To the teacher._--The winter months, besides affording an opportunity
+for seeing trees and plants in their dormant or quiescent condition,
+also afford an opportunity for reading and reflection, for recalling
+observations and experiences of the past season, and for making plans
+for work and study in the school garden, woods, and fields when spring
+returns. The knowledge gained by the pupils through first-hand
+observation of trees, flowers, and gardens can be greatly extended by
+pictures and stories descriptive of these, which the teacher may from
+time to time bring to the school-room. Their personal experiences will
+be the basis for interpretation of many new things which will come up in
+the reading lessons, in selections which the teacher reads from week to
+week, and in books and papers which they themselves read in their homes.
+Thus the interest that is aroused by the first-hand studies of plants in
+garden, orchard, or woodland will be carried over from autumn to spring,
+and the pupils, with the awakening of spring, will take up anew the
+study of plant life with a keener interest because of the time given to
+reading and reflection during the winter. Illustrated magazines dealing
+with gardening and with the study of trees and plants, and such
+magazines as have a children's department, will prove of great
+assistance to the teacher who makes any serious attempt to interest
+pupils in plant studies. Stories of life in the woods and of plant
+studies suitable to young pupils should be used.
+
+REFERENCES
+
+Margaret Morley: _Flowers and their Friends._ Ginn & Co. 50 cents.
+
+Margaret Morley: _Seed Babies._ Ginn & Co. 25 cents.
+
+Margaret Morley: _Little Wanderers._ Ginn & Co. 30 cents.
+
+Alice Lounsberry: _The Garden Book for Young People._ Stokes. $1.50.
+
+Gertrude Stone: _Trees in Prose and Poetry._ Ginn & Co. 45 cents.
+
+
+COMPARATIVE LESSON ON VARIETIES OF WINTER APPLES
+
+KING, BALDWIN, NORTHERN SPY
+
+Discuss the names, keeping and cooking qualities of the apples, and
+bearing qualities of the trees.
+
+Provide each member of the class with a typical representative of each
+of the above varieties of apples.
+
+Compare the three apples as to size, form, colour--including marks;
+hardness, length, and thickness of stem; depth of cavity at the stem
+end; depth and shape of the cavity at the calyx end.
+
+Split each apple from stem to calyx and compare as to the thickness and
+toughness of the skin, the colour of the flesh, the size of the core,
+taste and juiciness of the flesh.
+
+_To the teacher._--All three are apples of fair size, the Baldwin being
+on the average the smallest of the three. All three are roundish, but
+the King is somewhat oval-round, and the Spy, conical-round. The Baldwin
+has a yellowish skin with crimson and red splashes dotted with russet
+spots. The King is reddish, shading to dark crimson. The Spy has a
+yellowish-green skin sprinkled with pink and striped with red.
+
+The beautiful colours make all these apples very popular in the markets
+of American cities and in those of the British Isles; but the soft and
+easily damaged skin of the Spy makes it the least desirable as an apple
+for export.
+
+All keep well and in cool cellars remain in good condition until April.
+They may be kept much longer in cold storage chambers, where the
+temperature is uniformly near the freezing point of the apple.
+
+The Baldwin apple tree is reasonably hardy within the ordinary range for
+apple trees, and its yield is a satisfactory average. The King apple
+tree is not a hardy tree, nor is it a satisfactory bearer except in the
+best apple districts. The Spy is a fairly hardy tree and thrives and
+yields well throughout a wide range; but it does not begin to bear until
+it is about fifteen years old.
+
+A comparative lesson may also be based on selected varieties of autumn
+apples, such as Fameuse, McIntosh Red, Wealthy, Gravenstein, and St.
+Lawrence.
+
+CODLING MOTH
+
+Begin the study of the codling moth in August by examining wormy apples.
+Find out, by asking the pupils, which orchards of the locality had been
+sprayed in the spring.
+
+Ask the pupils to count out at random one hundred apples and to select
+from these the number that are wormy. What percentage of the apples are
+wormy? Compare the percentage of wormy apples in unsprayed, with that in
+sprayed, orchards. The results will afford evidence of the benefit of
+spraying.
+
+Find out, if possible, the dates on which, and the conditions under
+which, the spraying of the orchards with the least number of wormy
+apples was done.
+
+Ask the pupils to bring to the school-room a number of wormy apples.
+Have the pupils cut these open and note the nature and position of the
+hole, or burrow, and the amount of damage done to the apples.
+
+Have the pupils observe the larva and note the size, colour, shape, and
+number of legs.
+
+_To the teacher._--The apple maggot is a less common insect larva and
+may be distinguished from the larva of the codling moth by the fact that
+the former has no legs and has the habit of burrowing in all directions
+through the pulp of the apple, while the larva of the codling moth works
+almost entirely in the core.
+
+The cocoon and pupa phase of this insect may be obtained by keeping the
+wormy apples in a box containing loose paper on which the cocoons will
+be placed, or by searching under the bark scales of apple trees in
+October.
+
+Describe the cocoons. Open some of them and describe the contents. Keep
+the remaining cocoons in a box or vivarium in a cool place during the
+winter.
+
+What birds are seen tapping at the bark scales of the apple trees during
+winter? Examine the bark scales when a downy woodpecker has been at work
+and note that the cocoons have been destroyed.
+
+Should we encourage the visits of woodpeckers to the orchards?
+
+By hanging up a beef bone in the orchard, various birds, including
+woodpeckers, will be induced to visit and perhaps to make their homes in
+the orchard.
+
+REFERENCES
+
+_Common Insects Affecting Fruit Trees, Bulletin No. 158_, Department of
+Agriculture, Parliament Buildings, Toronto.
+
+_Bulletins Nos. 158 and 171_, Ontario Department of Agriculture, deal
+with many insect pests and their remedies.
+
+In May look for the adult moths as they emerge from the cocoons. Observe
+the colour, size, shape, and the bright copper-coloured horse-shoe on
+the front wing--the "brand" of the codling moth.
+
+Examine the little apples when the blossoms are falling. Note the tiny,
+flat, oval-shaped egg at various places on the surfaces of the apples
+and a few days later the tiny worm which emerges from the egg. This soon
+eats its way into the apple, entering usually at the calyx end. If
+spraying is done after the petals have fallen and just before the calyx
+end closes up, a drop of poison is inclosed, and when the larva enters
+it and begins eating its way into the apple, it gets the poison.
+
+
+SOME COMMON ANIMAL FORMS
+
+Brief lessons should be given on some of the lower members of the animal
+kingdom, for the purpose of broadening the interests of the pupils. The
+following are suggested as types: snail, spider, freshwater mussel
+(clam), crayfish (crab), centiped, milliped, salamander, and wood-louse.
+
+These are common animal forms, most of which are frequently seen by the
+pupils, but seldom are their interesting life habits or their places in
+the animal kingdom recognized. The salamander is to many pupils a lizard
+of the most poisonous kind; centipeds and millipeds are worms, and they
+do not recognize that the clam is an animal with sensibilities and
+instincts.
+
+REFERENCES
+
+Kellogg: _Elementary Zoology_
+
+Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_
+
+CENTIPEDS AND MILLIPEDS
+
+Under stones and sticks in moist soil are to be found two worm-like
+forms, both having many legs.
+
+One of these animals is flat, about an inch long, brown in colour, and
+provided with a pair of long feelers. On each division of the body is a
+single pair of legs. This is the _centiped_. The other animal is more
+cylindrical in shape and has two pairs of legs on each division of the
+body. Its colour is a darker brown than that of the centiped, and it has
+a habit of coiling into a spiral shape, when disturbed, so that the soft
+under surface is concealed. This is the _milliped_. Both of these
+animals are quite harmless and feed on decaying vegetable matter. They
+stand midway between worms and insects in forms and habits.
+
+A brief observation lesson on each animal, involving their movements and
+the structural features named above, will enable the pupils to identify
+them and to appreciate their position in the animal kingdom.
+
+SALAMANDERS, OR NEWTS
+
+Some forms of these are found in water, as in streams, ponds, and
+ditches, while other forms are found on land, where they hide under
+stones and sticks. They are commonly mistaken for lizards, which they
+closely resemble in shape; but the two animals may be distinguished by
+the fact that the surface of the body of a salamander is smooth, while
+that of a lizard is covered with scales.
+
+The small red or copper-coloured newts are the most common in Ontario
+and are frequently found on roads after heavy rains. The tiger
+salamanders are larger than the red newts and are marked with orange and
+black spots, hence the name "tiger". Many people believe this species
+to be especially venomous, while in reality it is quite harmless and,
+like the other salamanders, is useful for destroying insects and small
+snails, which form the greater part of its food.
+
+_To the teacher._--The superstition of the salamander's power to
+extinguish a fire into which it is thrown still exists. The early life
+of the salamander is spent in water, the young form being very much like
+a tadpole. The salamanders are close relatives of the frogs and toads
+and may be kept in a jar or vivarium in wet moss or grass. The pupils
+should learn to recognize the animals and should be instructed as to
+their habits.
+
+SPIDERS
+
+~Problems in observation.~--In how many places can you find spiders' webs?
+How many forms of spiders' webs can you find? Are the many webs that are
+found on the meadow grass in the dewy mornings the homes of spiders? If
+so, describe where the spiders live. (At the bottom of tunnels that run
+into the ground.)
+
+What uses do spiders make of their webs? (Trapping prey, supporting egg
+cases, protection, and means of moving, as in the case of cobweb
+spiders.)
+
+Drop a fly upon a spider's web and observe the action of the spider.
+Search under the webs of spiders in attics and sheds and learn, from the
+skeletons found there, what the spider feeds upon. It will be found that
+flies, beetles, and other spiders are killed by this monster.
+
+Watch a spider spinning its web and find out what parts of the body are
+used in this work. It will be seen that the threads are produced from
+little tubes at the rear end of the animal and are placed and fastened
+by means of the feet.
+
+Examine, by the aid of a hand lens, the feet and head of the spider.
+Note the "brushes and combs" on the former. Note, on the latter, the
+four, six, or eight eyes (the number and arrangement vary), and the
+short poison claws at the front of the head. How are the poison claws
+adapted for seizing and piercing? Note the sharp hooks at the lower
+ends.
+
+
+BIRD STUDIES
+
+Continue the lessons in bird identification and in bird types, using the
+methods outlined for these studies in Form III. (See pp. 217-24.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+FORM IV
+
+WINTER
+
+
+FOREST TREES
+
+EVERGREENS
+
+Several species of evergreens have already been studied. These should be
+reviewed, and representatives of other species examined. Mid-winter is
+most suitable for the study of evergreens. The following points should
+be considered:
+
+1. Description leading to identification
+
+2. Nature of soil and water conditions
+
+3. Common uses of each species of evergreen
+
+4. Collection of wood specimens and cones.
+
+WOOD SPECIMENS
+
+Specimens should be uniform in size and should show bark on one side and
+heart wood as well as the outside, or sap wood. They should be about six
+inches long, two inches wide on the side having the bark, and should
+gradually come to an edge toward the pith, or centre. When seasoned, one
+side and one edge should be polished and then oiled or varnished.
+Specimens of the wood of the deciduous trees may also be prepared during
+the winter.
+
+
+FRUITS
+
+During the winter months, some time should be devoted to reading and
+discussing articles on general farming and fruit growing. Such articles
+may be taken from books, magazines, or newspapers, and may be supplied
+partly by the teacher and partly by the pupils. These articles will be
+appreciated by the pupils all the more because of their studies of fruit
+trees during the season. Such topics as the following may be discussed:
+
+1. Best kind of apples, plums, bush fruits, and strawberries. Reports
+from the Dominion and Provincial Departments of Agriculture.
+
+2. Method of raising fruit trees--from seed, grafting, and budding.
+
+3. Demonstrations in pruning. This may be done in early spring by taking
+a class to a neighbouring orchard.
+
+4. Methods of planting and cultivation.
+
+5. Packing and storing.
+
+6. Spraying. Much information is to be found in Horticultural Journals
+and papers, and in Bulletins to be obtained from the Secretary of
+Agriculture for Ontario.
+
+Illustrated articles on gardening and fruit growing should be collected
+for school use. Views of fine gardens, parks, and home grounds will be
+of interest to the pupils. Simple artistic methods of ornamental
+planting with trees, shrubs, vines, and herbaceous perennials can now be
+introduced, and some scheme for improving the school grounds outlined.
+
+Catalogues should be obtained soon after New Year's and, after examining
+their merits, the best varieties of seed and fruit for the district
+should be selected. Horticultural societies, as well as Dominion and
+Provincial Departments of Agriculture, commonly give selected lists with
+descriptions of the different varieties.
+
+
+WEEDS AND WEED SEEDS
+
+The training in the observation and identification of weeds and weed
+seeds, which was begun in Form III, should be continued in Form IV. For
+method see Form III.
+
+
+PHYSICAL SCIENCE PHASE OF NATURE STUDY
+
+WATER PRESSURE
+
+1. Grasp an empty tin can by the top and push it down into a pail of
+water. Note the tendency of the can to rise. The water presses upward.
+Its downward pressure is evident.
+
+2. Tie a large stone to a string, hold it at arm's length, shut the
+eyes, and lower the stone into water. _Note_ the decrease in weight.
+This is also due to upward pressure, which we call buoyancy. The actual
+decrease may be found by means of a spring balance.
+
+3. Try Experiment 2, using a piece of iron the same weight as the stone.
+Is the decrease in weight as evident? Ships made wholly of iron will
+sink. Explain.
+
+4. Put an egg into water; it slowly sinks. Add salt to the water; the
+egg floats.
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Will the human body sink in water? In which is there less danger of
+drowning, lake or sea water?
+
+2. When in bathing, immerse nearly the whole body, then take a full
+inspiration. Note the rise of the body.
+
+3. Why does ice float? (See expansion of water by freezing.)
+
+4. Balloons are bags filled with some light gas, generally hydrogen or
+hot air. They are pushed up by the buoyancy of the air. The rise of
+heated air or water (see Convection) is really due to the same force.
+Clouds, feathers, and thistledown are kept in the air more by the action
+of winds and small air currents than by buoyancy.
+
+STUDY OF AIR
+
+     (Consult _Science of Common Life_, Chaps. VIII, IX, X.)
+
+1. Air takes up space. Put a cork with one hole into the neck of a flask
+or bottle. Insert the stem of a funnel and try to pour in water. Try
+with two holes in the cork. When we call a bottle "empty" what is in it?
+
+2. Air is all around us. Feel it; wave the hands through it; run through
+it; note that the wind is air; inhale the air and watch the chest.
+
+3. Air has weight. This is not easy to demonstrate without an air-pump
+and a fairly delicate balance.
+
+Fit a large glass flask with a tightly fitting rubber stopper having a
+short glass tube passing through it. To the glass tube attach a short
+rubber one and on this put a clamp. Open the clamp and suck out all the
+air possible. Close the clamp and weigh the flask. When perfectly
+balanced, open the clamp and let the air enter again. Note the increase
+in weight.
+
+If an air-pump is available, procure a glass globe provided with a
+stop-cock (see Apparatus). Pump some of the air from the globe, then
+weigh and, while it is on the balance, admit the air again and note
+increase in weight.
+
+Tie a piece of thin sheet rubber over the large end of a thistle tube;
+suck the air out of the tube and note how the rubber is pushed in. This
+is due to the weight or pressure of the air. Turn the tube in various
+positions to show that the pressure comes from all directions. To show
+that "suction" is not a force, let a pupil try to suck water out of a
+flask when there is only one opening through the stopper. If two holes
+are made, the water may be sucked up, that is, _pushed_ up by the weight
+of the air.
+
+Fill a pickle jar with water. Place a piece of writing paper on the top
+and then, holding the paper with the palm of the hand, invert the jar.
+The pressure of the air keeps the water in.
+
+A cubic foot of air weighs nearly 1-1/4 oz. Find the weight of the air
+in your school-room.
+
+The atmosphere exerts about fifteen pounds pressure on every square inch
+of the surface it rests against. Find the weight supported by the top of
+a desk 18 inches by 24 inches. If the surface of the body is eight
+square feet, what weight does it have to sustain? Why does this weight
+not crush us?
+
+THE BAROMETER
+
+The experiments immediately preceding will have paved the way for a
+study of the barometer.
+
+1. Fill a jar with water and invert it, keeping its mouth below the
+surface of the water in another vessel. If the pupils can be led to see
+that the water is sustained in the jar by the air pressing on the water
+in the vessel, they can understand the barometer.
+
+2. Fill a tube about 30 inches long, and 1/4 inch inside diameter with
+water, and invert it over water, as with the jar in the previous
+experiment.
+
+3. Use the same tube or one similar to that in 2 above, but fill with
+mercury and allow the pupils to notice the great weight of the mercury.
+Holding the mercury in with your finger, invert the tube over mercury.
+This time the fluid falls some distance in the tube as soon as the
+finger is removed. A tube of this size requires 1 lb. of mercury.
+
+Lead the pupils to see that the mercury remaining in the tube is
+sustained by the air pressure, and that any increase or decrease of the
+atmospheric pressure will result in the rise or fall of the mercury
+column. Leave the barometer (made as in 3 above) in the room for a few
+days and note whether its weight changes. The use of the instrument in
+predicting weather changes should be emphasized. Compare your barometer
+with the records in the daily papers.
+
+The average height of the barometric column is 30 inches at sea-level.
+Explain how you could estimate heights of mountains and balloons with a
+barometer.
+
+THE COMMON PUMP
+
+This is a valuable application of air pressure. A glass model will prove
+useful, but a model made by pupils will be much more so. (See
+_Laboratory Exercises in Physics_ by Newman.)
+
+The water rises in the pump because the sucker lifts the air from the
+water inside, allowing the air outside to push the water up. A common
+pump will not lift water more than about 30 feet. Why is this? Compare
+the pump to a barometer. (See _The Ontario High School Physics_.)
+
+EXPANSIVE FORCE OF AIR
+
+Air and all other gases manifest a pressure in all directions not due to
+their weight. The power of air to keep tires and footballs inflated and
+that of steam in driving an engine are examples. It is this force that
+prevents the pressure of air from crushing in, since there are many air
+spaces distributed throughout the body.
+
+COMPOSITION OF AIR
+
+This subject and the three immediately following it have a special
+bearing on hygiene.
+
+1. Invert a sealing-jar over a lighted candle. Has the candle used up
+_all_ the air when it goes out?
+
+2. Place a very short candle on a thin piece of cork afloat on water in
+a plate; light the candle, and again invert the jar over it. Note that
+the candle goes out and the water rises only a short distance in the
+jar; therefore _all_ the air has not been used up.
+
+3. Slip the glass top of the jar under the open end and set the jar
+mouth upward on the table without allowing any water to escape. Now
+plunge a lighted splinter into the jar. The flame is extinguished.
+
+Air, therefore, contains an active part that helps the candle to burn
+and an inactive part that extinguishes flame. The names _oxygen_ and
+_nitrogen_ may be given. These gases occur in air in the proportion of
+about 1:4. (This method is not above criticism. Its advantage for young
+pupils lies in its simplicity.)
+
+OXYGEN
+
+Make two or three jars of oxygen, using potassium chlorate and manganese
+dioxide. (See any Chemistry text-book.) Let the pupils examine the
+chemicals, learn their names, and know where to obtain them. Perform the
+following experiments:
+
+1. A glowing splinter relights and burns very brightly if plunged into
+oxygen.
+
+2. A piece of picture wire tipped with sulphur burns with great
+brightness.
+
+3. Burn phosphorus or match heads in a spoon. A spoon may be made by
+attaching to a wire a bit of crayon having a hollow scooped on its upper
+surface. A clay pipe bowl attached to a wire will answer.
+
+From these experiments pupils will learn the value of nitrogen as a
+diluent of the oxygen. Pure oxygen entering the lungs would be just as
+destructive as it would be entering the furnace.
+
+CARBON DIOXIDE
+
+1. Make a jar of this gas. Washing soda and vinegar will answer if
+hydrochloric acid and marble are not obtainable. (Consult the _Science
+of Common Life_, Chap. XIII, and any Chemistry text-book.)
+
+2. Lower a lighted candle first into a jar of air then into the jar of
+carbon dioxide.
+
+3. Make some lime-water by stirring slaked lime with water and allowing
+the mixture to settle. Shake up some clear lime-water with a jar of the
+gas. Pupils will be made to understand that the milky colour will in
+future be considered the test for carbon dioxide.
+
+4. Have one of the pupils cause his breath to bubble through some clear
+lime-water for a minute. Using a bicycle pump, cause some fresh air to
+bubble through lime-water.
+
+5. Hold a clear jar inverted over the candle flame for a few seconds,
+then test with lime-water.
+
+6. Invert a large jar over a leafy plant for a day. Keep in the dark and
+test the jar with lime-water.
+
+Is this gas likely to be in the air? Set a plate of lime-water in the
+school-room for a day or two, and then examine it. Try to pour the gas
+from jar to jar and use a candle as a test. Is the gas heavier than air?
+
+On account of its weight, the gas often collects in the bottoms of old
+wells, mines, and tunnels. It is dangerous there since it will not
+support life.
+
+USES:
+
+1. Add a little water to some baking powder and cause the gas that forms
+to pass through lime-water. What causes the biscuits to "rise"?
+
+2. Mix flour and water in a jar, add a bit of yeast cake and a little
+sugar, and let stand in a warm place. Test the gas that forms, for
+carbon dioxide. What causes bread to rise?
+
+3. Uncork a bottle of ginger ale, shake the bottle, and lead the gas
+that comes off through lime-water.
+
+4. Most portable fire extinguishers depend on the generation of carbon
+dioxide.
+
+Show the similarity between our bodies and the candle. The candle needs
+oxygen; it produces heat, and yields water and carbon dioxide. Much of
+our food is somewhat similar in composition to the wax of a candle; we
+breathe oxygen, our bodies are warmed by a real burning within, and we
+exhale water and carbon dioxide.
+
+After exercise why do we feel more hungry? Why do we breathe faster? Why
+do we feel warmer? Why does the fire burn better when the damper is
+opened?
+
+IMPURITIES OF AIR
+
+All air contains carbon dioxide. If the amount exceeds 6 parts in
+10,000, it becomes an impurity, not so much on its own account as
+because it indicates a poisoned state of the air in a room, since
+organic poisons always accompany it when it is emitted from the lungs.
+
+Other impurities of the air, dependent on the locality and the season,
+are smoke, dust, disease germs, sewer gas, coal-gas, pollen dust.
+
+SOLUTIONS OF SOLIDS
+
+     (Consult the _Science of Common Life_, Chap. VII.)
+
+Have the pupils weigh out equal quantities of sugar, salt, soda, alum,
+blue-vitriol. Shake up with equal quantities of water to compare
+solubilities. Repeat, using hot water. Is it possible to recover the
+substance dissolved? Set out solutions on the table to evaporate, or
+evaporate them rapidly over a stove or spirit-lamp. Try to dissolve
+sand, sulphur, charcoal, in water. Obtain crystals of iodine and show
+how much better, in some cases, alcohol is as a solvent than is water.
+
+APPLICATIONS:
+
+1. Most of our "essences", "tinctures", and "spirits" are alcoholic
+solutions.
+
+2. Digestion is the effort of the body to dissolve food.
+
+3. The food in the soil enters the plant only after solution.
+
+4. The solvent power of water makes it so valuable for washing.
+
+5. Maple sap is water containing sugar in solution.
+
+6. In the salt region along Lake Huron, holes are drilled to the salt
+beds, water is poured in, then pumped out and evaporated. Explain.
+
+7. Meat broth is a solution of certain materials in the meat.
+
+8. How could you manufacture salt from sea water?
+
+SOLUTION OF LIQUIDS
+
+Try to mix oil and water, benzine and water, oil and benzine. Only in
+the third case do we find a permanent mixture, or solution. Try to
+dissolve vinegar, glycerine, alcohol, mercury, with water.
+
+APPLICATIONS:
+
+1. Paint is mixed with oil so that the rain will not wash it off so
+easily.
+
+2. Water will not wash grease stains. Benzine is necessary.
+
+3. Why is it necessary to "shake" the bottle before taking medicine?
+
+SOLUTION OF GASES
+
+Study air dissolved in water, by gently heating water in a test-tube and
+observing the bubbles of air that gather on the inner surface of the
+test-tube. Aquatic animals, such as fish, clams, crayfish, crabs,
+subsist on this dissolved air.
+
+LIMESTONE
+
+Pieces of this rock may be found in all localities. Teach pupils to
+recognize it by its gray colour, its effervescence with acid, and the
+fossils and strata that show in most cases. If exposed limestone rocks
+are near, visit them with the pupils and note the layers, fossils, and
+evidences of sea action. Compare lime with limestone as to touch,
+colour, and action on water and litmus. Try to make lime by putting a
+lump of limestone in the coals for some time; add water to this. Other
+forms of limestone are marble, chalk, egg-shells, clam-shells, scales in
+tea-kettles.
+
+Geographically, the study of limestone is of great importance. Grind
+some limestone very fine, add a very little of this to water, and
+bubble carbon dioxide through for some time; note the disappearance of
+the limestone. This explains how limestone rocks are being slowly worn
+away and why the water of rivers, springs, and wells is so often "hard".
+
+Catch some rain-water in the open and test it for hardness. It will be
+found "soft". Place a few limestone pebbles in a tumbler with this soft
+water and after a day or two test again. The water will be "hard".
+
+Compare, as to hardness, the water from a concrete cistern with that
+from a wooden one.
+
+CARBON
+
+Procure specimens of hard and soft coal, coke, charcoal, graphite, peat,
+and petroleum. Note the distinctive characteristics of each. Discuss the
+uses. Try to set each on fire. Note which burns with a flame when laid
+on the coals or placed over the spirit-lamp. Put a bit of soft coal into
+a small test-tube; heat and light the gas that is produced. This gas,
+when purified, is one kind of illuminating gas. Note the _coke_ left in
+the test-tube.
+
+Fill the bowl of a clay pipe with soft coal and seal it up with plaster
+of paris. After this has hardened, place the bowl in hot coals or in the
+flame of a spirit-lamp and light the coal-gas at the end of the stem.
+After all the gas has been driven off, look for the coke inside.
+
+Heat a bit of wood in a small test-tube and light the gas that is
+evolved. Note the charcoal left.
+
+Cover a piece of wood with sand or earth; heat, and note that charcoal
+is formed. This illustrates the old method of charcoal-burning. This
+subject is closely related to industrial geography.
+
+HYDROGEN
+
+A convenient way to prepare hydrogen is to use zinc and hydrochloric
+acid with a test-tube for a generator. (Consult any Chemistry
+text-book.) Make the gas and burn it at the end of a tube, holding a
+dry, cold tumbler inverted over the flame. Note that water is formed.
+Conclude what water consists of, namely, oxygen and hydrogen. Water may
+be decomposed into oxygen and hydrogen, hence a use of hydrogen may be
+shown by attaching a clay pipe to the generator and filling soap bubbles
+with the gas. When freed these rise quickly.
+
+MAGNETS
+
+If bar magnets cannot be obtained, use a child's horse-shoe magnet.
+
+Procure small pieces of cork, wood, iron, brass, glass, lead, etc., and
+let pupils discover which the magnet attracts.
+
+Have pupils interpose paper, wood, slate, glass, iron, lead, etc., in
+sheets between the magnet and the iron and note the effect on the force
+exerted.
+
+Note that when one end of a magnet touches or comes near the end of a
+nail, the nail becomes a magnet, but not a permanent one.
+
+Magnetize a needle by drawing one of the poles of the magnet from end to
+end of the needle, always in the same direction, about twenty times.
+Suspend the needle horizontally with a piece of silk thread and note its
+position when at rest.
+
+Get a small compass and show how it is related to the foregoing
+experiments. Emphasize its use to mariners. If possible, get a piece of
+lodestone and show its magnetic properties.
+
+ELECTRICITY
+
+Half fill a tumbler with water and add about a teaspoonful of sulphuric
+acid. Set in this a piece of copper and a piece of zinc, but do not let
+them touch. Make a coil by winding insulated wire around a block of wood
+about ten times. Remove the wood and place a compass in the centre of
+the coil. Join the ends of the wire to the two metals in the tumbler.
+The sudden movement of the needle will be taken as the indication of a
+current.
+
+Let pupils try experiments with many pairs of solids, such as lead and
+silver, carbon and glass, wood and iron, tin and zinc, and liquids such
+as vinegar and brine.
+
+Show pupils how to make a simple battery. See home-made apparatus, page
+50, and consult _Laboratory Exercises_ by Newman. Two or three dry cells
+will be found sufficient for any experiments, but the home-made battery
+is to be preferred.
+
+Show pupils how to make a magnet by winding a piece of insulated wire
+around a nail and joining the ends of the wire to the battery. Make a
+horse-shoe magnet by bending the nail and winding the wire about both
+ends in opposite directions.
+
+As an application of the electro-magnet, show pupils how to make a
+telegraph sounder. (See Manual on _Manual Training_.) If possible,
+examine the construction of an electric bell. The motor and electric
+light are other common applications of the current. Take up the uses of
+the motor in factories, and for running street-cars and automobiles.
+Show the necessity for a water-wheel or engine to produce the current,
+and for wires to connect. Explain that batteries are not used to produce
+large currents, but that machines called dynamos, similar to motors,
+when driven by steam or water-power, will yield electric currents as
+batteries do.
+
+STEAM
+
+The power of steam may be shown by loosely corking a flask and boiling
+the water in it until the cork is driven out, or by stopping the spout
+of a boiling tea-kettle, or by letting a stream of steam impinge on a
+toy paper wheel. Encourage pupils to learn all they can about steam and
+gasolene engines and their uses.
+
+FARM TOOLS
+
+This topic should be dealt with only in so far as it can be made a
+subject for actual observation by the pupils. Children should learn to
+be thoughtful and observant and to do all kinds of work, manual as well
+as mental, intelligently.
+
+MACHINES
+
+     (Consult _The Ontario High School Physics_, Chap. IX.)
+
+LEVER.--When a _lever_ is used to lift a log, one end is placed under
+the log, a block called a _fulcrum_ is placed under the lever as close
+as possible to the log, and then the workman pulls down on the outer end
+of the lever. For example, if the fulcrum is one foot from the log and
+ten feet from the man, the latter can raise ten pounds with a pull of
+one pound, but he has to move his end of the lever ten times as far as
+the log rises. Try it. See other examples in plough handles, see-saw,
+balance, scissors, wheel-barrow, pump-handle, handspike, crowbar,
+canthook, nut-crackers.
+
+ROPE AND PULLEY.--In the _rope_ and _pulley_ note that when the pulley
+is a fixed one, the only advantage is a changed direction of the rope.
+When the pulley is _movable_, the horse pulling will have only half the
+weight to draw if the pulley is single, one quarter if double, one sixth
+if triple, etc. Thus in the case of a common hay-fork the horse draws
+only half the weight of the hay, but he walks twice as far as the hay
+moves.
+
+COGS.--If one wheel has eighty _cogs_ and the other ten, the latter will
+turn eight times to the former's once.
+
+BELT.--When a _belt_ runs over two wheels, one having, say, one fifth of
+the diameter of the other, the smaller will revolve five times for one
+revolution of the other.
+
+CRANK.--With a _crank_ two feet long, one may turn a wheel twice as
+easily as with one one foot long, but the hand will move twice as far.
+If a wedge is two inches thick at the large end and ten inches long, a
+man may lift 1000 pounds by striking the wedge a 200-lb. blow.
+
+INCLINED PLANE.--If a plank twelve inches long has one end on the ground
+and the other on a cart four inches high, one man can roll up the plank
+the same weight that would require three men to lift, but he has to move
+the object three times as far.
+
+PROBLEMS
+
+1. Why is a long-handled spade easier to dig with than a short-handled
+one?
+
+2. Which is easier, to dig when the spade is thrust full length or half
+length into the earth?
+
+3. Can a small boy "teeter" on a board against a big boy? How?
+
+4. In helping to move a wagon, why grasp the wheel near its rim?
+
+5. In making a balance, why should the arms be equal? In a balance with
+unequal arms, compare the weights used with the article weighed.
+
+6. In using shears, is it better to place the object you wish to cut
+near the handles or near the points?
+
+7. Where is the best place to put the load on a wheel-barrow?
+
+8. Notice how three horses are hitched to a plough or binder.
+
+9. Where would you grasp the pump-handle when you wish to pump (1)
+easily, (2) quickly?
+
+10. Stretch out your arm and see whether you can hold as heavy a weight
+on your hand as on your elbow.
+
+11. Count the pulleys used in a hay-fork and determine the use of each.
+
+12. If a ton of hay is unloaded at five equal forkfuls, what weight has
+the horse to draw at each load?
+
+13. Count the cogs on the wheels of a fanning-mill, washing-machine,
+apple-parer, or egg-beater, and determine how the direction or rate of
+the motion is changed thereby.
+
+14. Measure the diameter of the large fly-wheel of a thrashing-machine
+engine, and of that which turns the cylinder in the separator. Decide
+how many times the cylinder revolves for one turn of the fly-wheel.
+
+15. Think of all the uses of a wedge. Draw one. Compare the axe, knife,
+and chisel with the wedge.
+
+16. How are heavy logs loaded on a sleigh or truck? How are barrels of
+salt and sugar loaded and unloaded?
+
+17. There are two hills of the same height. One has a gradual slope, the
+other a steep one. Which is easier to climb? In what case is it farthest
+to the top?
+
+18. Why does a cow or horse take a zigzag path when climbing a steep
+hill?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+FORM IV
+
+SPRING
+
+
+METHODS OF IMPROVING HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS
+
+The study of plants should lead to an intelligent appreciation of their
+beauties and a desire to have them growing about. Many of our native
+trees, shrubs, vines, and herbaceous plants are quite as beautiful as
+some that are procured at considerable expense from nurserymen. A great
+work remains to be done in cultivating and popularizing our best native
+species. Up to this point the pupils have been getting acquainted with
+them in their own natural habitat; the next step should be to use them
+in covering up harsh and offensive views about the school and home
+grounds, in softening and giving restful relief to barren yards and bare
+walls, to ugly fences and uninteresting walks and driveways.
+
+Begin to plan some simple improvements for the spring. These may be
+repairing of fences and gates in order to protect the grounds from stray
+animals, the cleaning up of the yards, the gathering of stones which may
+be used in making a rockery, the planting of trees along the sides and
+front of the grounds--a double row of evergreens to overcome a cold
+northern exposure or to exclude from view disagreeable features, the
+laying out of a walk or drive with borders, flower beds, or shrubs in
+little clumps.
+
+Plans of grounds well laid out should be examined and discussed in the
+school-room. Many illustrated magazines give useful suggestions. Plans
+can be worked out on the black-board with the pupils. It will take years
+to complete such a plan, but the pupils should have a part in making the
+plan as well as in carrying it out. The aim should be to encourage the
+use of simple and inexpensive things obtained in the vicinity, wherewith
+to produce harmony and pleasing natural effects.
+
+Comfort and utility must be considered as well as beauty and natural
+design. In the school grounds the outdoor games must also be provided
+for and sufficient room allowed.
+
+Such efforts on the part of the teacher and pupils, if wisely directed,
+are sure to meet with the approval of the parents and must call forth
+the hearty co-operation of the trustees.
+
+It is not well to attempt too much in one year. It is better to do a
+small amount well than to leave much work in a half-done condition.
+
+MAKING AND CARE OF A LAWN
+
+The soil must be drained and not too much shaded by trees. At first it
+should be summer fallowed or cultivated every few weeks throughout the
+summer, to kill the weeds and make it fine and level. A thick seeding of
+lawn grass-seed should be sown early the next spring and raked lightly
+in. All levelling and preparation must have been done the previous
+season.
+
+Coarse grasses, such as timothy, should not be used on a lawn. Red top
+and Kentucky blue-grass in equal parts are best and, if white clover is
+desired, add about half as much white Dutch clover seed as red top. If
+the soil has been prepared as above, there is no need to use a foster
+crop of oats or barley, as is done in seeding down meadows. Roll the
+lawn after seeding and also after heavy rains as soon as the surface
+dries. Shortly after the grass appears, begin to run the lawn-mower over
+it, so as to cut weeds or native grasses that may be gaining a foothold.
+Watering is dangerous, unless carefully and regularly done during the
+summer, the evening being the best time. Merely wetting the surface by
+sprinkling encourages shallow rooting and therefore rapid drying out.
+Regular mowing and rolling are more important.
+
+REFERENCES
+
+Parsons: _How to Plan the Home Grounds._ Doubleday. $1.00
+
+Waugh: _The Landscape Beautiful._ Judd. $2.00
+
+Department of Education: _Improvement of School Grounds._
+
+
+SOIL STUDIES
+
+WEIGHT
+
+Using a balance, compare weights of equal-sized boxes of different
+soils, dried and powdered fine. Note the comparative lightness of humus.
+Weigh a box of earth taken fresh from the field, from this compute (1)
+the weight of a cubic foot of such soil, (2) the weight of the soil to
+the depth of a foot in a ten-acre field.
+
+Repeat the experiment, making it an exercise in percentage.
+
+Fill two glass tubes (lamp chimneys will do), one with finely powdered
+clay, the other with sand. Set the tubes in a pan containing water. Note
+the rise of the water due to capillarity. Through which soil does it
+rise faster? Farther? Try with other soils. Try with fine soil and also
+with the same soil in a lumpy condition. From this give a reason (1)
+for tilling soil, (2) for rolling after seeding.
+
+SUBSOILS
+
+Procure samples of soil from different depths, four inches, eight
+inches, twelve inches, sixteen inches, etc. Note how the soil changes in
+colour and texture. In which do plants succeed best? In most fields the
+richest part of the soil is contained in the upper nine inches; the
+portion below this is called subsoil. This extends to the underlying
+rock and is usually distinguished from the upper portion by its lighter
+colour, poorer texture, and smaller supply of available plant food. The
+difference is due largely to the absence of humus. The character of the
+subsoil has an important bearing on the condition of the upper soil. A
+layer of sand or gravel a few feet below the surface provides natural
+drainage, but if it be too deep, it may allow the water to run away
+rapidly, carrying the plant food down below the roots of the plants. A
+hard clay subsoil will render the top too wet in rainy weather and too
+dry in droughts, because of the small amount of water absorbed. Such a
+soil is benefited by under-draining. A deep and absorptive subsoil
+returns water to the surface, by capillary action, as it is needed. The
+subsoil finally contains a large amount of plant food, which becomes
+gradually changed into a form in which plants can make use of it. Pupils
+should find out the character of the subsoil in their various fields at
+home and its effect on the fertility of the field.
+
+FERTILIZERS
+
+Along with water, the roots take up from the soil various substances
+that are essential to their healthy growth. Potash, phosphoric acid,
+nitrogen, calcium, sulphur, magnesium, and iron are needed by plants,
+but the first three are particularly important. If land is to yield good
+crops year after year, it must be fertilized, that is, there must be
+added chemicals containing the above-mentioned plant foods. Land becomes
+poor from two causes: the plant food in the soil becomes exhausted, and
+poisonous excretions from the roots of one year's crops act injuriously
+on those of the next season. Rotating crops will improve both conditions
+for a while, but eventually the soil will require treatment.
+
+Humus contains plant food and is also an excellent absorbent of the
+poisonous excretions. It is added as barn-yard manure, leaves, or as a
+green crop ploughed in.
+
+The chemicals commonly used comprise nitrate of soda, bone meal,
+sulphate of potash, chloride of potash, lime, ashes, cotton-seed meal,
+dried blood, super-phosphate, rock phosphate, and basic clay.
+
+EXPERIMENTS:
+
+1. Sow wheat on the same plot year after year and note the result when
+no fertilizer is used. Sow wheat on another plot, but use good manure.
+
+2. Try the various commercial fertilizers on the school plots, leaving
+some without treatment.
+
+3. Examine the roots of clover, peas, or beans, and look for nodules.
+These show the presence of bacteria, which convert the atmospheric
+nitrogen into a form in which the plants can use it. Scientific farmers
+have learned the value of inoculating their soil with these germs. A
+crop of peas or clover may produce the same result.
+
+4. Observe Nature's method of supplying soil with humus.
+
+SOIL-FORMING AGENTS
+
+There was once a time when the surface of the earth was bare rock. Much
+of this rock still exists and in many places lies on the surface, but it
+is usually hidden by a layer of soil. Soil is said to be "rock ground to
+meal by Nature's millstones". The process is very slow, but it is
+constantly going on. The pupils should be directed to find evidences of
+this "grinding".
+
+1. RUNNING WATER.--Brooks, creeks, rain, and the tiny streamlets on the
+hills all tell us how soil is carried from place to place. Get some
+muddy water from the river after a heavy rain. Let it settle in a tall
+jar and observe the fine layer formed.
+
+Wash some pebbles clean, place them in a glass jar with some clear
+water, and roll or shake the jar about for a few minutes. Note that the
+water becomes turbid with fine material worn from the stones. A process
+similar to this is constantly going on in rivers, lakes, and seas.
+Account for the presence of gravel beds now situated far away from any
+water.
+
+2. ICE GLACIERS.--How do these act on rocks? Show evidences in Ontario
+as far as these can be illustrated from the surroundings, such as
+polished rocks, boulders, beds of clay, sand, or gravel, small lakes,
+grooved stones, etc.
+
+3. FROST AND HEAT.--See "Expansion of Solids", pages 189, 190. Look for
+splintered or cracked stones. Why do farmers plough in the fall?
+
+4. WIND.--In sections near the lakes the action of the wind in moving
+the sand may be seen and appreciated. There are other places where this
+work is going on on a smaller scale.
+
+5. PLANTS.--Our study of humus shows the value of vegetable matter in
+soil. Besides contributing to the soil, plants break up rocks with their
+roots and dissolve them with acid excretions. It is interesting to study
+how a bare rock becomes covered with soil. First come the lichens which
+need no soil; on the remains of these the mosses grow. The roots of
+mosses and lichens help to disintegrate the rock with their excretions,
+so that, with frost, heat, air, and rain to assist, there is a layer of
+soil gradually formed on which larger plants can live. A forest
+develops. The trees supply shade from the sun and shelter from the wind,
+thus retarding evaporation. The roots of the trees hold the soil from
+being washed away. The dead leaves and fallen stems provide humus, and,
+on account of the water-holding capacity of humus, the forest floor acts
+like a sponge, preventing floods in wet seasons and droughts in dry
+times.
+
+6. ANIMALS.--Pupils should make a list of all burrowing animals and look
+for examples. The work of the earthworms is especially interesting. By
+eating the soil, they improve its texture and expose it to the air.
+Their holes admit air and water to the soil. The worms also drag leaves,
+sticks, and grass into their holes and thus add to the humus.
+
+Darwin estimated that the earthworms in England passed over ten tons of
+soil an acre through their bodies annually. This is left on the surface
+and makes a rich top-dressing.
+
+TILLING THE SOIL
+
+1. It makes the soil finer, thus increasing the surface for holding film
+water and enabling it to conduct more water by capillarity.
+
+2. It saves water from evaporation. (See Experiments 7 and 8, Form III.)
+
+3. It aerates the soil, enabling roots to thrive better.
+
+4. It drains (hence warms) the soil, assuring more rapid growth.
+
+5. It kills weeds.
+
+A large part of the work with soils may be done in connection with the
+garden studies, though most of the above mentioned experiments may be
+tried in the school-room. In ungraded schools any of the experiments may
+be made instructive to all the Forms.
+
+Pupils should be asked to acquaint themselves with the common implements
+used on the farm. They should ascertain the special service rendered by
+each. See _Circular 156_, Dominion Department of Agriculture.
+
+GARDEN WORK
+
+The work in gardening for Form IV should be connected with some definite
+line of experimental work. The garden should be so planned that a part
+of it can be used exclusively for experimental work. Co-operation with
+the Farmer's Experimental Union of the Ontario Agricultural College at
+Guelph is advisable at this point. The following list of experiments is
+suggested as suitable for boys especially, but no pupil should attempt
+more than one experiment each year.
+
+EXPERIMENTS IN PLOTS OUT-OF-DOORS
+
+Experimental plots may be of different sizes, according to the space
+available, from a yard square to a rod square or larger. A plot 10 ft. 5
+in. by 20 ft. 10 in. is almost 1/200 of an acre, so that the actual
+yield on such a plot when multiplied by 200 is an approximation of the
+yield an acre.
+
+1. Testing of varieties of grains, vegetables, or root seeds, including
+potatoes new to the district.
+
+2. Testing different varieties of clovers and fodder grasses. These
+plots should be so situated that they can remain for three years.
+
+3. Thick and thin sowing of grain: Use plots not less than four feet
+square. They may be tried most easily with wheat, oats, or barley,
+although any species of grain may be used. Use four plots of the same
+size, equal in fertility and other soil conditions. In No. 1 put grains
+of wheat or oats, as the case may be, two inches apart each way. In No.
+2 put the grains two inches apart in the row and the rows four inches
+apart. In No. 3 put the grains four inches apart in the row and the rows
+four inches apart. In No. 4 put the grains four inches apart in the row
+and the rows eight inches apart.
+
+If possible, weigh the straw and grain when cut and the grain alone when
+dry and shelled out of the heads.
+
+4. Deep and shallow growing of grain: Use four plots similar to those in
+experiment No. 3. Put the same amount of seed in the different plots. In
+No. 1, one inch deep; in No. 2. two inches deep; in No. 3, four inches
+deep, and in No. 4, six inches deep. Note which is up first, and which
+gives the best yield and best quality.
+
+5. Early and late sowing: Three plots are required. Plant the same
+amount of seed in each and cover to the same depth. Plant No. 1 as early
+as the soil can be made ready; No. 2, two weeks later; and No. 3, two
+weeks later than No. 2. Compare the quality and the yield.
+
+6. Effect of sowing clover with grain the first year: Only two plots are
+required. Sow the same amount of wheat or oats on each plot. On one
+plot put a moderate supply of red clover and none on the other. Weigh
+(or estimate), as in Experiment 3 above, the straw and the grain
+produced on each.
+
+7. Effect of a clover crop on the grain crop succeeding it the following
+year: The same two plots must be used as in No. 6. When the grain was
+cut the previous autumn, the plots should have been left standing
+without cultivation until spring. When the clover has made some growth,
+spade it down and prepare the other plot in the same way. Rake them
+level and sow the same amount of grain in each again. Weigh the crops
+produced on each.
+
+8. Test quality, yield, and time of maturity of several varieties of the
+same species. Samples of such varieties of wheat as Red Fife, White
+Fife, Preston, Turkey Red, Dawson's Golden Chaff, White Russian, etc.,
+may be obtained from the Central Experimental Farm at Ottawa, if not
+available in the district.
+
+9. Effect of different fertilizers (1) on the same crop, (2) on
+different crops: This can be done either out-of-doors in small plots or
+indoors, using pots or boxes.
+
+(1) Effect on the same crop: For example, oats on plots four feet
+square. The following standard fertilizers may be used: stable manure,
+nitrate of soda, muriate of potash, and bone meal.
+
+On plot No. 1, a dressing of stable manure,
+
+On plot No. 2, four oz. nitrate of soda,
+
+On plot No. 3, four oz. muriate of potash,
+
+On plot No. 4, eight oz. bone meal,
+
+On plot No. 5, two oz. nitrate of soda, two oz. muriate of potash, and
+four oz. bone meal.
+
+On plot No. 6, use no fertilizer. Record results.
+
+(2) Effect on different crops: Try a series of experiments similar to
+the above, using (a) peas instead of oats, (b) using corn, (c)
+using cabbage, (d) using potatoes.
+
+FUNCTION OF PARTS OF PLANTS
+
+This may be introduced in Form III and continued in the next Form.
+Already the attention of the pupils has been directed to the essential
+organs of the flower, namely, stamens and pistil. They have noticed the
+two kinds of flowers on pumpkins, corn, and many trees. They have seen
+that only the pistillate flowers produce fruit and seeds, and that when
+the staminate flowers have shed their pollen, they die. They have seen
+the yellow dust that the stamens contain and have seen bees laden with
+it as they emerge from the heart of the flower. Have them watch the bee
+as it enters the flower and notice how it invariably rubs some part of
+its pollen-covered body against the pistil. When on the moist, sticky
+top of the pistil, these little pollen-grains soon begin to grow,
+sending a delicate tube down to the bottom of the pistil to the ovary.
+Inside the ovary are little bodies called the ovules that are moistened
+by a fluid that comes from this delicate pollen tube, and at once they
+begin to enlarge and eventually become the seeds. The coverings
+surrounding them complete the true fruit.
+
+The use of the root in supporting the plant in its normal position is
+apparent to every pupil. To demonstrate the firm hold it has upon the
+soil, have the pupils try to pull up some large plants by the roots.
+They will then notice the branching roots of some plants and the long
+conical roots of others. Compare the colour and other surface features
+of the root and stem. To prove its feeding power, try two plants of
+equal size, taking the root off one and leaving it uninjured in the
+other. Set them side by side in moist earth and notice which withers.
+Take all the leaves off a plant and keep them off for a few weeks. The
+plant dies if its leaves are not allowed to grow. Keep it in the dark
+for a long time, and it finally dies even when water and soil are
+supplied. The leaves, therefore, are essential and require sunlight in
+doing their work. Their complete work will be considered later.
+
+HOW THE PLANT GETS ITS FOOD FROM THE SOIL
+
+When seeds germinate, the lower end of the caulicle, which becomes the
+root, bears large numbers of root-hairs. Inside the root-hairs is
+protoplasm and cell sap. These root-hairs grow among the soil particles
+which lie covered over with a thin film of moisture. It is this moisture
+that is taken up by these root-hairs, and in it is a small amount of
+mineral matter in solution which helps to sustain the plant. The
+transmission of soil water through the delicate cell walls of these
+root-hairs is known as _osmosis_.
+
+GERMINATION OF SOME OF THE COMMON GRAINS
+
+Make a special study of corn, wheat, and buckwheat. Take three plates
+and put moist sand in each to a depth of about half an inch. Spread over
+this a piece of damp cloth. Put in No. 1, one hundred grains of corn; in
+No. 2, the same number of grains of wheat; and in No. 3, the same number
+of grains of buckwheat, peas, or beans. Cover each plate with another
+piece of damp cloth and invert another plate over each to prevent drying
+out. Keep in a warm room and do not allow the cloths to become dry. If
+one of the cloths be left hanging six or eight inches over the side of
+the plate and dipping into a dish of water, the whole cloth will be kept
+moist by capillarity. Note the following points:
+
+1. Changes in the size of the seeds during the first twenty-four hours.
+
+2. In which variety germination seems most rapid.
+
+3. The percentage vitality, that is, the number of seeds which germinate
+out of one hundred.
+
+4. The nature of the coverings and their use. (Protection to the parts
+inside)
+
+5. The parts of the seed inside. (Buckwheat, pea, or bean divides into
+two parts, which become greenish and are called seed leaves. Wheat and
+corn do not divide thus.)
+
+6. The first signs of growth. A little shoot or tiny plant begins to
+develop at one end of the seed. Note which end bears this tiny plant.
+
+7. Note the development of this embryo plant and the formation of stem
+and root.
+
+8. Of what use is the bulky part of the seed? To answer this, let the
+pupils separate the white part of a kernel of corn, which is attached to
+the embryo plant, from the pulpy mass surrounding it. Set five such
+plants in moist sand and also five germinating seeds not so dissected.
+Pupils will discover that the mass surrounding the embryo is for the
+nourishing of the embryo plant. It is a little store of food prepared by
+the mother plant for the little ones that grow from the seeds. Note that
+it disappears as the plant grows.
+
+To further show the great value of this stored plant food, put a
+large-sized pea in a pot of moist moss or sawdust for a few days. When
+it has germinated and its root is a couple of inches long, place the pea
+in a thistle tube or small funnel, with the root projecting down the
+tube into a glass of water in which the funnel tube rests. Place all in
+a sunny window and note how much growth the plant is able to make
+without any food except that which the seed contained.
+
+9. Note the development of the root and root-hairs. It is by means of
+these root-hairs that the plant absorbs moisture. The branching form of
+the root gives greater support to the plant and increased area for
+absorption of water by means of root-hairs.
+
+To show the direction taken by the root and also by the shoot, take a
+glass jar with straight sides like a battery jar (a large fruit jar will
+do); line it inside with a layer of blotting-paper and then fill it with
+moist sawdust. Drop seeds of sunflower or squash down between the paper
+and the glass. The moisture from the blotting-paper will cause them to
+sprout, the shoot or stem always taking an upward direction and the root
+turning downward quite regardless of the position in which the seeds
+were placed.
+
+10. Apply this study to seed planting: Plant seeds of wheat in four pots
+of soil, No. 1, half an inch deep; No. 2, two inches; No. 3, four
+inches; No. 4, six inches. Repeat this experiment, using buckwheat. What
+seeds are up first? What seeds last? Which are best after a week? After
+three or four weeks? From this experiment could you recommend a certain
+depth for the planting of wheat and buckwheat?
+
+11. Does the kind of soil make any difference? To answer this have
+different pupils choose different soils, such as (1) coarse sand, (2)
+fine sand, (3) wet clay, (4) humus or leaf mould, (5) mixed soil or
+loam; and let each put in grains of wheat, two inches deep.
+
+Allow five other pupils to plant seeds of buckwheat, under similar
+conditions. Treat all pots alike as to time of watering and quantity of
+water used on each and give them all equal light and heat. Note which
+come up first. Which are highest in one week, in two weeks, in four
+weeks?
+
+12. This study may be continued in the garden by planting one plot each
+of corn, wheat, and buckwheat. Plots ten feet by twenty feet are large
+enough. Observe the rate of development in the plots. Which seems to
+mature most quickly? Which blossoms first? In what respect are the
+leaves of these plants alike or unlike? How do the stems differ?
+
+Examine the blossoming and seed formation. When the grains are ripe,
+collect a hundred of the best looking and most compact heads of each
+grain and also a hundred of the smallest heads of each. Dry, shell, and
+store the two samples of each grain in separate bottles. These samples
+are for planting the following spring.
+
+13. To show the need of moisture in germination: Fill two flower-pots or
+cans with dry sand; put seeds of sunflower in each, covering them an
+inch deep. Put water in one pot and none in the other. Examine both pots
+after two or three days.
+
+14. To show that heat is needed for germination of seeds: Plant
+sunflower seeds in two pots as above; place one in a warm room and the
+other in a cold room or refrigerator; water both and observe result in
+three days.
+
+15. To show that air is necessary for germination: Fill a pint sealer
+with hydrogen (the gas collected over water in the usual way, as shown
+in any Chemistry text-book). Put a few sunflower seeds in a small sponge
+or wrap them loosely in a piece of soft cloth. Keeping the mouth of the
+jar which has been inverted over water and filled with hydrogen, under
+the surface of the water, introduce the sponge containing the seeds, by
+putting it under the water and pushing it up into the jar. Seal the jar
+without letting the gas get out. Put some seeds in another jar in a wet
+sponge and leave the jar uncovered. Compare results after several days.
+
+Here is a second experiment to prove this. Boil some water in a beaker
+in order to drive out all the air, put a few grains of rice in the
+water, and then add enough oil to make a thin covering on the water.
+This covering will prevent air from mixing with the water again. Put
+some rice in a second beaker without boiling or adding the oil. Leave
+the beakers side by side in a warm room for a week. The seeds will not
+germinate in the boiled water. It is not always easy to get rice that
+will germinate, but when it has been procured, the experiment is easy
+and very interesting. Any other seeds, such as those of pond lily and
+eel-grass, that germinate readily under water, will do as well as rice.
+
+WEEDS
+
+Pupils in this Form should learn to identify a large number of weeds and
+weed seeds. The collecting and mounting of weeds and weed seeds the
+previous summer and autumn will have helped to prepare them for this
+work. In the spring, when flower and vegetable seeds are coming up in
+the garden, it is often difficult for pupils to distinguish the weeds
+from the useful plants. To help in this work of distinguishing the good
+from the bad, the teacher should arrange for a plot having, say, ten
+rows, one row for each variety of weed selected. Each row should be
+designated by a number instead of a name. The identification of these
+growing weeds by name may be given as a problem to the pupils. This
+plot should remain until the pupils have observed the manner of growth
+of each variety, the blossoming and seed formation, and then the root
+growth, as they are being uprooted previous to the ripening of the seed.
+Each pupil should prepare a brief description of each of the ten
+varieties studied, and make drawings of the plant and its parts,
+especially the leaf, flower, seed, and root. They should learn the best
+methods of eradication and add these in their notes. _Farm Weeds_ will
+be of great value in such weed studies.
+
+VINES
+
+Suitable garden vines for study are climbing nasturtium, scarlet runner
+bean, and Japanese hop. Their growth and method of climbing should be
+compared with that of the sweet-pea and morning-glory already studied.
+Observe particularly the kind of leaves and their arrangement, also the
+flowers and fruit. Observe also the gourd family--melon, cucumber, and
+squash--their tendency to climb, and the nature of their flowers and
+fruit.
+
+WILD FLOWERS
+
+In schools where the studies with garden plants, such as have been
+indicated, can be carried on, there will not be as much time for the
+study of wild flowers as in those schools where no garden plants are
+available. A definite list of wild flowers for study should be arranged
+by the teacher early in spring.
+
+The following are common in most parts of Ontario: squirrel-corn,
+Dutchman's breeches, blue cohosh, dog's-tooth violet, water-parsnip,
+catnip, and mallow. In each study observe the following points:
+
+1. Description of leaves and flowers for identification.
+
+2. Storing of food in underground parts.
+
+3. Time of flowering. (Pupils of this Form should keep a flower
+calendar.)
+
+4. Description of fruit and seeds and how these are scattered.
+
+5. Their location, and the character of the soil where found.
+
+Encourage the pupils to transplant a specimen of each from the woods to
+the school or home garden. Moist humus soil and partial shade are the
+best conditions for the growth of these wild wood flowers. Review the
+type lessons given already for Primary classes and apply the information
+thus gained to the observational study of the varieties of flowers named
+above.
+
+PLANTING OF TREES, SHRUBS, AND HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS IN HOME AND SCHOOL
+GROUNDS
+
+This work should be the outcome of the plans made in the winter. If each
+pupil does a little toward the carrying out of the scheme of planting,
+the grounds will soon be wonderfully improved. The teacher should guard
+against over-planting and arrange for the care of the shrubs and flowers
+during the summer holidays.
+
+New varieties of herbaceous perennials, grown from seed planted the
+previous summer or procured from homes in the vicinity, should be
+introduced. As most herbaceous perennials become too thick after a few
+years, it is necessary to keep digging some out year by year, dividing
+and resetting them, and fertilizing the ground.
+
+Native trees and shrubs should be placed so as to obscure undesirable
+views, such as closets and outbuildings, rough fences, or bare walls.
+This principle in planting should be observed in the case of trees.
+Evergreen trees are particularly desirable as screens and shelters from
+cold winds. No planting should be done, on the other hand, that would
+shut out a good view of the school or obscure a beautiful landscape. Too
+frequently unused corners of the school ground are covered with weeds.
+Prevent this by putting trees there and also shrubs. Keep all centres
+open, and let the trees, shrubs, and flowering perennials be massed
+about the corners and along the sides. The informal method of planting
+is to be preferred to formal planting of designs. The Public School
+Inspector will provide a copy of a departmental circular on the
+_Improvement of School Grounds_, which should be carefully studied by
+every teacher.
+
+SHADE TREES
+
+Consider suitable varieties to plant for shade and for ornamental
+effects. White elm, hard and soft maple, white birch, pines, and spruces
+are among the best. Elms and maples are excellent trees for roadside or
+street planting, and should be about forty feet apart. Spruces and pines
+may be planted five or six feet apart along the north and west, to act
+as a wind break. Otherwise, evergreens are best when planted in
+triangular clumps. White birch is particularly ornamental against a dark
+background of evergreens. Specimen trees of horse-chestnut, beech, ash,
+and hickory are also desirable.
+
+TRANSPLANTING
+
+The best time for transplanting trees is in the autumn after the leaves
+have fallen, or in the spring before the buds have opened.
+
+In planting a tree, the following points should be observed:
+
+1. Preserve as much of the root system as possible, and trim off all
+broken or bruised portions.
+
+2. Do not expose the roots to sun or wind while out of the ground. This
+is especially important in transplanting evergreens.
+
+3. Reduce the top of the tree sufficiently to balance with the reduced
+root system.
+
+4. Set the tree a few inches deeper than it was before transplanting.
+
+5. Pack the best top soil closely about the roots, so as to exclude all
+air spaces, since these tend to dry the delicate roots.
+
+6. If the ground is very dry, water should be used in planting;
+otherwise it is of no advantage. Water the trees thoroughly once a week
+in dry weather during the first season.
+
+7. After planting, put a mulch or covering of fine straw, grass, or
+chips for two or three feet around the tree; or establish a soil mulch
+and keep down the grass by frequent cultivation. Grass roots dry out the
+soil.
+
+8. In the case of deciduous trees, have the lowest limbs at least seven
+feet from the ground. Evergreens, however, should never be trimmed, but
+should have their branches right from the ground up--this uninterrupted
+pyramid form is one of their chief beauties.
+
+
+ANIMAL STUDIES
+
+SCALE INSECTS
+
+SAN JOSÉ SCALE
+
+Certain districts in Ontario and especially those bordering on Lake Erie
+have suffered from the ravages of this scale on apple, peach, pear, and
+other orchard trees. A hand lens should be used in studying these
+insects, observations being carried on from May to September.
+
+Carefully examine the fruits and twigs of orchard trees for evidences of
+the presence of the scale, and learn to identify it and to recognize the
+damages resulting from its attacks.
+
+Observe the almost circular flat scale of a grayish colour and having a
+minute point projecting upward at its centre. The young insects which
+emerge from underneath these scales in the spring crawl around for a
+time, then become stationary, and each one secretes a scale under which
+it matures. The mature males have two wings but the mature females are
+wingless. Note the withering of fruit and twigs due to the insects'
+attacks and the minute openings in the skin of the twig, made by the
+insertion of the sucking mouth parts.
+
+Describe to the pupils how the insect was transported from Japan to
+America and how it is now spread on nursery stock. Give a brief account
+of its destructiveness in the orchards of Essex and Kent.
+
+     (Consult _Bulletin No. 153, Common Insects Affecting Fruit
+     Trees and Fungus Diseases Affecting Fruit Trees_. Bethune &
+     Jarvis, Department of Agriculture, Toronto, free.)
+
+OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE
+
+This is very common throughout the Province on apple and pear trees.
+Observe the unhealthy appearance of the leaves of the infested trees,
+the inferior quality of the fruit, and the gray scales shaped like tiny
+oyster-shells.
+
+The means of destroying these pests should be discussed. The Bulletins
+named above give detailed information in reference to spraying and
+fumigation.
+
+CUTWORMS
+
+     (Consult _Bulletin 52_, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.)
+
+Cutworms are the larvæ of medium-sized brown moths that fly at night.
+There are many species of cutworms, all of which are destructive to some
+forms of plants or grasses, grains, and vegetables.
+
+The larvæ are rather thick, naked, worm-like forms. They burrow into the
+ground, but emerge at night to feed by cutting through the stems of
+tender plants or by feeding upon the leaves. For the most effective
+method of dealing with these refer to what is said on "Combating Garden
+Pests", Form II.
+
+When a field is known to be infested with cutworms, it is a good plan to
+spread poisoned clover or cabbage leaves over the ground before the seed
+is planted.
+
+WHITE GRUBS
+
+White grubs are large, fat, white larvæ of June beetles. These beetles
+are the well-known large, brown, clumsy beetles that blunder into the
+house at night in May or June and drop with a thud upon the floor.
+Three years are spent in the larval form, the grubs living underground
+and feeding on the roots of plants, especially the roots of grains and
+grasses.
+
+Since they are found chiefly in fields recently ploughed from grass,
+they may be held in check by rotation of crops and by fall ploughing,
+which exposes the larvæ to the winter frosts.
+
+In May or June, when the adults are feeding on the foliage of fruit and
+shade trees, spraying the trees with London purple is quite effective
+for destroying the beetles before they have laid their eggs among the
+roots of the grass.
+
+Hogs destroy many larvæ by rooting in the soil to find them for food.
+
+CRAYFISH
+
+Search for the crayfish in streams and ponds. Why is the crayfish hard
+to find? Hard to capture?
+
+Obtain a living crayfish from a pond or stream and place it in a jar of
+water or in an aquarium.
+
+The crayfish should not be placed in an aquarium containing insects and
+small fish which are to be kept, as it is fierce and voracious.
+
+The pupils should study the living animal, noting its habit of lurking
+under stones; the sweeping of the water with the feelers; the backward
+movement in swimming, produced by bending the tail sharply underneath
+the body; the walking by means of four pairs of legs, the great claws
+being used to turn the animal; the use of the great claws in seizing
+prey and holding food near the mouth; the movements of the small
+appendages under the front part of the animal and the water currents
+caused by these; the movements of the small appendages under the abdomen
+of the animal.
+
+FRESHWATER MUSSEL
+
+The freshwater mussel--"clam" as it is usually called by
+school-boys--may be found in almost any stream.
+
+Place a mussel in the aquarium, and note the opening and closing of the
+valves of the shell; the hinge connecting the valves; the foot
+protruding from the shell; the movements by means of the foot; the
+mantle lobes lining the shell and visible at the open margins; the two
+siphons at the rear of the animal--water currents may be observed
+entering the upper and emerging from the lower of these. Infer uses for
+these currents. Touch the edge of the upper siphon and observe how
+quickly the shell is closed.
+
+Compare the mussel with the snail as to movements and shell.
+
+Compare also with the oyster and sea clam.
+
+Examine empty shells and notice the pearly layer of the shell, the
+action of the hinge, and the marks on the shell to which the muscles for
+closing the shell were attached.
+
+State all the means of protection that you have discovered the animal to
+possess.
+
+
+BIRD STUDY
+
+     (Consult _Bulletin 218. Birds of Ontario in Relation to
+     Agriculture_, Nash. Department of Agriculture, free.)
+
+If the lessons in bird study which are prescribed for Forms I, II, and
+III have been successful, the pupils of Form IV should have a fair
+acquaintance with the habits of the common birds.
+
+A very interesting exercise is to hold a trial upon those birds which
+are viewed with suspicion or which are openly condemned as objectionable
+neighbours. A pupil is appointed to act as judge and other pupils give
+evidence. The evidence must be based upon the pupil's personal
+observations on the habits of the bird.
+
+The following birds are named, and brief descriptions of their habits
+are given as suggestions for materials for bird trials:
+
+ROBIN.--He steals small fruits, such as cherries, currants, etc. He is a
+cheerful, jolly neighbour, who sings sweetly. He eats great numbers of
+cutworms and white grubs.
+
+CROW.--He robs the nests of other birds, and steals chickens, corn, and
+potatoes. He helps the farmer by killing cutworms, white grubs,
+grasshoppers, and other insects.
+
+WOODPECKER.--The members of this family are grievously persecuted
+because they are believed to injure orchard and shade trees by pecking
+holes in the bark from which to suck the sap. Careful observations tend
+to show that the trees are benefited rather than injured by this
+treatment. Woodpeckers are undoubtedly beneficial as destroyers of
+wood-borers and other obnoxious insects.
+
+CROW-BLACKBIRD (bronzed grackle).--His habits are similar to those of
+the crow.
+
+OWLS.--All the owls are held in ill repute because of the crimes of a
+few members of the family. Very seldom does an owl steal a chicken;
+their food consists chiefly of mice, rats, squirrels, grasshoppers, and
+other field pests.
+
+HAWKS.--The hawks are unjustly persecuted for crimes of which they are
+seldom guilty. As a class they are beneficial, not injurious birds.
+
+
+DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF NATURE STUDY
+
+There is a knowledge of Nature which contributes to the earning of a
+living. This is the _utilitarian_ aspect.
+
+There is a knowledge of Nature which may be obtained in such a way as to
+develop the observing and reasoning powers and give a training in
+scientific method. This is the _disciplinary_ aspect.
+
+There is a knowledge which leads the pupil to perceive the beautiful in
+Nature, to enjoy it and so add to his happiness. This is the _æsthetic_
+aspect.
+
+There is a knowledge of Nature which, through the life history of plant
+and animal, throws light on the pupil's own life, gives him an insight
+into all life in its unity, and leads him to look up reverently to the
+author of all life--through Nature up to Nature's God. This is the
+_spiritual_ aspect.
+
+Each of these aspects supplements, interprets, or enforces the others.
+He who omits or neglects any of these perceives but a part of a complete
+whole. Nature Study develops in the pupil a sympathetic attitude toward
+Nature for the purpose of increasing the joy of living. It leads him to
+see Nature through the eyes of the poet and the moralist as well as
+through those of the scientist.
+
+Nature Study is concerned with plants, birds, insects, stones, clouds,
+brooks, etc., but it is not botany, ornithology, entomology, geology,
+meteorology, or geography. In this study, it is the spirit of inquiry
+developed rather than the number of facts ascertained that is important.
+Gradually it becomes more systematic as it advances until, in the high
+school, it passes over into the science group of studies.
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS OF THESE ASPECTS
+
+The simple observational lessons on The Robin, pages 96-7, form the
+bases for further study in more advanced classes. This bird as a
+destroyer of worms, beetles, etc., is a valuable assistant to the farmer
+as, indeed, are practically all birds in this Province. Birds such as
+the duck, goose, partridge, etc., are valuable as food, and laws are
+made to protect them during certain seasons.
+
+The training in inference which a pupil receives in studying the parts
+of a plant or an animal and the adaptation of these parts to function is
+valuable. He studies the plant and the animal as living organisms with
+work to do in the world, and learns how what they do and their manner of
+doing it affect their form and structure.
+
+The short, curved, and slightly hooked bill of the hen and her method of
+breaking open a pea pod or splitting an object too large to swallow
+shows the bill to be a mallet, a wedge, or a pick as the case may be. A
+study of the bills of the duck, woodpecker, and hawk will reveal the
+method by which each gets his food and how the organ is adapted to its
+purpose. Similar studies of the feet and legs of birds will make the
+idea of adaptation increasingly clear.
+
+Literature is rich with tributes to the songs of the birds. The thoughts
+and feelings aroused or suggested by these songs are the topics of much
+of the world's enduring poetry. Longfellow, in his "Birds of
+Killing-worth" (_Tales of a Wayside Inn_) sings exquisitely of the use
+and beauty and worth of birds. Shelley, in his "Skylark", describes in
+glowing verse "the unbodied joy" that "singing still dost soar and
+soaring ever singest". Wordsworth hears the blithe new comer, the
+Cuckoo, and rejoices
+
+    Though babbling only to the vale
+      Of sunshine and of flowers
+    Thou bringest unto me a tale
+      Of visionary hours.
+
+The life story of a bird throws light on our own lives, puts us in
+sympathy with the lives of others, teaches kindness, teaches the duties
+and responsibilities of the higher to the lower, teaches respect for all
+life.
+
+Observe the helpless bird in its nest, helpless as a baby. See the care
+given by the mother and father to keep it warm till its down and
+feathers grow, to feed it till it is able to leave the nest. Watch the
+parents teaching it to fly by repeated short flights. Olive Thorn Miller
+in her _Bird Ways_ gives a delightful sketch of the father robin
+teaching a young robin where to look for worms and how to dig them up.
+When that task was accomplished, his father began to give him "music
+lessons", that is, practice in imitating the Robin's song. Thus, the
+young bird was equipped to make a living and to enjoy life. The social
+life of birds, as they sing their matins, as they choose their mates, as
+they gather in flocks preparatory to migration, furnish many
+opportunities for indirect teaching on many of life's problems.
+
+The Ontario Readers contain many poems that may be used in connection
+with the Nature Study lessons. To supplement the observational studies
+of birds, read from the Third Reader, "The Robin's Song", "The
+Red-winged Blackbird", "The Sandpiper", "To the Cuckoo", "Bob White",
+"The Lark and the Rook", "The Poet's Song".
+
+In the Third Reader, the lessons on "The Fountain", "The Brook", "The
+Tide River", and "A Song of the Sea" form a group that can be used in
+connection with lessons in geography. "A Song for April", "An Apple
+Orchard in the Spring", "The Gladness of Nature", "The Orchard", "A
+Midsummer Song", "Corn-fields", "The Corn Song", "The Death of the
+Flowers", "The Frost", "The Snow-storm", make another group to accompany
+a study of the seasons. A similar group may be selected from the Fourth
+Reader.
+
+The pupil who has made a study of a "brook" as a lesson in geography and
+defined it as "a small natural stream of water flowing from a spring or
+fountain" will, if he studies the following lines from Tennyson's "The
+Brook" and perceives by careful observation the descriptive accuracy and
+aptness of the words in italics, realize that the poet sees much that
+the geographer has not included in his definition.
+
+    I _chatter_ over stony ways,
+      In little sharps and trebles,
+    I _bubble_ into eddying bays,
+      I _babble_ on the pebbles.
+
+           *     *     *
+
+    I _slip_, I _slide_, I _gloom_, I _glance_.
+      Among my skimming swallows;
+
+           *     *     *
+
+    I _murmur_ under moon and stars.
+
+
+           *     *     *
+
+
+    I _linger_ by my shingly bars.
+      I _loiter_ round my cresses.
+
+Correlations such as these add greatly to the pupil's interest in this
+subject.
+
+Given a teacher with a love of out-of-door life, with observant eyes and
+ears, and the spirit that sympathizes with children's curiosity and
+stimulates inquiry, Nature Study will be a joy and an inspiration to
+pupils.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Teachers' Manuals: Nature Study, by 
+Ontario Ministry of Education
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS: NATURE ***
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Teachers' Manuals: Nature Study, by 
+Ontario Ministry of Education
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ontario Teachers' Manuals: Nature Study
+
+Author: Ontario Ministry of Education
+
+Release Date: July 28, 2008 [EBook #26139]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS: NATURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, Josephine Paolucci and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net.
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h1>ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS</h1>
+
+<h2>NATURE STUDY</h2>
+
+
+<h3>AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION</h3>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+TORONTO<br />
+THE RYERSON PRESS<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<span class="smcap">Copyright, Canada, 1915, by<br />
+The Minister of Education for Ontario</span><br />
+Second Printing, 1918<br />
+Third Printing, 1923<br />
+Fourth Printing, 1924<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><span class="smcap">Page</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Prefatory Note</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Course of Study&mdash;Details</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_3'>3</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter I</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Aims of Nature Study; General Methods</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Concrete Material</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_15'>15</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Topics and material must suit the season; matter suited to the child; use of the commonplace; order of development of lesson; problems in observation; note-books and records</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_15'>15</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The School Garden</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_19'>19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Suggestions; Garden Expenses</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_20'>20</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Excursion</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_23'>23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Its value; difficulties; frequency; suggestions for ungraded schools; the teacher's excursions; a type excursion</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_23'>23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Collections</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_29'>29</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Animal Studies</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_29'>29</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Domestic animals; references</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_29'>29</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Birds; references</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_30'>30</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Insects; insect collections</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_34'>34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Butterfly and moth collections</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_37'>37</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Plant Collections</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_39'>39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter II</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Physical Science Phase of Nature Study</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Instructions and General Method</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Value of such lessons; conditions under which experiments should be performed</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Correlations of physical science phase</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_44'>44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;List of Reference Books and Bulletins on garden and plant study, physical science, and animal study</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_45'>45</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Physical Science&mdash;Equipment for Forms III and IV</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_47'>47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Desirable apparatus</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_47'>47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Chemicals</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Apparatus</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_50'>50</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Grenet cells; decomposition apparatus; pneumatic trough; spirit-lamp; barometer; hygrometer; hints</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_50'>50</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Time Apportioned to Nature Study</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter III. Form I: Autumn</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Garden Work</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_54'>54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Lessons on a Garden Plant&mdash;Pansy</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_55'>55</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Observation Exercises on the Dandelion</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_57'>57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Correlation with literature and reading</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_59'>59</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Dwarf Nasturtium</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_59'>59</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Seeds</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_60'>60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Field exercise; class-room lesson based on the collection</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_60'>60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Seed Dispersal</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_61'>61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Lesson on seeds that fly; correlations</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_62'>62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Twigs and Buds</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_62'>62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Lesson on Twigs</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_62'>62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Further study of twigs; review lesson</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_63'>63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Lesson on Buds</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_65'>65</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Review lesson; correlations</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_65'>65</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Leaves</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_66'>66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Field exercises; class-room lesson on leaves</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_66'>66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Garden Studies</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_68'>68</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Studies in the Pupil's individual Plot</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_68'>68</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Studies from the Garden as a Whole</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bulb Planting</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Lesson on Bulbs and Bulb Planting</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Planting the bulb</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_70'>70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Chapter IV. Form I: Winter</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pet Animals</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_72'>72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;The Rabbit&mdash;Lesson on; correlations</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_72'>72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;The Domestic Cat&mdash;detailed study</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_75'>75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;The Pigeon&mdash;detailed study</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_76'>76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Winter-blooming Plants&mdash;Observation and care of</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Trees</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Pines of the Locality</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;The White Pine</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Field exercises; class-room lesson</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;The Elm&mdash;field exercise</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_82'>82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Domestic Animals</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;The Horse; correlations</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Domestic Birds</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_85'>85</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;The Duck&mdash;class-room lesson</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_85'>85</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter V. Form I: Spring</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Garden Work</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_87'>87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Garden Studies&mdash;window garden</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_88'>88</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wild Flowers</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_90'>90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Recognition of Wild Flowers</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_91'>91</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Lesson in Outline&mdash;Bloodroot; correlations</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_91'>91</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Insect Study</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Cecropia, or Emperor-moth</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Dragon-fly</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_94'>94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Other Conspicuous Insects</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_95'>95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Birds</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_95'>95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;The Robin</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_96'>96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Field exercises; the nest, eggs, and young</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_96'>96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;The Song-sparrow</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Field exercises; class-room lesson</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Sheep</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_99'>99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Problems for Field Work</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_99'>99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter VI. Form II: Autumn</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bulb Planting Out-of-Doors</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_101'>101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Bed for growing bulbs; planting of bulbs indoors</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_101'>101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Garden Work</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_103'>103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Seed selection; storing seeds; harvesting and storing of garden crops; class-room lesson; autumn cultivation</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_103'>103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Garden Studies</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_106'>106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Garden Records; correlations</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_107'>107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Climbing Plants</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_108'>108</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Trees</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_109'>109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Storing of Tree Seeds</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_110'>110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>A Flower</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_110'>110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Type&mdash;Nasturtium</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_110'>110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Soil Studies</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_112'>112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Kinds of Soil</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_112'>112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Animal Studies</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_113'>113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Bird Migration; correlations</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_113'>113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Common Wild Animals</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;General method for field work</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;The Wood-chuck</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_116'>116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;The Chipmunk&mdash;field exercises</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_117'>117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;The Eastern Swallow-tail Butterfly</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_118'>118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter VII. Form II: Winter</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Care of Plants in the Home</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_120'>120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Trees</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_121'>121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Collection of Wood Specimens</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_122'>122</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Related Reading</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_122'>122</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Dog</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_123'>123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Class-room lesson; observation exercises; correlations</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_123'>123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lessons Involving Comparison</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_125'>125</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Cat and dog; experiments for assisting in the study of the cat; comparison of the horse and cow</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_126'>126</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Squirrel</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_129'>129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Field exercises; class-room lesson</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_129'>129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Winter Birds</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_130'>130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Field exercises; class-room lesson; correlations</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_130'>130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Animals of the Zoological Gardens</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_132'>132</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter VIII. Form II: Spring</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Garden Work</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_133'>133</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Combating Garden Pests</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_134'>134</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Cutworms; root-maggots; flea-beetles</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_134'>134</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Seed Germination</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_135'>135</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Plants for Individual Plots</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_137'>137</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Studies Based on Observations of Growing Plants</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_137'>137</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Planting and care of sweet-peas</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_138'>138</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wild Flowers</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_139'>139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Weeds</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_140'>140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Apple Tree</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_141'>141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Field exercise; class-room lesson; field exercise following class-room lesson</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_141'>141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bird Study</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_143'>143</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Toad</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_143'>143</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Field exercises; class-room lesson; detailed study; life history of the toad</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_143'>143</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Earthworm</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_147'>147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Class-room lesson; references</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_148'>148</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Aquarium</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_149'>149</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Aquarium Specimens</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_150'>150</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mosquito; study of adult form; the development; references</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_150'>150</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Caddice-fly</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_152'>152</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Insects Suitable for Lessons in Form II</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_153'>153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter IX. Form III: Autumn</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Garden Work</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_154'>154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Treatment of Fungi</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_154'>154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Treatment of Insects&mdash;cabbage-worm</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_156'>156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Plants</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_158'>158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Annuals, Biennials, and Perennials</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_158'>158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Class-room lesson</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_158'>158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Garden Studies</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_159'>159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Annuals, biennials, perennials</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_159'>159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Special Study of Garden Plants</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_160'>160</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sweet-pea; pumpkin; corn; correlations</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_160'>160</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Seed Dispersal&mdash;Lesson</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_164'>164</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Detailed Study of Seed Dispersal&mdash;class-room lesson</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_165'>165</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Seed collections; man as a disperser of seeds</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_166'>166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Sugar Maple&mdash;field exercises</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_168'>168</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Maple Leaves&mdash;class-room lesson; correlations</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_169'>169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Weed Studies</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_170'>170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Observation lesson on weed seeds</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_171'>171</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Grasshopper&mdash;field exercises; class-room lesson</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_172'>172</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Aphides</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_174'>174</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tomato Worm&mdash;the adult; the chrysalis</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_175'>175</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Crow; correlations</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_177'>177</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter X. Form III: Winter</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Care of Plants in the Home</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_178'>178</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Plant Cuttings</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_179'>179</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Selection of cuttings; potting of rooted cuttings</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_179'>179</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Evergreens&mdash;class-room lesson</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_181'>181</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Collection of Wood Specimens</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_182'>182</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Related Reading</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_183'>183</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>How Animals Prepare for Winter</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_183'>183</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Summary of Lessons; correlations</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_184'>184</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Chickens</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Conversation lesson; arithmetic lesson; care and food of chickens</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Physical Science Phase of Nature Study</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_188'>188</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Solids, Liquids, and Gases</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_188'>188</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Change of State</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_189'>189</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Expansion of Solids</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_189'>189</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Practical applications; questions for further investigation</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_190'>190</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Expansion of Liquids&mdash;applications</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_192'>192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;The Thermometer</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_193'>193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Expansion of Air</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_194'>194</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Sources of Heat and Light</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_194'>194</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Notes for a Series of Lessons</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_194'>194</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Conduction&mdash;problems</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_196'>196</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Convection&mdash;problems, convection in gases; applications</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_198'>198</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Radiation of Heat&mdash;problems</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_199'>199</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter XI. Form III: Spring</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Window Boxes</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_201'>201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Window Gardens</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_201'>201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Suitable Plants; Fertilizer</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_202'>202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Soil Studies&mdash;constituents</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_203'>203</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Garden Work</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_206'>206</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Tree Seeds</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_207'>207</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Transplanting&mdash;flowers, vegetables, tree seedlings</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_208'>208</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Budding</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_209'>209</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Cuttings&mdash;leaf cuttings, root cuttings, layering</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_211'>211</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Planting and Care of Herbaceous Perennials</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_212'>212</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Garden Studies&mdash;biennials</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_212'>212</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wild Flowers</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_213'>213</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Study of the Trillium</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_213'>213</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Class-room lesson on the specimens</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_213'>213</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Adaptations of Animals</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_215'>215</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bird Types</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_217'>217</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Woodpeckers&mdash;the downy woodpecker; observations</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_217'>217</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Flycatchers</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_219'>219</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Wrens</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_219'>219</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Insect Types</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_220'>220</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Cabbage-butterfly</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_220'>220</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Tussock-moth</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_221'>221</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Potato beetle</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_222'>222</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;References</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_222'>222</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fish&mdash;Observations; problems; references</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_223'>223</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter XII. Form IV: Autumn</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Garden Work</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_225'>225</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Herbaceous Perennials from Seed</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_226'>226</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Trees&mdash;Deciduous; references</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_227'>227</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Trees in Relation to their Environment</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_228'>228</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fruits&mdash;Excursion to a well-kept orchard</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_229'>229</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Small Fruits</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_230'>230</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Autumn Wild Flowers&mdash;Milkweed; correlations</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_230'>230</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Trees&mdash;The White Pine</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_232'>232</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Outline of a class-room lesson on the white pine; correlations; references</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_235'>235</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Apples&mdash;Comparative Lesson on Winter Varieties</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_239'>239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;King, Baldwin, Northern Spy</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_239'>239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Codling moth; references</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_240'>240</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Some Common Animal Forms; references</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_242'>242</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Centipeds and millipeds</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_243'>243</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Salamanders or newts</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_243'>243</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Spiders</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_244'>244</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bird Studies</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_245'>245</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter XIII. Form IV: Winter</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Forest Trees</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_246'>246</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Evergreens; Wood Specimens</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_246'>246</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fruits</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_247'>247</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Weeds and Weed Seeds</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_248'>248</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Physical Science Phase of Nature Study</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_248'>248</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Water Pressure&mdash;exercises</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_248'>248</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Study of Air</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_249'>249</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The barometer; the common pump; expansive force of air; composition of air; oxygen; carbon dioxide; impurities of air</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_250'>250</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Solutions of Solids</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_255'>255</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Solutions of Liquids</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_256'>256</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Solutions of Gases</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_256'>256</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Limestone</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_256'>256</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Carbon</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_257'>257</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Hydrogen</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_258'>258</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Magnets</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_258'>258</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Electricity</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_259'>259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Steam</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_260'>260</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Farm tools&mdash;machines; problems</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_260'>260</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter XIV. Form IV: Spring</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Method of Improving Home and School Grounds</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_263'>263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Making and Care of a Lawn; References</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_264'>264</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Soil Studies</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_265'>265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Weight</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_265'>265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Subsoils</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_266'>266</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Fertilizers&mdash;experiments</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_268'>268</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Soil-forming Agents</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_268'>268</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Tilling the Soil</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_269'>269</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Garden Work&mdash;experiments in plots out-of-doors</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_270'>270</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Function of Parts of Plants</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_273'>273</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;How the plant gets its food from the soil; germination of some of the common grains</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_274'>274</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Weeds</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_278'>278</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Vines</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_279'>279</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Wild Flowers</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_279'>279</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Planting of Trees, Shrubs, and Herbaceous</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Perennials in Home and School Grounds</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_280'>280</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shade trees; transplanting</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_281'>281</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Animal Studies</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_283'>283</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Scale Insects</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_283'>283</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;San Jos&eacute; scale; oyster-shell bark-louse; cutworms; white grubs</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_283'>283</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Crayfish</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_285'>285</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Freshwater Mussel</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_286'>286</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bird Study</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_287'>287</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Different Aspects of Nature Study</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_288'>288</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFATORY NOTE</h2>
+
+<p>This Manual is placed in the hands of the teachers in the hope that the
+suggestions which it contains on lesson topics, materials, books of
+reference, and methods in teaching will be found helpful to all teachers
+and in particular to those who have had little or no instruction in
+Nature Study during their academic or professional training.</p>
+
+<p>The first Chapter of the Manual discusses topics which have general
+reference to the subject as a whole. The remaining part of the Manual
+deals more particularly with the subject in its application to the
+different Public and Separate School Forms. While this division of the
+matter into Forms is convenient for general classification, it is not to
+be regarded as arbitrary. Materials and methods of presentation suitable
+for one class of pupils in a certain Form might, under different
+conditions, be quite unsuitable for another class of pupils in the same
+Form. For example, work which would be suitable for a class in Form I
+made up of pupils admitted to a school at seven or eight years of age,
+after two years' training in a kindergarten where nature lessons
+received special attention, would not be suitable for a Form I class
+made up of pupils admitted to a school at five years of age with no such
+previous training. In selecting work for any class the teacher,
+therefore, should not be guided solely by the arbitrary divisions of the
+Manual, but should exercise his own judgment, taking into account his
+environment and the attainments of his pupils. To facilitate such a
+selection, page references are given in the details of the Course of
+Study, which in reality forms a detailed expansion of the Public and
+Separate School Course in Nature Study. By means of these references,
+the teacher may find, in any department of the subject, typical matter
+suited to the development of his pupils.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The numerous type lessons that are contained in the Manual are intended
+to suggest principles of method that are to be applied in lessons upon
+the same and similar topics, but the teacher is cautioned against
+attempting to imitate these lessons. This error can be avoided by the
+teacher's careful preparation of the lesson. This preparation should
+include the careful study of the concrete materials that are to be used.
+The books, bulletins, etc., that are named in the Manual as references
+will be found helpful.</p>
+
+<p>To facilitate teaching through the experimental and investigation
+methods, special attention has been given to the improvising of simple
+apparatus from materials within the reach of every teacher.</p>
+
+<p>From the character of the subject the Course of Study must be more or
+less elastic, and the topics detailed in the programme are intended to
+be suggestive rather than prescriptive. It may be that, owing to local
+conditions, topics not named are among the best that can be used, but
+all substitutions and changes should be made a subject of consultation
+with the Inspector. The treatment of the subject must always be suited
+to the age and experience of the pupils, to the seasons of the year,
+accessibility of materials, etc. Notes should not be dictated by the
+teacher. Mere information, whether from book, written note, or teacher,
+is not Nature Study. The acquisition of knowledge must be made secondary
+to awakening and maintaining the pupil's interest in nature and to
+training him to habits of observation and investigation.</p>
+
+<p>As a guide to the minimum of work required, it is suggested that at
+least one lesson be taught from the subjects outlined under each general
+heading in the detailed Course of Study, with a minimum average of three
+lessons from the subjects under each general heading.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PUBLIC AND SEPARATE SCHOOL</h2>
+
+<h3>COURSE OF STUDY</h3>
+
+<h4>DETAILS</h4>
+
+
+<h3>FORM I</h3>
+
+<h4>AUTUMN</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Garden Work and Garden Studies:</span></p>
+
+<p>Division of the garden plots, removal of weeds and observations on these
+weeds, identification of garden plants, observation lessons based on
+garden plants, selection of seeds, harvesting and disposing of the crop.
+(See pp. 54-9.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Study of Plants:</span></p>
+
+<p>Class lessons based on a flowering garden plant, as pansy, aster,
+nasturtium; study of a field plant, as buttercup, goldenrod, dandelion.
+(See pp. 55-9.)</p>
+
+<p>Potted and garden plants: Observation lesson based on a bulb; planting
+bulbs in pots, or in the garden. (See pp. 69-71.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Birds and Conspicuous Insects:</span></p>
+
+<p>Identification of a few common birds, as robin, English sparrow,
+meadow-lark; observation lessons on the habits of these birds;
+collection of the adult forms, the larv&aelig; and the cocoons of a few common
+moths and butterflies, as emperor-moth, promothea moth, eastern
+swallow-tail butterfly. (See pp. 30-9 and 93-8.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Common Trees:</span></p>
+
+<p>Identification of a few common trees, as white pine, elm, maple;
+observations on the general shape, branches, leaves, and bark of these
+trees. (See pp. 62-7 and 79-82.)</p>
+
+<h4>WINTER</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Farm Animals, including Fowls:</span></p>
+
+<p>Habits and characteristics of a few domestic animals, as horse, cow,
+sheep, hen, duck; the uses of these animals, and how to take care of
+them. (See pp. 83-6.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pet Animals:</span></p>
+
+<p>Observations on the habits, movements, and characteristics of pet
+animals, as cat, pigeon, bantam, rabbit, etc.; conversations about the
+natural homes and habits of these animals, and inferences upon their
+care. (See pp. 72-7.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Common Trees:</span></p>
+
+<p>Observations on the branching of common trees. (See pp. 79-82.)</p>
+
+<h4>SPRING</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Garden Work:</span></p>
+
+<p>Preparation, planting, and care of the garden plot; observations on the
+growing plants. (See pp. 87-90.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Flowers:</span></p>
+
+<p>Identification and study of a few spring flowers, as trillium,
+bloodroot, hepatica, spring-beauty. (See pp. 90-2.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Birds and Insects:</span></p>
+
+<p>Identification and study of the habits of a few common birds, as
+song-sparrow, blue-bird, wren; observations of the form and habits of a
+few common insects, as house-fly, dragon-fly. (See pp. 30-3 and 93-9.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Common Trees:</span></p>
+
+<p>Observations on the opening buds of the trees which were studied in the
+Autumn. (See p. 65.)</p>
+
+
+<h3>FORM II</h3>
+
+<h4>AUTUMN</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Birds and Insects:</span></p>
+
+<p>Autumn migration of birds; identification and observations on the habits
+and movements of a few common insects, including their larval forms, as
+grasshopper, eastern swallow-tail butterfly. (See pp. 113-4 and 118-9.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Animals of the Farm, Field, and Wood:</span></p>
+
+<p>Observations on the homes and habits of wild animals, as frog, toad,
+squirrel, ground-hog; habits and structures, including adaptive
+features, of domestic animals, as dog, cat, horse, cow. (See pp. 83 and
+123-30.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Trees of the Farm, Roadside, Wood, and Orchard:</span></p>
+
+<p>Observations on the shapes, sizes, rate of growth, and usefulness of
+common orchard, shade, and forest trees, as apple, elm, horse-chestnut.
+(See pp. 109-10.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Wild Flowers and Weeds:</span></p>
+
+<p>Identification and study of a few common weeds, noting their means of
+persistence and dispersal. (See pp. 139-40.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Care of Potted and Garden Plants:</span></p>
+
+<p>Preparation of pots and garden beds for bulbs; selecting and storing
+garden seeds; observations on the habits of climbing plants, and
+application of the knowledge gained to the care required for these
+plants. (See pp. 101-9 and 120.)</p>
+
+<h4>WINTER</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Birds:</span></p>
+
+<p>Identification of winter birds and study of their means of protection
+and of obtaining food. (See pp. 130-2.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Animals of the Farm:</span></p>
+
+<p>Comparative study of the horse and cow, of the dog and cat, and of the
+duck and hen. (See pp. 123-8.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Animals of the Park and Zoological Garden:</span></p>
+
+<p>Observations on the general structural features, noting the natural
+adaptations of such animals as bear, lion, deer, tiger, etc. (See p.
+132.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Trees:</span></p>
+
+<p>Winter study of trees, noting buds, branches, and foliage of spruce,
+cedar, horse-chestnut, etc. (See pp. 121-3.)</p>
+
+<h4>SPRING</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Birds and Insects:</span></p>
+
+<p>Observations on the structure, adaptations and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> development of insect
+larv&aelig; kept in an aquarium, as larva of mosquito, dragon-fly,
+caddice-fly; spring migration of birds. (See pp. 149-153.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Animals of the Field and Woods:</span></p>
+
+<p>Observations on the forms, homes, habits, and foods of wild animals,
+continued. (See pp. 114-8, 143-9.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Orchard Trees:</span></p>
+
+<p>The buds and blossoms of apple, and cherry or plum, observed through the
+stages up to fruit formation. (See pp. 141-3.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Experiments in the Germination of Seeds:</span></p>
+
+<p>Germination of seeds and general observations on the stages of
+development; testing the conditions required for seed germination;
+introductory exercises in soil study as a preparation for seed planting.
+(See pp. 133-8 and 112-3.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Wild Flowers and Weeds:</span></p>
+
+<p>Field and class-room study of marsh marigold, Jack-in-the-pulpit,
+violet, etc. (See pp. 139-40.)</p>
+
+
+<h3>FORM III</h3>
+
+<h4>AUTUMN</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Birds and Insects:</span></p>
+
+<p>Observations on the habits and the ravages of common noxious insects, as
+cabbage-worm, grasshopper, tussock-moth, etc.; discussion of means of
+checking these insects. (See pp. 156-7 and 172-7.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Farm and wild Animals of the Locality:</span></p>
+
+<p>Field study and class-room lessons on the habits and structure,
+including adaptive features, of common<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> animals, as musk-rat, fox, fish,
+sheep. (See pp. 99 and 183-5.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Garden and experimental Plots:</span></p>
+
+<p>Harvesting of garden and field crops; preparation of cuttings from
+geraniums, begonia, currant, etc.; identification of garden plants; seed
+dispersal. (See pp. 154, 179-80, and 164-8.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Study of common Flowers, Trees, and Fruits:</span></p>
+
+<p>Characteristics of annuals, biennials, and perennials; life histories of
+common plants, as sweet-pea, Indian corn, etc. (See pp. 158-64 and
+168-70.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Study of Weeds and their Eradication:</span></p>
+
+<p>Identification of the common noxious weeds of the locality; collection,
+description, and identification of weed seeds; cause of the prevalence
+of the weeds studied, and means of checking them. (See pp. 164-8 and
+170-2.)</p>
+
+<h4>WINTER</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Farm and wild Animals of the Locality:</span></p>
+
+<p>Habits and instincts of common domestic animals, as fowls, sheep, and
+hogs; the economic values of these animals. (See pp. 185-8.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Garden Work and experimental Plots:</span></p>
+
+<p>The characteristics of common house plants, and care of these plants.
+(See pp. 178-9.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Study of common Flowers, Trees, and Fruits:</span></p>
+
+<p>Comparative study of common evergreens, as balsam, spruce, hemlock,
+etc.; collection of wood specimens. (See pp. 181-3.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Observations of natural Phenomena:</span></p>
+
+<p>Simple experiments to show the nature of solids, liquids, and gases.
+(See pp. 188-9.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heat Phenomena:</span></p>
+
+<p>Source of heat, changes of volume in solids, liquids, and gases,
+accompanying changes in temperature; heat transmission; the thermometer
+and its uses. (See pp. 189-200.)</p>
+
+<h4>SPRING</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Birds and Insects:</span></p>
+
+<p>Field and class lessons on the habits, movements, and foods of common
+birds, as crow, woodpecker, king-bird, phoebe, blackbird, etc. (See pp.
+217-22.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Garden Work and experimental Plots:</span></p>
+
+<p>Care of garden plots; transplanting; testing best varieties; making of,
+and caring for, window boxes; propagation of plants by budding,
+cuttings, and layering. (See pp. 201-3 and 208-13.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Common wild Flowers:</span></p>
+
+<p>Field lessons on the habitat of common wild flowers; class-room study of
+the plant organs including floral organs; study of weeds and weed seeds
+continued, also the study of garden and field annuals, biennials, and
+perennials. (See Autumn.) (See pp. 170-2 and 212-5.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Soil Studies and Experiments:</span></p>
+
+<p>The components of soils, their origin, properties, and especially their
+water absorbing and retaining properties; the relation of soils to plant
+growth; experiments demonstrating the benefits of mulching and of
+drainage. (See pp. 203-6.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>FORM IV</h3>
+
+<h4>AUTUMN</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Injurious and beneficial Insects and Birds:</span></p>
+
+<p>Identification of common insects and observations on their habits; means
+of combating such insects, as codling moth, etc.; bird identification,
+and study of typical members of some common families, as woodpeckers,
+flycatchers; spiders. (See pp. 217-22 and 240-5.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ornamental and experimental Garden Plots:</span></p>
+
+<p>Observations and conclusions based upon experimental plots; common
+shrubs, vines, and trees, and how to grow them. (See pp. 225-30 and
+279.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Functions of Plant Organs:</span></p>
+
+<p>Simple experiments illustrating roots as organs of absorption, stems as
+organs of transmission, and leaves as organs of respiration,
+transpiration, and food building. (See pp. 273-8.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Economic Study of Plants:</span></p>
+
+<p>Comparative study of varieties of winter apples, of fall apples, or of
+other fruits of the locality; visits to orchards; weed studies
+continued. (See Form III.) (See pp. 229-30 and 239-40.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Relation of Soil and Soil Tillage to Farm Crops:</span></p>
+
+<p>Soil-forming agents, as running water, ice, frost, heat, wind, plants,
+and animals, and inferences as to methods of tillage. (See pp. 268-70.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>WINTER</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Air and Liquid Pressure:</span></p>
+
+<p>Simple illustrations of the buoyancy of liquids and of air; simple tests
+to demonstrate that air fills space and exerts pressure; the application
+of air pressure in the barometer, the common pump, the bicycle tire,
+etc. (See pp. 248-52.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide:</span></p>
+
+<p>Generate each of these gases and test for properties, as colour, odour,
+combustion, action with lime-water; the place occupied by these gases in
+nature. (See pp. 252-5.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Practical Application of Heat, Steam, and Electricity:</span></p>
+
+<p>Making a simple voltaic cell, an electro-magnet, and a simple
+electroscope. Test the current by means of the two latter and also with
+an electric bell. Explain the application of the above in the electric
+telegraph and motor. Simple demonstration of pressure of steam; history
+and uses of the steam-engine. (See pp. 259-60.)</p>
+
+<h4>SPRING</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Injurious and beneficial Insects and Birds:</span></p>
+
+<p>Identification of noxious insects and observations thereon; study of
+representatives of common families of birds, as thrushes, warblers,
+sparrows; economic values of birds. (See pp. 283-5 and 286-7.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Aquatic Animals:</span></p>
+
+<p>Observation exercises upon the habits, movements,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> and structures,
+including adaptive features of aquatic animals, as crayfish, mussel,
+tadpole, etc. (See pp. 285-6.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ornamental and experimental Garden Plots:</span></p>
+
+<p>Experimental plots demonstrating the benefits of seed selection;
+ornamental plots of flowering perennials and bulbous plants; how to
+improve the school grounds and the home lawns. (See pp. 270-3 and
+263-5.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tree Studies:</span></p>
+
+<p>Comparison of the values of the common varieties of shade trees, how to
+plant and how to take care of shade trees. (See pp. 280-2.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Functions of Plant Organs:</span></p>
+
+<p>Examination of the organs of common flowers; use of root, flower organs,
+fruit, and seed. (See pp. 273-8.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Economic Study of Plants:</span></p>
+
+<p>Plants of the lawn and garden; weed studies. (See pp. 263-5, 270-3, and
+278-9.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Relation of Soil and Soil Tillage to Farm Crops:</span></p>
+
+<p>Study of subsoils; capillarity in soils; benefits of crop rotations and
+mulching; experiments in fertilizing, mulching, depth of planting, and
+closeness of planting. (See pp. 265-7.)</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
+<h2>NATURE STUDY</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+
+<h3>THE AIMS OF NATURE STUDY</h3>
+
+<p>Nature Study means primarily the study of natural things and preferably
+of living things. Like all other subjects, it must justify its position
+on the school curriculum by proving its power to equip the pupil for the
+responsibilities of citizenship. That citizen is best prepared for life
+who lives in most sympathetic and intelligent relation to his
+environment, and it is the primary aim of Nature Study to maintain the
+bond of interest which unites the child's life to the objects and
+phenomena which surround him. To this end it is necessary to adapt the
+teaching, in matter and method, to the conditions of the child's life,
+that he may learn to understand the secrets of nature and be the better
+able to control and utilize the forces of his natural environment.</p>
+
+<p>At all times, the teacher must keep in mind the fact that it is not the
+quantity of matter taught but the interest aroused and the spirit of
+investigation fostered, together with carefulness and thoroughness,
+which are the important ends to be sought. With a mind trained to
+experiment and stimulated by a glimpse into nature's secrets, the worker
+finds in his labour a scientific interest that lifts it above drudgery,
+while, from a fuller understanding of the forces<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> which he must combat
+or with which he must co-operate, he reaps better rewards for his
+labours.</p>
+
+<p>The claims of Nature Study to an educative value are based not upon a
+desire to displace conventional education, but to supplement it, and to
+lay a foundation for subsequent reading. Constant exercise of the senses
+strengthens these sources of information and develops alertness, and at
+the same time the child is kept on familiar ground&mdash;the world of
+realities. It is for these reasons that Nature Study is frequently
+defined as "The Natural Method of Study". Independent observation and
+inference should be encouraged to the fullest degree, for one of the
+most important, though one of the rarer accomplishments of the modern
+intellect, is to think independently and to avoid the easier mode of
+accepting the opinions of others. Reading from nature books, the study
+of pictures, and other such matter, is not Nature Study. These may
+supplement Nature Study, but must not displace the actual vitalizing
+contact between the child and natural objects and forces.</p>
+
+<p>It is this contact which is at the basis of clear, definite knowledge;
+and clearness of thought and a feeling of at-homeness with the subject
+is conducive to clearness and freedom of expression. The Nature Study
+lesson should therefore be used as a basis for language lessons.</p>
+
+<p>Undoubtedly one of the most important educative values that can be
+claimed for Nature Study is its influence in training the pupil to
+appreciate natural objects and phenomena. This implies the widening and
+enriching of human interests through nurturing the innate tendency of
+the child to love the fields and woods and birds; the checking of the
+selfish and destructive impulses by leading him to see the usefulness of
+each creature, the harmony of its relation to its environment, and the
+significance of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> its every part. Nor is it a mistake to cultivate the
+more sentimental love of nature which belongs to the artist and the
+poet. John Ruskin emphasizes this value in these words: "All other
+efforts are futile unless you have taught the children to love trees and
+birds and flowers".</p>
+
+
+<h3>GENERAL METHODS IN NATURE STUDY</h3>
+
+
+<h4>CONCRETE MATERIAL</h4>
+
+<p>It is evident that concrete material must be provided and so distributed
+that each member of the class will have a direct opportunity to exercise
+his senses, and, from his observations, to deduce inferences and form
+judgments. The objects chosen should be mainly from the common things of
+the locality. The teacher should be guided in the selection by the
+interests of the pupils, first finding out from them the things upon
+which they are expending their wonder and inquiry. Trees, field crops,
+flowers, birds, animals of the parks, woods, or farmyard, all form
+suitable subjects for study.</p>
+
+<h4>TOPICS AND MATERIAL MUST SUIT THE SEASON</h4>
+
+<p>The material should be selected not only with reference to locality but
+also with due regard to season. For example, better Nature Study lessons
+can be taught on the elm tree of the school grounds than on the giant
+Douglas fir of British Columbia; and on the oriole whose nest is in the
+elm tree than on the eagle portrayed in Roberts' animal stories; and it
+is manifestly unwise to teach lessons on snow in summer, or on flowers
+and ants in winter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>MATTER MUST BE SUITED TO THE CHILD</h4>
+
+<p>For the urban pupil the treatment of the material must be different from
+that in the case of the pupil of the rural school. Rural school pupils
+have already formed an extensive acquaintance with many plants and
+animals which are entirely unknown to the children of the city. The
+simpler facts which are interesting and instructive to the pupils of the
+urban classes would prove commonplace and trivial to rural pupils. For
+example, while it is necessary to show the city child a squirrel that he
+may learn the size, colour, and general appearance of the animal, the
+efforts of the pupil of the rural school should be directed to the
+discovery of the less evident facts of squirrel life.</p>
+
+<h4>USE OF THE COMMONPLACE</h4>
+
+<p>It must be kept in mind that besides leading the pupils to discover new
+sources of interest, the teacher should strive to accomplish that which
+is even greater, namely, to lead them to discover new truth and new
+beauty in old, familiar objects. It may be true that "familiarity breeds
+contempt" and there is always a danger that the objects with which
+children have associated in early life may be passed by as uninteresting
+while they go in search of something "new and interesting".</p>
+
+<p>For example, to be able to recognize many plants and to call them by
+name is no doubt something of an accomplishment, but it should not be
+the chief aim of the teacher in conducting Nature Study lessons on
+plants. It is of much greater importance that the child should be led to
+love the flowers and to appreciate their beauty and their utility. Such
+appreciation will result in the desire to protect and to produce fine
+flowers and useful plants,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> and this end can be reached only through
+intelligent acquaintanceship. There can be no true appreciation without
+knowledge, and this the child gets chiefly by personal observation and
+experiment. With reference to the wild flowers of the woods and fields,
+the method employed is that of continuous observation.</p>
+
+<h4>ORDER OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>Each animal or plant should be studied as a living, active organism. The
+attention of the pupils should be focused upon activities; for these
+appeal to the child nature and afford the best means for securing
+interest and attention. What does this animal do? How does it do it? How
+is it fitted for doing this? How does this plant grow? What fits it for
+growing in this way? These are questions which should exercise the mind
+of the child. They are questions natural in the spirit of inquiry in
+child nature and give vitality to nature teaching. They are an effective
+means of establishing a bond of sympathy between the child and nature.
+The child who takes care of a plant or animal because it is his own,
+does so at first from a purely personal motive, which is perfectly
+natural to childhood; but while he studies its needs and observes its
+movements and changes, gradually and unconsciously this interest will be
+transferred to the plant or animal for its own sake. The nature of the
+child is thus broadened during the process.</p>
+
+<h4>PROBLEMS IN OBSERVATION</h4>
+
+<p>In studying the material provided, whether it be in the class-room, or
+during a nature excursion, or by observations made in the farmyard at
+home, the teacher must guide the efforts of the pupils by assigning to
+them definite and suitable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> problems. Care must be taken to reach the
+happy mean of giving specific directions without depriving the pupils of
+the pleasure of making original discovery. For example, instead of
+asking them to study the foot of the horse and learn all they can about
+it, more specific problems should be assigned, such as: Observe how the
+hoof is placed on the ground in walking. What are the arrangements for
+lessening the shock when the hoof strikes the ground? Examine the under
+surface of the hoof and discover what prevents the unshod horse from
+slipping.</p>
+
+<h4>NOTE-BOOKS AND RECORDS</h4>
+
+<p>In Grades higher than Form I, written exercises should be required and
+also sketches representing the objects studied. For this purpose a
+Nature Study note-book is necessary&mdash;a loose-leaf note-book being
+preferable because of necessary corrections, rearrangements, additions,
+or omissions.</p>
+
+<p>In all records and reports, independence of thought and of expression
+should be encouraged. The drawing and the oral or written description
+should express what is actually observed, not what the book or some
+member of the class says has been, or should be, observed. The
+descriptions should be in the pupil's own words, because these are most
+in keeping with his own ideas on the subject. More correct forms of
+expression may be obtained when notes are taken from the teacher's
+dictation, but this is fatal to the development of originality.</p>
+
+<p>The disparity of the results in individual work gives opportunity for
+impressing upon the pupil, in the first place, the necessity for more
+accurate observation and, secondly, the impossibility of reaching a
+correct general<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> conclusion without having studied a large number of
+examples. The development of critical and judicious minds, which may
+result from carefully observing many examples and generalizing from
+these observations, is vastly more important than the memorizing of many
+facts.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE SCHOOL GARDEN</h3>
+
+<p>In the study of garden plants there is added a certain new interest
+arising out of experimentation, cultivation, and ownership. The love of
+the gardener has in it elements that the love of the naturalist does not
+usually possess&mdash;a sort of paternal love and care for the plants
+produced in his garden; but every gardener should be a naturalist as
+well. Most people have a higher appreciation for that which they own and
+which they have produced or acquired at some expense or personal
+sacrifice; therefore it is that the growing of plants in home and school
+gardens or in pots and window boxes is so strongly advocated throughout
+this Course. Ownership always implies responsibility, which is at once
+the chief safeguard of society and the foundation of citizenship. A
+careless boy will never respect the property of others so much as when
+he himself has proprietary interests involved. We believe, therefore,
+that every teacher should encourage his pupils to cultivate plants and,
+if possible, to own a plot of ground however small.</p>
+
+<p>The teacher should not merely aim at <i>making</i> a garden in the school
+grounds. The great question is rather how best to use a school garden in
+connection with the training of boys and girls. To learn to do garden
+work well is indeed worth while and provides a highly beneficial kind of
+manual training. To understand something of soils and methods of
+cultivation, of fertilizers and drainage, the best kinds of flowers,
+vegetables, fruits, and farm crops, and how<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> to grow them successfully,
+is very important in such a great agricultural country as this; but the
+greatest of all results which we may hope to realize in connection with
+school gardening is the ennobling of life and character. The pupils are
+taught to observe the growing plants with great care, noting
+developments day by day. This adds to their appreciation of the beauties
+and adaptations found among plants on every side, and cannot fail to
+produce good results in moral as well as in mental development. The
+teachers must always remember that the gardeners with whom they are
+working are more important than the gardens which they cultivate.</p>
+
+<p>The best garden is not always the largest and most elaborate one. It is
+rather the garden that both teacher and pupils have been most deeply
+interested in. It is the garden in which they have experienced most
+pleasure and profit that makes them want to have another better than the
+last. No school is too small to have a garden of some kind, and no
+garden is too small to become the joy and pride of some boy or girl.</p>
+
+<h4>SUGGESTIONS</h4>
+
+<p>For the benefit of teachers beginning their duties on the first of
+September, in school sections where school gardening has never been
+carried on, the following suggestions are offered:</p>
+
+<p>1. See if the grounds will permit of a part being used for a garden. To
+ascertain this, note the size of the present grounds and see if they
+meet the requirements of the Department as laid down in the Regulations.
+If they do not, consult your Inspector at once and acquaint him with
+your plans. If the grounds are to be enlarged, try to take in sufficient
+land of good quality to make a good garden.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> The part chosen for the
+garden should be both convenient and safe. Examine the soil to see if it
+is well drained and sufficiently deep to permit of good cultivation.
+Lack of fertility can be overcome by good fertilizing.</p>
+
+<p>2. See that the fences and gates are in good repair. When circumstances
+will permit, a woven wire fence that will exclude dogs, pigs, and
+poultry is most desirable. If not used to inclose the whole grounds, it
+should at least inclose the part used for gardening.</p>
+
+<p>3. Begin modestly and provide room for extension as the work progresses.
+Sow clover on the part to be held in reserve for future gardening
+operations.</p>
+
+<p>4. If local public sentiment is not strongly in favour of school
+gardening, or is somewhat adverse, begin on a small scale. If the work
+is well done, you will soon have both moral and financial support.</p>
+
+<p>5. See that the land is well drained. Plough it early in the autumn and,
+if a load of well-rotted manure is available, spread it on the land
+before ploughing. Commercial fertilizer may also be used on the plots
+the following spring, but no stable manure.</p>
+
+<p>6. In spring, when dry enough, cultivate thoroughly with disc and drag
+harrows. Build up a compost heap in the rear of the garden with sods and
+stable manure, for use in the autumn and also the following spring.</p>
+
+<h4>GARDEN EXPENSES</h4>
+
+<p>In connection with those schools where the teacher holds a diploma from
+the Ontario Agricultural College in Elementary Agriculture and
+Horticulture, there is no difficulty in meeting the expenses for seeds,
+tools, fertilizers, and labour, as the Government grant for such
+purposes is sufficient. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> other schools, however, where the teacher
+holds no such diploma (and such is the case in most of the schools as
+yet), other means of meeting the expenses must be resorted to. The
+following are offered as suggestions along this line:</p>
+
+<p>1. Part of the grant made to every school for the maintaining of the
+school grounds should be available for school garden expenses.</p>
+
+<p>2. An occasional school entertainment may add funds that could not be
+used to better advantage.</p>
+
+<p>3. An occasional load of stable manure supplied free from neighbouring
+farms will help to solve the fertilizer problem.</p>
+
+<p>4. Donations of plants and seeds by the parents and other interested
+persons and societies will be forthcoming, if the teacher is in earnest
+and his pupils interested.</p>
+
+<p>5. If it is required, the trustees could make a small grant each year
+toward the cost of tools.</p>
+
+<p>6. Fencing and cultivation of the garden can often be provided for by
+volunteer assistance from the men of the school section.</p>
+
+<p>7. It is often possible to grow a garden crop on a fairly large scale,
+the school being formed into a company for this purpose and the proceeds
+to be used to meet garden expenses.</p>
+
+<p>8. The pupils can readily bring the necessary tools from home for the
+first season's work.</p>
+
+<p>9. Many Agricultural and Horticultural societies offer very substantial
+cash prizes for school garden exhibits, and all funds so obtained should
+be used to improve the garden from which the exhibits were taken.</p>
+
+<p>10. An earnest, resourceful teacher will find a way of meeting the
+necessary expenses.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>THE EXCURSION</h3>
+
+<p>Nature Study is essentially an outdoor subject. While it is true that a
+considerable amount of valuable work may be done in the class-room by
+the aid of aquaria, insectaria, and window boxes, yet the great book of
+nature lies outside the school-house walls. The teacher must lead or
+direct his pupils to that book and help them to read with reverent
+spirit what is written there by its great Author.</p>
+
+<p><b>Value.</b>&mdash;The school excursion is valuable chiefly because it brings the
+pupil into close contact with the objects that he is studying, permits
+him to get his knowledge at first hand, and gives him an opportunity of
+studying these objects in their natural environment. Incidentally the
+excursion yields outdoor exercise under the very best conditions&mdash;no
+slight advantage for city children especially; and it gives the teacher
+a good opportunity to study the pupils from a new standpoint. It also
+provides a means of gathering Nature Study material.</p>
+
+<p><b>Difficulties.</b>&mdash;Where is the time to be found? How can a large class of
+children be managed in the woods or fields? If only one class be taken,
+how, in an ungraded school, are the rest of the children to be employed?
+Will the excursion not degenerate into a mere outing? What if the woods
+are miles away? These are all real problems, and the Nature Study
+teacher, desirous of doing his work well, will have to face some of them
+at least.</p>
+
+<h4>SHORT EXCURSIONS</h4>
+
+<p>The excursion need not occupy much time. It should be well planned
+beforehand. <i>One</i> object only should be kept in view and announced to
+the class before starting.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> Matters foreign or subordinate to this
+should be neglected for the time. The following are suggested as objects
+for excursions:</p>
+
+<p><b>Objects.</b>&mdash;A bird's nest in an adjacent meadow; a ground-hog's hole; a
+musk-rat's home; crayfish or clams in the stream near by; a pine (or
+other) tree; a toad's day-resort; the soil of a field; the pests of a
+neighbouring orchard; a stone-heap or quarry; ants' nests or earthworms'
+holes; the weeds of the school yard; buds; the vegetable or animal life
+of a pond; sounds of spring; tracks in the snow; a spider's web.</p>
+
+<p>Such excursions may be accomplished at the expenditure of very little
+time. Many of them will take the pupils no farther than the boundaries
+of the school yard.</p>
+
+<p>Of course the locality will influence the character of the excursion, as
+it will that of the whole of the work done in Nature Study, but in any
+place the thoughtful teacher may find material for open-air work at his
+very door.</p>
+
+<p>Much outside work can be done without interfering with the regular
+programme. The teacher may arrange a systematic list of questions and
+problems for the pupils to solve from their own observations, and these
+observations may be made by the pupils at play hours, or while coming or
+going from school, or on Saturdays. The following will serve as an
+example of the treatment that may be followed:</p>
+
+<p><b>Pests of Apple Trees.</b>&mdash;Look on the twigs of your apple trees for little
+scales. Bring an infected branch to school. Note whether
+unhealthy-looking or dead branches are infected. Examine scales with a
+lens. Loosen one, turn it over, and examine with a lens the under side.</p>
+
+<p>For eggs, look closely at the twigs in June. Do you see white specks
+moving? If so examine them with a lens.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Are there any small, prematurely ripe apples on the ground in the
+orchard? Cut into one of these and look for a "worm". Look for apples
+with worm holes in the side. Are there worms in these apples? What is in
+them? Note the dirty marks that the larva has left. Keep several apples
+in a close box and watch for the "worms" to come out. Examine the bark
+of apple trees for pup&aelig; in the fall.</p>
+
+<h4>FREQUENCY OF EXCURSIONS</h4>
+
+<p>As to the frequency of excursions, the teacher will be the best judge.
+It is desirable that they occur naturally in the course of the Nature
+Study work as the need for them arises. One short trip each week with a
+single object in view is much more satisfactory than a whole afternoon
+each term spent in aimless wandering about the woods.</p>
+
+<h4>EXCURSIONS TO A DISTANCE</h4>
+
+<p>Long-distance excursions will of necessity be infrequent. If the woods
+are far away, one such trip in May or June would prove valuable to
+enable the pupils to become acquainted with wild flowers, and another in
+October to gather tree seeds, autumn leaves, pup&aelig;, and other material
+for winter study. When a large class is to be taken on an excursion,
+preparations must be made with special care. The teacher and one or two
+assistants should go over the ground beforehand and arrange for the work
+to be done. Some work must be given to every pupil, and prompt obedience
+to every command and signal must be required. The class, for example,
+may decide to search a small wood or meadow to find out what flowers are
+there. The pupils should be dispersed throughout the field to hunt for
+specimens and to meet at a known signal to compare notes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>SUGGESTIONS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS</h4>
+
+<p>1. The teacher may take all the classes, choosing an object of study
+from which he can teach lessons suitable to all ages, a bird's nest, for
+example.</p>
+
+<p>2. In many sections, the little ones are dismissed at 3.30 p.m.
+Opportunity is thus given for an excursion with the seniors.</p>
+
+<p>3. The older pupils may be assigned work and left in charge of a
+monitor, elected by themselves, who shall be responsible for their
+conduct, while the teacher is working outside with the lower Forms.</p>
+
+<p>4. Boys who are naturally interested in outdoor work should be
+encouraged to show the others anything of interest they may have found.</p>
+
+<p>5. An occasional Saturday excursion may be arranged.</p>
+
+<p><b>Discipline.</b>&mdash;The teacher should insist on making the excursion a serious
+part of the school work, not merely recreation. School-room behaviour
+cannot be expected, but the boisterous conduct of the playground should
+give place to earnest expectancy. The pupils should keep within sound of
+the teacher's voice (a sharp whistle may be used) and should promptly
+respond to every call. Topics of conversations should as far as possible
+be restricted to those pertaining to the object of the excursion or
+related matters.</p>
+
+<p>In visiting woods, children should be trained to study flowers in their
+environment and leave them there, plucking or digging for none except
+for some excellent reason. The same respect should be shown to birds and
+their nests, and to insects, and all other living things encountered.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>THE TEACHER'S EXCURSIONS</h4>
+
+<p>As soon as possible after coming to a section, the teacher should
+acquaint himself with the woods, groves, streams, or other haunts that
+may provide him with material for his indoor or outdoor work. He can
+then direct the pupils effectively. The teacher should go over the route
+of an excursion shortly before it takes place. This prevents waste of
+time in looking for the objects that he wishes his pupils to see. If the
+teacher wishes to increase his love for nature, he must take many walks
+without his pupils.</p>
+
+<p>The school garden offers a partial solution of the difficulties
+mentioned above. It brings a large amount of material to the doors of
+the school. Plants of the farm or the garden may be studied under
+various changeable conditions, and it will be seen that insect pests,
+weeds, and fungous diseases follow the lessons on plants, while lessons
+on birds and toads follow those on insects. With sections of the garden
+devoted to the cultivation of wild flowers, ferns, and forest trees, the
+specially organized excursion will become less of a necessity, although
+it will still continue to be a valuable factor in Nature Study work.</p>
+
+<p>After an excursion is over, it should be discussed in class. The various
+facts learned should be reviewed and related. If any pupils have made
+inaccurate observations, they should be required to observe again to
+correct their errors. Finally, the excursion may form the subject of a
+composition.</p>
+
+<h4>A TYPE EXCURSION</h4>
+
+<p><b>A Bird's Nest.</b>&mdash;The children have been instructed to study the
+meadow-lark, beginning about March twenty-first. While engaged in this
+work, a nest is discovered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> near the school. The teacher is informed and
+the pupils are conducted to the spot.</p>
+
+<p>What is growing in the field? Is there a long or a short growth? Did the
+mother bird make much noise as she rose from the nest? Did this help to
+reveal its presence? Is the nest easy to see? The class will halt a few
+paces from it and try to find it. How many eggs? Their colour? Note the
+arch of grass so beautifully concealing the nest.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to school, the facts observed are reviewed. The pupils may
+then express themselves by written composition or by drawings,
+paintings, or modellings of the nest, the eggs, or the surroundings.
+Frequent visits to the nest should not be made, and the pupils should be
+warned not to disturb the bird, as she may desert the nest on slight
+provocation.</p>
+
+<p>A second excursion may be made, when the eggs are hatched, to see the
+young birds.</p>
+
+<p><b>A Wasp's Nest.</b>&mdash;A nest having been discovered, the pupils note how it is
+suspended and how it is situated with regard to concealment or to
+protection from rain, its colour, the material of the nest, and the
+position of the entrance. Is the opening ever deserted? How many wasps
+enter and how many leave the nest in a minute? Try to follow one and
+watch what he does. Wasps may be found biting wood from an old board
+fence. This they chew into pulp, and from this pulp their paper is made.
+Get the children to verify this by observations. If the nest is likely
+to become a nuisance, smoke out the wasps, take the nest carefully down,
+and use it for indoor study, examining the inside of the nest to
+ascertain the nature and the structure of the comb which, in this case
+is entirely devoted to larv&aelig;.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>COLLECTIONS</h4>
+
+<p>General school collections of such objects as noxious weeds, weed seeds,
+wild flowers, noxious insects, leaves of forest trees, rocks or stones
+of the locality, etc., should be undertaken.</p>
+
+<p>All the pupils should contribute as many specimens as possible to each
+collection and should assist in the work of preparing them.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the above collections it is advisable that pupils who
+show special interest in this phase of nature work should be encouraged
+to make individual collections.</p>
+
+<p>Collections, when properly prepared, have a value within themselves,
+because of the beauty and variety of the forms that they contain, and
+also because of their usefulness in illustrating nature lessons and in
+the identifying of insects, weeds, etc. Nevertheless the chief value of
+the collection rests in the making of it, because of the training that
+it gives the collector in carefulness and thoroughness, and also because
+it causes the child to study natural objects in their natural
+surroundings.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ANIMAL STUDIES</h3>
+
+<h4>DOMESTIC ANIMALS</h4>
+
+<p>The teacher, before attempting to teach lessons on domestic animals,
+should carefully consider how his lessons will best fulfil the following
+important aims:</p>
+
+<p>1. The cultivation of a deeper sympathy for, and a more complete
+understanding of, farm animals.</p>
+
+<p>2. The development of more kindly treatment of domestic animals through
+awakened sympathy and more intelligent understanding.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. Implanting the idea that the best varieties are the most interesting
+and profitable.</p>
+
+<p>The following domestic animals are suggested as being suitable for
+study: horse, cow, sheep, dog, cat, goose, duck, hen.</p>
+
+<p>There are two practical methods of observation work; namely, home
+observation and class-room observation.</p>
+
+<p>The observation work on some of the animals named must of necessity be
+done out of school. In this the teacher can direct the efforts of the
+pupils by assigning to them definite problems to be solved by their
+study of the animals.</p>
+
+<p>The results of their observations can be discussed in the class in
+lessons of ten or fifteen minutes length. It may frequently be necessary
+to re-assign the problems in order that the pupils may correct their
+observations.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible for the teacher or the pupils to bring to the school-room
+certain of the animals, as the dog, cat, duck, hen, and the observations
+may then be made by the whole class directly under the guidance of the
+teacher.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<p>Crawford: <i>Guide to Nature Study.</i> Copp Clark Co., 90 cents.</p>
+
+<p>Dearness: <i>How to Teach the Nature Study Course.</i> Copp Clark Co., 60
+cents.</p>
+
+<p>Shaler: <i>Domesticated Animals.</i> Scribners, $2.50.</p>
+
+<p>Smith: <i>The Uses and Abuses of Domestic Animals.</i> Jarrold &amp; Sons, 50
+cents.</p>
+
+
+<h3>BIRDS</h3>
+
+<p>The chief aims in developing lessons on birds are:</p>
+
+<p>1. To teach the children to recognize their bird neighbours, to love
+them for their beauty, and sweet songs, and their sprightly ways.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. To train the pupils to appreciate them for their usefulness in
+destroying insect pests.</p>
+
+<p>Many persons spend their lives surrounded by singing birds, yet they
+never hear their songs. Many children see and hear the birds, but if
+they have not been brought into sympathetic relation with them, they
+never learn to appreciate them; on the contrary, their attitude becomes
+one of indifference or of destructiveness. Too often, boys cruelly
+destroy the nests and young and persecute the old birds with stone and
+catapult. The cowardice of such acts should be condemned, but more
+effective lessons may be taught through leading the children to find in
+the birds assistants and companions that contribute to their material
+progress and to their joy in life.</p>
+
+<p>With these aims in view, the teacher will readily perceive that the most
+effective work in bird study results from observing the living birds in
+their natural environment. Field excursions are valuable for this, but
+good results can seldom be attained when the class is large, for birds
+are shy and will hide or fly away from the unusual excitement. Quietness
+is absolutely necessary for success. Better results are obtained when
+only one or two accompany the teacher. If the teacher selects a few who
+are interested in birds, and there are always some pupils in every
+school who are readily interested in bird study, these few can soon be
+made sufficiently acquainted with the more common birds, so that they
+will be able to point them out to the other pupils of the school, and
+thus they become the teacher's assistants in the work.</p>
+
+<p>By beginning with the most common and conspicuous birds, an acquaintance
+grows rapidly. Early spring is a good time to begin, when the first
+birds return from their winter sojourn. The teacher and pupils may now
+learn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> to recognize the birds, because there are only a few, and these
+are easily seen, as the robin, blue-bird, junco, meadow-lark, goldfinch,
+bronzed grackle, sapsucker, blue jay, downy woodpecker, and flicker.</p>
+
+<p>The teacher, assisted by the pupils who already know these birds,
+directs the younger pupils to where these birds may be seen, and they
+are also required to describe the birds observed and to identify them by
+means of the bird chart or colour key.</p>
+
+<p>The description should include:</p>
+
+<p>Size (compare with some common bird); shape; colour of head, back, and
+breast; conspicuous markings, as crest, stripes, bright patches of
+feathers; movements in flight or on the ground; song, call notes;
+whether in flocks, or pairs, or single birds.</p>
+
+<p>Later in spring, other birds will attract attention, as the
+song-sparrow, ph&oelig;be, wren, horned lark, cowbird, and red-winged
+blackbird; while in summer the oriole, catbird, vesper sparrow, American
+redstart, night hawk, scarlet tanager, and crested flycatcher are some
+of the birds that will call for attention, because of their plumage,
+songs, or peculiar habits.</p>
+
+<p>When a nest has been found by a pupil, he should report it to the
+teacher, and the other pupils should be permitted to visit it only upon
+promising not to molest the nest or to annoy the mother bird by
+remaining too long near it. While it is well that the pupils should see
+the nest with the young birds, they should be taught to respect the
+desire of the bird for quietness and seclusion.</p>
+
+<p>In studying the nest, observe: Concealment, protection, size, comfort,
+number and colour of eggs, young birds, size, colour, covering, food.
+The pupils should be asked to observe the feeding of birds thus:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Watch the wrens returning to the nest; what do they carry to their
+young? Where do the wrens get the snails and grubs? Observe how the
+robins find the worms and how they pull them out of the ground. Follow
+the downy woodpecker to the apple tree and find out what he was pecking.
+Watch the crow in the pasture field and learn whether this bird kills
+grasshoppers and crickets.</p>
+
+<p>Observe the birds that pick seeds out of the weeds.</p>
+
+<p>Collecting birds' eggs should be condemned, because it nearly always
+leads to the robbing of the nests. The practice of exchanging eggs is
+the chief cause of this; for although an occasional boy will collect
+wisely, the greater number are simply anxious to add to their collection
+without regard for the sacredness of the birds' homes.</p>
+
+<p>A collection of birds' nests may be made after the nests have been
+abandoned for the season, and it will be found useful for interesting
+the pupils in the ingenuity, neatness, and instinctive foresight of the
+builders.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<p>Chapman and Reed: <i>Colour Key to North American Birds</i> $2.75</p>
+
+<p>Reed: <i>Bird Guide, Pts. I and II</i> .75</p>
+
+<p>Silcox and Stevenson: <i>Modern Nature Study</i> .75</p>
+
+<p>Cornish: <i>Thirty Lessons in Nature Study on Birds.</i> Dominion Book
+Company 1.00</p>
+
+<p><i>Canadian Birds in Relation to Agriculture.</i> This chart has pictures in
+colours of eighty-eight Canadian birds. G. M. Hendry Co., $3.00.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Audubon Charts.</i> These three charts have pictures of fifty-five
+birds; the pictures are larger in the latter charts than in the first
+named. G. M. Hendry Co., $2.00 each.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coloured Bird Pictures</i>, Mumford, Chicago, (separate coloured pictures)
+are very suitable for illustrating nature lessons on birds.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>INSECTS</h3>
+
+<p>There are three classes of insects that are of immediate interest to the
+pupils of the Junior Grades, and the teacher who makes direct use of
+this natural interest has taken possession of the key to success in
+insect study in the primary classes.</p>
+
+<p>The three classes, basing the classification upon their power to attract
+attention, are:</p>
+
+<p>The beautiful insects, including moths, butterflies, and beetles,</p>
+
+<p>The wonderful insects, including such insects as ants, ant-lions,
+caddice-flies, etc.,</p>
+
+<p>The economic insects, including bees, silk-worms, codling-moths, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Economic insects are interesting because of their relations to the
+occupations of the home. The successful growing of farm, orchard, and
+garden crops practically depends upon keeping a proper balance of insect
+and bird life.</p>
+
+<p>The teacher who feels that his knowledge of insects is too limited to
+allow him to undertake the teaching of this branch of Nature Study
+should cast his misgivings aside; for it is not difficult for the
+teacher who knows nothing about insects at the outset to become
+acquainted with such members of the three classes named above as attract
+the attention of the pupils of the Nature Study classes.</p>
+
+<p>The following suggestions in insect study are offered as guides to
+teacher or pupil:</p>
+
+<p>Obtain books and pamphlets from the Department of Agriculture, Toronto,
+on the subject of Insect Pests on Farm Crops and Fruit Trees.</p>
+
+<p>Secure a good general book on insects. <i>Modern Nature Study</i>, by Silcox
+and Stevenson, contains illustrations<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> of several of the most common
+moths and butterflies, which are clear enough to make possible the
+identification of the forms represented. Comstock's <i>Manual for the
+Study of Insects</i> is the best general book on the subject. This, and
+Holland's <i>The Moth Book</i> and <i>The Butterfly Book</i>, are valuable for
+those who wish to follow the study of insects at any length.</p>
+
+<p>Begin by studying the more conspicuous moths, butterflies, and beetles,
+and especially by studying the injurious forms which thrust themselves
+into prominence by causing destruction of grain, vegetable, or fruit
+crops in the locality. The utility phase of lessons on these insects
+will appeal to the older children and also to their parents. Moreover,
+these are the easiest insects to identify and upon which to obtain
+literature dealing with their life histories and habits.</p>
+
+<p>Carefully observe the colour, size, and shape of the insect, and note
+the plant on which it is feeding and its manner of feeding. Consult
+available books on plant pests to find descriptions of the insects that
+feed upon this plant, and study carefully what is said about the insect
+observed. If this method is persistently followed, the teacher will be
+surprised at the rapidity with which his acquaintance with insects
+broadens.</p>
+
+<p>Pictures of moths, butterflies, and beetles are of great assistance in
+the identification of these insects.</p>
+
+<p>A school collection, made from the insects studied, is useful for future
+collection and for identification of insects. Do not allow any insect to
+be killed unless it is a good specimen intended to fill a place in the
+collection, or unless it is known to be an injurious insect. The
+teacher, by exercising proper control of the collecting, has an
+efficient means of teaching the sacredness of life. The fact<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> should be
+emphasized that killing even an insect, when there is no good reason for
+doing so, is the act of a mean and selfish coward.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to a collection of insects, including larval and pupal
+forms, collections of insect nests, of plant galls, of markings of
+engraver beetles, of burrows of tree borers, and of samples of the
+destructive workings of insect pests should be made.</p>
+
+<p>While nothing is more beautiful than a carefully prepared collection of
+moths, butterflies, and beetles with their infinite variety of form and
+colour, nothing is more disgusting than a badly preserved collection of
+distorted, shrivelled, vermin-infested specimens. The teacher should
+avail himself of the collecting instinct which is prominent in boys of
+nine to fourteen years of age and of their desire to have things done
+well, to develop in them habits of carefulness, neatness, and
+thoroughness.</p>
+
+<h4>INSECT COLLECTIONS</h4>
+
+<p>See Manual on <i>Manual Training</i>, for details for making collecting
+appliances.</p>
+
+<p>Agricultural Bulletin No. 8, <i>Nature Collections for Schools</i>,
+Department of Education, Ontario, for detailed instructions on making
+insect collections.</p>
+
+<p>The outfit for collecting is neither expensive nor hard to prepare. It
+consists of (1) an insect net for catching the insects, made by sewing a
+bag of cheese-cloth to a stout ring one foot in diameter, which is
+fastened to a broom handle; (2) a cyanide bottle for killing the
+insects, prepared by pouring some soft plaster-paris over a few lumps of
+potassium cyanide (three pieces, each of the size of a pea) in a
+wide-mouthed bottle. When the plaster has set, keep the bottle tightly
+corked to retain the poisonous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> gases. (3) Pins to mount the specimens.
+Entomological pins, Nos. 2, 3, and 4, are the best for general use.
+Beetles are usually pinned through the right wing-cover at about one
+fourth of its length from the front end of it. Moths and butterflies are
+pinned through the thorax. Small insects may be fastened to a very small
+pin, which in turn is set into a bit of cork, supported by a pin of
+ordinary size. (4) Spreading board for moths and butterflies. (5) Insect
+boxes to hold the specimens. This should be secured before the
+collection is begun. It is a common mistake to believe that any box
+whatever will do for storing insects. It is necessary to encourage
+effort in drying, spreading, pinning, and labelling, by providing an
+effective means of permanently preserving the specimens. In cigar-boxes,
+pasteboard boxes, and such makeshifts, the specimens soon become broken,
+covered with dust, and marred in other ways, and the collectors become
+discouraged; hence it is necessary to secure good boxes from dealers in
+entomological supplies.</p>
+
+<p>A sponge saturated with carbon bisulphide should be placed in the box at
+intervals of not more than three months, to ensure the killing of
+parasites that destroy the specimens.</p>
+
+<p>Entomological supplies may be obtained from Chapman &amp; Co., London, Ont.,
+or from G. M. Hendry Co., Toronto, Ont., or from Messrs. Watters Bros.,
+Guelph, Ont.</p>
+
+<h4>BUTTERFLY AND MOTH COLLECTIONS</h4>
+
+<p>For a study of the metamorphosis of butterflies and moths, it is
+necessary to have an insect cage. This can be purchased from any dealer
+in entomological supplies or it may be made by the pupils in the Manual
+Training Class. See Manual on <i>Manual Training</i>. A very satisfactory<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+cage may be made, by the teacher or larger pupils, from a soap box, by
+tacking wire gauze over the open surface of the box, removing the nails
+from one of the boards of the bottom, and converting this board into a
+door by attaching it in its former position by light hinges and a hook
+and staple. The box, if now placed on end with two inches of loose soil
+in the bottom, will constitute a satisfactory insect cage, or vivarium.</p>
+
+<p>A large lamp chimney with gauze tied over the upper end is useful for
+inclosing a small plant upon which eggs or insect larv&aelig; are developing.
+The base of the chimney may be thrust an inch into the soil and the
+development of the larva as it feeds upon the growing plant can be
+studied.</p>
+
+<p>The following are larv&aelig; suitable for study and may be found in the
+places named:</p>
+
+<p>The tomato worm on tomato or tobacco plants. (Look for stems whose
+leaves have been stripped off.)</p>
+
+<p>The milkweed butterfly larv&aelig; on milkweed,</p>
+
+<p>The potato beetle on potato vines,</p>
+
+<p>The eastern swallow-tail butterfly on parsnip or carrot plants,</p>
+
+<p>The tussock-moth on horse-chestnuts,</p>
+
+<p>The promothea moth on lilac bushes,</p>
+
+<p>The cabbage-butterfly on cabbage or mustard plants,</p>
+
+<p>The red-spotted purple, banded purple, and viceroy butterfly larv&aelig; on
+willow and alder,</p>
+
+<p>Cocoons of tussock-moth and tiger-moth under bark, logs, and rubbish in
+early autumn.</p>
+
+<p>Larv&aelig; of the emperor-moth (cecropia) may be found wandering about,
+apparently aimlessly, in September; but they are searching for suitable
+places for attaching their cocoons to orchard and forest trees.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>After the leaves have fallen from shrubs and trees, cocoons can be found
+more easily on the naked twigs or in withered, rolled-up leaves that are
+fastened by the silk of the cocoon to the branches.</p>
+
+<p>Larv&aelig;, when placed in the cage, should be supplied with green plant food
+such as they were found feeding upon, and the pupils should be
+instructed to observe the chrysalis building or the cocoon weaving. It
+will be found that some larv&aelig; burrow into the soil.</p>
+
+<p>During winter the cage should be kept in a cool place, such as a shed,
+so that the winter conditions may be as nearly natural as possible.</p>
+
+<p>In a few cases, the development within the cocoon is quite rapid; and
+the adult form hatches out in a few weeks, for example, the
+cabbage-butterfly, monarch or milkweed butterfly, and tussock-moth. For
+this reason these are preferable for study by Form I pupils. In April
+the cage should be placed in the school-room, that the pupils may
+observe the emergence of the insects and the spreading of the wings. The
+insects can be fed with syrup or honey until they are strong, then the
+pupils should set them free.</p>
+
+<p>Reference.&mdash;<i>Reports of the Entomological Society of Ontario</i>,
+Department of Agriculture.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PLANT COLLECTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>The instructions given below for collecting, pressing, and mounting
+plants are applicable to wild flowers, grains, grasses, and weeds.</p>
+
+<p><b>The specimen.</b>&mdash;Select a plant which in form and size is typical of its
+species and which is in full flower. Care must be taken to dig down and
+secure the root.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If the plant is too large for the mounting sheet, cut out the central
+part, and use the root, lower leaves, upper leaves, and flower. If the
+root is very thick, cut slices lengthwise off the sides so as to reduce
+it to a flat form that is not too bulky.</p>
+
+<p>Before the plant has had time to wither, spread it out flat on a sheet
+of paper and spread another sheet over it, taking care to straighten the
+leaves and flower out. Blotting-paper is preferable, but any soft paper
+that will absorb moisture will make a very good substitute.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pressing and drying.</b>&mdash;Place several sheets of paper above and below the
+specimen. Any number of specimens prepared as described in the last
+paragraph may be placed in a pile, one over another, resting on the
+floor or on a table. Place on top of the pile a board which is large
+enough to cover the surface of the pile, and on the board place a weight
+of about fifteen pounds of bricks, or other convenient material. A box
+containing sand, stones, or coal may be used in place of the board and
+weights. The weight prevents the shrivelling and distortion of the
+plants.</p>
+
+<p>To prevent discoloration and mildewing of the plants, the papers around
+them must be changed at the end of the following successive intervals:
+two days, three days, five days, one week, etc., until they are quite
+dry. The length of time required for pressing and drying depends upon
+the quantity of sap in the plants and also upon the dryness or humidity
+of the atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mounting.</b>&mdash;When dry, the specimens are mounted on sheets of heavy white
+paper. These sheets are cut to a standard size, eleven inches by
+fourteen inches, or sheets of half this size, namely, seven inches by
+eleven inches;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> are permissible. The best method of attaching the plant
+to the sheet is by pasting narrow strips of gummed paper across the
+plant in such positions as will serve to hold all parts of it in
+position.</p>
+
+<p><b>Labelling.</b>&mdash;The name of the specimen, the date of collection, the place
+from which collected, and the name of the collector are to be neatly
+written in a column in the lower right-hand corner of the sheet. Printed
+labels which are pasted on this corner of the sheet are also used.</p>
+
+<p>Collections of leaves may be prepared by the same process as that given
+for plants. Leaves will retain their autumn tints if their surface is
+covered with varnish or paraffin, which will prevent the admission of
+air.</p>
+
+<p>To cover with paraffin dip the leaf for a moment into melted paraffin.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>PHYSICAL SCIENCE PHASE OF NATURE STUDY</h3>
+
+
+<h3>INSTRUCTIONS AND GENERAL METHOD</h3>
+
+<p>The preceding portions of this Manual dealt with living things. There is
+another phase of Nature Study which has a more direct relation to the
+physical sciences, Chemistry and Physics, two subjects that are
+essentially experimental in their methods.</p>
+
+<p>Although the lessons that follow are grouped in one portion of this
+book, the teacher should understand that he is to introduce them into
+his work as the occasion demands. They may be used to throw light on
+other parts of the school work. The experimental method is somewhat
+advanced for young children, hence no lessons are outlined for Forms I
+and II. In ungraded schools, Forms III and IV may be combined for the
+subject. It will be found most convenient to take this portion of the
+Nature Study during the winter months.</p>
+
+<h4>VALUE OF SUCH LESSONS</h4>
+
+<p>1. They are <i>interesting</i>, hence there is attention. The senses must be
+alert, hence pupils are trained to observe accurately.</p>
+
+<p>2. After the experiment comes the inference, hence reasoning powers are
+developed.</p>
+
+<p>3. They enable the teacher to make exceedingly <i>concrete</i> some very
+difficult abstract principles.</p>
+
+<p>4. They can be <i>correlated</i> with a large number of other subjects and
+made to have a beneficial influence on the whole of the school work.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>5. The great advance that is being made in all useful inventions to-day
+is largely due to the study of the physical sciences. Many boys and
+girls (seventy-five per cent.) never attend the High School. The
+Elementary School owes them a taste at least of these sciences that have
+such a bearing on their lives, that have surrounded them with so many
+mechanical contrivances for their comfort and convenience, and that
+explain so many common natural phenomena. Give a boy a taste for
+experimental science, and there is some chance that after leaving school
+he will not throw aside his studies to subsist intellectually on the
+newspaper, but that he will continue to investigate for himself, and
+make himself a well-informed man, an influential man in his section. The
+Elementary School must aim at fitting the boys and girls for life.</p>
+
+<p>6. The advent of the experiment marks the downfall of superstition,
+prejudice, and reliance on authority and tradition. To lead a child to
+think for himself is a great achievement.</p>
+
+<p>7. The use of the experiment in gaining knowledge will result in a
+cautiousness in accepting statements and making decisions.</p>
+
+<h4>CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH EXPERIMENTS SHOULD BE PERFORMED</h4>
+
+<p>1. They should be introduced into the school work naturally, as answers
+to questions which arise either in the regular course of the work or
+from suggestions made by the teacher at appropriate times.</p>
+
+<p>2. As far as possible, the pupils should assist in performing the
+experiment. In small rural schools the scarcity of apparatus will
+necessitate the teacher's doing most of the work. In Form V classes and
+Continuation Schools the pupils may do the experiments individually.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. The bearing of an experiment is not always evident; the teacher must
+be ready with judicious questions to lead the class to the proper
+conclusions.</p>
+
+<p>4. The pupils must be acquainted with all the apparatus used. They must
+know what the teacher is doing and must be near enough to see the
+result.</p>
+
+<p>5. A problem may be suggested, and a few days allowed for the pupils to
+think out a means of solution. If they invent and make their own
+apparatus, so much the better.</p>
+
+<p>6. Whenever possible, the experiment should be applied to some natural
+phenomenon or everyday occurrence.</p>
+
+<h4>CORRELATIONS OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE PHASE</h4>
+
+<p>Geography.&mdash;The value of Physical Science in the Elementary School is
+largely due to the light it throws on geographical data. Numerous
+examples will appear in the succeeding pages.</p>
+
+<p>Hygiene.&mdash;Experiments in carbon dioxide, oxygen, air, water, sound, and
+light, are absolutely necessary, if the children are to grasp with any
+degree of clearness the principles of respiration and ventilation, and
+the phenomena of hearing and seeing.</p>
+
+<p>Manual Training.&mdash;Many pieces of apparatus may be made by the boys in
+their work with wood or iron. Some of the elementary principles of
+chemistry enable the girls to do their cooking intelligently. A
+knowledge of some of the principles of machines will help the pupils to
+understand the tools they may use in any employment.</p>
+
+<p>Drawing.&mdash;Careful drawing of the apparatus used helps to fix the
+experiment in the mind and at the same time gives practice in art.</p>
+
+<p>Composition.&mdash;Pupils must have ideas before they can write. The
+description of the experiment will make a good composition exercise,
+oral or written.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS AND BULLETINS</h3>
+
+<h4>GARDEN AND PLANT STUDY</h4>
+
+<p>Bulletins of the Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto.</p>
+
+<p>Bulletins of the Dominion Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.</p>
+
+<p>Improvement of School Grounds. Department of Education, Toronto.</p>
+
+<p>Atkinson. First Studies of Plant Life. Ginn &amp; Co. 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p>Bailey. Manual of Gardening. Macmillan Co. $2.00.</p>
+
+<p>Blanchan. Nature's Garden. Doubleday Co. $2.00.</p>
+
+<p>Comstock, A. M. Handbook of Nature Study. Comstock Pub. Co. $3.25.</p>
+
+<p>Gray. Field, Forest, and Garden Botany. Amer. Book Co. $1.40.</p>
+
+<p>Green, Louise. Among School Gardens. Charities Pub. Co. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p>Hodge. Nature Study and Life. Ginn &amp; Co. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p>Holtz. Nature Study. Scribners' Sons. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p>Jackson and Dougherty. Agriculture through the Laboratory and School
+Garden. Judd. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p>James. Agriculture. Appleton &amp; Co. 80 cents.</p>
+
+<p>Keeler. Our Native Trees. Scribners' Sons. $2.00.</p>
+
+<p>Osterhout. Experiments with Plants. Macmillan Co. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p>Parsons. How to Plan the Home Grounds. Doubleday Co. $1.00.</p>
+
+<p>Sergeant. Corn Plants. Houghton, Mifflin Co. 75 cents.</p>
+
+<h4>PHYSICAL SCIENCE</h4>
+
+<p>Miller. Minerals and How They Occur. The Copp, Clark Co. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p>Milliken and Gale. First Course in Physics. Ginn &amp; Co. $2.00.</p>
+
+<p>Newman. Laboratory Exercises. Ginn &amp; Co. 10c. each.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Remsen. College Chemistry. Am. Pub. Co. $2.50.</p>
+
+<p>Simmons and Syenhouse. Science of Common Life. The Macmillan Company,
+$1.00.</p>
+
+<p>Woodhull. Home-made Apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>High School Text-books.</p>
+
+<h4>ANIMAL STUDY</h4>
+
+<p>Bulletin No. 52. Dominion Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.</p>
+
+<p>Bulletin No. 134. Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto.</p>
+
+<p>Bulletin No. 161. Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto.</p>
+
+<p>Bulletin No. 124. Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto.</p>
+
+<p>Reports of Entomological Society of Ontario. Department of Education.</p>
+
+<p>Fishes of Ontario. Nash. Department of Education.</p>
+
+<p>Bailey and Coleman. First Course in Biology. The Macmillan Company.
+$1.25.</p>
+
+<p>Buchanan. Senior Country Reader. The Macmillan Company. 40 cents.</p>
+
+<p>Chapman. Bird Life. Appleton. $2.00.</p>
+
+<p>Crawford. Guide to Nature Study. The Copp, Clark Co. 90 cents.</p>
+
+<p>Dearness. How to Teach the Nature Study Course. The Copp, Clark Co. 60
+cents.</p>
+
+<p>Jordan and Kellogg. Animal Life. Appleton &amp; Co. $1.20.</p>
+
+<p>Kellogg. Elementary Zoology. Holt &amp; Co. $1.35.</p>
+
+<p>Reed. Bird Guide&mdash;Parts I and II. Musson Book Co., Toronto. 40 cents
+each.</p>
+
+<p>Shaler. Domesticated Animals. Scribners' Sons. $2.50.</p>
+
+<p>Silcox and Stevenson. Modern Nature Study. The Macmillan Company. 75
+cents.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;The bulletins named above are supplied free to schools. Chemical
+and Physical Apparatus and Entomological Supplies may be obtained from
+G. M. Hendry Co., Victoria Street, Toronto. Rocks and Minerals may be
+obtained from the Ward Natural Science establishment, Rochester, or from
+the Central Scientific Co., Chicago.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>PHYSICAL SCIENCE</h3>
+
+<h4>FORMS III AND IV</h4>
+
+<h4>DESIRABLE APPARATUS</h4>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'>1 lb. glass tubing in 3 ft. lengths 3/16 in. to 1/4 in. outside diameter.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>6 Florence flasks, 4 oz. to 8 oz.</td><td align='right'>$ .50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1 Funnel, 3 in. diameter</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1 Beaker, 8 oz.</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1 Evaporating dish</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3 ft. pure gum rubber tubing 1/8 in. inside</td><td align='right'>.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1/2 sq. foot thin sheet rubber</td><td align='right'>.20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1 doz. test-tubes 6 in. by 5/8 in.</td><td align='right'>.20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1/2 doz. test-tubes 6 in. by 7/8 in.</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Capillary glass tubing, 3 sizes</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2 rubber stoppers No. 2, one hole</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1 &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; " &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;4,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1 &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; " &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;7, two holes</td><td align='right'>.30</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2 watch glasses</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ball and ring</td><td align='right'>1.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2 Dry cells</td><td align='right'>.60</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2 Bar magnets</td><td align='right'>.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1 Chemical thermometer 212 deg. F. to 0 deg. F.</td><td align='right'>.40</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1 Spirit-lamp</td><td align='right'>.20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1 Retort, 4 oz. stoppered</td><td align='right'>.15</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wax candles</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Retort stand of iron, two rings</td><td align='right'>.85</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1 Thistle tube</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Common corks, assorted</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Filter paper 5 in. diameter</td><td align='right'>.05</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Test-tube holder</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Test-tube rack</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Test-tube cleaner</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1 piece glass tubing 30 in. long, 1/4 in. inside, for barometer</td><td align='right'>.20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1 clamp for closing rubber tube</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Covered copper wire</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Small compass</td><td align='right'>.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Glass model of common pump</td><td align='right'>1.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Globe for weighing air</td><td align='right'>2.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Small piece of platinum foil, 1/2 in. by 2 in.</td><td align='right'>.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Glass prism 60</td><td align='right'>.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tuning fork 4-1/2 in.</td><td align='right'>.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Electric bell</td><td align='right'>.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Motor (Ajax)</td><td align='right'>1.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Balance</td><td align='right'>10.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Air-pump</td><td align='right'>15.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Iron wire gauze</td><td align='right'>.05</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sheet metals, iron, copper, zinc, lead, aluminum</td><td align='right'>.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2 lamp chimneys, straight ones preferred, at 10c</td><td align='right'>.20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Iron ball, 2 in. in diameter</td><td align='right'>.20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2 dairy thermometers at 15c</td><td align='right'>.30</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<h4>CHEMICALS</h4>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'>Sulphuric acid, 1 lb.</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Hydrochloric acid, 8 oz.</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Nitric acid, 4 oz.</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Washing soda</td><td align='right'>.05</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sugar</td><td align='right'>.05</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Salt</td><td align='right'>.05</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Blue vitriol</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Alum</td><td align='right'>.05</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Saltpetre</td><td align='right'>.05</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sulphur</td><td align='right'>.05</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Potass. permanganate</td><td align='right'>.05</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lime</td><td align='right'>.05</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Plaster-paris</td><td align='right'>.05</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Potass. bichromate</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Methylated spirits, 1 pt.</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Alcohol, 95%</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Iodine crystals</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Mercury, 1 lb.</td><td align='right'>1.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pot. chlorate</td><td align='right'>.15</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Manganese dioxide</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Phosphorus</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sweet oil, 2 oz.</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Benzine, 2 oz.</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The following tools will be found very valuable: saw, square, plane,
+brace and bit, knife, hammer, glass cutter, files&mdash;round, flat, and
+triangular.</p>
+
+<p>Where the circumstances will not allow of the purchase of the preceding
+list, the following apparatus is recommended as sufficient for the
+performance of a large number of the experiments:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'>1/2 lb. glass tubing in 3 ft. lengths, 3/16 in. and 1/4 in. outside</td><td align='right'>$ .20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2 Florence flasks, 4 oz.</td><td align='right'>.15</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1 Funnel</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2 ft. pure gum rubber tubing, 1/8 in. inside</td><td align='right'>.15</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1/2 doz. test-tubes assorted, 5/8 to 7/8 diameter, 6 in. long</td><td align='right'>.20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2 rubber stoppers, No. 2, one hole</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1 rubber stopper, No. 4, one hole</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Expansion of heat apparatus (made at blacksmith's)</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Common corks, assorted</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1 chemical thermometer 0 deg. F. to 212 deg. F.</td><td align='right'>.40</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1 spirit-lamp, 4 oz.</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1 thistle tube</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Covered wire, copper</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<h4>CHEMICALS</h4>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'>Iodine crystals</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sulphuric acid, 1 lb.</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Methylated spirits 1 pt.</td><td align='right'>.20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Alcohol, 95%</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Mercury, 1/2 lb.</td><td align='right'>.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pot. chlorate</td><td align='right'>.15</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Manganese dioxide</td><td align='right'>.10</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The following may be obtained, for either list, at little or no cost
+from household stores or home-made sources: washing soda, sugar, salt,
+ammonia, coal, coke, saltpetre, sulphur, blue vitriol, alum, potass.
+bichromate, blueing, lime, pickle-jars, wire gauze, candles, wire, sheet
+metals, test-tube holder and rack, balance, battery cells, horse-shoe
+magnet, pneumatic trough, lamp chimneys, tin cans, melting spoon,
+bicycle pump, baking-powder.</p>
+
+<p>For home-made apparatus, consult <i>Laboratory Exercises in Physics</i> by
+Newman, Ginn &amp; Co., 50c., and Manual on <i>Manual Training</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Reference has been made in the preceding experiments to the use of
+simple and easily contrived apparatus. The more of this the pupils can
+contrive and make under the direction of the teacher, the more valuable
+will be the course in Physical Science.</p>
+
+<h4>GRENET CELLS</h4>
+
+<p>Into a pint gem-jar put water 10 parts, sulphuric acid 1 part, potass,
+bichromate 1 part. Have jar three quarters full. Cut a piece of board 4
+in. square, bore two holes in it, and through the holes thrust two
+pieces of electric light carbon, 5 in. or 6 in. long. The outer edges of
+the carbons should not be more than two inches apart. With a saw, cut a
+slit in the board between the holes and insert a strip of zinc 2 in. by
+7 in. previously rubbed over with mercury. Set the three elements in the
+jar, connect the two carbons to one wire, and the zinc to another.</p>
+
+<p>One cell of this kind will run a small motor, operate a telegraph
+sounder, make a simple electro-magnet, or ring an electric bell; two
+cells will decompose water: three will heat a piece of fine iron wire
+red-hot.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>DECOMPOSITION APPARATUS</h4>
+
+<p>1. Cut the neck end from a pickle bottle. Get a No. 1 stopper, (rubber)
+with two holes in it and insert a piece of platinum foil 2 in. by 1/8
+in. into each hole so that 1/2 in. projects above and below. Insert a
+tight plug beside each strip, thus holding it fast and making the
+stopper watertight. Insert the stopper into the neck of the jar. Pour
+into the vessel thus formed enough water to cover the platinums, and add
+a few drops of sulphuric acid. Touch the wires from the battery to the
+lower ends of the strips. Note bubbles of gas arise from the platinums.
+These may be collected in test-tubes and found by test to be oxygen and
+hydrogen.</p>
+
+<p>2. Fasten a strip of platinum 1 in. by 1/8 in. to each wire from the
+battery and dip these into some acidulated water contained in a tumbler.
+The decomposition of the water into two gases can be seen, but the gases
+cannot be collected so readily as in 1 above. Bits of electric light
+carbon will do instead of platinum if the current is not too weak.</p>
+
+<h4>PNEUMATIC TROUGH</h4>
+
+<p>When oxygen or other gas is to be collected over water, use a milk pan
+or similarly shaped vessel.</p>
+
+<h4>SPIRIT-LAMP</h4>
+
+<p>Use an ink-bottle to contain the alcohol and several strands of string
+for the wick; make a hole in a piece of tin and draw the wick through;
+then let the tin rest on the neck of the bottle to support the wick.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>BAROMETER</h4>
+
+<p>A siphon barometer takes less mercury than a cistern barometer. To the
+open end of the barometer tube attach a piece of strong rubber tubing 4
+in. long and to this a piece of glass tubing 3 in. long. Fill the tube
+thus formed with mercury to within 3 in. from the top. Holding the short
+glass tube open end up, turn the long tube closed end up. (A tube of 1/8
+in. bore needs only one quarter of the mercury required to fill a tube
+1/4 in. bore.)</p>
+
+<h4>HYGROMETER</h4>
+
+<p>For a hygrometer, suspend two dairy thermometers side by side against
+the wall, cover the bulb of one with thin muslin, and let the muslin
+hang down and dip into water in some small vessel placed about three
+inches below the bulb on a little shelf.</p>
+
+<h4>HINTS</h4>
+
+<p>To avoid explosions, a spirit-lamp should be kept filled.</p>
+
+<p>Toy rubber balloons answer well for sheet rubber.</p>
+
+<p>Red ink makes good colouring matter.</p>
+
+<p>Make touch-paper by soaking any porous paper in a solution of saltpetre,
+and drying it.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of bending glass tubes, join them with rubber tubing.</p>
+
+<p>To make a test-tube holder, fold a sheet of paper until it is about half
+an inch wide and wrap this around the tube.</p>
+
+<p>To bend glass tubing, hold in the flame of the spirit-lamp and rotate
+between the fingers till it becomes soft and flexible, remove from the
+flame, and bend.</p>
+
+<p>To break glass tubing, first scratch with a file.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>To break glass bottles, make neatly a deep cut with a file, then touch
+the glass near the cut with a red-hot wire. When a crack appears, move
+the hot wire and the crack will follow. Several heatings may be
+necessary.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of a heavy glass bottle, file the cut as before, wrap the
+bottle with string dipped in alcohol, light it, and after it has burned,
+plunge the bottle vertically into cold water.</p>
+
+<p>Melted paraffin is good for closing small leaks.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TIME APPORTIONED TO NATURE STUDY</h3>
+
+<p>The Nature Study lesson should be given a definite place on the
+time-table. It is recommended that each class should have at least one
+lesson of fifteen minutes in length, a week. In addition to this, about
+five minutes a week should be spent in assigning problems for
+out-of-door work and in discussing the observations which the pupils
+have made on problems previously assigned.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3>FORM I</h3>
+
+<h4>AUTUMN</h4>
+
+
+<h3>GARDEN WORK</h3>
+
+<p>On the re-opening of school after the summer holidays, the pupils should
+see that their plots are put into good order without delay. If they have
+been neglected during the holidays, a good deal of attention will be
+needed, and in some cases it may not be possible to reclaim them because
+of prolonged neglect. If such plots are found, they should be cleaned
+off completely, spaded up, and left in readiness for planting the
+following spring. All plots should be cultivated throughout the month of
+September to keep the soil mellow and prevent the growth of weeds. The
+pupils should be allowed to pick flowers from their own plots, but
+should always leave a few in bloom for the sake of the general
+appearance of the garden. Paths should be kept clean, and all rubbish,
+weeds, dead plants, etc., removed to the compost heap, which should be
+in the least conspicuous part of the garden. Hoes, rakes, and claw-hand
+weeders should be used in cleaning up and cultivating the plots. The
+soil should be kept fine and loose on top to prevent drying out.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>LESSONS ON A GARDEN PLANT</h3>
+
+<h4>PANSY</h4>
+
+<h4>LESSON I</h4>
+
+<p>
+<b>Materials.</b>&mdash;A flower for each pupil<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;A plant set into a flower-pot<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;A leaf for each pupil<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;A pile of leaves containing a few pansy leaves and several of other kinds.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><b>Introduction.</b>&mdash;A conversation with the pupils about their favourite
+flowers.</p>
+
+<p><b>Observations.</b>&mdash;The pansy flowers are now distributed and the general
+form of the flower is first noted. The resemblance to the face of an
+animal will be discovered. The name <i>corolla</i> is given, but no other
+botanical terms are to be introduced in this lesson.</p>
+
+<p>The details of colours, perfumes, velvety feeling of the corolla, and
+the number of leaflets in it are next <i>discovered</i> and described by the
+<i>pupils</i>. Lastly, in a withering flower they discover the seed cases and
+the little seeds.</p>
+
+<h4>LESSON II</h4>
+
+<p>The conception of the relationship between the flower, root, and stem is
+developed by a method similar to the following:</p>
+
+<p>What soon happens to a pansy flower after it is broken from the plant?
+Are the flowers that you have in your hands withering?</p>
+
+<p>How can you keep them from withering?</p>
+
+<p>Hence, what must the flower get from the stem?</p>
+
+<p>Where does the stem get the moisture?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Hence, what is one use of the root?</p>
+
+<p>A pupil is asked to pull the plant out of the soil in the flower-pot.
+What is another use that you have discovered for the root?</p>
+
+<p>The plant is now uprooted from the soil, and the pupils examine the root
+to find how it is fitted for gathering water and food from the soil and
+for holding the plant in place.</p>
+
+<p>Note the number of branches touching a great deal of soil and also the
+twisted form of the roots for grasping the soil.</p>
+
+<p>The form of the leaves is studied by the pupils, and, as a test of the
+accuracy of their observation, they are asked to pick out the pansy
+leaves from the pile of leaves.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The pupils must be active participants in the lesson.
+They must use their eyes, hands, and even their noses in gaining
+first-hand impressions, and they are to be required to express in their
+own way the things that they discover. The beautiful flower with its
+face like that of an animal is an appeal to the child's imagination, and
+the child's interest in the <i>use</i> of things is utilized in the study of
+the relations of root, stem, and flower.</p>
+
+<p>This lesson may be used as the basis for busy work by means of the
+following correlations:</p>
+
+<p>1. With art:</p>
+
+<p>Represent the flower in colours.</p>
+
+<p>2. With reading and literature:</p>
+
+<p>The pupils are required to express the meaning and sentiment of the
+following stanza:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The pansy wakes in early spring<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">To make our world more bright;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">All summer long its happy face<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Fills children with delight,<br /></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></div></div>
+
+<p>Lessons similar to those on the pansy may be based upon the following
+plants of the garden or field: dandelion, aster, buttercup, nasturtium,
+goldenrod. The teacher in preparing the lesson should read a description
+of the plant from a Nature Study book and should also study the plant
+itself until he is familiar with all the phases of its life.</p>
+
+<h4>OBSERVATION EXERCISES ON THE DANDELION</h4>
+
+<p>The exercises given below are suggestive for out of school observation
+work, but must not be too long. By way of preparation for an exercise of
+this kind, the interest of the pupils in the dandelion must first be
+aroused.</p>
+
+<h4>FIRST EXERCISE</h4>
+
+<p>The teacher places the pupils at the school windows from which
+dandelions are visible and asks them to name any flower that they can
+see. A short conversation about the brightness of the flower follows.</p>
+
+<p>The pupils are next instructed to:</p>
+
+<p>1. Find dandelions late in the evening, and find out how they prepare to
+go to sleep and how they are tucked in for the night.</p>
+
+<p>2. Find where the leaves of the dandelion are, and bring a leaf to
+school next morning, and also observe how the leaves are grouped or
+placed.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;Dandelion flowers close up in the evening; the green
+leaves beneath the head wrap closely around the flowers to form a snug
+covering. The leaves have margins with teeth shaped like those of a
+lion, and from this the plant gets its name, for the name is the French
+<i>dent de lion</i>, which is pronounced very much like<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> the word dandelion.
+The use of the leaf cluster as a system of rain-spouts for guiding the
+rain toward the root should be noted.</p>
+
+<h4>SECOND EXERCISE</h4>
+
+<p>1. Why is the dandelion easy to find?</p>
+
+<p>2. What makes it easy to find even in long grass?</p>
+
+<p>3. What insect friends visit the dandelion?</p>
+
+<p>4. Find out just how these visitors act during their visits, and find
+whether they carry anything to or away from the flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The bright yellow colour of the dandelion attracts
+attention. When it grows in long grass, the flower stalk grows long, so
+that the flower surmounts its obstructions and climbs up to the
+sunshine. The flowers are visited by ants, bees, and wasps, and these
+may be seen burrowing into the flowers in search of honey. If their
+bodies and legs be touched, the yellow pollen of the flowers will be
+found sticking to them.</p>
+
+<h4>THIRD EXERCISE</h4>
+
+<p>1. Look for flower heads that do not open to the sun. Do not disturb
+them, but watch them for a few days and find out what they become.</p>
+
+<p>2. Examine the large white balls of the dandelions and find out what
+they are.</p>
+
+<p>3. Blow the down away. What does it carry with it?</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;In this exercise the pupils will learn that the large
+white balls are the mature, or ripened, flowers and are composed of
+little brown seeds, each being a little airship for wafting it away.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>CORRELATION WITH LITERATURE AND READING</h4>
+
+<p>When the above exercises have been completed, the pupil's knowledge of
+the dandelion may be utilized in interpreting the following stanzas:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Oh dandelion! yellow as gold,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">What do you do all day?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I just wait here in the tall green grass<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Till the children come to play.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">And what do you do when your hair is white<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And the children come to play?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">They take me up in their dimpled hands<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And blow my hair away.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>In addition to the dandelion, the following plants are suitable for
+observation exercises: morning-glory, wild balsam, sweet-pea,
+snap-dragon, nasturtium.</p>
+
+<h4>DWARF NASTURTIUM</h4>
+
+<p><b>Observations.</b>&mdash;The size of the plant at the time of flowering; its
+leaves&mdash;size, colour, shape, length of petiole and how arranged; colours
+found in the flower, comparison with others of same species found in the
+garden; size and shape of the flower and the length of its stems. Do the
+flowers grow higher than the leaves? Do they look better when with the
+leaves or when alone? Note the perfume and taste of the flower stem, the
+insect visitors, and what part of the flower they tried to get at, when
+the first blossom was seen, and how long the blossoms continued to come
+out. Do they keep well in bouquets? Do they stand hot, dry weather as
+well as other flowers? When did the frost kill them? Compare with the
+climbing nasturtium. Find the seeds.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>SEEDS</h3>
+
+<p>The autumn months are the best for seed studies, for almost all annuals
+are ripening their seeds at this time of year.</p>
+
+<h4>FIELD EXERCISE</h4>
+
+<p>Assign to the pupils the following exercise:</p>
+
+<p>Collect the seed pods from as many plants of your garden plots, or home
+gardens, or wild plants, as possible, and be careful to write the name
+of each plant on the paper in which you put the seed pod of that plant.
+Notice the part of the plant from which the seed pod is formed.</p>
+
+<h4>CLASS-ROOM LESSON BASED ON THIS COLLECTION</h4>
+
+<p>The pupils place the seed pods on their desks, and observations and
+problems are dealt with of which the following are representative:</p>
+
+<p>How does each seed case open?</p>
+
+<p>What are the seeds for?</p>
+
+<p>How many seeds are in each case?</p>
+
+<p>Why should a plant have so many seeds?</p>
+
+<p>How are the seed cases fitted for protecting the seeds?</p>
+
+<p>Are any two seeds alike in shape?</p>
+
+<p>Are the seeds easy to find if they are spilled upon the ground?</p>
+
+<p>What makes them hard to find?</p>
+
+<p>Where do nearly all seeds spend the winter?</p>
+
+<p>Of what use is the hard shell of the seed?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>SEED DISPERSAL</h4>
+
+<p>Study only a few of the more striking examples of seed dispersal with
+the Form I class. Seeds that fly and seeds that steal rides are good
+examples of classes of seeds whose methods of dispersal will prove of
+interest to children.</p>
+
+<h4>LESSON ON SEEDS THAT FLY</h4>
+
+<p><b>Materials.</b>&mdash;A milkweed pod; a ripe dandelion head.</p>
+
+<p><b>Introduction.</b>&mdash;A short conversation about the effects of the crowding of
+plants, as carrots and turnips, in a garden plot, and hence the need for
+the scattering of seeds.</p>
+
+<p><b>Observations.</b>&mdash;Open a milkweed pod in the presence of the class, so that
+they may see how the pod opens, how beautifully the seeds are arranged,
+and how the silk tufts are so closely packed in together.</p>
+
+<p>Allow a pupil to lift a seed out, blow it in the air, and observe how
+the silk opens out like an umbrella. Distribute seeds, one to each
+pupil. Ask the pupils to find out why this little airship is able to
+carry the seed. They will find that the seeds though broad, are thin and
+light, and the silky plumes very light.</p>
+
+<p>Ask the pupils to release their milkweed seeds at recess, when out of
+school, and find out how far they can fly. This is an interesting
+experiment for a windy day.</p>
+
+<p>The white balls of the dandelion are next examined, the tiny seeds are
+found standing on tiptoe on a raised platform, each grasping a tiny
+parachute and waiting for a puff of wind to start them off. A pupil is
+permitted to give the puff. Seeds are distributed, and the means of
+flight is compared with that of the milkweed. The shape of the seeds is
+observed and also the tiny anchor points at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> the lower end of the seed
+for clutching the ground when the seed alights.</p>
+
+<p>Another lesson on seeds that fly can be based on the study of tree
+seeds, using those of the maple, elm, basswood, pine, and spruce.</p>
+
+<h4>CORRELATIONS</h4>
+
+<p>1. Drawing of milkweed pods and seeds, and drawing of the dandelion
+seed-ball and the seeds when floating in the air.</p>
+
+<p>2. Reading and literature. Interpret the thought and read expressively:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Dainty milkweed babies, wrapped in cradles green,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Rocked by Mother Nature, fed by hands unseen,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Brown coats have the darlings, slips of milky white,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And wings, but that's a secret, they're folded out of sight.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<h3>TWIGS AND BUDS</h3>
+
+<p>The study of buds is a part of tree study and may be taken as
+observation work in the class-room. This somewhat detailed study should
+follow the general lessons on tree study.</p>
+
+<p>The materials for the lessons may be collected by the pupils at the time
+of the field lesson and kept fresh in a jar of water until required for
+use.</p>
+
+<h4>LESSON ON TWIGS</h4>
+
+<p><b>Materials.</b>&mdash;A twig of horse-chestnut about six inches long, for each
+pupil.</p>
+
+<p>A twig of the same tree with the leaves still on it.</p>
+
+<p><b>Observations.</b>&mdash;The twigs are distributed and the teacher asks the pupils
+to examine them and to describe all marks and projections that can be
+found on the twig.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Answers are required from the pupils separately. The pupil's answer in
+each case should be sufficiently clear for all the class to recognize
+the feature that the answer is intended to describe. A few brief
+questions will guide the answerer in making his description more
+definite, but the description should be the result of the pupil's
+observation and expressed in his own words.</p>
+
+<p>The meaning or use of each feature should be discussed, when possible,
+immediately after it has been described.</p>
+
+<p>The following features will be discovered and the problems suggested
+will be solved:</p>
+
+<p>The brown or greenish-brown bark.</p>
+
+<p>The buds.</p>
+
+<p>One bud (sometimes two) is at the end of the twig.</p>
+
+<p>Some buds are along the side of the twig.</p>
+
+<p>What caused the end bud to grow larger than the others?</p>
+
+<p>There is a leaf scar under each bud.</p>
+
+<p>Of what use is it to the bud to be between the twig and the leaf stalk?</p>
+
+<p>The bands of rings, one or more on each twig.</p>
+
+<p>The tiny oval pores, each surrounded by a little raised band.</p>
+
+<p>The detailed study of the buds is left for a separate lesson.</p>
+
+<h4>FURTHER STUDY OF TWIGS</h4>
+
+<p>The study in detail of various features is illustrated in the following:</p>
+
+<p>Look closely at the leaf scars and describe them fully, as to shape,
+colour, and marks.</p>
+
+<p>Do the scars look like fresh wounds, or are they healed over? Of what
+use to the tree is the healing of the scar?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We will learn later that the part of the twig between each pair of bands
+of rings represents one year's growth. How old is your twig? Who has the
+oldest twig?</p>
+
+<p>Do all twigs grow at the same rate?</p>
+
+<p>Who has the twig that had the most rapid growth?</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The bud at the end of the twig or its branches is
+called the end bud; there are two leaf scars underneath it. The buds
+along the sides of the stem are called side buds, the latter are smaller
+than the end bud. The bud situated between the stem of the leaf and the
+twig is in a sheltered position. This position also puts the bud close
+to the pantry door, for the plant food is prepared in the leaf. The leaf
+scars are yellowish-brown, or if they are the scars from the leaves of
+former years, are dark brown in colour. Each scar is shaped like a
+horse-shoe and tiny dots are found in the position that the horse-shoe
+nails would have. Even before the leaf falls, a layer of corklike
+substance has formed over the scar. This layer is a protection against
+the entrance of frost and rain and germs of fungi and it also prevents
+the loss of sap from the scar. The tiny oval pores, each as large as the
+point of a needle, are the breathing pores of the twig. The bands of
+rings are the scars of the scales of the end buds of successive years.
+This latter fact can be discovered when the bud is opening.</p>
+
+<h4>REVIEW LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>The review lesson should consist of a review of the points taken up in
+the lessons that were based on the horse-chestnut twig, supplemented by
+the examination of the twigs of elm, apple, or lilac.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>LESSON ON BUDS</h4>
+
+<p><b>Materials.</b>&mdash;Twigs and buds of horse-chestnut, one for each pupil. An
+opening bud. (A bud or a twig placed in water in a warm room will
+develop rapidly.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Lesson.</b>&mdash;Distribute specimens, and review the positions of the buds.</p>
+
+<p>Pupils examine the buds and tell all they can about them. They describe
+the colour, shape, and size of the buds, and also their gummy and
+scalelike covering.</p>
+
+<p>Of what use are the gum and scales? Of what use is the brown colour of
+the bud?</p>
+
+<p>They next find out what is inside the little brown house. They open the
+buds and try to identify the contents. There will be some uncertainty as
+to the meaning of the contents. Leave this over till spring.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The brown colour of the bud makes it an absorbent of
+sunlight, and also serves as a protection from observation by the sharp
+eyes of bud-eating birds. The gummy scales are waterproof, and the
+scales, by spreading open gradually, cause the waterproof property to be
+retained even after the bud has grown quite large. The inner part of the
+bud is composed of two, four, or six tiny leaves folded up and supported
+on a short bit of stem. Some of the buds have, in addition to leaves, a
+tiny young flower cluster. All of these things are densely covered with
+white down. The down is the fur coat to protect the tender parts from
+the cold.</p>
+
+<h4>REVIEW LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>Review the lesson on buds, but substitute buds of the lilac or apple for
+the horse-chestnut buds of the original lesson.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>CORRELATIONS</h4>
+
+<p>The observational study of the buds and twigs is a good preparation for
+busy work in art and manual training, and the pupils may be assigned
+exercises, such as charcoal drawing of a horse-chestnut twig, paper
+cutting of a lilac twig and buds, clay or plasticine modelling of twigs
+and buds.</p>
+
+<p>For oral and written language exercises, enlarge the vocabulary of the
+pupils by requiring sentences containing the words&mdash;scales, twigs, buds,
+protection, terminal, lateral, leaf stalk, blade, etc.</p>
+
+
+<h3>LEAVES</h3>
+
+<p>Leaves, because of their abundance and the ease with which they may be
+obtained, are valuable for Nature Study work. It is possible to arouse
+the interest of even young children in the study of leaves, but care
+must be taken not to make the observation work too minute and the
+descriptions too technical for the primary classes.</p>
+
+<h4>FIELD EXERCISES</h4>
+
+<p>An excursion to the school grounds or to some neighbouring park will
+suffice to bring the pupils into direct contact with the following
+plants: a maple tree, a Boston ivy (or other climbing vine), a
+nasturtium, a geranium.</p>
+
+<p>Ask the pupils to find out where and how leaves are placed on each of
+these plants, that is, whether they are on the inner parts of the
+branches of the tree or out at the ends of the branches. Do the leaves
+overlap one another or does each make room for its neighbours? Are the
+leaves spread out flat or curled up? What holds the leaves out straight
+and flat? What do the leaves need to make them green and healthy?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Are the leaves placed in the right way, and are they of the right form
+to get these things?</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The leaves of the plants named are quite noticeably
+so placed on the plants, have such relations to one another, and are of
+such outline that they present the greatest possible surface to the
+<i>air</i> and <i>sunshine</i> and <i>rain</i>. The leaf stalk and midrib and veins are
+stiff and strong to keep the leaves spread out. Compare with the ribs of
+an umbrella. The benefit of sunshine to leaves and plants can be
+developed by discussing with the pupils the paleness and delicateness of
+plants that have been kept in a dark place, such as in a dark cellar.
+They are also acquainted with the refreshing effect of rains upon
+leaves. The use of air to the leaves is not so easy to develop with
+pupils of this age, but the use of air for breathing just as boys and
+girls need air for breathing may be told them.</p>
+
+<h4>CLASS-ROOM LESSON ON LEAVES</h4>
+
+<p><b>Introduction.</b>&mdash;Tell me all the things that you know upon which leaves
+grow. On trees, bushes, flowers, plants, vegetables, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Are leaves all of the same shape?</p>
+
+<p>To-day we are going to learn the names of some of the shapes of leaves.</p>
+
+<p><b>Observations.</b>&mdash;Show the class the heart-shaped leaf of catalpa or lilac,
+and obtain from the pupils the name <i>heart-shape</i>. Use the following
+types:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Maple leaf as star-shape,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Grass or wheat or corn as ribbon-shape,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nasturtium or water-lily as shield-shape,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Ash or rowan, as feather-shape.<br /></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></div></div>
+
+<p><b>Drill.</b>&mdash;Pupils pick out the shape named. Pupils name the plant to which
+each belongs. Which shape do you think is the prettiest?</p>
+
+
+<h3>GARDEN STUDIES</h3>
+
+<p>If the pupils of this Form have planted and cared for garden plots of
+their own, they will have a greater love for the flowers or vegetables
+that grow in them than for any others in the garden, because they have
+watched their development throughout. For them such continuous
+observation cannot but result in a quickening of perception and a
+deepening of interest and appreciation.</p>
+
+<h4>STUDIES IN THE PUPIL'S INDIVIDUAL PLOT</h4>
+
+<p>What plant is the first to appear above ground? What plant is the last
+to appear? Describe what each plant was like when it first appeared
+above ground. What plants grow the fastest? What effect has cold
+weather, warm weather, dry weather, on the growth of the plants?</p>
+
+<p>What weeds grow in the plot?</p>
+
+<p>Why do these weeds obstruct the growth of the other plants?</p>
+
+<p>What kind of root has each weed?</p>
+
+<p>Find out what kind of seeds each weed produces?</p>
+
+<p>Why is each weed hard to keep out of fields?</p>
+
+<p>What garden plants produce flowers?</p>
+
+<p>How are the seeds protected?</p>
+
+<p>Compare the seeds with those that you planted.</p>
+
+<p>Select the seeds of the largest plants and finest flowers for next
+year's seeding.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>STUDIES FROM THE GARDEN AS A WHOLE</h4>
+
+<p>What plants grow tallest?</p>
+
+<p>What plants are most suitable for borders?</p>
+
+<p>What plants are valuable for their flowers?</p>
+
+<p>What plants are valuable for their edible roots, for their edible
+leaves, for their edible seeds?</p>
+
+<p>How are the edible parts stored for winter use?</p>
+
+<p>Compare the plants that are crowded, with others of the same kind that
+are not crowded.</p>
+
+<p>Compare the rate of growth of the plants in a plot that is kept hoed and
+raked with the rate of growth of plants in a neglected plot.</p>
+
+
+<h3>BULB PLANTING</h3>
+
+<p>The planting of bulbs in pots for winter blooming should be commenced
+with pupils in Form I and continued in the higher Forms. As a rule, the
+potted bulbs will be stored and cared for in the home, as most
+school-rooms are not heated continuously during the winter. Paper-white
+narcissus and freesia are most suitable and should be planted about the
+fifteenth of October, so that the plants will be in bloom for Christmas.</p>
+
+<h4>LESSON ON BULBS AND BULB PLANTING</h4>
+
+<p><b>Materials.</b>&mdash;The bulbs to be planted.</p>
+
+<p>As many four-inch flower-pots or tomato cans as are required.</p>
+
+<p>Soil, composed of garden loam, sand, and well-rotted manure in equal
+proportions. Stones for drainage.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Sticks for labels (smooth pieces of shingle, one and a half inches wide
+and sharpened at one end, will answer).</p>
+
+<p>Pictures of the plants in bloom.</p>
+
+<p><b>Observations.</b>&mdash;The attention of the pupils is directed to the bulbs, and
+they are asked to describe the size, form, and colour of each kind of
+bulb.</p>
+
+<p>A bulb is cut across to make possible the study of the parts, and the
+pupils observe the scales or rings which are the bases of the leaves of
+the plant from which the bulb grew. The use of the fleshy mass of the
+bulb as a store of food for the plant that will grow from it is
+discussed.</p>
+
+<p>The sprout in the centre of the scales with its yellowish-green tip is
+observed, and its meaning inferred.</p>
+
+<p>The picture is shown to illustrate the possibilities within the bulb.</p>
+
+<h4>PLANTING THE BULB</h4>
+
+<p>The teacher directs, but the work is done by the pupils, and the reasons
+for the following operations are developed:</p>
+
+<p>What is the use of the one-inch layer of pebbles, or broken brick, or
+stone, that is placed in the bottom of the pot?</p>
+
+<p>Why are the bulbs planted near the top of the soil?</p>
+
+<p>Why is the soil packed firmly around the bulbs?</p>
+
+<p>Why must the soil be well wetted?</p>
+
+<p>Why is the pot set in a cool, dark place for a month or more?</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The pebbles or broken bricks are for giving drainage.
+The bulbs are planted with their tips just showing above the surface of
+the soil and there is about half an inch of space between the top of the
+soil and the upper edge of the pot in order to facilitate watering.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> The
+potted bulbs must be set in a cool, dark place until they are well
+rooted. This is subjecting them to their natural winter conditions, and
+it will cause them to yield larger flowers, a great number of flowers,
+and flowers that are more lasting. Sand in the soil permits of the more
+free passing of air through the soil. Basements and cellars are usually
+suited for storing bulbs until they have rooted, but they must not be
+warm enough to promote rapid growth. The pots when stored should be
+covered with leaves, sawdust, or coarse sand to prevent drying out. The
+soil must be kept moist, but not wet. Paper-white narcissus, if brought
+out of the dark after three or four weeks, will be in bloom at the end
+of another month if kept in the window of a warm room. Care must be
+taken not to expose the plants to bright light until they have become
+green. The bulbs of the white narcissus are to be thrown away after the
+flowers have withered, as they will not bloom again, but freesia bulbs
+may be kept and planted again the following year.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>FORM I</h3>
+
+<h4>WINTER</h4>
+
+
+<h3>LESSONS ON A PET ANIMAL: THE RABBIT</h3>
+
+<h4>I</h4>
+
+<p>The lesson is introduced by a conversation with the pupils about their
+various pets.</p>
+
+<p>Since we are to have a rabbit brought to the school we must learn how to
+take care of it, and the proper method of taking care of it is based
+upon a knowledge of the habits of the wild rabbit.</p>
+
+<p>Where do wild rabbits live?</p>
+
+<p>What sort of home does a rabbit have?</p>
+
+<p>In what ways does this home protect the rabbit?</p>
+
+<p>Hence, what kind of home must we have ready for the rabbit?</p>
+
+<p>What does the rabbit eat?</p>
+
+<p>Are there any of these foods that are not good for its health?</p>
+
+<p>Give a list of foods that you can bring for the rabbit. Why will the
+rabbit, when kept in a hutch, require less food than one that runs
+about?</p>
+
+<p>Since the rabbit likes a soft bed, what can you bring for its bed?</p>
+
+<h4>II</h4>
+
+<p><b>Observations.</b>&mdash;The teacher or a pupil brings a rabbit to the
+school-room, where, during recreation periods, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> pupils make
+observations on topics suggested by the teacher, such as:</p>
+
+<p>Its choice of food; its timidity; its movements&mdash;hopping, squatting,
+listening, scratching, and gnawing.</p>
+
+<p>These observations are discussed in the class and are corrected or
+verified.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;Wild rabbits live in the woods or in shrubbery at the
+edges of fields. The home of the rabbit is either a burrow under ground
+or a sheltered place under a root or log closely concealed among the
+bushes. This home is dry and affords a shelter from enemies, and from
+wind, rain, and snow. From this we know that we must provide a dry bed
+for our rabbit in a strong box in which it will feel secure, and in
+which it will be protected from wind and rain. The food of the rabbit
+consists of vegetables and soft young clover and grains. It also gnaws
+the bark of trees, and in winter it feeds upon buds. We can, therefore,
+feed our rabbit on carrots, beets, apples, oats, bran, grass, and leaves
+of plants, and we must provide it with some twigs to gnaw, for gnawing
+helps to keep its large chisel-shaped teeth in good condition. We must
+be careful not to give it too much exercise, and we must not give it any
+cabbage, because this is not good for the rabbit's health. A dish of
+water must be placed in the hutch, for the rabbit needs water to drink.</p>
+
+<h4>III</h4>
+
+<p>Details, if studied in isolation, are uninteresting to Form I pupils.
+Detailed study should be based upon the animal's habits, movements, and
+instincts, and each detail should be studied as an answer to questions
+such as: How is the animal able to perform these movements? How is the
+animal fitted for this habit of life, etc.?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Watch the rabbit moving. How does a rabbit move?</p>
+
+<p>Which legs are the more useful for hopping? How are the hind legs fitted
+for making long hops?</p>
+
+<p>Why is the rabbit able to defend itself by kicking with its hind feet?
+Find out how the rabbit is fitted for burrowing.</p>
+
+<p>Listen carefully and find out whether the rabbit makes much noise while
+moving. Of what advantage is it to the rabbit to move silently?</p>
+
+<p>Find out, by examining the feet of the rabbit, what causes it to make
+very little noise.</p>
+
+<p>How are rabbits prepared for living during cold weather?</p>
+
+<p>Test the ability of the rabbit to hear faint noises. Why is it necessary
+for the rabbit to be able to hear faint sounds?</p>
+
+<p>How is it fitted for hearing faint sounds?</p>
+
+<p>Examine the teeth and find out how they are fitted for gnawing.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The long, strong, hind legs of the rabbit are bent in
+the form of levers and enable the animal to take long, quick hops.</p>
+
+<p>When the rabbit attacks, it frequently defends itself by vigorous kicks
+with its hind feet, which are armed with long, strong claws. Ernest
+Thompson-Seton's story of Molly Cottontail and "Raggylug", in <i>Wild
+Animals I Have Known</i>, contains an interesting account of how Molly
+rescued Raggy from a snake by this manner of fighting. The rabbit has
+many enemies, hence it has need of large, movable ears to aid its acute
+sense of hearing. The thick pads of hair on the soles of its feet enable
+it to move noiselessly. The thick, soft, inner hair keeps the animal
+warm, while the longer, stiffer, outer hair sheds the rain.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Impress upon the pupils the cruelty of rough handling of the rabbit and
+of neglecting to provide it with a place for exercise and with a clean,
+dry home.</p>
+
+<p>The following pet animals may be studied, using the same order and
+general method of treatment: pigeon, cat, canary, guinea pig, white
+mouse, raccoon, squirrel, parrot.</p>
+
+<p>In many cases these animals can be brought to school by the pupils.
+Encourage the keeping of pet animals by the pupils, for the best lessons
+grow out of the actual care of the pets. The study of a pet bird may be
+conducted along lines similar to the outline given below for the study
+of the pigeon.</p>
+
+<h4>CORRELATIONS</h4>
+
+<p>With literature and reading: Ernest Thompson-Seton's "Raggylug".</p>
+
+<p>With art: Charcoal drawing representing the rabbit in various attitudes,
+as squatting, listening, hopping.</p>
+
+<p>With modelling in clay or plasticine.</p>
+
+<p>With paper cutting.</p>
+
+<p>With language: The vocabulary of the pupils is enlarged by the
+introduction of new words whose meaning is made clear by means of the
+concrete illustration furnished by direct observation of the rabbit.</p>
+
+<p>They use these new words in sentences which they form in describing the
+rabbit; for example: hutch, gnaw, padded, cleft lip, timid.</p>
+
+<p>The rabbit has padded feet so that it can walk without noise. The rabbit
+has a soft bed in its hutch.</p>
+
+<h4>THE DOMESTIC CAT</h4>
+
+<p>The following facts are suggested as topics for a first lesson on the
+domestic cat. The teacher can rely upon the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> pupil's knowledge of the
+cat to furnish these statements of fact during a conversation lesson:</p>
+
+<p>The cat goes about at night as readily as during the day.</p>
+
+<p>The cat can hear faint noises quite readily.</p>
+
+<p>The cat can walk noiselessly.</p>
+
+<p>The cat creeps along until it is close to its prey, then pounces upon
+it, and seizes it with its claws.</p>
+
+<p>The cat enjoys attention and purrs if it is stroked gently.</p>
+
+<p>The cat likes to sleep in a warm place.</p>
+
+<p>The cat can fight viciously with her claws.</p>
+
+<p>The cat keeps her fur smooth and clean and her whiskers well brushed
+with her paws.</p>
+
+<p>The cat eats birds, mice, rats, meat, fish, milk, bread, and cake.</p>
+
+<h4>DETAILED STUDY</h4>
+
+<p>Base the study of the details upon the facts of habit, movements,
+instincts, etc., which were developed in the preceding lesson.</p>
+
+<p><b>Observations.</b>&mdash;Find out how the cat's feet are fitted for giving a
+noiseless tread.</p>
+
+<p>Find the claws.</p>
+
+<p>How are the claws fitted for seizing prey?</p>
+
+<p>How are the claws protected from being made dull by striking against
+objects when the cat is walking?</p>
+
+<h4>THE PIGEON</h4>
+
+<p>A pigeon is kept in a cage in the school-room and the pupils observe:
+its size as compared with that of other birds; outline of body,
+including shape of head; the feathers, noting quill feathers, and
+covering or contour feathers; manner of feeding and drinking; movements,
+as walking, flying, tumbling.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The owner or the teacher describes the dove-cot, the necessity of
+keeping it clean, the use of tobacco stems for killing vermin in the
+nest, the two white eggs, the habits of male and female in taking turns
+in hatching, the parents' habit of half digesting the food in their own
+crops and then pouring it into the crops of the young, the rapid growth
+of the young, the next pair of young hatched before the first pair is
+full-fledged.</p>
+
+<p>Descriptions of the habits of one or more well-known varieties&mdash;pouters,
+fantails, homing pigeons, etc. Read stories of the training and flights
+of homing pigeons, from Ernest Thompson-Seton's <i>Arnex</i>.</p>
+
+<h4>MORE DETAILED STUDY FOR CLASS WORK</h4>
+
+<p>Compare the uses of the quill and contour feathers. Find out how these
+two kinds differ in texture; the differences fitting them for their
+difference in function. The names quill and contour may be replaced by
+some simple names, as feathers for flying and feathers for covering the
+body.</p>
+
+<p>Study the adaptations for flight, noting the smooth body surface, the
+overlapping feathers of the wing for lifting the bird upward as the wing
+comes down, the long wing bones, the strong breast, and the covering of
+feathers giving lightness and warmth. The warmth and lightness of
+feathers is illustrated by the feather boas worn by ladies.</p>
+
+<p>Examine the feet and find out why pigeons are able to perch on trees.</p>
+
+<p>Examine the beak, mouth, tongue, nostrils, eyes, ears. How is the bill
+adapted for picking up grains and seeds?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>OBSERVATION AND CARE OF WINTER-BLOOMING PLANTS</h3>
+
+<p>Children are most interested in things which they own and care for
+themselves. If a child plants a bulb or a slip and succeeds in bringing
+it to maturity, it will be to him the most interesting and, at the same
+time, will bring him more into sympathy with plants wherever he may find
+them. The teacher should impress upon the pupil the desirability of
+having beautiful flowers in the home in winter, when there are none to
+be had out-of-doors.</p>
+
+<p>Every pupil should be encouraged to have one plant at least, and the
+bulbs planted in October and stored away in the dark in the home cellar
+will require a good deal of care and afford an excellent opportunity for
+observing plant growth and the development of flowers. If the pots have
+been stored in a cool cellar and have been kept slightly moist, the
+bulbs will have made sufficient root growth in a month and should be
+brought up into a warmer room where they can get some sunshine every
+day. The pupils will make a report each week as to what changes are
+noticeable in the growing plant. They will note the appearance of pale
+green shoots, which later develop into leaves and at least one flower
+stalk. They should make a drawing once every week and show it to the
+teacher, and the teacher should make it a point to see a number of the
+pupils' plants by calling at their homes. In this way the pupils come to
+know what plants need for their development in the way of soil, water,
+light, and heat. This interest will soon be extended, until, in a very
+few years, the children will add new and beautiful plants to the home
+collection and assume the responsibility of caring for all of them.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>TREES</h3>
+
+<h4>PINES OF THE LOCALITY</h4>
+
+<p>This study may be commenced in November after the deciduous trees have
+lost their leaves and have entered their quiescent winter period. This
+is the time when the evergreens stand out so prominently on the
+landscape in such sharp contrast with the others that have been stripped
+of their broad leaves and now look bare and lifeless. If no pines are to
+be found in the vicinity, balsam or spruce may be substituted. The
+lessons should, as far as possible, be observational. The pupils should
+be encouraged to make some observations for themselves out of school. At
+least one lesson should be conducted out-of-doors, a suitable pine tree
+having been selected beforehand for the purpose. The following method
+might serve as a guide in the study of any species of tree.</p>
+
+<h4>THE WHITE PINE</h4>
+
+<h4>FIELD EXERCISES</h4>
+
+<p>Have the pupils observe the shape and height of the tree from a
+distance, tracing the outline with the finger. Compare the shape of this
+tree with that of other evergreens and also with that of the
+broad-leafed trees. Have them describe in what particulars the shapes
+differ in different trees. They will come to realize that the difference
+in shape results from difference in length, direction, and arrangement
+of branches. They may notice that other evergreen trees resemble the
+pine in that the stems are all straight and extend as a gradually
+tapering shaft from the bottom to the top, that all have a more or less
+conical shape, and that the branches grow more or less straight out
+from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> the main stem, not slanting off as in the case of the maples and
+elms.</p>
+
+<p>Coming close to the tree, the pupils may first examine the trunk. By
+using a string or tape-line, find its diameter and how big it is around.
+Tell them how big some evergreens are (the giant trees of the Pacific
+Coast are sometimes over forty feet around). Have them notice where the
+trunk is largest, and let them find out why a tree needs to be so strong
+at the ground. Heavy wind puts a great strain on it just at this point.
+Illustrate by taking a long slat or lath, drive it into the ground
+firmly, and then, catching it by the top, push it over. It will break
+off just at the ground. If a little pine tree could be taken up, the
+pupils would be interested in seeing what long, strong, fibrous roots
+the pine has.</p>
+
+<p>Let them examine the bark of the trunk and describe its colour and
+roughness. The fissures in the bark, which are caused by the enlarging
+of the tree by the formation of new wood under the bark, are deeper at
+the bottom of the tree than at the top, the tree being younger and the
+bark thinner the nearer to the top we go.</p>
+
+<p>Let the pupils look up into the tree from beneath and then go a little
+distance away and look at it. They will notice how bare the branches are
+on the inside, and the teacher will probably have to explain why this is
+so. They will discover that the leaves are nearly all out toward the
+ends of the branches as they get light there, while the centre of the
+tree top is shaded, and the great question that every tree must try to
+solve is how to get most light for its leaves. The pupils will now see
+an additional reason why the lower limbs should be longer than the upper
+ones. The greater length of the lower limbs brings the leaves out into
+the sunlight.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The reason for calling this tree an "evergreen" may now be considered.
+Why it retains its leaves all winter is a problem for more advanced
+classes; but if the question is asked, the teacher may get over the
+difficulty by explaining to the class that the leaves are so small, and
+yet so hardy, that wind, frost, or snow does not injure them. Each pupil
+may bring a small branch or twig back to the school-room for use in a
+class-room lesson.</p>
+
+<h4>CLASS-ROOM LESSON</h4>
+
+<p><b>Materials.</b>&mdash;Small branches&mdash;one for each pupil, cones, bark, pieces of
+pine board.</p>
+
+<p><b>Introduction.</b>&mdash;Review the general features of the pine that were
+observed in the field lesson.</p>
+
+<p><b>Observations.</b>&mdash;The branches are distributed. Pupils test the strength
+and suppleness of the branches and find the gummy nature of the surface.</p>
+
+<p>Of what value are these qualities to the tree during winter storms?</p>
+
+<p>Examine the texture, stiffness, and fineness of the needles.</p>
+
+<p>Note that the needles are in little bunches. How many are in each bunch?</p>
+
+<p>Are there any buds on the branches?</p>
+
+<p>If so, where are the buds?</p>
+
+<p>How are the buds protected from rain?</p>
+
+<p>The pupils examine the cones and describe their general shape.</p>
+
+<p>The pupils are asked to break open the tough scales and find the seeds.</p>
+
+<p>Allow the seeds to fall through the air, and thus the pupils will
+discover the use of the wings attached to the seeds.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The wood is next examined, its colour and odour are noted, and its
+hardness is tested.</p>
+
+<p>Find articles in the school-room that are made of pine wood.</p>
+
+<h4>ELM</h4>
+
+<p>The following topics are suggested for aiding in the selection of matter
+for a lesson on a typical broad-leafed tree:</p>
+
+<p>The height of the tree.</p>
+
+<p>The part of the height that is composed of tree tops.</p>
+
+<p>The umbrella shape or dome shape of the top.</p>
+
+<p>The gracefully drooping branches of the outer part of the top.</p>
+
+<p>Try to find other trees with tops like that of the elm.</p>
+
+<p>The diameter of the trunk.</p>
+
+<p>The diameter is almost uniform up to the branches.</p>
+
+<p>The branches all come off from one point, like the ribs of an umbrella.</p>
+
+<p>The thick bark, that of the old trees being marked by deep furrows.</p>
+
+<p>The birds that make their nests in the elm.</p>
+
+<p>In spring find and examine the flowers, fruits, seeds, and also the
+leaves.</p>
+
+<h4>FIELD EXERCISE</h4>
+
+<p>A good out-of-door exercise to follow the general lesson outlined above,
+is to require the pupils to find all the elm trees or a number of elm
+trees growing in the locality and to describe their location and the
+kind of soil on which they grow.</p>
+
+<p>The maple, oak, horse-chestnut, and apple are also suitable trees upon
+which to base lessons for Form I.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>DOMESTIC ANIMALS</h3>
+
+<p>Domestic animals not only furnish suitable subjects for observation
+work, but also afford good opportunities for developing that sympathetic
+interest in animal life which will cause the pupils to more nearly
+appreciate the useful animals and to treat them more humanely.</p>
+
+<h4>THE HORSE</h4>
+
+<h4>I</h4>
+
+<p><b>Introduction.</b>&mdash;By means of a conversation with the pupils, find out what
+they know about the horse and lead them to think about his proper
+treatment.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lesson.</b>&mdash;The matter and method are suggested by the following:</p>
+
+<p>What are the different things for which horses are useful?</p>
+
+<p>What kinds of horses are most useful for hauling heavy loads?</p>
+
+<p>Why are they most useful?</p>
+
+<p>What kinds are the most useful for general farm work? Why are they the
+most useful?</p>
+
+<p>What kinds are the most useful for driving?</p>
+
+<p>Are there any other animals that would be as useful as the horse for all
+these things?</p>
+
+<p>What causes some horses to be lean and weary while others are fat and
+brisk?</p>
+
+<p>What kinds of stables should horses have as to warmth, dryness, and
+fresh air?</p>
+
+<p>Why is it cruel to put a frosty bit into a horse's mouth?</p>
+
+<p>When a horse is warm from driving on a cold day, how should he be
+protected if hitched out-of-doors?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Why, when he is warm from driving, should the blanket not be put on
+until he has been in the stable for a little while?</p>
+
+<p>Correlate with reading from <i>Black Beauty</i>.</p>
+
+<h4>II</h4>
+
+<p><b>Preparation.</b>&mdash;I want you to find out some more things about the horse,
+but you will understand these things better if you remember that long
+ago all horses were wild, just as some horses are wild on the prairies
+to-day, and that the habits learned by wild horses remain in our tame
+horses.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The teacher should read to the class parts of "The Pacing
+Mustang" from Ernest Thompson-Seton's <i>Wild Animals I Have
+Known</i>, or "Kaweah's Run" from <i>Neighbours with Claws and
+Hoofs</i>. This will give the pupils a motive for making the
+required observations.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Observations.</b>&mdash;Compare the length of the legs of the horse with his
+height.</p>
+
+<p>Of what use were these long legs to the wild horses?</p>
+
+<p>What causes horses to "shy"? Of what use was this habit to wild horses?</p>
+
+<p>In how many directions can a horse move his ears? Of what use was this
+to wild horses?</p>
+
+<p>When horses in a field are alarmed, do they rush together or keep apart,
+and where are the young foals found at this time? Of what use were these
+habits to wild horses? Are the eyes of the horse so placed that he can
+see behind him and to either side as well as in front? Of what use was
+this to wild horses?</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The horse is an animal which is strong, swift,
+graceful, gentle, obedient, docile. The pupils should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> learn that, in
+return for his good services, the horse should be treated with kindness
+and consideration.</p>
+
+<p>The legs of the horse are long, straight, and strong, and the single toe
+(or hoof) means that the horse walks on the tip of one toe, and the hoof
+is in reality a large toe nail developed to protect the tip of the toe.
+To these features is due the great speed of the horse. Horses gather
+together in the field with the foals in the most protected part of the
+group, just as wild horses found it necessary to do for protection. The
+wild horses "shied" at a fierce enemy concealed in the grass, and the
+tame horse shies at a strange object.</p>
+
+<h4>CORRELATIONS</h4>
+
+<p>With literature and reading: By interpretation of <i>The Bell of Atri</i>.</p>
+
+<p>With language: By exercise on new words, as graceful, etc.</p>
+
+
+<h3>DOMESTIC BIRDS</h3>
+
+<h4>THE DUCK</h4>
+
+<p><b>Home Observations.</b>&mdash;Compare the duck and the drake as to size,
+colouring, calls, and other sounds.</p>
+
+<p>Observe the position of the birds when standing. Observe their mode of
+walking, of swimming, and of flying. Where do they prefer to make their
+nests? Why is the duck more plain in dress than the drake? What is the
+shape, size, and build of the nest? Describe the eggs. When does the
+duck sleep? Why can it not sleep upon a perch as hens do? How do ducks
+feed on land? Compare with the feeding of hens. Observe how ducks feed
+when in water. Observe the various sounds, as alarm notes, call notes,
+social sounds.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Describe the preening of the feathers and explain the meaning of it.</p>
+
+<p>Compare the appearance of the young ducks with that of the older ones.
+Do the young ducks need to be taught to swim?</p>
+
+<h4>CLASS-ROOM LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>Provide, where convenient, a duck for class study.</p>
+
+<p><b>Observations.</b>&mdash;Colour, size, general shape of the body, and the relation
+of the shape to ease of swimming; divisions of the body.</p>
+
+<p>Size of head, length of neck, and the relation of the length of the neck
+to the habit of feeding in water.</p>
+
+<p>The legs and web feet, and the relation of these to the bird's awkward
+walking and ease in swimming.</p>
+
+<p>The bill and its relation to the bird's habits of feeding by scooping
+things from the bottom of the water and then straining the water out.
+The sensitive tip of the bill by which the duck can feel the food.</p>
+
+<p>The feathers, their warmth, and compactness for shedding water. The oil
+spread over them during the preening is useful as a protection against
+water.</p>
+
+<p>The bill, feet, and feathers should be compared with those of the hen
+and goose, and reasons for the similarities and differences should be
+discussed.</p>
+
+<p>The uses that people make of ducks and their feathers and eggs; the
+gathering of eider-down.</p>
+
+<p>For desk work, make drawings of the duck when swimming, flying, and
+standing.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3>FORM I</h3>
+
+<h4>SPRING</h4>
+
+
+<h3>GARDEN WORK</h3>
+
+<p>The pupils in Form I cannot be expected to do heavy work, such as
+spading plots or making paths. In some cases the larger boys will
+undertake to line out the walks and do the spading or digging. Sometimes
+it may be best to engage a man to do the spading. In any case the boys
+and girls should do the measuring and marking out of the plots. If
+stable manure is used in fertilizing the plots, it must be well rotted
+and then carefully spaded into the plots. The rest of the work should be
+done by the pupils themselves under the direction of the teacher. This
+work will include the levelling of the plots with hoes and rakes, and
+the trimming of the edges to the exact size of the plots, as determined
+by a string drawn taut about the four corner pickets. If the pupils in
+this Form have individual plots, each pupil will mark out his drills,
+put in the seeds, and cover them. The teacher may give demonstrations in
+connection with the work but should not do the work for the pupils.</p>
+
+<p>The teacher must use his own judgment as to what seeds to allow the
+pupils to plant. One variety of vegetable and one of flowers is
+sufficient for Form I pupils, and it is desirable that large seeds be
+chosen for them and such as are pretty sure to grow under ordinary
+circumstances. Beans, beets, radishes, or lettuces are suitable as
+vegetables,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> and nasturtiums, balsams, or four-o'clocks as flowers.
+These seeds should be planted at least an inch apart in the drill and
+the drills, twelve to fifteen inches apart. Large seeds may have an inch
+of soil over them and smaller seeds much less. Unless the soil is very
+dry, watering should not be allowed, and in any case it is better to
+water the plot thoroughly the day before planting the seed instead of
+after, as is commonly done. The pupils must not allow a crust to form
+over the plot either before the seeds come up or after. Claw-hand
+weeders are convenient for loosening the soil close to the plants, and
+small-sized garden rakes can be used between the rows as soon as the
+seedlings appear. It is always better to cultivate before the weeds get
+a start, and thus prevent their growth. Usually the young plants will be
+too thick in the row, so that thinning should be begun when the plants
+are about two inches high. The edges of the plots should be kept
+straight and the paths clean and level. Each plot should have a wooden
+label bearing the owner's name or number and Form. The teacher is
+referred to <i>Circular 13</i> of the Ontario Department of Education,
+<i>Elementary Agriculture and Horticulture</i>, for lists of seeds, tools,
+etc.</p>
+
+<h4>GARDEN STUDIES</h4>
+
+<p>The pupils should be in the garden every day as soon as gardening
+commences. In this way only will they be able to follow and appreciate
+the whole life of the plant from seed to seed again. The teacher should
+give a few minutes daily to receiving verbal reports from the pupils.
+All new developments that the pupils notice should be reported for the
+good of all. The teacher should make a practice of visiting the garden
+for a few minutes daily before or after school, in order that he may be
+in a position<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> to direct the pupils in their studies in the garden. The
+pupils should watch for the first appearance of the young plants above
+ground, noting how they get through the soil, and the size, shape, and
+colour of the first leaves. They can readily determine whether all of
+the seeds grow. They will then watch for the opening of the second pair
+of leaves and compare them with the first pair. They should report the
+amount of growth made from day to day, and also what insect enemies
+attack the plants, and what animals, such as toads and birds, are seen
+during the season. They will also have occasion to note the effect of
+rain and sun upon the soil and upon the plants. The first vegetables fit
+for use and the first flowers in bloom will be reported. While they give
+special attention to the development of the plants in their own plots,
+they will of course observe what is going on in the garden generally.</p>
+
+<p>Correlate with the interpretation of "The Seed" in <i>Nature in
+Verse</i>.&mdash;Lovejoy. Silver, Burdett &amp; Co., 60 cents.</p>
+
+<h4>WINDOW GARDEN</h4>
+
+<p>The pupils should plant some seeds in sand or moist sawdust in boxes or
+pots in the school-room, so that they may be able to examine the
+progress of germination. In this way they will come to realize that
+every good seed has in it a tiny plant asleep and that warmth and
+moisture are needed to awaken it and help it to grow. It sends one
+delicate shoot down into the soil and another up into the light. Another
+interesting way to plant seeds is in egg-shells filled with fine, moist
+soil, which are set in rows in a box of sand. One seed only should be
+put in a shell. The plants may be grown to quite a size and then set out
+in the garden plot, the shell having first been broken off and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> ball
+of earth containing the roots carefully set down in a small hole, packed
+about with garden soil, and watered. The pupils should draw diagrams or
+maps of their plots and afterwards of the whole garden. (See Manual on
+<i>Geography</i>.) They can mark the lines of plants, and those who can write
+can give in short, simple sentences the main things noticed from day to
+day. They should give the day and date when the seeds were planted, when
+plants came up, when rain storms occurred, when work in weeding,
+thinning, and cultivating was done, when the plants were fit to use, and
+how they were disposed of, etc. This will serve as profitable seat work
+in writing, drawing, and language. Simple problems based upon dimensions
+of plots and the value of vegetables, etc., afford excellent
+supplementary exercises in arithmetic.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WILD FLOWERS</h3>
+
+<p>The admiration that even little children have for the wild flowers of
+the woods and their delight in finding and gathering them is sufficient
+justification for including them in studies for Form I. The teacher must
+be careful, however, lest he go too far in the critical examination of
+the parts of the flowers, forgetting that little children are not
+interested in stamens and petals, but in the fresh, fragrant, and
+delicate blossoms that beautify the little banks and hollows of every
+woodland and that brighten up the fields and roadsides in spring time.
+The teacher should aim to deepen that childish admiration and give to
+the child a more intelligent appreciation of the beauties of the wild
+flowers and a desire to protect them from extermination.</p>
+
+<p>No attempt should be made to prohibit the picking of wild flowers, but
+the pupils should be instructed not to pull up plants by the roots. The
+picking of flowers in moderation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> does not injure the plants, but rather
+tends to increase their vigour. Pupils should pick flowers with some
+purpose in view, rather than to see how big a bunch each can gather. The
+teacher should show them how to arrange a few flowers in a neat bouquet
+and emphasize the fact that a great mass of blossoms crushed closely
+together is far from being artistic or ornamental. Pupils should then be
+encouraged to make up pretty bouquets for the teacher's desk, for the
+home dining-room, and for old or invalid people who love
+flowers&mdash;especially those plucked by the hands of thoughtful children.</p>
+
+<h4>RECOGNITION OF WILD FLOWERS</h4>
+
+<p>The pupils should learn to recognize each year a few species of wild
+flowers by name as well as by sight. This may be accomplished in two
+ways, (1) by means of excursions to the woods a few times each year
+during the spring and summer months, and (2) by having occasional
+observation lessons in the school-room based upon the flowers gathered
+for the school-room bouquets. Both methods are to be recommended, but it
+must be borne in mind that a wilted, lacerated flower has no interest
+for a little child.</p>
+
+<h4>LESSON IN OUTLINE</h4>
+
+<h4>BLOODROOT</h4>
+
+<p>Plants are always most interesting when studied in their natural
+environment, and this is one reason why the school excursion deserves
+the highest commendation as a method of studying wild flowers. When
+studying wild flowers out-of-doors, the pupils should notice what seems
+to be the favourite or usual location for the particular species under
+consideration.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Have the pupils observe the following about the bloodroot:</p>
+
+<p>It seems to prefer fairly dry, rich soil, on or near a hillside. It
+opens its beautiful white blossoms early in the spring, as if to enjoy
+the bright sunshine before the trees put out their thick coat of leaves
+to shade it. It, like many another early spring flower, comes into bloom
+so early in the spring because it got ready the summer before. The
+teacher should carefully dig up a specimen&mdash;root and all&mdash;as young
+pupils cannot be depended on to get up all of the underground part. Note
+the large amount of plant food stored up in the underground stem, how
+the flower was protected before it opened out, and what becomes of the
+protection. Note the peculiar beauty of the snow-white blossoms with
+their yellow centres, and how beautiful they look as they nestle amongst
+the handsome green leaves with their pinkish-tinted stems. Wound the
+root, and notice the reddish, bloodlike juice whence the plant derives
+its name. Indians sometimes use this juice for war-paint, and some
+mothers give it to their children on sugar as a cure for coughs and
+colds.</p>
+
+<p>Other wild flowers suitable for Form I are buttercup, spring beauty,
+dog's-tooth violet, hepatica, and trillium.</p>
+
+<p>If there is a corner of the school ground that is partly shaded, and if
+the soil is fairly mellow and moist, some of these wild flowers should
+be transplanted there where they will grow well and can be seen every
+day during the blooming period.</p>
+
+<p>The leaves and flowers of the bloodroot and the above-mentioned wild
+flowers can be used for drawing.</p>
+
+<h4>CORRELATIONS</h4>
+
+<p>Oral and written descriptions of the flowers studied afford suitable
+exercises in language and composition.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>INSECT STUDY</h3>
+
+<h4>CECROPIA, OR EMPEROR-MOTH</h4>
+
+<p>The larv&aelig; of this, the largest of Canadian moths, may be found early in
+September, as they wander about in search of a suitable branch upon
+which to fasten their cocoons. If the pupils are not successful in
+finding the larv&aelig;, the cocoons can be found after the leaves have
+fallen, because their size makes them conspicuous. The only difficulty
+in finding them is due to their being of the same colour as the withered
+leaves, so that they are easily mistaken for the latter.</p>
+
+<p>The pupils should be directed to look carefully at what appears at first
+sight to be a withered leaf attached to a tree or shrub, and in this way
+many cocoons of various moths will be found.</p>
+
+<p><b>Observe.</b>&mdash;The large size&mdash;from three to four inches long; the greenish
+colour; the stumpy legs; movements, as walking, feeling, clinging; the
+rows of warts, and short, stiff spines on these; the feeding habits,
+biting or sucking; eggs of parasites, for frequently these are found on
+the larv&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>Place the larva in a box covered with gauze, and observe the spinning
+and weaving of the cocoon.</p>
+
+<p>From what part of the body is the silk obtained? With what organs are
+the threads placed in position? What part of the cocoon is made first
+and what part is made last? What time is required for making the cocoon?
+How is the cocoon fastened to the tree? What provision is made in the
+cocoon for warmth, for protection from birds, for shelter from rain?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Cut open a cocoon and examine the pupa, noting the mummy-like case on
+which can be seen the impressions of the wings developing within.</p>
+
+<p>If the cocoon is kept in the vivarium in a cool place, so that the
+conditions may be as nearly as possible like the natural conditions, the
+adult moth will emerge about the first of May. In April the cocoon
+should be wetted occasionally, as it would be if exposed to rains; this
+ensures more perfect development of the insect.</p>
+
+<p><b>Observe.</b>&mdash;At what part of the cocoon the moth makes an opening; the slow
+spreading and strengthening of the wings; the size and coloration of the
+moth; the feathery feelers; the position of the wings and sucking mouth
+parts when at rest.</p>
+
+<p>Require the pupils to make drawings of the cocoon, larva, and adult.</p>
+
+<p>The promothea moth, whose cocoons are common on lilac bushes, may be
+studied in the same way as the emperor.</p>
+
+<p>Reference.&mdash;Silcox and Stevenson: <i>Modern Nature Study</i></p>
+
+<h4>DRAGON-FLY</h4>
+
+<p>The larv&aelig; of this insect may be obtained in May or June by scraping
+leaves, weeds, and mud from the bottom of ponds and allowing the mud and
+water to settle in a pail or tub. The larv&aelig; may be distinguished from
+other aquatic creatures by the long insect-like body, three pairs of
+legs, and the "mask"&mdash;a flap with pincers at the end. This mask can be
+turned under the head and body when not in use, or it can be projected
+in front of the larva for catching prey. At the rear end are three
+tubes, which fit together to form the breathing tube.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The pupils should observe the above features, and also the movements,
+seizing of prey, breathing, moulting, semi-resting or pupa stage, at the
+close of which the pupa climbs up a reed or stalk of grass and bursts
+the skin from which the adult emerges.</p>
+
+<p>The pupils should put into the aquarium various kinds of insects and
+decide what foods are preferred by the larva and the adult.</p>
+
+<p><b>Observe.</b>&mdash;The size, length of body, movements in flight, lace-like
+wings, and insect-killing habits of the dragon-fly.</p>
+
+<p>Should dragon-flies be protected? Give reasons. Are all dragon-flies of
+the same size, build, and colour? At what time of year are dragon-flies
+most numerous?</p>
+
+<p><b>Reference.</b>&mdash;Silcox and Stevenson: <i>Modern Nature Study</i>.</p>
+
+<h4>OTHER CONSPICUOUS INSECTS</h4>
+
+<p>The potato-beetle, giant water-bug, eastern swallow-tail butterfly, and
+promothea moth are insects suitable as types to be studied by the pupils
+of Form I. The giant water-bug is the large, broad, grayish-brown insect
+that is found on the sidewalks in May and June mornings. (For
+information on the eastern swallow-tail and promothea see Metamorphosis,
+in Butterfly and Moth Collections.)</p>
+
+
+<h3>BIRDS</h3>
+
+<p>Bird studies for Form I should be limited to observations made directly
+upon a few common birds, such as the robin, house-sparrow (English),
+song-sparrow, flicker, house-wren, crow, bronzed grackle, and
+meadow-lark. These are easily reached by the pupils of every rural and
+village school, and the purpose of the lessons should be to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> teach the
+pupils to recognize these birds, and by making use of child interest in
+living active creatures, to develop their interest in birds.</p>
+
+<h4>THE ROBIN</h4>
+
+<h4>FIELD EXERCISES</h4>
+
+<h4>I</h4>
+
+<p>Observe the robins and find out the following things:</p>
+
+<p>1. Are all robins of the same colour? If not of the same colour, what
+difference do you note?</p>
+
+<p>2. Does the bird run or hop? Imitate its movements.</p>
+
+<p>3. Listen to its song. Is it sweet or harsh? Is it loud or low? Is it
+cheerful or gloomy?</p>
+
+<p>4. Watch the robin as it moves along the grass and learn how it finds
+out where the worms are.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The pupils should be given a few days in which to
+find out answers to these questions, and at the end of that time the
+answers should be discussed in the class.</p>
+
+<p>Male robins have more pronounced colours than female robins. The beak is
+yellower, the breast is brighter, the back and the top of the head are
+darker. Robins both run and hop. The sense of sight of the robin is very
+acute, but its sense of hearing is even more keen. The bird may be
+observed turning its head to one side to listen for the sound of a worm
+which is still inside its burrow.</p>
+
+<h4>II</h4>
+
+<p>A second set of exercises may now be assigned which will demand a more
+detailed study of the bird, namely, a study of the size, colour, form of
+body, manner of flight, and length of beak.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>III</h4>
+
+<h4>THE NEST, EGGS, AND YOUNG</h4>
+
+<p>1. Find out various places in which robins build their nests. In what
+ways are these places all alike? Examine the materials of the nest and
+find out why the nests are built in the kind of places in which they are
+found.</p>
+
+<p>2. Describe the eggs.</p>
+
+<p>3. What kinds of food do the parent birds bring to the young? Does the
+father bird aid in bringing food to the young?</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The nests are found in well-sheltered parts of apple
+trees and evergreens, in sheds, under ledges of roofs, and in other
+sheltered places. The nests, since they are composed largely of mud and
+grass, would easily be washed away if exposed to rain storms. The food
+brought to the young consists of worms and insect larv&aelig;, and the father
+bird is very industrious in helping to take care of his family. It is
+the father bird that sings, and the mother bird devotes all her energies
+to working and scolding.</p>
+
+<h4>THE SONG-SPARROW</h4>
+
+<h4>FIELD EXERCISES</h4>
+
+<p>In early March, when the streams are just beginning to break from
+underneath the ice and spots of ground peep here and there through the
+snow, assign to the pupils an exercise such as the following:</p>
+
+<p>Watch for a small, gray-brown bird which perches near the top of a bush,
+or small tree, and sings the "Tea-kettle Song".<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Try to interpret the song in the words:</p>
+
+<p>"Maids! Maids! Maids! Put on the tea-kettle, tea-kettle, tea-kettle,
+tea-kettle, tea-kettle-ettle."</p>
+
+<p>Is the song bright and cheerful or dull and gloomy? Does the bird sing
+this song often?</p>
+
+<p>Approach close to the bird. Are there any stripes or spots on its breast
+or head?</p>
+
+<p>Describe the flight of the bird from its perch, when it is disturbed.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;It is possible for the pupils to distinguish the
+song-sparrow by means of the above exercises. It is one of the first
+birds to return in the spring, and, as it is a lusty singer, it will
+attract the attention of all who are looking for birds. The dark brown
+spot in the centre of the breast is a distinguishing mark, and the more
+observant will find the three ashy-gray stripes on its head and the dark
+line through the eye.</p>
+
+<p>When disturbed, it does not rise into the air, but flies downward and
+disappears with a swish of its tail. The nest is usually built on the
+ground or in a low bush or tree. It is composed of grass, fine roots, or
+weed stems, and lined with fine grass or hair. The eggs are usually four
+or five, but sometimes there are as many as seven. They are white with a
+greenish-blue tint and are closely spotted with brown.</p>
+
+<h4>CLASS-ROOM LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>Discuss with the pupils the observations that they have made on the
+field exercises.</p>
+
+<p>Generalize as to the similarity of the places in which the pupils have
+seen the sparrow singing, and as to the times of day in which the bird
+sings.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Teach the marks of identification which some have discovered, using for
+this purpose pictures of the bird or black-board drawings; and encourage
+those who have not yet seen the song-sparrow to try again and to secure
+the assistance of those who have succeeded.</p>
+
+<p>Compare the size and form of the song-sparrow with that of the
+house-sparrow (English).</p>
+
+<p>Tell the pupils the great value of the bird in killing cutworms,
+plant-lice, caterpillars, ground-beetles, grasshoppers, flies, and other
+insects. It also helps to prevent the spread of weeds by eating
+thousands of seeds of noxious weeds.</p>
+
+<p>Assign the pupils some other things to discover, as for example: Through
+how many months of the summer does the bird sing? Find the nest. Why is
+it hard to find? Describe the eggs, as to size, colour, and number. Do
+not disturb the nest and do not visit it very often.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;Base lessons in bird study upon the English sparrow,
+flicker, wren, and meadow-lark.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE SHEEP</h3>
+
+<h4>PROBLEMS FOR FIELD WORK</h4>
+
+<p>How do sheep find one another when they have become separated?</p>
+
+<p>How old are the lambs before they can keep up with the old sheep when
+running? What fits the lamb for running so well?</p>
+
+<p>Watch the lambs when they are playing, and find out whether they play:</p>
+
+<p>1. I'm the king of the castle.</p>
+
+<p>2. Follow the leader.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Find out by watching a flock of sheep what is meant by "Men follow one
+another like a flock of sheep".</p>
+
+<p>Describe how sheep move when they are going very fast.</p>
+
+<p>Why should sheep be kept in a well-ventilated building that protects
+them from snow and rain but is not very warm?</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;Each movement, habit, and instinct implied in this
+exercise is explained by the life of the wild sheep. Their natural home
+is in the mountain, and their swift movement is that of bounding from
+rock to rock as they follow the strongest and boldest (their leader) to
+a place of safety. The legs of the lamb grow rapidly, beyond all
+proportion to the rate of growth of the body, so that within two weeks
+after birth the young lamb is almost as strong of limb and fleet of foot
+as its mother. In their games the lambs are fitting themselves for their
+place in the flock, and these games very much resemble those named in
+the exercise.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h3>FORM II</h3>
+
+<h4>AUTUMN</h4>
+
+
+<h3>BULB PLANTING OUT-OF-DOORS</h3>
+
+<p>Tulips and daffodils (narcissus) are the most suitable bulbs for
+out-of-door planting. The best varieties for outdoor culture are usually
+designated in catalogues. Bulbs should not be planted in individual
+plots, but in borders and ornamental beds. The latter should not be
+placed in the centre of a lawn, as is frequently done. Bulbs should be
+planted before the last of October.</p>
+
+<h4>BEDS FOR GROWING BULBS</h4>
+
+<p>To make a bulb bed, throw out the top soil to a depth of eight or nine
+inches, put about three inches of well-rotted stable manure in the
+bottom, and cover it with about three inches of the soil which was
+thrown out. Rake the plot level and then place the bulbs about eight
+inches apart on the top of the soil, arranging them in any design
+chosen. Cover them with the rest of the soil and rake it level. There
+will be about five inches of soil over the bulbs. When a solid crust has
+formed over the bed, put on a covering of leaves, straw, or branches of
+evergreens, and some pieces of boards to hold them in place. This
+covering does not protect the bulbs from freezing, but prevents too
+rapid thawing out in the spring. This covering<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> should remain until the
+tips of the bulbs are showing above ground, when it should be removed.
+Ordinarily the bulbs may be left a second year before digging up. They
+should then be re-set or replaced with new ones, and the bed made and
+fertilized as before.</p>
+
+<p>In clay soil the bulbs should not be set quite so deep as in sandy soil,
+and the bulbs have better drainage about their roots if a handful of
+sand is placed under each bulb in planting.</p>
+
+<p>Crocus bulbs may be planted in clumps anywhere about the grounds or
+borders by simply making a small hole about five inches deep, dropping
+the bulb in, and covering it. Lily of the valley grows best in partial
+shade in some unfrequented corner.</p>
+
+<h4>PLANTING OF BULBS INDOORS</h4>
+
+<p>Read again the instructions given under this heading in Form I work,
+regarding soil, planting, and care. The Chinese sacred lily and trumpet
+narcissus may be chosen for the pupils of this Form. The narcissus, also
+called daffodil, may be held back until early spring if kept in a cool,
+dark cellar, but the Chinese sacred lily, which is also a variety of
+narcissus, comes into bloom from four to six weeks after planting. It is
+usually grown in water in a bowl of suitable size. Place a few pieces of
+charcoal in the bottom of the bowl, set the bulb upon them, and pack
+coloured stones and shells around it as a support. Keep the bowl about
+two thirds full of water and set it in a warm, sunny place. It does not
+need to be set in the dark, as is the case with other bulbs. These may
+also be grown in soil in the same way as other varieties of narcissus.
+When blooming is over, the bulbs may be thrown away, as they cannot be
+used again.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>GARDEN WORK</h3>
+
+<h4>(See Autumn work for Form I.)</h4>
+
+<p>The pupils in Form II should be given more responsibility with reference
+to the care and management of their garden plots. If they have had a
+couple of years in gardening while in Form I, they will have gained
+sufficient knowledge as to the needs of plants and sufficient practice
+in garden craft to do a certain amount of work quite independently. The
+boys of Form II are able, with suitable garden tools, to do all the work
+needed in the management of their own plots and may even be allowed to
+do some of the harder work for the girls of their Form.</p>
+
+<h4>SEED SELECTION</h4>
+
+<p>Besides the usual work of weeding, cultivating, and harvesting of their
+crops, the pupils should undertake some work in seed selection. This
+work not only results in the improvement of the plants grown from year
+to year, but also helps to train the pupils in painstaking observation
+and the discerning of minute points of excellence. The ambition to
+produce, by careful selection and thorough cultivation, a grain or
+flower better than has been, is aroused, and, as the pupil's interest
+increases, his love for the art increases and his efforts meet with
+greater success.</p>
+
+<p>The teacher should aim from the first to use only the best available
+seed even if the cost be greater. He should send for a number of
+catalogues and carefully choose those varieties of seeds that possess
+evident merit for the purpose intended. In the case of flowers, the
+pupils should be asked to decide what individual plants showed greatest
+excellence, and these should be marked, and the seed from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> them
+preserved for next season's planting. When the flower is in full bloom,
+a small string tag should be tied to the flower stem (string tags can be
+got from a local merchant). On this tag should be written in lead-pencil
+the name of the species, the shade, and date of flowering. These flowers
+should be left to ripen thoroughly, and then the seed picked and sealed
+up in small envelopes, which the pupils should make as part of their
+manual training work. The date on the tag should be transferred to the
+seed envelope.</p>
+
+<h4>STORING SEEDS</h4>
+
+<p>All the envelopes should be collected, placed in a mouse-proof box, and
+stored in a cool, dry place until time to plant in the spring. Small
+bottles are excellent for holding seed and safer than envelopes. If such
+selection is carried on systematically, it will result in an increase of
+yield and of quality not to be equalled by even the best seed that the
+markets have to offer. Thus the school garden may become the centre of
+interest for the community. Seeds of good varieties can be distributed
+to the ratepayers, and the standard of gardening and horticulture
+raised. Here, as elsewhere, much&mdash;almost everything&mdash;depends upon the
+teacher's interest and ability to lead as well as to instruct.</p>
+
+<h4>HARVESTING AND STORING OF GARDEN CROPS</h4>
+
+<p>As soon as the vegetables reach their best stage of development, they
+should be taken from the garden by the owner. All dead plants and refuse
+should be removed and covered up in a compost heap. The boys of this
+Form should also assist in doing part of the general work of the school
+garden. They might take up from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> garden border such tender plants as
+dahlias, gladioli, and Canna lilies. These should be dried off and
+stored in a cool, dry cellar. If the cellar be warm, it is necessary to
+cover the bulbs with garden soil to prevent their drying out too much.</p>
+
+<h4>CLASS-ROOM LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>The pupils are led, through conversation, to state their experiences and
+observations. The teacher assists them in interpreting their
+observations and organizing their knowledge and stimulates them to
+thoughtful search for further information.</p>
+
+<p>Discuss with the pupils such questions as:</p>
+
+<p>What are people busy doing on their farms and in their gardens at this
+time of year? Why do they harvest and store the wheat, oats, corn,
+potatoes, and apples, etc.? Are there any countries in which people do
+not need to gather in the grains, vegetables, and fruits?</p>
+
+<p>The discussion of these questions will direct their thought to the need
+of storing sufficient food for animals and for man to last through the
+winter, when these things do not grow. They must be gathered to protect
+them from destruction by storms of wind and rain and the severe frosts
+of winter. People who live in very warm countries find foods growing all
+the year round, and they do not need to prepare for winter, but these
+people are always lazy and unprogressive.</p>
+
+<p>Discuss the means taken to protect the various crops, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Why can grain be kept in barns or granaries or in stacks? Why can
+apples, turnips, and potatoes not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> be kept in the same way as grains?
+What are the conditions that are best suited for keeping the latter
+products? Name some kinds of crops that cannot be kept in any of the
+ways already discussed. Why can they not be kept in these ways?</p>
+
+<p>These discussions will develop the idea of the necessity of keeping
+apples, potatoes, and turnips, in cellars, root-houses, and pits, where
+they cannot freeze, but where they are kept at uniformly low
+temperatures which are as close as possible to their freezing points.
+The air must not be too dry, as dryness causes them to shrivel up. In
+dry cellars they should be covered with fine soil. Very delicate fruits,
+such as cherries, grapes, peaches, plums, strawberries, etc., can only
+be kept for a length of time by preserving or canning them.</p>
+
+<p>Correlate with lessons in Household Management on preserving and
+canning.</p>
+
+<h4>FALL CULTIVATION</h4>
+
+<p>When the garden has been finally cleaned out, the plot should be spaded
+up and left without raking. Clay soil especially is much improved in
+physical qualities by thus being exposed to the air and frost. All
+garden tools should receive a special cleaning up before storing for
+winter.</p>
+
+
+<h3>GARDEN STUDIES</h3>
+
+<p>The observational studies suggested under this head for Form I will be
+followed also in Form II. The pupils of Form II will be expected to make
+more critical observations in connection not only with the plants
+growing in their own individual plots, but also with those plants<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> which
+other pupils have been growing. They should give some attention also to
+the plants in the perennial flower border.</p>
+
+<h4>GARDEN RECORDS.</h4>
+
+<p>In this Form the pupils should begin to make garden records on such
+points as the following:</p>
+
+<p>1. Description of the plant&mdash;size, habit of growth, kind of leaves and
+their arrangement, date of flowering, form, size and colouring of the
+flowers, points of merit or the reverse, description of the seed and how
+scattered, how disposed of, and the value.</p>
+
+<p>2. The work done in the garden from day to day, with dates.</p>
+
+<p>3. The effect of rain, drought, or other weather conditions on the
+growth of the plants.</p>
+
+<p>4. What insects were seen visiting the flowers and what they were
+doing&mdash;whether beneficial or harmful.</p>
+
+<p>5. What birds or other animals were found frequenting the garden. (See
+Animal Studies, pp. 30, 96, 217.)</p>
+
+<p>6. What plants suffered from earliest frosts; what from subsequent
+frosts; what ones proved to be most hardy, etc.</p>
+
+<p>7. What plants the pupils like most in the garden, and what ones seem to
+suit the soil and weather conditions best.</p>
+
+<p>The pupils in this Form, by direct observation, should come to
+appreciate the development of the fruit and seed from the flower. Their
+work in seed selection, based upon the excellence of the flower, helps
+to ensure this line of observation.</p>
+
+<h4>CORRELATIONS</h4>
+
+<p>Art: Drawing of leaves, flowers, and vegetables, in colour when
+possible.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Arithmetic: Calculations as to dimensions, number of plants, number of
+flowers on a plant and seeds in a flower, value of products of flowers
+and vegetables. Cost of seeds, fertilizer, and labour, gross and net
+proceeds. Statement showing the above.</p>
+
+<p>Composition: General connected account or story of the work done and the
+things learned during the season, as taken from the garden diary and
+from memory.</p>
+
+<p>Exercises in writing and spelling, as suitable seat work.</p>
+
+<p>Geography: Weather observations, as related to the garden work and to
+plant growth. Comparison of the soil of the garden with other samples
+from the district, as to composition and origin. Direction, as related
+to the paths or walks in the garden.</p>
+
+<p>Map drawing: Plans of plots and of whole garden and grounds, represented
+on sand-table, paper, or black-board. Map drawing on a horizontal
+surface is best for the first year or two.</p>
+
+<p>The products of the garden, as compared with home products, as food
+supplies for man and beast.</p>
+
+<p>Manual Training: Making of seed envelopes and boxes, modelling in clay
+of fruits and vegetables.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CLIMBING PLANTS</h3>
+
+<p>Observe particularly the sweet-pea and morning-glory.</p>
+
+<p>Consider the following points:</p>
+
+<p>1. Advantages gained by climbing, such as securing of more light,
+production of many leaves and flowers, and not so much stem.</p>
+
+<p>2. Method of climbing&mdash;sweet-pea by tendrils that wind around the
+support; morning-glory by twining its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> rough stem closely around its
+support. Do all morning-glory vines twine in the same direction? Find
+other vines that climb. Examine their modes of climbing.</p>
+
+<p>3. Time of flowering and notes on how to plant.</p>
+
+<p>Make drawings of the leaves and blossoms.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TREES</h3>
+
+<h5>(See type lesson on trees under Form I.)</h5>
+
+<p>In this Form it is better to follow closely the development of one or
+two selected trees in school or on the home grounds than to attempt to
+observe many different species. Allow the pupils to choose their own
+trees for study and, if possible, have them select one at home and
+another near the school or on the way to school. The following points
+might receive attention: The name of the species, whence obtained and by
+whom planted if known; its approximate height, size, and age; its
+location, and the nature of the soil; its general shape, and whether or
+not influenced at present or at some time in the past by proximity to
+other trees; description and arrangement of its branches, leaves, and
+buds, its bark, flowers, and fruit; time of leafing out and blossoming;
+colouring and falling of leaves and ripening of seeds; the amount of
+growth for the year compared with that of previous years as shown by the
+younger branches; qualities of beauty and usefulness of the tree.
+Drawing exercises.</p>
+
+<p>At least two visits should be made to the woods during the autumn
+months, one when the leaves of the trees begin to colour and another
+when the leaves have fallen. Consider the preparation made for winter in
+the woods and fields, the use of dead leaves in the woods as a
+protection to forest vegetation and as soil-making material. Bring<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> back
+samples of leaves and of leaf mould or humus for class-room observation.
+Note the effect of frost in hastening the falling of leaves&mdash;frost does
+not give the brilliant hues to leaves, as many people think. Consider
+the relationship of the forest trees to animal life.</p>
+
+<h4>STORING OF TREE SEEDS</h4>
+
+<p>Make a collection of nuts and other tree seeds, some of which should be
+put in the school collection and the rest planted in the garden or
+stored away for spring planting. The seeds of evergreens should be kept
+dry and cold, but other seeds, as a rule, are best packed in a box of
+slightly moist sand set in a cold place or buried in the ground.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A FLOWER</h3>
+
+<h4>TYPE: NASTURTIUM</h4>
+
+<h4>I</h4>
+
+<p>Teacher and pupils visit the nasturtium bed, where the flowers stand up
+boldly, surrounded by the shield-shaped leaves. A search for the young
+flower buds and for the very old flowers leads to the discovery that
+these are snugly sheltered under the shields.</p>
+
+<p>The greenish-yellow calyx, which is closely wrapped around the bud, is
+next examined. Its name is given, and its use as a protector is
+discussed.</p>
+
+<p>The strong seed cases are opened and the seeds are discovered. The
+pupils are instructed to watch the insects that visit the bright
+flowers. Name the insects. Describe their movements. Catch a few and
+find the yellow powder on their furry little bodies and legs.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>II</h4>
+
+<p>Each member of the class brings a flower to the school-room. The
+varieties of colours of the flowers are discussed. The cave-like form of
+each flower is noted. The velvety feeling of the corolla and the
+delicate perfume are likewise sensed by the pupils.</p>
+
+<p>The pupils nip off the point of the cave and taste the nectar (honey),
+and thus learn why the insects visit the flowers. They next trace the
+course of the coloured lines on the corolla and find that they all point
+into the cave.</p>
+
+<p>Continuing their explorations of the mouth of the cave, the pupils will
+discover the little boxes containing the yellow powder that the flower
+dusts upon the insects. The names <i>pollen</i> and <i>pollen boxes</i> are given.</p>
+
+<p>The fringe on the edges of the leaves of the corolla for the purpose of
+preventing the insects stealing into the cave without receiving their
+baptism of pollen, is discovered.</p>
+
+<p>The teacher should, at this point, give a brief explanation of the
+valuable work done by the insects in carrying pollen to cause seeds to
+grow in the next flower that the insect visits. The position of the tiny
+brush (stigma, but do not give this name) held up by the seed case for
+rubbing the pollen off the insect, should also be observed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Summary.</b>&mdash;Name and point out the parts of the flower (calyx, corolla,
+pollen boxes, seed cases).</p>
+
+<p>What useful work do insects do for the flower?</p>
+
+<p>What reward do they receive for their work?</p>
+
+<p>What advertisements do the flowers put out for attracting themselves?
+(Bright colours, sweet perfumes, and honey)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Flowers suitable for lessons in Form II are nasturtium, larkspur,
+snap-dragon, morning-glory, and sweet-pea.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;Botanical names should be reduced to a minimum.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SOIL STUDIES</h3>
+
+<h5>(See <i>Soils</i> by Fletcher.)</h5>
+
+<p>Soil should have a place in a Nature Study Course because:</p>
+
+<p>1. It is so closely related to life.</p>
+
+<p>2. It lends itself so admirably to the experimental method.</p>
+
+<p>3. It is so liable to be overlooked and considered as common and
+valueless.</p>
+
+<h4>KINDS OF SOIL</h4>
+
+<p><i>Gravel</i> is composed of small, rounded stones of various colours, sizes,
+and shapes. Occurs in beds, generally mixed with sand. Get a sample and
+examine the constituents. Lead the pupils to see that the pebbles are
+the result of the breaking up of larger rocks. What has made the corners
+smooth and rounded? What use is made of gravel? Have the pupils find
+some gravelly land.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sand</i> is composed of small angular pieces of hard rock. Have a few
+samples from different places brought to school, note fineness and
+colours, examine with a lens and note resemblance to pieces of broken
+stone. Draw a magnet through the sand and note black particles adhering,
+showing presence of iron in some form. Show the hardness by rubbing
+against the surface of a piece of glass. Sand is used for mortar,
+concrete, and glass. The chief sand-forming rocks are quartz and
+granite. Show pupils how to recognize these. Examine a sample of sand
+under a lens.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Clay.</i> Note colour and odour of fresh sample. Dry and pulverize and
+note extreme fineness of the particles by rubbing between the fingers
+(an ounce of clay contains about four and one half million particles).
+Clay is made from crushed rocks, chiefly feldspars. Mix clay with a
+little water and note sticky character. Compare with sand in this
+respect. Which makes the best road in wet weather, gravel, sand, or
+clay? Note how hard the clay bakes after being moistened. Uses of
+clay&mdash;pottery, bricks, tile. Pupils should visit a brick- or tile-yard
+and watch the process of manufacture. In many parts of the world there
+are beds of clay of extreme fineness and whiteness, from which beautiful
+china is made.</p>
+
+<p><i>Humus</i> is decayed vegetable matter. Pupils should gather soil from the
+forest, bog, or marsh. Note dark colour. Examine carefully and see what
+you can find in it that is not in sand or clay.</p>
+
+<p>Most of our farm land consists of these four soils mixed in various
+proportions, and it gets its name from the one that preponderates. Thus
+we have our sandy, gravelly, or clay <i>loams</i>. Humus is likely to be
+present in all fields, because vegetable matter grows, to some extent,
+everywhere; but freshly broken land, reclaimed swamps, and prairie lands
+are likely to be especially well supplied. The great value of humus in
+the soil will appear in later studies.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ANIMAL STUDIES</h3>
+
+<h4>BIRD MIGRATION</h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(Consult <i>Bird Life</i> by Frank M. Chapman, and <i>Bird Studies</i>
+by G. A. Cornish.)</p></div>
+
+<p>In the autumn, direct attention to the flight of wild ducks and geese
+and to the gathering into flocks of robins,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> crows, bronze grackles,
+blue herons, sparrows, and other birds in preparation for migration.</p>
+
+<p>Discuss with the pupils the reasons for migration, namely, scarcity of
+food, the cold, the snow. In the spring, the return is stimulated by the
+nesting instinct.</p>
+
+<p>Note how the birds are guided&mdash;some, for example the ducks and geese, by
+their leaders, while others have no guides but their instincts.</p>
+
+<p>In winter, require the pupils to observe the kinds of birds that are to
+be seen in the gardens, fields, orchards, and woods, having them note
+the scarcity of birds and the absence of many forms that are with us in
+the summer.</p>
+
+<h4>CORRELATIONS</h4>
+
+<p>Geography: By pointing out on the map the countries into which the birds
+go, namely, Central America, Brazil, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Reading and literature: By interpreting</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Where did you spend the dreary winter?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In a green and sunny land,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">By the warm sea-breezes fanned,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Where orange trees with fruit are bent,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">There the dreary time I've spent.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<h4>COMMON WILD ANIMALS</h4>
+
+<h4>GENERAL METHOD FOR FIELD WORK</h4>
+
+<p>The best method for studying wild animals is to assign to each pupil
+some animal as his particular subject of study.</p>
+
+<p>Begin by finding out from the pupils the wild animals that each one
+knows to be near his home, and assign to each pupil a number of problems
+on the animal which is most convenient for him to study.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In some cases, only one pupil will be studying a particular kind of
+animal, while in other cases several pupils may be studying the same
+kind of animal. The latter method has the advantage of giving
+opportunity for comparison of results. Differences should serve as
+stimuli to more careful observation, in order to verify or disprove
+previous conclusions.</p>
+
+<p>The observations and inferences, together with drawings illustrating the
+animals, their homes, etc., are recorded in the Nature Study note-books.
+These are discussed in the class, verified or corrected, and
+supplemented by descriptions of lives and habits of the animals from
+nature writers or naturalists, such as Charles G. D. Roberts, Ernest
+Thompson-Seton, etc.</p>
+
+<p>When pupils become interested in this form of study, they become nature
+students in the true meaning of the term. The pupil is brought into
+contact with the animal in its natural environment and, under these
+conditions, the natural habits, interests, and activities of the wild
+creatures are more likely to appeal to the sympathy of child nature than
+under any other method of study. The method has also the advantage of
+being one of original discovery, and consequently it trains in
+self-reliance and independence of thought.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, since close and careful observation is necessary, the child
+learns that it is unwise to alarm the animal, and thus a better
+relationship between child life and animal life is fostered.</p>
+
+<p>It may be objected that this method is slow and that little is
+accomplished. This may be true from the view-point of matter learned,
+but from the view-point of child training more can be accomplished from
+the study of a single living animal than from the study of a score of
+pictures or stuffed skins.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A second method that is recommended is the study of tame animals. By
+conversations with the boys of the school the teacher will find what
+tame squirrels, ground-hogs, raccoons, foxes, and other animals are
+available for class-room work. The possessors of these animals are
+usually quite willing to bring them to school for the class to study.</p>
+
+<p>The movements, habits, food, and other topics, may be studied by direct
+observations guided by the teacher's questions or problems.</p>
+
+<p>A third method and, unfortunately, the one which is in most general use,
+is the study of animals by means of stuffed specimens and pictures,
+supplemented by descriptions and stories by the teacher. These lessons
+may be called information lessons, but they are not worthy of the name
+Nature Study. Indeed, if conditions are such that it is the only method
+available for animal study, it is advised that the time be spent on
+other branches of the subject; but if living animals are made the basis
+of study, stuffed specimens may be found useful for identification and
+for confirming observations on minute structural features, colour, etc.</p>
+
+<h4>THE WOOD-CHUCK</h4>
+
+<p>The problems outlined below are intended to illustrate the plan of study
+suggested in the first general method. They are assigned to a boy who
+has discovered a ground-hog burrow, in order to direct him in his
+observations on the animal.</p>
+
+<p>What is the kind of soil dug out in making the burrow? Why is this soil
+suitable for the burrow? What size of stones are dug out in burrowing?
+Are there more entrances than one?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>By slowly approaching the animal, find out how close it will permit you
+to come. At what times of day does the ground-hog come out? Give reasons
+for its coming out at these times rather than at mid-day. Upon what does
+the animal feed? Describe the colour of the animal and find out any
+advantages in this colour. Observe the following actions: running,
+hiding, keeping sentry, and scouting.</p>
+
+<p>Do more wood-chucks than one live in one burrow? When do the young
+wood-chucks first come out of the burrow? Describe their size, colour,
+and habits. Are wood-chucks ever seen during the winter? Do they use the
+same burrow year after year? Describe the sounds made by the animal.
+What injury does the animal cause to the fields?</p>
+
+<p>Describe the fur, teeth, and claws, and show their relation to the
+animal's habits of life.</p>
+
+<p>Dig out a burrow and draw a plan of it. Make pictures showing the
+various attitudes of the animal.</p>
+
+<h4>THE CHIPMUNK</h4>
+
+<h4>FIELD EXERCISES</h4>
+
+<p>Describe the size, colour, shape, length of tail, and movements of the
+chipmunk. Compare with the red squirrel.</p>
+
+<p>Have all chipmunks the same number of stripes?</p>
+
+<p>Discover its home; method of carrying grain, nuts, or other foods;
+whether it is found most commonly on the ground, in trees, or among logs
+and stones. Try to tame it by placing food where it can reach it and,
+finally, try to have it feed from your hand.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Find out why there is no loose soil around the entrance to its burrow,
+whether more families than one live in one burrow, whether the chipmunk
+comes out during winter, or how early in the spring. Learn to
+distinguish the sounds of the animal, as expressing alarm, surprise,
+anger, playfulness.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;Chipmunks carry grain, etc., in their cheeks.
+Frequently these are so full that they must be emptied to permit them to
+enter their burrows. It is not uncommon for several to spend the winter
+in the same burrow, having a common storehouse connected by passages to
+the main burrow. These little animals are easily tamed and soon learn to
+take food from the hand. They are not hibernating animals, for they
+store food for winter, and though they are not asleep all winter, yet
+they rarely come out of their burrows while there is snow on the ground.</p>
+
+<h4>EASTERN SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLY</h4>
+
+<p>No butterfly is more suitable for study by the Junior Forms than the
+Eastern Swallow-tail. It is one of the most beautiful and attractive of
+our butterflies and lays its eggs so accommodatingly on every carrot or
+parsnip bed that it gives ample opportunity for observation.</p>
+
+<p>If possible, have the pupils observe the insect in the act of placing
+the eggs, one here and one there, on the under surface of the leaves of
+the plants, noting the busy movements; discuss the advantage of
+scattering the eggs, and also that of placing them on the under surface
+of the leaves.</p>
+
+<p>If the egg placing cannot be observed, there will be little difficulty
+in finding the large yellow and green larva<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> with a head shaped like
+that of a miniature sea-horse. If the larva itself is not easily found,
+the leaves stripped bare of green blade and the droppings on the ground
+will reveal its presence.</p>
+
+<p>Why was it difficult to see such a large, and now that it is seen,
+conspicuous object? Lead the pupils to notice that the yellow and green
+bands harmonize in colour with the green leaves and alternate streaks of
+golden sunlight.</p>
+
+<p>Does the larva feed by biting or by sucking? How many legs has the
+larva? Cover the plant and larva with a paper bag, or inverted bottle,
+or a lamp chimney with a gauze top until the larva is full grown; or
+place the larva in a vivarium, feed it on carrot leaves, and observe its
+growth.</p>
+
+<p>When full grown, the larva builds for itself a snail-shaped, fairly firm
+case, fastened by a slender girdle of silk to a piece of wood or other
+support. Keep this over winter, and in March, or early April, the
+black-and-blue-and-gold insect emerges.</p>
+
+<p>Observe the movements of the wings in flight, the long tube with which
+it sucks honey from flowers, the three pairs of legs, the position of
+the wings when at rest; compare the structure with that of the larva.
+Make drawings of the butterfly and paint its colours.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h3>FORM II</h3>
+
+<h4>WINTER</h4>
+
+
+<h3>CARE OF PLANTS IN THE HOME</h3>
+
+<p>The care of flowering bulbs, which was begun in Form I, will be
+continued in Form II. The growing of new plants from cuttings will now
+be taken up. In those schools which are kept continuously heated, potted
+plants may be kept throughout the year. The pupils will come to
+appreciate the plants' needs and learn how to meet them in the supply of
+good soil, water, and sunlight. The following points should be observed:</p>
+
+<p>1. Good potting soil can be made by building up alternating layers of
+sods and stable manure and allowing this compost to stand until
+thoroughly rotted. A little sharp sand mixed with this forms an
+excellent soil for most house plants.</p>
+
+<p>2. Thorough watering twice a week is better than adding a little water
+every day.</p>
+
+<p>3. The leaves should be showered with water once a week to free them
+from dust.</p>
+
+<p>4. An ounce of whale-oil soap dissolved in a quart of water may be used
+to destroy plant-lice. Common soap-suds may also be used for this
+purpose, but care should be taken to rinse the plants in clean water
+after using a soap wash.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>5. Most plants need some direct sunlight every day if possible, although
+most of the ferns grow without it.</p>
+
+<p>6. Plants usually need re-potting once a year. Many kinds may be set
+out-of-doors in flower beds in May and left until September, when they
+may be taken up and placed in pots, or cuttings may be made from them
+for potting.</p>
+
+<p>7. A flower exhibition at the school once or twice a year, or at a local
+exhibition, adds to the interest.</p>
+
+<p>8. The pupils should report to the teacher, from time to time, the
+progress of their plants and make many drawings showing their
+development.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TREES</h3>
+
+<p>In November or December make a study of Canadian evergreens, choosing
+spruce, balsam, and cedar if available. The pupils should learn to
+distinguish the different species by an examination of the leaves, buds,
+arrangement of branches, bark, seeds, and cones. The age of young trees
+can be determined by noting the successive whorls of branches. In this
+way also the age of the leaves may be determined. On some trees the
+leaves persist for seven or eight years. Evergreens are frequently used
+as Christmas trees and their branches for house decorations. On which
+species do the leaves persist longest? How do they compare with the
+pines? The leaves are always as old as the wood upon which they grow.</p>
+
+<p>Have the pupils notice how the small leaves and horizontal branches
+resist the clinging of snow in winter. Each branch bends down enough to
+cause the snow to slide off on to the one next below, and so on, until
+it reaches the ground. The conical shape of the tree also facilitates
+this action of dislodging the snow. They will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> also notice that these
+trees are well adapted to withstand wind, as the top part, which is most
+exposed to the wind, is much smaller and more pliable than the part next
+the bottom. The gum, or resinous covering, of the buds protects them
+from injury by rain or snow. Some kinds of pine, such as the pitch pine,
+have a great abundance of gum and turpentine. Resin and pine tar are
+made chiefly from this species. Heat a piece of pine wood&mdash;a knot or
+root is best. The gum will be seen oozing out of the wood. Pine torches
+were much used in the early days of settlement in Canada. Examine the
+gum "blisters" in the bark of the balsam tree. From this source the
+"Canada Balsam" gum of commerce is taken. The gum and resin in the wood
+and bark help to preserve the wood from decay.</p>
+
+<h4>COLLECTION OF WOOD SPECIMENS</h4>
+
+<p>During the winter months the boys may prepare specimens of wood for the
+school collection. These specimens should be cut green and dried. They
+should be uniform in length&mdash;not more than six inches&mdash;and should show
+the bark at one side. The side showing the bark should be two inches
+wide at most, six inches long, and running in a V-shaped, radial section
+toward the pith. A tangential section also shows well the annual layers.
+A piece of slab as cut lengthwise off a round stick is tangential. Also
+visit wood-working factories for specimens of rare or foreign woods. In
+securing these specimens, care should be taken not to mutilate trees.</p>
+
+
+<h3>RELATED READING</h3>
+
+<p>Winter is nature's quiescent period. Continuous active observation
+out-of-doors among the plants of the forest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> and garden gives place for
+a time to indoor work and reflection. Pupils need time for reading and
+reflection, and no time is so opportune as the quiet winter season.
+During these months some time should be devoted to the reading of nature
+stories and extracts from magazines and books dealing with plant as well
+as animal life. Pupils should review their gardening experiences and
+discuss plans of improvement for the approaching spring and summer. Let
+them write letters to the Form II pupils of other schools where similar
+work has been carried on, giving some of their experiences in gardening
+and plant and animal studies. A certain Friday afternoon might be
+appointed for hearing the letters read which have been received in
+reply. Suitable short poems that have a direct bearing upon their
+outdoor studies should be read from time to time. Good pictures come in
+here also as an aid in helping the children to appreciate written
+descriptions. The first-hand observations made by the pupils will form a
+basis for the better and more appreciative interpretation of these
+literature selections.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE DOG</h3>
+
+<h4>CLASS-ROOM LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>Use the conversation method, since this is an animal that is well known
+to all the pupils. By natural, easy conversation with the pupils,
+encourage them to tell what they know about the usefulness and the other
+qualities of their canine friends.</p>
+
+<p>The pupils know that some dogs are useful for hunting wild animals,
+others for driving or herding cattle and sheep, others for guarding
+their master's property, others for hauling sleighs and wagons, while
+others are of use as pets or playfellows.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Discuss with the pupils the qualities that make the dog so generally
+useful to us. In this discussion, guide the thoughts of the pupils to
+the qualities of faithfulness, loyalty to his friends, and docility&mdash;few
+animals are so easily taught. Note his strength and swiftness&mdash;he can
+continue in a race until he catches almost any other animal. Note also
+his bravery&mdash;for he does not hesitate to attack an animal many times
+larger than himself.</p>
+
+<p>Short stories of the following type may be told, to illustrate the chief
+qualities of the dog:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A dog was trained to guard any article that his master
+placed under his charge, and not to permit any one to touch
+it until his master gave his consent. One day, when
+returning from the mill, the master placed a sack of flour
+inside the gate for a neighbour who had asked him to do so,
+and then continued on his way without noticing that his dog
+had taken charge of the sack. All through the afternoon of
+that day and through the long, cold night that followed, the
+faithful animal remained at his post. When the owner of the
+sack came next morning to get it, the dog, although numb
+with cold and famished with hunger, would not permit him to
+take the flour. Nor could the stout-hearted creature be
+persuaded either by threats or by coaxing, until his master
+was brought, when, at his first word of command, the dog
+bounded joyfully toward him.</p></div>
+
+<p>Conclude the lesson by a short discussion of the proper care and
+treatment that should be given to dogs. The dog requires a fairly warm
+but dry kennel, with a soft bed of straw or rugs. The food should
+consist chiefly of porridge, milk, bread, biscuit, and a little meat.
+Only dogs that are running a great deal out of doors should be given
+much meat. The dog should be given bones to pick;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> picking bones is as
+good for a dog's teeth as a tooth-brush is for a boy's.</p>
+
+<h4>OBSERVATION EXERCISES</h4>
+
+<p>By making observations upon your dog at home, find answers to these
+problems:</p>
+
+<p>1. How does a dog hold a bone while he is picking it, and how does he
+get the meat off the bone?</p>
+
+<p>2. Examine the dog's feet and find out:</p>
+
+<p>(1) Why he does not slip while running.</p>
+
+<p>(2) What protects the soles of his feet from injury as he bounds over
+rough ground.</p>
+
+<p>3. Which is the sharper, a dog's eye or his nose? Watch how he finds his
+master in a crowd or finds an object that you have hidden.</p>
+
+<h4>CORRELATIONS</h4>
+
+<p>Language:</p>
+
+<p>1. Require oral or written reproduction of the stories used in
+illustration in the lesson on The Dog.</p>
+
+<p>2. Require the pupils to relate incidents from dog life that have come
+within their own experiences.</p>
+
+<p>Art and Modelling:</p>
+
+<p>1. A sleeping dog.</p>
+
+<p>2. A dog waiting for his master.</p>
+
+
+<h3>LESSONS INVOLVING COMPARISON</h3>
+
+<p>It will be found helpful, both for increasing interest in the
+observations and for fixing the facts in memory, to study an animal by
+comparing its habits, qualities, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> physical peculiarities with those
+of another animal which is somewhat similar. Where differences are
+discovered, explanations of the differences should be developed in such
+a way that a tendency may be cultivated for interpreting the adaptation
+of structure to use and of life habits to surrounding conditions.</p>
+
+<h4>CAT AND DOG</h4>
+
+<p>Compare the movement of a cat when approaching its prey with the
+movement of the dog when chasing a squirrel.</p>
+
+<p>Account for the difference.</p>
+
+<p>The natural habit of the cat is to hunt alone and rely upon stealth,
+while dogs hunt in packs and tire their prey by running and by
+terrifying noises.</p>
+
+<p>Other differences and their explanations, which the pupils should be led
+to discover are:</p>
+
+<p>The dog is a more useful animal to man than is the cat.</p>
+
+<p>The cat's body is longer and more slender, and this gives it greater
+suppleness in crawling and leaping.</p>
+
+<p>The cat's eye is larger and the pupil is especially large at night, to
+enable it to see.</p>
+
+<p>The cat's whiskers are longer; they help in guiding it at night.</p>
+
+<p>The cat's tongue is rougher; it uses it for cleaning bones.</p>
+
+<p>The pads on the cat's feet are softer, so that it can move more silently
+in stealing upon its prey.</p>
+
+<p>The cat's claws are sharper, because it uses them for seizing its prey,
+while the dog seizes its prey with its teeth.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The dog is more faithful to its master because it is a more sociable
+animal. In its natural state every dog is faithful to the pack and to
+the leader; the cat is not a social animal, but is by nature solitary
+and independent.</p>
+
+<p>The dog's sense of smell is keener than that of the cat, but its sense
+of hearing is less acute. Account for these differences from the
+animals' habits of hunting. Why does the cat bring home living animals
+to her kittens, while the dog buries dead animals? The cat trains the
+kittens to approach by stealth and then to pounce on the right spot.
+Wild animals related to the dog bury the "kill" which is too large to be
+eaten at one meal.</p>
+
+<h4>EXPERIMENTS FOR ASSISTING IN THE STUDY OF THE CAT</h4>
+
+<p>1. Gently scratch with a pin at some distance from where a cat is lying.
+What do the movements of the cat indicate?</p>
+
+<p>2. Put a fish in water and watch a cat trying to get it.</p>
+
+<p>3. Sprinkle water on a cat's fur and find out why she dislikes being
+wetted.</p>
+
+<p>4. Attach a ball to a string and move it near a cat. Describe the
+movements, as stalking, springing, seizing, retreating.</p>
+
+<p>5. Put some catnip in a room out of reach of the cat and observe the
+movements of the animal.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all children make pets of the house cat, and although the cat is
+a domestic animal of thieving propensities and an enemy of birds, yet it
+would be unwise to teach the younger children any enmity toward her.
+The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> establishment of sympathy with animal life, the humanizing effect
+upon child nature of having a kitty for a playfellow, will offset many
+times over the amount of depredation of which she may be guilty.</p>
+
+<h4>COMPARISON OF THE HORSE AND COW</h4>
+
+<p>Assign problems for the pupils to solve by observations made upon the
+animals in the field or farmyard.</p>
+
+<p>1. What features of build give to the horse greater speed than the cow?</p>
+
+<p>2. Compare the movements of the heads of the horse and cow while
+cropping grass. Account for the difference.</p>
+
+<p>3. How has nature fitted the cow and the horse respectively, for
+defence?</p>
+
+<p>4. Which end of the body does the horse raise first when it is getting
+up? Which end of its body does the cow raise first? Account for the
+difference.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The horse is the swifter and more graceful runner
+because the body is less bulky and the legs are longer and straighter.
+In cropping grass the cow pushes its nose forward and breaks the grass
+off, a process which is made necessary because the cow has no upper
+front teeth. The strong, sharp horns, short, powerful neck, and heavy
+shoulders are an efficient equipment for the cow's method of defence,
+while the long, strong legs and powerful hindquarters of the horse
+enable it to deal terrific blows with its hard hoofs. The horse rises
+upon its forelegs before raising the rear of its body, while the cow
+raises its hindquarters first.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>THE SQUIRREL</h3>
+
+<h4>FIELD EXERCISES</h4>
+
+<p><b>Problems</b>:</p>
+
+<p>Is it true that squirrels have little roads along the ground?</p>
+
+<p>Does the squirrel come down a tree head foremost, or tail foremost?</p>
+
+<p>Are a squirrel's feet close together or wide apart when it is climbing?</p>
+
+<p>How many kinds of feeling can a squirrel express by its voice?</p>
+
+<p>How does a squirrel open a nut?</p>
+
+<p>Examine a squirrel's tracks in the snow; which foot-prints are in front?</p>
+
+<p>Try to gain the confidence of a squirrel by never chasing it and by
+placing some favourite food for it.</p>
+
+<h4>CLASS-ROOM LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>A tame squirrel is very desirable for concrete study.</p>
+
+<p>Describe the shape, size, and colour.</p>
+
+<p>Find out how the legs and feet are fitted for climbing and leaping.</p>
+
+<p>Compare the length of the tail with that of the body. Of what use is the
+tail in cold weather? Of what use is the tail in leaping?</p>
+
+<p>Examine the teeth and find out how they are fitted for opening nuts;
+gnawing wood.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The legs of the squirrel are short so that it can
+press its body close to the tree when climbing. The claws are strong and
+sharp and the hindquarters are very strong, and are, in consequence,
+well fitted for leaping.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> The tail of the squirrel is very long and
+bushy and serves as a fur for keeping the squirrel's nose warm in
+winter. The tail is also used for balancing the body when the animal is
+leaping from bough to bough.</p>
+
+<p>The front teeth of the squirrel are very large and strong and are shaped
+like chisels.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WINTER BIRDS</h3>
+
+<p>In the class lesson on winter birds, take up the birds that the pupils
+have seen, such as chickadee, blue jay, quail, ruffed grouse, hairy
+woodpecker, downy woodpecker, great horned owl, house-sparrow, snow
+bunting (snow bird), pine grosbeak, snowy owl, and purple finch. The
+four latter are to be noted as winter visitors. Use pictures for
+illustrating these birds. The habits and winter food of the birds should
+also be described from the view-point of how these adapt the birds for
+spending the winter in a cold climate. Direct the children to look for
+grosbeaks in the pine and rowan trees, where they may be seen feeding on
+the seeds. The ruffed grouse (commonly called partridge) feeds on the
+buds of trees in winter; its legs and feet are thickly covered with
+feathers in winter but are bare in summer.</p>
+
+<h4>FIELD EXERCISES</h4>
+
+<p>Arouse the interest of the pupils by a conversation of about three
+minutes on birds that they have seen during the winter, and assign the
+following exercise:</p>
+
+<p>Take a walk through the orchards and woods on a bright winter day. What
+birds do you see? What are these birds doing? Are they found singly or
+in flocks? What bird sounds do you hear?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>CLASS-ROOM LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>The method is conversational and based upon the observations made by the
+pupils during the field exercises.</p>
+
+<p>The discussion would involve the winter habits of some of the more
+common birds, as, for example, the ruffed grouse (commonly though
+incorrectly called the partridge). This bird takes shelter from the
+winter storms in the centre of a dense evergreen or burrows deep into a
+snow bank. The close covering of feathers upon its feet serves not only
+to keep the feet warm, but also as snow-shoes. In the evenings these
+birds may frequently be seen in the tops of such trees as maple, birch,
+cherry, and poplar, the buds of which form the greater part of their
+winter food.</p>
+
+<p>The snow bird, or snow bunting, is another bird commonly seen in winter.
+Flocks of these hardy little winter visitors frequent the roads and
+fields during winter. Its summer home is in the far north.</p>
+
+<p>Another visitor from the sub-arctic regions is the pine grosbeak, which
+is often mistaken for the robin, for these two birds are nearly equal in
+size. The carmine colour of the upper surface of the male grosbeak
+distinguishes it from the grays and blacks of the upper part of the
+robin. The grosbeak frequents the rowan trees.</p>
+
+<p>The bird sounds which attract attention during the winter are the
+cheerful notes of the chickadee, the bold clarion call of the blue jay,
+and the sharp tap, tap, tap, of the downy woodpecker.</p>
+
+<p>The downy woodpecker and the chickadee have snug winter homes within
+hollow trees, but, when the weather is favourable, they go about
+searching industriously for the eggs and larv&aelig; of insects that infest
+forest and orchard trees.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>CORRELATIONS</h4>
+
+<p>Literature:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Do you know the chickadee,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">In his brownish ashen coat,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With a cap so black and jaunty,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And a black patch on his throat?<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Language: Write a story about the winter experiences of a downy
+woodpecker.</p>
+
+<p>Geography: Describe the summer home of the snow bird.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ANIMALS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS</h3>
+
+<p>Pupils who have an opportunity to visit museums or zoological gardens
+will observe more intelligently if the visit is preceded by such a
+discussion in the class-room as will arouse their curiosity respecting
+the habits, movements, and adaptive features of the animals about to be
+studied.</p>
+
+<h4>CLASS-ROOM LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>Name the kinds of bears you have seen or have read about. What kind was
+the largest?</p>
+
+<p>Are all bears wholly flesh-eating animals? Find out what food the
+keepers give these animals.</p>
+
+<p>What features give to the bear his great strength? Observe the length of
+his "arms", teeth, claws.</p>
+
+<p>Does the bear climb a pole in the same way that a boy does?</p>
+
+<p>Read:</p>
+
+<p>Rogers. Wild Animals Every Child Should Know. McClelland, Goodchild, &amp;
+Stewart. 50 cents.</p>
+
+<p>Thompson-Seton. Wild Animals I Have Known. Briggs. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p>Roberts. Children of the Wild. Macmillan. $1.35.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h3>FORM II</h3>
+
+<h4>SPRING</h4>
+
+
+<h3>GARDEN WORK</h3>
+
+<p>The pupils have now arrived at an age when they are able to do most of
+the work of preparing and planting their own plots. The seeds have been
+selected and placed in readiness for planting long before the ground is
+ready. The plans for the garden and the varieties to be sown in the
+different plots have likewise been arranged. Fertilizers, lines, tools,
+and labels are made ready for use. With such thorough preparation the
+making and planting of the garden becomes a pleasure and a delight to
+both teacher and pupils. The garden diary should begin as soon as the
+snow disappears from the garden and be continued until all the work is
+completed in the autumn, and the garden again blanketed in snow.</p>
+
+<p>The main points to be safeguarded are:</p>
+
+<p>1. Thorough cultivation and fertilization.</p>
+
+<p>2. The best available seed carefully planted. Guard against thick sowing
+and deep covering.</p>
+
+<p>3. Frequent cultivation and careful thinning while the plants are quite
+small.</p>
+
+<p>4. Vigilance in detecting the appearance of cutworms or other injurious
+insects and promptness in combating them.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>5. Protection of the garden against injury from dogs, pigs, poultry, and
+English sparrows.</p>
+
+<p>6. Failure of some plots, through the owner's absence from school for
+long periods.</p>
+
+<h4>COMBATING GARDEN PESTS</h4>
+
+<h4>CUTWORMS</h4>
+
+<p>In gardens where the soil is light or sandy, cutworms are most likely to
+be troublesome. Watch for them about the time that the plants are nicely
+above ground. They come up at night and cut the young plants off just
+above the ground. They are about an inch long, gray and brown, fat and
+greasy-looking. To protect the plants put one quarter of a pound of
+paris-green with twenty-five pounds of slightly moistened bran, using a
+little sugar in the water and stirring the paris-green into the bran
+very thoroughly. If too wet, add more dry bran. It should crumble
+through the fingers. Sprinkle a little of this mixture with the fingers
+along the row close to the plants. The cutworms eat this poisoned bran
+quite readily. Care must be exercised in using this poison lest poultry
+should get at it. On the other hand, poultry should not be allowed to
+get into the garden. Wrapping a piece of paper around the stem when
+transplanting young plants will help to save them from cutworms.</p>
+
+<h4>ROOT MAGGOTS</h4>
+
+<p>Root maggots of cabbage, radish, and onions are the larv&aelig; of flies
+similar in appearance to house-flies but a little smaller. When the
+plants are young, the flies lay their white eggs on the stem close to
+the ground. When the eggs hatch, the larv&aelig; crawl down under the ground<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
+and cause the plants to decay. The wilting of the leaves is the first
+sign of the trouble. Prevention is better than cure in this case. Dust
+some dry white hellebore along the rows of onions or radishes and around
+the cabbage plants; or, for radishes, make a decoction of insect powder
+(Pyrethrum), four ounces to one gallon of water, and pour around the
+root, using half a teacupful to each plant.</p>
+
+<h4>FLEA-BEETLES</h4>
+
+<p>The turnip flea-beetle quickly destroys young plants of the crucifer&aelig;
+family by eating their leaves. Paris-green, one part to twenty parts of
+pulverized gypsum (land plaster) dusted on the plants while damp, helps
+to destroy these insects.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;When pupils who are absent find it impossible to give
+the necessary attention to their garden plots at school, they should
+turn them over to other pupils or to the teacher, who may at his own
+discretion use the produce for purposes of general garden revenue.</p>
+
+<h4>SEED GERMINATION</h4>
+
+<p>The seeds for the garden should be purchased quite early in the spring.
+As the planting of poor seed is often the cause of much disappointment,
+it is well to test the germinating power of the different varieties to
+be planted. The pupils of this Form should test especially those
+varieties which they have chosen. To do this, place about twenty-five
+seeds in a germinating dish, which may be made as follows: Take a deep
+plate, such as a soup plate, fill it about half full of moist sand, and
+spread over this a piece of moist cloth. Put the seeds upon this cloth
+and cover them with a second piece of damp cloth or moss.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> To prevent
+drying out invert over it another plate and set all in a warm dry place
+(about 70 to 80 degrees F.). After a few days count the number of seeds
+that have germinated. This will be a guide in planting as to how thick
+the seed should be sown.</p>
+
+<p>The pupils should watch the development of germinating grains, such as
+corn and beans, germinated in the same way as in the last exercise. The
+following points may be observed:</p>
+
+<p>1. The first change noticed. (Swelling of the seed)</p>
+
+<p>2. The appearance of a growing shoot and its direction. (Root)</p>
+
+<p>3. The second shoot and its direction. (Stem)</p>
+
+<p>4. The appearance of the first pair of leaves.</p>
+
+<p>5. The appearance of root-hairs and rootlets.</p>
+
+<p>6. What becomes of the main body of the seed.</p>
+
+<p>7. How the second pair of leaves differs from the first pair.</p>
+
+<p>8. Length of time required to produce the first pair of leaves.</p>
+
+<p>Pupils may be taught the conditions that are necessary for the
+germination of seeds by means of a few simple experiments which can be
+carried on in the school-room.</p>
+
+<p>1. In February, plant a few seeds of the pea, or oat, or wheat, in a box
+of soil, and place the box outside the school window.</p>
+
+<p>2. In April, plant a few seeds similar to those used in No. 1, in a box
+of perfectly dry soil, and set the box inside the school window.</p>
+
+<p>3. Plant a few seeds similar to those used in No. 1, in a jar containing
+soil that is kept very wet, and set the jar in the school window.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>4. Plant a few seeds, similar to those used in No. 1. in a box
+containing soil that is moist but not wet, and set the box in the school
+window.</p>
+
+<p>5. Plant seeds as in No. 4, except that the box is kept in a dark
+cupboard.</p>
+
+<p>Compare the results of the above with reference to:</p>
+
+<p>1. The number of seeds that germinate.</p>
+
+<p>2. The growth and condition of the plants.</p>
+
+<p>Form conclusions with reference to:</p>
+
+<p>1. The conditions that are required for seed germination.</p>
+
+<p>2. The benefits of well-drained soil.</p>
+
+<p>Pupils make drawings showing the boxes and plants.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PLANTS FOR INDIVIDUAL PLOTS</h3>
+
+<p>The pupils of this Form should not attempt to grow more than two
+varieties of flowers and two of vegetables. Of flowers, mixed asters and
+Shirley poppy are to be recommended, the poppy being an early blooming
+flower and the aster late blooming. Carrots and radishes are desirable
+vegetables, as the carrot matures late and the radish early. Two or
+three crops of radishes may be grown on the same ground in one season.
+Besides these, a few others should be chosen for special study, such as
+the potato, onion, corn, and sunflower.</p>
+
+<h4>STUDIES BASED ON OBSERVATIONS OF GROWING PLANTS</h4>
+
+<p>Attention should be given to the growing habits of plants, the size and
+rate of development, the method of multiplying and propagation, and the
+part used for food.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> The potato is a tuber which is nothing more than
+the swollen end of an underground stem; the onion a bulb composed of the
+bases of thickened leaves; the corn an example of a jointed stem or
+grass having two kinds of flowers, the tassels being the staminate
+flowers and the cob with its silk the pistillate ones; the sunflower an
+example of a compound flower made up of many little flowers each of
+which produces a single seed.</p>
+
+<p>Observations should also be made upon the progress in germination of the
+nuts and other tree seeds collected in the fall. When the seeds fall
+from the elms and soft maples in the spring, some of them should be
+collected and planted in the forestry plot, or nursery.</p>
+
+<h4>PLANTING AND CARE OF SWEET-PEAS</h4>
+
+<p>1. Sow as early as possible in spring.</p>
+
+<p>2. Sow on well-drained land and never in the shade or near grass. Grass
+roots rob the sweet-pea roots of water.</p>
+
+<p>3. Use a small amount of fertilizer&mdash;well-rotted manure spaded deeply
+into the soil. This is best done in the autumn.</p>
+
+<p>4. Make the trench in the fall about five or six inches deep.</p>
+
+<p>5. Plant in a trench in April from half an inch to an inch apart.</p>
+
+<p>6. Cover from three inches to four inches deep.</p>
+
+<p>7. Water thoroughly once or twice a week, and have the soil lower along
+the row than farther out, so as to hold the water.</p>
+
+<p>8. Put a mulch of lawn clippings along the row on each side to prevent
+drying out.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>WILD FLOWERS</h3>
+
+<p>Arrange an excursion to the woods when the spring flowers are in bloom.
+Keep a flower calendar, showing:</p>
+
+<p>1. The date when a plant was first found in bloom</p>
+
+<p>2. The name of the plant</p>
+
+<p>3. Place where found</p>
+
+<p>4. Name of the pupil who found it.</p>
+
+<p>When in the woods discuss the following points:</p>
+
+<p>1. Why these wild flowers come into bloom so early in spring. They have
+a large supply of food stored up from the previous summer.</p>
+
+<p>2. Dig down with a trowel or heavy knife and find this storehouse of
+food. It may be in the form of bulb, corm, or rhizome.</p>
+
+<p>3. The blooming of the spring flowers in the woods before the leaves of
+the trees reach their full development, thus taking advantage of the
+sunlight.</p>
+
+<p>4. Mark a few clumps or individual plants and visit them again after a
+month. Look for the growing fruit with its seeds.</p>
+
+<p>5. The leaves of the hepatica seen at the time when the blossoms appear
+are leaves which grew the previous season. Dig up a plant and notice the
+new leaves starting.</p>
+
+<p>6. The kind of soil each seems to grow best in and the amount of light
+it receives.</p>
+
+<p>7. Have the pupils examine the flowers and leave them growing. They
+should gather a few for the school-room.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>8. Have the pupils write a short account of their visit to the woods.
+Have them make drawings of the different flowers collected.</p>
+
+<p>Dig up a few specimens of wild flowers and transplant in a shady corner
+in the grounds or school garden. The following varieties are suggested
+for special observation and study: hepatica, violet, anemone, columbine,
+Indian turnip, marsh marigold.</p>
+
+<p>Teach one or two lessons on wild flowers, similar to the lessons
+illustrated for the nasturtium.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WEEDS</h3>
+
+<p>Pupils in this Form should learn to identify most of the weeds that are
+found in the garden plots and a few of those commonly found in fields
+and along roadsides. The large bulletin <i>Farm Weeds</i>, published by the
+Dominion Department of Agriculture, will be of great value in helping to
+identify the weeds and also in gaining useful information regarding them
+and the best means of eradicating them.</p>
+
+<p>The following species are recommended for special study during the
+season: mustard (such varieties as are found in the vicinity), Canada
+thistle, purslane, lamb's quarter, pink-rooted pigweed, and quack grass.
+The pupils should be familiar with the general appearance of the plant;
+its appearance when coming up in the spring; whether annual, biennial,
+or perennial; nature of the root, and whether hard to pull up; if hard
+to eradicate, why so; its rate of growth compared with the garden
+plants; the number of seeds produced by a single plant; how the seeds
+are scattered.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>THE APPLE TREE</h3>
+
+<h5>(When the buds are beginning to open)</h5>
+
+
+<h3>FIELD EXERCISE</h3>
+
+<p>The pupils, during an excursion that is conducted by the teacher or
+while making individual observations, obtain answers to problems of the
+following type:</p>
+
+<p>What is the shape of the top of the apple tree?</p>
+
+<p>Are all apple trees of the same shape?</p>
+
+<p>What is the height of the trunk?</p>
+
+<p>Measure the girth of the trunk of the largest?</p>
+
+<p>Are the leaf buds and flower buds more numerous near the inside of the
+tree top or more numerous at the outer part of the top?</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;When discussing the answers to the above problems,
+develop the conception of the convenience of the low stature of the tree
+for gathering the apples, of the wide-spreading branches for bearing a
+large crop, of the stoutness of the trunk for supporting the weight, and
+also of the position of the buds as adapting them for securing sunshine.</p>
+
+<h4>CLASS-ROOM LESSON ON THE APPLE TREE</h4>
+
+<p><b>Materials.</b>&mdash;Twigs bearing flower and leaf buds. These are gathered by
+the pupils from the apple trees that were studied during the field
+exercises.</p>
+
+<p>Each pupil finds on his twig the objects and markings, etc., as in the
+following outline:</p>
+
+<p>Describe the shape of the twig.</p>
+
+<p>Where were the apples that grew last year attached?</p>
+
+<p>Describe the positions of the buds on the twigs.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Which buds are the larger, those at the end or those on the side of the
+twig?</p>
+
+<p>Describe the condition of the bud scales.</p>
+
+<p>Open the buds and find what they contain.</p>
+
+<p>Of what use are the bud scales?</p>
+
+<p>How many blossoms are in one bud?</p>
+
+<p>Of what use to the young leaves is the downy covering?</p>
+
+<h4>FIELD EXERCISE FOLLOWING CLASS-ROOM LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>(Just after the blossoms are fully open)</p>
+
+<p>What is the colour of the apple blossom?</p>
+
+<p>Find the little green cup on which the petals rest.</p>
+
+<p>Describe the cup.</p>
+
+<p>Find the other things that are on the rim of, or that are within, the
+cup. What are they?</p>
+
+<p>What insects visit the flowers?</p>
+
+<p>Does the cup fall off when the petals fall?</p>
+
+<p>Does the cup close up as soon as the petals fall?</p>
+
+<p>What does the green cup grow to be?</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;Apple trees have somewhat round or pyramid-shaped
+tops, varying in detail with the variety of apple tree. The twigs are
+short and usually crooked. The fruit twigs are called spurs. The buds at
+the ends of the twigs and spurs are the largest and contain both leaves
+and blossoms, and there are usually several blossoms in each bud. The
+bud scales burst apart and drop off as the leaves and blossoms develop.
+The side buds produce leaves only. The petals and pollen boxes are borne
+on the rim of the green cup, and inside the cup are found the five tips
+of the seed cases. When the petals drop off, the rim of the cup remains
+spread out for a short time. This is the proper time for spraying, so
+that the cup may hold a drop<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> of poison to kill the tiny worms which
+cause apples to be wormy. It is the green cup that grows and forms the
+flesh of the apple.</p>
+
+<p>Orchard trees suitable for lessons for Form II are apple, plum, pear,
+peach, and cherry.</p>
+
+
+<h3>BIRD STUDY</h3>
+
+<p>A valuable exercise in bird study, suitable for the pupils of Form II,
+is the study of a pair of birds and the history of their home through
+the entire season.</p>
+
+<p>A record, with dates, should be kept, and the following topics are
+suggested for observation:</p>
+
+<p>Where the nest is located, protection of the nest, part of building done
+by each bird; eggs, number, colour, size, time required for hatching;
+young birds, number, description, how fed and upon what foods, time
+required before ready to leave the nest; history for a time after
+leaving the nest.</p>
+
+<p>Birds suitable for study by the pupils of Form II are the crow, flicker,
+downy woodpecker, blue-bird, chipping-sparrow, phoebe, wren.</p>
+
+<p>Correlate with art, by requiring drawings and models of the nest and its
+surroundings, and with language, by having pupils write the history of
+the nest and family.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE TOAD</h3>
+
+<h4>FIELD EXERCISES</h4>
+
+<p>Direct the pupils to watch for toads under the street lamps and on the
+lawns in the evenings, and to observe what they are doing.</p>
+
+<p>Find out, by turning over boards, logs of wood, stones, and old stumps,
+where toads spend the daytime.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If there is a sandy beach near by, an interesting nature lesson is to
+trace a toad to its daytime retreat under a log or stone. Its wanderings
+and adventures during the night can be traced from the record that its
+trail makes in the sand.</p>
+
+<p>Are toads that live in light-coloured sand of the same colour as those
+that live in black clay? Of what value to the toad are these differences
+in colour?</p>
+
+<p>The pupils are thus led to see that although the toad is not a handsome
+animal, yet its rough, dark skin is of great value to it for concealment
+among the lumps of soil with which it harmonizes.</p>
+
+<p>Can a dog be induced to seize a toad? Will he seize it as readily a
+second time as he did the first? The secretion from the glands of the
+toad have a biting, acid effect on the dog's mouth. This secretion will
+not injure a person's hands unless the skin is broken, and even then it
+does not "cause warts".</p>
+
+<p>How many toads can you find on your lawn in one evening? How many in the
+vegetable garden? How many in the flower beds?</p>
+
+<p>Place a toad on loose soil among some weeds and observe how it proceeds
+to get out of sight.</p>
+
+<p>Is it true that a toad is attracted by music? Give reasons for your
+answer.</p>
+
+<h4>CLASS-ROOM LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>Secure a few living toads and keep them in a box covered with a pane of
+glass. Be sure to put moist soil and damp moss in the bottom of the box
+in which toads, frogs, newts, or snakes are kept. This enables these
+animals to live in comfort, and they soon become sufficiently accustomed
+to their surroundings to act in a normal way.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Observation.</b>&mdash;By flicking in front of a toad a small feather or a bit of
+meat attached to a thread, the darting out of the tongue for catching
+prey on its adhesive surface may be observed.</p>
+
+<p>The children, by bringing slugs, caterpillars, grubs, and various
+insects for the toads, may learn what composes the food of the animal.
+It is to be observed that the toad does not snap at an object until it
+moves.</p>
+
+<h4>DETAILED STUDY</h4>
+
+<p><b>Observation.</b>&mdash;General shape; division into head, trunk, and limbs; size
+of head and mouth; position and structure of eyes and ears; difference
+in the size of the fore and hind limbs, and explanation of this
+difference by references to the use of the limbs; the hind foot, uses of
+the web; the glands on the surface of the body and their uses for
+protection.</p>
+
+<p>Why is a large mouth useful? How are the ears fitted for life in water?</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, the teacher should make sure that the pupils appreciate
+the usefulness of the toad and also the beauty represented in its
+adaptations to its conditions of life. In these particulars the toad is
+a good illustration of the adage "Handsome is that handsome does".</p>
+
+<h4>LIFE HISTORY OF THE TOAD</h4>
+
+<p>In early spring look for the toads on the surface of the water in ponds.
+The music of the toads at this time of year has been described by one
+naturalist as "one of the sweetest sounds of nature".</p>
+
+<p>The eggs may be found in these ponds at this time. They are attached to
+long strings of jelly which entwine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> among grasses and other objects in
+the ponds. (Frogs' eggs are in masses of jelly, not in strings.) Place
+some of the eggs in a jar of water and set the jar in the window of the
+school-room. A great mass of eggs is too much to put in a jar, a few
+dozen eggs in a pint of water will be more likely to develop. The water
+in the jar should be changed twice a week.</p>
+
+<p><b>Observations.</b>&mdash;The light and dark areas of the eggs, the dark area
+gradually increasing in size; the increase in the length of the egg; the
+gradual change of the dark area into the general shape of a tadpole with
+head and tail, the first appearance of the gills, the separation from
+the jelly, the movement by means of the tail, the disappearance of the
+gills, the growth of the hind legs and, later, of the forelegs, and the
+disappearance of the tail.</p>
+
+<p><b>Questions and Observations.</b>&mdash;What is the use of the dark colour of the
+area from which the tadpole is formed?</p>
+
+<p>Explain the uses of the strings of jelly.</p>
+
+<p>Describe how the tadpole swims.</p>
+
+<p>Upon what does the young tadpole feed?</p>
+
+<p>What is the advantage of external gills at this stage in the tadpole's
+life?</p>
+
+<p><b>Later Observations.</b>&mdash;The disappearance of the gills, the budding out of
+the hind legs and, later, the forelegs. While the legs are growing out,
+the tail gradually becomes smaller, at the same time the shape changes
+to that of the adult toad with a broad body and large mouth and eyes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Questions.</b>&mdash;What movements has the toad which the tadpole did not have?</p>
+
+<p>What makes these movements possible?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Why is the mouth of the toad better suited to its manner of life than
+the small mouth of the tadpole would be?</p>
+
+<p>Of what advantage to the tadpole was the smooth outline of its body, and
+why is the rougher outline of the toad's body better suited for the life
+of the latter?</p>
+
+<p>Why would gills be unsuitable for the life of the toad?</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;From the dark area of the egg the tadpole develops,
+the dark colour absorbs the sunlight, and this causes growth. The jelly
+holds the eggs up so that the sun can reach them and it also keeps them
+from being swept away by the water. The tadpole is very small, and
+external gills are needed to keep it in very close contact with the
+water. The tail does not drop off, the substance in it is absorbed into
+the body of the growing toad to serve as nutriment.</p>
+
+<p>Since all the changes in the development of the toad from egg to adult
+form take place in about one month, this comparatively rapid development
+makes the life history of the toad particularly suitable for observation
+work.</p>
+
+<p>The development of the eggs of the frog or newt may be studied from
+preparations made in precisely the same way as those for the study of
+the development of the toad.</p>
+
+<p>If observations on the developments of two forms are carried on at one
+time, interesting comparisons can be made on such points as, shape and
+size of the eggs, time required for development, shapes and colours of
+the tadpoles, activity of the tadpoles, etc.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE EARTHWORM</h3>
+
+<p><b>Time.</b>&mdash;May or June, in connection with gardening, when the working of
+the worms in the moist soil of the garden is quite noticeable.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Outdoor studies may be assigned, as:</p>
+
+<p>Observe the loose soil at the entrance to the burrows. Insert a straw in
+the burrow and, following it, dig downward with a garden trowel and
+learn the nature of the earthworm's home.</p>
+
+<p>Are earthworms ever found out of their burrows during the day? If so, on
+what kind of days? Why do earthworms burrow deep in dry weather?</p>
+
+<p>Earthworms can breathe only when the surfaces of their bodies are in
+moist conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Go out at night with a lantern to where earthworms are known to have
+burrows, observe the worms stretched out with the rear ends of their
+bodies attached to the burrows, and note how quickly they draw back when
+they are touched. Do they draw back if the ground is jarred near them?
+Do they draw back when the light falls upon them?</p>
+
+<p>State the facts which are taught by the observations which were made on
+the above topics.</p>
+
+<h4>CLASS-ROOM LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>Put two or three earthworms into a jar of rich, damp soil, on top of
+which there is a layer of sand a quarter of an inch thick. Put bits of
+cabbage, onion, grass, and other plants on the surface and cover the jar
+with a glass slip or cardboard.</p>
+
+<p>After a few days, examine the jar, noting the number of burrows, the
+foods selected, the castings, the food dragged into the burrows. Pour
+water into the jar and observe the actions of the worms. Can an
+earthworm live in water?</p>
+
+<p>Place an earthworm on a moist plate or board and direct the pupils to
+study it, as follows:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Distinguish the head from the rear end, the upper from the lower
+surface. Observe the means of living. To assist in the latter
+observation, stroke the worm from rear to head and find the four double
+rows of bristles. Why is it difficult to pull an earthworm out of its
+burrow?</p>
+
+<p>Find the mouth. Has the earthworm any eyes, ears, or nose? Place a pin
+in the path of a moving worm and try to explain why it turns aside
+before touching the obstacle. Test the sensitiveness to feeling. Why is
+it cruel to put an earthworm on a fishhook?</p>
+
+<p>From the soil castings found in the jar, infer the value of earthworms
+for enriching and pulverizing soil. (See "Soil Studies", p. 269.)</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<p>Bailey and Coleman: <i>First Course in Biology.</i> Macmillan Co. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p>Crawford: <i>Guide to Nature Study.</i> The Copp, Clark Co. 90 cents.</p>
+
+<p>Kellogg: <i>Elementary Zoology.</i> Holt &amp; Co. $1.35.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE AQUARIUM</h3>
+
+<p>A large glass aquarium may be purchased from any School Supply Company
+at a cost of a few dollars, but a small globe-shaped aquarium such as is
+used for gold-fishes will be found suitable for school purposes. If it
+is not possible to secure either of these, a large glass jar, such as a
+battery jar or large fruit jar, will be found to answer quite well.</p>
+
+<p>To set up the aquarium, put into the jar about two inches of clean shore
+sand (sand from a sand pit, washed until the water comes away clear,
+will do). Secure from a pond some water-plants, place these in the jar
+with their roots covered with sand and secured in position by small
+stones. Pour in water until the jar is nearly full, taking<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> care not to
+wash the roots out of place, and then put in a freshwater clam and a few
+water snails. These are scavengers, for the clam feeds upon organisms
+that float in the water, while the snails eat the green scum that grows
+on the glass.</p>
+
+<p>The other aquarium specimens may now be put in. One fish about three
+inches long to a gallon of water is about the right proportion. When
+there is a sufficient quantity of plant life to keep the water properly
+oxygenated and enough animal life to supply the carbon dioxide necessary
+to keep the plants growing well, the aquarium is said to be <i>balanced</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The balanced aquarium does not require that the water be changed more
+often than once in two months.</p>
+
+<p>Too much direct sunlight causes too rapid growth of green slime, hence
+the aquarium should not be set in a window. Close to a window through
+which the sun shines upon it for an hour or longer each day is the best
+position.</p>
+
+<p>Do not supply more food to the animals in the aquarium than they can eat
+up clean.</p>
+
+<p>Crayfish, perch, trout, and other freshwater fishes are destructive of
+insect larv&aelig; and other aquarium specimens, hence care must be taken in
+selecting the specimens that are put together into an aquarium.</p>
+
+<p>Suitable animals for the aquarium: mosquito larv&aelig;, dragon-fly larv&aelig;,
+caddice-fly larv&aelig;, crayfish, clam, water snails, tadpoles, fish, frog,
+turtle.</p>
+
+
+<h3>AQUARIUM SPECIMENS</h3>
+
+<h4>MOSQUITO</h4>
+
+<h5>Time.&mdash;May or June.</h5>
+
+<p><b>Questions and Observations.</b>&mdash;At what time of the year are mosquitoes
+most plentiful? In what localities<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> are they most plentiful? Why are
+they most plentiful in these places? Are mosquitoes ever seen during
+fall or winter? How do you account for their rapid increase in number
+early in summer?</p>
+
+<p>How do mosquitoes find their victims? Observe the humming noise and try
+to discover how it is made.</p>
+
+<p>Watch a mosquito as it draws blood from your hand. Does the point of the
+beak pierce the skin?</p>
+
+<p>Capture a number of mosquitoes and place them in a jar containing some
+water and a few straws or sticks standing upright out of the water.
+Cover the mouth of the jar with a glass plate or fine gauze. Watch for
+the rafts of mosquitoes' eggs on the surface of the water.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs may also be found on the surface of ponds or open rain barrels,
+and may be transferred to water in a jar in the laboratory.</p>
+
+<h4>STUDY OF THE ADULT FORM</h4>
+
+<p>Note the shape, colour, sucking tube, wings, and legs. Compare with the
+house-fly.</p>
+
+<p>Distinguish the male insect from the female; the former has feathery
+feelers, and has mouth parts unsuited for biting.</p>
+
+<p>How many kinds of mosquitoes have you seen? Direct attention to the kind
+which causes the spread of malaria. It is recognized by its habit of
+standing with its body pointing at right angles to the surface on which
+its feet are placed or, in other words, it appears to stand on its head.</p>
+
+<h4>THE DEVELOPMENT</h4>
+
+<p>Describe the egg raft.</p>
+
+<p>Observe the wigglers (hatched in about a day); the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> divisions of the
+body of the wigglers; position of the wigglers when at rest. Observe
+that the tail end is upward. Lead the pupils to perceive that this is
+the means of getting air.</p>
+
+<p>Observe the rapid movement toward the bottom when disturbed; the means
+of causing this movement; the change into the large-headed pup&aelig;&mdash;a
+change which takes place about ten days after hatching; the almost
+motionless character of the pup&aelig;; the change from the pup&aelig; forms into
+the adult&mdash;a change which takes place at about the fourth day of pup&aelig;
+life.</p>
+
+<p>Put some mosquito larv&aelig; (wigglers) into the fish aquarium. Are
+mosquitoes of any use? The wigglers are the food on which some young
+fishes live. Young bass and trout feed upon them.</p>
+
+<p>Put some kerosene on the surface of a jar in which there are mosquito
+larv&aelig;. Describe a method of destroying mosquitoes.</p>
+
+<p>The teacher tells about the mosquito as the cause of the spread of
+malaria. From the fact that the eggs hatch on stagnant water, deduce a
+benefit arising from the draining of land.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<p>Silcox and Stevenson: <i>Modern Nature Study</i></p>
+
+<p>Hodge: <i>Nature Study and Life</i></p>
+
+<h4>CADDICE-FLY</h4>
+
+<h5>Time: May.</h5>
+
+<p>The caddice-flies are very interesting insects, owing to the habits of
+the larv&aelig; of building little cases of wood, stones, or shells, in which
+they pass their development stages under water.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>These larv&aelig; are easily found during the month of May in little streams
+of water everywhere throughout the Province. Look for what at first
+sight appears to be a bit of twig or a cylinder of stone about an inch
+long moving along the bottom as though carried by currents. Closer
+observation will result in the discovery that this is a little case
+composed of grains, of bits of stick, or of sand and tiny shells, and
+the head of the occupant may be seen projecting from one end.</p>
+
+<p>Collect some of these larv&aelig; in a jar of water and transfer them to the
+aquarium. Direct the pupils to look for others in the streams, so that
+they may observe their appearances and movements in their natural
+environment. If kept in jars, the water must be changed every day, and
+the top should be covered to prevent the escape of the adults.</p>
+
+<p><b>Observe.</b>&mdash;The shape of the various kinds of cases; the materials, and
+how fastened together (chiefly by silk); the part of the larva that
+protrudes from the case; the movement, and how caused; the fitness of
+the case as a protection. Note hardness, colour, and shape as protective
+features.</p>
+
+<p>The pupils will be fortunate if they observe the sudden rise of the
+larva to the surface of the water and the almost instantaneous change
+into the four-winged fly.</p>
+
+
+<h3>INSECTS SUITABLE FOR LESSONS IN FORM II</h3>
+
+<p>Walking-stick insect, katydid, cricket, mole-cricket, clothes-moth,
+giant water-bug, potato beetle, click-beetle, luna moth, and
+swallow-tail butterfly.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h3>FORM III</h3>
+
+<h4>AUTUMN</h4>
+
+
+<h3>GARDEN WORK</h3>
+
+<p>The pupils in this Form should be able to do all of the work required of
+them in the garden without assistance. They should aim at intensive and
+thorough cultivation and, in the autumn, when the plants of their
+gardens ripen, these should be removed and the soil carefully spaded.
+They should continue the work of selecting the seed from the best
+flowers, as indicated in the work for Form II, and should grow some seed
+from vegetables and perennials seen to be particularly good.</p>
+
+<p>Boys in this Form may also wish to do some gardening for profit. In some
+cases where there is plenty of space, this may be carried on in a part
+of the school garden set aside for that purpose. Usually, however, it
+will be found most convenient to carry it on in the home garden. Best
+varieties for local markets should then be grown and attention given to
+the proper time and manner of marketing or storing for a later market.
+Cool, well-ventilated cellars are best for most fruits and vegetables.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TREATMENT OF FUNGI</h3>
+
+<p>During the summer and early autumn months attention should be given to
+the spraying of plants for blight and for injurious insects. The potato
+is commonly affected by a fungous disease which causes the stalks to
+blacken<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> and die before the tubers have matured. This disease may be
+prevented in large measure by the use of a fungicide known as Bordeaux
+mixture. This may be prepared as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Take one pound of copper sulphate (blue vitriol); make it fine by
+pounding it in a bag or cloth and then dissolve it in water, using a
+wooden pail. It dissolves rapidly if put in a little cheese-cloth sack,
+which is suspended near the top of the pail by putting a stick across
+the pail and tying the sack of copper sulphate to it. Dilute this
+solution to five gallons. Take also a pound of unslaked or quick-lime
+and add a cupful of water to it. When it begins to swell up and get hot,
+add more water slowly, and, when the action ceases, dilute to five
+gallons. Mix these two solutions together in a tub or barrel, and churn
+them up, or stir them together vigorously. They give a deep
+robin's-egg-blue mixture, which is slightly alkaline and should be used
+at once. The solutions can be kept separate as stock solutions
+throughout the summer and then diluted and mixed whenever needed. Care
+should be observed in not mixing the solutions before each has been
+diluted to the strength, one pound to five gallons. A piece of blue
+litmus paper will be convenient to prove that the mixture is alkaline.
+If alkaline, as it should be, the paper remains blue when dipped in it.
+If the mixture turns the litmus paper red, it must have more lime-water
+added to make it alkaline. The potato tops should be thoroughly sprayed
+with this mixture when about ten inches high and then once every two
+weeks, until they have been treated three or four times. This is to
+prevent blight and not to kill bugs. If the potato-beetle is troubling
+the potatoes, add paris-green to the Bordeaux mixture&mdash;a teaspoonful to
+every two gallons. To prove the value of this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> treatment have a trial
+plot of potatoes which receive all attention save spraying with Bordeaux
+mixture. If a heavy rain should follow the spraying, it should be
+repeated.</p>
+
+<p>Potato-scab may be prevented to a large degree by soaking the tubers
+before cutting for planting in a solution of formalin (a 40-per cent.
+solution of formaldehyde) one-half pint to fifteen gallons of water.
+Seed grain is frequently treated this way before sowing, to destroy smut
+spores. A pound of formalin is put in forty gallons of water in a large
+barrel. A bag full of the grain to be treated is set in the barrel of
+formalin mixture for about two hours and then taken and dried on a floor
+that has been previously washed with water containing formalin. A
+solution of copper sulphate (bluestone), one pound in twenty gallons of
+water is sometimes used. The grain is left in this solution for twelve
+hours and then dried for sowing. All bags and utensils should also be
+disinfected with this formalin solution.</p>
+
+<h4>TREATMENT OF INSECTS</h4>
+
+<p>In order to poison insects successfully, it is necessary to determine
+how the insect feeds. If it is a biting insect, that is one that eats
+the leaf, such as the potato beetle, paris-green should be used.
+Paris-green sometimes burns the tender leaves. This may be prevented by
+adding a tablespoonful of lime to each pail of water used. It may also
+be used dry with flour or dust.</p>
+
+<p>If the insect feeds by sucking the juices from the leaf, as is the case
+with plant-lice, then a solution that kills by contact must be used,
+such as whale-oil soap, one ounce to a quart of water. Tobacco-water is
+sometimes mixed with the soap solution as follows:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Four pounds of tobacco-waste is steeped in nine gallons of hot water for
+five hours; this is then strained, and to the tobacco-water one pound of
+whale-oil soap dissolved in one gallon of hot water is added and mixed
+thoroughly.</p>
+
+<p>Kerosene emulsion, which is made as follows, is very destructive to
+plant-lice and scale insects:</p>
+
+<p>Dissolve a quarter of a pound of common laundry soap in half a gallon of
+rain-water and, while hot, mix with one gallon of coal-oil and churn
+vigorously for five minutes to get a smooth, creamy mixture. On cooling,
+it thickens and is diluted before using by adding nine quarts of warm
+water to one quart of the emulsion. Use smaller quantities in correct
+proportions when only a few plants are to be treated.</p>
+
+<h4>CABBAGE-WORM</h4>
+
+<p>The larv&aelig; of the cabbage-butterfly sometimes do a great deal of harm by
+eating the cabbage leaves. It will not do to use paris-green on cabbage,
+as the leaves are for eating. Instead, use pyrethrum or insect powder,
+which may be diluted by mixing with cheap flour&mdash;one ounce of insect
+powder to five of flour. Mix thoroughly and leave in a closed tin over
+night. Dust the mixture on the leaves from a cheese-cloth bag by tapping
+with a small stick or from a dusting-pan. If used while the dew is on
+the leaves, it sticks better. Insect powder is not poisonous to man as
+is paris-green, and so may be used freely on cabbage or other similar
+plants.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>PLANTS</h3>
+
+<h4>ANNUALS, BIENNIALS, AND PERENNIALS</h4>
+
+<h4>CLASS-ROOM LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>By means of questions based upon the pupils' knowledge of a few common
+annuals, such as the oat, sweet-pea, and garden aster, develop the
+following points:</p>
+
+<p>1. These plants are always grown from seeds.</p>
+
+<p>2. These plants produce flowers and ripe seeds during one season's
+growth.</p>
+
+<p>3. These plants wither and die in the autumn.</p>
+
+<p>Plants having these characteristics are called <i>annuals</i>. The teacher
+explains the meaning of the word and requires the pupils to name a few
+other annuals.</p>
+
+<p>In a similar way, discuss a few common types of <i>biennials</i>, such as
+turnip, cabbage, hollyhock, and develop the following points:</p>
+
+<p>1. These plants produce no flowers and seeds during the first year of
+their life.</p>
+
+<p>2. These plants, during the first year, lay up a store of food in roots,
+leaves, or stems.</p>
+
+<p>3. The food is used in the second year of the plant's life to nourish
+the flowers and seeds.</p>
+
+<p>A biennial should be grown for two years in the school garden to furnish
+material for concrete study.</p>
+
+<p>In a similar way discuss a few common types of <i>perennials</i>, such as
+rhubarb, dahlia, apple tree, and develop the following points:</p>
+
+<p>1. These plants may or may not produce seeds during the first year's
+growth.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. Some of these plants are herbs, but most of them are trees and
+shrubs.</p>
+
+<p>3. Food is stored in roots or stems to provide for early spring growth.</p>
+
+<p>4. These plants live on from year to year.</p>
+
+<h4>GARDEN STUDIES</h4>
+
+<h4>ANNUALS</h4>
+
+<p><b>Observations.</b>&mdash;Some plants, such as poppy and candy-tuft, are early
+blooming, while others, such as aster and cosmos, bloom in late summer,
+hence a selection should be made that will yield a succession of bloom
+throughout the season.</p>
+
+<p>Some are hardy annuals which can be grown from open planting, even when
+the weather is cold. These often seed themselves; for example,
+sweet-pea, morning-glory, phlox, poppy, sweet-alyssum.</p>
+
+<p>Some are half-hardy annuals, such as asters, balsams, stocks, and
+nasturtiums. These must be started indoors or in hotbeds, or if in
+plots, not until the soil is quite warm.</p>
+
+<p>The heights of annuals vary, and consequently they must be arranged in
+the bed in such a way that tall plants will not shade the short ones.</p>
+
+<h4>BIENNIALS</h4>
+
+<p><b>Observations.</b>&mdash;During the first year food is stored in the root of the
+turnip, carrot, parsnip, and beet, in the leaves of the cabbage, and in
+the stem of the hollyhock.</p>
+
+<p>Flowers and seeds are produced during the second year, and the
+storehouse becomes empty, dry, and woody. Preparation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> for winter is
+therefore, in the case of biennials, preparation for a renewal of growth
+the following spring.</p>
+
+<h4>PERENNIALS</h4>
+
+<p><b>Observations.</b>&mdash;The highest forms of plant life are found in this class;
+namely, the strong, large, hardy trees and shrubs.</p>
+
+<p>The herbaceous perennials are equipped with underground parts that act
+as storehouses of food to ensure the growth of the plant through
+successive seasons. Examples: the roots of dahlia, rhubarb, dandelion,
+and chicory; the underground stems of potato, onion, tulip,
+scutch-grass, Canada thistle, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the wild flowers that bloom in early spring belong to this
+class, and their rapid growth then is made possible by the store of food
+in the underground parts. Examples: trillium, bloodroot, squirrel-corn,
+Indian turnip, Solomon's seal, etc.</p>
+
+<h4>SPECIAL STUDY OF GARDEN PLANTS</h4>
+
+<p>A few plants should be selected for special study, and the following are
+recommended: annuals&mdash;sweet-pea, pumpkin, and corn; biennials&mdash;cabbage,
+parsnip, and carrot; perennials&mdash;dahlia, rhubarb, and couch-grass.</p>
+
+<p>It is desirable that the observations be made upon the plants in the
+garden, but they may be conducted in the class-room upon specimens
+brought into the room by the pupils.</p>
+
+<h4>SWEET-PEA</h4>
+
+<p>Examine the stem of the sweet-pea and describe its form, its uniform
+slender structure, and the fact that it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> climbs. Find out just how it
+climbs. The pupils will observe the tendrils, which are extensions of
+the midribs of the leaves.</p>
+
+<p>Describe the leaves, noting what is meant by calling them <i>compound</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Observe the position of the flower, its colours, odour, size, and form.
+What insect does it resemble in shape? What different features of the
+flower enable it to attract attention?</p>
+
+<p>The names and uses of the floral organs may be taught to this class. For
+example:</p>
+
+<p>Pupils find the green blanket that protects the bud. This is the
+<i>calyx</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The beautiful, attractive part is the <i>corolla</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The parts that produce the pollen are called <i>stamens</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The case that holds the seeds is the <i>pistil</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Examine flowers of different ages and trace the change from the minute
+pistil to the pod.</p>
+
+<p>Study, comparatively, the flowers of the field-pea, bean, or wild vetch.</p>
+
+<p>Select a few of the finest blossoms of the sweet-pea and put tags on
+them while they are still in bloom. When they ripen, collect the seeds
+and preserve them for spring planting.</p>
+
+<p>Conduct observation lessons on the pumpkin and corn, in which the pupils
+will discover such facts as those given below.</p>
+
+<h4>PUMPKIN</h4>
+
+<p>Notice the method of growth&mdash;the stem no stronger than that of the
+sweet-pea, but lying flat on the ground. Notice the little roots sent
+out here and there where the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> stem touches the ground. This gives extra
+nourishment. The leaves are not numerous and grow only in one direction,
+but are very large&mdash;entirely too large to be borne upon an upright stem.
+Notice the large funnel-like flowers and that not all of them set fruit.
+Examine the flowers. Some of them have stamens for producing pollen, but
+no pistil. These never produce fruit, for pumpkins are simply enlarged
+and ripened pistils. Look for insects and examine them to find out
+whether they are carrying pollen. Notice younger pumpkins and even
+blossoms toward the end of the vine. Pick all the blossoms and small
+pumpkins off a vine, leaving only one of the best growing pumpkins. See
+whether this one grows larger than one of equal age on a vine having
+young pumpkins developing on it. Notice the arrangement of the seeds
+inside a ripe pumpkin. Collect some seeds, wash clean, and dry for
+spring planting. It is desirable to plant pumpkins late in May, so that
+they will have flowers on their vines as late as September.</p>
+
+<p>Study the flowers of the cucumber and compare them with those of the
+pumpkin.</p>
+
+<h4>CORN</h4>
+
+<p>This plant is native to America, was greatly prized by the aborigines,
+and even worshipped by some of them. Note the upright character of the
+plant and how the stalk is divided into sections by the joints, or
+nodes. Count these joints and also the leaves, and note the relationship
+of leaves and joints in the stalk, and how the leaves come off in
+different directions so as not to shade each other. Note the strong,
+stringy threads in the leaf, which give strength to the leaf as well as
+circulation of sap. They are strong and elastic, allowing of movement.
+The same strengthening<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> fibres are seen in the stalk when it is broken
+across. In the stalk these fibres are arranged in a tubular form, as
+this gives greatest strength, the centre being soft and weak. The stalks
+are largest near the base, where the greatest stiffness is required. The
+nodes are also closer together here for strength. The stem is made much
+stronger by the bases of the leaves being wrapped so firmly around for a
+distance above the point of attachment at the node. Notice the
+close-fitting sheath or rain-guard, where the blade of the leaf leaves
+the stalk. This prevents rain soaking down inside the leaf sheath, but
+lets it run down the outside to the root where it is needed. As the
+plant gets older and taller, new roots come out from the node next above
+the root and sometimes from the second node above. These prop-roots are
+needed for support as the stalk lengthens, and they also reinforce the
+feeding capacity.</p>
+
+<p>Note the appearance of little cobs in the axils of the leaves. As soon
+as the silk appears, take a cob off and open it carefully. The little
+cob, which corresponds to the pistil in other plants, is covered with
+small and undeveloped kernels, and to each kernel one of the strands of
+so-called silk is attached. Whilst this little cob is forming, a bunch,
+or tassel, of flowers is forming on the top of the corn plant. Open one
+of these flowers and find the stamens with pollen-grains inside. This
+pollen, when shed, falls upon the silk, and each grain sends a tiny tube
+down inside the silk to the delicate ovules on the cob, fertilizing them
+and starting them to develop. The silk then withers. The wind carries
+this pollen.</p>
+
+<p>Find out how the silk is fitted for catching the pollen. What is the
+need for the great quantity of pollen that the plant produces?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Strip off the husks and compare the tough, hard husks that are found on
+the outside with the soft paper-like husks found close to the cob. Show
+how each kind is fitted for its particular work.</p>
+
+<p>Pupils make experiments in the corn plot to find:</p>
+
+<p>1. Whether the corn grows faster:</p>
+
+<p>(1) When the soil is kept mellow or when the soil is hard;</p>
+
+<p>(2) When the days are warm or when they are cool;</p>
+
+<p>(3) When the nights are cool or when they are warm.</p>
+
+<p>2. The effect of growing black corn and golden corn in the same or in
+adjoining plots. Account for the result.</p>
+
+<h4>CORRELATIONS</h4>
+
+<p>Art: Clay-modelling and drawing exercises on the whole plant, and also
+upon the ear.</p>
+
+<p>Literature: Interpretation and reading of "Blessing the Corn-fields",
+from <i>Hiawatha</i>.</p>
+
+<p>History: The name Indian corn originated in the early colonial days of
+the Eastern and Central States, when the pioneers obtained corn from the
+Indians. The Indians showed the settlers how to kill the trees by
+girdling and how to plant the corn among the standing trunks, and thus
+have corn ready for roasting by August, and for grinding into meal or
+for boiling to make hominy by September.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SEED DISPERSAL</h3>
+
+<p>The lessons on seed dispersal which were begun in Form I should be
+continued in this Form.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>I. LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>Select a few weeds belonging to species which produce large numbers of
+seeds, such as wild mustard, white cockle, false-flax, etc. Distribute
+the seed pods among the pupils of the class and require them to estimate
+the number of seeds produced by each plant.</p>
+
+<p>By references to observations made in the garden, help the pupils to
+recall the bad results, both to parent plants and to young seedlings, of
+improper scattering of seeds, namely:</p>
+
+<p>1. The excessive crowding and shading, which causes the plants to become
+weak.</p>
+
+<p>2. Insufficient food and moisture for the large number of plants, which
+causes the plants to be small and worthless.</p>
+
+<p>Discuss how the crowding of cultivated plants is prevented and, in a
+general way, how nature provides for the scattering of seeds.</p>
+
+<p>The great work of the plant is the production and dispersal of its
+seeds.</p>
+
+<p>Ask the pupils to be on the alert to find examples of plants in which
+provision is made for the dispersal of the seeds, and to bring these
+plants to the class for the next lesson.</p>
+
+<h4>DETAILED STUDY OF SEED DISPERSAL</h4>
+
+<h4>II. CLASS-ROOM LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>Make use of the specimens gathered by the pupils and by the teacher for
+observing and classifying as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. Seeds that steal rides. Examples&mdash;burdock, blue burr, pitch-fork
+weed, barley, stick-tight, hound's tongue.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. Seeds that are carried in edible fruits which have attractive
+colours, tastes, etc. Examples&mdash;apple, grape, cherry, rowan, hawthorn.</p>
+
+<p>3. Seeds that are carried by the wind. Examples&mdash;dandelion, thistle,
+milkweed, maple, pine, elm.</p>
+
+<p>4. Seeds that are scattered by being shot from bursting pods.
+Examples&mdash;violet, jewel-weed (touch-me-not), sweet-pea, witch-hazel.</p>
+
+<p>5. Seeds that are scattered by plants which are rolled along by the
+wind. Examples&mdash;Russian thistle, tumble-mustard, tumble-grass.</p>
+
+<p>6. Seeds that float. Very many seeds float, although not specially
+fitted for floating, and some, such as the cocoa-nut and water-lily, are
+especially adapted for dispersal by water.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;Require the pupils to observe the special structure
+that facilitates the dispersal of the seed. As an illustration, ask the
+pupils to find the seeds of the burdock and to describe what the burr is
+really like. They find that the burr is a little basket filled with
+seeds. The basket has many little hooks which catch on the hair of
+animals and, since these hooks turn inwards, they serve to hold the
+basket in such a position that all the seeds are not likely to drop out
+at one time. The pupils should also observe that these baskets are quite
+firmly attached to the parent plant until the seeds are ripe; after that
+the baskets break off the plant at the slightest pull.</p>
+
+<h4>SEED COLLECTIONS</h4>
+
+<p>During late summer and in the autumn the seeds of the weeds that have
+been identified by the pupils should be collected.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Instruct the pupils to rub the ripened seed pods between the hands until
+the seeds are thrashed out, at the same time blowing away the chaff. The
+seeds are now placed in small phials or in small envelopes and these are
+carefully labelled. If possible, fill each phial so that there may be
+sufficient seed for use by all the members of the class in the lessons
+on seed description and identification which are to be taken during the
+winter months, when Nature Study material is less plentiful than it is
+in the summer and autumn. The phials or envelopes may be stored in a
+shallow box, or the phials may be mounted on a stout card. They may be
+attached to this card either by stout thread sewed through the card and
+passing around the phial, or by brass cleats, which may be obtained with
+the phials from dealers in Nature Study supplies.</p>
+
+<h4>MAN AS A DISPERSER OF SEEDS</h4>
+
+<p>Man as an agent in the dispersal of seeds should be made a topic for
+discussion.</p>
+
+<p>Obtain, through the pupils, samples of seed-grain, clover seed, timothy
+seed, turnip seed, etc. Ask the pupils to examine these and count the
+number of weed seeds found in each.</p>
+
+<p>The results will reveal a very common way in which the seeds of noxious
+weeds are introduced.</p>
+
+<p>Describe the introduction from Europe to the wheat-fields of the Prairie
+Provinces of such weeds as Russian thistle, false-flax, French-weed. The
+seeds of these weeds were carried in seed-grain, fodder for animals, and
+also in the hay and straw used by the immigrants as packing for their
+household goods.</p>
+
+<p>Careful farmers will not allow thrashing-machines, seed drills,
+fanning-mills, etc., to come from farms infested<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> with noxious weeds to
+do work upon their farms, nor will they buy manure, straw, or hay that
+was produced on dirty farms.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE SUGAR MAPLE</h3>
+
+<h4>FIELD EXERCISES</h4>
+
+<p>Select a convenient sugar maple as a type. Ask the pupils to observe and
+to describe the height of the tree, the height of the trunk below the
+branches, the shape and size of the crown, the diameter of the trunk,
+the colour of the bark, the markings on the bark, the number and
+direction of the branches, and the density of the foliage. Compare the
+density of the foliage with that of other kinds of trees. Require the
+pupils to make a crayon drawing of the tree.</p>
+
+<p>Examine the crop of grain produced near a shade tree. Compare the crop
+on the north side of the tree with that on the south side. Account for
+the difference.</p>
+
+<p>Is the crop around the tree inferior to that in the rest of the field?</p>
+
+<p>Find out how long the various sugar maple shade trees in the locality
+have been planted. Is it a tree of rapid or slow growth? Are these sugar
+maples infested with insects or attacked by fungi?</p>
+
+<p>Do these trees yield sap that is suitable for making maple syrup?</p>
+
+<p>Examine trees that have been tapped and find whether the old wounds
+become overgrown or cause decay.</p>
+
+<p>Find out all you can about the uses that are made of maple wood.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The sugar maple is the most highly prized of our
+native trees for ornament and shade. It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> grows fairly rapidly and
+becomes a goodly-sized tree within twenty years after it is planted. The
+symmetrical dome-shaped crown and the dense foliage of restful dark
+green give to it a fine appearance. It is hardy and has few insect
+pests, and its value is enhanced by the abundant yield of rich sap.</p>
+
+<p>As a commercial tree it has few superiors; the wood is hard and durable
+and takes a high polish. It is used for flooring, furniture, boat
+building, for the wooden parts of machinery and tools, and for making
+shoe-pegs and shoe lasts. As fuel maple wood is surpassed only by
+hickory.</p>
+
+<h4>MAPLE LEAVES</h4>
+
+<h4>CLASS-ROOM LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>The pupils bring to the class leaves of the sugar maple. Each pupil is
+provided with a leaf and makes direct observations under the guidance of
+the teacher.</p>
+
+<p><b>Observations.</b>&mdash;Colour, dark green on the upper surface, lighter green on
+the lower surface. Surface smooth and shiny.</p>
+
+<p>Shape: star-shaped, broader than long.</p>
+
+<p>Lobes: usually five, often three; each lobe has usually two large teeth.</p>
+
+<p>Base has a heart-shaped notch; petiole long and slender, usually red.</p>
+
+<p>Veins are stiff and run out to the points of the teeth.</p>
+
+<p>Distribute leaves of the <i>red</i> maple and ask the pupils to note the
+general resemblance. Next ask them to compare the leaves as to shape,
+texture, and teeth on the margin.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Ask the pupils to find red maple trees and also to find maples with
+leaves that are different from those of the red maple and those of the
+sugar maple.</p>
+
+<p>Make a collection of maple leaves when they are in autumn colours. (See
+Collections, page 33, in General Method.)</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The leaves of the red maple are longer than broad,
+and are not so smooth and shiny as the leaves of the sugar maple. There
+are numerous "saw teeth" on the margins of the lobes. The silver maple,
+with leaves having silver-white under surfaces, is another common
+species.</p>
+
+<p>A lesson similar to that on leaf studies may be based on the fruits
+(keys) of the maples.</p>
+
+<p>The oak, ash, elm, beech, or birch may be taken up in lessons similar to
+those outlined for the study of the maple.</p>
+
+<h4>CORRELATIONS</h4>
+
+<p>With literature and reading: By interpreting "The Maple", <i>The Ontario
+Readers, Third Book</i>, page 179;</p>
+
+<p>With art: By sketching the tree and reproducing the autumn leaves in
+colour work.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WEED STUDIES</h3>
+
+<p>In every locality there are about a dozen weeds that are particularly
+troublesome, and the pupils of Form III should be taught to identify
+these and to understand the characteristics which make each weed
+persistent.</p>
+
+<p>To produce these results it will be necessary to have exercises such as
+the following:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>1. The teacher exhibits a weed to the pupils and directs their attention
+to a few of the outstanding features of the plant.</p>
+
+<p>2. The pupils are required, as a field exercise, to observe where the
+weed is abundant; and whether in hay field, pasture, hoe crop, or in
+grain. The pupils will bring specimens to the class.</p>
+
+<p>3. Detailed study in the class of specimens of the weed brought by the
+pupils to find offensive odours and prickles, also the character of the
+leaves, flowers, seed pods, and seeds, including the means of dispersal;
+the underground parts, whether underground stem, tap-root, or fibrous
+root, and the value of the underground parts as a means of persistence.</p>
+
+<p>4. The pupils make a collection of the weeds that have been studied.
+(See Plant Collection, page 39, in General Method.)</p>
+
+<p>5. The pupils make collections of the seeds of the weeds that have been
+studied.</p>
+
+<h4>OBSERVATION LESSON ON WEED SEEDS</h4>
+
+<p>The seed of a weed should always be exhibited and studied in association
+with a fresh or a mounted specimen of the weed.</p>
+
+<p>Each pupil should use a hand lens in examining the seed.</p>
+
+<p>The pupils examine the seed of each species and describe it according to
+the following scheme:</p>
+
+<h4>NAME OF SEED</h4>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Colour:</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Size:</i> (in fractions of an inch)<br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Shape:</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Details:</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Occurrence:</i><br /></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span></div></div>
+
+<p>The results of the pupils' study of the ox-eye daisy would then appear
+in the following form:</p>
+
+<h4>SEED OF OX-EYE DAISY</h4>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Colour:</i> Black and greenish-white in stripes,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Size:</i> One sixteenth of an inch,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Shape:</i> Club-shaped,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Details</i>: Grooved lengthwise, yellow peg in large end,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Occurrence:</i> A common impurity in grass seed.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<h3>GRASSHOPPER</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(Consult the Manual on <i>Suggestions for Teachers of
+Science</i>: Zoology, First year.)</p></div>
+
+<p>The ease with which this insect may be obtained in August or September,
+together with its fairly large size, makes it a suitable specimen for
+insect study. It is also a typical insect, so that a careful study
+serves as a basis for a knowledge of the class <i>insecta</i>.</p>
+
+<h4>FIELD EXERCISES</h4>
+
+<p>Problems to be assigned for outdoor observation: Locomotion by flying,
+leaping, walking; protective coloration and habit of "lying low"; its
+behaviour when caught; in what kinds of fields it is most plentiful; in
+what kinds of weather it is most active; its position on the grass or
+grain when feeding; the nature and extent of the damage done by it.</p>
+
+<p>Use a class period for discussion of the above. Confirm, correct, or
+incite to more careful observation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>CLASS-ROOM LESSON</h4>
+
+<h5>(Studied as a typical insect)</h5>
+
+<p><b>Observations.</b>&mdash;The three divisions of the body&mdash;head, thorax, abdomen;
+the segmental division of the two latter parts; the hard, protecting
+covering; the movements of the abdomen; the two large compound eyes and
+three small eyes; the feelers; the two pairs of mouth feelers; the
+cutting mandibles; the three pairs of legs (one pair for leaping) and
+two pairs of wings on the thorax; the breathing pores, the ears,
+ovipositors of the female.</p>
+
+<p>The young grasshoppers may be found in spring or early summer, and a few
+even in late summer, among the grass of old meadows and pastures. They
+are easily recognized because of their general resemblance to the adult
+and are in the stage of development called the <i>nymph</i> phase. Note the
+hairy body and the absence of wings.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The moulting of the nymph is a very interesting
+process to observe and so is the laying of the eggs by the female in a
+burrow that she prepares in the soil. If females secured in July are
+kept in a jar having two inches of soil in the bottom, they will lay
+their eggs in the soil; the nests and eggs may then be taken up and
+examined.</p>
+
+<p>In order that we may not destroy our friends and helpers, it is
+expedient to know what creatures help to hold pests in check.</p>
+
+<p>The enemies of grasshoppers are birds and insect parasites. Under the
+wings of grasshoppers may frequently be found little red mites; these
+kill the grasshoppers to which they are attached. The blister-beetles
+lay their eggs in the grasshoppers' nests, and the larv&aelig; of the beetles
+feed upon and destroy the eggs.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The birds that are especially useful in destroying grasshoppers are the
+meadow-lark, crow, bobolink, quail, grasshopper sparrow.</p>
+
+<p>The curious hairlike worms known to the school boys as "hair snakes"
+because of the belief that they are parts of horse hairs turned into
+snakes, are worms that pass the early part of their life within the
+bodies of grasshoppers and, when the insects die, the worms escape and
+are washed by rains into troughs and ponds where their movements attract
+attention.</p>
+
+<p>Study the cricket and house-fly and compare the cricket with the
+grasshopper.</p>
+
+
+<h3>APHIDES</h3>
+
+<p>In September obtain leaves of sweet-pea, apple, rose bush, maple, oak,
+turnip, etc., on which the insects are feeding; also provide specimens
+of woolly aphides on the bark of apple trees or stems of goldenrod or
+alder.</p>
+
+<p>Observe the nature of the injury to the leaves and plants on which these
+insects feed.</p>
+
+<p>Do the insects bite the leaves or suck the juices? Give evidence in
+support of your answer.</p>
+
+<p>Sprinkle paris-green on the leaves; does this kill the insects? Why does
+it not? Spray the insects with a little oil, such as kerosene, or with
+water in which the stub of a cigar has been soaked; what is the effect?</p>
+
+<p>Insects that suck juices from inside the leaf escape the poisoning from
+solutions in the leaf surfaces; such insects are killed by oils which
+enter the breathing pores and cause poisoning.</p>
+
+<p>Search in the garden, orchard, and forest for plants attacked by
+aphides. Carefully observe the lady-birds that are frequently found
+where there are aphides. Lady-birds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> (also called lady-bugs), are small,
+spotted beetles, broad oval in form, of bright colours, red and black,
+or yellow and black, or black and white.</p>
+
+<p>They are of great service to the farmer and gardener because their foods
+consists largely of plant-lice (aphides).</p>
+
+<p>Watch the action of ants which are found among the aphides. The ants may
+be observed stroking the aphides with their feelers, causing the aphides
+to excrete a sweet fluid on which the ant feeds. Aphides are sometimes
+called ant-cows.</p>
+
+<p>Direct the attention of the pupils to the difference between the male
+and female aphides; the males have wings, but the females are wingless.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TOMATO WORM</h3>
+
+<h4>THE ADULT</h4>
+
+<p>The adult moth may be captured on spring evenings when the lilacs are in
+bloom, as it buzzes about among the lilac blossoms sucking their honey.
+It is frequently mistaken for the humming-bird when thus engaged. It may
+also be observed during the summer evenings laying its eggs on the
+leaves of tomato vines.</p>
+
+<p>Observe the worms that hatch from these eggs and note their rapid
+growth. Keep the larv&aelig; in a box in the school-room and feed them on
+tomato leaves. Note their size and colour, the oblique stripes on the
+sides, the horn which is used for terrifying assailants, the habit of
+remaining rigid for hours&mdash;hence the name sphinx moth.</p>
+
+<p>The larv&aelig; burrow into the ground in September to form the chrysalides,
+hence there should be soil in the vivarium in which they are kept.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>THE CHRYSALIS</h4>
+
+<p><b>Observations.</b>&mdash;The shape, colour, nature of the covering, the long
+handle, the wing impressions, the segmental part, the emergence of the
+adult in May or early June.</p>
+
+<p>What organ of the insect was contained in the "handle" of the chrysalis?</p>
+
+<p>The adult is one of the handsomest of moths, because of its graceful,
+clear-cut shape and the variegated grays and yellows of its dress. Look
+on poplar, cotton-wood, plum, and pine trees, and on tobacco plants for
+relatives of the tomato worm, the large green larv&aelig; whose chrysalis and
+adult forms resemble those of the tomato worm.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE CROW</h3>
+
+<p>Crows are so plentiful that there will be no difficulty in making
+observations on the living birds in the free state in spring or summer.
+(As the crow is a bird that is easily tamed, it may be possible to have
+a tame crow in the class-room for more careful study of the details of
+structure.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Observations.</b>&mdash;Describe its attitude when perched, movements of the
+wings in flight, speed of flight. Why does the crow perch high up in
+trees? What gives to the crow its swift flight?</p>
+
+<p>Study the various calls of the crow and note the alarm, threat, summons,
+and expression of fear.</p>
+
+<p>Find the nest and note its position, size, build, materials, eggs, and
+young. How is the nest concealed? What makes it strong?</p>
+
+<p>Are crows often seen on the ground? Do they walk or hop?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Observe and report on the crow's habits of feeding. It eats corn,
+potatoes, oats, beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, cutworms, and
+occasionally birds' eggs or young birds.</p>
+
+<p>Why do king-birds chase and thrash the crow? Are scarecrows effective in
+keeping crows off the grain fields?</p>
+
+<p>Note the sentinels that are on the watch to warn other crows of danger.</p>
+
+<p>Give reasons for the belief that the crow is a wise bird.</p>
+
+<p>Give reasons for regarding the crow as a neighbour of doubtful
+character. Give reasons why crows should be protected.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;Crows will not pull up corn and seed that has been covered with
+coal-tar before it is planted.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the animals already named, the musk-rat, raccoon, fox,
+flying-squirrel, robin, wren, and king-bird will be found convenient for
+study in many localities.</p>
+
+<p>The swimming of the musk-rat, and how its shape, fur, feet, and tail fit
+it for a life in water are topics suitable for observational exercises,
+as are also its food, its winter home, and the burrows leading from the
+water into the banks. In the case of the winter home, the location, the
+structure, the submerged entrance, the living-room, and the surrounding
+moat, are topics of interest.</p>
+
+<h4>CORRELATIONS</h4>
+
+<p>With literature: By reading animal stories, such as, <i>The Kindred of the
+Wild</i> and "Red Fox," by Charles G. D. Roberts; and <i>Wild Animals I Have
+Known</i>, by Ernest Thompson-Seton.</p>
+
+<p>With language: By oral and written descriptions of the animals that have
+been observed.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h3>FORM III</h3>
+
+<h4>WINTER</h4>
+
+
+<h3>CARE OF PLANTS IN THE HOME</h3>
+
+<p>The care of flowering bulbs which was begun in Form I will be continued
+in Form II. The growing of new plants from cuttings will now be taken
+up. In those schools which are kept continuously heated, potted plants
+may be kept throughout the year. The pupils will come to appreciate the
+plant's needs and learn how to meet them in the supply of good soil,
+water, and sunlight. The following points should be observed:</p>
+
+<p>1. Good potting soil can be made by building up alternating layers of
+sods and stable manure and allowing this compost to stand until
+thoroughly rotted. A little sharp sand mixed with this forms an
+excellent soil for most house plants.</p>
+
+<p>2. Thorough watering twice a week is better than adding a little water
+every day.</p>
+
+<p>3. The leaves should be showered with water once a week to cleanse them
+from dust.</p>
+
+<p>4. An ounce of whale-oil soap dissolved in a quart of water may be used
+to destroy plant-lice. Common soap-suds may also be used for this
+purpose, but care should be taken to rinse the plants in clean water
+after using a soap wash.</p>
+
+<p>5. Most plants need some direct sunlight every day if possible, although
+most of the ferns grow without it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>6. Plants usually need re-potting once a year. Many kinds may be set
+out-of-doors in flower beds in May and left until September, when they
+may be taken up and placed in pots, or cuttings made from them for
+potting.</p>
+
+<p>7. A flower exhibition at the school once or twice a year, or at a local
+exhibition, adds to the interest.</p>
+
+<p>8. The pupils should report to the teacher from time to time the
+progress of their plants and make many drawings showing their
+development.</p>
+
+<h4>PLANT CUTTINGS</h4>
+
+<p>The pupils will be interested to know that it is possible to produce new
+plants without waiting for them to grow up from the seed. It will indeed
+be quite a surprise to them to see a new plant complete in all its parts
+grow up from a small piece of stem, root, or even leaf. With a little
+care even children may propagate plants in this way.</p>
+
+<h4>SELECTION OF CUTTINGS</h4>
+
+<p>Begin with some of the common herbaceous bedding-plants, such as
+geranium, coleus, or fuschia. These are such common bedding-plants that
+they are easily obtained in the autumn. Only well-matured stems of the
+season's growth, such as will break with a slight snap when bent, should
+be used.</p>
+
+<p>Let the pupils provide themselves with sharp knives for the lesson, with
+small boxes or pots, and with some moist, clean sand&mdash;not potting soil.
+A few holes should be bored in the bottom of the box, then a layer of
+fine gravel put in to provide for good drainage, and over it layers of
+moist sand. Take a slip or growing end of a stem about three inches in
+length, always cutting it at or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> just below a node, or joint, and
+leaving only a couple of small leaves on the top of the slip. Insert it
+to about half its depth in the box of moist sand. These cuttings may be
+placed a few inches apart in the box, which should then be placed in a
+warm, light room for a few weeks until the roots develop. The cuttings
+should be partly shaded by papers from the strong sunlight, and the sand
+kept slightly moist but not wet. Bottom heat and a moist, warm
+atmosphere hasten their development.</p>
+
+<p>Another very convenient and very successful method of starting cuttings
+is to take a six-inch flower-pot, put two inches of fine gravel in the
+bottom, set a four-inch unglazed flower-pot in the centre, and fill up
+the space around it with sand and garden-loam, mixed. Put a cork in the
+hole in the bottom of the small flower-pot, and then fill it with water.
+Put the cuttings around in the space between the two pots and set in a
+fairly warm room in moderate light.</p>
+
+<h4>POTTING OF ROOTED CUTTINGS</h4>
+
+<p>When the cuttings are well rooted, which requires from three to six
+weeks according to the variety and growth conditions furnished, they
+should be carefully lifted with a trowel and each set in a small pot or
+can. First put in the bottom a few small stones to secure drainage, and
+then a little good potting soil. Set the plant in place and fill in
+around with more soil and pack this firmly around the roots. Keep room
+in the top of the pot for water. When the new plant has made some
+growth, it may be shifted to a larger pot. Geraniums and coleus (foliage
+plants) should not be kept more than two seasons. Take cuttings off the
+old plants and then throw the latter away.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>EVERGREENS</h3>
+
+<p>In December make a study of Canadian evergreens, choosing spruce,
+balsam, and cedar, if available, or substitute hemlock for any one of
+these.</p>
+
+<p>Compare the general features of these trees, such as shape, direction of
+branches, colour, persistence of leaves through the winter.</p>
+
+<p>Have the pupils notice how nature fits these trees to endure the snows
+and storms of winter by:</p>
+
+<p>1. The tapering cone which causes the snow to slide off the tree.</p>
+
+<p>2. The fine, needle-shaped leaves to which only very sticky snow will
+adhere.</p>
+
+<p>3. The very tough, flexible, and elastic branches, which bend in the
+wind and under the weight of snow, but spring back to their old
+positions.</p>
+
+<p>4. The resin in leaves, stems, and buds, which enables the trees to
+resist frost and rain.</p>
+
+<p>Teach the pupils to distinguish these trees by their differences in
+colour and form and also by the differences in their leaves and cones.</p>
+
+<h4>CLASS-ROOM LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>Distribute small twigs of balsam and require the pupils to observe and
+describe the length, shape, and colour of the leaves.</p>
+
+<p>Next distribute small twigs of spruce and require the pupils to compare
+the spruce leaves with those of the balsam in length, shape, and colour.</p>
+
+<p>Next distribute twigs of cedar and proceed similarly.</p>
+
+<p>The cones may be dealt with in a similar manner. Require the pupils to
+make a census of the evergreens of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> the locality, recording the class of
+evergreen, the size, and the use of each kind for shade, ornament, or
+for commercial purposes.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The balsam, spruce, and hemlock are difficult for the
+beginner to distinguish, but this may be done by noting the following
+points of difference in their leaves:</p>
+
+<p>The leaf of the hemlock is the only one that has a distinct leaf-stalk.
+Look for this tiny stalk.</p>
+
+<p>The leaf of the hemlock, like that of the balsam, is flat, but the
+hemlock leaf is much the shorter.</p>
+
+<p>The leaf of the spruce is not flat, but is three-sided or nearly so. Its
+colour is uniform, while the under surface of the hemlock leaf, and also
+of the balsam leaf, is of a decidedly lighter colour than the upper
+surface.</p>
+
+<p>Note that the spruce <i>type</i> is studied; no attempt is made at this stage
+to differentiate the several species of spruce.</p>
+
+
+<h3>COLLECTION OF WOOD SPECIMENS</h3>
+
+<p>During the winter months the boys may prepare specimens of wood for the
+school collection. These specimens should be cut when green, and dried
+afterwards. They should be uniform in length&mdash;not more than six
+inches&mdash;and should show the bark on one side. The side showing the bark
+should be two inches wide at most, six inches long, and running in a
+V-shaped, radial section toward the pith. A tangential section also
+shows well the rounded layers. A piece of slab as cut lengthwise off a
+round stick is tangential. Care should be taken not to mutilate trees in
+taking these specimens. Specimens of rare or foreign woods may be
+obtained at wood-working factories.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>RELATED READING</h4>
+
+<p>Winter is Nature's quiescent period. Continuous active observation in
+the out-of-doors among the plants of the forest and garden gives place
+for a time to indoor work and reflection. Pupils need time for reading
+and reflection, and no time is so opportune as the quiet winter season.
+During these months some time should be devoted to the reading of nature
+stories and extracts from magazines and books dealing with plant as well
+as with animal life.</p>
+
+<p>Pupils should review their gardening experiences and discuss plans of
+improvement for the approaching spring and summer. Let them write
+letters to the Form II pupils of other schools where similar work has
+been carried on, and give some of their experiences in gardening and
+other plant studies, and also in animal studies. A certain Friday
+afternoon might be appointed for hearing the letters read which were
+received in reply. Suitable short poems that have a direct bearing upon
+the outdoor studies should be read from time to time. Good pictures also
+come in here as an aid in helping the pupils to appreciate written
+descriptions. The first-hand observations made by them will form a basis
+for the better and more appreciative interpretation of these literature
+selections.</p>
+
+<p>For Observation Lesson on Weed Seeds, see page 171.</p>
+
+
+<h3>HOW ANIMALS PREPARE FOR WINTER</h3>
+
+<p><b>Introduction.</b>&mdash;Discuss the preparations that people make for winter,
+such as the storing of food and the providing of warmer clothes and
+homes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Method.</b>&mdash;The teacher questions the pupils and encourages them to tell
+what they have learned through their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> own observation of animals. The
+knowledge of the pupils is supplemented by information given by the
+teacher, but the pupils are left to find out more facts by further
+observations. Thus:</p>
+
+<p>Do you ever see ground-hogs out during winter?</p>
+
+<p>What do they feed upon during the winter?</p>
+
+<p>What is the condition of ground-hogs in late summer and in autumn?</p>
+
+<p>What is the use of the great store of fat that they have in their
+bodies?</p>
+
+<p>Examine the snow near the burrows of ground-hogs and find whether they
+ever come out in mid-winter.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The hibernating animals prepare a home or nest and
+lay up a store of food in the form of fat within their bodies. To
+hibernate does not mean the same as to sleep. The hibernating animals
+have much less active organs than the sleeping animals. The heart-beat
+and the respiratory movements are very slow and feeble, consequently a
+very little nourishment suffices to sustain life.</p>
+
+<h4>SUMMARY OF LESSONS</h4>
+
+<p>(Two lessons of twenty minutes)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Some animals migrate:</p>
+
+<p>Examples&mdash;many birds, butterflies, and some bats; the
+cariboo, and buffalo.</p>
+
+<p>2. Some animals hibernate:</p>
+
+<p>Examples&mdash;bear, ground-hog, raccoon, frogs, toads, snakes,
+and some bats.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Note</span>.&mdash;Flies, mosquitoes, and some other insects crawl into
+crevices and remain at rest during winter, but their bodies
+are not stored with food.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. Some animals build houses and store foods:</p>
+
+<p>Examples&mdash;beaver, squirrel, chipmunk, honey-bee, deer-mouse.</p>
+
+<p>4. Some animals build homes convenient to food:</p>
+
+<p>Examples&mdash;musk-rat, field-mouse.</p>
+
+<p>5. Some animals put on warmer clothing:</p>
+
+<p>Examples&mdash;fox, mink, otter, rabbit, horse, cow, partridge,
+chickadee. The rabbit and weasel turn white, a colour
+protection.</p>
+
+<p>6. Many insect larv&aelig; form cocoons or pup&aelig; cases:</p>
+
+<p>Examples&mdash;emperor-moth, codling moth, tomato worm.</p></div>
+
+<h4>CORRELATIONS</h4>
+
+<p>With literature, reading, and language.</p>
+
+<p>With geography: By a lesson on "The influence of climate upon animal and
+plant life."</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHICKENS</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(Consult <i>Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture</i> by
+Robinson. Ginn &amp; Co., $2.00.)</p></div>
+
+<h4>CONVERSATION LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>How many of you keep chickens at your homes?</p>
+
+<p>Why do many kinds of people keep chickens?</p>
+
+<p>What breeds of chickens do you keep?</p>
+
+<p>How many other breeds do you know?</p>
+
+<p>Describe the appearance of a few of the commoner breeds.</p>
+
+<p>Why are there so many different breeds?</p>
+
+<p>Name those that are good laying breeds.</p>
+
+<p>Name breeds that are not usually considered good laying breeds.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;Chickens are kept by all classes of people. Many keep
+them for the profit in eggs and meat, others keep them as a fad, and
+others to gratify a craving for animal companionship. There are one
+hundred and seventy-five recognized breeds, varying in size from that of
+the Japanese bantam weighing ten ounces to that of the huge Brahma which
+weighs fourteen pounds. The shapes and colours present as great a
+variation as the sizes. The breeds that are usually regarded as good
+layers are White Leghorn, Barred Bock, and Rhode Island Red, while the
+Game breeds are usually regarded as poor layers. Careful tests prove,
+however, that there are good laying and poor laying strains in every
+breed, and care must be taken to select from good strains, since the
+breed is not a sufficient guide.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the first lesson, assign to the pupils the task of
+making a chicken census of the district as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. Request each pupil to count the number of hens under two years old at
+his home and also to count the hens that are more than two years old.</p>
+
+<p>2. Request each pupil to find out, if possible, the number of eggs
+obtained at his home during the whole year.</p>
+
+<h4>ARITHMETIC LESSON BASED ON THE CHICKEN CENSUS</h4>
+
+<p>1. Using the data collected by the pupils, calculate the total number of
+chickens under two years old in the district.</p>
+
+<p>Calculate the number over two years old. (The latter are classed as
+unprofitable.)</p>
+
+<p>2. Using the data obtained by the pupils (provided sufficient data was
+obtained to make it reasonably reliable), calculate the average number
+of eggs laid a year by each hen.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. If the data collected by the pupils as to the number of eggs is
+thought to be unreliable, make use of the following:</p>
+
+<p>The average number of eggs laid each year by each hen in Ontario is
+seven dozen. Use this average number, and:</p>
+
+<p>(1) Calculate the value of the eggs produced in this district in a year,
+the average price of eggs being twenty cents a dozen.</p>
+
+<p>(2) If the average production of eggs were increased to ten dozen (a
+number that is easily possible under improved management), find the
+value of the eggs that would be produced in a year, and find the gain
+that would result from this better management.</p>
+
+<p>4. If it costs ninety cents a year to feed a hen, find the net annual
+profit to this district from the egg production.</p>
+
+<h4>CARE OF CHICKENS</h4>
+
+<p>The method of developing conceptions of how to take proper care of
+chickens is based partly upon the pupils' experiences and partly upon a
+knowledge of the history of the original wild hens.</p>
+
+<p>Information can be gathered from the pupils as to the date of hatching
+of the earliest chickens and the date at which the pullets begin to lay.
+Chickens that are hatched in April begin to lay in November or December
+and lay throughout the winter when eggs bring the highest price.</p>
+
+<p>The original wild hens lived in the dry, grassy, and shrubby jungles of
+India. They were free to move about in the open air, and at night they
+perched in the trees, which sheltered them from rain. Hence may be
+inferred what kind of quarters should be provided for chickens.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>CARE AND FOOD OF CHICKENS</h4>
+
+<p>Points developed</p>
+
+<p>Chickens must have plenty of fresh air without draughts.</p>
+
+<p>Heat is not necessary.</p>
+
+<p>Their quarters must be dry, clean, and well lighted.</p>
+
+<p>They require exercise.</p>
+
+<p>Their food must have in it the materials that are needed to make the
+substance of the egg.</p>
+
+<p>Breakfast: Wheat or corn scattered among straw&mdash;the scratching affords
+exercise.</p>
+
+<p>Dinner: Meat scraps, slaughter-house refuse, vegetables, sour milk, and
+rolled oats.</p>
+
+<p>Supper: As at breakfast.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PHYSICAL SCIENCE PHASE OF NATURE STUDY</h3>
+
+<p>The teacher is advised to read carefully the instructions and General
+Method of Experimental Science, Chapter I, before beginning the lessons
+in Physical Science.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND GASES</h3>
+
+<p>Arrange a collection of objects of various shapes, sizes, colours, and
+weights, as cork, glass, lead, iron, copper, stone, coal, chalk. Show
+that these are alike in one respect, namely, that they have a shape not
+easily changed, that is, they are <i>solids</i>. Compare these solids with
+such substances as water, alcohol, oil, molasses, mercury, milk, tar,
+honey, glycerine, gasolene. These latter will pour, and depend for their
+shape on the containing vessel. They are <i>liquids</i>. Compare air with
+solids and liquids. Such a material as air is called a <i>gas</i>. Other
+examples of illuminating<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> gas, and dentists' "gas"; others will be
+studied in future lessons. Pupils may think all gases are invisible. To
+show that some are not, put a few pieces of copper in a test-tube or
+tumbler and add a little nitric acid. Watch the brown gas fall through
+the air; note how it spreads in all directions. Some gases fall because
+they are heavier than air; others rise because lighter. All gases spread
+out as soon as liberated and try to fill all the available space. Spill
+a little ammonia and note how soon the odour of the gas is smelled in
+all parts of the room.</p>
+
+<h4>CHANGE OF STATE</h4>
+
+<p>Heat some lead or solder in a spoon till liquid. Let it cool. Do the
+same with wax.</p>
+
+<p>Heat some water in a flask till it becomes steam. Steam is a gas. Cool
+the steam and form water again. (See distillation.) Refer to lava
+(melted rock), moulding iron, melting ice and snow, softening of butter.</p>
+
+<p>All solids may be changed to liquids and even to gases if sufficiently
+heated. Likewise all gases may be changed into liquids and then to
+solids.</p>
+
+<h4>EXPANSION OF SOLIDS</h4>
+
+<p>In winter pupils may find that the ink is frozen. The teacher directs
+attention to this and inquires why it has occurred. It may be that in a
+lesson on rocks the teacher will ask the pupils to account for all the
+little stones. The following <i>experiments</i> will aim at solving the
+foregoing problems:</p>
+
+<p>1. A brass ball and ring are shown. Pupils handle these and note that
+both are cold and that the ball just passes through the ring. They are
+asked to compare the size of the ball with that of the ring.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. The spirit-lamp is lighted and examined. Pupils hold their hands over
+the flame to note the heat.</p>
+
+<p>3. The ball is heated in the flame for a short time by one of the
+pupils, and felt cautiously. An attempt is made to pass it through the
+ring. How has the ball changed in feeling? In size? How does one know it
+is larger? What has caused these changes?</p>
+
+<p>4. Cool the ball. Feel it. Try to pass it through the ring now. How has
+it changed in feeling? In size? What caused these changes? How does heat
+affect the ball? How does cold affect it?</p>
+
+<p>The teacher may now give the words <i>expand</i> and <i>contract</i>, writing them
+on the black-board and explaining their use. Pupils may then state their
+conclusions: <i>A brass ball expands when heated and contracts when
+cooled.</i></p>
+
+<p>A blacksmith can make the following very serviceable apparatus: A scrap
+of iron about eleven inches long, one inch wide, and one-eighth inch
+thick, has one inch bent up at each end. A rod one-eighth inch in
+diameter is made just long enough to pass between the upturned ends of
+the first piece when both are cold. The rod is heated and the experiment
+conducted as in the case of the ball. Two additional facts are learned:
+(1) Iron expands as well as brass; (2) solids expand in length as well
+as in volume. The pupils may now be told that other solids have been
+tried and expansion has invariably followed heating. The conclusion may
+then be made general.</p>
+
+<h4>PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS</h4>
+
+<p>1. When your ink-bottle was placed on the stove, which end became
+warmer? Which expanded the more. Why then did it crack?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. What other examples like this have you noticed? (Lamp chimneys, fruit
+jars, stove plates)</p>
+
+<p>3. The earth was once very hot and is now cooling. How is the size of
+the earth changing? Does it ever crack? What causes earthquakes?</p>
+
+<p>4. Find out by observation how a blacksmith sets tires.</p>
+
+<p>5. Invent a way to loosen a glass stopper stuck in the neck of a bottle.</p>
+
+<p>6. What does your mother do if the metal rim refuses to come off the
+fruit jar?</p>
+
+<p>7. Next time you cross a railway, notice whether the ends of the rails
+touch. Explain.</p>
+
+<p>8. What allowance is made for contraction in a wire fence? A railway
+bridge? Why?</p>
+
+<p>9. Why do the stove-pipes crack when the fire is first started?</p>
+
+<p>10. Why does the house go "thump" on a very cold night?</p>
+
+<p>11. Draw the ball, ring, and spirit-lamp in position.</p>
+
+<p>12. Describe in writing the experiments we have made.</p>
+
+<h4>QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION</h4>
+
+<p>You have seen that iron and brass both expand. Do they expand equally?
+Let pupils have a few days to invent a way of answering the question.
+The experiment may then be tried with the compound bar. See <i>The Ontario
+High School Physics</i>, pages 217-218, also <i>First Course in Physics</i>,
+Milliken and Gale, page 144.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If the equipment of the school is limited, it may be necessary to
+dispense with the ball and ring and generalize from one experiment.</p>
+
+<p>Another easily made apparatus consists of two iron rings with handles.
+One ring will just pass through the other when both are cold. The stove
+may take the place of the spirit-lamp.</p>
+
+<p>A still simpler plan consists in driving two nails into a block at such
+a distance apart that an iron rod (six-inch nail, poker, bolt, etc.)
+will just pass between. On heating the rod the increase in length
+becomes evident.</p>
+
+<h4>EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS</h4>
+
+<p>Fill a common bottle with coloured water; insert a rubber stopper
+through which passes a glass tube about sixteen inches long. Set the
+bottle in a pan of water and gradually warm the water. The rise of the
+liquid in the tube will indicate expansion. On setting the bottle in
+cold water the fall of the column of coloured water shows contraction.
+See <i>The Ontario High School Physics</i>, page 218, also <i>Science of Common
+Life</i>, page 48. Macmillan Co., 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p>Set the flask or bottle in a mixture of ice and salt and note that the
+extreme cold causes contraction for a while, then expansion. Note that
+when expansion begins, the water has not begun to freeze, but that it
+does so soon after.</p>
+
+<p>The night before this experiment the children should set out in the cold
+air, tightly corked bottles of water. In the morning they will be found
+burst by the expansion.</p>
+
+<h4>APPLICATIONS</h4>
+
+<p>1. Why did some of the ink-bottles burst in the cold room?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. Find large stones split up into two or more fragments. Explain.</p>
+
+<p>3. Why is fall-ploughed land so mellow in spring?</p>
+
+<p>4. Why does ice float? Think what would happen if it did not.</p>
+
+<p>5. Explain the heaving of oats, clover, wheat.</p>
+
+<p>6. Do all liquids expand on freezing? Try melted paraffin.</p>
+
+<h4>THE THERMOMETER</h4>
+
+<p>Besides the ordinary thermometer the school should possess a chemical
+thermometer graduated from 0&deg; Fahrenheit to 212&deg;.</p>
+
+<p>1. Our sensations vary so much under different circumstances and in
+different individuals that they cannot be depended on. Find examples of
+this and show the need of a measuring instrument.</p>
+
+<p>2. The pupils can learn, by examination of the common wall instrument,
+the parts of the thermometer&mdash;tube, bulb, liquid (alcohol or mercury),
+and scale.</p>
+
+<p>3. Repeat the experiment for expansion of liquids, showing wherein the
+apparatus resembles the thermometer, warm the thermometer bulb and watch
+the column rise; cool it and note the fall.</p>
+
+<p>4. Set the bulb of the chemical thermometer in boiling water. The
+mercury comes to rest near 212&deg;. Bury the bulb in melting snow and
+notice that the column falls to 32&deg;. Give names for these points.
+Explain that a degree is one of the 180 equal parts which lie between
+boiling point and freezing-point. Show that 32&deg; below freezing must be
+0&deg;, or zero.</p>
+
+<p>5. The uses of thermometers for indoors and outdoors; for dairy, sick
+room, incubator, and soils; maximum<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> and minimum. Dairy thermometers
+registering 212&deg; Fahrenheit may be obtained; they are cheaper than
+chemical thermometers.</p>
+
+<h4>EXPANSION OF AIR</h4>
+
+<p>Half fill a flask with water and invert it uncorked over water in a
+plate. Apply a cloth soaked in boiling water to the part that contains
+air. Why does the water leave the flask? Apply cold water. Why does the
+water return? Any ordinary bottle may be used in place of the flask, but
+it is more liable to crack.</p>
+
+<p>Make an air thermometer. See <i>The Ontario High School Physics</i>, page
+223, also <i>Science of Common Life</i>, page 41. Try to graduate it from the
+mercurial thermometer. Have the boys make a stand for it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inferences.</i>&mdash;Heated gases rise because they expand. Hot-air balloons,
+winds, and heating with hot-air furnaces, all depend on this principle.</p>
+
+<h4>SOURCES OF HEAT AND LIGHT</h4>
+
+<h4>NOTES FOR A SERIES OF LESSONS</h4>
+
+<p>1. <span class="smcap">The Sun</span>.&mdash;Our dependence on it. Valuable results of its heat. Simple
+notions as to its size, distance, and nature. Our earth catches a very
+small fraction of the sun's heat; our sun is but one of millions&mdash;the
+fixed stars. Show the burning effect of a lens.</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="smcap">Fuels</span>.&mdash;Wood, oil, coal, alcohol, gas, peat, straw: where obtained;
+special uses of each under varying conditions; need of economy. (This is
+closely related to geography.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. <span class="smcap">Electricity</span>.&mdash;In urban schools use the electric light or some heating
+device for illustration. In rural schools a battery of two or three
+cells (see "Apparatus") will melt a fine strand drawn from a picture
+wire.</p>
+
+<p>Applications: ironing, toasting, cooking; advantages or disadvantages
+compared with gas or wood.</p>
+
+<p>4. <span class="smcap">Friction</span>.&mdash;Pupils rub hands together; rub a button on a cloth; saw a
+string across the edge of a board or across the hand; bore a hole
+through a hardwood plank, then feel the auger-bit.</p>
+
+<p>Applications: restoring circulation; "hot-boxes" in machinery;
+lubricants and their uses; lighting matches.</p>
+
+<p>5. <span class="smcap">Pounding</span>.&mdash;Hammer a nail flat on an anvil or stone; feel it. Bullets
+fired against an iron or stone surface may be picked up very hot. Note
+sparks that can be struck from a stone; percussion caps, flint-lock
+muskets.</p>
+
+<p>6. <span class="smcap">Pressure</span>.&mdash;After using a bicycle pump for some time, feel the bottom,
+also the top. If possible, examine an air-compressor and find out the
+means used for cooling the air.</p>
+
+<p>7. <span class="smcap">Sources of Light</span>.&mdash;Sun, moon, oil, tallow, gas, electricity, wax,
+acetylene; advantages of each; relative cost.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Primitive Methods of Obtaining Fire</span>: Most savages obtain fire by
+friction; rubbing two pieces of wood together till hot enough to set
+fire to some dry, light material. The natives of Australia placed a flat
+piece of wood on the ground and pressed against this the end of a round
+piece, which they twirled rapidly with their hands till fire was
+produced. The North American Indians did the twirling with their bow
+strings; the Eskimo's plan is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> somewhat similar. It is impossible to say
+when flint and steel were first used, but we know they continued to be
+the chief means of producing fire till about 1834, when matches were
+invented. Let pupils try to produce fire by these means.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest lamps consisted of shells, skulls of animals, and
+cup-shaped stones filled with fat or fish oils which burned on a wick of
+cloth or the pith of rushes. The Tibetans burn butter, the Eskimos
+whale- or seal-oil, the Arabians palm- or olive-oil. For outdoor
+lighting, torches carried in the hand were used till gas came into
+general use about 1792.</p>
+
+<h4>CONDUCTION</h4>
+
+<p>Give to four boys strips of copper, aluminium, wood, and glass,
+respectively. They hold these by one end and heat the other end till one
+or more are forced to drop the piece on account of the heat. The boys
+with the metals will soon find them hot throughout, but the other two
+will be able to hold on indefinitely. The teacher gives the terms "good
+conductor" and "poor conductor".</p>
+
+<h4>PROBLEMS</h4>
+
+<p>1. Are metals generally good conductors? Try with strips of zinc, lead,
+iron, a silver spoon.</p>
+
+<p>2. Are all good conductors equally good? Devise a means of ascertaining.
+See <i>Science of Common Life</i>, Chapter VI; also <i>The Ontario High School
+Physics</i>, page 274.</p>
+
+<p>3. Is water a good conductor?</p>
+
+<p>Lists of good and poor conductors may then be made, the teacher adding
+to the list. Good: metals; poor: wood,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> horn, bone, cloth, leather, air,
+water, hair, asbestos, ashes, rock, earth.</p>
+
+<h4>PROBLEMS</h4>
+
+<p>1. If the interior of the earth is very hot, why do we not feel it?</p>
+
+<p>2. How can the cold snow keep the earth warm?</p>
+
+<p>3. Why does your hand freeze to metals but not to wood?</p>
+
+<p>4. Let the children try to find other instances: wools or furs for
+clothing, fur coats on northern animals, feathers on birds, down quilts,
+tea cosies, sawdust for packing ice, double windows, wooden handles for
+hot irons, asbestos coating for steam pipes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Miners' Safety-Lamp</span>: This is a most important application of
+conduction. Get from the tinsmith a piece of brass gauze six inches
+square. Raise the wick of the spirit-lamp causing it to give a high
+flame and bring the gauze down upon the flame till it touches the wick.
+Note that the flame does not rise above the gauze. Hold a piece of paper
+above the gauze near the flame and note that it does not take fire. Note
+also that the gauze soon becomes hot. The brass wires conduct the heat
+of the flame rapidly away so that there is not heat enough above the
+gauze to cause combustion. Now roll the gauze into a hollow cylinder,
+pin the edges together, insert a cork at each end, and have a short
+candle fastened to the lower one. Try to light the candle with the lamp
+through the gauze. It is not easily done.</p>
+
+<p>The miner carries a lamp made like this, so that if he should be in the
+presence of the explosive gas, "fire damp", it would not explode because
+of the wire gauze shield.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>CONVECTION</h4>
+
+<p>Water is not a conductor, how then is it heated?</p>
+
+<p>Drop a few pieces of solid colouring matter, (analine blue, blueing, or
+potassium permanganate) into a beaker of cold water. Place the beaker
+over a heater and observe the coloured portion rise.</p>
+
+<p>Wet sawdust will make a good substitute for the colouring matter. A
+sealing jar or even a tin cup will do instead of the beaker. The stove
+or a dish of hot water will take the place of the lamp.</p>
+
+<h4>PROBLEMS</h4>
+
+<p>1. Using a thermometer, see whether the water at the bottom is warmer
+than that at the top while the beaker is being heated.</p>
+
+<p>2. Heat some oil and pour it over the surface of some cold water. Lower
+a thermometer into this. Does the water at the bottom soon become warm?</p>
+
+<p>3. If your kitchen is provided with a hot-water tank, find out what part
+of the tank first becomes warm after the fire is lighted.</p>
+
+<p>4. In bathing, where do you find the coldest water of a pond or still
+river? See <i>Science of Common Life</i>, Chapter VI; also <i>The Ontario High
+School Physics</i>, page 280.</p>
+
+<h4>CONVECTION IN GASES</h4>
+
+<p>A good apparatus may be made by cutting two holes one inch in diameter
+in one side of a chalk box, replace the lid with a piece of glass, place
+a lamp chimney over each hole and a lighted candle under one of the
+chimneys. Hold a piece of smoking touch-paper at each chimney in turn
+and note direction of air current.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>APPLICATIONS</h4>
+
+<p>1. Winds are caused by the rising of air over heated areas, allowing
+cooler currents to take its place. (Geography)</p>
+
+<p>2. Rooms are ventilated by heating some of the air more than the rest,
+thus producing a current. (Hygiene) Winds are nature's means of
+ventilating the earth.</p>
+
+<h4>RADIATION OF HEAT</h4>
+
+<p>This should be taken up as an introduction to dew, frost, winds,
+climate, etc.</p>
+
+<p>1. Make an iron ball hot (the end of a poker will answer). Hold the hand
+a few inches below the iron. Does the heat reach the hand by convection?
+By conduction? By means of suitable questions, lead the pupil to see
+that it is not by convection, for the hand is below the hot object while
+heated air rises; it is not by conduction, for air is one of the very
+poorest conductors; moreover, the heat is felt instantly from the poker,
+but it takes an appreciable time for it to come by conduction and
+convection. We say this heat is <i>radiated</i> from the iron. The velocity
+of radiated heat is about 186,000 miles a second.</p>
+
+<p>2. The above experiment may be varied by bringing the hot iron gradually
+toward the bulb of the air thermometer and noting the greatest distance
+at which it will affect the thermometer.</p>
+
+<p>It is by radiation that the sun's heat and light reach us. We get much
+of the heat of stoves, fire-places, and radiators by the same means.</p>
+
+<p>Why does the earth cool off at night? Why does dew form? Why can no dew
+form on a cloudy night? Why is a mountain top or a desert so cold,
+especially at night?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. Take two tin cans (baking powder boxes will answer) and make holes in
+the lids large enough to admit a thermometer. Blacken one box in the
+flame of an oil lamp. Fill both with boiling water and put in a cool
+place. Test with a thermometer from time to time. Which cools most
+rapidly?</p>
+
+<p>4. Fill the tin cans with cold water, find the temperature, and then
+place them near a hot stove. Which warms faster? Usually dark or rough
+surfaces radiate heat and absorb heat faster than bright or smooth ones.
+An excellent way of testing this is to lay a black cloth and a white one
+side by side on the snow where the sun is shining brightly. The snow
+will melt more rapidly under the black cloth. Painted shingles may be
+substituted for the cloths. Try different colours. The day chosen should
+not be extremely cold.</p>
+
+<h4>PROBLEMS</h4>
+
+<p>1. Why should we have the outside of a tea-kettle, teapot, or hot-air
+shaft of a bright colour? Why should we have stoves and stove-pipes dull
+black?</p>
+
+<p>2. Why does a coat of snow keep the earth warm?</p>
+
+<p>3. Which is the warmest colour to wear in winter? Does this account for
+the colour of Arctic animals?</p>
+
+<p>4. Which is the coolest colour to wear in the hot sun?</p>
+
+<p>5. Gardeners sometimes strew the ground with coal-dust to help ripen
+their melons. Show the value of this.</p>
+
+<p>6. Suggest a method of protecting a wall from the heat of a stove.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<h3>FORM III</h3>
+
+<h4>SPRING</h4>
+
+
+<h3>WINDOW BOXES</h3>
+
+<p>Many garden plants should be started in a box of earth in a warm, sunny
+window. In some schools this can be done with a little care in heating
+on cold nights. Small boxes or grape baskets full of rich sandy loam
+with an inch of gravel in the bottom for drainage may be used. Sow the
+seeds in rows or broadcast. To prevent the soil from drying out too
+quickly, cover the box with a pane of glass. When the plants are up,
+give them plenty of light and not too much warmth. On very mild days set
+them in a warm, sheltered place out-of-doors and bring them in again
+early in the evening. This tends to make them hardy. When about three
+inches high, pick the young plants out and set them in other boxes a few
+inches apart. This moving causes the formation of numerous fibrous roots
+and makes stronger plants.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WINDOW GARDENS</h3>
+
+<p>Window boxes may be used for a whole season on the inside of the
+building in cold weather, and on the outside in warm weather. There is
+almost no limit to the kinds of plants that can be grown in them, but
+they are most suitable for flowers.</p>
+
+<p>Good boxes may be made of dressed lumber so as to fit on the
+window-sill. They should be six inches deep,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> ten inches wide, and the
+required length. They should have a few small holes in the bottom to
+allow excess water to drain off and should be painted dark green or some
+quiet colour. There should be an inch of gravel in the bottom, some
+rotted sods covering this, and then the box filled with rich sandy loam.</p>
+
+<h3>SUITABLE PLANTS</h3>
+
+<p>Some flowers suitable for growing in window boxes outside in summer are
+those of drooping habit: lobelia, Kenilworth ivy, verbena, tropeolum,
+petunia, and sweet-alyssum toward the front, and behind, more erect
+plants, such as geranium, heliotrope, begonia, phlox, and nasturtium.
+The box must not be too much crowded.</p>
+
+<p>For inside and in shady situations the following are suitable:
+tradescantia, parlour ivy, moneywort, vinca smilax, climbing fern,
+asparagus fern, drac&aelig;na, coleus, centaurea, sword fern, and Boston fern.
+For indoor boxes in winter, the following may be used: abutilon,
+calceolaria, cyclamen, violets, primroses, petunias, geraniums, freesia,
+and such foliage plants as drac&aelig;na, cannas, dusty miller, and coleus.
+The following climbing plants may be trained up the window cases:
+asparagus plumosus fern, cobea scandens, smilax, maurandia, and English
+ivy. If drooping or trailing plants are desired, the following may be
+used: oxalis, sweet-alyssum, lobelia, ivy, geranium, Kenilworth ivy, and
+Wandering Jew.</p>
+
+<h4>FERTILIZER</h4>
+
+<p>As the amount of soil is limited and the number of plants that it has to
+support is great, the soil should be made quite rich and should be
+further fertilized from time<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> to time with a little liquid manure. This
+can be best obtained by taking a strong barrel or large keg and filling
+it about half full of water. Then fill an ordinary coarse potato sack
+with cow-stable manure and set the sack in the barrel for a few days. A
+tap in the bottom of the barrel is most convenient for drawing off the
+liquid manure. A little of this will also be found valuable for watering
+dahlias, roses, and other garden plants during the summer.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SOIL STUDIES</h3>
+
+<p>The classes of soil should be reviewed. Pupils should gather examples
+from many places. The samples may be kept in bottles of uniform size and
+should include not only the four types but varieties of each, also
+various kinds of loam.</p>
+
+<h4>EXERCISES AND EXPERIMENTS</h4>
+
+<h4>SOIL CONSTITUENTS</h4>
+
+<p>1. With a sharp spade, cut a piece about twelve inches deep from (1) the
+forest floor, (2) an old pasture field. Note character and order of the
+layers of soil in (1) leaves, humus, loam, sand, or clay; in (2) grass,
+dead grass, humus, loam, sand, or clay. Observe soils shown in railway
+cuttings, freshly dug wells, post holes.</p>
+
+<p>2. Note the effect produced on the soil of a field by (1) leaving it a
+few years in pasture, (2) ploughing in heavy crops, (3) applying
+barn-yard manure. In all these cases vegetable matter is mixed with the
+soil.</p>
+
+<p>3. Dry some good leaf-mould. Throw a handful on the surface of some
+water. The mineral matter sinks, while the vegetable portion remains
+suspended for some time. Try this experiment with gravel, sand, and
+clay. Note<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> that the gravel sinks rapidly, the sand less rapidly, and
+that the clay takes a long time to settle. If the water be kept in rapid
+motion, the finer soils will all remain suspended till motion becomes
+slower. Apply this in geography. The bed of a stream will consist of
+stones if it be swift, of sand if less swift, and of clay if very slow.
+How are alluvial plains formed?</p>
+
+<p>4. Place half an ounce of dry humus on an iron plate or fire-shovel and
+heat strongly in a stove. Note that it begins to smoke and a large part
+smoulders away to ashes; the mineral portion remains. Weigh the part
+left and find what fraction of the humus consisted of vegetable
+material.</p>
+
+<p>Try to find the proportion of vegetable matter in each of the following:
+loams from various sources, sand, clay, gravel. The last three will show
+scarcely any change. This experiment will give rise to some good
+arithmetical problems in fractions.</p>
+
+<h4>WATER IN SOILS</h4>
+
+<p>5. Compare a handful of fresh garden soil with the same soil dried. Note
+the glistening of the fresh soil, also its weight and darker colour. The
+fresh soil admits of packing though no water can be squeezed from it. In
+its best condition, the water of the soil adheres as a film of moisture
+about every particle. Free water is to be avoided since it excludes the
+air from the soil.</p>
+
+<p>6. Equal weights of soils of different kinds and degrees of fineness are
+placed in funnels or in inverted bottles with bottoms removed. Water is
+then slowly added to each until it begins to drop from the lower end.
+From this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> is seen (1) the great value of humus as a water holder, (2)
+the advantage of fine soil over coarse. For retention of water by
+absorption, consult <i>Nature Study and Life</i>, Hodge, page 382.</p>
+
+<p>7. Take two wooden boxes (chalk boxes will do), fill one box with moist
+sand and the other with moist leaf-mould. Weigh the boxes separately and
+leave them for three or four days in a warm room. Weigh again and note
+decrease from evaporation. The sand dries out much faster than the
+humus. Test with clay, gravel, and loam, also with mixtures of these and
+leaf-mould.</p>
+
+<p>8. Take three paint cans; punch holes in the bottoms. Fill each with
+good soil well shaken down. Stand the cans in water till the tops are
+moist, then place them in a warm, dry place. Loosen the soil on the top
+of No. 1 to a depth of one inch; on No. 2 to a depth of two inches;
+leave No. 3 untouched. Find out after a few days which is drying out
+fastest. How may soil be treated so as to lessen evaporation of water?</p>
+
+<h4>DRAINAGE</h4>
+
+<p>9. Gravel and sand allow water to run away rapidly, but where the soil
+is fine or closely packed as in clay soils, under-drains are necessary
+(1) to carry off the surplus water, (2) to allow air to enter the soil,
+(3) to warm the soil (wet soil is colder than dry).</p>
+
+<p>Take two equal-sized tin cans, make several holes in the bottom of one,
+place therein a layer of broken pottery or stones, and fill with good
+soil. Fill the other with similar soil but make no holes for drainage.
+Plant in each can a healthy plant of the same size and kind. Water both
+till the soil is saturated and continue watering every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> two or three
+days for six weeks. Note (1) the progress of the plants, (2) the
+temperature of the soils, (3) which plant has the largest and deepest
+roots. (See <i>Bulletin 174</i>, Ontario Department of Agriculture.)</p>
+
+<p>10. Take five equal-sized boxes, provide for drainage, and fill No. 1
+with wood, earth, or humus, No. 2 with clay, No. 3 with sand, No. 4 with
+a mixture of clay and humus, No. 5 with a mixture of sand and humus.
+Plant corn in each box, set in a warm room, and keep watered for two or
+three weeks. Note in which case growth is most rapid. Set boxes in a dry
+place and cease watering. Which suffers most from the drought? Which
+bakes hardest in the sun? Test the temperature of each after watering
+and standing in the sun for an hour. Sand is warmer than clay, also the
+presence of humus raises the temperature. This item is important, since
+most seeds decay instead of sprouting if the temperature is below 45&deg;
+Fahrenheit.</p>
+
+<p>11. Enumerate the services rendered to the soil by humus.</p>
+
+<p>12. In Experiment 10, let the corn grow for some time and determine
+whether the very rich humus is the best in the end. Sand and clay are
+almost altogether mineral; leaf-mould almost entirely organic; neither
+alone is good, but a mixture gives the best results.</p>
+
+
+<h3>GARDEN WORK</h3>
+
+<p>The boys of this Form should attend to the fertilizing and spading of
+the plots belonging to the girls of their Form. The girls themselves can
+do all the rest of the work, and they should try to keep the plots
+level, uniform in size, and in a straight line. If the corner posts are
+kept<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> in line and the plots made up the exact size, the appearance of
+the garden will be greatly improved.</p>
+
+<p>The pupils are now old enough to make their own choice of flowers and
+vegetables. Very tall growing plants, such as corn and sunflowers, are
+not desirable in individual plots as they shade other plants near them.
+Corn is best grown in a large plot about twenty feet square. The same
+may be said of vines, such as cucumbers, melons, squash, etc. If the
+plots are small, it is better to plant but a single variety, but in
+large plots from two to four varieties may be arranged to advantage.
+Usually rows of vegetables, such as carrots and beets, may be placed a
+foot apart, cabbage about twice that distance, and tomatoes a little
+farther apart than cabbage.</p>
+
+<p>Generally speaking, plants should be placed so that when full grown they
+will just touch, cover the ground completely, and thus prevent the
+growth of weeds.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the young plants appear above the ground, light cultivation
+with rakes and claw-hand weeders should be started, so as to keep weeds
+from growing and at the same time to provide a loose surface or earth
+mulch for conserving the moisture and aerating the soil. Thinning should
+also be begun when the plants are quite small, but it should not all be
+done at once. As the plants increase in size, the best ones should be
+left and the poor ones taken out. In some cases plants thus removed may
+be re-set to fill vacant places.</p>
+
+<h4>TREE SEEDS</h4>
+
+<p>Tree seeds that have been stored over winter should now be planted in
+rows in a small plot. The rows should be a foot apart and the seeds
+quite close together in the row. A cheese-cloth or slat shade should be
+used on this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> plot, as the hot sun is too strong for tree seedlings when
+they first come up. They should have cultivation every week and watering
+in dry weather. Always water in the evening after school, or even later
+when possible.</p>
+
+<h4>TRANSPLANTING</h4>
+
+<p>Pupils in this Form should have practice in transplanting, as well as in
+sowing seed. For this purpose seeds should be started about the first of
+April in hotbeds or window boxes, seedlings transplanted into cold
+frames when two or three inches high, and then set out in the garden in
+the latter part of May when danger of frost is past.</p>
+
+<h4>TRANSPLANTING FLOWERS AND VEGETABLES</h4>
+
+<p>Choose, if possible, a cool cloudy day. Water the plants thoroughly in
+the hotbed or cold frame a few hours before lifting them. Lift them with
+a trowel or small spade, and keep as much earth on their roots as
+possible. With a transplanting trowel, make holes deep enough so that
+the plant will be a little deeper in the soil than before transplanting.
+Unless the soil is moist, a little water put in the hole with the plant
+is beneficial. The evening is considered best for transplanting if the
+weather is clear. If the sun is very hot, the plants should be shaded
+for a few days until the roots become established and begin their work.
+Shingles slanting over the plants from the south side and driven into
+the ground to hold them in position are best. Papers held by means of
+two stones also give good results. The practice of covering them with
+inverted cans is not a good one, as the light is almost completely cut
+off. A few holes in the can would help considerably. Care must be taken
+to pack the earth firmly about the roots.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> Watering again twenty-four
+hours after transplanting is often necessary. If the plant has a leafy
+top, it is best to take off some of the leaves, as they tend to give off
+water more rapidly than the roots can at first take it in.</p>
+
+<h4>TRANSPLANTING TREE SEEDLINGS</h4>
+
+<p>Nuts and other tree seeds collected the previous autumn should now be
+planted in the forestry plots in rows a foot apart. As the seeds may not
+all grow, they may be planted close together in the row and thinned out
+the following spring if necessary. They need some shelter from the sun
+the first summer. In large plots this is provided by means of a slat
+covering, but in a small plot cheese-cloth tacked on strips and fastened
+on corner posts is satisfactory. When a shower comes, this cheese-cloth
+screen should be removed so that the rain may moisten the plot evenly.
+Seedlings may be transplanted from the woods or from the forestry rows
+before the leaves open out.</p>
+
+<h4>BUDDING</h4>
+
+<p>In budding, a slit like the letter T is made in the side of the young
+seedling close to the ground. The bark is raised a little at the point
+where the vertical slit meets the horizontal one, and a bud of desired
+variety with a shield-shaped bit of bark (and perhaps a little wood)
+attached to it is shoved in and the sides of the slit bound down upon
+it. After the bud, or scion, has started to grow, the stock is cut off
+an inch above the point where the bud was inserted. The bud then makes
+rapid growth, and in two years the resulting tree is large enough to set
+in its permanent place in the orchard.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>CUTTINGS</h4>
+
+<p>Pupils in this Form should try to grow such woody plants as roses and
+grapes from cuttings. Roses are frequently propagated by budding, as in
+the case of apples and peaches. They may also be grown upon their own
+roots or from stem cuttings. Such cuttings should be from well-matured
+wood of the present year taken in the autumn and packed in moist sand
+over the winter. Make the cuttings about three inches in length. The top
+end should be cut off immediately above a bud and the bottom end just
+below a bud, as roots seem to start more readily from a node, or bud.
+Such a cutting may have three or four buds of which only the upper two
+need be left. If both of these grow, the poorer one may afterwards be
+removed.</p>
+
+<p>These rose cuttings should then be inserted in a box of clean, moist
+sand to a depth of two inches, kept in a warm room, and shaded with a
+sheet of newspaper when the sun is very bright. Keep the sand moist but
+not wet, and when possible have gentle bottom heat. When roots have made
+some growth, transplant carefully into small flower-pots, using fairly
+rich, clay loam. In a few weeks they will be ready to plant out in the
+garden.</p>
+
+<p>Grape cuttings should be taken late in the fall when the vines are well
+matured. Such a cutting includes only two joints, the upper one being
+the growing end and the lower the rooting end. They must be stored over
+winter in cold, moist sand, but should not be permitted to freeze. As
+soon as the ground can be prepared in the spring, set them out. They
+should be placed on a slant of about forty-five degrees and covered all
+but the top bud.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>LEAF CUTTINGS</h4>
+
+<p>Some plants with large and vigorous leaves, such as many of the
+begonias, may be propagated by means of leaf cuttings. Buds readily
+develop from cuts made in the large veins. Take a full-grown healthy
+leaf and remove the stem all but about half an inch. Make a few cuts
+across the larger veins on the under side of the leaves at points where
+main veins branch. Press the leaf firmly down on the top of a box of
+moist sand with the under side next the sand. Keep the leaf in this
+position, using small stones or little pegs pushed through the leaf into
+the sand. Put the box in a warm room and do not let the sand become dry.
+When roots strike into the sand and buds develop from the points where
+the veins were wounded, take a sharp knife and cut out the new plant
+from the old leaf and transplant it into a small flower-pot in good
+soil. Sink the pot in a box of moist sand to prevent its drying out.</p>
+
+<h4>ROOT CUTTINGS</h4>
+
+<p>Such plants as "sprout from the roots" may be propagated by root
+cuttings. Sections of underground stems may also come under this
+heading, as in the case of horseradish cuttings. But real roots may be
+used for cuttings, as in the case of the blackberry and raspberry. The
+roots should be cut in pieces three or four inches long, planted in a
+horizontal position, and entirely covered with two or three inches of
+soil.</p>
+
+<h4>LAYERING</h4>
+
+<p>Bush fruits, such as currants and gooseberries, are frequently
+propagated by stem cuttings, as in the case of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> roses. Another method,
+which is known as layering, consists in bending one or more of the
+lowest branches down against the ground, fastening it there by means of
+a forked stick, and then covering it with two or three inches of earth.
+The part in contact with the moist earth will send out roots, while one
+or more shoots will come up. When roots and shoots have developed, the
+branch is severed from the parent bush and the new plant set in its
+permanent place. Strawberries exhibit a sort of natural layering.</p>
+
+<h4>PLANTING AND CARE OF HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS</h4>
+
+<p>Perennials grown from seed the previous summer should now be set in
+clumps two or three feet apart in the perennial border or here and there
+beside the fences or walks. The soil should be made fine and fertilized
+with well-rotted manure from the compost heap before setting out the
+young perennials. Dahlias and gladioli which were taken in in the autumn
+should now be set out. The dahlias should be divided and only the best
+roots used. Other perennials that have grown into large clumps should be
+dug up, divided, and re-set in well-fertilized soil.</p>
+
+<h4>GARDEN STUDIES</h4>
+
+<p>Pupils in this Form have now had enough experience in the growing of
+vegetables and flowers to allow them to make intelligent variety tests.
+They should grow some of the less familiar varieties and report on the
+merits of each variety tested. This, however, should not be carried on
+to the exclusion of the well-known standard varieties. Let the pupils
+consult the best seed catalogues available and choose for themselves
+some varieties not already known<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> to them. They should keep a systematic
+record of all varieties grown and the methods used in cultivating,
+fertilizing, etc. The knowledge thus gained will be of value in after
+years, and the homes will also benefit by it.</p>
+
+<h4>BIENNIALS</h4>
+
+<p>The pupils should observe the second year's growth of biennials. A
+special plot in the school garden should be set apart for this purpose.
+Have them plant in it a turnip, a carrot, a beet, a cabbage, or any
+other garden biennial saved over winter for the purpose. If desired, the
+pupils might grow their own seed of these varieties. Notice (1) what
+part of the plant has become enlarged with stored up food and how big it
+is when planted, (2) how this part changes in size and texture as the
+flowers and seeds develop, (3) in what way this extra food seems to have
+been used.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WILD FLOWERS</h3>
+
+<h4>STUDY OF THE TRILLIUM</h4>
+
+<p>The pupils bring the plants for the lesson. There should be a few purple
+trilliums among the white, and some of the plants should have the
+underground parts intact.</p>
+
+<p>Discuss with the collectors their observations on where the trilliums
+grow, the kind of soil, the depth of the root-stocks below the surface,
+the uses of the root-stocks, insect visitors.</p>
+
+<h4>CLASS-ROOM LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>The pupils are directed to examine the plant and flowers and find out
+all the means for attracting insects.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Find out why the purple trillium attracts flies and beetles, while the
+white trillium attracts bees and butterflies.</p>
+
+<p>Look into the top of the flower; what figure do the tips of the six
+flower leaves form?</p>
+
+<p>Using the names calyx and corolla, describe the circle of flower leaves
+as to number, colour, and relative position.</p>
+
+<p>Find the stamens and describe as to number and position; find out how
+the stamens are fitted to ensure that the pollen will get upon the
+visiting insects.</p>
+
+<p>Find the pistil and describe its shape. How is the stigma fitted for
+receiving the pollen that is carried by the insect visitors.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The trilliums attract insects by their large white
+and purple flowers, which are held up by their long stalks high above
+the three broad leaves. The strong carrion-like odour of the purple
+trillium is attractive to flies and beetles, while bees and butterflies
+find the fragrance of the white trillium more to their liking.</p>
+
+<p>The root-stock serves as a buried store of food to tide the plant over
+the drought of late summer and the severe cold of winter. The
+well-stocked cellar also explains the flourishing condition of the plant
+in early spring. The six stamens stand on close guard around the pistil,
+and insects forcing their way to the nectaries are well peppered with
+pollen.</p>
+
+<p>Continue the observation work by means of field exercises such as the
+following:</p>
+
+<p>What change takes place in the colour of the white trillium as it grows
+old?</p>
+
+<p>Find the ripened seed pods of the trillium, open them, count the number
+of chambers, and examine the seeds.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Do trilliums grow from the same root-stock year after year?</p>
+
+<p>As correlations, represent the trillium in colour and design an
+embroidery pattern based on it.</p>
+
+<p>Lessons similar to that on the trillium may be based on adder's tongue,
+Indian turnip, Dutchman's breeches, violet, and clover.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ADAPTATIONS OF ANIMALS</h3>
+
+<p>It is not considered necessary to go outside the list of ordinary
+animals to find sufficient illustrations of adaptations, and it is
+recommended that attention be given to these during the study of animals
+prescribed for the regular Course. This may be supplemented by an
+occasional review of adaptive features for the purpose of emphasizing
+the general fitness of animals for their varied habits and surroundings.
+Care must be taken lest the attempt to explain structures by adaptation
+be carried to an extreme, for it is impossible to account for all the
+variations in animal forms.</p>
+
+<p>The following list contains a few of the many examples of adaptations to
+be met with in the Course prescribed for Forms II and III.</p>
+
+<p>The horse walks and runs on the tips of its toes; this gives greater
+speed.</p>
+
+<p>Wild animals of the cow and deer kind can swallow their food hastily so
+that they may retire to a safe retreat; there they regurgitate the food
+and chew it. The domesticated animal retains this habit, though there is
+no longer a need for it.</p>
+
+<p>The wood-hare's fur is brown in summer, hence its enemies cannot see it
+against the brown grass and moss;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> in winter its colour is white, which,
+against the snow, is a protective colour.</p>
+
+<p>The porcupine is very slow, but its colour and shape make it almost
+impossible to distinguish from a knot on a log. Its quills form an
+effective protection when it is discovered.</p>
+
+<p>The feet of the squirrel are adapted for climbing and its teeth for
+gnawing wood and for opening nuts. The tail serves as a balancing pole
+for leaping from tree to tree and in winter it acts as a protection from
+cold.</p>
+
+<p>The earthworm's shape and movements are suited to its habits of
+burrowing through the soil. Its habits of swallowing the soil fit it for
+burrowing and for obtaining its food at the same time.</p>
+
+<p>Many insect larv&aelig;, as the tomato worm and the cabbage-worm, are of the
+same colour as the plants on which they feed, and this enables them to
+escape detection by birds.</p>
+
+<p>The larv&aelig; of dragon-flies and May-flies breathe in water by means of
+gills very much as fishes do, but the adult forms are suited for
+breathing in air.</p>
+
+<p>Female birds are usually dull gray or mottled, so that their colours
+blend with their surroundings while they are nesting, and hence they do
+not attract the notice of their enemies.</p>
+
+<p>Birds that swim have webbed feet, which act as oars for pushing them
+through the water. Their feathers are compact and soft for warmth, and
+these properties, together with oil on their surfaces, make them
+waterproof.</p>
+
+<p>The tongue of the woodpecker is long, spear-shaped, and sticky; hence it
+is adapted for catching insects in the holes pecked into the wood.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The tongue of the toad is fastened at the front end, so that a flap can
+be shot out for more than an inch in front of the animal, thus enabling
+it to catch insects on its sticky surface.</p>
+
+<p>The toes of the frog are webbed to make them more serviceable in
+swimming.</p>
+
+<p>The tail of the musk-rat is strong and broad like the blade of an oar
+and serves the same purpose as an oar.</p>
+
+<p>The tail of the fish is more serviceable for swimming than legs would
+be.</p>
+
+
+<h3>BIRD TYPES</h3>
+
+<h4>WOODPECKERS</h4>
+
+<p>Woodpeckers are easily distinguished from other birds by their habit of
+perching in a vertical position on the trunks of trees with the tips of
+their tails pressed against the bark. While in this position, they tap
+upon the tree with their sharp, pointed beaks.</p>
+
+<h4>THE DOWNY WOODPECKER</h4>
+
+<p>Learn to recognize the smallest of our woodpeckers, the Downy. Winter or
+summer it may be found among the apple trees and shade trees, a tiny
+black and white bird little bigger than a wren.</p>
+
+<h4>OBSERVATIONS</h4>
+
+<h4>I</h4>
+
+<p>Why is "checkerboard" a good name for this bird?</p>
+
+<p>Are there any distinct lines of white?</p>
+
+<p>Are there any patches of red?</p>
+
+<p>Do its movements reveal energy or listlessness?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>How does it move up a tree trunk?</p>
+
+<p>How does it move down a tree trunk?</p>
+
+<p>Find out how it can hold so firmly to the trunk.</p>
+
+<p>Does it use its sharp beak as a drill or as a pick?</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The downy is spotted black and white, with barred
+wings and a white line down the centre of the back. A bright scarlet
+crown is the colour distinction of the male. This little bird is the
+embodiment of energy and perseverance. It hops nimbly up the trunk,
+tapping here and there with its beak, and then listening for the
+movements of the disturbed wood-borers. If it wishes to descend, it
+wastes no time in turning around, but hops backward down the trunk, or
+jumps off and flies down.</p>
+
+<h4>II</h4>
+
+<p>Examine an apple tree upon which a downy has been at work and find out
+what it was doing there.</p>
+
+<p>Do you find the birds in pairs during winter? During summer? Distinguish
+the male from the female.</p>
+
+<p>Tie a beef bone with scraps of meat adhering to it to a tree. What birds
+come to it?</p>
+
+<p>Find the nest of the downy and describe the nest and the eggs.</p>
+
+<p>Do the holes made by the downy injure the trees?</p>
+
+<p>Why should the downy be welcomed in our orchards?</p>
+
+<p>Describe the sounds made by the birds.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;Discuss the pupils' answers to the above problems in
+the class lesson, using a picture of a woodpecker to illustrate the
+features of the bird that adapt it for its habits. Examples: the
+straight, sharp beak suited for drilling; the two backward, projecting
+toes for perching; the spines on the tips of the tail feathers to act as
+a prop.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The downy woodpecker is very useful in the orchard, because it destroys
+great numbers of larv&aelig; of the tussock-moth and other insects. The holes
+made in the bark have never been found to injure the trees. The nest is
+made in a hollow tree, the entrance to it being almost perfectly round
+and about one and one-quarter inches in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The downy woodpecker has a very unmusical voice, but fortunately he is
+aware of this deficiency, and his only attempt at music is drumming with
+his beak upon a hollow limb or tree.</p>
+
+<p>The hairy woodpecker, redheaded woodpecker, flicker, and yellow-bellied
+woodpecker (sapsucker) are other varieties which visit the orchards and
+are suitable for lessons similar to these on the downy woodpecker. They
+are all beneficial birds.</p>
+
+<h4>FLYCATCHERS</h4>
+
+<p>Members common to this class are: king-bird; house-phoebe, wood-phoebe,
+or pewee; whip-poor-will; least fly-catcher; giant fly-catcher.</p>
+
+<p>Direct the observations of the pupils to the following type features:</p>
+
+<p>Brownish or grayish colours; fringe of long bristles around the mouth
+(explain their use); whistling notes, varying with the different members
+of the family; habit of jumping from the perch, catching an insect while
+on the wing, and returning to the spot from which the flight began;
+nests, chiefly of mud built in a protected place, as under a bridge,
+ledge of rock, or projecting log.</p>
+
+<h4>WRENS</h4>
+
+<p>The house wren may be studied as a type. Observe its brownish colour,
+faintly mottled; its small size and energetic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> movements, its tail
+turned nearly vertically upward. Observe and report on other wrens,
+noting any differences.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CABBAGE-BUTTERFLY</h3>
+
+<p>Have a plant of wild mustard or a cabbage growing in a pot. In June,
+have the pupils, by means of the insect net, catch a number of the white
+butterflies, the adults of the cabbage-worm.</p>
+
+<p>Place the butterflies in jars or bottles and observe them. Make drawings
+of them.</p>
+
+<p>Direct the attention of the pupils to the difference between the wings
+of the male and those of the female. The former has only one dark spot
+on the front wing, while the female has two spots on this wing.</p>
+
+<p>Release the males and put the females in a vivarium with the potted
+plant. (A pasteboard box, with a large piece cut out and the opening
+covered with gauze, makes a good substitute for a vivarium in this
+case.)</p>
+
+<p>Observe the laying of the eggs. How many are placed at one spot? How are
+the eggs protected? The eggs may be gathered from the cabbage plants in
+the garden.</p>
+
+<p>Observe and record the hatching of the tiny worm, its feeding, growth,
+forming of chrysalis, development into adult.</p>
+
+<p>Frequently little yellow silken cocoons are found in vivaria where
+cabbage-worms are kept; these are cocoons of a parasite (braconid) that
+infests the worm.</p>
+
+<p>Because of the ease with which the cabbage-butterfly may be obtained and
+the rapidity of its development in the various stages, it is very
+suitable as a type for the study of metamorphosis.</p>
+
+<p>The sulphur, or puddler (called by the latter name because of its habit
+of settling in groups around the edges<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> of the water holes), is also a
+suitable type. The larv&aelig; in this case must be fed on clover.</p>
+
+<h4>THE TUSSOCK-MOTH</h4>
+
+<p>Begin the study of this insect in June and July by observing the larv&aelig;
+feeding on the foliage of the horse-chestnut and other shade trees, and
+direct attention to their destructiveness.</p>
+
+<p>In observing the larv&aelig;, note the size, movements, legs, colour, coral
+red head, tufts of hair on the back, and the three long plumes.</p>
+
+<p>Watch the birds among the trees to discover whether they eat the larv&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>Of what use are the tufts of hair? Do the larv&aelig; feed by biting or by
+sucking? Describe the damage done by the larv&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>Collect a number of these larv&aelig; and place them in the vivarium with some
+twigs of horse-chestnut. Observe the spinning of the cocoon and, about
+two weeks later, look for the emergence of the adult moths.</p>
+
+<p>Observe the two kinds of insects. Describe each. Are there any
+differences in the cocoons from which they emerge?</p>
+
+<p>Which form of insect places the egg mass and is therefore the female?
+Note the number and shape of the eggs and how they are protected.</p>
+
+<p>The female moths have no wings and do not move far from the cocoons from
+which they emerge, while the males have the power of flight.</p>
+
+<p>As outdoor work, look for the egg masses on trees and fences and devise
+means of combating the tussock-moth.</p>
+
+<p>Gathering and destroying the egg masses during the winter is found to be
+fairly effective in checking these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> insects. Since the cocoons
+frequently contain parasites that prey upon the larv&aelig;, it is advisable
+that only the cocoons that have egg masses attached to them should be
+destroyed; the others are harmless and may contain the useful parasites.</p>
+
+<p>The egg masses may be kept over winter in a box in a cool place, and the
+hatching of the tiny larv&aelig; and their subsequent rapid growth observed.</p>
+
+<h4>POTATO BEETLE</h4>
+
+<p>The eggs of this beetle may be found in early summer in clusters on the
+under surfaces of the leaves of potato plants.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Egg</span>.&mdash;Observe the size, colour, shape, position, and number in a
+cluster; appearance of head from outer end after a week.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Larva</span>.&mdash;Observe the colour, shape, head, legs, voracious appetite,
+movements, rapid growth, destructiveness.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pupa</span>.&mdash;Observe the larv&aelig; disappear from the plants; a search underground
+reveals the resting stage, or pup&aelig;. After ten days, the adult beetles
+emerge.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Adult</span>.&mdash;Observe the colour, the hard shell covering the head; the hard
+outer wings and membraneous inner wings; the hard shell on the under
+surface of the body; the feelers, and legs.</p>
+
+<p>Why will spraying with a poison, such as paris-green, kill these
+insects?</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<p>Dearness: <i>How to Teach the Nature Study Course Stories in Agriculture,
+Bulletin No. 124.</i></p>
+
+
+<h3>FISH</h3>
+
+<p>The Nature Study lessons must be based upon observations of the living
+fish, preferably in May or June, September<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> or October. The best place
+for this is on the bank of a clear stream from which it is possible to
+observe the fish in their natural environment. Here their life
+activities, their struggles, their conquests, and silent tragedies are
+enacted before the eyes of the observer. Many observations may be made
+in this way which will create a life-long interest in these reticent,
+yet active creatures. Since this method of study is practicable in but
+few cases, the study of the living fish in the aquarium is the best
+available substitute.</p>
+
+<p>The teacher or the boys of the class can catch a few fish of three or
+four inches in length and carry them in a jar of water to the aquarium.
+Minnows, chub, perch, catfish, or other common forms will do.</p>
+
+<h4>OBSERVATIONS</h4>
+
+<h4>I</h4>
+
+<p>The general shape, and the suitability of the shape for swimming.</p>
+
+<p>The surface of the body and the protection it affords. Note the scales
+and the slime, the latter a protection against the growth of fungi, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The gills&mdash;two openings behind the flaps at the rear of the head. The
+colours, and their value in concealing the fish. The dark upper surface
+makes it inconspicuous from above; the light under surface blends with
+the shadow and dims it.</p>
+
+<p>The divisions of the body&mdash;head, trunk, and tail.</p>
+
+<p>Movements of the fish and the part that the various fins play in these
+movements.</p>
+
+<p>Note that the broad tail fin is the most useful fin for locomotion, the
+others act as balancers or as brakes, or for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> causing currents of water
+near the gills. Observe the movements of the pair of fins nearest the
+gills, the movements of the mouth, and the currents of water entering
+the mouth and passing through the gill slits. When a fish is kept in a
+very small quantity of water, observe the effect produced on the
+movements of the mouth and gill flaps. What are the uses of these
+movements? The pupils will thus discover the nature of the respiration
+of the fish. Why do fish die if many are kept in a jar of water?</p>
+
+<h4>II</h4>
+
+<p>By supplying various foods learn what kinds are preferred. Find in the
+actions or habits of the living fish evidences of a sense of smell, of
+sight, of hearing, and of taste.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all the following points of detailed study can be observed from
+the living fish: shape; size; tongue; teeth; gill slits leading from the
+mouth to the gills; nostrils, number and position; eyes, absence of
+eyelids; fins, size, build; the arrangement of the scales.</p>
+
+<h4>PROBLEMS</h4>
+
+<p>Why does the fish require a large mouth?</p>
+
+<p>How are the eyes protected? Compare the shape of the eye with the shape
+of the eye of a land animal.</p>
+
+<p>Why are there no openings from the surface directly into the ears? Show
+the suitability of the fins as organs of locomotion in water.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<p>Silcox and Stevenson: <i>Modern Nature Study</i></p>
+
+<p>Nash: <i>Fishes of Ontario</i> (from Department of Education, free)</p>
+
+<p>Kellogg: <i>Elementary Zoology</i></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+
+<h3>FORM IV</h3>
+
+<h4>AUTUMN</h4>
+
+
+<h3>GARDEN WORK</h3>
+
+<p>The regular work of cultivation of garden and experimental plots should
+be carefully attended to. Pupils in this Form should be able to do all
+kinds of garden work with a good deal of proficiency. The work of
+selecting the best flowers for seed production should be continued.
+These should be used for planting in the school garden and in home
+gardens as well. This part of the work might be left to the girls. The
+boys should be encouraged to take up the systematic selection of seed
+grain. To get good seed to start with, two methods may be used:</p>
+
+<p>1. Decide upon the kind of grain to be selected and choose from one of
+the best fields a hundred of the best heads&mdash;those that are vigorous,
+clean, free from rust or smut, and standing up straight. When the heads
+are dried a little, shell the grain off them and preserve it in a jar in
+a cold, dry place until spring.</p>
+
+<p>2. Take a quart of oats and pick it carefully, keeping only the largest
+and most plump kernels. Keep this for spring planting. At the same time,
+a sample of the poorer grains should be kept for comparison. A regular
+system of selection should be followed from year to year, taking enough
+of the largest, brightest, and most compact heads from the plot each
+autumn to sow a plot of equal size the next spring. After the selection
+of heads has been made,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> the remainder of the crop may be harvested, and
+the grain from this known as general crop from hand-selected seed of the
+first, second, third year, etc. If the value per acre is required, the
+plots should be made of a certain size easy to compute, such as one rod
+square or one rod by two rods. (10-1/2 ft. by 21 ft. is about 1/200
+acre.) Samples of each crop should be kept in uniform bottles and
+labelled; for example&mdash;"From selected heads of 1911". The yield per acre
+in the plot from which the selected heads came should also be noted.
+These will be interesting for purposes of comparison and for testing
+duration of vitality later. If the same amount of grain is used in
+planting a plot each time, the change in bushels per acre may be
+ascertained and also in pounds per bushel. Some of the boys in this Form
+may wish to continue this work of improvement by selection and, if so,
+they should communicate with the Secretary of the Canadian Seed Growers'
+Association, Canadian Building, Ottawa, and receive full instructions to
+enable them to carry on their work practically as well as
+scientifically.</p>
+
+<h4>HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS FROM SEED</h4>
+
+<p>The teacher should encourage the growing of herbaceous perennials for
+the purpose of beautifying the school grounds. Many plants may be
+started from seed at the school and given to the pupils for home
+planting. These plants require but little attention and provide
+excellent bloom in gardens and home grounds from early in spring before
+annuals are in bloom, on into the autumn. A list of the best varieties
+will be found in Circular 13, on <i>Elementary Agriculture and
+Horticulture</i>, a copy of which should be in every school. The seed plot
+should be fertilized and prepared in the usual way, and the seeds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>
+planted before the first of September. They may be started in June also,
+in which case they make more growth before winter. The plot should be
+well fertilized with thoroughly rotted manure and, if the soil is very
+dry, the plot should be well watered the day before the seeds are
+planted. The seeds are usually quite small and should be covered very
+lightly. The plot should be protected from the hot sun by means of
+cheese-cloth tacked on a frame. The plants should be watered twice a
+week in dry weather. In the late autumn, when the ground freezes, the
+plot should be covered with leaves or straw and some boards, which
+should be removed when the frost comes out in the spring.</p>
+
+
+<h3>DECIDUOUS TREES</h3>
+
+<p>Before the pupils of this Form leave school they should be able to
+recognize, by name as well as by sight, all of the species of trees
+found in their vicinity. To this end the teacher should help them to
+prepare an inventory of species of trees, shrubs, and vines of the
+vicinity. They should learn to distinguish the different species of
+maples, elms, birches, etc. A named collection of leaves helps
+materially in doing this. The influence of environment upon the growth
+and shape of trees and how trees adapt themselves to the conditions in
+which they live is a most interesting and profitable study, demanding
+careful observation, reflection, and judgment.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<p>Muldrew: <i>Sylvan Ontario.</i> Briggs.</p>
+
+<p>Keeler: <i>Our Native Trees.</i> Scribners' Sons. $2.00.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>TREES IN RELATION TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT</h4>
+
+<p>Consider the influences at work and their effect under the following
+heads:</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="smcap">Character of the Soil and Subsoil</span>.&mdash;It may be gravelly, pure sand,
+sandy loam, clay or clay loam, muck or humus, shallow or rocky, and the
+subsoil may be sand, clay or hard clay with stones (hard-pan). Notice
+what species are most common in each kind of soil.</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="smcap">Water Supply</span>.&mdash;What species are found naturally in moist ravines or
+along the margins of rivers and lakes, in bogs or swamps, on dry, sandy
+plains, or rocky hillsides. Consider also the rainfall.</p>
+
+<p>3. <span class="smcap">Exposure to Sunlight</span>.&mdash;Account for the lack of symmetry in the shapes
+of trees. Branches grow only where their leaves can get the light.
+Account for the pith in many tree stems not being in the geometric
+centre. Account for the rapid growth in height made by young trees in
+the woods. Their light supply is chiefly from above, and they stretch up
+toward it as rapidly as possible. Dim light causes rapid growth at the
+expense, however, of strength of tissue, but as these young trees are
+protected in the woods from the strain of wind storms, their slimness
+and lack of toughness is a benefit rather than a hindrance to them.
+Also, the limbs near the ground die off while the trees are still young
+and small, giving us the clear timber tree, free from large knots, tall
+and straight. Make further application of this principle of light in
+relation to the planting of trees for shade and for wood or lumber.
+Account for the large size of the leaves of young trees in the dimly
+lighted woods as compared with the leaves of older trees. The principle
+of rapid growth in dim light is seen here also. It will be noticed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> that
+the large leaves of the young trees are more thin, soft, and flexible.</p>
+
+<p>4. <span class="smcap">Wind</span>.&mdash;Observe the tops of tall trees that have always been exposed
+to a strong prevailing wind as, for instance, those growing on the tops
+of hills or the eastern shore of a lake which has a prevailing west
+wind. The tops lean in the direction in which the prevailing wind blows.
+Does strong wind help or hinder the growth of a tree? Examples of
+stunted trees on wind swept hills or shores readily show this. It will
+be seen also that the higher branches are poorest on the side most
+exposed to the wind.</p>
+
+<p>5. <span class="smcap">Suitability of the Species to the Climate</span>.&mdash;Observe that some trees
+retain their leaves much later in the autumn than do others. The beech,
+hickory, red oak, and chestnut are good examples. These are on the
+northern extreme of their territory of growth. The tree best suited to a
+rigorous climate is the one that finishes its work early in the autumn
+and has all its tissues well matured before cold weather sets in.
+Examples: maple, elm, birch, and willow.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FRUITS</h3>
+
+<h4>EXCURSION TO A WELL-KEPT ORCHARD</h4>
+
+<p>If the teacher can arrange to take the pupils to see a well-kept orchard
+about the time of the apple harvest, it will help to arouse interest in
+the study of fruits. The trees, as well as the fruit, frequently show
+distinguishing marks whereby they may be identified. Have the pupils
+notice the following points: general shape of tree, colour of bark,
+shape of leaf, method of cultivation, fertilizing, pruning and grafting,
+spraying and its need, orchard pests, method of picking and packing
+apples in barrels and boxes for market.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>SMALL FRUITS</h4>
+
+<p>Study the method of propagating strawberries and such bush fruits as
+currants, gooseberries, raspberries, and blackberries. Reports issued
+from the Fruit Division of the Experimental Farm at Ottawa give
+information regarding the best varieties suitable for different parts of
+Ontario and Quebec. Have the pupils try propagating strawberries by
+taking the stolons or runners; currants and gooseberries, by means of
+layers or stem cuttings; and raspberries or blackberries, by root
+cuttings or the detaching of root shoots or suckers. Stem and root
+cuttings, when taken in the autumn, may be planted at once or may be
+stored in damp moss or sand in a cold cellar over winter. Stem cuttings
+should be about the size and length of a lead-pencil and root cuttings
+about half that size.</p>
+
+
+<h3>AUTUMN WILD FLOWERS</h3>
+
+<p>Observations made with garden flowers should be supplemented by
+observation lessons on a few selected wild flowers of the woods, fields,
+and roadsides. Although the spring months afford a much greater variety
+of wild flowers than do the autumn months, they do not afford quite as
+good an opportunity for finding and studying them. The woods and fields
+are drier and more easily reached in the autumn and the fall flowers
+last much longer. Some of the species seen blooming in spring and early
+summer are now in fruit and scattering their seed, so that the pupils
+have a chance to follow out the whole life history of a few chosen
+species. The pupils in this Form might select for special study the
+milkweed, worm-seed mustard, wild aster, and goldenrod. These should be
+observed out-of-doors, preferably, but suitable class-room lessons may
+be taught by using similar matter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>MILKWEED</h4>
+
+<p>Taking the milkweed as a type, the following points are to be
+considered:</p>
+
+<p>The kind of soil, where found, and whether in sun or shade.</p>
+
+<p>Try to pull up a small-sized plant. Dig one up and notice the
+underground part.</p>
+
+<p>Note the size of the largest plant seen, also the size of the leaves,
+and how they are arranged to prevent overshadowing.</p>
+
+<p>Break off a leaf and note the white sticky juice, whence the name
+"milkweed". Discuss this milk as a protection to the plant.</p>
+
+<p>Note time of first and last flowering of the plant and the colour and
+odour of the flowers. Watch insects gathering honey on a bright day.
+Note the little sacks of pollen that cling to their feet. They sometimes
+get their feet caught in little slits in the flower and perish.</p>
+
+<p>After the flowers disappear, note the forming of the little boat-shaped
+pods in pairs. Select one that is ripe and notice that it bursts along
+one side which is most protected. Open a pod carefully and notice how
+beautifully the flat, brown seeds are arranged in overlapping rows and
+how each seed has a large tuft of silky down that serves to carry it far
+away in the wind. This silk-like down is sometimes used to stuff
+cushions, and because of it the plant is sometimes called silk weed.</p>
+
+<p>One species of butterfly in particular feeds upon this plant&mdash;the
+monarch, or milkweed, butterfly. This is one of the few butterflies that
+birds do not eat. It is protected by a distasteful fluid. Look on the
+under side of the leaves of several plants until you find a pretty, pale
+green cocoon with golden dots, hanging by a thread-like<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> attachment.
+Early in the season the larv&aelig; may be found feeding on the leaves.</p>
+
+<p>This plant is troublesome in some fields and gardens and so is classed
+as a weed. When the stems come up in the spring, they are soft and
+tender and are sometimes used as pot herbs.</p>
+
+<h4>CORRELATIONS</h4>
+
+<p>Draw a leaf, a flower, a pair of pods, and a seed with its tuft.</p>
+
+<p>Write an account of a visit to the woods to study wild flowers.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TREES</h3>
+
+<p>A study of the pines of the locality may be commenced in November, after
+the deciduous trees have lost their leaves and have entered their
+quiescent winter period. This is the time when the evergreens stand out
+prominently on the landscape, in sharp contrast with the other trees
+that have been stripped of their broad leaves and now look bare and
+lifeless. If no pines are to be found in the vicinity, cedar or hemlock
+may be substituted. The lessons should, as far as possible, be
+observational. The pupils should be encouraged to make observations for
+themselves out of school. At least one lesson should be conducted
+out-of-doors, a suitable pine tree having been selected beforehand for
+the purpose. The following method will serve as a guide in the outdoor
+study of any species of tree:</p>
+
+<h4>THE WHITE PINE</h4>
+
+<p>Have the pupils observe the shape and height of the tree from a distance
+and trace the outline with the finger. Compare the shape of this tree
+with others near by of the same species and then with members of other
+species.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> Have the pupils describe in what particulars the shapes differ
+in different trees. They will come to realize that the difference in
+shape results from differences in length, direction, and arrangement of
+branches. They may notice that other evergreens resemble the pine in
+that the stems are all straight and extend as a gradually tapering shaft
+from the bottom to the top, that all have a more or less conical shape,
+and that the branches grow straight out from the main stem and not
+slanting off as in the case of the maples and elms.</p>
+
+<p>Coming close to the tree, the pupils may first examine the trunk. By
+using a string or tape-line, they may find out how big it is around and
+the length of the diameter. Tell them how big some evergreens are (the
+giant trees of the Pacific Coast are sometimes over forty feet around).
+Have them notice where the trunk is largest, and let them find out why a
+tree needs to be so strong at the ground. Heavy wind puts a great strain
+on it just at this point. Illustrate by driving a long slat or lath into
+the ground firmly: then catching it by the top, push it over, and it
+will break off just at the ground. If a little pine tree could be taken
+up, the pupils would be interested in seeing what long, strong, fibrous
+roots the pine has.</p>
+
+<p>Let them examine the bark of the trunk and describe its colour and
+roughness. The fissures in the bark, which are caused by the enlarging
+of the tree through the formation of new wood under the bark, are deeper
+at the bottom of the tree than at the top&mdash;the tree being younger and
+the bark thinner, the nearer to the top we go. How old is the very top,
+down to the first whorl of branches? How old is the stem between the
+first and second whorls? Between the third and fourth? Let the pupils
+find out in this way the age of a little pine that is regular and
+unbroken. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> whorls of branches near the ground are usually small and
+dead in young trees and in old trees have completely disappeared. Relate
+the size of the trunk to its age, and also relate the size and length of
+the branches to their age. Where are the youngest branches and how old
+are they? What branches are oldest? Notice how the branch is noticeably
+larger just where it joins the trunk, as this is the point of greatest
+strain. Are the branches the same length on all sides of the trunk? If
+not, find one where branches are shorter on one side than on the other
+and try to discover the cause. Usually, if other trees are near enough
+to shade a certain tree, the branches are shorter and smaller on the
+shaded side.</p>
+
+<p>Let the pupils look up into the tree from beneath and then go a little
+distance away and look at it. They will notice how bare the branches are
+on the inside, and the teacher will probably have to explain why this is
+so. They will discover that the leaves are nearly all out toward the
+ends of the branches. The leaves get light there while the centre of the
+tree top is shaded, and the great question that every tree must try to
+solve is how to get most light for its leaves. The pupils will now see
+an additional reason why the lower limbs should be longer than the upper
+ones. The greater length of the lower limbs brings the leaves out into
+the sunlight.</p>
+
+<p>Why this tree is called an evergreen may now be considered. Why it
+retains its leaves all winter is a problem for more advanced classes,
+but if the question is asked, the teacher may get over the difficulty by
+explaining to the class that the leaves are so small and yet so hardy
+that wind and frost and snow do not injure them.</p>
+
+<p>The pupils may each bring a small branch of twig back to the
+school-room, if the white pine is growing commonly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> about, otherwise the
+teacher may provide himself with a branch upon which to base another
+observation lesson in the class-room.</p>
+
+<p>If the tree has cones on it, an effort should be made to get a few, as
+they will also be considered in a subsequent class-room lesson. If the
+cones have not yet opened when they are picked, so much the better, as
+they will soon open in a warm room, and the pupils will be able to
+examine the seeds and notice how they whirl through the air in falling.
+If possible, let the pupils have an opportunity of seeing pine trees
+growing in the woods as well as in the open.</p>
+
+<h4>OUTLINE OF A CLASS-ROOM LESSON ON THE WHITE PINE</h4>
+
+<p><b>Inferences.</b>&mdash;If possible, each pupil is supplied with a small branch of
+the white pine and the teacher with a larger branch which can easily be
+seen by all the pupils. Before proceeding to examine the specimens, give
+the pupils a chance to tell what they now know about the white pine, and
+thus review the lesson taken out-of-doors. Then ask a few questions
+bearing upon their own observations, such as: What was the soil like
+where you found the pine tree growing? (They are found most commonly on
+light, sandy soil.) Did you notice any difference between the shapes of
+the pines in the deep woods and the pines in the open fields? Did you
+notice any dead limbs on those in the woods? Why did they die? The
+pupils may conclude that branches whose leaves cannot get the sunlight
+must die. Show that this causes knots in the lumber and exhibit samples.
+This explains also why the trees of the forest have such tall stems
+without branches for a long distance up from the ground. They get the
+light only from above and seem to strive with the surrounding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> trees to
+reach it. If we want trees to grow tall, how should we plant them?
+(Close together) What would such trees be good for? (Making timber or
+lumber) If we want trees to grow low and have thick and bushy tops, how
+should we plant them? (Far apart) What would such trees be good for?
+(Their shade and their beauty) Good shade trees should be thirty to
+forty feet apart.</p>
+
+<p>Ask the pupils if they have ever been near a pine tree when a gentle
+breeze was blowing, and have them tell the cause of the sound that they
+heard. They may decide that the shape and size of the leaves caused the
+sound when the wind was blowing through the tree top. Have them examine
+the branches in order to discover the following points:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Leaves</span>.&mdash;These are in bunches of five, two to three inches long,
+three-cornered, and with little teeth pointing toward the tip, light
+green near the tip of the bough (young leaves) and darker further down
+(older leaves); age of a leaf the same as the age of the wood it grows
+on, therefore some leaves are one year, some two, and a few three years
+old. No leaves on four-year-old wood, therefore the leaves fall off the
+white pine the third year. Ask pupils to try to find out by observation
+when the leaves fall off the pines. Note the fragrance of the leaves,
+and that they are sometimes put into "pine" cushions, also, how slippery
+they are to walk on.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Buds</span>.&mdash;These are found at the tips of the branches, one large one in the
+centre and several smaller ones grouped around it. Note their
+reddish-brown colour and that they are made up of scales overlapping and
+covered with gum which keeps out the rain, thus protecting the little
+growing tip inside. When buds grow, they become little twigs with leaves
+on. Find where the buds were a year ago.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> Notice the light colour of the
+twigs that grow during the present season and the darker colour of the
+twigs of the previous year. Where were the buds two years ago? What did
+the centre bud become? (A continuation of the stem) What did the other
+buds, called lateral buds, become? (New branches) Compare the growth
+made in different years.</p>
+
+<p>Notice also how white the wood of the twigs is&mdash;the probable reason for
+calling it "white pine".</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cones</span>.&mdash;Note the length and shape of the cones and how the seeds are
+placed in them inside the large scales. Get some of the seeds and note
+the wing-like attachment. Take the wing off a seed and drop it from a
+height at the same instant with one that has its wing attached. Note the
+whirling motion and infer what purpose the wing serves in scattering
+seed. Taste the kernel of a pine seed and discover why squirrels are
+fond of them. Burn a pine cone.</p>
+
+<p>Find out what birds like to live in this tree. What has been noticed
+about them and their nests?</p>
+
+<p>Have the pupils keep the seeds until the following spring by putting
+them in a box of dry sand and setting them in a cold place. They should
+then plant them in a corner where they can be partly shaded when the sun
+is bright. Plant them about half an inch deep and keep them watered if
+the weather is dry during the first summer.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Note</span>.&mdash;The cones drop their seeds from high up in the tree so that the
+wind can carry the seeds long distances. The cones usually stay on the
+trees for a couple of years after they lose their seeds.</p>
+
+<h4>CORRELATIONS</h4>
+
+<p>Draw a pine tree, a bunch of pine needles, a pine cone, and a pine
+seed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Write a description of a pine tree seen in the woods; also of one found
+in the open.</p>
+
+<p>Write a list of things for which the white pine is useful.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The winter months, besides affording an opportunity
+for seeing trees and plants in their dormant or quiescent condition,
+also afford an opportunity for reading and reflection, for recalling
+observations and experiences of the past season, and for making plans
+for work and study in the school garden, woods, and fields when spring
+returns. The knowledge gained by the pupils through first-hand
+observation of trees, flowers, and gardens can be greatly extended by
+pictures and stories descriptive of these, which the teacher may from
+time to time bring to the school-room. Their personal experiences will
+be the basis for interpretation of many new things which will come up in
+the reading lessons, in selections which the teacher reads from week to
+week, and in books and papers which they themselves read in their homes.
+Thus the interest that is aroused by the first-hand studies of plants in
+garden, orchard, or woodland will be carried over from autumn to spring,
+and the pupils, with the awakening of spring, will take up anew the
+study of plant life with a keener interest because of the time given to
+reading and reflection during the winter. Illustrated magazines dealing
+with gardening and with the study of trees and plants, and such
+magazines as have a children's department, will prove of great
+assistance to the teacher who makes any serious attempt to interest
+pupils in plant studies. Stories of life in the woods and of plant
+studies suitable to young pupils should be used.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<p>Margaret Morley: <i>Flowers and their Friends.</i> Ginn &amp; Co. 50 cents.</p>
+
+<p>Margaret Morley: <i>Seed Babies.</i> Ginn &amp; Co. 25 cents.</p>
+
+<p>Margaret Morley: <i>Little Wanderers.</i> Ginn &amp; Co. 30 cents.</p>
+
+<p>Alice Lounsberry: <i>The Garden Book for Young People.</i> Stokes. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p>Gertrude Stone: <i>Trees in Prose and Poetry.</i> Ginn &amp; Co. 45 cents.</p>
+
+
+<h3>COMPARATIVE LESSON ON VARIETIES OF WINTER APPLES</h3>
+
+<h4>KING, BALDWIN, NORTHERN SPY</h4>
+
+<p>Discuss the names, keeping and cooking qualities of the apples, and
+bearing qualities of the trees.</p>
+
+<p>Provide each member of the class with a typical representative of each
+of the above varieties of apples.</p>
+
+<p>Compare the three apples as to size, form, colour&mdash;including marks;
+hardness, length, and thickness of stem; depth of cavity at the stem
+end; depth and shape of the cavity at the calyx end.</p>
+
+<p>Split each apple from stem to calyx and compare as to the thickness and
+toughness of the skin, the colour of the flesh, the size of the core,
+taste and juiciness of the flesh.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;All three are apples of fair size, the Baldwin being
+on the average the smallest of the three. All three are roundish, but
+the King is somewhat oval-round, and the Spy, conical-round. The Baldwin
+has a yellowish skin with crimson and red splashes dotted with russet
+spots. The King is reddish, shading to dark crimson. The Spy has a
+yellowish-green skin sprinkled with pink and striped with red.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The beautiful colours make all these apples very popular in the markets
+of American cities and in those of the British Isles; but the soft and
+easily damaged skin of the Spy makes it the least desirable as an apple
+for export.</p>
+
+<p>All keep well and in cool cellars remain in good condition until April.
+They may be kept much longer in cold storage chambers, where the
+temperature is uniformly near the freezing point of the apple.</p>
+
+<p>The Baldwin apple tree is reasonably hardy within the ordinary range for
+apple trees, and its yield is a satisfactory average. The King apple
+tree is not a hardy tree, nor is it a satisfactory bearer except in the
+best apple districts. The Spy is a fairly hardy tree and thrives and
+yields well throughout a wide range; but it does not begin to bear until
+it is about fifteen years old.</p>
+
+<p>A comparative lesson may also be based on selected varieties of autumn
+apples, such as Fameuse, McIntosh Red, Wealthy, Gravenstein, and St.
+Lawrence.</p>
+
+<h4>CODLING MOTH</h4>
+
+<p>Begin the study of the codling moth in August by examining wormy apples.
+Find out, by asking the pupils, which orchards of the locality had been
+sprayed in the spring.</p>
+
+<p>Ask the pupils to count out at random one hundred apples and to select
+from these the number that are wormy. What percentage of the apples are
+wormy? Compare the percentage of wormy apples in unsprayed, with that in
+sprayed, orchards. The results will afford evidence of the benefit of
+spraying.</p>
+
+<p>Find out, if possible, the dates on which, and the conditions under
+which, the spraying of the orchards with the least number of wormy
+apples was done.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Ask the pupils to bring to the school-room a number of wormy apples.
+Have the pupils cut these open and note the nature and position of the
+hole, or burrow, and the amount of damage done to the apples.</p>
+
+<p>Have the pupils observe the larva and note the size, colour, shape, and
+number of legs.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The apple maggot is a less common insect larva and
+may be distinguished from the larva of the codling moth by the fact that
+the former has no legs and has the habit of burrowing in all directions
+through the pulp of the apple, while the larva of the codling moth works
+almost entirely in the core.</p>
+
+<p>The cocoon and pupa phase of this insect may be obtained by keeping the
+wormy apples in a box containing loose paper on which the cocoons will
+be placed, or by searching under the bark scales of apple trees in
+October.</p>
+
+<p>Describe the cocoons. Open some of them and describe the contents. Keep
+the remaining cocoons in a box or vivarium in a cool place during the
+winter.</p>
+
+<p>What birds are seen tapping at the bark scales of the apple trees during
+winter? Examine the bark scales when a downy woodpecker has been at work
+and note that the cocoons have been destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>Should we encourage the visits of woodpeckers to the orchards?</p>
+
+<p>By hanging up a beef bone in the orchard, various birds, including
+woodpeckers, will be induced to visit and perhaps to make their homes in
+the orchard.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<p><i>Common Insects Affecting Fruit Trees, Bulletin No. 158</i>, Department of
+Agriculture, Parliament Buildings, Toronto.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bulletins Nos. 158 and 171</i>, Ontario Department of Agriculture, deal
+with many insect pests and their remedies.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In May look for the adult moths as they emerge from the cocoons. Observe
+the colour, size, shape, and the bright copper-coloured horse-shoe on
+the front wing&mdash;the "brand" of the codling moth.</p>
+
+<p>Examine the little apples when the blossoms are falling. Note the tiny,
+flat, oval-shaped egg at various places on the surfaces of the apples
+and a few days later the tiny worm which emerges from the egg. This soon
+eats its way into the apple, entering usually at the calyx end. If
+spraying is done after the petals have fallen and just before the calyx
+end closes up, a drop of poison is inclosed, and when the larva enters
+it and begins eating its way into the apple, it gets the poison.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SOME COMMON ANIMAL FORMS</h3>
+
+<p>Brief lessons should be given on some of the lower members of the animal
+kingdom, for the purpose of broadening the interests of the pupils. The
+following are suggested as types: snail, spider, freshwater mussel
+(clam), crayfish (crab), centiped, milliped, salamander, and wood-louse.</p>
+
+<p>These are common animal forms, most of which are frequently seen by the
+pupils, but seldom are their interesting life habits or their places in
+the animal kingdom recognized. The salamander is to many pupils a lizard
+of the most poisonous kind; centipeds and millipeds are worms, and they
+do not recognize that the clam is an animal with sensibilities and
+instincts.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<p>Kellogg: <i>Elementary Zoology</i></p>
+
+<p>Silcox and Stevenson: <i>Modern Nature Study</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>CENTIPEDS AND MILLIPEDS</h4>
+
+<p>Under stones and sticks in moist soil are to be found two worm-like
+forms, both having many legs.</p>
+
+<p>One of these animals is flat, about an inch long, brown in colour, and
+provided with a pair of long feelers. On each division of the body is a
+single pair of legs. This is the <i>centiped</i>. The other animal is more
+cylindrical in shape and has two pairs of legs on each division of the
+body. Its colour is a darker brown than that of the centiped, and it has
+a habit of coiling into a spiral shape, when disturbed, so that the soft
+under surface is concealed. This is the <i>milliped</i>. Both of these
+animals are quite harmless and feed on decaying vegetable matter. They
+stand midway between worms and insects in forms and habits.</p>
+
+<p>A brief observation lesson on each animal, involving their movements and
+the structural features named above, will enable the pupils to identify
+them and to appreciate their position in the animal kingdom.</p>
+
+<h4>SALAMANDERS, OR NEWTS</h4>
+
+<p>Some forms of these are found in water, as in streams, ponds, and
+ditches, while other forms are found on land, where they hide under
+stones and sticks. They are commonly mistaken for lizards, which they
+closely resemble in shape; but the two animals may be distinguished by
+the fact that the surface of the body of a salamander is smooth, while
+that of a lizard is covered with scales.</p>
+
+<p>The small red or copper-coloured newts are the most common in Ontario
+and are frequently found on roads after heavy rains. The tiger
+salamanders are larger than the red newts and are marked with orange and
+black<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> spots, hence the name "tiger". Many people believe this species
+to be especially venomous, while in reality it is quite harmless and,
+like the other salamanders, is useful for destroying insects and small
+snails, which form the greater part of its food.</p>
+
+<p><i>To the teacher.</i>&mdash;The superstition of the salamander's power to
+extinguish a fire into which it is thrown still exists. The early life
+of the salamander is spent in water, the young form being very much like
+a tadpole. The salamanders are close relatives of the frogs and toads
+and may be kept in a jar or vivarium in wet moss or grass. The pupils
+should learn to recognize the animals and should be instructed as to
+their habits.</p>
+
+<h4>SPIDERS</h4>
+
+<p><b>Problems in observation.</b>&mdash;In how many places can you find spiders' webs?
+How many forms of spiders' webs can you find? Are the many webs that are
+found on the meadow grass in the dewy mornings the homes of spiders? If
+so, describe where the spiders live. (At the bottom of tunnels that run
+into the ground.)</p>
+
+<p>What uses do spiders make of their webs? (Trapping prey, supporting egg
+cases, protection, and means of moving, as in the case of cobweb
+spiders.)</p>
+
+<p>Drop a fly upon a spider's web and observe the action of the spider.
+Search under the webs of spiders in attics and sheds and learn, from the
+skeletons found there, what the spider feeds upon. It will be found that
+flies, beetles, and other spiders are killed by this monster.</p>
+
+<p>Watch a spider spinning its web and find out what parts of the body are
+used in this work. It will be seen that the threads are produced from
+little tubes at the rear<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> end of the animal and are placed and fastened
+by means of the feet.</p>
+
+<p>Examine, by the aid of a hand lens, the feet and head of the spider.
+Note the "brushes and combs" on the former. Note, on the latter, the
+four, six, or eight eyes (the number and arrangement vary), and the
+short poison claws at the front of the head. How are the poison claws
+adapted for seizing and piercing? Note the sharp hooks at the lower
+ends.</p>
+
+
+<h3>BIRD STUDIES</h3>
+
+<p>Continue the lessons in bird identification and in bird types, using the
+methods outlined for these studies in Form III. (See pp. 217-24.)</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+
+<h3>FORM IV</h3>
+
+<h4>WINTER</h4>
+
+
+<h3>FOREST TREES</h3>
+
+<h4>EVERGREENS</h4>
+
+<p>Several species of evergreens have already been studied. These should be
+reviewed, and representatives of other species examined. Mid-winter is
+most suitable for the study of evergreens. The following points should
+be considered:</p>
+
+<p>1. Description leading to identification</p>
+
+<p>2. Nature of soil and water conditions</p>
+
+<p>3. Common uses of each species of evergreen</p>
+
+<p>4. Collection of wood specimens and cones.</p>
+
+<h4>WOOD SPECIMENS</h4>
+
+<p>Specimens should be uniform in size and should show bark on one side and
+heart wood as well as the outside, or sap wood. They should be about six
+inches long, two inches wide on the side having the bark, and should
+gradually come to an edge toward the pith, or centre. When seasoned, one
+side and one edge should be polished and then oiled or varnished.
+Specimens of the wood of the deciduous trees may also be prepared during
+the winter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>FRUITS</h3>
+
+<p>During the winter months, some time should be devoted to reading and
+discussing articles on general farming and fruit growing. Such articles
+may be taken from books, magazines, or newspapers, and may be supplied
+partly by the teacher and partly by the pupils. These articles will be
+appreciated by the pupils all the more because of their studies of fruit
+trees during the season. Such topics as the following may be discussed:</p>
+
+<p>1. Best kind of apples, plums, bush fruits, and strawberries. Reports
+from the Dominion and Provincial Departments of Agriculture.</p>
+
+<p>2. Method of raising fruit trees&mdash;from seed, grafting, and budding.</p>
+
+<p>3. Demonstrations in pruning. This may be done in early spring by taking
+a class to a neighbouring orchard.</p>
+
+<p>4. Methods of planting and cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>5. Packing and storing.</p>
+
+<p>6. Spraying. Much information is to be found in Horticultural Journals
+and papers, and in Bulletins to be obtained from the Secretary of
+Agriculture for Ontario.</p>
+
+<p>Illustrated articles on gardening and fruit growing should be collected
+for school use. Views of fine gardens, parks, and home grounds will be
+of interest to the pupils. Simple artistic methods of ornamental
+planting with trees, shrubs, vines, and herbaceous perennials can now be
+introduced, and some scheme for improving the school grounds outlined.</p>
+
+<p>Catalogues should be obtained soon after New Year's and, after examining
+their merits, the best varieties of seed and fruit for the district
+should be selected. Horticultural<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> societies, as well as Dominion and
+Provincial Departments of Agriculture, commonly give selected lists with
+descriptions of the different varieties.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WEEDS AND WEED SEEDS</h3>
+
+<p>The training in the observation and identification of weeds and weed
+seeds, which was begun in Form III, should be continued in Form IV. For
+method see Form III.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PHYSICAL SCIENCE PHASE OF NATURE STUDY</h3>
+
+<h4>WATER PRESSURE</h4>
+
+<p>1. Grasp an empty tin can by the top and push it down into a pail of
+water. Note the tendency of the can to rise. The water presses upward.
+Its downward pressure is evident.</p>
+
+<p>2. Tie a large stone to a string, hold it at arm's length, shut the
+eyes, and lower the stone into water. <i>Note</i> the decrease in weight.
+This is also due to upward pressure, which we call buoyancy. The actual
+decrease may be found by means of a spring balance.</p>
+
+<p>3. Try Experiment 2, using a piece of iron the same weight as the stone.
+Is the decrease in weight as evident? Ships made wholly of iron will
+sink. Explain.</p>
+
+<p>4. Put an egg into water; it slowly sinks. Add salt to the water; the
+egg floats.</p>
+
+<h4>EXERCISES</h4>
+
+<p>1. Will the human body sink in water? In which is there less danger of
+drowning, lake or sea water?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. When in bathing, immerse nearly the whole body, then take a full
+inspiration. Note the rise of the body.</p>
+
+<p>3. Why does ice float? (See expansion of water by freezing.)</p>
+
+<p>4. Balloons are bags filled with some light gas, generally hydrogen or
+hot air. They are pushed up by the buoyancy of the air. The rise of
+heated air or water (see Convection) is really due to the same force.
+Clouds, feathers, and thistledown are kept in the air more by the action
+of winds and small air currents than by buoyancy.</p>
+
+<h4>STUDY OF AIR</h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(Consult <i>Science of Common Life</i>, Chaps. VIII, IX, X.)</p></div>
+
+<p>1. Air takes up space. Put a cork with one hole into the neck of a flask
+or bottle. Insert the stem of a funnel and try to pour in water. Try
+with two holes in the cork. When we call a bottle "empty" what is in it?</p>
+
+<p>2. Air is all around us. Feel it; wave the hands through it; run through
+it; note that the wind is air; inhale the air and watch the chest.</p>
+
+<p>3. Air has weight. This is not easy to demonstrate without an air-pump
+and a fairly delicate balance.</p>
+
+<p>Fit a large glass flask with a tightly fitting rubber stopper having a
+short glass tube passing through it. To the glass tube attach a short
+rubber one and on this put a clamp. Open the clamp and suck out all the
+air possible. Close the clamp and weigh the flask. When perfectly
+balanced, open the clamp and let the air enter again. Note the increase
+in weight.</p>
+
+<p>If an air-pump is available, procure a glass globe provided with a
+stop-cock (see Apparatus). Pump some of the air from the globe, then
+weigh and, while it is on the balance, admit the air again and note
+increase in weight.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Tie a piece of thin sheet rubber over the large end of a thistle tube;
+suck the air out of the tube and note how the rubber is pushed in. This
+is due to the weight or pressure of the air. Turn the tube in various
+positions to show that the pressure comes from all directions. To show
+that "suction" is not a force, let a pupil try to suck water out of a
+flask when there is only one opening through the stopper. If two holes
+are made, the water may be sucked up, that is, <i>pushed</i> up by the weight
+of the air.</p>
+
+<p>Fill a pickle jar with water. Place a piece of writing paper on the top
+and then, holding the paper with the palm of the hand, invert the jar.
+The pressure of the air keeps the water in.</p>
+
+<p>A cubic foot of air weighs nearly 1-1/4 oz. Find the weight of the air
+in your school-room.</p>
+
+<p>The atmosphere exerts about fifteen pounds pressure on every square inch
+of the surface it rests against. Find the weight supported by the top of
+a desk 18 inches by 24 inches. If the surface of the body is eight
+square feet, what weight does it have to sustain? Why does this weight
+not crush us?</p>
+
+<h4>THE BAROMETER</h4>
+
+<p>The experiments immediately preceding will have paved the way for a
+study of the barometer.</p>
+
+<p>1. Fill a jar with water and invert it, keeping its mouth below the
+surface of the water in another vessel. If the pupils can be led to see
+that the water is sustained in the jar by the air pressing on the water
+in the vessel, they can understand the barometer.</p>
+
+<p>2. Fill a tube about 30 inches long, and 1/4 inch inside diameter with
+water, and invert it over water, as with the jar in the previous
+experiment.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. Use the same tube or one similar to that in 2 above, but fill with
+mercury and allow the pupils to notice the great weight of the mercury.
+Holding the mercury in with your finger, invert the tube over mercury.
+This time the fluid falls some distance in the tube as soon as the
+finger is removed. A tube of this size requires 1 lb. of mercury.</p>
+
+<p>Lead the pupils to see that the mercury remaining in the tube is
+sustained by the air pressure, and that any increase or decrease of the
+atmospheric pressure will result in the rise or fall of the mercury
+column. Leave the barometer (made as in 3 above) in the room for a few
+days and note whether its weight changes. The use of the instrument in
+predicting weather changes should be emphasized. Compare your barometer
+with the records in the daily papers.</p>
+
+<p>The average height of the barometric column is 30 inches at sea-level.
+Explain how you could estimate heights of mountains and balloons with a
+barometer.</p>
+
+<h4>THE COMMON PUMP</h4>
+
+<p>This is a valuable application of air pressure. A glass model will prove
+useful, but a model made by pupils will be much more so. (See
+<i>Laboratory Exercises in Physics</i> by Newman.)</p>
+
+<p>The water rises in the pump because the sucker lifts the air from the
+water inside, allowing the air outside to push the water up. A common
+pump will not lift water more than about 30 feet. Why is this? Compare
+the pump to a barometer. (See <i>The Ontario High School Physics</i>.)</p>
+
+<h4>EXPANSIVE FORCE OF AIR</h4>
+
+<p>Air and all other gases manifest a pressure in all directions not due to
+their weight. The power of air to keep<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> tires and footballs inflated and
+that of steam in driving an engine are examples. It is this force that
+prevents the pressure of air from crushing in, since there are many air
+spaces distributed throughout the body.</p>
+
+<h4>COMPOSITION OF AIR</h4>
+
+<p>This subject and the three immediately following it have a special
+bearing on hygiene.</p>
+
+<p>1. Invert a sealing-jar over a lighted candle. Has the candle used up
+<i>all</i> the air when it goes out?</p>
+
+<p>2. Place a very short candle on a thin piece of cork afloat on water in
+a plate; light the candle, and again invert the jar over it. Note that
+the candle goes out and the water rises only a short distance in the
+jar; therefore <i>all</i> the air has not been used up.</p>
+
+<p>3. Slip the glass top of the jar under the open end and set the jar
+mouth upward on the table without allowing any water to escape. Now
+plunge a lighted splinter into the jar. The flame is extinguished.</p>
+
+<p>Air, therefore, contains an active part that helps the candle to burn
+and an inactive part that extinguishes flame. The names <i>oxygen</i> and
+<i>nitrogen</i> may be given. These gases occur in air in the proportion of
+about 1:4. (This method is not above criticism. Its advantage for young
+pupils lies in its simplicity.)</p>
+
+<h4>OXYGEN</h4>
+
+<p>Make two or three jars of oxygen, using potassium chlorate and manganese
+dioxide. (See any Chemistry text-book.) Let the pupils examine the
+chemicals, learn their names, and know where to obtain them. Perform the
+following experiments:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>1. A glowing splinter relights and burns very brightly if plunged into
+oxygen.</p>
+
+<p>2. A piece of picture wire tipped with sulphur burns with great
+brightness.</p>
+
+<p>3. Burn phosphorus or match heads in a spoon. A spoon may be made by
+attaching to a wire a bit of crayon having a hollow scooped on its upper
+surface. A clay pipe bowl attached to a wire will answer.</p>
+
+<p>From these experiments pupils will learn the value of nitrogen as a
+diluent of the oxygen. Pure oxygen entering the lungs would be just as
+destructive as it would be entering the furnace.</p>
+
+<h4>CARBON DIOXIDE</h4>
+
+<p>1. Make a jar of this gas. Washing soda and vinegar will answer if
+hydrochloric acid and marble are not obtainable. (Consult the <i>Science
+of Common Life</i>, Chap. XIII, and any Chemistry text-book.)</p>
+
+<p>2. Lower a lighted candle first into a jar of air then into the jar of
+carbon dioxide.</p>
+
+<p>3. Make some lime-water by stirring slaked lime with water and allowing
+the mixture to settle. Shake up some clear lime-water with a jar of the
+gas. Pupils will be made to understand that the milky colour will in
+future be considered the test for carbon dioxide.</p>
+
+<p>4. Have one of the pupils cause his breath to bubble through some clear
+lime-water for a minute. Using a bicycle pump, cause some fresh air to
+bubble through lime-water.</p>
+
+<p>5. Hold a clear jar inverted over the candle flame for a few seconds,
+then test with lime-water.</p>
+
+<p>6. Invert a large jar over a leafy plant for a day. Keep in the dark and
+test the jar with lime-water.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Is this gas likely to be in the air? Set a plate of lime-water in the
+school-room for a day or two, and then examine it. Try to pour the gas
+from jar to jar and use a candle as a test. Is the gas heavier than air?</p>
+
+<p>On account of its weight, the gas often collects in the bottoms of old
+wells, mines, and tunnels. It is dangerous there since it will not
+support life.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Uses</span>:</p>
+
+<p>1. Add a little water to some baking powder and cause the gas that forms
+to pass through lime-water. What causes the biscuits to "rise"?</p>
+
+<p>2. Mix flour and water in a jar, add a bit of yeast cake and a little
+sugar, and let stand in a warm place. Test the gas that forms, for
+carbon dioxide. What causes bread to rise?</p>
+
+<p>3. Uncork a bottle of ginger ale, shake the bottle, and lead the gas
+that comes off through lime-water.</p>
+
+<p>4. Most portable fire extinguishers depend on the generation of carbon
+dioxide.</p>
+
+<p>Show the similarity between our bodies and the candle. The candle needs
+oxygen; it produces heat, and yields water and carbon dioxide. Much of
+our food is somewhat similar in composition to the wax of a candle; we
+breathe oxygen, our bodies are warmed by a real burning within, and we
+exhale water and carbon dioxide.</p>
+
+<p>After exercise why do we feel more hungry? Why do we breathe faster? Why
+do we feel warmer? Why does the fire burn better when the damper is
+opened?</p>
+
+<h4>IMPURITIES OF AIR</h4>
+
+<p>All air contains carbon dioxide. If the amount exceeds 6 parts in
+10,000, it becomes an impurity, not so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> much on its own account as
+because it indicates a poisoned state of the air in a room, since
+organic poisons always accompany it when it is emitted from the lungs.</p>
+
+<p>Other impurities of the air, dependent on the locality and the season,
+are smoke, dust, disease germs, sewer gas, coal-gas, pollen dust.</p>
+
+<h4>SOLUTIONS OF SOLIDS</h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(Consult the <i>Science of Common Life</i>, Chap. VII.)</p></div>
+
+<p>Have the pupils weigh out equal quantities of sugar, salt, soda, alum,
+blue-vitriol. Shake up with equal quantities of water to compare
+solubilities. Repeat, using hot water. Is it possible to recover the
+substance dissolved? Set out solutions on the table to evaporate, or
+evaporate them rapidly over a stove or spirit-lamp. Try to dissolve
+sand, sulphur, charcoal, in water. Obtain crystals of iodine and show
+how much better, in some cases, alcohol is as a solvent than is water.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Applications</span>:</p>
+
+<p>1. Most of our "essences", "tinctures", and "spirits" are alcoholic
+solutions.</p>
+
+<p>2. Digestion is the effort of the body to dissolve food.</p>
+
+<p>3. The food in the soil enters the plant only after solution.</p>
+
+<p>4. The solvent power of water makes it so valuable for washing.</p>
+
+<p>5. Maple sap is water containing sugar in solution.</p>
+
+<p>6. In the salt region along Lake Huron, holes are drilled to the salt
+beds, water is poured in, then pumped out and evaporated. Explain.</p>
+
+<p>7. Meat broth is a solution of certain materials in the meat.</p>
+
+<p>8. How could you manufacture salt from sea water?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>SOLUTION OF LIQUIDS</h4>
+
+<p>Try to mix oil and water, benzine and water, oil and benzine. Only in
+the third case do we find a permanent mixture, or solution. Try to
+dissolve vinegar, glycerine, alcohol, mercury, with water.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Applications</span>:</p>
+
+<p>1. Paint is mixed with oil so that the rain will not wash it off so
+easily.</p>
+
+<p>2. Water will not wash grease stains. Benzine is necessary.</p>
+
+<p>3. Why is it necessary to "shake" the bottle before taking medicine?</p>
+
+<h4>SOLUTION OF GASES</h4>
+
+<p>Study air dissolved in water, by gently heating water in a test-tube and
+observing the bubbles of air that gather on the inner surface of the
+test-tube. Aquatic animals, such as fish, clams, crayfish, crabs,
+subsist on this dissolved air.</p>
+
+<h4>LIMESTONE</h4>
+
+<p>Pieces of this rock may be found in all localities. Teach pupils to
+recognize it by its gray colour, its effervescence with acid, and the
+fossils and strata that show in most cases. If exposed limestone rocks
+are near, visit them with the pupils and note the layers, fossils, and
+evidences of sea action. Compare lime with limestone as to touch,
+colour, and action on water and litmus. Try to make lime by putting a
+lump of limestone in the coals for some time; add water to this. Other
+forms of limestone are marble, chalk, egg-shells, clam-shells, scales in
+tea-kettles.</p>
+
+<p>Geographically, the study of limestone is of great importance. Grind
+some limestone very fine, add a very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> little of this to water, and
+bubble carbon dioxide through for some time; note the disappearance of
+the limestone. This explains how limestone rocks are being slowly worn
+away and why the water of rivers, springs, and wells is so often "hard".</p>
+
+<p>Catch some rain-water in the open and test it for hardness. It will be
+found "soft". Place a few limestone pebbles in a tumbler with this soft
+water and after a day or two test again. The water will be "hard".</p>
+
+<p>Compare, as to hardness, the water from a concrete cistern with that
+from a wooden one.</p>
+
+<h4>CARBON</h4>
+
+<p>Procure specimens of hard and soft coal, coke, charcoal, graphite, peat,
+and petroleum. Note the distinctive characteristics of each. Discuss the
+uses. Try to set each on fire. Note which burns with a flame when laid
+on the coals or placed over the spirit-lamp. Put a bit of soft coal into
+a small test-tube; heat and light the gas that is produced. This gas,
+when purified, is one kind of illuminating gas. Note the <i>coke</i> left in
+the test-tube.</p>
+
+<p>Fill the bowl of a clay pipe with soft coal and seal it up with plaster
+of paris. After this has hardened, place the bowl in hot coals or in the
+flame of a spirit-lamp and light the coal-gas at the end of the stem.
+After all the gas has been driven off, look for the coke inside.</p>
+
+<p>Heat a bit of wood in a small test-tube and light the gas that is
+evolved. Note the charcoal left.</p>
+
+<p>Cover a piece of wood with sand or earth; heat, and note that charcoal
+is formed. This illustrates the old method of charcoal-burning. This
+subject is closely related to industrial geography.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>HYDROGEN</h4>
+
+<p>A convenient way to prepare hydrogen is to use zinc and hydrochloric
+acid with a test-tube for a generator. (Consult any Chemistry
+text-book.) Make the gas and burn it at the end of a tube, holding a
+dry, cold tumbler inverted over the flame. Note that water is formed.
+Conclude what water consists of, namely, oxygen and hydrogen. Water may
+be decomposed into oxygen and hydrogen, hence a use of hydrogen may be
+shown by attaching a clay pipe to the generator and filling soap bubbles
+with the gas. When freed these rise quickly.</p>
+
+<h4>MAGNETS</h4>
+
+<p>If bar magnets cannot be obtained, use a child's horse-shoe magnet.</p>
+
+<p>Procure small pieces of cork, wood, iron, brass, glass, lead, etc., and
+let pupils discover which the magnet attracts.</p>
+
+<p>Have pupils interpose paper, wood, slate, glass, iron, lead, etc., in
+sheets between the magnet and the iron and note the effect on the force
+exerted.</p>
+
+<p>Note that when one end of a magnet touches or comes near the end of a
+nail, the nail becomes a magnet, but not a permanent one.</p>
+
+<p>Magnetize a needle by drawing one of the poles of the magnet from end to
+end of the needle, always in the same direction, about twenty times.
+Suspend the needle horizontally with a piece of silk thread and note its
+position when at rest.</p>
+
+<p>Get a small compass and show how it is related to the foregoing
+experiments. Emphasize its use to mariners. If possible, get a piece of
+lodestone and show its magnetic properties.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>ELECTRICITY</h4>
+
+<p>Half fill a tumbler with water and add about a teaspoonful of sulphuric
+acid. Set in this a piece of copper and a piece of zinc, but do not let
+them touch. Make a coil by winding insulated wire around a block of wood
+about ten times. Remove the wood and place a compass in the centre of
+the coil. Join the ends of the wire to the two metals in the tumbler.
+The sudden movement of the needle will be taken as the indication of a
+current.</p>
+
+<p>Let pupils try experiments with many pairs of solids, such as lead and
+silver, carbon and glass, wood and iron, tin and zinc, and liquids such
+as vinegar and brine.</p>
+
+<p>Show pupils how to make a simple battery. See home-made apparatus, page
+50, and consult <i>Laboratory Exercises</i> by Newman. Two or three dry cells
+will be found sufficient for any experiments, but the home-made battery
+is to be preferred.</p>
+
+<p>Show pupils how to make a magnet by winding a piece of insulated wire
+around a nail and joining the ends of the wire to the battery. Make a
+horse-shoe magnet by bending the nail and winding the wire about both
+ends in opposite directions.</p>
+
+<p>As an application of the electro-magnet, show pupils how to make a
+telegraph sounder. (See Manual on <i>Manual Training</i>.) If possible,
+examine the construction of an electric bell. The motor and electric
+light are other common applications of the current. Take up the uses of
+the motor in factories, and for running street-cars and automobiles.
+Show the necessity for a water-wheel or engine to produce the current,
+and for wires to connect. Explain that batteries are not used to produce
+large currents, but that machines called dynamos, similar to motors,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span>
+when driven by steam or water-power, will yield electric currents as
+batteries do.</p>
+
+<h4>STEAM</h4>
+
+<p>The power of steam may be shown by loosely corking a flask and boiling
+the water in it until the cork is driven out, or by stopping the spout
+of a boiling tea-kettle, or by letting a stream of steam impinge on a
+toy paper wheel. Encourage pupils to learn all they can about steam and
+gasolene engines and their uses.</p>
+
+<h4>FARM TOOLS</h4>
+
+<p>This topic should be dealt with only in so far as it can be made a
+subject for actual observation by the pupils. Children should learn to
+be thoughtful and observant and to do all kinds of work, manual as well
+as mental, intelligently.</p>
+
+<h4>MACHINES</h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(Consult <i>The Ontario High School Physics</i>, Chap. IX.)</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lever</span>.&mdash;When a <i>lever</i> is used to lift a log, one end is placed under
+the log, a block called a <i>fulcrum</i> is placed under the lever as close
+as possible to the log, and then the workman pulls down on the outer end
+of the lever. For example, if the fulcrum is one foot from the log and
+ten feet from the man, the latter can raise ten pounds with a pull of
+one pound, but he has to move his end of the lever ten times as far as
+the log rises. Try it. See other examples in plough handles, see-saw,
+balance, scissors, wheel-barrow, pump-handle, handspike, crowbar,
+canthook, nut-crackers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rope and Pulley</span>.&mdash;In the <i>rope</i> and <i>pulley</i> note that when the pulley
+is a fixed one, the only advantage is a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> changed direction of the rope.
+When the pulley is <i>movable</i>, the horse pulling will have only half the
+weight to draw if the pulley is single, one quarter if double, one sixth
+if triple, etc. Thus in the case of a common hay-fork the horse draws
+only half the weight of the hay, but he walks twice as far as the hay
+moves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cogs</span>.&mdash;If one wheel has eighty <i>cogs</i> and the other ten, the latter will
+turn eight times to the former's once.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Belt</span>.&mdash;When a <i>belt</i> runs over two wheels, one having, say, one fifth of
+the diameter of the other, the smaller will revolve five times for one
+revolution of the other.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Crank</span>.&mdash;With a <i>crank</i> two feet long, one may turn a wheel twice as
+easily as with one one foot long, but the hand will move twice as far.
+If a wedge is two inches thick at the large end and ten inches long, a
+man may lift 1000 pounds by striking the wedge a 200-lb. blow.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Inclined plane</span>.&mdash;If a plank twelve inches long has one end on the ground
+and the other on a cart four inches high, one man can roll up the plank
+the same weight that would require three men to lift, but he has to move
+the object three times as far.</p>
+
+<h4>PROBLEMS</h4>
+
+<p>1. Why is a long-handled spade easier to dig with than a short-handled
+one?</p>
+
+<p>2. Which is easier, to dig when the spade is thrust full length or half
+length into the earth?</p>
+
+<p>3. Can a small boy "teeter" on a board against a big boy? How?</p>
+
+<p>4. In helping to move a wagon, why grasp the wheel near its rim?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>5. In making a balance, why should the arms be equal? In a balance with
+unequal arms, compare the weights used with the article weighed.</p>
+
+<p>6. In using shears, is it better to place the object you wish to cut
+near the handles or near the points?</p>
+
+<p>7. Where is the best place to put the load on a wheel-barrow?</p>
+
+<p>8. Notice how three horses are hitched to a plough or binder.</p>
+
+<p>9. Where would you grasp the pump-handle when you wish to pump (1)
+easily, (2) quickly?</p>
+
+<p>10. Stretch out your arm and see whether you can hold as heavy a weight
+on your hand as on your elbow.</p>
+
+<p>11. Count the pulleys used in a hay-fork and determine the use of each.</p>
+
+<p>12. If a ton of hay is unloaded at five equal forkfuls, what weight has
+the horse to draw at each load?</p>
+
+<p>13. Count the cogs on the wheels of a fanning-mill, washing-machine,
+apple-parer, or egg-beater, and determine how the direction or rate of
+the motion is changed thereby.</p>
+
+<p>14. Measure the diameter of the large fly-wheel of a thrashing-machine
+engine, and of that which turns the cylinder in the separator. Decide
+how many times the cylinder revolves for one turn of the fly-wheel.</p>
+
+<p>15. Think of all the uses of a wedge. Draw one. Compare the axe, knife,
+and chisel with the wedge.</p>
+
+<p>16. How are heavy logs loaded on a sleigh or truck? How are barrels of
+salt and sugar loaded and unloaded?</p>
+
+<p>17. There are two hills of the same height. One has a gradual slope, the
+other a steep one. Which is easier to climb? In what case is it farthest
+to the top?</p>
+
+<p>18. Why does a cow or horse take a zigzag path when climbing a steep
+hill?</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+
+<h3>FORM IV</h3>
+
+<h4>SPRING</h4>
+
+
+<h3>METHODS OF IMPROVING HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS</h3>
+
+<p>The study of plants should lead to an intelligent appreciation of their
+beauties and a desire to have them growing about. Many of our native
+trees, shrubs, vines, and herbaceous plants are quite as beautiful as
+some that are procured at considerable expense from nurserymen. A great
+work remains to be done in cultivating and popularizing our best native
+species. Up to this point the pupils have been getting acquainted with
+them in their own natural habitat; the next step should be to use them
+in covering up harsh and offensive views about the school and home
+grounds, in softening and giving restful relief to barren yards and bare
+walls, to ugly fences and uninteresting walks and driveways.</p>
+
+<p>Begin to plan some simple improvements for the spring. These may be
+repairing of fences and gates in order to protect the grounds from stray
+animals, the cleaning up of the yards, the gathering of stones which may
+be used in making a rockery, the planting of trees along the sides and
+front of the grounds&mdash;a double row of evergreens to overcome a cold
+northern exposure or to exclude from view disagreeable features, the
+laying out of a walk or drive with borders, flower beds, or shrubs in
+little clumps.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Plans of grounds well laid out should be examined and discussed in the
+school-room. Many illustrated magazines give useful suggestions. Plans
+can be worked out on the black-board with the pupils. It will take years
+to complete such a plan, but the pupils should have a part in making the
+plan as well as in carrying it out. The aim should be to encourage the
+use of simple and inexpensive things obtained in the vicinity, wherewith
+to produce harmony and pleasing natural effects.</p>
+
+<p>Comfort and utility must be considered as well as beauty and natural
+design. In the school grounds the outdoor games must also be provided
+for and sufficient room allowed.</p>
+
+<p>Such efforts on the part of the teacher and pupils, if wisely directed,
+are sure to meet with the approval of the parents and must call forth
+the hearty co-operation of the trustees.</p>
+
+<p>It is not well to attempt too much in one year. It is better to do a
+small amount well than to leave much work in a half-done condition.</p>
+
+<h4>MAKING AND CARE OF A LAWN</h4>
+
+<p>The soil must be drained and not too much shaded by trees. At first it
+should be summer fallowed or cultivated every few weeks throughout the
+summer, to kill the weeds and make it fine and level. A thick seeding of
+lawn grass-seed should be sown early the next spring and raked lightly
+in. All levelling and preparation must have been done the previous
+season.</p>
+
+<p>Coarse grasses, such as timothy, should not be used on a lawn. Red top
+and Kentucky blue-grass in equal parts are best and, if white clover is
+desired, add about half as much white Dutch clover seed as red top. If
+the soil<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> has been prepared as above, there is no need to use a foster
+crop of oats or barley, as is done in seeding down meadows. Roll the
+lawn after seeding and also after heavy rains as soon as the surface
+dries. Shortly after the grass appears, begin to run the lawn-mower over
+it, so as to cut weeds or native grasses that may be gaining a foothold.
+Watering is dangerous, unless carefully and regularly done during the
+summer, the evening being the best time. Merely wetting the surface by
+sprinkling encourages shallow rooting and therefore rapid drying out.
+Regular mowing and rolling are more important.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<p>Parsons: <i>How to Plan the Home Grounds.</i> Doubleday. $1.00</p>
+
+<p>Waugh: <i>The Landscape Beautiful.</i> Judd. $2.00</p>
+
+<p>Department of Education: <i>Improvement of School Grounds.</i></p>
+
+
+<h3>SOIL STUDIES</h3>
+
+<h4>WEIGHT</h4>
+
+<p>Using a balance, compare weights of equal-sized boxes of different
+soils, dried and powdered fine. Note the comparative lightness of humus.
+Weigh a box of earth taken fresh from the field, from this compute (1)
+the weight of a cubic foot of such soil, (2) the weight of the soil to
+the depth of a foot in a ten-acre field.</p>
+
+<p>Repeat the experiment, making it an exercise in percentage.</p>
+
+<p>Fill two glass tubes (lamp chimneys will do), one with finely powdered
+clay, the other with sand. Set the tubes in a pan containing water. Note
+the rise of the water due to capillarity. Through which soil does it
+rise faster? Farther? Try with other soils. Try with fine soil and also
+with the same soil in a lumpy condition.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> From this give a reason (1)
+for tilling soil, (2) for rolling after seeding.</p>
+
+<h4>SUBSOILS</h4>
+
+<p>Procure samples of soil from different depths, four inches, eight
+inches, twelve inches, sixteen inches, etc. Note how the soil changes in
+colour and texture. In which do plants succeed best? In most fields the
+richest part of the soil is contained in the upper nine inches; the
+portion below this is called subsoil. This extends to the underlying
+rock and is usually distinguished from the upper portion by its lighter
+colour, poorer texture, and smaller supply of available plant food. The
+difference is due largely to the absence of humus. The character of the
+subsoil has an important bearing on the condition of the upper soil. A
+layer of sand or gravel a few feet below the surface provides natural
+drainage, but if it be too deep, it may allow the water to run away
+rapidly, carrying the plant food down below the roots of the plants. A
+hard clay subsoil will render the top too wet in rainy weather and too
+dry in droughts, because of the small amount of water absorbed. Such a
+soil is benefited by under-draining. A deep and absorptive subsoil
+returns water to the surface, by capillary action, as it is needed. The
+subsoil finally contains a large amount of plant food, which becomes
+gradually changed into a form in which plants can make use of it. Pupils
+should find out the character of the subsoil in their various fields at
+home and its effect on the fertility of the field.</p>
+
+<h4>FERTILIZERS</h4>
+
+<p>Along with water, the roots take up from the soil various substances
+that are essential to their healthy growth. Potash, phosphoric acid,
+nitrogen, calcium, sulphur,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> magnesium, and iron are needed by plants,
+but the first three are particularly important. If land is to yield good
+crops year after year, it must be fertilized, that is, there must be
+added chemicals containing the above-mentioned plant foods. Land becomes
+poor from two causes: the plant food in the soil becomes exhausted, and
+poisonous excretions from the roots of one year's crops act injuriously
+on those of the next season. Rotating crops will improve both conditions
+for a while, but eventually the soil will require treatment.</p>
+
+<p>Humus contains plant food and is also an excellent absorbent of the
+poisonous excretions. It is added as barn-yard manure, leaves, or as a
+green crop ploughed in.</p>
+
+<p>The chemicals commonly used comprise nitrate of soda, bone meal,
+sulphate of potash, chloride of potash, lime, ashes, cotton-seed meal,
+dried blood, super-phosphate, rock phosphate, and basic clay.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Experiments</span>:</p>
+
+<p>1. Sow wheat on the same plot year after year and note the result when
+no fertilizer is used. Sow wheat on another plot, but use good manure.</p>
+
+<p>2. Try the various commercial fertilizers on the school plots, leaving
+some without treatment.</p>
+
+<p>3. Examine the roots of clover, peas, or beans, and look for nodules.
+These show the presence of bacteria, which convert the atmospheric
+nitrogen into a form in which the plants can use it. Scientific farmers
+have learned the value of inoculating their soil with these germs. A
+crop of peas or clover may produce the same result.</p>
+
+<p>4. Observe Nature's method of supplying soil with humus.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>SOIL-FORMING AGENTS</h4>
+
+<p>There was once a time when the surface of the earth was bare rock. Much
+of this rock still exists and in many places lies on the surface, but it
+is usually hidden by a layer of soil. Soil is said to be "rock ground to
+meal by Nature's millstones". The process is very slow, but it is
+constantly going on. The pupils should be directed to find evidences of
+this "grinding".</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="smcap">Running water</span>.&mdash;Brooks, creeks, rain, and the tiny streamlets on the
+hills all tell us how soil is carried from place to place. Get some
+muddy water from the river after a heavy rain. Let it settle in a tall
+jar and observe the fine layer formed.</p>
+
+<p>Wash some pebbles clean, place them in a glass jar with some clear
+water, and roll or shake the jar about for a few minutes. Note that the
+water becomes turbid with fine material worn from the stones. A process
+similar to this is constantly going on in rivers, lakes, and seas.
+Account for the presence of gravel beds now situated far away from any
+water.</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="smcap">Ice Glaciers</span>.&mdash;How do these act on rocks? Show evidences in Ontario
+as far as these can be illustrated from the surroundings, such as
+polished rocks, boulders, beds of clay, sand, or gravel, small lakes,
+grooved stones, etc.</p>
+
+<p>3. <span class="smcap">Frost and Heat</span>.&mdash;See "Expansion of Solids", pages 189, 190. Look for
+splintered or cracked stones. Why do farmers plough in the fall?</p>
+
+<p>4. <span class="smcap">Wind</span>.&mdash;In sections near the lakes the action of the wind in moving
+the sand may be seen and appreciated. There are other places where this
+work is going on on a smaller scale.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>5. <span class="smcap">Plants</span>.&mdash;Our study of humus shows the value of vegetable matter in
+soil. Besides contributing to the soil, plants break up rocks with their
+roots and dissolve them with acid excretions. It is interesting to study
+how a bare rock becomes covered with soil. First come the lichens which
+need no soil; on the remains of these the mosses grow. The roots of
+mosses and lichens help to disintegrate the rock with their excretions,
+so that, with frost, heat, air, and rain to assist, there is a layer of
+soil gradually formed on which larger plants can live. A forest
+develops. The trees supply shade from the sun and shelter from the wind,
+thus retarding evaporation. The roots of the trees hold the soil from
+being washed away. The dead leaves and fallen stems provide humus, and,
+on account of the water-holding capacity of humus, the forest floor acts
+like a sponge, preventing floods in wet seasons and droughts in dry
+times.</p>
+
+<p>6. <span class="smcap">Animals</span>.&mdash;Pupils should make a list of all burrowing animals and look
+for examples. The work of the earthworms is especially interesting. By
+eating the soil, they improve its texture and expose it to the air.
+Their holes admit air and water to the soil. The worms also drag leaves,
+sticks, and grass into their holes and thus add to the humus.</p>
+
+<p>Darwin estimated that the earthworms in England passed over ten tons of
+soil an acre through their bodies annually. This is left on the surface
+and makes a rich top-dressing.</p>
+
+<h4>TILLING THE SOIL</h4>
+
+<p>1. It makes the soil finer, thus increasing the surface for holding film
+water and enabling it to conduct more water by capillarity.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. It saves water from evaporation. (See Experiments 7 and 8, Form III.)</p>
+
+<p>3. It aerates the soil, enabling roots to thrive better.</p>
+
+<p>4. It drains (hence warms) the soil, assuring more rapid growth.</p>
+
+<p>5. It kills weeds.</p>
+
+<p>A large part of the work with soils may be done in connection with the
+garden studies, though most of the above mentioned experiments may be
+tried in the school-room. In ungraded schools any of the experiments may
+be made instructive to all the Forms.</p>
+
+<p>Pupils should be asked to acquaint themselves with the common implements
+used on the farm. They should ascertain the special service rendered by
+each. See <i>Circular 156</i>, Dominion Department of Agriculture.</p>
+
+<h4>GARDEN WORK</h4>
+
+<p>The work in gardening for Form IV should be connected with some definite
+line of experimental work. The garden should be so planned that a part
+of it can be used exclusively for experimental work. Co-operation with
+the Farmer's Experimental Union of the Ontario Agricultural College at
+Guelph is advisable at this point. The following list of experiments is
+suggested as suitable for boys especially, but no pupil should attempt
+more than one experiment each year.</p>
+
+<h4>EXPERIMENTS IN PLOTS OUT-OF-DOORS</h4>
+
+<p>Experimental plots may be of different sizes, according to the space
+available, from a yard square to a rod square or larger. A plot 10 ft. 5
+in. by 20 ft. 10 in. is almost 1/200 of an acre, so that the actual
+yield on such a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> plot when multiplied by 200 is an approximation of the
+yield an acre.</p>
+
+<p>1. Testing of varieties of grains, vegetables, or root seeds, including
+potatoes new to the district.</p>
+
+<p>2. Testing different varieties of clovers and fodder grasses. These
+plots should be so situated that they can remain for three years.</p>
+
+<p>3. Thick and thin sowing of grain: Use plots not less than four feet
+square. They may be tried most easily with wheat, oats, or barley,
+although any species of grain may be used. Use four plots of the same
+size, equal in fertility and other soil conditions. In No. 1 put grains
+of wheat or oats, as the case may be, two inches apart each way. In No.
+2 put the grains two inches apart in the row and the rows four inches
+apart. In No. 3 put the grains four inches apart in the row and the rows
+four inches apart. In No. 4 put the grains four inches apart in the row
+and the rows eight inches apart.</p>
+
+<p>If possible, weigh the straw and grain when cut and the grain alone when
+dry and shelled out of the heads.</p>
+
+<p>4. Deep and shallow growing of grain: Use four plots similar to those in
+experiment No. 3. Put the same amount of seed in the different plots. In
+No. 1, one inch deep; in No. 2. two inches deep; in No. 3, four inches
+deep, and in No. 4, six inches deep. Note which is up first, and which
+gives the best yield and best quality.</p>
+
+<p>5. Early and late sowing: Three plots are required. Plant the same
+amount of seed in each and cover to the same depth. Plant No. 1 as early
+as the soil can be made ready; No. 2, two weeks later; and No. 3, two
+weeks later than No. 2. Compare the quality and the yield.</p>
+
+<p>6. Effect of sowing clover with grain the first year: Only two plots are
+required. Sow the same amount of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> wheat or oats on each plot. On one
+plot put a moderate supply of red clover and none on the other. Weigh
+(or estimate), as in Experiment 3 above, the straw and the grain
+produced on each.</p>
+
+<p>7. Effect of a clover crop on the grain crop succeeding it the following
+year: The same two plots must be used as in No. 6. When the grain was
+cut the previous autumn, the plots should have been left standing
+without cultivation until spring. When the clover has made some growth,
+spade it down and prepare the other plot in the same way. Rake them
+level and sow the same amount of grain in each again. Weigh the crops
+produced on each.</p>
+
+<p>8. Test quality, yield, and time of maturity of several varieties of the
+same species. Samples of such varieties of wheat as Red Fife, White
+Fife, Preston, Turkey Red, Dawson's Golden Chaff, White Russian, etc.,
+may be obtained from the Central Experimental Farm at Ottawa, if not
+available in the district.</p>
+
+<p>9. Effect of different fertilizers (1) on the same crop, (2) on
+different crops: This can be done either out-of-doors in small plots or
+indoors, using pots or boxes.</p>
+
+<p>(1) Effect on the same crop: For example, oats on plots four feet
+square. The following standard fertilizers may be used: stable manure,
+nitrate of soda, muriate of potash, and bone meal.</p>
+
+<p>On plot No. 1, a dressing of stable manure,</p>
+
+<p>On plot No. 2, four oz. nitrate of soda,</p>
+
+<p>On plot No. 3, four oz. muriate of potash,</p>
+
+<p>On plot No. 4, eight oz. bone meal,</p>
+
+<p>On plot No. 5, two oz. nitrate of soda, two oz. muriate of potash, and
+four oz. bone meal.</p>
+
+<p>On plot No. 6, use no fertilizer. Record results.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(2) Effect on different crops: Try a series of experiments similar to
+the above, using (<i>a</i>) peas instead of oats, (<i>b</i>) using corn, (<i>c</i>)
+using cabbage, (<i>d</i>) using potatoes.</p>
+
+<h4>FUNCTION OF PARTS OF PLANTS</h4>
+
+<p>This may be introduced in Form III and continued in the next Form.
+Already the attention of the pupils has been directed to the essential
+organs of the flower, namely, stamens and pistil. They have noticed the
+two kinds of flowers on pumpkins, corn, and many trees. They have seen
+that only the pistillate flowers produce fruit and seeds, and that when
+the staminate flowers have shed their pollen, they die. They have seen
+the yellow dust that the stamens contain and have seen bees laden with
+it as they emerge from the heart of the flower. Have them watch the bee
+as it enters the flower and notice how it invariably rubs some part of
+its pollen-covered body against the pistil. When on the moist, sticky
+top of the pistil, these little pollen-grains soon begin to grow,
+sending a delicate tube down to the bottom of the pistil to the ovary.
+Inside the ovary are little bodies called the ovules that are moistened
+by a fluid that comes from this delicate pollen tube, and at once they
+begin to enlarge and eventually become the seeds. The coverings
+surrounding them complete the true fruit.</p>
+
+<p>The use of the root in supporting the plant in its normal position is
+apparent to every pupil. To demonstrate the firm hold it has upon the
+soil, have the pupils try to pull up some large plants by the roots.
+They will then notice the branching roots of some plants and the long
+conical roots of others. Compare the colour and other surface features
+of the root and stem. To prove its feeding power, try two plants of
+equal size, taking the root<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> off one and leaving it uninjured in the
+other. Set them side by side in moist earth and notice which withers.
+Take all the leaves off a plant and keep them off for a few weeks. The
+plant dies if its leaves are not allowed to grow. Keep it in the dark
+for a long time, and it finally dies even when water and soil are
+supplied. The leaves, therefore, are essential and require sunlight in
+doing their work. Their complete work will be considered later.</p>
+
+<h4>HOW THE PLANT GETS ITS FOOD FROM THE SOIL</h4>
+
+<p>When seeds germinate, the lower end of the caulicle, which becomes the
+root, bears large numbers of root-hairs. Inside the root-hairs is
+protoplasm and cell sap. These root-hairs grow among the soil particles
+which lie covered over with a thin film of moisture. It is this moisture
+that is taken up by these root-hairs, and in it is a small amount of
+mineral matter in solution which helps to sustain the plant. The
+transmission of soil water through the delicate cell walls of these
+root-hairs is known as <i>osmosis</i>.</p>
+
+<h4>GERMINATION OF SOME OF THE COMMON GRAINS</h4>
+
+<p>Make a special study of corn, wheat, and buckwheat. Take three plates
+and put moist sand in each to a depth of about half an inch. Spread over
+this a piece of damp cloth. Put in No. 1, one hundred grains of corn; in
+No. 2, the same number of grains of wheat; and in No. 3, the same number
+of grains of buckwheat, peas, or beans. Cover each plate with another
+piece of damp cloth and invert another plate over each to prevent drying
+out. Keep in a warm room and do not allow the cloths to become dry. If
+one of the cloths be left hanging six or eight inches<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> over the side of
+the plate and dipping into a dish of water, the whole cloth will be kept
+moist by capillarity. Note the following points:</p>
+
+<p>1. Changes in the size of the seeds during the first twenty-four hours.</p>
+
+<p>2. In which variety germination seems most rapid.</p>
+
+<p>3. The percentage vitality, that is, the number of seeds which germinate
+out of one hundred.</p>
+
+<p>4. The nature of the coverings and their use. (Protection to the parts
+inside)</p>
+
+<p>5. The parts of the seed inside. (Buckwheat, pea, or bean divides into
+two parts, which become greenish and are called seed leaves. Wheat and
+corn do not divide thus.)</p>
+
+<p>6. The first signs of growth. A little shoot or tiny plant begins to
+develop at one end of the seed. Note which end bears this tiny plant.</p>
+
+<p>7. Note the development of this embryo plant and the formation of stem
+and root.</p>
+
+<p>8. Of what use is the bulky part of the seed? To answer this, let the
+pupils separate the white part of a kernel of corn, which is attached to
+the embryo plant, from the pulpy mass surrounding it. Set five such
+plants in moist sand and also five germinating seeds not so dissected.
+Pupils will discover that the mass surrounding the embryo is for the
+nourishing of the embryo plant. It is a little store of food prepared by
+the mother plant for the little ones that grow from the seeds. Note that
+it disappears as the plant grows.</p>
+
+<p>To further show the great value of this stored plant food, put a
+large-sized pea in a pot of moist moss or sawdust for a few days. When
+it has germinated and its root is a couple of inches long, place the pea
+in a thistle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> tube or small funnel, with the root projecting down the
+tube into a glass of water in which the funnel tube rests. Place all in
+a sunny window and note how much growth the plant is able to make
+without any food except that which the seed contained.</p>
+
+<p>9. Note the development of the root and root-hairs. It is by means of
+these root-hairs that the plant absorbs moisture. The branching form of
+the root gives greater support to the plant and increased area for
+absorption of water by means of root-hairs.</p>
+
+<p>To show the direction taken by the root and also by the shoot, take a
+glass jar with straight sides like a battery jar (a large fruit jar will
+do); line it inside with a layer of blotting-paper and then fill it with
+moist sawdust. Drop seeds of sunflower or squash down between the paper
+and the glass. The moisture from the blotting-paper will cause them to
+sprout, the shoot or stem always taking an upward direction and the root
+turning downward quite regardless of the position in which the seeds
+were placed.</p>
+
+<p>10. Apply this study to seed planting: Plant seeds of wheat in four pots
+of soil, No. 1, half an inch deep; No. 2, two inches; No. 3, four
+inches; No. 4, six inches. Repeat this experiment, using buckwheat. What
+seeds are up first? What seeds last? Which are best after a week? After
+three or four weeks? From this experiment could you recommend a certain
+depth for the planting of wheat and buckwheat?</p>
+
+<p>11. Does the kind of soil make any difference? To answer this have
+different pupils choose different soils, such as (1) coarse sand, (2)
+fine sand, (3) wet clay, (4) humus or leaf mould, (5) mixed soil or
+loam; and let each put in grains of wheat, two inches deep.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Allow five other pupils to plant seeds of buckwheat, under similar
+conditions. Treat all pots alike as to time of watering and quantity of
+water used on each and give them all equal light and heat. Note which
+come up first. Which are highest in one week, in two weeks, in four
+weeks?</p>
+
+<p>12. This study may be continued in the garden by planting one plot each
+of corn, wheat, and buckwheat. Plots ten feet by twenty feet are large
+enough. Observe the rate of development in the plots. Which seems to
+mature most quickly? Which blossoms first? In what respect are the
+leaves of these plants alike or unlike? How do the stems differ?</p>
+
+<p>Examine the blossoming and seed formation. When the grains are ripe,
+collect a hundred of the best looking and most compact heads of each
+grain and also a hundred of the smallest heads of each. Dry, shell, and
+store the two samples of each grain in separate bottles. These samples
+are for planting the following spring.</p>
+
+<p>13. To show the need of moisture in germination: Fill two flower-pots or
+cans with dry sand; put seeds of sunflower in each, covering them an
+inch deep. Put water in one pot and none in the other. Examine both pots
+after two or three days.</p>
+
+<p>14. To show that heat is needed for germination of seeds: Plant
+sunflower seeds in two pots as above; place one in a warm room and the
+other in a cold room or refrigerator; water both and observe result in
+three days.</p>
+
+<p>15. To show that air is necessary for germination: Fill a pint sealer
+with hydrogen (the gas collected over water in the usual way, as shown
+in any Chemistry text-book). Put a few sunflower seeds in a small sponge
+or wrap them loosely in a piece of soft cloth. Keeping the mouth of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span>
+jar which has been inverted over water and filled with hydrogen, under
+the surface of the water, introduce the sponge containing the seeds, by
+putting it under the water and pushing it up into the jar. Seal the jar
+without letting the gas get out. Put some seeds in another jar in a wet
+sponge and leave the jar uncovered. Compare results after several days.</p>
+
+<p>Here is a second experiment to prove this. Boil some water in a beaker
+in order to drive out all the air, put a few grains of rice in the
+water, and then add enough oil to make a thin covering on the water.
+This covering will prevent air from mixing with the water again. Put
+some rice in a second beaker without boiling or adding the oil. Leave
+the beakers side by side in a warm room for a week. The seeds will not
+germinate in the boiled water. It is not always easy to get rice that
+will germinate, but when it has been procured, the experiment is easy
+and very interesting. Any other seeds, such as those of pond lily and
+eel-grass, that germinate readily under water, will do as well as rice.</p>
+
+<h4>WEEDS</h4>
+
+<p>Pupils in this Form should learn to identify a large number of weeds and
+weed seeds. The collecting and mounting of weeds and weed seeds the
+previous summer and autumn will have helped to prepare them for this
+work. In the spring, when flower and vegetable seeds are coming up in
+the garden, it is often difficult for pupils to distinguish the weeds
+from the useful plants. To help in this work of distinguishing the good
+from the bad, the teacher should arrange for a plot having, say, ten
+rows, one row for each variety of weed selected. Each row should be
+designated by a number instead of a name. The identification of these
+growing weeds by name may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> given as a problem to the pupils. This
+plot should remain until the pupils have observed the manner of growth
+of each variety, the blossoming and seed formation, and then the root
+growth, as they are being uprooted previous to the ripening of the seed.
+Each pupil should prepare a brief description of each of the ten
+varieties studied, and make drawings of the plant and its parts,
+especially the leaf, flower, seed, and root. They should learn the best
+methods of eradication and add these in their notes. <i>Farm Weeds</i> will
+be of great value in such weed studies.</p>
+
+<h4>VINES</h4>
+
+<p>Suitable garden vines for study are climbing nasturtium, scarlet runner
+bean, and Japanese hop. Their growth and method of climbing should be
+compared with that of the sweet-pea and morning-glory already studied.
+Observe particularly the kind of leaves and their arrangement, also the
+flowers and fruit. Observe also the gourd family&mdash;melon, cucumber, and
+squash&mdash;their tendency to climb, and the nature of their flowers and
+fruit.</p>
+
+<h4>WILD FLOWERS</h4>
+
+<p>In schools where the studies with garden plants, such as have been
+indicated, can be carried on, there will not be as much time for the
+study of wild flowers as in those schools where no garden plants are
+available. A definite list of wild flowers for study should be arranged
+by the teacher early in spring.</p>
+
+<p>The following are common in most parts of Ontario: squirrel-corn,
+Dutchman's breeches, blue cohosh, dog's-tooth violet, water-parsnip,
+catnip, and mallow. In each study observe the following points:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>1. Description of leaves and flowers for identification.</p>
+
+<p>2. Storing of food in underground parts.</p>
+
+<p>3. Time of flowering. (Pupils of this Form should keep a flower
+calendar.)</p>
+
+<p>4. Description of fruit and seeds and how these are scattered.</p>
+
+<p>5. Their location, and the character of the soil where found.</p>
+
+<p>Encourage the pupils to transplant a specimen of each from the woods to
+the school or home garden. Moist humus soil and partial shade are the
+best conditions for the growth of these wild wood flowers. Review the
+type lessons given already for Primary classes and apply the information
+thus gained to the observational study of the varieties of flowers named
+above.</p>
+
+<h4>PLANTING OF TREES, SHRUBS, AND HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS IN HOME AND SCHOOL
+GROUNDS</h4>
+
+<p>This work should be the outcome of the plans made in the winter. If each
+pupil does a little toward the carrying out of the scheme of planting,
+the grounds will soon be wonderfully improved. The teacher should guard
+against over-planting and arrange for the care of the shrubs and flowers
+during the summer holidays.</p>
+
+<p>New varieties of herbaceous perennials, grown from seed planted the
+previous summer or procured from homes in the vicinity, should be
+introduced. As most herbaceous perennials become too thick after a few
+years, it is necessary to keep digging some out year by year, dividing
+and resetting them, and fertilizing the ground.</p>
+
+<p>Native trees and shrubs should be placed so as to obscure undesirable
+views, such as closets and outbuildings,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> rough fences, or bare walls.
+This principle in planting should be observed in the case of trees.
+Evergreen trees are particularly desirable as screens and shelters from
+cold winds. No planting should be done, on the other hand, that would
+shut out a good view of the school or obscure a beautiful landscape. Too
+frequently unused corners of the school ground are covered with weeds.
+Prevent this by putting trees there and also shrubs. Keep all centres
+open, and let the trees, shrubs, and flowering perennials be massed
+about the corners and along the sides. The informal method of planting
+is to be preferred to formal planting of designs. The Public School
+Inspector will provide a copy of a departmental circular on the
+<i>Improvement of School Grounds</i>, which should be carefully studied by
+every teacher.</p>
+
+<h4>SHADE TREES</h4>
+
+<p>Consider suitable varieties to plant for shade and for ornamental
+effects. White elm, hard and soft maple, white birch, pines, and spruces
+are among the best. Elms and maples are excellent trees for roadside or
+street planting, and should be about forty feet apart. Spruces and pines
+may be planted five or six feet apart along the north and west, to act
+as a wind break. Otherwise, evergreens are best when planted in
+triangular clumps. White birch is particularly ornamental against a dark
+background of evergreens. Specimen trees of horse-chestnut, beech, ash,
+and hickory are also desirable.</p>
+
+<h4>TRANSPLANTING</h4>
+
+<p>The best time for transplanting trees is in the autumn after the leaves
+have fallen, or in the spring before the buds have opened.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In planting a tree, the following points should be observed:</p>
+
+<p>1. Preserve as much of the root system as possible, and trim off all
+broken or bruised portions.</p>
+
+<p>2. Do not expose the roots to sun or wind while out of the ground. This
+is especially important in transplanting evergreens.</p>
+
+<p>3. Reduce the top of the tree sufficiently to balance with the reduced
+root system.</p>
+
+<p>4. Set the tree a few inches deeper than it was before transplanting.</p>
+
+<p>5. Pack the best top soil closely about the roots, so as to exclude all
+air spaces, since these tend to dry the delicate roots.</p>
+
+<p>6. If the ground is very dry, water should be used in planting;
+otherwise it is of no advantage. Water the trees thoroughly once a week
+in dry weather during the first season.</p>
+
+<p>7. After planting, put a mulch or covering of fine straw, grass, or
+chips for two or three feet around the tree; or establish a soil mulch
+and keep down the grass by frequent cultivation. Grass roots dry out the
+soil.</p>
+
+<p>8. In the case of deciduous trees, have the lowest limbs at least seven
+feet from the ground. Evergreens, however, should never be trimmed, but
+should have their branches right from the ground up&mdash;this uninterrupted
+pyramid form is one of their chief beauties.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>ANIMAL STUDIES</h3>
+
+<h4>SCALE INSECTS</h4>
+
+<h4>SAN JOS&Eacute; SCALE</h4>
+
+<p>Certain districts in Ontario and especially those bordering on Lake Erie
+have suffered from the ravages of this scale on apple, peach, pear, and
+other orchard trees. A hand lens should be used in studying these
+insects, observations being carried on from May to September.</p>
+
+<p>Carefully examine the fruits and twigs of orchard trees for evidences of
+the presence of the scale, and learn to identify it and to recognize the
+damages resulting from its attacks.</p>
+
+<p>Observe the almost circular flat scale of a grayish colour and having a
+minute point projecting upward at its centre. The young insects which
+emerge from underneath these scales in the spring crawl around for a
+time, then become stationary, and each one secretes a scale under which
+it matures. The mature males have two wings but the mature females are
+wingless. Note the withering of fruit and twigs due to the insects'
+attacks and the minute openings in the skin of the twig, made by the
+insertion of the sucking mouth parts.</p>
+
+<p>Describe to the pupils how the insect was transported from Japan to
+America and how it is now spread on nursery stock. Give a brief account
+of its destructiveness in the orchards of Essex and Kent.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(Consult <i>Bulletin No. 153, Common Insects Affecting Fruit
+Trees and Fungus Diseases Affecting Fruit Trees</i>. Bethune &amp;
+Jarvis, Department of Agriculture, Toronto, free.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<h4>OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE</h4>
+
+<p>This is very common throughout the Province on apple and pear trees.
+Observe the unhealthy appearance of the leaves of the infested trees,
+the inferior quality of the fruit, and the gray scales shaped like tiny
+oyster-shells.</p>
+
+<p>The means of destroying these pests should be discussed. The Bulletins
+named above give detailed information in reference to spraying and
+fumigation.</p>
+
+<h4>CUTWORMS</h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(Consult <i>Bulletin 52</i>, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.)</p></div>
+
+<p>Cutworms are the larv&aelig; of medium-sized brown moths that fly at night.
+There are many species of cutworms, all of which are destructive to some
+forms of plants or grasses, grains, and vegetables.</p>
+
+<p>The larv&aelig; are rather thick, naked, worm-like forms. They burrow into the
+ground, but emerge at night to feed by cutting through the stems of
+tender plants or by feeding upon the leaves. For the most effective
+method of dealing with these refer to what is said on "Combating Garden
+Pests", Form II.</p>
+
+<p>When a field is known to be infested with cutworms, it is a good plan to
+spread poisoned clover or cabbage leaves over the ground before the seed
+is planted.</p>
+
+<h4>WHITE GRUBS</h4>
+
+<p>White grubs are large, fat, white larv&aelig; of June beetles. These beetles
+are the well-known large, brown, clumsy beetles that blunder into the
+house at night in May or June and drop with a thud upon the floor.
+Three<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> years are spent in the larval form, the grubs living underground
+and feeding on the roots of plants, especially the roots of grains and
+grasses.</p>
+
+<p>Since they are found chiefly in fields recently ploughed from grass,
+they may be held in check by rotation of crops and by fall ploughing,
+which exposes the larv&aelig; to the winter frosts.</p>
+
+<p>In May or June, when the adults are feeding on the foliage of fruit and
+shade trees, spraying the trees with London purple is quite effective
+for destroying the beetles before they have laid their eggs among the
+roots of the grass.</p>
+
+<p>Hogs destroy many larv&aelig; by rooting in the soil to find them for food.</p>
+
+<h4>CRAYFISH</h4>
+
+<p>Search for the crayfish in streams and ponds. Why is the crayfish hard
+to find? Hard to capture?</p>
+
+<p>Obtain a living crayfish from a pond or stream and place it in a jar of
+water or in an aquarium.</p>
+
+<p>The crayfish should not be placed in an aquarium containing insects and
+small fish which are to be kept, as it is fierce and voracious.</p>
+
+<p>The pupils should study the living animal, noting its habit of lurking
+under stones; the sweeping of the water with the feelers; the backward
+movement in swimming, produced by bending the tail sharply underneath
+the body; the walking by means of four pairs of legs, the great claws
+being used to turn the animal; the use of the great claws in seizing
+prey and holding food near the mouth; the movements of the small
+appendages under the front part of the animal and the water currents
+caused by these; the movements of the small appendages under the abdomen
+of the animal.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>FRESHWATER MUSSEL</h4>
+
+<p>The freshwater mussel&mdash;"clam" as it is usually called by
+school-boys&mdash;may be found in almost any stream.</p>
+
+<p>Place a mussel in the aquarium, and note the opening and closing of the
+valves of the shell; the hinge connecting the valves; the foot
+protruding from the shell; the movements by means of the foot; the
+mantle lobes lining the shell and visible at the open margins; the two
+siphons at the rear of the animal&mdash;water currents may be observed
+entering the upper and emerging from the lower of these. Infer uses for
+these currents. Touch the edge of the upper siphon and observe how
+quickly the shell is closed.</p>
+
+<p>Compare the mussel with the snail as to movements and shell.</p>
+
+<p>Compare also with the oyster and sea clam.</p>
+
+<p>Examine empty shells and notice the pearly layer of the shell, the
+action of the hinge, and the marks on the shell to which the muscles for
+closing the shell were attached.</p>
+
+<p>State all the means of protection that you have discovered the animal to
+possess.</p>
+
+
+<h3>BIRD STUDY</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(Consult <i>Bulletin 218. Birds of Ontario in Relation to
+Agriculture</i>, Nash. Department of Agriculture, free.)</p></div>
+
+<p>If the lessons in bird study which are prescribed for Forms I, II, and
+III have been successful, the pupils of Form IV should have a fair
+acquaintance with the habits of the common birds.</p>
+
+<p>A very interesting exercise is to hold a trial upon those birds which
+are viewed with suspicion or which are openly condemned as objectionable
+neighbours. A pupil is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> appointed to act as judge and other pupils give
+evidence. The evidence must be based upon the pupil's personal
+observations on the habits of the bird.</p>
+
+<p>The following birds are named, and brief descriptions of their habits
+are given as suggestions for materials for bird trials:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Robin</span>.&mdash;He steals small fruits, such as cherries, currants, etc. He is a
+cheerful, jolly neighbour, who sings sweetly. He eats great numbers of
+cutworms and white grubs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Crow</span>.&mdash;He robs the nests of other birds, and steals chickens, corn, and
+potatoes. He helps the farmer by killing cutworms, white grubs,
+grasshoppers, and other insects.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Woodpecker</span>.&mdash;The members of this family are grievously persecuted
+because they are believed to injure orchard and shade trees by pecking
+holes in the bark from which to suck the sap. Careful observations tend
+to show that the trees are benefited rather than injured by this
+treatment. Woodpeckers are undoubtedly beneficial as destroyers of
+wood-borers and other obnoxious insects.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Crow-blackbird</span> (bronzed grackle).&mdash;His habits are similar to those of
+the crow.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Owls</span>.&mdash;All the owls are held in ill repute because of the crimes of a
+few members of the family. Very seldom does an owl steal a chicken;
+their food consists chiefly of mice, rats, squirrels, grasshoppers, and
+other field pests.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hawks</span>.&mdash;The hawks are unjustly persecuted for crimes of which they are
+seldom guilty. As a class they are beneficial, not injurious birds.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF NATURE STUDY</h3>
+
+<p>There is a knowledge of Nature which contributes to the earning of a
+living. This is the <i>utilitarian</i> aspect.</p>
+
+<p>There is a knowledge of Nature which may be obtained in such a way as to
+develop the observing and reasoning powers and give a training in
+scientific method. This is the <i>disciplinary</i> aspect.</p>
+
+<p>There is a knowledge which leads the pupil to perceive the beautiful in
+Nature, to enjoy it and so add to his happiness. This is the <i>&aelig;sthetic</i>
+aspect.</p>
+
+<p>There is a knowledge of Nature which, through the life history of plant
+and animal, throws light on the pupil's own life, gives him an insight
+into all life in its unity, and leads him to look up reverently to the
+author of all life&mdash;through Nature up to Nature's God. This is the
+<i>spiritual</i> aspect.</p>
+
+<p>Each of these aspects supplements, interprets, or enforces the others.
+He who omits or neglects any of these perceives but a part of a complete
+whole. Nature Study develops in the pupil a sympathetic attitude toward
+Nature for the purpose of increasing the joy of living. It leads him to
+see Nature through the eyes of the poet and the moralist as well as
+through those of the scientist.</p>
+
+<p>Nature Study is concerned with plants, birds, insects, stones, clouds,
+brooks, etc., but it is not botany, ornithology, entomology, geology,
+meteorology, or geography. In this study, it is the spirit of inquiry
+developed rather than the number of facts ascertained that is important.
+Gradually it becomes more systematic as it advances until, in the high
+school, it passes over into the science group of studies.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>ILLUSTRATIONS OF THESE ASPECTS</h4>
+
+<p>The simple observational lessons on The Robin, pages 96-7, form the
+bases for further study in more advanced classes. This bird as a
+destroyer of worms, beetles, etc., is a valuable assistant to the farmer
+as, indeed, are practically all birds in this Province. Birds such as
+the duck, goose, partridge, etc., are valuable as food, and laws are
+made to protect them during certain seasons.</p>
+
+<p>The training in inference which a pupil receives in studying the parts
+of a plant or an animal and the adaptation of these parts to function is
+valuable. He studies the plant and the animal as living organisms with
+work to do in the world, and learns how what they do and their manner of
+doing it affect their form and structure.</p>
+
+<p>The short, curved, and slightly hooked bill of the hen and her method of
+breaking open a pea pod or splitting an object too large to swallow
+shows the bill to be a mallet, a wedge, or a pick as the case may be. A
+study of the bills of the duck, woodpecker, and hawk will reveal the
+method by which each gets his food and how the organ is adapted to its
+purpose. Similar studies of the feet and legs of birds will make the
+idea of adaptation increasingly clear.</p>
+
+<p>Literature is rich with tributes to the songs of the birds. The thoughts
+and feelings aroused or suggested by these songs are the topics of much
+of the world's enduring poetry. Longfellow, in his "Birds of
+Killing-worth" (<i>Tales of a Wayside Inn</i>) sings exquisitely of the use
+and beauty and worth of birds. Shelley, in his "Skylark", describes in
+glowing verse "the unbodied joy" that "singing still dost soar and
+soaring ever singest".<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> Wordsworth hears the blithe new comer, the
+Cuckoo, and rejoices</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Though babbling only to the vale<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Of sunshine and of flowers<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Thou bringest unto me a tale<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Of visionary hours.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The life story of a bird throws light on our own lives, puts us in
+sympathy with the lives of others, teaches kindness, teaches the duties
+and responsibilities of the higher to the lower, teaches respect for all
+life.</p>
+
+<p>Observe the helpless bird in its nest, helpless as a baby. See the care
+given by the mother and father to keep it warm till its down and
+feathers grow, to feed it till it is able to leave the nest. Watch the
+parents teaching it to fly by repeated short flights. Olive Thorn Miller
+in her <i>Bird Ways</i> gives a delightful sketch of the father robin
+teaching a young robin where to look for worms and how to dig them up.
+When that task was accomplished, his father began to give him "music
+lessons", that is, practice in imitating the Robin's song. Thus, the
+young bird was equipped to make a living and to enjoy life. The social
+life of birds, as they sing their matins, as they choose their mates, as
+they gather in flocks preparatory to migration, furnish many
+opportunities for indirect teaching on many of life's problems.</p>
+
+<p>The Ontario Readers contain many poems that may be used in connection
+with the Nature Study lessons. To supplement the observational studies
+of birds, read from the Third Reader, "The Robin's Song", "The
+Red-winged Blackbird", "The Sandpiper", "To the Cuckoo", "Bob White",
+"The Lark and the Rook", "The Poet's Song".</p>
+
+<p>In the Third Reader, the lessons on "The Fountain", "The Brook", "The
+Tide River", and "A Song of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> Sea" form a group that can be used in
+connection with lessons in geography. "A Song for April", "An Apple
+Orchard in the Spring", "The Gladness of Nature", "The Orchard", "A
+Midsummer Song", "Corn-fields", "The Corn Song", "The Death of the
+Flowers", "The Frost", "The Snow-storm", make another group to accompany
+a study of the seasons. A similar group may be selected from the Fourth
+Reader.</p>
+
+<p>The pupil who has made a study of a "brook" as a lesson in geography and
+defined it as "a small natural stream of water flowing from a spring or
+fountain" will, if he studies the following lines from Tennyson's "The
+Brook" and perceives by careful observation the descriptive accuracy and
+aptness of the words in italics, realize that the poet sees much that
+the geographer has not included in his definition.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">I <i>chatter</i> over stony ways,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">In little sharps and trebles,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I <i>bubble</i> into eddying bays,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">I <i>babble</i> on the pebbles.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i7">*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">I <i>slip</i>, I <i>slide</i>, I <i>gloom</i>, I <i>glance</i>.<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Among my skimming swallows;<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i7">*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">I <i>murmur</i> under moon and stars.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+
+<span class="i7">*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;*<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+
+<span class="i0">I <i>linger</i> by my shingly bars.<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">I <i>loiter</i> round my cresses.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Correlations such as these add greatly to the pupil's interest in this
+subject.</p>
+
+<p>Given a teacher with a love of out-of-door life, with observant eyes and
+ears, and the spirit that sympathizes with children's curiosity and
+stimulates inquiry, Nature Study will be a joy and an inspiration to
+pupils.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Teachers' Manuals: Nature Study, by 
+Ontario Ministry of Education
+
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Teachers' Manuals: Nature Study, by
+Ontario Ministry of Education
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ontario Teachers' Manuals: Nature Study
+
+Author: Ontario Ministry of Education
+
+Release Date: July 28, 2008 [EBook #26139]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS: NATURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, Josephine Paolucci and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net.
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS
+
+NATURE STUDY
+
+
+AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION
+
+
+TORONTO
+THE RYERSON PRESS
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, CANADA, 1915, BY
+THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION FOR ONTARIO
+Second Printing, 1918
+Third Printing, 1923
+Fourth Printing, 1924
+
+Transcriber's note: Minor typos have been corrected. Italics are
+indicated by subscripts (_) and bold words are indicated by tildes (~).
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                 PAGE
+PREFATORY NOTE                                                      1
+
+COURSE OF STUDY--DETAILS                                            3
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+The Aims of Nature Study; General Methods                          13
+  Concrete Material                                                15
+    Topics and material must suit the season;
+    matter suited to the child; use of the commonplace;
+    order of development of lesson; problems in observation;
+    note-books and records                                         15
+
+The School Garden                                                  19
+  Suggestions; Garden Expenses                                     20
+
+The Excursion                                                      23
+    Its value; difficulties; frequency;
+    suggestions for ungraded schools;
+    the teacher's excursions; a type excursion                     23
+  Collections                                                      29
+
+Animal Studies                                                     29
+  Domestic animals; references                                     29
+  Birds; references                                                30
+  Insects; insect collections                                      34
+  Butterfly and moth collections                                   37
+
+Plant Collections                                                  39
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+Physical Science Phase of Nature Study                             42
+
+Instructions and General Method                                    42
+    Value of such lessons; conditions under which experiments
+    should be performed                                            42
+    Correlations of physical science phase                         44
+  List of Reference Books and Bulletins on garden and plant
+  study, physical science, and animal study                        45
+
+Physical Science--Equipment for Forms III and IV                   47
+  Desirable apparatus                                              47
+
+Chemicals                                                          48
+
+Apparatus                                                          50
+  Grenet cells; decomposition apparatus; pneumatic trough;
+  spirit-lamp; barometer; hygrometer; hints                        50
+
+Time Apportioned to Nature Study                                   53
+
+
+CHAPTER III. FORM I: AUTUMN
+
+Garden Work                                                        54
+  Lessons on a Garden Plant--Pansy                                 55
+  Observation Exercises on the Dandelion                           57
+    Correlation with literature and reading                        59
+  Dwarf Nasturtium                                                 59
+
+Seeds                                                              60
+    Field exercise; class-room lesson based on the collection      60
+  Seed Dispersal                                                   61
+    Lesson on seeds that fly; correlations                         62
+
+Twigs and Buds                                                     62
+  Lesson on Twigs                                                  62
+    Further study of twigs; review lesson                          63
+  Lesson on Buds                                                   65
+    Review lesson; correlations                                    65
+
+Leaves                                                             66
+  Field exercises; class-room lesson on leaves                     66
+
+Garden Studies                                                     68
+  Studies in the Pupil's individual Plot                           68
+  Studies from the Garden as a Whole                               69
+
+Bulb Planting                                                      69
+  Lesson on Bulbs and Bulb Planting                                69
+    Planting the bulb                                              70
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. FORM I: WINTER
+
+Pet Animals                                                        72
+  The Rabbit--Lesson on; correlations                              72
+  The Domestic Cat--detailed study                                 75
+  The Pigeon--detailed study                                       76
+
+Winter-blooming Plants--Observation and care of                    78
+
+Trees                                                              79
+  Pines of the Locality                                            79
+  The White Pine                                                   79
+    Field exercises; class-room lesson                             79
+  The Elm--field exercise                                          82
+
+Domestic Animals                                                   83
+  The Horse; correlations                                          83
+
+Domestic Birds                                                     85
+  The Duck--class-room lesson                                      85
+
+
+CHAPTER V. FORM I: SPRING
+
+Garden Work                                                        87
+  Garden Studies--window garden                                    88
+
+Wild Flowers                                                       90
+  Recognition of Wild Flowers                                      91
+  Lesson in Outline--Bloodroot; correlations                       91
+
+Insect Study                                                       93
+  Cecropia, or Emperor-moth                                        93
+  Dragon-fly                                                       94
+  Other Conspicuous Insects                                        95
+
+Birds                                                              95
+  The Robin                                                        96
+    Field exercises; the nest, eggs, and young                     96
+  The Song-sparrow                                                 97
+    Field exercises; class-room lesson                             97
+
+The Sheep                                                          99
+  Problems for Field Work                                          99
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. FORM II: AUTUMN
+
+Bulb Planting Out-of-Doors                                        101
+  Bed for growing bulbs; planting of bulbs indoors                101
+
+Garden Work                                                       103
+  Seed selection; storing seeds;
+  harvesting and storing of garden crops; class-room lesson;
+  autumn cultivation                                              103
+
+Garden Studies                                                    106
+    Garden Records; correlations                                  107
+
+Climbing Plants                                                   108
+
+Trees                                                             109
+  Storing of Tree Seeds                                           110
+
+A Flower                                                          110
+  Type--Nasturtium                                                110
+
+Soil Studies                                                      112
+  Kinds of Soil                                                   112
+
+Animal Studies                                                    113
+  Bird Migration; correlations                                    113
+  Common Wild Animals                                             114
+    General method for field work                                 114
+  The Wood-chuck                                                  116
+  The Chipmunk--field exercises                                   117
+  The Eastern Swallow-tail Butterfly                              118
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. FORM II: WINTER
+
+Care of Plants in the Home                                        120
+
+Trees                                                             121
+  Collection of Wood Specimens                                    122
+
+Related Reading                                                   122
+
+The Dog                                                           123
+  Class-room lesson; observation exercises; correlations          123
+
+Lessons Involving Comparison                                      125
+  Cat and dog; experiments for assisting in the study
+  of the cat; comparison of the horse and cow                     126
+
+The Squirrel                                                      129
+  Field exercises; class-room lesson                              129
+
+Winter Birds                                                      130
+  Field exercises; class-room lesson; correlations                130
+
+Animals of the Zoological Gardens                                 132
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII. FORM II: SPRING
+
+Garden Work                                                       133
+  Combating Garden Pests                                          134
+    Cutworms; root-maggots; flea-beetles                          134
+  Seed Germination                                                135
+
+Plants for Individual Plots                                       137
+  Studies Based on Observations of Growing Plants                 137
+    Planting and care of sweet-peas                               138
+
+Wild Flowers                                                      139
+
+Weeds                                                             140
+
+The Apple Tree                                                    141
+  Field exercise; class-room lesson;
+  field exercise following class-room lesson                      141
+
+Bird Study                                                        143
+
+The Toad                                                          143
+  Field exercises; class-room lesson; detailed study;
+  life history of the toad                                        143
+
+The Earthworm                                                     147
+  Class-room lesson; references                                   148
+
+The Aquarium                                                      149
+  Aquarium Specimens                                              150
+    Mosquito; study of adult form; the development; references    150
+    Caddice-fly                                                   152
+
+Insects Suitable for Lessons in Form II                           153
+
+
+CHAPTER IX. FORM III: AUTUMN
+
+Garden Work                                                       154
+  Treatment of Fungi                                              154
+  Treatment of Insects--cabbage-worm                              156
+
+Plants                                                            158
+  Annuals, Biennials, and Perennials                              158
+    Class-room lesson                                             158
+  Garden Studies                                                  159
+    Annuals, biennials, perennials                                159
+  Special Study of Garden Plants                                  160
+    Sweet-pea; pumpkin; corn; correlations                        160
+
+Seed Dispersal--Lesson                                            164
+  Detailed Study of Seed Dispersal--class-room lesson             165
+    Seed collections; man as a disperser of seeds                 166
+
+The Sugar Maple--field exercises                                  168
+  Maple Leaves--class-room lesson; correlations                   169
+
+Weed Studies                                                      170
+  Observation lesson on weed seeds                                171
+
+Grasshopper--field exercises; class-room lesson                   172
+
+Aphides                                                           174
+
+Tomato Worm--the adult; the chrysalis                             175
+
+The Crow; correlations                                            177
+
+
+CHAPTER X. FORM III: WINTER
+
+Care of Plants in the Home                                        178
+  Plant Cuttings                                                  179
+    Selection of cuttings; potting of rooted cuttings             179
+
+Evergreens--class-room lesson                                     181
+
+Collection of Wood Specimens                                      182
+
+Related Reading                                                   183
+
+How Animals Prepare for Winter                                    183
+  Summary of Lessons; correlations                                184
+
+Chickens                                                          185
+  Conversation lesson; arithmetic lesson;
+  care and food of chickens                                       185
+
+Physical Science Phase of Nature Study                            188
+
+Solids, Liquids, and Gases                                        188
+  Change of State                                                 189
+  Expansion of Solids                                             189
+    Practical applications; questions for further investigation   190
+  Expansion of Liquids--applications                              192
+  The Thermometer                                                 193
+  Expansion of Air                                                194
+  Sources of Heat and Light                                       194
+    Notes for a Series of Lessons                                 194
+  Conduction--problems                                            196
+  Convection--problems, convection in gases; applications         198
+  Radiation of Heat--problems                                     199
+
+
+CHAPTER XI. FORM III: SPRING
+
+Window Boxes                                                      201
+
+Window Gardens                                                    201
+  Suitable Plants; Fertilizer                                     202
+
+Soil Studies--constituents                                        203
+
+Garden Work                                                       206
+  Tree Seeds                                                      207
+  Transplanting--flowers, vegetables, tree seedlings              208
+  Budding                                                         209
+  Cuttings--leaf cuttings, root cuttings, layering                211
+  Planting and Care of Herbaceous Perennials                      212
+  Garden Studies--biennials                                       212
+
+Wild Flowers                                                      213
+  Study of the Trillium                                           213
+    Class-room lesson on the specimens                            213
+
+Adaptations of Animals                                            215
+
+Bird Types                                                        217
+  Woodpeckers--the downy woodpecker; observations                 217
+  Flycatchers                                                     219
+  Wrens                                                           219
+
+Insect Types                                                      220
+  Cabbage-butterfly                                               220
+  Tussock-moth                                                    221
+  Potato beetle                                                   222
+    References                                                    222
+
+Fish--Observations; problems; references                          223
+
+
+CHAPTER XII. FORM IV: AUTUMN
+
+Garden Work                                                       225
+  Herbaceous Perennials from Seed                                 226
+
+Trees--Deciduous; references                                      227
+  Trees in Relation to their Environment                          228
+
+Fruits--Excursion to a well-kept orchard                          229
+  Small Fruits                                                    230
+
+Autumn Wild Flowers--Milkweed; correlations                       230
+
+Trees--The White Pine                                             232
+  Outline of a class-room lesson on the white pine;
+  correlations; references                                        235
+
+Apples--Comparative Lesson on Winter Varieties                    239
+  King, Baldwin, Northern Spy                                     239
+  Codling moth; references                                        240
+
+Some Common Animal Forms; references                              242
+  Centipeds and millipeds                                         243
+  Salamanders or newts                                            243
+  Spiders                                                         244
+
+Bird Studies                                                      245
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII. FORM IV: WINTER
+
+Forest Trees                                                      246
+  Evergreens; Wood Specimens                                      246
+
+Fruits                                                            247
+
+Weeds and Weed Seeds                                              248
+
+Physical Science Phase of Nature Study                            248
+  Water Pressure--exercises                                       248
+  Study of Air                                                    249
+    The barometer; the common pump; expansive
+    force of air; composition of air;
+    oxygen; carbon dioxide; impurities of air                     250
+  Solutions of Solids                                             255
+  Solutions of Liquids                                            256
+  Solutions of Gases                                              256
+  Limestone                                                       256
+  Carbon                                                          257
+  Hydrogen                                                        258
+  Magnets                                                         258
+  Electricity                                                     259
+  Steam                                                           260
+  Farm tools--machines; problems                                  260
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV. FORM IV: SPRING
+
+Method of Improving Home and School Grounds                       263
+  Making and Care of a Lawn; References                           264
+
+Soil Studies                                                      265
+  Weight                                                          265
+  Subsoils                                                        266
+  Fertilizers--experiments                                        268
+  Soil-forming Agents                                             268
+  Tilling the Soil                                                269
+  Garden Work--experiments in plots out-of-doors                  270
+  Function of Parts of Plants                                     273
+    How the plant gets its food from the soil;
+    germination of some of the common grains                      274
+  Weeds                                                           278
+  Vines                                                           279
+  Wild Flowers                                                    279
+  Planting of Trees, Shrubs, and Herbaceous
+    Perennials in Home and School Grounds                         280
+      Shade trees; transplanting                                  281
+
+Animal Studies                                                    283
+  Scale Insects                                                   283
+  San Jose scale; oyster-shell bark-louse; cutworms; white grubs  283
+  Crayfish                                                        285
+  Freshwater Mussel                                               286
+
+Bird Study                                                        287
+
+Different Aspects of Nature Study                                 288
+
+
+
+
+PREFATORY NOTE
+
+
+This Manual is placed in the hands of the teachers in the hope that the
+suggestions which it contains on lesson topics, materials, books of
+reference, and methods in teaching will be found helpful to all teachers
+and in particular to those who have had little or no instruction in
+Nature Study during their academic or professional training.
+
+The first Chapter of the Manual discusses topics which have general
+reference to the subject as a whole. The remaining part of the Manual
+deals more particularly with the subject in its application to the
+different Public and Separate School Forms. While this division of the
+matter into Forms is convenient for general classification, it is not to
+be regarded as arbitrary. Materials and methods of presentation suitable
+for one class of pupils in a certain Form might, under different
+conditions, be quite unsuitable for another class of pupils in the same
+Form. For example, work which would be suitable for a class in Form I
+made up of pupils admitted to a school at seven or eight years of age,
+after two years' training in a kindergarten where nature lessons
+received special attention, would not be suitable for a Form I class
+made up of pupils admitted to a school at five years of age with no such
+previous training. In selecting work for any class the teacher,
+therefore, should not be guided solely by the arbitrary divisions of the
+Manual, but should exercise his own judgment, taking into account his
+environment and the attainments of his pupils. To facilitate such a
+selection, page references are given in the details of the Course of
+Study, which in reality forms a detailed expansion of the Public and
+Separate School Course in Nature Study. By means of these references,
+the teacher may find, in any department of the subject, typical matter
+suited to the development of his pupils.
+
+The numerous type lessons that are contained in the Manual are intended
+to suggest principles of method that are to be applied in lessons upon
+the same and similar topics, but the teacher is cautioned against
+attempting to imitate these lessons. This error can be avoided by the
+teacher's careful preparation of the lesson. This preparation should
+include the careful study of the concrete materials that are to be used.
+The books, bulletins, etc., that are named in the Manual as references
+will be found helpful.
+
+To facilitate teaching through the experimental and investigation
+methods, special attention has been given to the improvising of simple
+apparatus from materials within the reach of every teacher.
+
+From the character of the subject the Course of Study must be more or
+less elastic, and the topics detailed in the programme are intended to
+be suggestive rather than prescriptive. It may be that, owing to local
+conditions, topics not named are among the best that can be used, but
+all substitutions and changes should be made a subject of consultation
+with the Inspector. The treatment of the subject must always be suited
+to the age and experience of the pupils, to the seasons of the year,
+accessibility of materials, etc. Notes should not be dictated by the
+teacher. Mere information, whether from book, written note, or teacher,
+is not Nature Study. The acquisition of knowledge must be made secondary
+to awakening and maintaining the pupil's interest in nature and to
+training him to habits of observation and investigation.
+
+As a guide to the minimum of work required, it is suggested that at
+least one lesson be taught from the subjects outlined under each general
+heading in the detailed Course of Study, with a minimum average of three
+lessons from the subjects under each general heading.
+
+
+
+
+PUBLIC AND SEPARATE SCHOOL
+
+COURSE OF STUDY
+
+DETAILS
+
+
+FORM I
+
+AUTUMN
+
+GARDEN WORK AND GARDEN STUDIES:
+
+Division of the garden plots, removal of weeds and observations on these
+weeds, identification of garden plants, observation lessons based on
+garden plants, selection of seeds, harvesting and disposing of the crop.
+(See pp. 54-9.)
+
+STUDY OF PLANTS:
+
+Class lessons based on a flowering garden plant, as pansy, aster,
+nasturtium; study of a field plant, as buttercup, goldenrod, dandelion.
+(See pp. 55-9.)
+
+Potted and garden plants: Observation lesson based on a bulb; planting
+bulbs in pots, or in the garden. (See pp. 69-71.)
+
+BIRDS AND CONSPICUOUS INSECTS:
+
+Identification of a few common birds, as robin, English sparrow,
+meadow-lark; observation lessons on the habits of these birds;
+collection of the adult forms, the larvae and the cocoons of a few common
+moths and butterflies, as emperor-moth, promothea moth, eastern
+swallow-tail butterfly. (See pp. 30-9 and 93-8.)
+
+COMMON TREES:
+
+Identification of a few common trees, as white pine, elm, maple;
+observations on the general shape, branches, leaves, and bark of these
+trees. (See pp. 62-7 and 79-82.)
+
+WINTER
+
+FARM ANIMALS, INCLUDING FOWLS:
+
+Habits and characteristics of a few domestic animals, as horse, cow,
+sheep, hen, duck; the uses of these animals, and how to take care of
+them. (See pp. 83-6.)
+
+PET ANIMALS:
+
+Observations on the habits, movements, and characteristics of pet
+animals, as cat, pigeon, bantam, rabbit, etc.; conversations about the
+natural homes and habits of these animals, and inferences upon their
+care. (See pp. 72-7.)
+
+COMMON TREES:
+
+Observations on the branching of common trees. (See pp. 79-82.)
+
+SPRING
+
+GARDEN WORK:
+
+Preparation, planting, and care of the garden plot; observations on the
+growing plants. (See pp. 87-90.)
+
+FLOWERS:
+
+Identification and study of a few spring flowers, as trillium,
+bloodroot, hepatica, spring-beauty. (See pp. 90-2.)
+
+BIRDS AND INSECTS:
+
+Identification and study of the habits of a few common birds, as
+song-sparrow, blue-bird, wren; observations of the form and habits of a
+few common insects, as house-fly, dragon-fly. (See pp. 30-3 and 93-9.)
+
+COMMON TREES:
+
+Observations on the opening buds of the trees which were studied in the
+Autumn. (See p. 65.)
+
+
+FORM II
+
+AUTUMN
+
+BIRDS AND INSECTS:
+
+Autumn migration of birds; identification and observations on the habits
+and movements of a few common insects, including their larval forms, as
+grasshopper, eastern swallow-tail butterfly. (See pp. 113-4 and 118-9.)
+
+ANIMALS OF THE FARM, FIELD, AND WOOD:
+
+Observations on the homes and habits of wild animals, as frog, toad,
+squirrel, ground-hog; habits and structures, including adaptive
+features, of domestic animals, as dog, cat, horse, cow. (See pp. 83 and
+123-30.)
+
+TREES OF THE FARM, ROADSIDE, WOOD, AND ORCHARD:
+
+Observations on the shapes, sizes, rate of growth, and usefulness of
+common orchard, shade, and forest trees, as apple, elm, horse-chestnut.
+(See pp. 109-10.)
+
+WILD FLOWERS AND WEEDS:
+
+Identification and study of a few common weeds, noting their means of
+persistence and dispersal. (See pp. 139-40.)
+
+CARE OF POTTED AND GARDEN PLANTS:
+
+Preparation of pots and garden beds for bulbs; selecting and storing
+garden seeds; observations on the habits of climbing plants, and
+application of the knowledge gained to the care required for these
+plants. (See pp. 101-9 and 120.)
+
+WINTER
+
+BIRDS:
+
+Identification of winter birds and study of their means of protection
+and of obtaining food. (See pp. 130-2.)
+
+ANIMALS OF THE FARM:
+
+Comparative study of the horse and cow, of the dog and cat, and of the
+duck and hen. (See pp. 123-8.)
+
+ANIMALS OF THE PARK AND ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN:
+
+Observations on the general structural features, noting the natural
+adaptations of such animals as bear, lion, deer, tiger, etc. (See p.
+132.)
+
+TREES:
+
+Winter study of trees, noting buds, branches, and foliage of spruce,
+cedar, horse-chestnut, etc. (See pp. 121-3.)
+
+SPRING
+
+BIRDS AND INSECTS:
+
+Observations on the structure, adaptations and development of insect
+larvae kept in an aquarium, as larva of mosquito, dragon-fly,
+caddice-fly; spring migration of birds. (See pp. 149-153.)
+
+ANIMALS OF THE FIELD AND WOODS:
+
+Observations on the forms, homes, habits, and foods of wild animals,
+continued. (See pp. 114-8, 143-9.)
+
+ORCHARD TREES:
+
+The buds and blossoms of apple, and cherry or plum, observed through the
+stages up to fruit formation. (See pp. 141-3.)
+
+EXPERIMENTS IN THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS:
+
+Germination of seeds and general observations on the stages of
+development; testing the conditions required for seed germination;
+introductory exercises in soil study as a preparation for seed planting.
+(See pp. 133-8 and 112-3.)
+
+WILD FLOWERS AND WEEDS:
+
+Field and class-room study of marsh marigold, Jack-in-the-pulpit,
+violet, etc. (See pp. 139-40.)
+
+
+FORM III
+
+AUTUMN
+
+BIRDS AND INSECTS:
+
+Observations on the habits and the ravages of common noxious insects, as
+cabbage-worm, grasshopper, tussock-moth, etc.; discussion of means of
+checking these insects. (See pp. 156-7 and 172-7.)
+
+FARM AND WILD ANIMALS OF THE LOCALITY:
+
+Field study and class-room lessons on the habits and structure,
+including adaptive features, of common animals, as musk-rat, fox, fish,
+sheep. (See pp. 99 and 183-5.)
+
+GARDEN AND EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS:
+
+Harvesting of garden and field crops; preparation of cuttings from
+geraniums, begonia, currant, etc.; identification of garden plants; seed
+dispersal. (See pp. 154, 179-80, and 164-8.)
+
+STUDY OF COMMON FLOWERS, TREES, AND FRUITS:
+
+Characteristics of annuals, biennials, and perennials; life histories of
+common plants, as sweet-pea, Indian corn, etc. (See pp. 158-64 and
+168-70.)
+
+STUDY OF WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION:
+
+Identification of the common noxious weeds of the locality; collection,
+description, and identification of weed seeds; cause of the prevalence
+of the weeds studied, and means of checking them. (See pp. 164-8 and
+170-2.)
+
+WINTER
+
+FARM AND WILD ANIMALS OF THE LOCALITY:
+
+Habits and instincts of common domestic animals, as fowls, sheep, and
+hogs; the economic values of these animals. (See pp. 185-8.)
+
+GARDEN WORK AND EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS:
+
+The characteristics of common house plants, and care of these plants.
+(See pp. 178-9.)
+
+STUDY OF COMMON FLOWERS, TREES, AND FRUITS:
+
+Comparative study of common evergreens, as balsam, spruce, hemlock,
+etc.; collection of wood specimens. (See pp. 181-3.)
+
+OBSERVATIONS OF NATURAL PHENOMENA:
+
+Simple experiments to show the nature of solids, liquids, and gases.
+(See pp. 188-9.)
+
+HEAT PHENOMENA:
+
+Source of heat, changes of volume in solids, liquids, and gases,
+accompanying changes in temperature; heat transmission; the thermometer
+and its uses. (See pp. 189-200.)
+
+SPRING
+
+BIRDS AND INSECTS:
+
+Field and class lessons on the habits, movements, and foods of common
+birds, as crow, woodpecker, king-bird, phoebe, blackbird, etc. (See pp.
+217-22.)
+
+GARDEN WORK AND EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS:
+
+Care of garden plots; transplanting; testing best varieties; making of,
+and caring for, window boxes; propagation of plants by budding,
+cuttings, and layering. (See pp. 201-3 and 208-13.)
+
+COMMON WILD FLOWERS:
+
+Field lessons on the habitat of common wild flowers; class-room study of
+the plant organs including floral organs; study of weeds and weed seeds
+continued, also the study of garden and field annuals, biennials, and
+perennials. (See Autumn.) (See pp. 170-2 and 212-5.)
+
+SOIL STUDIES AND EXPERIMENTS:
+
+The components of soils, their origin, properties, and especially their
+water absorbing and retaining properties; the relation of soils to plant
+growth; experiments demonstrating the benefits of mulching and of
+drainage. (See pp. 203-6.)
+
+
+FORM IV
+
+AUTUMN
+
+INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL INSECTS AND BIRDS:
+
+Identification of common insects and observations on their habits; means
+of combating such insects, as codling moth, etc.; bird identification,
+and study of typical members of some common families, as woodpeckers,
+flycatchers; spiders. (See pp. 217-22 and 240-5.)
+
+ORNAMENTAL AND EXPERIMENTAL GARDEN PLOTS:
+
+Observations and conclusions based upon experimental plots; common
+shrubs, vines, and trees, and how to grow them. (See pp. 225-30 and
+279.)
+
+FUNCTIONS OF PLANT ORGANS:
+
+Simple experiments illustrating roots as organs of absorption, stems as
+organs of transmission, and leaves as organs of respiration,
+transpiration, and food building. (See pp. 273-8.)
+
+ECONOMIC STUDY OF PLANTS:
+
+Comparative study of varieties of winter apples, of fall apples, or of
+other fruits of the locality; visits to orchards; weed studies
+continued. (See Form III.) (See pp. 229-30 and 239-40.)
+
+RELATION OF SOIL AND SOIL TILLAGE TO FARM CROPS:
+
+Soil-forming agents, as running water, ice, frost, heat, wind, plants,
+and animals, and inferences as to methods of tillage. (See pp. 268-70.)
+
+WINTER
+
+AIR AND LIQUID PRESSURE:
+
+Simple illustrations of the buoyancy of liquids and of air; simple tests
+to demonstrate that air fills space and exerts pressure; the application
+of air pressure in the barometer, the common pump, the bicycle tire,
+etc. (See pp. 248-52.)
+
+OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE:
+
+Generate each of these gases and test for properties, as colour, odour,
+combustion, action with lime-water; the place occupied by these gases in
+nature. (See pp. 252-5.)
+
+PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF HEAT, STEAM, AND ELECTRICITY:
+
+Making a simple voltaic cell, an electro-magnet, and a simple
+electroscope. Test the current by means of the two latter and also with
+an electric bell. Explain the application of the above in the electric
+telegraph and motor. Simple demonstration of pressure of steam; history
+and uses of the steam-engine. (See pp. 259-60.)
+
+SPRING
+
+INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL INSECTS AND BIRDS:
+
+Identification of noxious insects and observations thereon; study of
+representatives of common families of birds, as thrushes, warblers,
+sparrows; economic values of birds. (See pp. 283-5 and 286-7.)
+
+AQUATIC ANIMALS:
+
+Observation exercises upon the habits, movements, and structures,
+including adaptive features of aquatic animals, as crayfish, mussel,
+tadpole, etc. (See pp. 285-6.)
+
+ORNAMENTAL AND EXPERIMENTAL GARDEN PLOTS:
+
+Experimental plots demonstrating the benefits of seed selection;
+ornamental plots of flowering perennials and bulbous plants; how to
+improve the school grounds and the home lawns. (See pp. 270-3 and
+263-5.)
+
+TREE STUDIES:
+
+Comparison of the values of the common varieties of shade trees, how to
+plant and how to take care of shade trees. (See pp. 280-2.)
+
+THE FUNCTIONS OF PLANT ORGANS:
+
+Examination of the organs of common flowers; use of root, flower organs,
+fruit, and seed. (See pp. 273-8.)
+
+ECONOMIC STUDY OF PLANTS:
+
+Plants of the lawn and garden; weed studies. (See pp. 263-5, 270-3, and
+278-9.)
+
+RELATION OF SOIL AND SOIL TILLAGE TO FARM CROPS:
+
+Study of subsoils; capillarity in soils; benefits of crop rotations and
+mulching; experiments in fertilizing, mulching, depth of planting, and
+closeness of planting. (See pp. 265-7.)
+
+
+
+
+NATURE STUDY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+
+THE AIMS OF NATURE STUDY
+
+Nature Study means primarily the study of natural things and preferably
+of living things. Like all other subjects, it must justify its position
+on the school curriculum by proving its power to equip the pupil for the
+responsibilities of citizenship. That citizen is best prepared for life
+who lives in most sympathetic and intelligent relation to his
+environment, and it is the primary aim of Nature Study to maintain the
+bond of interest which unites the child's life to the objects and
+phenomena which surround him. To this end it is necessary to adapt the
+teaching, in matter and method, to the conditions of the child's life,
+that he may learn to understand the secrets of nature and be the better
+able to control and utilize the forces of his natural environment.
+
+At all times, the teacher must keep in mind the fact that it is not the
+quantity of matter taught but the interest aroused and the spirit of
+investigation fostered, together with carefulness and thoroughness,
+which are the important ends to be sought. With a mind trained to
+experiment and stimulated by a glimpse into nature's secrets, the worker
+finds in his labour a scientific interest that lifts it above drudgery,
+while, from a fuller understanding of the forces which he must combat
+or with which he must co-operate, he reaps better rewards for his
+labours.
+
+The claims of Nature Study to an educative value are based not upon a
+desire to displace conventional education, but to supplement it, and to
+lay a foundation for subsequent reading. Constant exercise of the senses
+strengthens these sources of information and develops alertness, and at
+the same time the child is kept on familiar ground--the world of
+realities. It is for these reasons that Nature Study is frequently
+defined as "The Natural Method of Study". Independent observation and
+inference should be encouraged to the fullest degree, for one of the
+most important, though one of the rarer accomplishments of the modern
+intellect, is to think independently and to avoid the easier mode of
+accepting the opinions of others. Reading from nature books, the study
+of pictures, and other such matter, is not Nature Study. These may
+supplement Nature Study, but must not displace the actual vitalizing
+contact between the child and natural objects and forces.
+
+It is this contact which is at the basis of clear, definite knowledge;
+and clearness of thought and a feeling of at-homeness with the subject
+is conducive to clearness and freedom of expression. The Nature Study
+lesson should therefore be used as a basis for language lessons.
+
+Undoubtedly one of the most important educative values that can be
+claimed for Nature Study is its influence in training the pupil to
+appreciate natural objects and phenomena. This implies the widening and
+enriching of human interests through nurturing the innate tendency of
+the child to love the fields and woods and birds; the checking of the
+selfish and destructive impulses by leading him to see the usefulness of
+each creature, the harmony of its relation to its environment, and the
+significance of its every part. Nor is it a mistake to cultivate the
+more sentimental love of nature which belongs to the artist and the
+poet. John Ruskin emphasizes this value in these words: "All other
+efforts are futile unless you have taught the children to love trees and
+birds and flowers".
+
+
+GENERAL METHODS IN NATURE STUDY
+
+
+CONCRETE MATERIAL
+
+It is evident that concrete material must be provided and so distributed
+that each member of the class will have a direct opportunity to exercise
+his senses, and, from his observations, to deduce inferences and form
+judgments. The objects chosen should be mainly from the common things of
+the locality. The teacher should be guided in the selection by the
+interests of the pupils, first finding out from them the things upon
+which they are expending their wonder and inquiry. Trees, field crops,
+flowers, birds, animals of the parks, woods, or farmyard, all form
+suitable subjects for study.
+
+TOPICS AND MATERIAL MUST SUIT THE SEASON
+
+The material should be selected not only with reference to locality but
+also with due regard to season. For example, better Nature Study lessons
+can be taught on the elm tree of the school grounds than on the giant
+Douglas fir of British Columbia; and on the oriole whose nest is in the
+elm tree than on the eagle portrayed in Roberts' animal stories; and it
+is manifestly unwise to teach lessons on snow in summer, or on flowers
+and ants in winter.
+
+MATTER MUST BE SUITED TO THE CHILD
+
+For the urban pupil the treatment of the material must be different from
+that in the case of the pupil of the rural school. Rural school pupils
+have already formed an extensive acquaintance with many plants and
+animals which are entirely unknown to the children of the city. The
+simpler facts which are interesting and instructive to the pupils of the
+urban classes would prove commonplace and trivial to rural pupils. For
+example, while it is necessary to show the city child a squirrel that he
+may learn the size, colour, and general appearance of the animal, the
+efforts of the pupil of the rural school should be directed to the
+discovery of the less evident facts of squirrel life.
+
+USE OF THE COMMONPLACE
+
+It must be kept in mind that besides leading the pupils to discover new
+sources of interest, the teacher should strive to accomplish that which
+is even greater, namely, to lead them to discover new truth and new
+beauty in old, familiar objects. It may be true that "familiarity breeds
+contempt" and there is always a danger that the objects with which
+children have associated in early life may be passed by as uninteresting
+while they go in search of something "new and interesting".
+
+For example, to be able to recognize many plants and to call them by
+name is no doubt something of an accomplishment, but it should not be
+the chief aim of the teacher in conducting Nature Study lessons on
+plants. It is of much greater importance that the child should be led to
+love the flowers and to appreciate their beauty and their utility. Such
+appreciation will result in the desire to protect and to produce fine
+flowers and useful plants, and this end can be reached only through
+intelligent acquaintanceship. There can be no true appreciation without
+knowledge, and this the child gets chiefly by personal observation and
+experiment. With reference to the wild flowers of the woods and fields,
+the method employed is that of continuous observation.
+
+ORDER OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE LESSON
+
+Each animal or plant should be studied as a living, active organism. The
+attention of the pupils should be focused upon activities; for these
+appeal to the child nature and afford the best means for securing
+interest and attention. What does this animal do? How does it do it? How
+is it fitted for doing this? How does this plant grow? What fits it for
+growing in this way? These are questions which should exercise the mind
+of the child. They are questions natural in the spirit of inquiry in
+child nature and give vitality to nature teaching. They are an effective
+means of establishing a bond of sympathy between the child and nature.
+The child who takes care of a plant or animal because it is his own,
+does so at first from a purely personal motive, which is perfectly
+natural to childhood; but while he studies its needs and observes its
+movements and changes, gradually and unconsciously this interest will be
+transferred to the plant or animal for its own sake. The nature of the
+child is thus broadened during the process.
+
+PROBLEMS IN OBSERVATION
+
+In studying the material provided, whether it be in the class-room, or
+during a nature excursion, or by observations made in the farmyard at
+home, the teacher must guide the efforts of the pupils by assigning to
+them definite and suitable problems. Care must be taken to reach the
+happy mean of giving specific directions without depriving the pupils of
+the pleasure of making original discovery. For example, instead of
+asking them to study the foot of the horse and learn all they can about
+it, more specific problems should be assigned, such as: Observe how the
+hoof is placed on the ground in walking. What are the arrangements for
+lessening the shock when the hoof strikes the ground? Examine the under
+surface of the hoof and discover what prevents the unshod horse from
+slipping.
+
+NOTE-BOOKS AND RECORDS
+
+In Grades higher than Form I, written exercises should be required and
+also sketches representing the objects studied. For this purpose a
+Nature Study note-book is necessary--a loose-leaf note-book being
+preferable because of necessary corrections, rearrangements, additions,
+or omissions.
+
+In all records and reports, independence of thought and of expression
+should be encouraged. The drawing and the oral or written description
+should express what is actually observed, not what the book or some
+member of the class says has been, or should be, observed. The
+descriptions should be in the pupil's own words, because these are most
+in keeping with his own ideas on the subject. More correct forms of
+expression may be obtained when notes are taken from the teacher's
+dictation, but this is fatal to the development of originality.
+
+The disparity of the results in individual work gives opportunity for
+impressing upon the pupil, in the first place, the necessity for more
+accurate observation and, secondly, the impossibility of reaching a
+correct general conclusion without having studied a large number of
+examples. The development of critical and judicious minds, which may
+result from carefully observing many examples and generalizing from
+these observations, is vastly more important than the memorizing of many
+facts.
+
+
+THE SCHOOL GARDEN
+
+In the study of garden plants there is added a certain new interest
+arising out of experimentation, cultivation, and ownership. The love of
+the gardener has in it elements that the love of the naturalist does not
+usually possess--a sort of paternal love and care for the plants
+produced in his garden; but every gardener should be a naturalist as
+well. Most people have a higher appreciation for that which they own and
+which they have produced or acquired at some expense or personal
+sacrifice; therefore it is that the growing of plants in home and school
+gardens or in pots and window boxes is so strongly advocated throughout
+this Course. Ownership always implies responsibility, which is at once
+the chief safeguard of society and the foundation of citizenship. A
+careless boy will never respect the property of others so much as when
+he himself has proprietary interests involved. We believe, therefore,
+that every teacher should encourage his pupils to cultivate plants and,
+if possible, to own a plot of ground however small.
+
+The teacher should not merely aim at _making_ a garden in the school
+grounds. The great question is rather how best to use a school garden in
+connection with the training of boys and girls. To learn to do garden
+work well is indeed worth while and provides a highly beneficial kind of
+manual training. To understand something of soils and methods of
+cultivation, of fertilizers and drainage, the best kinds of flowers,
+vegetables, fruits, and farm crops, and how to grow them successfully,
+is very important in such a great agricultural country as this; but the
+greatest of all results which we may hope to realize in connection with
+school gardening is the ennobling of life and character. The pupils are
+taught to observe the growing plants with great care, noting
+developments day by day. This adds to their appreciation of the beauties
+and adaptations found among plants on every side, and cannot fail to
+produce good results in moral as well as in mental development. The
+teachers must always remember that the gardeners with whom they are
+working are more important than the gardens which they cultivate.
+
+The best garden is not always the largest and most elaborate one. It is
+rather the garden that both teacher and pupils have been most deeply
+interested in. It is the garden in which they have experienced most
+pleasure and profit that makes them want to have another better than the
+last. No school is too small to have a garden of some kind, and no
+garden is too small to become the joy and pride of some boy or girl.
+
+SUGGESTIONS
+
+For the benefit of teachers beginning their duties on the first of
+September, in school sections where school gardening has never been
+carried on, the following suggestions are offered:
+
+1. See if the grounds will permit of a part being used for a garden. To
+ascertain this, note the size of the present grounds and see if they
+meet the requirements of the Department as laid down in the Regulations.
+If they do not, consult your Inspector at once and acquaint him with
+your plans. If the grounds are to be enlarged, try to take in sufficient
+land of good quality to make a good garden. The part chosen for the
+garden should be both convenient and safe. Examine the soil to see if it
+is well drained and sufficiently deep to permit of good cultivation.
+Lack of fertility can be overcome by good fertilizing.
+
+2. See that the fences and gates are in good repair. When circumstances
+will permit, a woven wire fence that will exclude dogs, pigs, and
+poultry is most desirable. If not used to inclose the whole grounds, it
+should at least inclose the part used for gardening.
+
+3. Begin modestly and provide room for extension as the work progresses.
+Sow clover on the part to be held in reserve for future gardening
+operations.
+
+4. If local public sentiment is not strongly in favour of school
+gardening, or is somewhat adverse, begin on a small scale. If the work
+is well done, you will soon have both moral and financial support.
+
+5. See that the land is well drained. Plough it early in the autumn and,
+if a load of well-rotted manure is available, spread it on the land
+before ploughing. Commercial fertilizer may also be used on the plots
+the following spring, but no stable manure.
+
+6. In spring, when dry enough, cultivate thoroughly with disc and drag
+harrows. Build up a compost heap in the rear of the garden with sods and
+stable manure, for use in the autumn and also the following spring.
+
+GARDEN EXPENSES
+
+In connection with those schools where the teacher holds a diploma from
+the Ontario Agricultural College in Elementary Agriculture and
+Horticulture, there is no difficulty in meeting the expenses for seeds,
+tools, fertilizers, and labour, as the Government grant for such
+purposes is sufficient. In other schools, however, where the teacher
+holds no such diploma (and such is the case in most of the schools as
+yet), other means of meeting the expenses must be resorted to. The
+following are offered as suggestions along this line:
+
+1. Part of the grant made to every school for the maintaining of the
+school grounds should be available for school garden expenses.
+
+2. An occasional school entertainment may add funds that could not be
+used to better advantage.
+
+3. An occasional load of stable manure supplied free from neighbouring
+farms will help to solve the fertilizer problem.
+
+4. Donations of plants and seeds by the parents and other interested
+persons and societies will be forthcoming, if the teacher is in earnest
+and his pupils interested.
+
+5. If it is required, the trustees could make a small grant each year
+toward the cost of tools.
+
+6. Fencing and cultivation of the garden can often be provided for by
+volunteer assistance from the men of the school section.
+
+7. It is often possible to grow a garden crop on a fairly large scale,
+the school being formed into a company for this purpose and the proceeds
+to be used to meet garden expenses.
+
+8. The pupils can readily bring the necessary tools from home for the
+first season's work.
+
+9. Many Agricultural and Horticultural societies offer very substantial
+cash prizes for school garden exhibits, and all funds so obtained should
+be used to improve the garden from which the exhibits were taken.
+
+10. An earnest, resourceful teacher will find a way of meeting the
+necessary expenses.
+
+
+THE EXCURSION
+
+Nature Study is essentially an outdoor subject. While it is true that a
+considerable amount of valuable work may be done in the class-room by
+the aid of aquaria, insectaria, and window boxes, yet the great book of
+nature lies outside the school-house walls. The teacher must lead or
+direct his pupils to that book and help them to read with reverent
+spirit what is written there by its great Author.
+
+~Value.~--The school excursion is valuable chiefly because it brings the
+pupil into close contact with the objects that he is studying, permits
+him to get his knowledge at first hand, and gives him an opportunity of
+studying these objects in their natural environment. Incidentally the
+excursion yields outdoor exercise under the very best conditions--no
+slight advantage for city children especially; and it gives the teacher
+a good opportunity to study the pupils from a new standpoint. It also
+provides a means of gathering Nature Study material.
+
+~Difficulties.~--Where is the time to be found? How can a large class of
+children be managed in the woods or fields? If only one class be taken,
+how, in an ungraded school, are the rest of the children to be employed?
+Will the excursion not degenerate into a mere outing? What if the woods
+are miles away? These are all real problems, and the Nature Study
+teacher, desirous of doing his work well, will have to face some of them
+at least.
+
+SHORT EXCURSIONS
+
+The excursion need not occupy much time. It should be well planned
+beforehand. _One_ object only should be kept in view and announced to
+the class before starting. Matters foreign or subordinate to this
+should be neglected for the time. The following are suggested as objects
+for excursions:
+
+~Objects.~--A bird's nest in an adjacent meadow; a ground-hog's hole; a
+musk-rat's home; crayfish or clams in the stream near by; a pine (or
+other) tree; a toad's day-resort; the soil of a field; the pests of a
+neighbouring orchard; a stone-heap or quarry; ants' nests or earthworms'
+holes; the weeds of the school yard; buds; the vegetable or animal life
+of a pond; sounds of spring; tracks in the snow; a spider's web.
+
+Such excursions may be accomplished at the expenditure of very little
+time. Many of them will take the pupils no farther than the boundaries
+of the school yard.
+
+Of course the locality will influence the character of the excursion, as
+it will that of the whole of the work done in Nature Study, but in any
+place the thoughtful teacher may find material for open-air work at his
+very door.
+
+Much outside work can be done without interfering with the regular
+programme. The teacher may arrange a systematic list of questions and
+problems for the pupils to solve from their own observations, and these
+observations may be made by the pupils at play hours, or while coming or
+going from school, or on Saturdays. The following will serve as an
+example of the treatment that may be followed:
+
+~Pests of Apple Trees.~--Look on the twigs of your apple trees for little
+scales. Bring an infected branch to school. Note whether
+unhealthy-looking or dead branches are infected. Examine scales with a
+lens. Loosen one, turn it over, and examine with a lens the under side.
+
+For eggs, look closely at the twigs in June. Do you see white specks
+moving? If so examine them with a lens.
+
+Are there any small, prematurely ripe apples on the ground in the
+orchard? Cut into one of these and look for a "worm". Look for apples
+with worm holes in the side. Are there worms in these apples? What is in
+them? Note the dirty marks that the larva has left. Keep several apples
+in a close box and watch for the "worms" to come out. Examine the bark
+of apple trees for pupae in the fall.
+
+FREQUENCY OF EXCURSIONS
+
+As to the frequency of excursions, the teacher will be the best judge.
+It is desirable that they occur naturally in the course of the Nature
+Study work as the need for them arises. One short trip each week with a
+single object in view is much more satisfactory than a whole afternoon
+each term spent in aimless wandering about the woods.
+
+EXCURSIONS TO A DISTANCE
+
+Long-distance excursions will of necessity be infrequent. If the woods
+are far away, one such trip in May or June would prove valuable to
+enable the pupils to become acquainted with wild flowers, and another in
+October to gather tree seeds, autumn leaves, pupae, and other material
+for winter study. When a large class is to be taken on an excursion,
+preparations must be made with special care. The teacher and one or two
+assistants should go over the ground beforehand and arrange for the work
+to be done. Some work must be given to every pupil, and prompt obedience
+to every command and signal must be required. The class, for example,
+may decide to search a small wood or meadow to find out what flowers are
+there. The pupils should be dispersed throughout the field to hunt for
+specimens and to meet at a known signal to compare notes.
+
+SUGGESTIONS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS
+
+1. The teacher may take all the classes, choosing an object of study
+from which he can teach lessons suitable to all ages, a bird's nest, for
+example.
+
+2. In many sections, the little ones are dismissed at 3.30 p.m.
+Opportunity is thus given for an excursion with the seniors.
+
+3. The older pupils may be assigned work and left in charge of a
+monitor, elected by themselves, who shall be responsible for their
+conduct, while the teacher is working outside with the lower Forms.
+
+4. Boys who are naturally interested in outdoor work should be
+encouraged to show the others anything of interest they may have found.
+
+5. An occasional Saturday excursion may be arranged.
+
+~Discipline.~--The teacher should insist on making the excursion a serious
+part of the school work, not merely recreation. School-room behaviour
+cannot be expected, but the boisterous conduct of the playground should
+give place to earnest expectancy. The pupils should keep within sound of
+the teacher's voice (a sharp whistle may be used) and should promptly
+respond to every call. Topics of conversations should as far as possible
+be restricted to those pertaining to the object of the excursion or
+related matters.
+
+In visiting woods, children should be trained to study flowers in their
+environment and leave them there, plucking or digging for none except
+for some excellent reason. The same respect should be shown to birds and
+their nests, and to insects, and all other living things encountered.
+
+THE TEACHER'S EXCURSIONS
+
+As soon as possible after coming to a section, the teacher should
+acquaint himself with the woods, groves, streams, or other haunts that
+may provide him with material for his indoor or outdoor work. He can
+then direct the pupils effectively. The teacher should go over the route
+of an excursion shortly before it takes place. This prevents waste of
+time in looking for the objects that he wishes his pupils to see. If the
+teacher wishes to increase his love for nature, he must take many walks
+without his pupils.
+
+The school garden offers a partial solution of the difficulties
+mentioned above. It brings a large amount of material to the doors of
+the school. Plants of the farm or the garden may be studied under
+various changeable conditions, and it will be seen that insect pests,
+weeds, and fungous diseases follow the lessons on plants, while lessons
+on birds and toads follow those on insects. With sections of the garden
+devoted to the cultivation of wild flowers, ferns, and forest trees, the
+specially organized excursion will become less of a necessity, although
+it will still continue to be a valuable factor in Nature Study work.
+
+After an excursion is over, it should be discussed in class. The various
+facts learned should be reviewed and related. If any pupils have made
+inaccurate observations, they should be required to observe again to
+correct their errors. Finally, the excursion may form the subject of a
+composition.
+
+A TYPE EXCURSION
+
+~A Bird's Nest.~--The children have been instructed to study the
+meadow-lark, beginning about March twenty-first. While engaged in this
+work, a nest is discovered near the school. The teacher is informed and
+the pupils are conducted to the spot.
+
+What is growing in the field? Is there a long or a short growth? Did the
+mother bird make much noise as she rose from the nest? Did this help to
+reveal its presence? Is the nest easy to see? The class will halt a few
+paces from it and try to find it. How many eggs? Their colour? Note the
+arch of grass so beautifully concealing the nest.
+
+Returning to school, the facts observed are reviewed. The pupils may
+then express themselves by written composition or by drawings,
+paintings, or modellings of the nest, the eggs, or the surroundings.
+Frequent visits to the nest should not be made, and the pupils should be
+warned not to disturb the bird, as she may desert the nest on slight
+provocation.
+
+A second excursion may be made, when the eggs are hatched, to see the
+young birds.
+
+~A Wasp's Nest.~--A nest having been discovered, the pupils note how it is
+suspended and how it is situated with regard to concealment or to
+protection from rain, its colour, the material of the nest, and the
+position of the entrance. Is the opening ever deserted? How many wasps
+enter and how many leave the nest in a minute? Try to follow one and
+watch what he does. Wasps may be found biting wood from an old board
+fence. This they chew into pulp, and from this pulp their paper is made.
+Get the children to verify this by observations. If the nest is likely
+to become a nuisance, smoke out the wasps, take the nest carefully down,
+and use it for indoor study, examining the inside of the nest to
+ascertain the nature and the structure of the comb which, in this case
+is entirely devoted to larvae.
+
+COLLECTIONS
+
+General school collections of such objects as noxious weeds, weed seeds,
+wild flowers, noxious insects, leaves of forest trees, rocks or stones
+of the locality, etc., should be undertaken.
+
+All the pupils should contribute as many specimens as possible to each
+collection and should assist in the work of preparing them.
+
+In addition to the above collections it is advisable that pupils who
+show special interest in this phase of nature work should be encouraged
+to make individual collections.
+
+Collections, when properly prepared, have a value within themselves,
+because of the beauty and variety of the forms that they contain, and
+also because of their usefulness in illustrating nature lessons and in
+the identifying of insects, weeds, etc. Nevertheless the chief value of
+the collection rests in the making of it, because of the training that
+it gives the collector in carefulness and thoroughness, and also because
+it causes the child to study natural objects in their natural
+surroundings.
+
+
+ANIMAL STUDIES
+
+DOMESTIC ANIMALS
+
+The teacher, before attempting to teach lessons on domestic animals,
+should carefully consider how his lessons will best fulfil the following
+important aims:
+
+1. The cultivation of a deeper sympathy for, and a more complete
+understanding of, farm animals.
+
+2. The development of more kindly treatment of domestic animals through
+awakened sympathy and more intelligent understanding.
+
+3. Implanting the idea that the best varieties are the most interesting
+and profitable.
+
+The following domestic animals are suggested as being suitable for
+study: horse, cow, sheep, dog, cat, goose, duck, hen.
+
+There are two practical methods of observation work; namely, home
+observation and class-room observation.
+
+The observation work on some of the animals named must of necessity be
+done out of school. In this the teacher can direct the efforts of the
+pupils by assigning to them definite problems to be solved by their
+study of the animals.
+
+The results of their observations can be discussed in the class in
+lessons of ten or fifteen minutes length. It may frequently be necessary
+to re-assign the problems in order that the pupils may correct their
+observations.
+
+It is possible for the teacher or the pupils to bring to the school-room
+certain of the animals, as the dog, cat, duck, hen, and the observations
+may then be made by the whole class directly under the guidance of the
+teacher.
+
+REFERENCES
+
+Crawford: _Guide to Nature Study._ Copp Clark Co., 90 cents.
+
+Dearness: _How to Teach the Nature Study Course._ Copp Clark Co., 60
+cents.
+
+Shaler: _Domesticated Animals._ Scribners, $2.50.
+
+Smith: _The Uses and Abuses of Domestic Animals._ Jarrold & Sons, 50
+cents.
+
+
+BIRDS
+
+The chief aims in developing lessons on birds are:
+
+1. To teach the children to recognize their bird neighbours, to love
+them for their beauty, and sweet songs, and their sprightly ways.
+
+2. To train the pupils to appreciate them for their usefulness in
+destroying insect pests.
+
+Many persons spend their lives surrounded by singing birds, yet they
+never hear their songs. Many children see and hear the birds, but if
+they have not been brought into sympathetic relation with them, they
+never learn to appreciate them; on the contrary, their attitude becomes
+one of indifference or of destructiveness. Too often, boys cruelly
+destroy the nests and young and persecute the old birds with stone and
+catapult. The cowardice of such acts should be condemned, but more
+effective lessons may be taught through leading the children to find in
+the birds assistants and companions that contribute to their material
+progress and to their joy in life.
+
+With these aims in view, the teacher will readily perceive that the most
+effective work in bird study results from observing the living birds in
+their natural environment. Field excursions are valuable for this, but
+good results can seldom be attained when the class is large, for birds
+are shy and will hide or fly away from the unusual excitement. Quietness
+is absolutely necessary for success. Better results are obtained when
+only one or two accompany the teacher. If the teacher selects a few who
+are interested in birds, and there are always some pupils in every
+school who are readily interested in bird study, these few can soon be
+made sufficiently acquainted with the more common birds, so that they
+will be able to point them out to the other pupils of the school, and
+thus they become the teacher's assistants in the work.
+
+By beginning with the most common and conspicuous birds, an acquaintance
+grows rapidly. Early spring is a good time to begin, when the first
+birds return from their winter sojourn. The teacher and pupils may now
+learn to recognize the birds, because there are only a few, and these
+are easily seen, as the robin, blue-bird, junco, meadow-lark, goldfinch,
+bronzed grackle, sapsucker, blue jay, downy woodpecker, and flicker.
+
+The teacher, assisted by the pupils who already know these birds,
+directs the younger pupils to where these birds may be seen, and they
+are also required to describe the birds observed and to identify them by
+means of the bird chart or colour key.
+
+The description should include:
+
+Size (compare with some common bird); shape; colour of head, back, and
+breast; conspicuous markings, as crest, stripes, bright patches of
+feathers; movements in flight or on the ground; song, call notes;
+whether in flocks, or pairs, or single birds.
+
+Later in spring, other birds will attract attention, as the
+song-sparrow, phoebe, wren, horned lark, cowbird, and red-winged
+blackbird; while in summer the oriole, catbird, vesper sparrow, American
+redstart, night hawk, scarlet tanager, and crested flycatcher are some
+of the birds that will call for attention, because of their plumage,
+songs, or peculiar habits.
+
+When a nest has been found by a pupil, he should report it to the
+teacher, and the other pupils should be permitted to visit it only upon
+promising not to molest the nest or to annoy the mother bird by
+remaining too long near it. While it is well that the pupils should see
+the nest with the young birds, they should be taught to respect the
+desire of the bird for quietness and seclusion.
+
+In studying the nest, observe: Concealment, protection, size, comfort,
+number and colour of eggs, young birds, size, colour, covering, food.
+The pupils should be asked to observe the feeding of birds thus:
+
+Watch the wrens returning to the nest; what do they carry to their
+young? Where do the wrens get the snails and grubs? Observe how the
+robins find the worms and how they pull them out of the ground. Follow
+the downy woodpecker to the apple tree and find out what he was pecking.
+Watch the crow in the pasture field and learn whether this bird kills
+grasshoppers and crickets.
+
+Observe the birds that pick seeds out of the weeds.
+
+Collecting birds' eggs should be condemned, because it nearly always
+leads to the robbing of the nests. The practice of exchanging eggs is
+the chief cause of this; for although an occasional boy will collect
+wisely, the greater number are simply anxious to add to their collection
+without regard for the sacredness of the birds' homes.
+
+A collection of birds' nests may be made after the nests have been
+abandoned for the season, and it will be found useful for interesting
+the pupils in the ingenuity, neatness, and instinctive foresight of the
+builders.
+
+REFERENCES
+
+Chapman and Reed: _Colour Key to North American Birds_ $2.75
+
+Reed: _Bird Guide, Pts. I and II_ .75
+
+Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_ .75
+
+Cornish: _Thirty Lessons in Nature Study on Birds._ Dominion Book
+Company 1.00
+
+_Canadian Birds in Relation to Agriculture._ This chart has pictures in
+colours of eighty-eight Canadian birds. G. M. Hendry Co., $3.00.
+
+_The Audubon Charts._ These three charts have pictures of fifty-five
+birds; the pictures are larger in the latter charts than in the first
+named. G. M. Hendry Co., $2.00 each.
+
+_Coloured Bird Pictures_, Mumford, Chicago, (separate coloured pictures)
+are very suitable for illustrating nature lessons on birds.
+
+
+INSECTS
+
+There are three classes of insects that are of immediate interest to the
+pupils of the Junior Grades, and the teacher who makes direct use of
+this natural interest has taken possession of the key to success in
+insect study in the primary classes.
+
+The three classes, basing the classification upon their power to attract
+attention, are:
+
+The beautiful insects, including moths, butterflies, and beetles,
+
+The wonderful insects, including such insects as ants, ant-lions,
+caddice-flies, etc.,
+
+The economic insects, including bees, silk-worms, codling-moths, etc.
+
+Economic insects are interesting because of their relations to the
+occupations of the home. The successful growing of farm, orchard, and
+garden crops practically depends upon keeping a proper balance of insect
+and bird life.
+
+The teacher who feels that his knowledge of insects is too limited to
+allow him to undertake the teaching of this branch of Nature Study
+should cast his misgivings aside; for it is not difficult for the
+teacher who knows nothing about insects at the outset to become
+acquainted with such members of the three classes named above as attract
+the attention of the pupils of the Nature Study classes.
+
+The following suggestions in insect study are offered as guides to
+teacher or pupil:
+
+Obtain books and pamphlets from the Department of Agriculture, Toronto,
+on the subject of Insect Pests on Farm Crops and Fruit Trees.
+
+Secure a good general book on insects. _Modern Nature Study_, by Silcox
+and Stevenson, contains illustrations of several of the most common
+moths and butterflies, which are clear enough to make possible the
+identification of the forms represented. Comstock's _Manual for the
+Study of Insects_ is the best general book on the subject. This, and
+Holland's _The Moth Book_ and _The Butterfly Book_, are valuable for
+those who wish to follow the study of insects at any length.
+
+Begin by studying the more conspicuous moths, butterflies, and beetles,
+and especially by studying the injurious forms which thrust themselves
+into prominence by causing destruction of grain, vegetable, or fruit
+crops in the locality. The utility phase of lessons on these insects
+will appeal to the older children and also to their parents. Moreover,
+these are the easiest insects to identify and upon which to obtain
+literature dealing with their life histories and habits.
+
+Carefully observe the colour, size, and shape of the insect, and note
+the plant on which it is feeding and its manner of feeding. Consult
+available books on plant pests to find descriptions of the insects that
+feed upon this plant, and study carefully what is said about the insect
+observed. If this method is persistently followed, the teacher will be
+surprised at the rapidity with which his acquaintance with insects
+broadens.
+
+Pictures of moths, butterflies, and beetles are of great assistance in
+the identification of these insects.
+
+A school collection, made from the insects studied, is useful for future
+collection and for identification of insects. Do not allow any insect to
+be killed unless it is a good specimen intended to fill a place in the
+collection, or unless it is known to be an injurious insect. The
+teacher, by exercising proper control of the collecting, has an
+efficient means of teaching the sacredness of life. The fact should be
+emphasized that killing even an insect, when there is no good reason for
+doing so, is the act of a mean and selfish coward.
+
+In addition to a collection of insects, including larval and pupal
+forms, collections of insect nests, of plant galls, of markings of
+engraver beetles, of burrows of tree borers, and of samples of the
+destructive workings of insect pests should be made.
+
+While nothing is more beautiful than a carefully prepared collection of
+moths, butterflies, and beetles with their infinite variety of form and
+colour, nothing is more disgusting than a badly preserved collection of
+distorted, shrivelled, vermin-infested specimens. The teacher should
+avail himself of the collecting instinct which is prominent in boys of
+nine to fourteen years of age and of their desire to have things done
+well, to develop in them habits of carefulness, neatness, and
+thoroughness.
+
+INSECT COLLECTIONS
+
+See Manual on _Manual Training_, for details for making collecting
+appliances.
+
+Agricultural Bulletin No. 8, _Nature Collections for Schools_,
+Department of Education, Ontario, for detailed instructions on making
+insect collections.
+
+The outfit for collecting is neither expensive nor hard to prepare. It
+consists of (1) an insect net for catching the insects, made by sewing a
+bag of cheese-cloth to a stout ring one foot in diameter, which is
+fastened to a broom handle; (2) a cyanide bottle for killing the
+insects, prepared by pouring some soft plaster-paris over a few lumps of
+potassium cyanide (three pieces, each of the size of a pea) in a
+wide-mouthed bottle. When the plaster has set, keep the bottle tightly
+corked to retain the poisonous gases. (3) Pins to mount the specimens.
+Entomological pins, Nos. 2, 3, and 4, are the best for general use.
+Beetles are usually pinned through the right wing-cover at about one
+fourth of its length from the front end of it. Moths and butterflies are
+pinned through the thorax. Small insects may be fastened to a very small
+pin, which in turn is set into a bit of cork, supported by a pin of
+ordinary size. (4) Spreading board for moths and butterflies. (5) Insect
+boxes to hold the specimens. This should be secured before the
+collection is begun. It is a common mistake to believe that any box
+whatever will do for storing insects. It is necessary to encourage
+effort in drying, spreading, pinning, and labelling, by providing an
+effective means of permanently preserving the specimens. In cigar-boxes,
+pasteboard boxes, and such makeshifts, the specimens soon become broken,
+covered with dust, and marred in other ways, and the collectors become
+discouraged; hence it is necessary to secure good boxes from dealers in
+entomological supplies.
+
+A sponge saturated with carbon bisulphide should be placed in the box at
+intervals of not more than three months, to ensure the killing of
+parasites that destroy the specimens.
+
+Entomological supplies may be obtained from Chapman & Co., London, Ont.,
+or from G. M. Hendry Co., Toronto, Ont., or from Messrs. Watters Bros.,
+Guelph, Ont.
+
+BUTTERFLY AND MOTH COLLECTIONS
+
+For a study of the metamorphosis of butterflies and moths, it is
+necessary to have an insect cage. This can be purchased from any dealer
+in entomological supplies or it may be made by the pupils in the Manual
+Training Class. See Manual on _Manual Training_. A very satisfactory
+cage may be made, by the teacher or larger pupils, from a soap box, by
+tacking wire gauze over the open surface of the box, removing the nails
+from one of the boards of the bottom, and converting this board into a
+door by attaching it in its former position by light hinges and a hook
+and staple. The box, if now placed on end with two inches of loose soil
+in the bottom, will constitute a satisfactory insect cage, or vivarium.
+
+A large lamp chimney with gauze tied over the upper end is useful for
+inclosing a small plant upon which eggs or insect larvae are developing.
+The base of the chimney may be thrust an inch into the soil and the
+development of the larva as it feeds upon the growing plant can be
+studied.
+
+The following are larvae suitable for study and may be found in the
+places named:
+
+The tomato worm on tomato or tobacco plants. (Look for stems whose
+leaves have been stripped off.)
+
+The milkweed butterfly larvae on milkweed,
+
+The potato beetle on potato vines,
+
+The eastern swallow-tail butterfly on parsnip or carrot plants,
+
+The tussock-moth on horse-chestnuts,
+
+The promothea moth on lilac bushes,
+
+The cabbage-butterfly on cabbage or mustard plants,
+
+The red-spotted purple, banded purple, and viceroy butterfly larvae on
+willow and alder,
+
+Cocoons of tussock-moth and tiger-moth under bark, logs, and rubbish in
+early autumn.
+
+Larvae of the emperor-moth (cecropia) may be found wandering about,
+apparently aimlessly, in September; but they are searching for suitable
+places for attaching their cocoons to orchard and forest trees.
+
+After the leaves have fallen from shrubs and trees, cocoons can be found
+more easily on the naked twigs or in withered, rolled-up leaves that are
+fastened by the silk of the cocoon to the branches.
+
+Larvae, when placed in the cage, should be supplied with green plant food
+such as they were found feeding upon, and the pupils should be
+instructed to observe the chrysalis building or the cocoon weaving. It
+will be found that some larvae burrow into the soil.
+
+During winter the cage should be kept in a cool place, such as a shed,
+so that the winter conditions may be as nearly natural as possible.
+
+In a few cases, the development within the cocoon is quite rapid; and
+the adult form hatches out in a few weeks, for example, the
+cabbage-butterfly, monarch or milkweed butterfly, and tussock-moth. For
+this reason these are preferable for study by Form I pupils. In April
+the cage should be placed in the school-room, that the pupils may
+observe the emergence of the insects and the spreading of the wings. The
+insects can be fed with syrup or honey until they are strong, then the
+pupils should set them free.
+
+Reference.--_Reports of the Entomological Society of Ontario_,
+Department of Agriculture.
+
+
+PLANT COLLECTIONS
+
+The instructions given below for collecting, pressing, and mounting
+plants are applicable to wild flowers, grains, grasses, and weeds.
+
+~The specimen.~--Select a plant which in form and size is typical of its
+species and which is in full flower. Care must be taken to dig down and
+secure the root.
+
+If the plant is too large for the mounting sheet, cut out the central
+part, and use the root, lower leaves, upper leaves, and flower. If the
+root is very thick, cut slices lengthwise off the sides so as to reduce
+it to a flat form that is not too bulky.
+
+Before the plant has had time to wither, spread it out flat on a sheet
+of paper and spread another sheet over it, taking care to straighten the
+leaves and flower out. Blotting-paper is preferable, but any soft paper
+that will absorb moisture will make a very good substitute.
+
+~Pressing and drying.~--Place several sheets of paper above and below the
+specimen. Any number of specimens prepared as described in the last
+paragraph may be placed in a pile, one over another, resting on the
+floor or on a table. Place on top of the pile a board which is large
+enough to cover the surface of the pile, and on the board place a weight
+of about fifteen pounds of bricks, or other convenient material. A box
+containing sand, stones, or coal may be used in place of the board and
+weights. The weight prevents the shrivelling and distortion of the
+plants.
+
+To prevent discoloration and mildewing of the plants, the papers around
+them must be changed at the end of the following successive intervals:
+two days, three days, five days, one week, etc., until they are quite
+dry. The length of time required for pressing and drying depends upon
+the quantity of sap in the plants and also upon the dryness or humidity
+of the atmosphere.
+
+~Mounting.~--When dry, the specimens are mounted on sheets of heavy white
+paper. These sheets are cut to a standard size, eleven inches by
+fourteen inches, or sheets of half this size, namely, seven inches by
+eleven inches; are permissible. The best method of attaching the plant
+to the sheet is by pasting narrow strips of gummed paper across the
+plant in such positions as will serve to hold all parts of it in
+position.
+
+~Labelling.~--The name of the specimen, the date of collection, the place
+from which collected, and the name of the collector are to be neatly
+written in a column in the lower right-hand corner of the sheet. Printed
+labels which are pasted on this corner of the sheet are also used.
+
+Collections of leaves may be prepared by the same process as that given
+for plants. Leaves will retain their autumn tints if their surface is
+covered with varnish or paraffin, which will prevent the admission of
+air.
+
+To cover with paraffin dip the leaf for a moment into melted paraffin.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PHYSICAL SCIENCE PHASE OF NATURE STUDY
+
+
+INSTRUCTIONS AND GENERAL METHOD
+
+The preceding portions of this Manual dealt with living things. There is
+another phase of Nature Study which has a more direct relation to the
+physical sciences, Chemistry and Physics, two subjects that are
+essentially experimental in their methods.
+
+Although the lessons that follow are grouped in one portion of this
+book, the teacher should understand that he is to introduce them into
+his work as the occasion demands. They may be used to throw light on
+other parts of the school work. The experimental method is somewhat
+advanced for young children, hence no lessons are outlined for Forms I
+and II. In ungraded schools, Forms III and IV may be combined for the
+subject. It will be found most convenient to take this portion of the
+Nature Study during the winter months.
+
+VALUE OF SUCH LESSONS
+
+1. They are _interesting_, hence there is attention. The senses must be
+alert, hence pupils are trained to observe accurately.
+
+2. After the experiment comes the inference, hence reasoning powers are
+developed.
+
+3. They enable the teacher to make exceedingly _concrete_ some very
+difficult abstract principles.
+
+4. They can be _correlated_ with a large number of other subjects and
+made to have a beneficial influence on the whole of the school work.
+
+5. The great advance that is being made in all useful inventions to-day
+is largely due to the study of the physical sciences. Many boys and
+girls (seventy-five per cent.) never attend the High School. The
+Elementary School owes them a taste at least of these sciences that have
+such a bearing on their lives, that have surrounded them with so many
+mechanical contrivances for their comfort and convenience, and that
+explain so many common natural phenomena. Give a boy a taste for
+experimental science, and there is some chance that after leaving school
+he will not throw aside his studies to subsist intellectually on the
+newspaper, but that he will continue to investigate for himself, and
+make himself a well-informed man, an influential man in his section. The
+Elementary School must aim at fitting the boys and girls for life.
+
+6. The advent of the experiment marks the downfall of superstition,
+prejudice, and reliance on authority and tradition. To lead a child to
+think for himself is a great achievement.
+
+7. The use of the experiment in gaining knowledge will result in a
+cautiousness in accepting statements and making decisions.
+
+CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH EXPERIMENTS SHOULD BE PERFORMED
+
+1. They should be introduced into the school work naturally, as answers
+to questions which arise either in the regular course of the work or
+from suggestions made by the teacher at appropriate times.
+
+2. As far as possible, the pupils should assist in performing the
+experiment. In small rural schools the scarcity of apparatus will
+necessitate the teacher's doing most of the work. In Form V classes and
+Continuation Schools the pupils may do the experiments individually.
+
+3. The bearing of an experiment is not always evident; the teacher must
+be ready with judicious questions to lead the class to the proper
+conclusions.
+
+4. The pupils must be acquainted with all the apparatus used. They must
+know what the teacher is doing and must be near enough to see the
+result.
+
+5. A problem may be suggested, and a few days allowed for the pupils to
+think out a means of solution. If they invent and make their own
+apparatus, so much the better.
+
+6. Whenever possible, the experiment should be applied to some natural
+phenomenon or everyday occurrence.
+
+CORRELATIONS OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE PHASE
+
+Geography.--The value of Physical Science in the Elementary School is
+largely due to the light it throws on geographical data. Numerous
+examples will appear in the succeeding pages.
+
+Hygiene.--Experiments in carbon dioxide, oxygen, air, water, sound, and
+light, are absolutely necessary, if the children are to grasp with any
+degree of clearness the principles of respiration and ventilation, and
+the phenomena of hearing and seeing.
+
+Manual Training.--Many pieces of apparatus may be made by the boys in
+their work with wood or iron. Some of the elementary principles of
+chemistry enable the girls to do their cooking intelligently. A
+knowledge of some of the principles of machines will help the pupils to
+understand the tools they may use in any employment.
+
+Drawing.--Careful drawing of the apparatus used helps to fix the
+experiment in the mind and at the same time gives practice in art.
+
+Composition.--Pupils must have ideas before they can write. The
+description of the experiment will make a good composition exercise,
+oral or written.
+
+
+LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS AND BULLETINS
+
+
+GARDEN AND PLANT STUDY
+
+Bulletins of the Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto.
+
+Bulletins of the Dominion Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.
+
+Improvement of School Grounds. Department of Education, Toronto.
+
+Atkinson. First Studies of Plant Life. Ginn & Co. 60 cents.
+
+Bailey. Manual of Gardening. Macmillan Co. $2.00.
+
+Blanchan. Nature's Garden. Doubleday Co. $2.00.
+
+Comstock, A. M. Handbook of Nature Study. Comstock Pub. Co. $3.25.
+
+Gray. Field, Forest, and Garden Botany. Amer. Book Co. $1.40.
+
+Green, Louise. Among School Gardens. Charities Pub. Co. $1.25.
+
+Hodge. Nature Study and Life. Ginn & Co. $1.50.
+
+Holtz. Nature Study. Scribners' Sons. $1.50.
+
+Jackson and Dougherty. Agriculture through the Laboratory and School
+Garden. Judd. $1.50.
+
+James. Agriculture. Appleton & Co. 80 cents.
+
+Keeler. Our Native Trees. Scribners' Sons. $2.00.
+
+Osterhout. Experiments with Plants. Macmillan Co. $1.50.
+
+Parsons. How to Plan the Home Grounds. Doubleday Co. $1.00.
+
+Sergeant. Corn Plants. Houghton, Mifflin Co. 75 cents.
+
+
+PHYSICAL SCIENCE
+
+Miller. Minerals and How They Occur. The Copp, Clark Co. $1.50.
+
+Milliken and Gale. First Course in Physics. Ginn & Co. $2.00.
+
+Newman. Laboratory Exercises. Ginn & Co. 10c. each.
+
+Remsen. College Chemistry. Am. Pub. Co. $2.50.
+
+Simmons and Syenhouse. Science of Common Life. The Macmillan Company,
+$1.00.
+
+Woodhull. Home-made Apparatus.
+
+High School Text-books.
+
+
+ANIMAL STUDY
+
+Bulletin No. 52. Dominion Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.
+
+Bulletin No. 134. Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto.
+
+Bulletin No. 161. Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto.
+
+Bulletin No. 124. Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto.
+
+Reports of Entomological Society of Ontario. Department of Education.
+
+Fishes of Ontario. Nash. Department of Education.
+
+Bailey and Coleman. First Course in Biology. The Macmillan Company.
+$1.25.
+
+Buchanan. Senior Country Reader. The Macmillan Company. 40 cents.
+
+Chapman. Bird Life. Appleton. $2.00.
+
+Crawford. Guide to Nature Study. The Copp, Clark Co. 90 cents.
+
+Dearness. How to Teach the Nature Study Course. The Copp, Clark Co. 60
+cents.
+
+Jordan and Kellogg. Animal Life. Appleton & Co. $1.20.
+
+Kellogg. Elementary Zoology. Holt & Co. $1.35.
+
+Reed. Bird Guide--Parts I and II. Musson Book Co., Toronto. 40 cents
+each.
+
+Shaler. Domesticated Animals. Scribners' Sons. $2.50.
+
+Silcox and Stevenson. Modern Nature Study. The Macmillan Company. 75
+cents.
+
+NOTE.--The bulletins named above are supplied free to schools. Chemical
+and Physical Apparatus and Entomological Supplies may be obtained from
+G. M. Hendry Co., Victoria Street, Toronto. Rocks and Minerals may be
+obtained from the Ward Natural Science establishment, Rochester, or from
+the Central Scientific Co., Chicago.
+
+
+PHYSICAL SCIENCE
+
+FORMS III AND IV
+
+DESIRABLE APPARATUS
+
+1 lb. glass tubing in 3 ft. lengths 3/16 in. to 1/4 in. outside diameter.
+6 Florence flasks, 4 oz. to 8 oz.                               $ .50
+1 Funnel, 3 in. diameter                                          .10
+1 Beaker, 8 oz.                                                   .10
+1 Evaporating dish                                                .10
+3 ft. pure gum rubber tubing 1/8 in. inside                       .25
+1/2 sq. foot thin sheet rubber                                    .20
+1 doz. test-tubes 6 in. by 5/8 in.                                .20
+1/2 doz. test-tubes 6 in. by 7/8 in.                              .10
+Capillary glass tubing, 3 sizes                                   .10
+2 rubber stoppers No. 2, one hole
+1   "       "      "  4,  "   "
+1   "       "      "  7, two holes                                .30
+2 watch glasses                                                   .10
+Ball and ring                                                    1.00
+2 Dry cells                                                       .60
+2 Bar magnets                                                     .50
+1 Chemical thermometer 212 deg. F. to 0 deg. F.                   .40
+1 Spirit-lamp                                                     .20
+1 Retort, 4 oz. stoppered                                         .15
+Wax candles                                                       .10
+Retort stand of iron, two rings                                   .85
+1 Thistle tube                                                    .10
+Common corks, assorted                                            .10
+Filter paper 5 in. diameter                                       .05
+Test-tube holder                                                  .10
+Test-tube rack                                                    .10
+Test-tube cleaner                                                 .10
+1 piece glass tubing 30 in. long, 1/4 in. inside, for barometer   .20
+1 clamp for closing rubber tube                                   .10
+Covered copper wire                                               .10
+Small compass                                                     .50
+Glass model of common pump                                       1.00
+Globe for weighing air                                           2.50
+Small piece of platinum foil, 1/2 in. by 2 in.                    .25
+Glass prism 60                                                    .50
+Tuning fork 4-1/2 in.                                             .50
+Electric bell                                                     .50
+Motor (Ajax)                                                     1.50
+Balance                                                         10.00
+Air-pump                                                        15.00
+Iron wire gauze                                                   .05
+Sheet metals, iron, copper, zinc, lead, aluminum                  .25
+2 lamp chimneys, straight ones preferred, at 10c                  .20
+Iron ball, 2 in. in diameter                                      .20
+2 dairy thermometers at 15c                                       .30
+
+CHEMICALS
+
+Sulphuric acid, 1 lb.                                             .10
+Hydrochloric acid, 8 oz.                                          .10
+Nitric acid, 4 oz.                                                .10
+Washing soda                                                      .05
+Sugar                                                             .05
+Salt                                                              .05
+Blue vitriol                                                      .10
+Alum                                                              .05
+Saltpetre                                                         .05
+Sulphur                                                           .05
+Potass. permanganate                                              .05
+Lime                                                              .05
+Plaster-paris                                                     .05
+Potass. bichromate                                                .10
+Methylated spirits, 1 pt.                                         .10
+Alcohol, 95%                                                      .10
+Iodine crystals                                                   .10
+Mercury, 1 lb.                                                   1.00
+Pot. chlorate                                                     .15
+Manganese dioxide                                                 .10
+Phosphorus                                                        .10
+Sweet oil, 2 oz.                                                  .10
+Benzine, 2 oz.                                                    .10
+
+The following tools will be found very valuable: saw, square, plane,
+brace and bit, knife, hammer, glass cutter, files--round, flat, and
+triangular.
+
+Where the circumstances will not allow of the purchase of the preceding
+list, the following apparatus is recommended as sufficient for the
+performance of a large number of the experiments:
+
+1/2 lb. glass tubing in 3 ft. lengths, 3/16 in.
+  and 1/4 in. outside                                           $ .20
+2 Florence flasks, 4 oz.                                          .15
+1 Funnel                                                          .10
+2 ft. pure gum rubber tubing, 1/8 in. inside                      .15
+1/2 doz. test-tubes assorted, 5/8 to 7/8 diameter, 6 in. long     .20
+2 rubber stoppers, No. 2, one hole                                .10
+1 rubber stopper, No. 4, one hole                                 .10
+Expansion of heat apparatus (made at blacksmith's)                .10
+Common corks, assorted                                            .10
+1 chemical thermometer 0 deg. F. to 212 deg. F.                   .40
+1 spirit-lamp, 4 oz.                                              .10
+1 thistle tube                                                    .10
+Covered wire, copper                                              .10
+
+CHEMICALS
+
+Iodine crystals                                                   .10
+Sulphuric acid, 1 lb.                                             .10
+Methylated spirits 1 pt.                                          .20
+Alcohol, 95%                                                      .10
+Mercury, 1/2 lb.                                                  .50
+Pot. chlorate                                                     .15
+Manganese dioxide                                                 .10
+
+The following may be obtained, for either list, at little or no cost
+from household stores or home-made sources: washing soda, sugar, salt,
+ammonia, coal, coke, saltpetre, sulphur, blue vitriol, alum, potass.
+bichromate, blueing, lime, pickle-jars, wire gauze, candles, wire, sheet
+metals, test-tube holder and rack, balance, battery cells, horse-shoe
+magnet, pneumatic trough, lamp chimneys, tin cans, melting spoon,
+bicycle pump, baking-powder.
+
+For home-made apparatus, consult _Laboratory Exercises in Physics_ by
+Newman, Ginn & Co., 50c., and Manual on _Manual Training_.
+
+Reference has been made in the preceding experiments to the use of
+simple and easily contrived apparatus. The more of this the pupils can
+contrive and make under the direction of the teacher, the more valuable
+will be the course in Physical Science.
+
+GRENET CELLS
+
+Into a pint gem-jar put water 10 parts, sulphuric acid 1 part, potass,
+bichromate 1 part. Have jar three quarters full. Cut a piece of board 4
+in. square, bore two holes in it, and through the holes thrust two
+pieces of electric light carbon, 5 in. or 6 in. long. The outer edges of
+the carbons should not be more than two inches apart. With a saw, cut a
+slit in the board between the holes and insert a strip of zinc 2 in. by
+7 in. previously rubbed over with mercury. Set the three elements in the
+jar, connect the two carbons to one wire, and the zinc to another.
+
+One cell of this kind will run a small motor, operate a telegraph
+sounder, make a simple electro-magnet, or ring an electric bell; two
+cells will decompose water: three will heat a piece of fine iron wire
+red-hot.
+
+DECOMPOSITION APPARATUS
+
+1. Cut the neck end from a pickle bottle. Get a No. 1 stopper, (rubber)
+with two holes in it and insert a piece of platinum foil 2 in. by 1/8
+in. into each hole so that 1/2 in. projects above and below. Insert a
+tight plug beside each strip, thus holding it fast and making the
+stopper watertight. Insert the stopper into the neck of the jar. Pour
+into the vessel thus formed enough water to cover the platinums, and add
+a few drops of sulphuric acid. Touch the wires from the battery to the
+lower ends of the strips. Note bubbles of gas arise from the platinums.
+These may be collected in test-tubes and found by test to be oxygen and
+hydrogen.
+
+2. Fasten a strip of platinum 1 in. by 1/8 in. to each wire from the
+battery and dip these into some acidulated water contained in a tumbler.
+The decomposition of the water into two gases can be seen, but the gases
+cannot be collected so readily as in 1 above. Bits of electric light
+carbon will do instead of platinum if the current is not too weak.
+
+PNEUMATIC TROUGH
+
+When oxygen or other gas is to be collected over water, use a milk pan
+or similarly shaped vessel.
+
+SPIRIT-LAMP
+
+Use an ink-bottle to contain the alcohol and several strands of string
+for the wick; make a hole in a piece of tin and draw the wick through;
+then let the tin rest on the neck of the bottle to support the wick.
+
+BAROMETER
+
+A siphon barometer takes less mercury than a cistern barometer. To the
+open end of the barometer tube attach a piece of strong rubber tubing 4
+in. long and to this a piece of glass tubing 3 in. long. Fill the tube
+thus formed with mercury to within 3 in. from the top. Holding the short
+glass tube open end up, turn the long tube closed end up. (A tube of 1/8
+in. bore needs only one quarter of the mercury required to fill a tube
+1/4 in. bore.)
+
+HYGROMETER
+
+For a hygrometer, suspend two dairy thermometers side by side against
+the wall, cover the bulb of one with thin muslin, and let the muslin
+hang down and dip into water in some small vessel placed about three
+inches below the bulb on a little shelf.
+
+HINTS
+
+To avoid explosions, a spirit-lamp should be kept filled.
+
+Toy rubber balloons answer well for sheet rubber.
+
+Red ink makes good colouring matter.
+
+Make touch-paper by soaking any porous paper in a solution of saltpetre,
+and drying it.
+
+Instead of bending glass tubes, join them with rubber tubing.
+
+To make a test-tube holder, fold a sheet of paper until it is about half
+an inch wide and wrap this around the tube.
+
+To bend glass tubing, hold in the flame of the spirit-lamp and rotate
+between the fingers till it becomes soft and flexible, remove from the
+flame, and bend.
+
+To break glass tubing, first scratch with a file.
+
+To break glass bottles, make neatly a deep cut with a file, then touch
+the glass near the cut with a red-hot wire. When a crack appears, move
+the hot wire and the crack will follow. Several heatings may be
+necessary.
+
+In the case of a heavy glass bottle, file the cut as before, wrap the
+bottle with string dipped in alcohol, light it, and after it has burned,
+plunge the bottle vertically into cold water.
+
+Melted paraffin is good for closing small leaks.
+
+
+TIME APPORTIONED TO NATURE STUDY
+
+The Nature Study lesson should be given a definite place on the
+time-table. It is recommended that each class should have at least one
+lesson of fifteen minutes in length, a week. In addition to this, about
+five minutes a week should be spent in assigning problems for
+out-of-door work and in discussing the observations which the pupils
+have made on problems previously assigned.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+FORM I
+
+AUTUMN
+
+
+GARDEN WORK
+
+On the re-opening of school after the summer holidays, the pupils should
+see that their plots are put into good order without delay. If they have
+been neglected during the holidays, a good deal of attention will be
+needed, and in some cases it may not be possible to reclaim them because
+of prolonged neglect. If such plots are found, they should be cleaned
+off completely, spaded up, and left in readiness for planting the
+following spring. All plots should be cultivated throughout the month of
+September to keep the soil mellow and prevent the growth of weeds. The
+pupils should be allowed to pick flowers from their own plots, but
+should always leave a few in bloom for the sake of the general
+appearance of the garden. Paths should be kept clean, and all rubbish,
+weeds, dead plants, etc., removed to the compost heap, which should be
+in the least conspicuous part of the garden. Hoes, rakes, and claw-hand
+weeders should be used in cleaning up and cultivating the plots. The
+soil should be kept fine and loose on top to prevent drying out.
+
+LESSONS ON A GARDEN PLANT
+
+PANSY
+
+LESSON I
+
+~Materials.~--A flower for each pupil
+              A plant set into a flower-pot
+              A leaf for each pupil
+              A pile of leaves containing a few pansy
+                leaves and several of other kinds.
+
+~Introduction.~--A conversation with the pupils about their favourite
+flowers.
+
+~Observations.~--The pansy flowers are now distributed and the general
+form of the flower is first noted. The resemblance to the face of an
+animal will be discovered. The name _corolla_ is given, but no other
+botanical terms are to be introduced in this lesson.
+
+The details of colours, perfumes, velvety feeling of the corolla, and
+the number of leaflets in it are next _discovered_ and described by the
+_pupils_. Lastly, in a withering flower they discover the seed cases and
+the little seeds.
+
+LESSON II
+
+The conception of the relationship between the flower, root, and stem is
+developed by a method similar to the following:
+
+What soon happens to a pansy flower after it is broken from the plant?
+Are the flowers that you have in your hands withering?
+
+How can you keep them from withering?
+
+Hence, what must the flower get from the stem?
+
+Where does the stem get the moisture?
+
+Hence, what is one use of the root?
+
+A pupil is asked to pull the plant out of the soil in the flower-pot.
+What is another use that you have discovered for the root?
+
+The plant is now uprooted from the soil, and the pupils examine the root
+to find how it is fitted for gathering water and food from the soil and
+for holding the plant in place.
+
+Note the number of branches touching a great deal of soil and also the
+twisted form of the roots for grasping the soil.
+
+The form of the leaves is studied by the pupils, and, as a test of the
+accuracy of their observation, they are asked to pick out the pansy
+leaves from the pile of leaves.
+
+_To the teacher._--The pupils must be active participants in the lesson.
+They must use their eyes, hands, and even their noses in gaining
+first-hand impressions, and they are to be required to express in their
+own way the things that they discover. The beautiful flower with its
+face like that of an animal is an appeal to the child's imagination, and
+the child's interest in the _use_ of things is utilized in the study of
+the relations of root, stem, and flower.
+
+This lesson may be used as the basis for busy work by means of the
+following correlations:
+
+1. With art:
+
+Represent the flower in colours.
+
+2. With reading and literature:
+
+The pupils are required to express the meaning and sentiment of the
+following stanza:
+
+    The pansy wakes in early spring
+      To make our world more bright;
+    All summer long its happy face
+      Fills children with delight,
+
+Lessons similar to those on the pansy may be based upon the following
+plants of the garden or field: dandelion, aster, buttercup, nasturtium,
+goldenrod. The teacher in preparing the lesson should read a description
+of the plant from a Nature Study book and should also study the plant
+itself until he is familiar with all the phases of its life.
+
+OBSERVATION EXERCISES ON THE DANDELION
+
+The exercises given below are suggestive for out of school observation
+work, but must not be too long. By way of preparation for an exercise of
+this kind, the interest of the pupils in the dandelion must first be
+aroused.
+
+FIRST EXERCISE
+
+The teacher places the pupils at the school windows from which
+dandelions are visible and asks them to name any flower that they can
+see. A short conversation about the brightness of the flower follows.
+
+The pupils are next instructed to:
+
+1. Find dandelions late in the evening, and find out how they prepare to
+go to sleep and how they are tucked in for the night.
+
+2. Find where the leaves of the dandelion are, and bring a leaf to
+school next morning, and also observe how the leaves are grouped or
+placed.
+
+_To the teacher._--Dandelion flowers close up in the evening; the green
+leaves beneath the head wrap closely around the flowers to form a snug
+covering. The leaves have margins with teeth shaped like those of a
+lion, and from this the plant gets its name, for the name is the French
+_dent de lion_, which is pronounced very much like the word dandelion.
+The use of the leaf cluster as a system of rain-spouts for guiding the
+rain toward the root should be noted.
+
+SECOND EXERCISE
+
+1. Why is the dandelion easy to find?
+
+2. What makes it easy to find even in long grass?
+
+3. What insect friends visit the dandelion?
+
+4. Find out just how these visitors act during their visits, and find
+whether they carry anything to or away from the flowers.
+
+_To the teacher._--The bright yellow colour of the dandelion attracts
+attention. When it grows in long grass, the flower stalk grows long, so
+that the flower surmounts its obstructions and climbs up to the
+sunshine. The flowers are visited by ants, bees, and wasps, and these
+may be seen burrowing into the flowers in search of honey. If their
+bodies and legs be touched, the yellow pollen of the flowers will be
+found sticking to them.
+
+THIRD EXERCISE
+
+1. Look for flower heads that do not open to the sun. Do not disturb
+them, but watch them for a few days and find out what they become.
+
+2. Examine the large white balls of the dandelions and find out what
+they are.
+
+3. Blow the down away. What does it carry with it?
+
+_To the teacher._--In this exercise the pupils will learn that the large
+white balls are the mature, or ripened, flowers and are composed of
+little brown seeds, each being a little airship for wafting it away.
+
+CORRELATION WITH LITERATURE AND READING
+
+When the above exercises have been completed, the pupil's knowledge of
+the dandelion may be utilized in interpreting the following stanzas:
+
+    Oh dandelion! yellow as gold,
+      What do you do all day?
+    I just wait here in the tall green grass
+      Till the children come to play.
+
+    And what do you do when your hair is white
+      And the children come to play?
+    They take me up in their dimpled hands
+      And blow my hair away.
+
+In addition to the dandelion, the following plants are suitable for
+observation exercises: morning-glory, wild balsam, sweet-pea,
+snap-dragon, nasturtium.
+
+DWARF NASTURTIUM
+
+~Observations.~--The size of the plant at the time of flowering; its
+leaves--size, colour, shape, length of petiole and how arranged; colours
+found in the flower, comparison with others of same species found in the
+garden; size and shape of the flower and the length of its stems. Do the
+flowers grow higher than the leaves? Do they look better when with the
+leaves or when alone? Note the perfume and taste of the flower stem, the
+insect visitors, and what part of the flower they tried to get at, when
+the first blossom was seen, and how long the blossoms continued to come
+out. Do they keep well in bouquets? Do they stand hot, dry weather as
+well as other flowers? When did the frost kill them? Compare with the
+climbing nasturtium. Find the seeds.
+
+
+SEEDS
+
+The autumn months are the best for seed studies, for almost all annuals
+are ripening their seeds at this time of year.
+
+FIELD EXERCISE
+
+Assign to the pupils the following exercise:
+
+Collect the seed pods from as many plants of your garden plots, or home
+gardens, or wild plants, as possible, and be careful to write the name
+of each plant on the paper in which you put the seed pod of that plant.
+Notice the part of the plant from which the seed pod is formed.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON BASED ON THIS COLLECTION
+
+The pupils place the seed pods on their desks, and observations and
+problems are dealt with of which the following are representative:
+
+How does each seed case open?
+
+What are the seeds for?
+
+How many seeds are in each case?
+
+Why should a plant have so many seeds?
+
+How are the seed cases fitted for protecting the seeds?
+
+Are any two seeds alike in shape?
+
+Are the seeds easy to find if they are spilled upon the ground?
+
+What makes them hard to find?
+
+Where do nearly all seeds spend the winter?
+
+Of what use is the hard shell of the seed?
+
+SEED DISPERSAL
+
+Study only a few of the more striking examples of seed dispersal with
+the Form I class. Seeds that fly and seeds that steal rides are good
+examples of classes of seeds whose methods of dispersal will prove of
+interest to children.
+
+LESSON ON SEEDS THAT FLY
+
+~Materials.~--A milkweed pod; a ripe dandelion head.
+
+~Introduction.~--A short conversation about the effects of the crowding of
+plants, as carrots and turnips, in a garden plot, and hence the need for
+the scattering of seeds.
+
+~Observations.~--Open a milkweed pod in the presence of the class, so that
+they may see how the pod opens, how beautifully the seeds are arranged,
+and how the silk tufts are so closely packed in together.
+
+Allow a pupil to lift a seed out, blow it in the air, and observe how
+the silk opens out like an umbrella. Distribute seeds, one to each
+pupil. Ask the pupils to find out why this little airship is able to
+carry the seed. They will find that the seeds though broad, are thin and
+light, and the silky plumes very light.
+
+Ask the pupils to release their milkweed seeds at recess, when out of
+school, and find out how far they can fly. This is an interesting
+experiment for a windy day.
+
+The white balls of the dandelion are next examined, the tiny seeds are
+found standing on tiptoe on a raised platform, each grasping a tiny
+parachute and waiting for a puff of wind to start them off. A pupil is
+permitted to give the puff. Seeds are distributed, and the means of
+flight is compared with that of the milkweed. The shape of the seeds is
+observed and also the tiny anchor points at the lower end of the seed
+for clutching the ground when the seed alights.
+
+Another lesson on seeds that fly can be based on the study of tree
+seeds, using those of the maple, elm, basswood, pine, and spruce.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+1. Drawing of milkweed pods and seeds, and drawing of the dandelion
+seed-ball and the seeds when floating in the air.
+
+2. Reading and literature. Interpret the thought and read expressively:
+
+    Dainty milkweed babies, wrapped in cradles green,
+    Rocked by Mother Nature, fed by hands unseen,
+    Brown coats have the darlings, slips of milky white,
+    And wings, but that's a secret, they're folded out of sight.
+
+
+TWIGS AND BUDS
+
+The study of buds is a part of tree study and may be taken as
+observation work in the class-room. This somewhat detailed study should
+follow the general lessons on tree study.
+
+The materials for the lessons may be collected by the pupils at the time
+of the field lesson and kept fresh in a jar of water until required for
+use.
+
+LESSON ON TWIGS
+
+~Materials.~--A twig of horse-chestnut about six inches long, for each
+pupil.
+
+A twig of the same tree with the leaves still on it.
+
+~Observations.~--The twigs are distributed and the teacher asks the pupils
+to examine them and to describe all marks and projections that can be
+found on the twig.
+
+Answers are required from the pupils separately. The pupil's answer in
+each case should be sufficiently clear for all the class to recognize
+the feature that the answer is intended to describe. A few brief
+questions will guide the answerer in making his description more
+definite, but the description should be the result of the pupil's
+observation and expressed in his own words.
+
+The meaning or use of each feature should be discussed, when possible,
+immediately after it has been described.
+
+The following features will be discovered and the problems suggested
+will be solved:
+
+The brown or greenish-brown bark.
+
+The buds.
+
+One bud (sometimes two) is at the end of the twig.
+
+Some buds are along the side of the twig.
+
+What caused the end bud to grow larger than the others?
+
+There is a leaf scar under each bud.
+
+Of what use is it to the bud to be between the twig and the leaf stalk?
+
+The bands of rings, one or more on each twig.
+
+The tiny oval pores, each surrounded by a little raised band.
+
+The detailed study of the buds is left for a separate lesson.
+
+FURTHER STUDY OF TWIGS
+
+The study in detail of various features is illustrated in the following:
+
+Look closely at the leaf scars and describe them fully, as to shape,
+colour, and marks.
+
+Do the scars look like fresh wounds, or are they healed over? Of what
+use to the tree is the healing of the scar?
+
+We will learn later that the part of the twig between each pair of bands
+of rings represents one year's growth. How old is your twig? Who has the
+oldest twig?
+
+Do all twigs grow at the same rate?
+
+Who has the twig that had the most rapid growth?
+
+_To the teacher._--The bud at the end of the twig or its branches is
+called the end bud; there are two leaf scars underneath it. The buds
+along the sides of the stem are called side buds, the latter are smaller
+than the end bud. The bud situated between the stem of the leaf and the
+twig is in a sheltered position. This position also puts the bud close
+to the pantry door, for the plant food is prepared in the leaf. The leaf
+scars are yellowish-brown, or if they are the scars from the leaves of
+former years, are dark brown in colour. Each scar is shaped like a
+horse-shoe and tiny dots are found in the position that the horse-shoe
+nails would have. Even before the leaf falls, a layer of corklike
+substance has formed over the scar. This layer is a protection against
+the entrance of frost and rain and germs of fungi and it also prevents
+the loss of sap from the scar. The tiny oval pores, each as large as the
+point of a needle, are the breathing pores of the twig. The bands of
+rings are the scars of the scales of the end buds of successive years.
+This latter fact can be discovered when the bud is opening.
+
+REVIEW LESSON
+
+The review lesson should consist of a review of the points taken up in
+the lessons that were based on the horse-chestnut twig, supplemented by
+the examination of the twigs of elm, apple, or lilac.
+
+LESSON ON BUDS
+
+~Materials.~--Twigs and buds of horse-chestnut, one for each pupil. An
+opening bud. (A bud or a twig placed in water in a warm room will
+develop rapidly.)
+
+~Lesson.~--Distribute specimens, and review the positions of the buds.
+
+Pupils examine the buds and tell all they can about them. They describe
+the colour, shape, and size of the buds, and also their gummy and
+scalelike covering.
+
+Of what use are the gum and scales? Of what use is the brown colour of
+the bud?
+
+They next find out what is inside the little brown house. They open the
+buds and try to identify the contents. There will be some uncertainty as
+to the meaning of the contents. Leave this over till spring.
+
+_To the teacher._--The brown colour of the bud makes it an absorbent of
+sunlight, and also serves as a protection from observation by the sharp
+eyes of bud-eating birds. The gummy scales are waterproof, and the
+scales, by spreading open gradually, cause the waterproof property to be
+retained even after the bud has grown quite large. The inner part of the
+bud is composed of two, four, or six tiny leaves folded up and supported
+on a short bit of stem. Some of the buds have, in addition to leaves, a
+tiny young flower cluster. All of these things are densely covered with
+white down. The down is the fur coat to protect the tender parts from
+the cold.
+
+REVIEW LESSON
+
+Review the lesson on buds, but substitute buds of the lilac or apple for
+the horse-chestnut buds of the original lesson.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+The observational study of the buds and twigs is a good preparation for
+busy work in art and manual training, and the pupils may be assigned
+exercises, such as charcoal drawing of a horse-chestnut twig, paper
+cutting of a lilac twig and buds, clay or plasticine modelling of twigs
+and buds.
+
+For oral and written language exercises, enlarge the vocabulary of the
+pupils by requiring sentences containing the words--scales, twigs, buds,
+protection, terminal, lateral, leaf stalk, blade, etc.
+
+
+LEAVES
+
+Leaves, because of their abundance and the ease with which they may be
+obtained, are valuable for Nature Study work. It is possible to arouse
+the interest of even young children in the study of leaves, but care
+must be taken not to make the observation work too minute and the
+descriptions too technical for the primary classes.
+
+FIELD EXERCISES
+
+An excursion to the school grounds or to some neighbouring park will
+suffice to bring the pupils into direct contact with the following
+plants: a maple tree, a Boston ivy (or other climbing vine), a
+nasturtium, a geranium.
+
+Ask the pupils to find out where and how leaves are placed on each of
+these plants, that is, whether they are on the inner parts of the
+branches of the tree or out at the ends of the branches. Do the leaves
+overlap one another or does each make room for its neighbours? Are the
+leaves spread out flat or curled up? What holds the leaves out straight
+and flat? What do the leaves need to make them green and healthy?
+
+Are the leaves placed in the right way, and are they of the right form
+to get these things?
+
+_To the teacher._--The leaves of the plants named are quite noticeably
+so placed on the plants, have such relations to one another, and are of
+such outline that they present the greatest possible surface to the
+_air_ and _sunshine_ and _rain_. The leaf stalk and midrib and veins are
+stiff and strong to keep the leaves spread out. Compare with the ribs of
+an umbrella. The benefit of sunshine to leaves and plants can be
+developed by discussing with the pupils the paleness and delicateness of
+plants that have been kept in a dark place, such as in a dark cellar.
+They are also acquainted with the refreshing effect of rains upon
+leaves. The use of air to the leaves is not so easy to develop with
+pupils of this age, but the use of air for breathing just as boys and
+girls need air for breathing may be told them.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON ON LEAVES
+
+~Introduction.~--Tell me all the things that you know upon which leaves
+grow. On trees, bushes, flowers, plants, vegetables, etc.
+
+Are leaves all of the same shape?
+
+To-day we are going to learn the names of some of the shapes of leaves.
+
+~Observations.~--Show the class the heart-shaped leaf of catalpa or lilac,
+and obtain from the pupils the name _heart-shape_. Use the following
+types:
+
+    Maple leaf as star-shape,
+    Grass or wheat or corn as ribbon-shape,
+    Nasturtium or water-lily as shield-shape,
+    Ash or rowan, as feather-shape.
+
+~Drill.~--Pupils pick out the shape named. Pupils name the plant to which
+each belongs. Which shape do you think is the prettiest?
+
+
+GARDEN STUDIES
+
+If the pupils of this Form have planted and cared for garden plots of
+their own, they will have a greater love for the flowers or vegetables
+that grow in them than for any others in the garden, because they have
+watched their development throughout. For them such continuous
+observation cannot but result in a quickening of perception and a
+deepening of interest and appreciation.
+
+STUDIES IN THE PUPIL'S INDIVIDUAL PLOT
+
+What plant is the first to appear above ground? What plant is the last
+to appear? Describe what each plant was like when it first appeared
+above ground. What plants grow the fastest? What effect has cold
+weather, warm weather, dry weather, on the growth of the plants?
+
+What weeds grow in the plot?
+
+Why do these weeds obstruct the growth of the other plants?
+
+What kind of root has each weed?
+
+Find out what kind of seeds each weed produces?
+
+Why is each weed hard to keep out of fields?
+
+What garden plants produce flowers?
+
+How are the seeds protected?
+
+Compare the seeds with those that you planted.
+
+Select the seeds of the largest plants and finest flowers for next
+year's seeding.
+
+STUDIES FROM THE GARDEN AS A WHOLE
+
+What plants grow tallest?
+
+What plants are most suitable for borders?
+
+What plants are valuable for their flowers?
+
+What plants are valuable for their edible roots, for their edible
+leaves, for their edible seeds?
+
+How are the edible parts stored for winter use?
+
+Compare the plants that are crowded, with others of the same kind that
+are not crowded.
+
+Compare the rate of growth of the plants in a plot that is kept hoed and
+raked with the rate of growth of plants in a neglected plot.
+
+
+BULB PLANTING
+
+The planting of bulbs in pots for winter blooming should be commenced
+with pupils in Form I and continued in the higher Forms. As a rule, the
+potted bulbs will be stored and cared for in the home, as most
+school-rooms are not heated continuously during the winter. Paper-white
+narcissus and freesia are most suitable and should be planted about the
+fifteenth of October, so that the plants will be in bloom for Christmas.
+
+LESSON ON BULBS AND BULB PLANTING
+
+~Materials.~--The bulbs to be planted.
+
+As many four-inch flower-pots or tomato cans as are required.
+
+Soil, composed of garden loam, sand, and well-rotted manure in equal
+proportions. Stones for drainage.
+
+Sticks for labels (smooth pieces of shingle, one and a half inches wide
+and sharpened at one end, will answer).
+
+Pictures of the plants in bloom.
+
+~Observations.~--The attention of the pupils is directed to the bulbs, and
+they are asked to describe the size, form, and colour of each kind of
+bulb.
+
+A bulb is cut across to make possible the study of the parts, and the
+pupils observe the scales or rings which are the bases of the leaves of
+the plant from which the bulb grew. The use of the fleshy mass of the
+bulb as a store of food for the plant that will grow from it is
+discussed.
+
+The sprout in the centre of the scales with its yellowish-green tip is
+observed, and its meaning inferred.
+
+The picture is shown to illustrate the possibilities within the bulb.
+
+PLANTING THE BULB
+
+The teacher directs, but the work is done by the pupils, and the reasons
+for the following operations are developed:
+
+What is the use of the one-inch layer of pebbles, or broken brick, or
+stone, that is placed in the bottom of the pot?
+
+Why are the bulbs planted near the top of the soil?
+
+Why is the soil packed firmly around the bulbs?
+
+Why must the soil be well wetted?
+
+Why is the pot set in a cool, dark place for a month or more?
+
+_To the teacher._--The pebbles or broken bricks are for giving drainage.
+The bulbs are planted with their tips just showing above the surface of
+the soil and there is about half an inch of space between the top of the
+soil and the upper edge of the pot in order to facilitate watering. The
+potted bulbs must be set in a cool, dark place until they are well
+rooted. This is subjecting them to their natural winter conditions, and
+it will cause them to yield larger flowers, a great number of flowers,
+and flowers that are more lasting. Sand in the soil permits of the more
+free passing of air through the soil. Basements and cellars are usually
+suited for storing bulbs until they have rooted, but they must not be
+warm enough to promote rapid growth. The pots when stored should be
+covered with leaves, sawdust, or coarse sand to prevent drying out. The
+soil must be kept moist, but not wet. Paper-white narcissus, if brought
+out of the dark after three or four weeks, will be in bloom at the end
+of another month if kept in the window of a warm room. Care must be
+taken not to expose the plants to bright light until they have become
+green. The bulbs of the white narcissus are to be thrown away after the
+flowers have withered, as they will not bloom again, but freesia bulbs
+may be kept and planted again the following year.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+FORM I
+
+WINTER
+
+
+LESSONS ON A PET ANIMAL: THE RABBIT
+
+I
+
+The lesson is introduced by a conversation with the pupils about their
+various pets.
+
+Since we are to have a rabbit brought to the school we must learn how to
+take care of it, and the proper method of taking care of it is based
+upon a knowledge of the habits of the wild rabbit.
+
+Where do wild rabbits live?
+
+What sort of home does a rabbit have?
+
+In what ways does this home protect the rabbit?
+
+Hence, what kind of home must we have ready for the rabbit?
+
+What does the rabbit eat?
+
+Are there any of these foods that are not good for its health?
+
+Give a list of foods that you can bring for the rabbit. Why will the
+rabbit, when kept in a hutch, require less food than one that runs
+about?
+
+Since the rabbit likes a soft bed, what can you bring for its bed?
+
+II
+
+~Observations.~--The teacher or a pupil brings a rabbit to the
+school-room, where, during recreation periods, the pupils make
+observations on topics suggested by the teacher, such as:
+
+Its choice of food; its timidity; its movements--hopping, squatting,
+listening, scratching, and gnawing.
+
+These observations are discussed in the class and are corrected or
+verified.
+
+_To the teacher._--Wild rabbits live in the woods or in shrubbery at the
+edges of fields. The home of the rabbit is either a burrow under ground
+or a sheltered place under a root or log closely concealed among the
+bushes. This home is dry and affords a shelter from enemies, and from
+wind, rain, and snow. From this we know that we must provide a dry bed
+for our rabbit in a strong box in which it will feel secure, and in
+which it will be protected from wind and rain. The food of the rabbit
+consists of vegetables and soft young clover and grains. It also gnaws
+the bark of trees, and in winter it feeds upon buds. We can, therefore,
+feed our rabbit on carrots, beets, apples, oats, bran, grass, and leaves
+of plants, and we must provide it with some twigs to gnaw, for gnawing
+helps to keep its large chisel-shaped teeth in good condition. We must
+be careful not to give it too much exercise, and we must not give it any
+cabbage, because this is not good for the rabbit's health. A dish of
+water must be placed in the hutch, for the rabbit needs water to drink.
+
+III
+
+Details, if studied in isolation, are uninteresting to Form I pupils.
+Detailed study should be based upon the animal's habits, movements, and
+instincts, and each detail should be studied as an answer to questions
+such as: How is the animal able to perform these movements? How is the
+animal fitted for this habit of life, etc.?
+
+Watch the rabbit moving. How does a rabbit move?
+
+Which legs are the more useful for hopping? How are the hind legs fitted
+for making long hops?
+
+Why is the rabbit able to defend itself by kicking with its hind feet?
+Find out how the rabbit is fitted for burrowing.
+
+Listen carefully and find out whether the rabbit makes much noise while
+moving. Of what advantage is it to the rabbit to move silently?
+
+Find out, by examining the feet of the rabbit, what causes it to make
+very little noise.
+
+How are rabbits prepared for living during cold weather?
+
+Test the ability of the rabbit to hear faint noises. Why is it necessary
+for the rabbit to be able to hear faint sounds?
+
+How is it fitted for hearing faint sounds?
+
+Examine the teeth and find out how they are fitted for gnawing.
+
+_To the teacher._--The long, strong, hind legs of the rabbit are bent in
+the form of levers and enable the animal to take long, quick hops.
+
+When the rabbit attacks, it frequently defends itself by vigorous kicks
+with its hind feet, which are armed with long, strong claws. Ernest
+Thompson-Seton's story of Molly Cottontail and "Raggylug", in _Wild
+Animals I Have Known_, contains an interesting account of how Molly
+rescued Raggy from a snake by this manner of fighting. The rabbit has
+many enemies, hence it has need of large, movable ears to aid its acute
+sense of hearing. The thick pads of hair on the soles of its feet enable
+it to move noiselessly. The thick, soft, inner hair keeps the animal
+warm, while the longer, stiffer, outer hair sheds the rain.
+
+Impress upon the pupils the cruelty of rough handling of the rabbit and
+of neglecting to provide it with a place for exercise and with a clean,
+dry home.
+
+The following pet animals may be studied, using the same order and
+general method of treatment: pigeon, cat, canary, guinea pig, white
+mouse, raccoon, squirrel, parrot.
+
+In many cases these animals can be brought to school by the pupils.
+Encourage the keeping of pet animals by the pupils, for the best lessons
+grow out of the actual care of the pets. The study of a pet bird may be
+conducted along lines similar to the outline given below for the study
+of the pigeon.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+With literature and reading: Ernest Thompson-Seton's "Raggylug".
+
+With art: Charcoal drawing representing the rabbit in various attitudes,
+as squatting, listening, hopping.
+
+With modelling in clay or plasticine.
+
+With paper cutting.
+
+With language: The vocabulary of the pupils is enlarged by the
+introduction of new words whose meaning is made clear by means of the
+concrete illustration furnished by direct observation of the rabbit.
+
+They use these new words in sentences which they form in describing the
+rabbit; for example: hutch, gnaw, padded, cleft lip, timid.
+
+The rabbit has padded feet so that it can walk without noise. The rabbit
+has a soft bed in its hutch.
+
+THE DOMESTIC CAT
+
+The following facts are suggested as topics for a first lesson on the
+domestic cat. The teacher can rely upon the pupil's knowledge of the
+cat to furnish these statements of fact during a conversation lesson:
+
+The cat goes about at night as readily as during the day.
+
+The cat can hear faint noises quite readily.
+
+The cat can walk noiselessly.
+
+The cat creeps along until it is close to its prey, then pounces upon
+it, and seizes it with its claws.
+
+The cat enjoys attention and purrs if it is stroked gently.
+
+The cat likes to sleep in a warm place.
+
+The cat can fight viciously with her claws.
+
+The cat keeps her fur smooth and clean and her whiskers well brushed
+with her paws.
+
+The cat eats birds, mice, rats, meat, fish, milk, bread, and cake.
+
+DETAILED STUDY
+
+Base the study of the details upon the facts of habit, movements,
+instincts, etc., which were developed in the preceding lesson.
+
+~Observations.~--Find out how the cat's feet are fitted for giving a
+noiseless tread.
+
+Find the claws.
+
+How are the claws fitted for seizing prey?
+
+How are the claws protected from being made dull by striking against
+objects when the cat is walking?
+
+THE PIGEON
+
+A pigeon is kept in a cage in the school-room and the pupils observe:
+its size as compared with that of other birds; outline of body,
+including shape of head; the feathers, noting quill feathers, and
+covering or contour feathers; manner of feeding and drinking; movements,
+as walking, flying, tumbling.
+
+The owner or the teacher describes the dove-cot, the necessity of
+keeping it clean, the use of tobacco stems for killing vermin in the
+nest, the two white eggs, the habits of male and female in taking turns
+in hatching, the parents' habit of half digesting the food in their own
+crops and then pouring it into the crops of the young, the rapid growth
+of the young, the next pair of young hatched before the first pair is
+full-fledged.
+
+Descriptions of the habits of one or more well-known varieties--pouters,
+fantails, homing pigeons, etc. Read stories of the training and flights
+of homing pigeons, from Ernest Thompson-Seton's _Arnex_.
+
+MORE DETAILED STUDY FOR CLASS WORK
+
+Compare the uses of the quill and contour feathers. Find out how these
+two kinds differ in texture; the differences fitting them for their
+difference in function. The names quill and contour may be replaced by
+some simple names, as feathers for flying and feathers for covering the
+body.
+
+Study the adaptations for flight, noting the smooth body surface, the
+overlapping feathers of the wing for lifting the bird upward as the wing
+comes down, the long wing bones, the strong breast, and the covering of
+feathers giving lightness and warmth. The warmth and lightness of
+feathers is illustrated by the feather boas worn by ladies.
+
+Examine the feet and find out why pigeons are able to perch on trees.
+
+Examine the beak, mouth, tongue, nostrils, eyes, ears. How is the bill
+adapted for picking up grains and seeds?
+
+
+OBSERVATION AND CARE OF WINTER-BLOOMING PLANTS
+
+Children are most interested in things which they own and care for
+themselves. If a child plants a bulb or a slip and succeeds in bringing
+it to maturity, it will be to him the most interesting and, at the same
+time, will bring him more into sympathy with plants wherever he may find
+them. The teacher should impress upon the pupil the desirability of
+having beautiful flowers in the home in winter, when there are none to
+be had out-of-doors.
+
+Every pupil should be encouraged to have one plant at least, and the
+bulbs planted in October and stored away in the dark in the home cellar
+will require a good deal of care and afford an excellent opportunity for
+observing plant growth and the development of flowers. If the pots have
+been stored in a cool cellar and have been kept slightly moist, the
+bulbs will have made sufficient root growth in a month and should be
+brought up into a warmer room where they can get some sunshine every
+day. The pupils will make a report each week as to what changes are
+noticeable in the growing plant. They will note the appearance of pale
+green shoots, which later develop into leaves and at least one flower
+stalk. They should make a drawing once every week and show it to the
+teacher, and the teacher should make it a point to see a number of the
+pupils' plants by calling at their homes. In this way the pupils come to
+know what plants need for their development in the way of soil, water,
+light, and heat. This interest will soon be extended, until, in a very
+few years, the children will add new and beautiful plants to the home
+collection and assume the responsibility of caring for all of them.
+
+
+TREES
+
+PINES OF THE LOCALITY
+
+This study may be commenced in November after the deciduous trees have
+lost their leaves and have entered their quiescent winter period. This
+is the time when the evergreens stand out so prominently on the
+landscape in such sharp contrast with the others that have been stripped
+of their broad leaves and now look bare and lifeless. If no pines are to
+be found in the vicinity, balsam or spruce may be substituted. The
+lessons should, as far as possible, be observational. The pupils should
+be encouraged to make some observations for themselves out of school. At
+least one lesson should be conducted out-of-doors, a suitable pine tree
+having been selected beforehand for the purpose. The following method
+might serve as a guide in the study of any species of tree.
+
+THE WHITE PINE
+
+FIELD EXERCISES
+
+Have the pupils observe the shape and height of the tree from a
+distance, tracing the outline with the finger. Compare the shape of this
+tree with that of other evergreens and also with that of the
+broad-leafed trees. Have them describe in what particulars the shapes
+differ in different trees. They will come to realize that the difference
+in shape results from difference in length, direction, and arrangement
+of branches. They may notice that other evergreen trees resemble the
+pine in that the stems are all straight and extend as a gradually
+tapering shaft from the bottom to the top, that all have a more or less
+conical shape, and that the branches grow more or less straight out
+from the main stem, not slanting off as in the case of the maples and
+elms.
+
+Coming close to the tree, the pupils may first examine the trunk. By
+using a string or tape-line, find its diameter and how big it is around.
+Tell them how big some evergreens are (the giant trees of the Pacific
+Coast are sometimes over forty feet around). Have them notice where the
+trunk is largest, and let them find out why a tree needs to be so strong
+at the ground. Heavy wind puts a great strain on it just at this point.
+Illustrate by taking a long slat or lath, drive it into the ground
+firmly, and then, catching it by the top, push it over. It will break
+off just at the ground. If a little pine tree could be taken up, the
+pupils would be interested in seeing what long, strong, fibrous roots
+the pine has.
+
+Let them examine the bark of the trunk and describe its colour and
+roughness. The fissures in the bark, which are caused by the enlarging
+of the tree by the formation of new wood under the bark, are deeper at
+the bottom of the tree than at the top, the tree being younger and the
+bark thinner the nearer to the top we go.
+
+Let the pupils look up into the tree from beneath and then go a little
+distance away and look at it. They will notice how bare the branches are
+on the inside, and the teacher will probably have to explain why this is
+so. They will discover that the leaves are nearly all out toward the
+ends of the branches as they get light there, while the centre of the
+tree top is shaded, and the great question that every tree must try to
+solve is how to get most light for its leaves. The pupils will now see
+an additional reason why the lower limbs should be longer than the upper
+ones. The greater length of the lower limbs brings the leaves out into
+the sunlight.
+
+The reason for calling this tree an "evergreen" may now be considered.
+Why it retains its leaves all winter is a problem for more advanced
+classes; but if the question is asked, the teacher may get over the
+difficulty by explaining to the class that the leaves are so small, and
+yet so hardy, that wind, frost, or snow does not injure them. Each pupil
+may bring a small branch or twig back to the school-room for use in a
+class-room lesson.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+~Materials.~--Small branches--one for each pupil, cones, bark, pieces of
+pine board.
+
+~Introduction.~--Review the general features of the pine that were
+observed in the field lesson.
+
+~Observations.~--The branches are distributed. Pupils test the strength
+and suppleness of the branches and find the gummy nature of the surface.
+
+Of what value are these qualities to the tree during winter storms?
+
+Examine the texture, stiffness, and fineness of the needles.
+
+Note that the needles are in little bunches. How many are in each bunch?
+
+Are there any buds on the branches?
+
+If so, where are the buds?
+
+How are the buds protected from rain?
+
+The pupils examine the cones and describe their general shape.
+
+The pupils are asked to break open the tough scales and find the seeds.
+
+Allow the seeds to fall through the air, and thus the pupils will
+discover the use of the wings attached to the seeds.
+
+The wood is next examined, its colour and odour are noted, and its
+hardness is tested.
+
+Find articles in the school-room that are made of pine wood.
+
+ELM
+
+The following topics are suggested for aiding in the selection of matter
+for a lesson on a typical broad-leafed tree:
+
+The height of the tree.
+
+The part of the height that is composed of tree tops.
+
+The umbrella shape or dome shape of the top.
+
+The gracefully drooping branches of the outer part of the top.
+
+Try to find other trees with tops like that of the elm.
+
+The diameter of the trunk.
+
+The diameter is almost uniform up to the branches.
+
+The branches all come off from one point, like the ribs of an umbrella.
+
+The thick bark, that of the old trees being marked by deep furrows.
+
+The birds that make their nests in the elm.
+
+In spring find and examine the flowers, fruits, seeds, and also the
+leaves.
+
+FIELD EXERCISE
+
+A good out-of-door exercise to follow the general lesson outlined above,
+is to require the pupils to find all the elm trees or a number of elm
+trees growing in the locality and to describe their location and the
+kind of soil on which they grow.
+
+The maple, oak, horse-chestnut, and apple are also suitable trees upon
+which to base lessons for Form I.
+
+
+DOMESTIC ANIMALS
+
+Domestic animals not only furnish suitable subjects for observation
+work, but also afford good opportunities for developing that sympathetic
+interest in animal life which will cause the pupils to more nearly
+appreciate the useful animals and to treat them more humanely.
+
+THE HORSE
+
+I
+
+~Introduction.~--By means of a conversation with the pupils, find out what
+they know about the horse and lead them to think about his proper
+treatment.
+
+~Lesson.~--The matter and method are suggested by the following:
+
+What are the different things for which horses are useful?
+
+What kinds of horses are most useful for hauling heavy loads?
+
+Why are they most useful?
+
+What kinds are the most useful for general farm work? Why are they the
+most useful?
+
+What kinds are the most useful for driving?
+
+Are there any other animals that would be as useful as the horse for all
+these things?
+
+What causes some horses to be lean and weary while others are fat and
+brisk?
+
+What kinds of stables should horses have as to warmth, dryness, and
+fresh air?
+
+Why is it cruel to put a frosty bit into a horse's mouth?
+
+When a horse is warm from driving on a cold day, how should he be
+protected if hitched out-of-doors?
+
+Why, when he is warm from driving, should the blanket not be put on
+until he has been in the stable for a little while?
+
+Correlate with reading from _Black Beauty_.
+
+II
+
+~Preparation.~--I want you to find out some more things about the horse,
+but you will understand these things better if you remember that long
+ago all horses were wild, just as some horses are wild on the prairies
+to-day, and that the habits learned by wild horses remain in our tame
+horses.
+
+     The teacher should read to the class parts of "The Pacing
+     Mustang" from Ernest Thompson-Seton's _Wild Animals I Have
+     Known_, or "Kaweah's Run" from _Neighbours with Claws and
+     Hoofs_. This will give the pupils a motive for making the
+     required observations.
+
+~Observations.~--Compare the length of the legs of the horse with his
+height.
+
+Of what use were these long legs to the wild horses?
+
+What causes horses to "shy"? Of what use was this habit to wild horses?
+
+In how many directions can a horse move his ears? Of what use was this
+to wild horses?
+
+When horses in a field are alarmed, do they rush together or keep apart,
+and where are the young foals found at this time? Of what use were these
+habits to wild horses? Are the eyes of the horse so placed that he can
+see behind him and to either side as well as in front? Of what use was
+this to wild horses?
+
+_To the teacher._--The horse is an animal which is strong, swift,
+graceful, gentle, obedient, docile. The pupils should learn that, in
+return for his good services, the horse should be treated with kindness
+and consideration.
+
+The legs of the horse are long, straight, and strong, and the single toe
+(or hoof) means that the horse walks on the tip of one toe, and the hoof
+is in reality a large toe nail developed to protect the tip of the toe.
+To these features is due the great speed of the horse. Horses gather
+together in the field with the foals in the most protected part of the
+group, just as wild horses found it necessary to do for protection. The
+wild horses "shied" at a fierce enemy concealed in the grass, and the
+tame horse shies at a strange object.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+With literature and reading: By interpretation of _The Bell of Atri_.
+
+With language: By exercise on new words, as graceful, etc.
+
+
+DOMESTIC BIRDS
+
+THE DUCK
+
+~Home Observations.~--Compare the duck and the drake as to size,
+colouring, calls, and other sounds.
+
+Observe the position of the birds when standing. Observe their mode of
+walking, of swimming, and of flying. Where do they prefer to make their
+nests? Why is the duck more plain in dress than the drake? What is the
+shape, size, and build of the nest? Describe the eggs. When does the
+duck sleep? Why can it not sleep upon a perch as hens do? How do ducks
+feed on land? Compare with the feeding of hens. Observe how ducks feed
+when in water. Observe the various sounds, as alarm notes, call notes,
+social sounds.
+
+Describe the preening of the feathers and explain the meaning of it.
+
+Compare the appearance of the young ducks with that of the older ones.
+Do the young ducks need to be taught to swim?
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+Provide, where convenient, a duck for class study.
+
+~Observations.~--Colour, size, general shape of the body, and the relation
+of the shape to ease of swimming; divisions of the body.
+
+Size of head, length of neck, and the relation of the length of the neck
+to the habit of feeding in water.
+
+The legs and web feet, and the relation of these to the bird's awkward
+walking and ease in swimming.
+
+The bill and its relation to the bird's habits of feeding by scooping
+things from the bottom of the water and then straining the water out.
+The sensitive tip of the bill by which the duck can feel the food.
+
+The feathers, their warmth, and compactness for shedding water. The oil
+spread over them during the preening is useful as a protection against
+water.
+
+The bill, feet, and feathers should be compared with those of the hen
+and goose, and reasons for the similarities and differences should be
+discussed.
+
+The uses that people make of ducks and their feathers and eggs; the
+gathering of eider-down.
+
+For desk work, make drawings of the duck when swimming, flying, and
+standing.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+FORM I
+
+SPRING
+
+
+GARDEN WORK
+
+The pupils in Form I cannot be expected to do heavy work, such as
+spading plots or making paths. In some cases the larger boys will
+undertake to line out the walks and do the spading or digging. Sometimes
+it may be best to engage a man to do the spading. In any case the boys
+and girls should do the measuring and marking out of the plots. If
+stable manure is used in fertilizing the plots, it must be well rotted
+and then carefully spaded into the plots. The rest of the work should be
+done by the pupils themselves under the direction of the teacher. This
+work will include the levelling of the plots with hoes and rakes, and
+the trimming of the edges to the exact size of the plots, as determined
+by a string drawn taut about the four corner pickets. If the pupils in
+this Form have individual plots, each pupil will mark out his drills,
+put in the seeds, and cover them. The teacher may give demonstrations in
+connection with the work but should not do the work for the pupils.
+
+The teacher must use his own judgment as to what seeds to allow the
+pupils to plant. One variety of vegetable and one of flowers is
+sufficient for Form I pupils, and it is desirable that large seeds be
+chosen for them and such as are pretty sure to grow under ordinary
+circumstances. Beans, beets, radishes, or lettuces are suitable as
+vegetables, and nasturtiums, balsams, or four-o'clocks as flowers.
+These seeds should be planted at least an inch apart in the drill and
+the drills, twelve to fifteen inches apart. Large seeds may have an inch
+of soil over them and smaller seeds much less. Unless the soil is very
+dry, watering should not be allowed, and in any case it is better to
+water the plot thoroughly the day before planting the seed instead of
+after, as is commonly done. The pupils must not allow a crust to form
+over the plot either before the seeds come up or after. Claw-hand
+weeders are convenient for loosening the soil close to the plants, and
+small-sized garden rakes can be used between the rows as soon as the
+seedlings appear. It is always better to cultivate before the weeds get
+a start, and thus prevent their growth. Usually the young plants will be
+too thick in the row, so that thinning should be begun when the plants
+are about two inches high. The edges of the plots should be kept
+straight and the paths clean and level. Each plot should have a wooden
+label bearing the owner's name or number and Form. The teacher is
+referred to _Circular 13_ of the Ontario Department of Education,
+_Elementary Agriculture and Horticulture_, for lists of seeds, tools,
+etc.
+
+GARDEN STUDIES
+
+The pupils should be in the garden every day as soon as gardening
+commences. In this way only will they be able to follow and appreciate
+the whole life of the plant from seed to seed again. The teacher should
+give a few minutes daily to receiving verbal reports from the pupils.
+All new developments that the pupils notice should be reported for the
+good of all. The teacher should make a practice of visiting the garden
+for a few minutes daily before or after school, in order that he may be
+in a position to direct the pupils in their studies in the garden. The
+pupils should watch for the first appearance of the young plants above
+ground, noting how they get through the soil, and the size, shape, and
+colour of the first leaves. They can readily determine whether all of
+the seeds grow. They will then watch for the opening of the second pair
+of leaves and compare them with the first pair. They should report the
+amount of growth made from day to day, and also what insect enemies
+attack the plants, and what animals, such as toads and birds, are seen
+during the season. They will also have occasion to note the effect of
+rain and sun upon the soil and upon the plants. The first vegetables fit
+for use and the first flowers in bloom will be reported. While they give
+special attention to the development of the plants in their own plots,
+they will of course observe what is going on in the garden generally.
+
+Correlate with the interpretation of "The Seed" in _Nature in
+Verse_.--Lovejoy. Silver, Burdett & Co., 60 cents.
+
+WINDOW GARDEN
+
+The pupils should plant some seeds in sand or moist sawdust in boxes or
+pots in the school-room, so that they may be able to examine the
+progress of germination. In this way they will come to realize that
+every good seed has in it a tiny plant asleep and that warmth and
+moisture are needed to awaken it and help it to grow. It sends one
+delicate shoot down into the soil and another up into the light. Another
+interesting way to plant seeds is in egg-shells filled with fine, moist
+soil, which are set in rows in a box of sand. One seed only should be
+put in a shell. The plants may be grown to quite a size and then set out
+in the garden plot, the shell having first been broken off and the ball
+of earth containing the roots carefully set down in a small hole, packed
+about with garden soil, and watered. The pupils should draw diagrams or
+maps of their plots and afterwards of the whole garden. (See Manual on
+_Geography_.) They can mark the lines of plants, and those who can write
+can give in short, simple sentences the main things noticed from day to
+day. They should give the day and date when the seeds were planted, when
+plants came up, when rain storms occurred, when work in weeding,
+thinning, and cultivating was done, when the plants were fit to use, and
+how they were disposed of, etc. This will serve as profitable seat work
+in writing, drawing, and language. Simple problems based upon dimensions
+of plots and the value of vegetables, etc., afford excellent
+supplementary exercises in arithmetic.
+
+
+WILD FLOWERS
+
+The admiration that even little children have for the wild flowers of
+the woods and their delight in finding and gathering them is sufficient
+justification for including them in studies for Form I. The teacher must
+be careful, however, lest he go too far in the critical examination of
+the parts of the flowers, forgetting that little children are not
+interested in stamens and petals, but in the fresh, fragrant, and
+delicate blossoms that beautify the little banks and hollows of every
+woodland and that brighten up the fields and roadsides in spring time.
+The teacher should aim to deepen that childish admiration and give to
+the child a more intelligent appreciation of the beauties of the wild
+flowers and a desire to protect them from extermination.
+
+No attempt should be made to prohibit the picking of wild flowers, but
+the pupils should be instructed not to pull up plants by the roots. The
+picking of flowers in moderation does not injure the plants, but rather
+tends to increase their vigour. Pupils should pick flowers with some
+purpose in view, rather than to see how big a bunch each can gather. The
+teacher should show them how to arrange a few flowers in a neat bouquet
+and emphasize the fact that a great mass of blossoms crushed closely
+together is far from being artistic or ornamental. Pupils should then be
+encouraged to make up pretty bouquets for the teacher's desk, for the
+home dining-room, and for old or invalid people who love
+flowers--especially those plucked by the hands of thoughtful children.
+
+RECOGNITION OF WILD FLOWERS
+
+The pupils should learn to recognize each year a few species of wild
+flowers by name as well as by sight. This may be accomplished in two
+ways, (1) by means of excursions to the woods a few times each year
+during the spring and summer months, and (2) by having occasional
+observation lessons in the school-room based upon the flowers gathered
+for the school-room bouquets. Both methods are to be recommended, but it
+must be borne in mind that a wilted, lacerated flower has no interest
+for a little child.
+
+LESSON IN OUTLINE
+
+BLOODROOT
+
+Plants are always most interesting when studied in their natural
+environment, and this is one reason why the school excursion deserves
+the highest commendation as a method of studying wild flowers. When
+studying wild flowers out-of-doors, the pupils should notice what seems
+to be the favourite or usual location for the particular species under
+consideration.
+
+Have the pupils observe the following about the bloodroot:
+
+It seems to prefer fairly dry, rich soil, on or near a hillside. It
+opens its beautiful white blossoms early in the spring, as if to enjoy
+the bright sunshine before the trees put out their thick coat of leaves
+to shade it. It, like many another early spring flower, comes into bloom
+so early in the spring because it got ready the summer before. The
+teacher should carefully dig up a specimen--root and all--as young
+pupils cannot be depended on to get up all of the underground part. Note
+the large amount of plant food stored up in the underground stem, how
+the flower was protected before it opened out, and what becomes of the
+protection. Note the peculiar beauty of the snow-white blossoms with
+their yellow centres, and how beautiful they look as they nestle amongst
+the handsome green leaves with their pinkish-tinted stems. Wound the
+root, and notice the reddish, bloodlike juice whence the plant derives
+its name. Indians sometimes use this juice for war-paint, and some
+mothers give it to their children on sugar as a cure for coughs and
+colds.
+
+Other wild flowers suitable for Form I are buttercup, spring beauty,
+dog's-tooth violet, hepatica, and trillium.
+
+If there is a corner of the school ground that is partly shaded, and if
+the soil is fairly mellow and moist, some of these wild flowers should
+be transplanted there where they will grow well and can be seen every
+day during the blooming period.
+
+The leaves and flowers of the bloodroot and the above-mentioned wild
+flowers can be used for drawing.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+Oral and written descriptions of the flowers studied afford suitable
+exercises in language and composition.
+
+
+INSECT STUDY
+
+CECROPIA, OR EMPEROR-MOTH
+
+The larvae of this, the largest of Canadian moths, may be found early in
+September, as they wander about in search of a suitable branch upon
+which to fasten their cocoons. If the pupils are not successful in
+finding the larvae, the cocoons can be found after the leaves have
+fallen, because their size makes them conspicuous. The only difficulty
+in finding them is due to their being of the same colour as the withered
+leaves, so that they are easily mistaken for the latter.
+
+The pupils should be directed to look carefully at what appears at first
+sight to be a withered leaf attached to a tree or shrub, and in this way
+many cocoons of various moths will be found.
+
+~Observe.~--The large size--from three to four inches long; the greenish
+colour; the stumpy legs; movements, as walking, feeling, clinging; the
+rows of warts, and short, stiff spines on these; the feeding habits,
+biting or sucking; eggs of parasites, for frequently these are found on
+the larvae.
+
+Place the larva in a box covered with gauze, and observe the spinning
+and weaving of the cocoon.
+
+From what part of the body is the silk obtained? With what organs are
+the threads placed in position? What part of the cocoon is made first
+and what part is made last? What time is required for making the cocoon?
+How is the cocoon fastened to the tree? What provision is made in the
+cocoon for warmth, for protection from birds, for shelter from rain?
+
+Cut open a cocoon and examine the pupa, noting the mummy-like case on
+which can be seen the impressions of the wings developing within.
+
+If the cocoon is kept in the vivarium in a cool place, so that the
+conditions may be as nearly as possible like the natural conditions, the
+adult moth will emerge about the first of May. In April the cocoon
+should be wetted occasionally, as it would be if exposed to rains; this
+ensures more perfect development of the insect.
+
+~Observe.~--At what part of the cocoon the moth makes an opening; the slow
+spreading and strengthening of the wings; the size and coloration of the
+moth; the feathery feelers; the position of the wings and sucking mouth
+parts when at rest.
+
+Require the pupils to make drawings of the cocoon, larva, and adult.
+
+The promothea moth, whose cocoons are common on lilac bushes, may be
+studied in the same way as the emperor.
+
+Reference.--Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_
+
+DRAGON-FLY
+
+The larvae of this insect may be obtained in May or June by scraping
+leaves, weeds, and mud from the bottom of ponds and allowing the mud and
+water to settle in a pail or tub. The larvae may be distinguished from
+other aquatic creatures by the long insect-like body, three pairs of
+legs, and the "mask"--a flap with pincers at the end. This mask can be
+turned under the head and body when not in use, or it can be projected
+in front of the larva for catching prey. At the rear end are three
+tubes, which fit together to form the breathing tube.
+
+The pupils should observe the above features, and also the movements,
+seizing of prey, breathing, moulting, semi-resting or pupa stage, at the
+close of which the pupa climbs up a reed or stalk of grass and bursts
+the skin from which the adult emerges.
+
+The pupils should put into the aquarium various kinds of insects and
+decide what foods are preferred by the larva and the adult.
+
+~Observe.~--The size, length of body, movements in flight, lace-like
+wings, and insect-killing habits of the dragon-fly.
+
+Should dragon-flies be protected? Give reasons. Are all dragon-flies of
+the same size, build, and colour? At what time of year are dragon-flies
+most numerous?
+
+~Reference.~--Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_.
+
+OTHER CONSPICUOUS INSECTS
+
+The potato-beetle, giant water-bug, eastern swallow-tail butterfly, and
+promothea moth are insects suitable as types to be studied by the pupils
+of Form I. The giant water-bug is the large, broad, grayish-brown insect
+that is found on the sidewalks in May and June mornings. (For
+information on the eastern swallow-tail and promothea see Metamorphosis,
+in Butterfly and Moth Collections.)
+
+
+BIRDS
+
+Bird studies for Form I should be limited to observations made directly
+upon a few common birds, such as the robin, house-sparrow (English),
+song-sparrow, flicker, house-wren, crow, bronzed grackle, and
+meadow-lark. These are easily reached by the pupils of every rural and
+village school, and the purpose of the lessons should be to teach the
+pupils to recognize these birds, and by making use of child interest in
+living active creatures, to develop their interest in birds.
+
+THE ROBIN
+
+FIELD EXERCISES
+
+I
+
+Observe the robins and find out the following things:
+
+1. Are all robins of the same colour? If not of the same colour, what
+difference do you note?
+
+2. Does the bird run or hop? Imitate its movements.
+
+3. Listen to its song. Is it sweet or harsh? Is it loud or low? Is it
+cheerful or gloomy?
+
+4. Watch the robin as it moves along the grass and learn how it finds
+out where the worms are.
+
+_To the teacher._--The pupils should be given a few days in which to
+find out answers to these questions, and at the end of that time the
+answers should be discussed in the class.
+
+Male robins have more pronounced colours than female robins. The beak is
+yellower, the breast is brighter, the back and the top of the head are
+darker. Robins both run and hop. The sense of sight of the robin is very
+acute, but its sense of hearing is even more keen. The bird may be
+observed turning its head to one side to listen for the sound of a worm
+which is still inside its burrow.
+
+II
+
+A second set of exercises may now be assigned which will demand a more
+detailed study of the bird, namely, a study of the size, colour, form of
+body, manner of flight, and length of beak.
+
+III
+
+THE NEST, EGGS, AND YOUNG
+
+1. Find out various places in which robins build their nests. In what
+ways are these places all alike? Examine the materials of the nest and
+find out why the nests are built in the kind of places in which they are
+found.
+
+2. Describe the eggs.
+
+3. What kinds of food do the parent birds bring to the young? Does the
+father bird aid in bringing food to the young?
+
+_To the teacher._--The nests are found in well-sheltered parts of apple
+trees and evergreens, in sheds, under ledges of roofs, and in other
+sheltered places. The nests, since they are composed largely of mud and
+grass, would easily be washed away if exposed to rain storms. The food
+brought to the young consists of worms and insect larvae, and the father
+bird is very industrious in helping to take care of his family. It is
+the father bird that sings, and the mother bird devotes all her energies
+to working and scolding.
+
+THE SONG-SPARROW
+
+FIELD EXERCISES
+
+In early March, when the streams are just beginning to break from
+underneath the ice and spots of ground peep here and there through the
+snow, assign to the pupils an exercise such as the following:
+
+Watch for a small, gray-brown bird which perches near the top of a bush,
+or small tree, and sings the "Tea-kettle Song".
+
+Try to interpret the song in the words:
+
+"Maids! Maids! Maids! Put on the tea-kettle, tea-kettle, tea-kettle,
+tea-kettle, tea-kettle-ettle."
+
+Is the song bright and cheerful or dull and gloomy? Does the bird sing
+this song often?
+
+Approach close to the bird. Are there any stripes or spots on its breast
+or head?
+
+Describe the flight of the bird from its perch, when it is disturbed.
+
+_To the teacher._--It is possible for the pupils to distinguish the
+song-sparrow by means of the above exercises. It is one of the first
+birds to return in the spring, and, as it is a lusty singer, it will
+attract the attention of all who are looking for birds. The dark brown
+spot in the centre of the breast is a distinguishing mark, and the more
+observant will find the three ashy-gray stripes on its head and the dark
+line through the eye.
+
+When disturbed, it does not rise into the air, but flies downward and
+disappears with a swish of its tail. The nest is usually built on the
+ground or in a low bush or tree. It is composed of grass, fine roots, or
+weed stems, and lined with fine grass or hair. The eggs are usually four
+or five, but sometimes there are as many as seven. They are white with a
+greenish-blue tint and are closely spotted with brown.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+Discuss with the pupils the observations that they have made on the
+field exercises.
+
+Generalize as to the similarity of the places in which the pupils have
+seen the sparrow singing, and as to the times of day in which the bird
+sings.
+
+Teach the marks of identification which some have discovered, using for
+this purpose pictures of the bird or black-board drawings; and encourage
+those who have not yet seen the song-sparrow to try again and to secure
+the assistance of those who have succeeded.
+
+Compare the size and form of the song-sparrow with that of the
+house-sparrow (English).
+
+Tell the pupils the great value of the bird in killing cutworms,
+plant-lice, caterpillars, ground-beetles, grasshoppers, flies, and other
+insects. It also helps to prevent the spread of weeds by eating
+thousands of seeds of noxious weeds.
+
+Assign the pupils some other things to discover, as for example: Through
+how many months of the summer does the bird sing? Find the nest. Why is
+it hard to find? Describe the eggs, as to size, colour, and number. Do
+not disturb the nest and do not visit it very often.
+
+_To the teacher._--Base lessons in bird study upon the English sparrow,
+flicker, wren, and meadow-lark.
+
+
+THE SHEEP
+
+PROBLEMS FOR FIELD WORK
+
+How do sheep find one another when they have become separated?
+
+How old are the lambs before they can keep up with the old sheep when
+running? What fits the lamb for running so well?
+
+Watch the lambs when they are playing, and find out whether they play:
+
+1. I'm the king of the castle.
+
+2. Follow the leader.
+
+Find out by watching a flock of sheep what is meant by "Men follow one
+another like a flock of sheep".
+
+Describe how sheep move when they are going very fast.
+
+Why should sheep be kept in a well-ventilated building that protects
+them from snow and rain but is not very warm?
+
+_To the teacher._--Each movement, habit, and instinct implied in this
+exercise is explained by the life of the wild sheep. Their natural home
+is in the mountain, and their swift movement is that of bounding from
+rock to rock as they follow the strongest and boldest (their leader) to
+a place of safety. The legs of the lamb grow rapidly, beyond all
+proportion to the rate of growth of the body, so that within two weeks
+after birth the young lamb is almost as strong of limb and fleet of foot
+as its mother. In their games the lambs are fitting themselves for their
+place in the flock, and these games very much resemble those named in
+the exercise.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+FORM II
+
+AUTUMN
+
+
+BULB PLANTING OUT-OF-DOORS
+
+Tulips and daffodils (narcissus) are the most suitable bulbs for
+out-of-door planting. The best varieties for outdoor culture are usually
+designated in catalogues. Bulbs should not be planted in individual
+plots, but in borders and ornamental beds. The latter should not be
+placed in the centre of a lawn, as is frequently done. Bulbs should be
+planted before the last of October.
+
+BEDS FOR GROWING BULBS
+
+To make a bulb bed, throw out the top soil to a depth of eight or nine
+inches, put about three inches of well-rotted stable manure in the
+bottom, and cover it with about three inches of the soil which was
+thrown out. Rake the plot level and then place the bulbs about eight
+inches apart on the top of the soil, arranging them in any design
+chosen. Cover them with the rest of the soil and rake it level. There
+will be about five inches of soil over the bulbs. When a solid crust has
+formed over the bed, put on a covering of leaves, straw, or branches of
+evergreens, and some pieces of boards to hold them in place. This
+covering does not protect the bulbs from freezing, but prevents too
+rapid thawing out in the spring. This covering should remain until the
+tips of the bulbs are showing above ground, when it should be removed.
+Ordinarily the bulbs may be left a second year before digging up. They
+should then be re-set or replaced with new ones, and the bed made and
+fertilized as before.
+
+In clay soil the bulbs should not be set quite so deep as in sandy soil,
+and the bulbs have better drainage about their roots if a handful of
+sand is placed under each bulb in planting.
+
+Crocus bulbs may be planted in clumps anywhere about the grounds or
+borders by simply making a small hole about five inches deep, dropping
+the bulb in, and covering it. Lily of the valley grows best in partial
+shade in some unfrequented corner.
+
+PLANTING OF BULBS INDOORS
+
+Read again the instructions given under this heading in Form I work,
+regarding soil, planting, and care. The Chinese sacred lily and trumpet
+narcissus may be chosen for the pupils of this Form. The narcissus, also
+called daffodil, may be held back until early spring if kept in a cool,
+dark cellar, but the Chinese sacred lily, which is also a variety of
+narcissus, comes into bloom from four to six weeks after planting. It is
+usually grown in water in a bowl of suitable size. Place a few pieces of
+charcoal in the bottom of the bowl, set the bulb upon them, and pack
+coloured stones and shells around it as a support. Keep the bowl about
+two thirds full of water and set it in a warm, sunny place. It does not
+need to be set in the dark, as is the case with other bulbs. These may
+also be grown in soil in the same way as other varieties of narcissus.
+When blooming is over, the bulbs may be thrown away, as they cannot be
+used again.
+
+
+GARDEN WORK
+
+(See Autumn work for Form I.)
+
+The pupils in Form II should be given more responsibility with reference
+to the care and management of their garden plots. If they have had a
+couple of years in gardening while in Form I, they will have gained
+sufficient knowledge as to the needs of plants and sufficient practice
+in garden craft to do a certain amount of work quite independently. The
+boys of Form II are able, with suitable garden tools, to do all the work
+needed in the management of their own plots and may even be allowed to
+do some of the harder work for the girls of their Form.
+
+SEED SELECTION
+
+Besides the usual work of weeding, cultivating, and harvesting of their
+crops, the pupils should undertake some work in seed selection. This
+work not only results in the improvement of the plants grown from year
+to year, but also helps to train the pupils in painstaking observation
+and the discerning of minute points of excellence. The ambition to
+produce, by careful selection and thorough cultivation, a grain or
+flower better than has been, is aroused, and, as the pupil's interest
+increases, his love for the art increases and his efforts meet with
+greater success.
+
+The teacher should aim from the first to use only the best available
+seed even if the cost be greater. He should send for a number of
+catalogues and carefully choose those varieties of seeds that possess
+evident merit for the purpose intended. In the case of flowers, the
+pupils should be asked to decide what individual plants showed greatest
+excellence, and these should be marked, and the seed from them
+preserved for next season's planting. When the flower is in full bloom,
+a small string tag should be tied to the flower stem (string tags can be
+got from a local merchant). On this tag should be written in lead-pencil
+the name of the species, the shade, and date of flowering. These flowers
+should be left to ripen thoroughly, and then the seed picked and sealed
+up in small envelopes, which the pupils should make as part of their
+manual training work. The date on the tag should be transferred to the
+seed envelope.
+
+STORING SEEDS
+
+All the envelopes should be collected, placed in a mouse-proof box, and
+stored in a cool, dry place until time to plant in the spring. Small
+bottles are excellent for holding seed and safer than envelopes. If such
+selection is carried on systematically, it will result in an increase of
+yield and of quality not to be equalled by even the best seed that the
+markets have to offer. Thus the school garden may become the centre of
+interest for the community. Seeds of good varieties can be distributed
+to the ratepayers, and the standard of gardening and horticulture
+raised. Here, as elsewhere, much--almost everything--depends upon the
+teacher's interest and ability to lead as well as to instruct.
+
+HARVESTING AND STORING OF GARDEN CROPS
+
+As soon as the vegetables reach their best stage of development, they
+should be taken from the garden by the owner. All dead plants and refuse
+should be removed and covered up in a compost heap. The boys of this
+Form should also assist in doing part of the general work of the school
+garden. They might take up from the garden border such tender plants as
+dahlias, gladioli, and Canna lilies. These should be dried off and
+stored in a cool, dry cellar. If the cellar be warm, it is necessary to
+cover the bulbs with garden soil to prevent their drying out too much.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+The pupils are led, through conversation, to state their experiences and
+observations. The teacher assists them in interpreting their
+observations and organizing their knowledge and stimulates them to
+thoughtful search for further information.
+
+Discuss with the pupils such questions as:
+
+What are people busy doing on their farms and in their gardens at this
+time of year? Why do they harvest and store the wheat, oats, corn,
+potatoes, and apples, etc.? Are there any countries in which people do
+not need to gather in the grains, vegetables, and fruits?
+
+The discussion of these questions will direct their thought to the need
+of storing sufficient food for animals and for man to last through the
+winter, when these things do not grow. They must be gathered to protect
+them from destruction by storms of wind and rain and the severe frosts
+of winter. People who live in very warm countries find foods growing all
+the year round, and they do not need to prepare for winter, but these
+people are always lazy and unprogressive.
+
+Discuss the means taken to protect the various crops, as follows:
+
+Why can grain be kept in barns or granaries or in stacks? Why can
+apples, turnips, and potatoes not be kept in the same way as grains?
+What are the conditions that are best suited for keeping the latter
+products? Name some kinds of crops that cannot be kept in any of the
+ways already discussed. Why can they not be kept in these ways?
+
+These discussions will develop the idea of the necessity of keeping
+apples, potatoes, and turnips, in cellars, root-houses, and pits, where
+they cannot freeze, but where they are kept at uniformly low
+temperatures which are as close as possible to their freezing points.
+The air must not be too dry, as dryness causes them to shrivel up. In
+dry cellars they should be covered with fine soil. Very delicate fruits,
+such as cherries, grapes, peaches, plums, strawberries, etc., can only
+be kept for a length of time by preserving or canning them.
+
+Correlate with lessons in Household Management on preserving and
+canning.
+
+FALL CULTIVATION
+
+When the garden has been finally cleaned out, the plot should be spaded
+up and left without raking. Clay soil especially is much improved in
+physical qualities by thus being exposed to the air and frost. All
+garden tools should receive a special cleaning up before storing for
+winter.
+
+
+GARDEN STUDIES
+
+The observational studies suggested under this head for Form I will be
+followed also in Form II. The pupils of Form II will be expected to make
+more critical observations in connection not only with the plants
+growing in their own individual plots, but also with those plants which
+other pupils have been growing. They should give some attention also to
+the plants in the perennial flower border.
+
+GARDEN RECORDS.
+
+In this Form the pupils should begin to make garden records on such
+points as the following:
+
+1. Description of the plant--size, habit of growth, kind of leaves and
+their arrangement, date of flowering, form, size and colouring of the
+flowers, points of merit or the reverse, description of the seed and how
+scattered, how disposed of, and the value.
+
+2. The work done in the garden from day to day, with dates.
+
+3. The effect of rain, drought, or other weather conditions on the
+growth of the plants.
+
+4. What insects were seen visiting the flowers and what they were
+doing--whether beneficial or harmful.
+
+5. What birds or other animals were found frequenting the garden. (See
+Animal Studies, pp. 30, 96, 217.)
+
+6. What plants suffered from earliest frosts; what from subsequent
+frosts; what ones proved to be most hardy, etc.
+
+7. What plants the pupils like most in the garden, and what ones seem to
+suit the soil and weather conditions best.
+
+The pupils in this Form, by direct observation, should come to
+appreciate the development of the fruit and seed from the flower. Their
+work in seed selection, based upon the excellence of the flower, helps
+to ensure this line of observation.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+Art: Drawing of leaves, flowers, and vegetables, in colour when
+possible.
+
+Arithmetic: Calculations as to dimensions, number of plants, number of
+flowers on a plant and seeds in a flower, value of products of flowers
+and vegetables. Cost of seeds, fertilizer, and labour, gross and net
+proceeds. Statement showing the above.
+
+Composition: General connected account or story of the work done and the
+things learned during the season, as taken from the garden diary and
+from memory.
+
+Exercises in writing and spelling, as suitable seat work.
+
+Geography: Weather observations, as related to the garden work and to
+plant growth. Comparison of the soil of the garden with other samples
+from the district, as to composition and origin. Direction, as related
+to the paths or walks in the garden.
+
+Map drawing: Plans of plots and of whole garden and grounds, represented
+on sand-table, paper, or black-board. Map drawing on a horizontal
+surface is best for the first year or two.
+
+The products of the garden, as compared with home products, as food
+supplies for man and beast.
+
+Manual Training: Making of seed envelopes and boxes, modelling in clay
+of fruits and vegetables.
+
+
+CLIMBING PLANTS
+
+Observe particularly the sweet-pea and morning-glory.
+
+Consider the following points:
+
+1. Advantages gained by climbing, such as securing of more light,
+production of many leaves and flowers, and not so much stem.
+
+2. Method of climbing--sweet-pea by tendrils that wind around the
+support; morning-glory by twining its rough stem closely around its
+support. Do all morning-glory vines twine in the same direction? Find
+other vines that climb. Examine their modes of climbing.
+
+3. Time of flowering and notes on how to plant.
+
+Make drawings of the leaves and blossoms.
+
+
+TREES
+
+     (See type lesson on trees under Form I.)
+
+In this Form it is better to follow closely the development of one or
+two selected trees in school or on the home grounds than to attempt to
+observe many different species. Allow the pupils to choose their own
+trees for study and, if possible, have them select one at home and
+another near the school or on the way to school. The following points
+might receive attention: The name of the species, whence obtained and by
+whom planted if known; its approximate height, size, and age; its
+location, and the nature of the soil; its general shape, and whether or
+not influenced at present or at some time in the past by proximity to
+other trees; description and arrangement of its branches, leaves, and
+buds, its bark, flowers, and fruit; time of leafing out and blossoming;
+colouring and falling of leaves and ripening of seeds; the amount of
+growth for the year compared with that of previous years as shown by the
+younger branches; qualities of beauty and usefulness of the tree.
+Drawing exercises.
+
+At least two visits should be made to the woods during the autumn
+months, one when the leaves of the trees begin to colour and another
+when the leaves have fallen. Consider the preparation made for winter in
+the woods and fields, the use of dead leaves in the woods as a
+protection to forest vegetation and as soil-making material. Bring back
+samples of leaves and of leaf mould or humus for class-room observation.
+Note the effect of frost in hastening the falling of leaves--frost does
+not give the brilliant hues to leaves, as many people think. Consider
+the relationship of the forest trees to animal life.
+
+STORING OF TREE SEEDS
+
+Make a collection of nuts and other tree seeds, some of which should be
+put in the school collection and the rest planted in the garden or
+stored away for spring planting. The seeds of evergreens should be kept
+dry and cold, but other seeds, as a rule, are best packed in a box of
+slightly moist sand set in a cold place or buried in the ground.
+
+
+A FLOWER
+
+TYPE: NASTURTIUM
+
+I
+
+Teacher and pupils visit the nasturtium bed, where the flowers stand up
+boldly, surrounded by the shield-shaped leaves. A search for the young
+flower buds and for the very old flowers leads to the discovery that
+these are snugly sheltered under the shields.
+
+The greenish-yellow calyx, which is closely wrapped around the bud, is
+next examined. Its name is given, and its use as a protector is
+discussed.
+
+The strong seed cases are opened and the seeds are discovered. The
+pupils are instructed to watch the insects that visit the bright
+flowers. Name the insects. Describe their movements. Catch a few and
+find the yellow powder on their furry little bodies and legs.
+
+II
+
+Each member of the class brings a flower to the school-room. The
+varieties of colours of the flowers are discussed. The cave-like form of
+each flower is noted. The velvety feeling of the corolla and the
+delicate perfume are likewise sensed by the pupils.
+
+The pupils nip off the point of the cave and taste the nectar (honey),
+and thus learn why the insects visit the flowers. They next trace the
+course of the coloured lines on the corolla and find that they all point
+into the cave.
+
+Continuing their explorations of the mouth of the cave, the pupils will
+discover the little boxes containing the yellow powder that the flower
+dusts upon the insects. The names _pollen_ and _pollen boxes_ are given.
+
+The fringe on the edges of the leaves of the corolla for the purpose of
+preventing the insects stealing into the cave without receiving their
+baptism of pollen, is discovered.
+
+The teacher should, at this point, give a brief explanation of the
+valuable work done by the insects in carrying pollen to cause seeds to
+grow in the next flower that the insect visits. The position of the tiny
+brush (stigma, but do not give this name) held up by the seed case for
+rubbing the pollen off the insect, should also be observed.
+
+~Summary.~--Name and point out the parts of the flower (calyx, corolla,
+pollen boxes, seed cases).
+
+What useful work do insects do for the flower?
+
+What reward do they receive for their work?
+
+What advertisements do the flowers put out for attracting themselves?
+(Bright colours, sweet perfumes, and honey)
+
+Flowers suitable for lessons in Form II are nasturtium, larkspur,
+snap-dragon, morning-glory, and sweet-pea.
+
+NOTE.--Botanical names should be reduced to a minimum.
+
+
+SOIL STUDIES
+
+     (See _Soils_ by Fletcher.)
+
+Soil should have a place in a Nature Study Course because:
+
+1. It is so closely related to life.
+
+2. It lends itself so admirably to the experimental method.
+
+3. It is so liable to be overlooked and considered as common and
+valueless.
+
+KINDS OF SOIL
+
+_Gravel_ is composed of small, rounded stones of various colours, sizes,
+and shapes. Occurs in beds, generally mixed with sand. Get a sample and
+examine the constituents. Lead the pupils to see that the pebbles are
+the result of the breaking up of larger rocks. What has made the corners
+smooth and rounded? What use is made of gravel? Have the pupils find
+some gravelly land.
+
+_Sand_ is composed of small angular pieces of hard rock. Have a few
+samples from different places brought to school, note fineness and
+colours, examine with a lens and note resemblance to pieces of broken
+stone. Draw a magnet through the sand and note black particles adhering,
+showing presence of iron in some form. Show the hardness by rubbing
+against the surface of a piece of glass. Sand is used for mortar,
+concrete, and glass. The chief sand-forming rocks are quartz and
+granite. Show pupils how to recognize these. Examine a sample of sand
+under a lens.
+
+_Clay._ Note colour and odour of fresh sample. Dry and pulverize and
+note extreme fineness of the particles by rubbing between the fingers
+(an ounce of clay contains about four and one half million particles).
+Clay is made from crushed rocks, chiefly feldspars. Mix clay with a
+little water and note sticky character. Compare with sand in this
+respect. Which makes the best road in wet weather, gravel, sand, or
+clay? Note how hard the clay bakes after being moistened. Uses of
+clay--pottery, bricks, tile. Pupils should visit a brick- or tile-yard
+and watch the process of manufacture. In many parts of the world there
+are beds of clay of extreme fineness and whiteness, from which beautiful
+china is made.
+
+_Humus_ is decayed vegetable matter. Pupils should gather soil from the
+forest, bog, or marsh. Note dark colour. Examine carefully and see what
+you can find in it that is not in sand or clay.
+
+Most of our farm land consists of these four soils mixed in various
+proportions, and it gets its name from the one that preponderates. Thus
+we have our sandy, gravelly, or clay _loams_. Humus is likely to be
+present in all fields, because vegetable matter grows, to some extent,
+everywhere; but freshly broken land, reclaimed swamps, and prairie lands
+are likely to be especially well supplied. The great value of humus in
+the soil will appear in later studies.
+
+
+ANIMAL STUDIES
+
+BIRD MIGRATION
+
+     (Consult _Bird Life_ by Frank M. Chapman, and _Bird Studies_
+     by G. A. Cornish.)
+
+In the autumn, direct attention to the flight of wild ducks and geese
+and to the gathering into flocks of robins, crows, bronze grackles,
+blue herons, sparrows, and other birds in preparation for migration.
+
+Discuss with the pupils the reasons for migration, namely, scarcity of
+food, the cold, the snow. In the spring, the return is stimulated by the
+nesting instinct.
+
+Note how the birds are guided--some, for example the ducks and geese, by
+their leaders, while others have no guides but their instincts.
+
+In winter, require the pupils to observe the kinds of birds that are to
+be seen in the gardens, fields, orchards, and woods, having them note
+the scarcity of birds and the absence of many forms that are with us in
+the summer.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+Geography: By pointing out on the map the countries into which the birds
+go, namely, Central America, Brazil, etc.
+
+Reading and literature: By interpreting
+
+    Where did you spend the dreary winter?
+    In a green and sunny land,
+    By the warm sea-breezes fanned,
+    Where orange trees with fruit are bent,
+    There the dreary time I've spent.
+
+COMMON WILD ANIMALS
+
+GENERAL METHOD FOR FIELD WORK
+
+The best method for studying wild animals is to assign to each pupil
+some animal as his particular subject of study.
+
+Begin by finding out from the pupils the wild animals that each one
+knows to be near his home, and assign to each pupil a number of problems
+on the animal which is most convenient for him to study.
+
+In some cases, only one pupil will be studying a particular kind of
+animal, while in other cases several pupils may be studying the same
+kind of animal. The latter method has the advantage of giving
+opportunity for comparison of results. Differences should serve as
+stimuli to more careful observation, in order to verify or disprove
+previous conclusions.
+
+The observations and inferences, together with drawings illustrating the
+animals, their homes, etc., are recorded in the Nature Study note-books.
+These are discussed in the class, verified or corrected, and
+supplemented by descriptions of lives and habits of the animals from
+nature writers or naturalists, such as Charles G. D. Roberts, Ernest
+Thompson-Seton, etc.
+
+When pupils become interested in this form of study, they become nature
+students in the true meaning of the term. The pupil is brought into
+contact with the animal in its natural environment and, under these
+conditions, the natural habits, interests, and activities of the wild
+creatures are more likely to appeal to the sympathy of child nature than
+under any other method of study. The method has also the advantage of
+being one of original discovery, and consequently it trains in
+self-reliance and independence of thought.
+
+Finally, since close and careful observation is necessary, the child
+learns that it is unwise to alarm the animal, and thus a better
+relationship between child life and animal life is fostered.
+
+It may be objected that this method is slow and that little is
+accomplished. This may be true from the view-point of matter learned,
+but from the view-point of child training more can be accomplished from
+the study of a single living animal than from the study of a score of
+pictures or stuffed skins.
+
+A second method that is recommended is the study of tame animals. By
+conversations with the boys of the school the teacher will find what
+tame squirrels, ground-hogs, raccoons, foxes, and other animals are
+available for class-room work. The possessors of these animals are
+usually quite willing to bring them to school for the class to study.
+
+The movements, habits, food, and other topics, may be studied by direct
+observations guided by the teacher's questions or problems.
+
+A third method and, unfortunately, the one which is in most general use,
+is the study of animals by means of stuffed specimens and pictures,
+supplemented by descriptions and stories by the teacher. These lessons
+may be called information lessons, but they are not worthy of the name
+Nature Study. Indeed, if conditions are such that it is the only method
+available for animal study, it is advised that the time be spent on
+other branches of the subject; but if living animals are made the basis
+of study, stuffed specimens may be found useful for identification and
+for confirming observations on minute structural features, colour, etc.
+
+THE WOOD-CHUCK
+
+The problems outlined below are intended to illustrate the plan of study
+suggested in the first general method. They are assigned to a boy who
+has discovered a ground-hog burrow, in order to direct him in his
+observations on the animal.
+
+What is the kind of soil dug out in making the burrow? Why is this soil
+suitable for the burrow? What size of stones are dug out in burrowing?
+Are there more entrances than one?
+
+By slowly approaching the animal, find out how close it will permit you
+to come. At what times of day does the ground-hog come out? Give reasons
+for its coming out at these times rather than at mid-day. Upon what does
+the animal feed? Describe the colour of the animal and find out any
+advantages in this colour. Observe the following actions: running,
+hiding, keeping sentry, and scouting.
+
+Do more wood-chucks than one live in one burrow? When do the young
+wood-chucks first come out of the burrow? Describe their size, colour,
+and habits. Are wood-chucks ever seen during the winter? Do they use the
+same burrow year after year? Describe the sounds made by the animal.
+What injury does the animal cause to the fields?
+
+Describe the fur, teeth, and claws, and show their relation to the
+animal's habits of life.
+
+Dig out a burrow and draw a plan of it. Make pictures showing the
+various attitudes of the animal.
+
+THE CHIPMUNK
+
+FIELD EXERCISES
+
+Describe the size, colour, shape, length of tail, and movements of the
+chipmunk. Compare with the red squirrel.
+
+Have all chipmunks the same number of stripes?
+
+Discover its home; method of carrying grain, nuts, or other foods;
+whether it is found most commonly on the ground, in trees, or among logs
+and stones. Try to tame it by placing food where it can reach it and,
+finally, try to have it feed from your hand.
+
+Find out why there is no loose soil around the entrance to its burrow,
+whether more families than one live in one burrow, whether the chipmunk
+comes out during winter, or how early in the spring. Learn to
+distinguish the sounds of the animal, as expressing alarm, surprise,
+anger, playfulness.
+
+_To the teacher._--Chipmunks carry grain, etc., in their cheeks.
+Frequently these are so full that they must be emptied to permit them to
+enter their burrows. It is not uncommon for several to spend the winter
+in the same burrow, having a common storehouse connected by passages to
+the main burrow. These little animals are easily tamed and soon learn to
+take food from the hand. They are not hibernating animals, for they
+store food for winter, and though they are not asleep all winter, yet
+they rarely come out of their burrows while there is snow on the ground.
+
+EASTERN SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLY
+
+No butterfly is more suitable for study by the Junior Forms than the
+Eastern Swallow-tail. It is one of the most beautiful and attractive of
+our butterflies and lays its eggs so accommodatingly on every carrot or
+parsnip bed that it gives ample opportunity for observation.
+
+If possible, have the pupils observe the insect in the act of placing
+the eggs, one here and one there, on the under surface of the leaves of
+the plants, noting the busy movements; discuss the advantage of
+scattering the eggs, and also that of placing them on the under surface
+of the leaves.
+
+If the egg placing cannot be observed, there will be little difficulty
+in finding the large yellow and green larva with a head shaped like
+that of a miniature sea-horse. If the larva itself is not easily found,
+the leaves stripped bare of green blade and the droppings on the ground
+will reveal its presence.
+
+Why was it difficult to see such a large, and now that it is seen,
+conspicuous object? Lead the pupils to notice that the yellow and green
+bands harmonize in colour with the green leaves and alternate streaks of
+golden sunlight.
+
+Does the larva feed by biting or by sucking? How many legs has the
+larva? Cover the plant and larva with a paper bag, or inverted bottle,
+or a lamp chimney with a gauze top until the larva is full grown; or
+place the larva in a vivarium, feed it on carrot leaves, and observe its
+growth.
+
+When full grown, the larva builds for itself a snail-shaped, fairly firm
+case, fastened by a slender girdle of silk to a piece of wood or other
+support. Keep this over winter, and in March, or early April, the
+black-and-blue-and-gold insect emerges.
+
+Observe the movements of the wings in flight, the long tube with which
+it sucks honey from flowers, the three pairs of legs, the position of
+the wings when at rest; compare the structure with that of the larva.
+Make drawings of the butterfly and paint its colours.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+FORM II
+
+WINTER
+
+
+CARE OF PLANTS IN THE HOME
+
+The care of flowering bulbs, which was begun in Form I, will be
+continued in Form II. The growing of new plants from cuttings will now
+be taken up. In those schools which are kept continuously heated, potted
+plants may be kept throughout the year. The pupils will come to
+appreciate the plants' needs and learn how to meet them in the supply of
+good soil, water, and sunlight. The following points should be observed:
+
+1. Good potting soil can be made by building up alternating layers of
+sods and stable manure and allowing this compost to stand until
+thoroughly rotted. A little sharp sand mixed with this forms an
+excellent soil for most house plants.
+
+2. Thorough watering twice a week is better than adding a little water
+every day.
+
+3. The leaves should be showered with water once a week to free them
+from dust.
+
+4. An ounce of whale-oil soap dissolved in a quart of water may be used
+to destroy plant-lice. Common soap-suds may also be used for this
+purpose, but care should be taken to rinse the plants in clean water
+after using a soap wash.
+
+5. Most plants need some direct sunlight every day if possible, although
+most of the ferns grow without it.
+
+6. Plants usually need re-potting once a year. Many kinds may be set
+out-of-doors in flower beds in May and left until September, when they
+may be taken up and placed in pots, or cuttings may be made from them
+for potting.
+
+7. A flower exhibition at the school once or twice a year, or at a local
+exhibition, adds to the interest.
+
+8. The pupils should report to the teacher, from time to time, the
+progress of their plants and make many drawings showing their
+development.
+
+
+TREES
+
+In November or December make a study of Canadian evergreens, choosing
+spruce, balsam, and cedar if available. The pupils should learn to
+distinguish the different species by an examination of the leaves, buds,
+arrangement of branches, bark, seeds, and cones. The age of young trees
+can be determined by noting the successive whorls of branches. In this
+way also the age of the leaves may be determined. On some trees the
+leaves persist for seven or eight years. Evergreens are frequently used
+as Christmas trees and their branches for house decorations. On which
+species do the leaves persist longest? How do they compare with the
+pines? The leaves are always as old as the wood upon which they grow.
+
+Have the pupils notice how the small leaves and horizontal branches
+resist the clinging of snow in winter. Each branch bends down enough to
+cause the snow to slide off on to the one next below, and so on, until
+it reaches the ground. The conical shape of the tree also facilitates
+this action of dislodging the snow. They will also notice that these
+trees are well adapted to withstand wind, as the top part, which is most
+exposed to the wind, is much smaller and more pliable than the part next
+the bottom. The gum, or resinous covering, of the buds protects them
+from injury by rain or snow. Some kinds of pine, such as the pitch pine,
+have a great abundance of gum and turpentine. Resin and pine tar are
+made chiefly from this species. Heat a piece of pine wood--a knot or
+root is best. The gum will be seen oozing out of the wood. Pine torches
+were much used in the early days of settlement in Canada. Examine the
+gum "blisters" in the bark of the balsam tree. From this source the
+"Canada Balsam" gum of commerce is taken. The gum and resin in the wood
+and bark help to preserve the wood from decay.
+
+COLLECTION OF WOOD SPECIMENS
+
+During the winter months the boys may prepare specimens of wood for the
+school collection. These specimens should be cut green and dried. They
+should be uniform in length--not more than six inches--and should show
+the bark at one side. The side showing the bark should be two inches
+wide at most, six inches long, and running in a V-shaped, radial section
+toward the pith. A tangential section also shows well the annual layers.
+A piece of slab as cut lengthwise off a round stick is tangential. Also
+visit wood-working factories for specimens of rare or foreign woods. In
+securing these specimens, care should be taken not to mutilate trees.
+
+
+RELATED READING
+
+Winter is nature's quiescent period. Continuous active observation
+out-of-doors among the plants of the forest and garden gives place for
+a time to indoor work and reflection. Pupils need time for reading and
+reflection, and no time is so opportune as the quiet winter season.
+During these months some time should be devoted to the reading of nature
+stories and extracts from magazines and books dealing with plant as well
+as animal life. Pupils should review their gardening experiences and
+discuss plans of improvement for the approaching spring and summer. Let
+them write letters to the Form II pupils of other schools where similar
+work has been carried on, giving some of their experiences in gardening
+and plant and animal studies. A certain Friday afternoon might be
+appointed for hearing the letters read which have been received in
+reply. Suitable short poems that have a direct bearing upon their
+outdoor studies should be read from time to time. Good pictures come in
+here also as an aid in helping the children to appreciate written
+descriptions. The first-hand observations made by the pupils will form a
+basis for the better and more appreciative interpretation of these
+literature selections.
+
+
+THE DOG
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+Use the conversation method, since this is an animal that is well known
+to all the pupils. By natural, easy conversation with the pupils,
+encourage them to tell what they know about the usefulness and the other
+qualities of their canine friends.
+
+The pupils know that some dogs are useful for hunting wild animals,
+others for driving or herding cattle and sheep, others for guarding
+their master's property, others for hauling sleighs and wagons, while
+others are of use as pets or playfellows.
+
+Discuss with the pupils the qualities that make the dog so generally
+useful to us. In this discussion, guide the thoughts of the pupils to
+the qualities of faithfulness, loyalty to his friends, and docility--few
+animals are so easily taught. Note his strength and swiftness--he can
+continue in a race until he catches almost any other animal. Note also
+his bravery--for he does not hesitate to attack an animal many times
+larger than himself.
+
+Short stories of the following type may be told, to illustrate the chief
+qualities of the dog:
+
+     A dog was trained to guard any article that his master
+     placed under his charge, and not to permit any one to touch
+     it until his master gave his consent. One day, when
+     returning from the mill, the master placed a sack of flour
+     inside the gate for a neighbour who had asked him to do so,
+     and then continued on his way without noticing that his dog
+     had taken charge of the sack. All through the afternoon of
+     that day and through the long, cold night that followed, the
+     faithful animal remained at his post. When the owner of the
+     sack came next morning to get it, the dog, although numb
+     with cold and famished with hunger, would not permit him to
+     take the flour. Nor could the stout-hearted creature be
+     persuaded either by threats or by coaxing, until his master
+     was brought, when, at his first word of command, the dog
+     bounded joyfully toward him.
+
+Conclude the lesson by a short discussion of the proper care and
+treatment that should be given to dogs. The dog requires a fairly warm
+but dry kennel, with a soft bed of straw or rugs. The food should
+consist chiefly of porridge, milk, bread, biscuit, and a little meat.
+Only dogs that are running a great deal out of doors should be given
+much meat. The dog should be given bones to pick; picking bones is as
+good for a dog's teeth as a tooth-brush is for a boy's.
+
+OBSERVATION EXERCISES
+
+By making observations upon your dog at home, find answers to these
+problems:
+
+1. How does a dog hold a bone while he is picking it, and how does he
+get the meat off the bone?
+
+2. Examine the dog's feet and find out:
+
+(1) Why he does not slip while running.
+
+(2) What protects the soles of his feet from injury as he bounds over
+rough ground.
+
+3. Which is the sharper, a dog's eye or his nose? Watch how he finds his
+master in a crowd or finds an object that you have hidden.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+Language:
+
+1. Require oral or written reproduction of the stories used in
+illustration in the lesson on The Dog.
+
+2. Require the pupils to relate incidents from dog life that have come
+within their own experiences.
+
+Art and Modelling:
+
+1. A sleeping dog.
+
+2. A dog waiting for his master.
+
+
+LESSONS INVOLVING COMPARISON
+
+It will be found helpful, both for increasing interest in the
+observations and for fixing the facts in memory, to study an animal by
+comparing its habits, qualities, and physical peculiarities with those
+of another animal which is somewhat similar. Where differences are
+discovered, explanations of the differences should be developed in such
+a way that a tendency may be cultivated for interpreting the adaptation
+of structure to use and of life habits to surrounding conditions.
+
+CAT AND DOG
+
+Compare the movement of a cat when approaching its prey with the
+movement of the dog when chasing a squirrel.
+
+Account for the difference.
+
+The natural habit of the cat is to hunt alone and rely upon stealth,
+while dogs hunt in packs and tire their prey by running and by
+terrifying noises.
+
+Other differences and their explanations, which the pupils should be led
+to discover are:
+
+The dog is a more useful animal to man than is the cat.
+
+The cat's body is longer and more slender, and this gives it greater
+suppleness in crawling and leaping.
+
+The cat's eye is larger and the pupil is especially large at night, to
+enable it to see.
+
+The cat's whiskers are longer; they help in guiding it at night.
+
+The cat's tongue is rougher; it uses it for cleaning bones.
+
+The pads on the cat's feet are softer, so that it can move more silently
+in stealing upon its prey.
+
+The cat's claws are sharper, because it uses them for seizing its prey,
+while the dog seizes its prey with its teeth.
+
+The dog is more faithful to its master because it is a more sociable
+animal. In its natural state every dog is faithful to the pack and to
+the leader; the cat is not a social animal, but is by nature solitary
+and independent.
+
+The dog's sense of smell is keener than that of the cat, but its sense
+of hearing is less acute. Account for these differences from the
+animals' habits of hunting. Why does the cat bring home living animals
+to her kittens, while the dog buries dead animals? The cat trains the
+kittens to approach by stealth and then to pounce on the right spot.
+Wild animals related to the dog bury the "kill" which is too large to be
+eaten at one meal.
+
+EXPERIMENTS FOR ASSISTING IN THE STUDY OF THE CAT
+
+1. Gently scratch with a pin at some distance from where a cat is lying.
+What do the movements of the cat indicate?
+
+2. Put a fish in water and watch a cat trying to get it.
+
+3. Sprinkle water on a cat's fur and find out why she dislikes being
+wetted.
+
+4. Attach a ball to a string and move it near a cat. Describe the
+movements, as stalking, springing, seizing, retreating.
+
+5. Put some catnip in a room out of reach of the cat and observe the
+movements of the animal.
+
+Nearly all children make pets of the house cat, and although the cat is
+a domestic animal of thieving propensities and an enemy of birds, yet it
+would be unwise to teach the younger children any enmity toward her.
+The establishment of sympathy with animal life, the humanizing effect
+upon child nature of having a kitty for a playfellow, will offset many
+times over the amount of depredation of which she may be guilty.
+
+COMPARISON OF THE HORSE AND COW
+
+Assign problems for the pupils to solve by observations made upon the
+animals in the field or farmyard.
+
+1. What features of build give to the horse greater speed than the cow?
+
+2. Compare the movements of the heads of the horse and cow while
+cropping grass. Account for the difference.
+
+3. How has nature fitted the cow and the horse respectively, for
+defence?
+
+4. Which end of the body does the horse raise first when it is getting
+up? Which end of its body does the cow raise first? Account for the
+difference.
+
+_To the teacher._--The horse is the swifter and more graceful runner
+because the body is less bulky and the legs are longer and straighter.
+In cropping grass the cow pushes its nose forward and breaks the grass
+off, a process which is made necessary because the cow has no upper
+front teeth. The strong, sharp horns, short, powerful neck, and heavy
+shoulders are an efficient equipment for the cow's method of defence,
+while the long, strong legs and powerful hindquarters of the horse
+enable it to deal terrific blows with its hard hoofs. The horse rises
+upon its forelegs before raising the rear of its body, while the cow
+raises its hindquarters first.
+
+
+THE SQUIRREL
+
+FIELD EXERCISES
+
+~Problems~:
+
+Is it true that squirrels have little roads along the ground?
+
+Does the squirrel come down a tree head foremost, or tail foremost?
+
+Are a squirrel's feet close together or wide apart when it is climbing?
+
+How many kinds of feeling can a squirrel express by its voice?
+
+How does a squirrel open a nut?
+
+Examine a squirrel's tracks in the snow; which foot-prints are in front?
+
+Try to gain the confidence of a squirrel by never chasing it and by
+placing some favourite food for it.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+A tame squirrel is very desirable for concrete study.
+
+Describe the shape, size, and colour.
+
+Find out how the legs and feet are fitted for climbing and leaping.
+
+Compare the length of the tail with that of the body. Of what use is the
+tail in cold weather? Of what use is the tail in leaping?
+
+Examine the teeth and find out how they are fitted for opening nuts;
+gnawing wood.
+
+_To the teacher._--The legs of the squirrel are short so that it can
+press its body close to the tree when climbing. The claws are strong and
+sharp and the hindquarters are very strong, and are, in consequence,
+well fitted for leaping. The tail of the squirrel is very long and
+bushy and serves as a fur for keeping the squirrel's nose warm in
+winter. The tail is also used for balancing the body when the animal is
+leaping from bough to bough.
+
+The front teeth of the squirrel are very large and strong and are shaped
+like chisels.
+
+
+WINTER BIRDS
+
+In the class lesson on winter birds, take up the birds that the pupils
+have seen, such as chickadee, blue jay, quail, ruffed grouse, hairy
+woodpecker, downy woodpecker, great horned owl, house-sparrow, snow
+bunting (snow bird), pine grosbeak, snowy owl, and purple finch. The
+four latter are to be noted as winter visitors. Use pictures for
+illustrating these birds. The habits and winter food of the birds should
+also be described from the view-point of how these adapt the birds for
+spending the winter in a cold climate. Direct the children to look for
+grosbeaks in the pine and rowan trees, where they may be seen feeding on
+the seeds. The ruffed grouse (commonly called partridge) feeds on the
+buds of trees in winter; its legs and feet are thickly covered with
+feathers in winter but are bare in summer.
+
+FIELD EXERCISES
+
+Arouse the interest of the pupils by a conversation of about three
+minutes on birds that they have seen during the winter, and assign the
+following exercise:
+
+Take a walk through the orchards and woods on a bright winter day. What
+birds do you see? What are these birds doing? Are they found singly or
+in flocks? What bird sounds do you hear?
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+The method is conversational and based upon the observations made by the
+pupils during the field exercises.
+
+The discussion would involve the winter habits of some of the more
+common birds, as, for example, the ruffed grouse (commonly though
+incorrectly called the partridge). This bird takes shelter from the
+winter storms in the centre of a dense evergreen or burrows deep into a
+snow bank. The close covering of feathers upon its feet serves not only
+to keep the feet warm, but also as snow-shoes. In the evenings these
+birds may frequently be seen in the tops of such trees as maple, birch,
+cherry, and poplar, the buds of which form the greater part of their
+winter food.
+
+The snow bird, or snow bunting, is another bird commonly seen in winter.
+Flocks of these hardy little winter visitors frequent the roads and
+fields during winter. Its summer home is in the far north.
+
+Another visitor from the sub-arctic regions is the pine grosbeak, which
+is often mistaken for the robin, for these two birds are nearly equal in
+size. The carmine colour of the upper surface of the male grosbeak
+distinguishes it from the grays and blacks of the upper part of the
+robin. The grosbeak frequents the rowan trees.
+
+The bird sounds which attract attention during the winter are the
+cheerful notes of the chickadee, the bold clarion call of the blue jay,
+and the sharp tap, tap, tap, of the downy woodpecker.
+
+The downy woodpecker and the chickadee have snug winter homes within
+hollow trees, but, when the weather is favourable, they go about
+searching industriously for the eggs and larvae of insects that infest
+forest and orchard trees.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+Literature:
+
+    Do you know the chickadee,
+      In his brownish ashen coat,
+    With a cap so black and jaunty,
+      And a black patch on his throat?
+
+Language: Write a story about the winter experiences of a downy
+woodpecker.
+
+Geography: Describe the summer home of the snow bird.
+
+
+ANIMALS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS
+
+Pupils who have an opportunity to visit museums or zoological gardens
+will observe more intelligently if the visit is preceded by such a
+discussion in the class-room as will arouse their curiosity respecting
+the habits, movements, and adaptive features of the animals about to be
+studied.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+Name the kinds of bears you have seen or have read about. What kind was
+the largest?
+
+Are all bears wholly flesh-eating animals? Find out what food the
+keepers give these animals.
+
+What features give to the bear his great strength? Observe the length of
+his "arms", teeth, claws.
+
+Does the bear climb a pole in the same way that a boy does?
+
+Read:
+
+Rogers. Wild Animals Every Child Should Know. McClelland, Goodchild, &
+Stewart. 50 cents.
+
+Thompson-Seton. Wild Animals I Have Known. Briggs. $1.50.
+
+Roberts. Children of the Wild. Macmillan. $1.35.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+FORM II
+
+SPRING
+
+
+GARDEN WORK
+
+The pupils have now arrived at an age when they are able to do most of
+the work of preparing and planting their own plots. The seeds have been
+selected and placed in readiness for planting long before the ground is
+ready. The plans for the garden and the varieties to be sown in the
+different plots have likewise been arranged. Fertilizers, lines, tools,
+and labels are made ready for use. With such thorough preparation the
+making and planting of the garden becomes a pleasure and a delight to
+both teacher and pupils. The garden diary should begin as soon as the
+snow disappears from the garden and be continued until all the work is
+completed in the autumn, and the garden again blanketed in snow.
+
+The main points to be safeguarded are:
+
+1. Thorough cultivation and fertilization.
+
+2. The best available seed carefully planted. Guard against thick sowing
+and deep covering.
+
+3. Frequent cultivation and careful thinning while the plants are quite
+small.
+
+4. Vigilance in detecting the appearance of cutworms or other injurious
+insects and promptness in combating them.
+
+5. Protection of the garden against injury from dogs, pigs, poultry, and
+English sparrows.
+
+6. Failure of some plots, through the owner's absence from school for
+long periods.
+
+COMBATING GARDEN PESTS
+
+CUTWORMS
+
+In gardens where the soil is light or sandy, cutworms are most likely to
+be troublesome. Watch for them about the time that the plants are nicely
+above ground. They come up at night and cut the young plants off just
+above the ground. They are about an inch long, gray and brown, fat and
+greasy-looking. To protect the plants put one quarter of a pound of
+paris-green with twenty-five pounds of slightly moistened bran, using a
+little sugar in the water and stirring the paris-green into the bran
+very thoroughly. If too wet, add more dry bran. It should crumble
+through the fingers. Sprinkle a little of this mixture with the fingers
+along the row close to the plants. The cutworms eat this poisoned bran
+quite readily. Care must be exercised in using this poison lest poultry
+should get at it. On the other hand, poultry should not be allowed to
+get into the garden. Wrapping a piece of paper around the stem when
+transplanting young plants will help to save them from cutworms.
+
+ROOT MAGGOTS
+
+Root maggots of cabbage, radish, and onions are the larvae of flies
+similar in appearance to house-flies but a little smaller. When the
+plants are young, the flies lay their white eggs on the stem close to
+the ground. When the eggs hatch, the larvae crawl down under the ground
+and cause the plants to decay. The wilting of the leaves is the first
+sign of the trouble. Prevention is better than cure in this case. Dust
+some dry white hellebore along the rows of onions or radishes and around
+the cabbage plants; or, for radishes, make a decoction of insect powder
+(Pyrethrum), four ounces to one gallon of water, and pour around the
+root, using half a teacupful to each plant.
+
+FLEA-BEETLES
+
+The turnip flea-beetle quickly destroys young plants of the cruciferae
+family by eating their leaves. Paris-green, one part to twenty parts of
+pulverized gypsum (land plaster) dusted on the plants while damp, helps
+to destroy these insects.
+
+_To the teacher._--When pupils who are absent find it impossible to give
+the necessary attention to their garden plots at school, they should
+turn them over to other pupils or to the teacher, who may at his own
+discretion use the produce for purposes of general garden revenue.
+
+SEED GERMINATION
+
+The seeds for the garden should be purchased quite early in the spring.
+As the planting of poor seed is often the cause of much disappointment,
+it is well to test the germinating power of the different varieties to
+be planted. The pupils of this Form should test especially those
+varieties which they have chosen. To do this, place about twenty-five
+seeds in a germinating dish, which may be made as follows: Take a deep
+plate, such as a soup plate, fill it about half full of moist sand, and
+spread over this a piece of moist cloth. Put the seeds upon this cloth
+and cover them with a second piece of damp cloth or moss. To prevent
+drying out invert over it another plate and set all in a warm dry place
+(about 70 to 80 degrees F.). After a few days count the number of seeds
+that have germinated. This will be a guide in planting as to how thick
+the seed should be sown.
+
+The pupils should watch the development of germinating grains, such as
+corn and beans, germinated in the same way as in the last exercise. The
+following points may be observed:
+
+1. The first change noticed. (Swelling of the seed)
+
+2. The appearance of a growing shoot and its direction. (Root)
+
+3. The second shoot and its direction. (Stem)
+
+4. The appearance of the first pair of leaves.
+
+5. The appearance of root-hairs and rootlets.
+
+6. What becomes of the main body of the seed.
+
+7. How the second pair of leaves differs from the first pair.
+
+8. Length of time required to produce the first pair of leaves.
+
+Pupils may be taught the conditions that are necessary for the
+germination of seeds by means of a few simple experiments which can be
+carried on in the school-room.
+
+1. In February, plant a few seeds of the pea, or oat, or wheat, in a box
+of soil, and place the box outside the school window.
+
+2. In April, plant a few seeds similar to those used in No. 1, in a box
+of perfectly dry soil, and set the box inside the school window.
+
+3. Plant a few seeds similar to those used in No. 1, in a jar containing
+soil that is kept very wet, and set the jar in the school window.
+
+4. Plant a few seeds, similar to those used in No. 1. in a box
+containing soil that is moist but not wet, and set the box in the school
+window.
+
+5. Plant seeds as in No. 4, except that the box is kept in a dark
+cupboard.
+
+Compare the results of the above with reference to:
+
+1. The number of seeds that germinate.
+
+2. The growth and condition of the plants.
+
+Form conclusions with reference to:
+
+1. The conditions that are required for seed germination.
+
+2. The benefits of well-drained soil.
+
+Pupils make drawings showing the boxes and plants.
+
+
+PLANTS FOR INDIVIDUAL PLOTS
+
+The pupils of this Form should not attempt to grow more than two
+varieties of flowers and two of vegetables. Of flowers, mixed asters and
+Shirley poppy are to be recommended, the poppy being an early blooming
+flower and the aster late blooming. Carrots and radishes are desirable
+vegetables, as the carrot matures late and the radish early. Two or
+three crops of radishes may be grown on the same ground in one season.
+Besides these, a few others should be chosen for special study, such as
+the potato, onion, corn, and sunflower.
+
+STUDIES BASED ON OBSERVATIONS OF GROWING PLANTS
+
+Attention should be given to the growing habits of plants, the size and
+rate of development, the method of multiplying and propagation, and the
+part used for food. The potato is a tuber which is nothing more than
+the swollen end of an underground stem; the onion a bulb composed of the
+bases of thickened leaves; the corn an example of a jointed stem or
+grass having two kinds of flowers, the tassels being the staminate
+flowers and the cob with its silk the pistillate ones; the sunflower an
+example of a compound flower made up of many little flowers each of
+which produces a single seed.
+
+Observations should also be made upon the progress in germination of the
+nuts and other tree seeds collected in the fall. When the seeds fall
+from the elms and soft maples in the spring, some of them should be
+collected and planted in the forestry plot, or nursery.
+
+PLANTING AND CARE OF SWEET-PEAS
+
+1. Sow as early as possible in spring.
+
+2. Sow on well-drained land and never in the shade or near grass. Grass
+roots rob the sweet-pea roots of water.
+
+3. Use a small amount of fertilizer--well-rotted manure spaded deeply
+into the soil. This is best done in the autumn.
+
+4. Make the trench in the fall about five or six inches deep.
+
+5. Plant in a trench in April from half an inch to an inch apart.
+
+6. Cover from three inches to four inches deep.
+
+7. Water thoroughly once or twice a week, and have the soil lower along
+the row than farther out, so as to hold the water.
+
+8. Put a mulch of lawn clippings along the row on each side to prevent
+drying out.
+
+
+WILD FLOWERS
+
+Arrange an excursion to the woods when the spring flowers are in bloom.
+Keep a flower calendar, showing:
+
+1. The date when a plant was first found in bloom
+
+2. The name of the plant
+
+3. Place where found
+
+4. Name of the pupil who found it.
+
+When in the woods discuss the following points:
+
+1. Why these wild flowers come into bloom so early in spring. They have
+a large supply of food stored up from the previous summer.
+
+2. Dig down with a trowel or heavy knife and find this storehouse of
+food. It may be in the form of bulb, corm, or rhizome.
+
+3. The blooming of the spring flowers in the woods before the leaves of
+the trees reach their full development, thus taking advantage of the
+sunlight.
+
+4. Mark a few clumps or individual plants and visit them again after a
+month. Look for the growing fruit with its seeds.
+
+5. The leaves of the hepatica seen at the time when the blossoms appear
+are leaves which grew the previous season. Dig up a plant and notice the
+new leaves starting.
+
+6. The kind of soil each seems to grow best in and the amount of light
+it receives.
+
+7. Have the pupils examine the flowers and leave them growing. They
+should gather a few for the school-room.
+
+8. Have the pupils write a short account of their visit to the woods.
+Have them make drawings of the different flowers collected.
+
+Dig up a few specimens of wild flowers and transplant in a shady corner
+in the grounds or school garden. The following varieties are suggested
+for special observation and study: hepatica, violet, anemone, columbine,
+Indian turnip, marsh marigold.
+
+Teach one or two lessons on wild flowers, similar to the lessons
+illustrated for the nasturtium.
+
+
+WEEDS
+
+Pupils in this Form should learn to identify most of the weeds that are
+found in the garden plots and a few of those commonly found in fields
+and along roadsides. The large bulletin _Farm Weeds_, published by the
+Dominion Department of Agriculture, will be of great value in helping to
+identify the weeds and also in gaining useful information regarding them
+and the best means of eradicating them.
+
+The following species are recommended for special study during the
+season: mustard (such varieties as are found in the vicinity), Canada
+thistle, purslane, lamb's quarter, pink-rooted pigweed, and quack grass.
+The pupils should be familiar with the general appearance of the plant;
+its appearance when coming up in the spring; whether annual, biennial,
+or perennial; nature of the root, and whether hard to pull up; if hard
+to eradicate, why so; its rate of growth compared with the garden
+plants; the number of seeds produced by a single plant; how the seeds
+are scattered.
+
+
+THE APPLE TREE
+
+(When the buds are beginning to open)
+
+
+FIELD EXERCISE
+
+The pupils, during an excursion that is conducted by the teacher or
+while making individual observations, obtain answers to problems of the
+following type:
+
+What is the shape of the top of the apple tree?
+
+Are all apple trees of the same shape?
+
+What is the height of the trunk?
+
+Measure the girth of the trunk of the largest?
+
+Are the leaf buds and flower buds more numerous near the inside of the
+tree top or more numerous at the outer part of the top?
+
+_To the teacher._--When discussing the answers to the above problems,
+develop the conception of the convenience of the low stature of the tree
+for gathering the apples, of the wide-spreading branches for bearing a
+large crop, of the stoutness of the trunk for supporting the weight, and
+also of the position of the buds as adapting them for securing sunshine.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON ON THE APPLE TREE
+
+~Materials.~--Twigs bearing flower and leaf buds. These are gathered by
+the pupils from the apple trees that were studied during the field
+exercises.
+
+Each pupil finds on his twig the objects and markings, etc., as in the
+following outline:
+
+Describe the shape of the twig.
+
+Where were the apples that grew last year attached?
+
+Describe the positions of the buds on the twigs.
+
+Which buds are the larger, those at the end or those on the side of the
+twig?
+
+Describe the condition of the bud scales.
+
+Open the buds and find what they contain.
+
+Of what use are the bud scales?
+
+How many blossoms are in one bud?
+
+Of what use to the young leaves is the downy covering?
+
+FIELD EXERCISE FOLLOWING CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+(Just after the blossoms are fully open)
+
+What is the colour of the apple blossom?
+
+Find the little green cup on which the petals rest.
+
+Describe the cup.
+
+Find the other things that are on the rim of, or that are within, the
+cup. What are they?
+
+What insects visit the flowers?
+
+Does the cup fall off when the petals fall?
+
+Does the cup close up as soon as the petals fall?
+
+What does the green cup grow to be?
+
+_To the teacher._--Apple trees have somewhat round or pyramid-shaped
+tops, varying in detail with the variety of apple tree. The twigs are
+short and usually crooked. The fruit twigs are called spurs. The buds at
+the ends of the twigs and spurs are the largest and contain both leaves
+and blossoms, and there are usually several blossoms in each bud. The
+bud scales burst apart and drop off as the leaves and blossoms develop.
+The side buds produce leaves only. The petals and pollen boxes are borne
+on the rim of the green cup, and inside the cup are found the five tips
+of the seed cases. When the petals drop off, the rim of the cup remains
+spread out for a short time. This is the proper time for spraying, so
+that the cup may hold a drop of poison to kill the tiny worms which
+cause apples to be wormy. It is the green cup that grows and forms the
+flesh of the apple.
+
+Orchard trees suitable for lessons for Form II are apple, plum, pear,
+peach, and cherry.
+
+
+BIRD STUDY
+
+A valuable exercise in bird study, suitable for the pupils of Form II,
+is the study of a pair of birds and the history of their home through
+the entire season.
+
+A record, with dates, should be kept, and the following topics are
+suggested for observation:
+
+Where the nest is located, protection of the nest, part of building done
+by each bird; eggs, number, colour, size, time required for hatching;
+young birds, number, description, how fed and upon what foods, time
+required before ready to leave the nest; history for a time after
+leaving the nest.
+
+Birds suitable for study by the pupils of Form II are the crow, flicker,
+downy woodpecker, blue-bird, chipping-sparrow, phoebe, wren.
+
+Correlate with art, by requiring drawings and models of the nest and its
+surroundings, and with language, by having pupils write the history of
+the nest and family.
+
+
+THE TOAD
+
+FIELD EXERCISES
+
+Direct the pupils to watch for toads under the street lamps and on the
+lawns in the evenings, and to observe what they are doing.
+
+Find out, by turning over boards, logs of wood, stones, and old stumps,
+where toads spend the daytime.
+
+If there is a sandy beach near by, an interesting nature lesson is to
+trace a toad to its daytime retreat under a log or stone. Its wanderings
+and adventures during the night can be traced from the record that its
+trail makes in the sand.
+
+Are toads that live in light-coloured sand of the same colour as those
+that live in black clay? Of what value to the toad are these differences
+in colour?
+
+The pupils are thus led to see that although the toad is not a handsome
+animal, yet its rough, dark skin is of great value to it for concealment
+among the lumps of soil with which it harmonizes.
+
+Can a dog be induced to seize a toad? Will he seize it as readily a
+second time as he did the first? The secretion from the glands of the
+toad have a biting, acid effect on the dog's mouth. This secretion will
+not injure a person's hands unless the skin is broken, and even then it
+does not "cause warts".
+
+How many toads can you find on your lawn in one evening? How many in the
+vegetable garden? How many in the flower beds?
+
+Place a toad on loose soil among some weeds and observe how it proceeds
+to get out of sight.
+
+Is it true that a toad is attracted by music? Give reasons for your
+answer.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+Secure a few living toads and keep them in a box covered with a pane of
+glass. Be sure to put moist soil and damp moss in the bottom of the box
+in which toads, frogs, newts, or snakes are kept. This enables these
+animals to live in comfort, and they soon become sufficiently accustomed
+to their surroundings to act in a normal way.
+
+~Observation.~--By flicking in front of a toad a small feather or a bit of
+meat attached to a thread, the darting out of the tongue for catching
+prey on its adhesive surface may be observed.
+
+The children, by bringing slugs, caterpillars, grubs, and various
+insects for the toads, may learn what composes the food of the animal.
+It is to be observed that the toad does not snap at an object until it
+moves.
+
+DETAILED STUDY
+
+~Observation.~--General shape; division into head, trunk, and limbs; size
+of head and mouth; position and structure of eyes and ears; difference
+in the size of the fore and hind limbs, and explanation of this
+difference by references to the use of the limbs; the hind foot, uses of
+the web; the glands on the surface of the body and their uses for
+protection.
+
+Why is a large mouth useful? How are the ears fitted for life in water?
+
+In conclusion, the teacher should make sure that the pupils appreciate
+the usefulness of the toad and also the beauty represented in its
+adaptations to its conditions of life. In these particulars the toad is
+a good illustration of the adage "Handsome is that handsome does".
+
+LIFE HISTORY OF THE TOAD
+
+In early spring look for the toads on the surface of the water in ponds.
+The music of the toads at this time of year has been described by one
+naturalist as "one of the sweetest sounds of nature".
+
+The eggs may be found in these ponds at this time. They are attached to
+long strings of jelly which entwine among grasses and other objects in
+the ponds. (Frogs' eggs are in masses of jelly, not in strings.) Place
+some of the eggs in a jar of water and set the jar in the window of the
+school-room. A great mass of eggs is too much to put in a jar, a few
+dozen eggs in a pint of water will be more likely to develop. The water
+in the jar should be changed twice a week.
+
+~Observations.~--The light and dark areas of the eggs, the dark area
+gradually increasing in size; the increase in the length of the egg; the
+gradual change of the dark area into the general shape of a tadpole with
+head and tail, the first appearance of the gills, the separation from
+the jelly, the movement by means of the tail, the disappearance of the
+gills, the growth of the hind legs and, later, of the forelegs, and the
+disappearance of the tail.
+
+~Questions and Observations.~--What is the use of the dark colour of the
+area from which the tadpole is formed?
+
+Explain the uses of the strings of jelly.
+
+Describe how the tadpole swims.
+
+Upon what does the young tadpole feed?
+
+What is the advantage of external gills at this stage in the tadpole's
+life?
+
+~Later Observations.~--The disappearance of the gills, the budding out of
+the hind legs and, later, the forelegs. While the legs are growing out,
+the tail gradually becomes smaller, at the same time the shape changes
+to that of the adult toad with a broad body and large mouth and eyes.
+
+~Questions.~--What movements has the toad which the tadpole did not have?
+
+What makes these movements possible?
+
+Why is the mouth of the toad better suited to its manner of life than
+the small mouth of the tadpole would be?
+
+Of what advantage to the tadpole was the smooth outline of its body, and
+why is the rougher outline of the toad's body better suited for the life
+of the latter?
+
+Why would gills be unsuitable for the life of the toad?
+
+_To the teacher._--From the dark area of the egg the tadpole develops,
+the dark colour absorbs the sunlight, and this causes growth. The jelly
+holds the eggs up so that the sun can reach them and it also keeps them
+from being swept away by the water. The tadpole is very small, and
+external gills are needed to keep it in very close contact with the
+water. The tail does not drop off, the substance in it is absorbed into
+the body of the growing toad to serve as nutriment.
+
+Since all the changes in the development of the toad from egg to adult
+form take place in about one month, this comparatively rapid development
+makes the life history of the toad particularly suitable for observation
+work.
+
+The development of the eggs of the frog or newt may be studied from
+preparations made in precisely the same way as those for the study of
+the development of the toad.
+
+If observations on the developments of two forms are carried on at one
+time, interesting comparisons can be made on such points as, shape and
+size of the eggs, time required for development, shapes and colours of
+the tadpoles, activity of the tadpoles, etc.
+
+
+THE EARTHWORM
+
+~Time.~--May or June, in connection with gardening, when the working of
+the worms in the moist soil of the garden is quite noticeable.
+
+Outdoor studies may be assigned, as:
+
+Observe the loose soil at the entrance to the burrows. Insert a straw in
+the burrow and, following it, dig downward with a garden trowel and
+learn the nature of the earthworm's home.
+
+Are earthworms ever found out of their burrows during the day? If so, on
+what kind of days? Why do earthworms burrow deep in dry weather?
+
+Earthworms can breathe only when the surfaces of their bodies are in
+moist conditions.
+
+Go out at night with a lantern to where earthworms are known to have
+burrows, observe the worms stretched out with the rear ends of their
+bodies attached to the burrows, and note how quickly they draw back when
+they are touched. Do they draw back if the ground is jarred near them?
+Do they draw back when the light falls upon them?
+
+State the facts which are taught by the observations which were made on
+the above topics.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+Put two or three earthworms into a jar of rich, damp soil, on top of
+which there is a layer of sand a quarter of an inch thick. Put bits of
+cabbage, onion, grass, and other plants on the surface and cover the jar
+with a glass slip or cardboard.
+
+After a few days, examine the jar, noting the number of burrows, the
+foods selected, the castings, the food dragged into the burrows. Pour
+water into the jar and observe the actions of the worms. Can an
+earthworm live in water?
+
+Place an earthworm on a moist plate or board and direct the pupils to
+study it, as follows:
+
+Distinguish the head from the rear end, the upper from the lower
+surface. Observe the means of living. To assist in the latter
+observation, stroke the worm from rear to head and find the four double
+rows of bristles. Why is it difficult to pull an earthworm out of its
+burrow?
+
+Find the mouth. Has the earthworm any eyes, ears, or nose? Place a pin
+in the path of a moving worm and try to explain why it turns aside
+before touching the obstacle. Test the sensitiveness to feeling. Why is
+it cruel to put an earthworm on a fishhook?
+
+From the soil castings found in the jar, infer the value of earthworms
+for enriching and pulverizing soil. (See "Soil Studies", p. 269.)
+
+REFERENCES
+
+Bailey and Coleman: _First Course in Biology._ Macmillan Co. $1.25.
+
+Crawford: _Guide to Nature Study._ The Copp, Clark Co. 90 cents.
+
+Kellogg: _Elementary Zoology._ Holt & Co. $1.35.
+
+
+THE AQUARIUM
+
+A large glass aquarium may be purchased from any School Supply Company
+at a cost of a few dollars, but a small globe-shaped aquarium such as is
+used for gold-fishes will be found suitable for school purposes. If it
+is not possible to secure either of these, a large glass jar, such as a
+battery jar or large fruit jar, will be found to answer quite well.
+
+To set up the aquarium, put into the jar about two inches of clean shore
+sand (sand from a sand pit, washed until the water comes away clear,
+will do). Secure from a pond some water-plants, place these in the jar
+with their roots covered with sand and secured in position by small
+stones. Pour in water until the jar is nearly full, taking care not to
+wash the roots out of place, and then put in a freshwater clam and a few
+water snails. These are scavengers, for the clam feeds upon organisms
+that float in the water, while the snails eat the green scum that grows
+on the glass.
+
+The other aquarium specimens may now be put in. One fish about three
+inches long to a gallon of water is about the right proportion. When
+there is a sufficient quantity of plant life to keep the water properly
+oxygenated and enough animal life to supply the carbon dioxide necessary
+to keep the plants growing well, the aquarium is said to be _balanced_.
+
+The balanced aquarium does not require that the water be changed more
+often than once in two months.
+
+Too much direct sunlight causes too rapid growth of green slime, hence
+the aquarium should not be set in a window. Close to a window through
+which the sun shines upon it for an hour or longer each day is the best
+position.
+
+Do not supply more food to the animals in the aquarium than they can eat
+up clean.
+
+Crayfish, perch, trout, and other freshwater fishes are destructive of
+insect larvae and other aquarium specimens, hence care must be taken in
+selecting the specimens that are put together into an aquarium.
+
+Suitable animals for the aquarium: mosquito larvae, dragon-fly larvae,
+caddice-fly larvae, crayfish, clam, water snails, tadpoles, fish, frog,
+turtle.
+
+
+AQUARIUM SPECIMENS
+
+MOSQUITO
+
+Time.--May or June.
+
+~Questions and Observations.~--At what time of the year are mosquitoes
+most plentiful? In what localities are they most plentiful? Why are
+they most plentiful in these places? Are mosquitoes ever seen during
+fall or winter? How do you account for their rapid increase in number
+early in summer?
+
+How do mosquitoes find their victims? Observe the humming noise and try
+to discover how it is made.
+
+Watch a mosquito as it draws blood from your hand. Does the point of the
+beak pierce the skin?
+
+Capture a number of mosquitoes and place them in a jar containing some
+water and a few straws or sticks standing upright out of the water.
+Cover the mouth of the jar with a glass plate or fine gauze. Watch for
+the rafts of mosquitoes' eggs on the surface of the water.
+
+The eggs may also be found on the surface of ponds or open rain barrels,
+and may be transferred to water in a jar in the laboratory.
+
+STUDY OF THE ADULT FORM
+
+Note the shape, colour, sucking tube, wings, and legs. Compare with the
+house-fly.
+
+Distinguish the male insect from the female; the former has feathery
+feelers, and has mouth parts unsuited for biting.
+
+How many kinds of mosquitoes have you seen? Direct attention to the kind
+which causes the spread of malaria. It is recognized by its habit of
+standing with its body pointing at right angles to the surface on which
+its feet are placed or, in other words, it appears to stand on its head.
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT
+
+Describe the egg raft.
+
+Observe the wigglers (hatched in about a day); the divisions of the
+body of the wigglers; position of the wigglers when at rest. Observe
+that the tail end is upward. Lead the pupils to perceive that this is
+the means of getting air.
+
+Observe the rapid movement toward the bottom when disturbed; the means
+of causing this movement; the change into the large-headed pupae--a
+change which takes place about ten days after hatching; the almost
+motionless character of the pupae; the change from the pupae forms into
+the adult--a change which takes place at about the fourth day of pupae
+life.
+
+Put some mosquito larvae (wigglers) into the fish aquarium. Are
+mosquitoes of any use? The wigglers are the food on which some young
+fishes live. Young bass and trout feed upon them.
+
+Put some kerosene on the surface of a jar in which there are mosquito
+larvae. Describe a method of destroying mosquitoes.
+
+The teacher tells about the mosquito as the cause of the spread of
+malaria. From the fact that the eggs hatch on stagnant water, deduce a
+benefit arising from the draining of land.
+
+REFERENCES
+
+Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_
+
+Hodge: _Nature Study and Life_
+
+CADDICE-FLY
+
+Time: May.
+
+The caddice-flies are very interesting insects, owing to the habits of
+the larvae of building little cases of wood, stones, or shells, in which
+they pass their development stages under water.
+
+These larvae are easily found during the month of May in little streams
+of water everywhere throughout the Province. Look for what at first
+sight appears to be a bit of twig or a cylinder of stone about an inch
+long moving along the bottom as though carried by currents. Closer
+observation will result in the discovery that this is a little case
+composed of grains, of bits of stick, or of sand and tiny shells, and
+the head of the occupant may be seen projecting from one end.
+
+Collect some of these larvae in a jar of water and transfer them to the
+aquarium. Direct the pupils to look for others in the streams, so that
+they may observe their appearances and movements in their natural
+environment. If kept in jars, the water must be changed every day, and
+the top should be covered to prevent the escape of the adults.
+
+~Observe.~--The shape of the various kinds of cases; the materials, and
+how fastened together (chiefly by silk); the part of the larva that
+protrudes from the case; the movement, and how caused; the fitness of
+the case as a protection. Note hardness, colour, and shape as protective
+features.
+
+The pupils will be fortunate if they observe the sudden rise of the
+larva to the surface of the water and the almost instantaneous change
+into the four-winged fly.
+
+
+INSECTS SUITABLE FOR LESSONS IN FORM II
+
+Walking-stick insect, katydid, cricket, mole-cricket, clothes-moth,
+giant water-bug, potato beetle, click-beetle, luna moth, and
+swallow-tail butterfly.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+FORM III
+
+AUTUMN
+
+
+GARDEN WORK
+
+The pupils in this Form should be able to do all of the work required of
+them in the garden without assistance. They should aim at intensive and
+thorough cultivation and, in the autumn, when the plants of their
+gardens ripen, these should be removed and the soil carefully spaded.
+They should continue the work of selecting the seed from the best
+flowers, as indicated in the work for Form II, and should grow some seed
+from vegetables and perennials seen to be particularly good.
+
+Boys in this Form may also wish to do some gardening for profit. In some
+cases where there is plenty of space, this may be carried on in a part
+of the school garden set aside for that purpose. Usually, however, it
+will be found most convenient to carry it on in the home garden. Best
+varieties for local markets should then be grown and attention given to
+the proper time and manner of marketing or storing for a later market.
+Cool, well-ventilated cellars are best for most fruits and vegetables.
+
+
+TREATMENT OF FUNGI
+
+During the summer and early autumn months attention should be given to
+the spraying of plants for blight and for injurious insects. The potato
+is commonly affected by a fungous disease which causes the stalks to
+blacken and die before the tubers have matured. This disease may be
+prevented in large measure by the use of a fungicide known as Bordeaux
+mixture. This may be prepared as follows:
+
+Take one pound of copper sulphate (blue vitriol); make it fine by
+pounding it in a bag or cloth and then dissolve it in water, using a
+wooden pail. It dissolves rapidly if put in a little cheese-cloth sack,
+which is suspended near the top of the pail by putting a stick across
+the pail and tying the sack of copper sulphate to it. Dilute this
+solution to five gallons. Take also a pound of unslaked or quick-lime
+and add a cupful of water to it. When it begins to swell up and get hot,
+add more water slowly, and, when the action ceases, dilute to five
+gallons. Mix these two solutions together in a tub or barrel, and churn
+them up, or stir them together vigorously. They give a deep
+robin's-egg-blue mixture, which is slightly alkaline and should be used
+at once. The solutions can be kept separate as stock solutions
+throughout the summer and then diluted and mixed whenever needed. Care
+should be observed in not mixing the solutions before each has been
+diluted to the strength, one pound to five gallons. A piece of blue
+litmus paper will be convenient to prove that the mixture is alkaline.
+If alkaline, as it should be, the paper remains blue when dipped in it.
+If the mixture turns the litmus paper red, it must have more lime-water
+added to make it alkaline. The potato tops should be thoroughly sprayed
+with this mixture when about ten inches high and then once every two
+weeks, until they have been treated three or four times. This is to
+prevent blight and not to kill bugs. If the potato-beetle is troubling
+the potatoes, add paris-green to the Bordeaux mixture--a teaspoonful to
+every two gallons. To prove the value of this treatment have a trial
+plot of potatoes which receive all attention save spraying with Bordeaux
+mixture. If a heavy rain should follow the spraying, it should be
+repeated.
+
+Potato-scab may be prevented to a large degree by soaking the tubers
+before cutting for planting in a solution of formalin (a 40-per cent.
+solution of formaldehyde) one-half pint to fifteen gallons of water.
+Seed grain is frequently treated this way before sowing, to destroy smut
+spores. A pound of formalin is put in forty gallons of water in a large
+barrel. A bag full of the grain to be treated is set in the barrel of
+formalin mixture for about two hours and then taken and dried on a floor
+that has been previously washed with water containing formalin. A
+solution of copper sulphate (bluestone), one pound in twenty gallons of
+water is sometimes used. The grain is left in this solution for twelve
+hours and then dried for sowing. All bags and utensils should also be
+disinfected with this formalin solution.
+
+TREATMENT OF INSECTS
+
+In order to poison insects successfully, it is necessary to determine
+how the insect feeds. If it is a biting insect, that is one that eats
+the leaf, such as the potato beetle, paris-green should be used.
+Paris-green sometimes burns the tender leaves. This may be prevented by
+adding a tablespoonful of lime to each pail of water used. It may also
+be used dry with flour or dust.
+
+If the insect feeds by sucking the juices from the leaf, as is the case
+with plant-lice, then a solution that kills by contact must be used,
+such as whale-oil soap, one ounce to a quart of water. Tobacco-water is
+sometimes mixed with the soap solution as follows:
+
+Four pounds of tobacco-waste is steeped in nine gallons of hot water for
+five hours; this is then strained, and to the tobacco-water one pound of
+whale-oil soap dissolved in one gallon of hot water is added and mixed
+thoroughly.
+
+Kerosene emulsion, which is made as follows, is very destructive to
+plant-lice and scale insects:
+
+Dissolve a quarter of a pound of common laundry soap in half a gallon of
+rain-water and, while hot, mix with one gallon of coal-oil and churn
+vigorously for five minutes to get a smooth, creamy mixture. On cooling,
+it thickens and is diluted before using by adding nine quarts of warm
+water to one quart of the emulsion. Use smaller quantities in correct
+proportions when only a few plants are to be treated.
+
+CABBAGE-WORM
+
+The larvae of the cabbage-butterfly sometimes do a great deal of harm by
+eating the cabbage leaves. It will not do to use paris-green on cabbage,
+as the leaves are for eating. Instead, use pyrethrum or insect powder,
+which may be diluted by mixing with cheap flour--one ounce of insect
+powder to five of flour. Mix thoroughly and leave in a closed tin over
+night. Dust the mixture on the leaves from a cheese-cloth bag by tapping
+with a small stick or from a dusting-pan. If used while the dew is on
+the leaves, it sticks better. Insect powder is not poisonous to man as
+is paris-green, and so may be used freely on cabbage or other similar
+plants.
+
+
+PLANTS
+
+ANNUALS, BIENNIALS, AND PERENNIALS
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+By means of questions based upon the pupils' knowledge of a few common
+annuals, such as the oat, sweet-pea, and garden aster, develop the
+following points:
+
+1. These plants are always grown from seeds.
+
+2. These plants produce flowers and ripe seeds during one season's
+growth.
+
+3. These plants wither and die in the autumn.
+
+Plants having these characteristics are called _annuals_. The teacher
+explains the meaning of the word and requires the pupils to name a few
+other annuals.
+
+In a similar way, discuss a few common types of _biennials_, such as
+turnip, cabbage, hollyhock, and develop the following points:
+
+1. These plants produce no flowers and seeds during the first year of
+their life.
+
+2. These plants, during the first year, lay up a store of food in roots,
+leaves, or stems.
+
+3. The food is used in the second year of the plant's life to nourish
+the flowers and seeds.
+
+A biennial should be grown for two years in the school garden to furnish
+material for concrete study.
+
+In a similar way discuss a few common types of _perennials_, such as
+rhubarb, dahlia, apple tree, and develop the following points:
+
+1. These plants may or may not produce seeds during the first year's
+growth.
+
+2. Some of these plants are herbs, but most of them are trees and
+shrubs.
+
+3. Food is stored in roots or stems to provide for early spring growth.
+
+4. These plants live on from year to year.
+
+GARDEN STUDIES
+
+ANNUALS
+
+~Observations.~--Some plants, such as poppy and candy-tuft, are early
+blooming, while others, such as aster and cosmos, bloom in late summer,
+hence a selection should be made that will yield a succession of bloom
+throughout the season.
+
+Some are hardy annuals which can be grown from open planting, even when
+the weather is cold. These often seed themselves; for example,
+sweet-pea, morning-glory, phlox, poppy, sweet-alyssum.
+
+Some are half-hardy annuals, such as asters, balsams, stocks, and
+nasturtiums. These must be started indoors or in hotbeds, or if in
+plots, not until the soil is quite warm.
+
+The heights of annuals vary, and consequently they must be arranged in
+the bed in such a way that tall plants will not shade the short ones.
+
+BIENNIALS
+
+~Observations.~--During the first year food is stored in the root of the
+turnip, carrot, parsnip, and beet, in the leaves of the cabbage, and in
+the stem of the hollyhock.
+
+Flowers and seeds are produced during the second year, and the
+storehouse becomes empty, dry, and woody. Preparation for winter is
+therefore, in the case of biennials, preparation for a renewal of growth
+the following spring.
+
+PERENNIALS
+
+~Observations.~--The highest forms of plant life are found in this class;
+namely, the strong, large, hardy trees and shrubs.
+
+The herbaceous perennials are equipped with underground parts that act
+as storehouses of food to ensure the growth of the plant through
+successive seasons. Examples: the roots of dahlia, rhubarb, dandelion,
+and chicory; the underground stems of potato, onion, tulip,
+scutch-grass, Canada thistle, etc.
+
+Many of the wild flowers that bloom in early spring belong to this
+class, and their rapid growth then is made possible by the store of food
+in the underground parts. Examples: trillium, bloodroot, squirrel-corn,
+Indian turnip, Solomon's seal, etc.
+
+SPECIAL STUDY OF GARDEN PLANTS
+
+A few plants should be selected for special study, and the following are
+recommended: annuals--sweet-pea, pumpkin, and corn; biennials--cabbage,
+parsnip, and carrot; perennials--dahlia, rhubarb, and couch-grass.
+
+It is desirable that the observations be made upon the plants in the
+garden, but they may be conducted in the class-room upon specimens
+brought into the room by the pupils.
+
+SWEET-PEA
+
+Examine the stem of the sweet-pea and describe its form, its uniform
+slender structure, and the fact that it climbs. Find out just how it
+climbs. The pupils will observe the tendrils, which are extensions of
+the midribs of the leaves.
+
+Describe the leaves, noting what is meant by calling them _compound_.
+
+Observe the position of the flower, its colours, odour, size, and form.
+What insect does it resemble in shape? What different features of the
+flower enable it to attract attention?
+
+The names and uses of the floral organs may be taught to this class. For
+example:
+
+Pupils find the green blanket that protects the bud. This is the
+_calyx_.
+
+The beautiful, attractive part is the _corolla_.
+
+The parts that produce the pollen are called _stamens_.
+
+The case that holds the seeds is the _pistil_.
+
+Examine flowers of different ages and trace the change from the minute
+pistil to the pod.
+
+Study, comparatively, the flowers of the field-pea, bean, or wild vetch.
+
+Select a few of the finest blossoms of the sweet-pea and put tags on
+them while they are still in bloom. When they ripen, collect the seeds
+and preserve them for spring planting.
+
+Conduct observation lessons on the pumpkin and corn, in which the pupils
+will discover such facts as those given below.
+
+PUMPKIN
+
+Notice the method of growth--the stem no stronger than that of the
+sweet-pea, but lying flat on the ground. Notice the little roots sent
+out here and there where the stem touches the ground. This gives extra
+nourishment. The leaves are not numerous and grow only in one direction,
+but are very large--entirely too large to be borne upon an upright stem.
+Notice the large funnel-like flowers and that not all of them set fruit.
+Examine the flowers. Some of them have stamens for producing pollen, but
+no pistil. These never produce fruit, for pumpkins are simply enlarged
+and ripened pistils. Look for insects and examine them to find out
+whether they are carrying pollen. Notice younger pumpkins and even
+blossoms toward the end of the vine. Pick all the blossoms and small
+pumpkins off a vine, leaving only one of the best growing pumpkins. See
+whether this one grows larger than one of equal age on a vine having
+young pumpkins developing on it. Notice the arrangement of the seeds
+inside a ripe pumpkin. Collect some seeds, wash clean, and dry for
+spring planting. It is desirable to plant pumpkins late in May, so that
+they will have flowers on their vines as late as September.
+
+Study the flowers of the cucumber and compare them with those of the
+pumpkin.
+
+CORN
+
+This plant is native to America, was greatly prized by the aborigines,
+and even worshipped by some of them. Note the upright character of the
+plant and how the stalk is divided into sections by the joints, or
+nodes. Count these joints and also the leaves, and note the relationship
+of leaves and joints in the stalk, and how the leaves come off in
+different directions so as not to shade each other. Note the strong,
+stringy threads in the leaf, which give strength to the leaf as well as
+circulation of sap. They are strong and elastic, allowing of movement.
+The same strengthening fibres are seen in the stalk when it is broken
+across. In the stalk these fibres are arranged in a tubular form, as
+this gives greatest strength, the centre being soft and weak. The stalks
+are largest near the base, where the greatest stiffness is required. The
+nodes are also closer together here for strength. The stem is made much
+stronger by the bases of the leaves being wrapped so firmly around for a
+distance above the point of attachment at the node. Notice the
+close-fitting sheath or rain-guard, where the blade of the leaf leaves
+the stalk. This prevents rain soaking down inside the leaf sheath, but
+lets it run down the outside to the root where it is needed. As the
+plant gets older and taller, new roots come out from the node next above
+the root and sometimes from the second node above. These prop-roots are
+needed for support as the stalk lengthens, and they also reinforce the
+feeding capacity.
+
+Note the appearance of little cobs in the axils of the leaves. As soon
+as the silk appears, take a cob off and open it carefully. The little
+cob, which corresponds to the pistil in other plants, is covered with
+small and undeveloped kernels, and to each kernel one of the strands of
+so-called silk is attached. Whilst this little cob is forming, a bunch,
+or tassel, of flowers is forming on the top of the corn plant. Open one
+of these flowers and find the stamens with pollen-grains inside. This
+pollen, when shed, falls upon the silk, and each grain sends a tiny tube
+down inside the silk to the delicate ovules on the cob, fertilizing them
+and starting them to develop. The silk then withers. The wind carries
+this pollen.
+
+Find out how the silk is fitted for catching the pollen. What is the
+need for the great quantity of pollen that the plant produces?
+
+Strip off the husks and compare the tough, hard husks that are found on
+the outside with the soft paper-like husks found close to the cob. Show
+how each kind is fitted for its particular work.
+
+Pupils make experiments in the corn plot to find:
+
+1. Whether the corn grows faster:
+
+(1) When the soil is kept mellow or when the soil is hard;
+
+(2) When the days are warm or when they are cool;
+
+(3) When the nights are cool or when they are warm.
+
+2. The effect of growing black corn and golden corn in the same or in
+adjoining plots. Account for the result.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+Art: Clay-modelling and drawing exercises on the whole plant, and also
+upon the ear.
+
+Literature: Interpretation and reading of "Blessing the Corn-fields",
+from _Hiawatha_.
+
+History: The name Indian corn originated in the early colonial days of
+the Eastern and Central States, when the pioneers obtained corn from the
+Indians. The Indians showed the settlers how to kill the trees by
+girdling and how to plant the corn among the standing trunks, and thus
+have corn ready for roasting by August, and for grinding into meal or
+for boiling to make hominy by September.
+
+
+SEED DISPERSAL
+
+The lessons on seed dispersal which were begun in Form I should be
+continued in this Form.
+
+I. LESSON
+
+Select a few weeds belonging to species which produce large numbers of
+seeds, such as wild mustard, white cockle, false-flax, etc. Distribute
+the seed pods among the pupils of the class and require them to estimate
+the number of seeds produced by each plant.
+
+By references to observations made in the garden, help the pupils to
+recall the bad results, both to parent plants and to young seedlings, of
+improper scattering of seeds, namely:
+
+1. The excessive crowding and shading, which causes the plants to become
+weak.
+
+2. Insufficient food and moisture for the large number of plants, which
+causes the plants to be small and worthless.
+
+Discuss how the crowding of cultivated plants is prevented and, in a
+general way, how nature provides for the scattering of seeds.
+
+The great work of the plant is the production and dispersal of its
+seeds.
+
+Ask the pupils to be on the alert to find examples of plants in which
+provision is made for the dispersal of the seeds, and to bring these
+plants to the class for the next lesson.
+
+DETAILED STUDY OF SEED DISPERSAL
+
+II. CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+Make use of the specimens gathered by the pupils and by the teacher for
+observing and classifying as follows:
+
+1. Seeds that steal rides. Examples--burdock, blue burr, pitch-fork
+weed, barley, stick-tight, hound's tongue.
+
+2. Seeds that are carried in edible fruits which have attractive
+colours, tastes, etc. Examples--apple, grape, cherry, rowan, hawthorn.
+
+3. Seeds that are carried by the wind. Examples--dandelion, thistle,
+milkweed, maple, pine, elm.
+
+4. Seeds that are scattered by being shot from bursting pods.
+Examples--violet, jewel-weed (touch-me-not), sweet-pea, witch-hazel.
+
+5. Seeds that are scattered by plants which are rolled along by the
+wind. Examples--Russian thistle, tumble-mustard, tumble-grass.
+
+6. Seeds that float. Very many seeds float, although not specially
+fitted for floating, and some, such as the cocoa-nut and water-lily, are
+especially adapted for dispersal by water.
+
+_To the teacher._--Require the pupils to observe the special structure
+that facilitates the dispersal of the seed. As an illustration, ask the
+pupils to find the seeds of the burdock and to describe what the burr is
+really like. They find that the burr is a little basket filled with
+seeds. The basket has many little hooks which catch on the hair of
+animals and, since these hooks turn inwards, they serve to hold the
+basket in such a position that all the seeds are not likely to drop out
+at one time. The pupils should also observe that these baskets are quite
+firmly attached to the parent plant until the seeds are ripe; after that
+the baskets break off the plant at the slightest pull.
+
+SEED COLLECTIONS
+
+During late summer and in the autumn the seeds of the weeds that have
+been identified by the pupils should be collected.
+
+Instruct the pupils to rub the ripened seed pods between the hands until
+the seeds are thrashed out, at the same time blowing away the chaff. The
+seeds are now placed in small phials or in small envelopes and these are
+carefully labelled. If possible, fill each phial so that there may be
+sufficient seed for use by all the members of the class in the lessons
+on seed description and identification which are to be taken during the
+winter months, when Nature Study material is less plentiful than it is
+in the summer and autumn. The phials or envelopes may be stored in a
+shallow box, or the phials may be mounted on a stout card. They may be
+attached to this card either by stout thread sewed through the card and
+passing around the phial, or by brass cleats, which may be obtained with
+the phials from dealers in Nature Study supplies.
+
+MAN AS A DISPERSER OF SEEDS
+
+Man as an agent in the dispersal of seeds should be made a topic for
+discussion.
+
+Obtain, through the pupils, samples of seed-grain, clover seed, timothy
+seed, turnip seed, etc. Ask the pupils to examine these and count the
+number of weed seeds found in each.
+
+The results will reveal a very common way in which the seeds of noxious
+weeds are introduced.
+
+Describe the introduction from Europe to the wheat-fields of the Prairie
+Provinces of such weeds as Russian thistle, false-flax, French-weed. The
+seeds of these weeds were carried in seed-grain, fodder for animals, and
+also in the hay and straw used by the immigrants as packing for their
+household goods.
+
+Careful farmers will not allow thrashing-machines, seed drills,
+fanning-mills, etc., to come from farms infested with noxious weeds to
+do work upon their farms, nor will they buy manure, straw, or hay that
+was produced on dirty farms.
+
+
+THE SUGAR MAPLE
+
+FIELD EXERCISES
+
+Select a convenient sugar maple as a type. Ask the pupils to observe and
+to describe the height of the tree, the height of the trunk below the
+branches, the shape and size of the crown, the diameter of the trunk,
+the colour of the bark, the markings on the bark, the number and
+direction of the branches, and the density of the foliage. Compare the
+density of the foliage with that of other kinds of trees. Require the
+pupils to make a crayon drawing of the tree.
+
+Examine the crop of grain produced near a shade tree. Compare the crop
+on the north side of the tree with that on the south side. Account for
+the difference.
+
+Is the crop around the tree inferior to that in the rest of the field?
+
+Find out how long the various sugar maple shade trees in the locality
+have been planted. Is it a tree of rapid or slow growth? Are these sugar
+maples infested with insects or attacked by fungi?
+
+Do these trees yield sap that is suitable for making maple syrup?
+
+Examine trees that have been tapped and find whether the old wounds
+become overgrown or cause decay.
+
+Find out all you can about the uses that are made of maple wood.
+
+_To the teacher._--The sugar maple is the most highly prized of our
+native trees for ornament and shade. It grows fairly rapidly and
+becomes a goodly-sized tree within twenty years after it is planted. The
+symmetrical dome-shaped crown and the dense foliage of restful dark
+green give to it a fine appearance. It is hardy and has few insect
+pests, and its value is enhanced by the abundant yield of rich sap.
+
+As a commercial tree it has few superiors; the wood is hard and durable
+and takes a high polish. It is used for flooring, furniture, boat
+building, for the wooden parts of machinery and tools, and for making
+shoe-pegs and shoe lasts. As fuel maple wood is surpassed only by
+hickory.
+
+MAPLE LEAVES
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+The pupils bring to the class leaves of the sugar maple. Each pupil is
+provided with a leaf and makes direct observations under the guidance of
+the teacher.
+
+~Observations.~--Colour, dark green on the upper surface, lighter green on
+the lower surface. Surface smooth and shiny.
+
+Shape: star-shaped, broader than long.
+
+Lobes: usually five, often three; each lobe has usually two large teeth.
+
+Base has a heart-shaped notch; petiole long and slender, usually red.
+
+Veins are stiff and run out to the points of the teeth.
+
+Distribute leaves of the _red_ maple and ask the pupils to note the
+general resemblance. Next ask them to compare the leaves as to shape,
+texture, and teeth on the margin.
+
+Ask the pupils to find red maple trees and also to find maples with
+leaves that are different from those of the red maple and those of the
+sugar maple.
+
+Make a collection of maple leaves when they are in autumn colours. (See
+Collections, page 33, in General Method.)
+
+_To the teacher._--The leaves of the red maple are longer than broad,
+and are not so smooth and shiny as the leaves of the sugar maple. There
+are numerous "saw teeth" on the margins of the lobes. The silver maple,
+with leaves having silver-white under surfaces, is another common
+species.
+
+A lesson similar to that on leaf studies may be based on the fruits
+(keys) of the maples.
+
+The oak, ash, elm, beech, or birch may be taken up in lessons similar to
+those outlined for the study of the maple.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+With literature and reading: By interpreting "The Maple", _The Ontario
+Readers, Third Book_, page 179;
+
+With art: By sketching the tree and reproducing the autumn leaves in
+colour work.
+
+
+WEED STUDIES
+
+In every locality there are about a dozen weeds that are particularly
+troublesome, and the pupils of Form III should be taught to identify
+these and to understand the characteristics which make each weed
+persistent.
+
+To produce these results it will be necessary to have exercises such as
+the following:
+
+1. The teacher exhibits a weed to the pupils and directs their attention
+to a few of the outstanding features of the plant.
+
+2. The pupils are required, as a field exercise, to observe where the
+weed is abundant; and whether in hay field, pasture, hoe crop, or in
+grain. The pupils will bring specimens to the class.
+
+3. Detailed study in the class of specimens of the weed brought by the
+pupils to find offensive odours and prickles, also the character of the
+leaves, flowers, seed pods, and seeds, including the means of dispersal;
+the underground parts, whether underground stem, tap-root, or fibrous
+root, and the value of the underground parts as a means of persistence.
+
+4. The pupils make a collection of the weeds that have been studied.
+(See Plant Collection, page 39, in General Method.)
+
+5. The pupils make collections of the seeds of the weeds that have been
+studied.
+
+OBSERVATION LESSON ON WEED SEEDS
+
+The seed of a weed should always be exhibited and studied in association
+with a fresh or a mounted specimen of the weed.
+
+Each pupil should use a hand lens in examining the seed.
+
+The pupils examine the seed of each species and describe it according to
+the following scheme:
+
+NAME OF SEED
+
+    _Colour:_
+    _Size:_ (in fractions of an inch)
+    _Shape:_
+    _Details:_
+    _Occurrence:_
+
+The results of the pupils' study of the ox-eye daisy would then appear
+in the following form:
+
+SEED OF OX-EYE DAISY
+
+    _Colour:_ Black and greenish-white in stripes,
+    _Size:_ One sixteenth of an inch,
+    _Shape:_ Club-shaped,
+    _Details_: Grooved lengthwise, yellow peg in large end,
+    _Occurrence:_ A common impurity in grass seed.
+
+
+GRASSHOPPER
+
+     (Consult the Manual on _Suggestions for Teachers of
+     Science_: Zoology, First year.)
+
+The ease with which this insect may be obtained in August or September,
+together with its fairly large size, makes it a suitable specimen for
+insect study. It is also a typical insect, so that a careful study
+serves as a basis for a knowledge of the class _insecta_.
+
+FIELD EXERCISES
+
+Problems to be assigned for outdoor observation: Locomotion by flying,
+leaping, walking; protective coloration and habit of "lying low"; its
+behaviour when caught; in what kinds of fields it is most plentiful; in
+what kinds of weather it is most active; its position on the grass or
+grain when feeding; the nature and extent of the damage done by it.
+
+Use a class period for discussion of the above. Confirm, correct, or
+incite to more careful observation.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+(Studied as a typical insect)
+
+~Observations.~--The three divisions of the body--head, thorax, abdomen;
+the segmental division of the two latter parts; the hard, protecting
+covering; the movements of the abdomen; the two large compound eyes and
+three small eyes; the feelers; the two pairs of mouth feelers; the
+cutting mandibles; the three pairs of legs (one pair for leaping) and
+two pairs of wings on the thorax; the breathing pores, the ears,
+ovipositors of the female.
+
+The young grasshoppers may be found in spring or early summer, and a few
+even in late summer, among the grass of old meadows and pastures. They
+are easily recognized because of their general resemblance to the adult
+and are in the stage of development called the _nymph_ phase. Note the
+hairy body and the absence of wings.
+
+_To the teacher._--The moulting of the nymph is a very interesting
+process to observe and so is the laying of the eggs by the female in a
+burrow that she prepares in the soil. If females secured in July are
+kept in a jar having two inches of soil in the bottom, they will lay
+their eggs in the soil; the nests and eggs may then be taken up and
+examined.
+
+In order that we may not destroy our friends and helpers, it is
+expedient to know what creatures help to hold pests in check.
+
+The enemies of grasshoppers are birds and insect parasites. Under the
+wings of grasshoppers may frequently be found little red mites; these
+kill the grasshoppers to which they are attached. The blister-beetles
+lay their eggs in the grasshoppers' nests, and the larvae of the beetles
+feed upon and destroy the eggs.
+
+The birds that are especially useful in destroying grasshoppers are the
+meadow-lark, crow, bobolink, quail, grasshopper sparrow.
+
+The curious hairlike worms known to the school boys as "hair snakes"
+because of the belief that they are parts of horse hairs turned into
+snakes, are worms that pass the early part of their life within the
+bodies of grasshoppers and, when the insects die, the worms escape and
+are washed by rains into troughs and ponds where their movements attract
+attention.
+
+Study the cricket and house-fly and compare the cricket with the
+grasshopper.
+
+
+APHIDES
+
+In September obtain leaves of sweet-pea, apple, rose bush, maple, oak,
+turnip, etc., on which the insects are feeding; also provide specimens
+of woolly aphides on the bark of apple trees or stems of goldenrod or
+alder.
+
+Observe the nature of the injury to the leaves and plants on which these
+insects feed.
+
+Do the insects bite the leaves or suck the juices? Give evidence in
+support of your answer.
+
+Sprinkle paris-green on the leaves; does this kill the insects? Why does
+it not? Spray the insects with a little oil, such as kerosene, or with
+water in which the stub of a cigar has been soaked; what is the effect?
+
+Insects that suck juices from inside the leaf escape the poisoning from
+solutions in the leaf surfaces; such insects are killed by oils which
+enter the breathing pores and cause poisoning.
+
+Search in the garden, orchard, and forest for plants attacked by
+aphides. Carefully observe the lady-birds that are frequently found
+where there are aphides. Lady-birds (also called lady-bugs), are small,
+spotted beetles, broad oval in form, of bright colours, red and black,
+or yellow and black, or black and white.
+
+They are of great service to the farmer and gardener because their foods
+consists largely of plant-lice (aphides).
+
+Watch the action of ants which are found among the aphides. The ants may
+be observed stroking the aphides with their feelers, causing the aphides
+to excrete a sweet fluid on which the ant feeds. Aphides are sometimes
+called ant-cows.
+
+Direct the attention of the pupils to the difference between the male
+and female aphides; the males have wings, but the females are wingless.
+
+
+TOMATO WORM
+
+THE ADULT
+
+The adult moth may be captured on spring evenings when the lilacs are in
+bloom, as it buzzes about among the lilac blossoms sucking their honey.
+It is frequently mistaken for the humming-bird when thus engaged. It may
+also be observed during the summer evenings laying its eggs on the
+leaves of tomato vines.
+
+Observe the worms that hatch from these eggs and note their rapid
+growth. Keep the larvae in a box in the school-room and feed them on
+tomato leaves. Note their size and colour, the oblique stripes on the
+sides, the horn which is used for terrifying assailants, the habit of
+remaining rigid for hours--hence the name sphinx moth.
+
+The larvae burrow into the ground in September to form the chrysalides,
+hence there should be soil in the vivarium in which they are kept.
+
+THE CHRYSALIS
+
+~Observations.~--The shape, colour, nature of the covering, the long
+handle, the wing impressions, the segmental part, the emergence of the
+adult in May or early June.
+
+What organ of the insect was contained in the "handle" of the chrysalis?
+
+The adult is one of the handsomest of moths, because of its graceful,
+clear-cut shape and the variegated grays and yellows of its dress. Look
+on poplar, cotton-wood, plum, and pine trees, and on tobacco plants for
+relatives of the tomato worm, the large green larvae whose chrysalis and
+adult forms resemble those of the tomato worm.
+
+
+THE CROW
+
+Crows are so plentiful that there will be no difficulty in making
+observations on the living birds in the free state in spring or summer.
+(As the crow is a bird that is easily tamed, it may be possible to have
+a tame crow in the class-room for more careful study of the details of
+structure.)
+
+~Observations.~--Describe its attitude when perched, movements of the
+wings in flight, speed of flight. Why does the crow perch high up in
+trees? What gives to the crow its swift flight?
+
+Study the various calls of the crow and note the alarm, threat, summons,
+and expression of fear.
+
+Find the nest and note its position, size, build, materials, eggs, and
+young. How is the nest concealed? What makes it strong?
+
+Are crows often seen on the ground? Do they walk or hop?
+
+Observe and report on the crow's habits of feeding. It eats corn,
+potatoes, oats, beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, cutworms, and
+occasionally birds' eggs or young birds.
+
+Why do king-birds chase and thrash the crow? Are scarecrows effective in
+keeping crows off the grain fields?
+
+Note the sentinels that are on the watch to warn other crows of danger.
+
+Give reasons for the belief that the crow is a wise bird.
+
+Give reasons for regarding the crow as a neighbour of doubtful
+character. Give reasons why crows should be protected.
+
+NOTE.--Crows will not pull up corn and seed that has been covered with
+coal-tar before it is planted.
+
+In addition to the animals already named, the musk-rat, raccoon, fox,
+flying-squirrel, robin, wren, and king-bird will be found convenient for
+study in many localities.
+
+The swimming of the musk-rat, and how its shape, fur, feet, and tail fit
+it for a life in water are topics suitable for observational exercises,
+as are also its food, its winter home, and the burrows leading from the
+water into the banks. In the case of the winter home, the location, the
+structure, the submerged entrance, the living-room, and the surrounding
+moat, are topics of interest.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+With literature: By reading animal stories, such as, _The Kindred of the
+Wild_ and "Red Fox," by Charles G. D. Roberts; and _Wild Animals I Have
+Known_, by Ernest Thompson-Seton.
+
+With language: By oral and written descriptions of the animals that have
+been observed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+FORM III
+
+WINTER
+
+
+CARE OF PLANTS IN THE HOME
+
+The care of flowering bulbs which was begun in Form I will be continued
+in Form II. The growing of new plants from cuttings will now be taken
+up. In those schools which are kept continuously heated, potted plants
+may be kept throughout the year. The pupils will come to appreciate the
+plant's needs and learn how to meet them in the supply of good soil,
+water, and sunlight. The following points should be observed:
+
+1. Good potting soil can be made by building up alternating layers of
+sods and stable manure and allowing this compost to stand until
+thoroughly rotted. A little sharp sand mixed with this forms an
+excellent soil for most house plants.
+
+2. Thorough watering twice a week is better than adding a little water
+every day.
+
+3. The leaves should be showered with water once a week to cleanse them
+from dust.
+
+4. An ounce of whale-oil soap dissolved in a quart of water may be used
+to destroy plant-lice. Common soap-suds may also be used for this
+purpose, but care should be taken to rinse the plants in clean water
+after using a soap wash.
+
+5. Most plants need some direct sunlight every day if possible, although
+most of the ferns grow without it.
+
+6. Plants usually need re-potting once a year. Many kinds may be set
+out-of-doors in flower beds in May and left until September, when they
+may be taken up and placed in pots, or cuttings made from them for
+potting.
+
+7. A flower exhibition at the school once or twice a year, or at a local
+exhibition, adds to the interest.
+
+8. The pupils should report to the teacher from time to time the
+progress of their plants and make many drawings showing their
+development.
+
+PLANT CUTTINGS
+
+The pupils will be interested to know that it is possible to produce new
+plants without waiting for them to grow up from the seed. It will indeed
+be quite a surprise to them to see a new plant complete in all its parts
+grow up from a small piece of stem, root, or even leaf. With a little
+care even children may propagate plants in this way.
+
+SELECTION OF CUTTINGS
+
+Begin with some of the common herbaceous bedding-plants, such as
+geranium, coleus, or fuschia. These are such common bedding-plants that
+they are easily obtained in the autumn. Only well-matured stems of the
+season's growth, such as will break with a slight snap when bent, should
+be used.
+
+Let the pupils provide themselves with sharp knives for the lesson, with
+small boxes or pots, and with some moist, clean sand--not potting soil.
+A few holes should be bored in the bottom of the box, then a layer of
+fine gravel put in to provide for good drainage, and over it layers of
+moist sand. Take a slip or growing end of a stem about three inches in
+length, always cutting it at or just below a node, or joint, and
+leaving only a couple of small leaves on the top of the slip. Insert it
+to about half its depth in the box of moist sand. These cuttings may be
+placed a few inches apart in the box, which should then be placed in a
+warm, light room for a few weeks until the roots develop. The cuttings
+should be partly shaded by papers from the strong sunlight, and the sand
+kept slightly moist but not wet. Bottom heat and a moist, warm
+atmosphere hasten their development.
+
+Another very convenient and very successful method of starting cuttings
+is to take a six-inch flower-pot, put two inches of fine gravel in the
+bottom, set a four-inch unglazed flower-pot in the centre, and fill up
+the space around it with sand and garden-loam, mixed. Put a cork in the
+hole in the bottom of the small flower-pot, and then fill it with water.
+Put the cuttings around in the space between the two pots and set in a
+fairly warm room in moderate light.
+
+POTTING OF ROOTED CUTTINGS
+
+When the cuttings are well rooted, which requires from three to six
+weeks according to the variety and growth conditions furnished, they
+should be carefully lifted with a trowel and each set in a small pot or
+can. First put in the bottom a few small stones to secure drainage, and
+then a little good potting soil. Set the plant in place and fill in
+around with more soil and pack this firmly around the roots. Keep room
+in the top of the pot for water. When the new plant has made some
+growth, it may be shifted to a larger pot. Geraniums and coleus (foliage
+plants) should not be kept more than two seasons. Take cuttings off the
+old plants and then throw the latter away.
+
+
+EVERGREENS
+
+In December make a study of Canadian evergreens, choosing spruce,
+balsam, and cedar, if available, or substitute hemlock for any one of
+these.
+
+Compare the general features of these trees, such as shape, direction of
+branches, colour, persistence of leaves through the winter.
+
+Have the pupils notice how nature fits these trees to endure the snows
+and storms of winter by:
+
+1. The tapering cone which causes the snow to slide off the tree.
+
+2. The fine, needle-shaped leaves to which only very sticky snow will
+adhere.
+
+3. The very tough, flexible, and elastic branches, which bend in the
+wind and under the weight of snow, but spring back to their old
+positions.
+
+4. The resin in leaves, stems, and buds, which enables the trees to
+resist frost and rain.
+
+Teach the pupils to distinguish these trees by their differences in
+colour and form and also by the differences in their leaves and cones.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+Distribute small twigs of balsam and require the pupils to observe and
+describe the length, shape, and colour of the leaves.
+
+Next distribute small twigs of spruce and require the pupils to compare
+the spruce leaves with those of the balsam in length, shape, and colour.
+
+Next distribute twigs of cedar and proceed similarly.
+
+The cones may be dealt with in a similar manner. Require the pupils to
+make a census of the evergreens of the locality, recording the class of
+evergreen, the size, and the use of each kind for shade, ornament, or
+for commercial purposes.
+
+_To the teacher._--The balsam, spruce, and hemlock are difficult for the
+beginner to distinguish, but this may be done by noting the following
+points of difference in their leaves:
+
+The leaf of the hemlock is the only one that has a distinct leaf-stalk.
+Look for this tiny stalk.
+
+The leaf of the hemlock, like that of the balsam, is flat, but the
+hemlock leaf is much the shorter.
+
+The leaf of the spruce is not flat, but is three-sided or nearly so. Its
+colour is uniform, while the under surface of the hemlock leaf, and also
+of the balsam leaf, is of a decidedly lighter colour than the upper
+surface.
+
+Note that the spruce _type_ is studied; no attempt is made at this stage
+to differentiate the several species of spruce.
+
+
+COLLECTION OF WOOD SPECIMENS
+
+During the winter months the boys may prepare specimens of wood for the
+school collection. These specimens should be cut when green, and dried
+afterwards. They should be uniform in length--not more than six
+inches--and should show the bark on one side. The side showing the bark
+should be two inches wide at most, six inches long, and running in a
+V-shaped, radial section toward the pith. A tangential section also
+shows well the rounded layers. A piece of slab as cut lengthwise off a
+round stick is tangential. Care should be taken not to mutilate trees in
+taking these specimens. Specimens of rare or foreign woods may be
+obtained at wood-working factories.
+
+RELATED READING
+
+Winter is Nature's quiescent period. Continuous active observation in
+the out-of-doors among the plants of the forest and garden gives place
+for a time to indoor work and reflection. Pupils need time for reading
+and reflection, and no time is so opportune as the quiet winter season.
+During these months some time should be devoted to the reading of nature
+stories and extracts from magazines and books dealing with plant as well
+as with animal life.
+
+Pupils should review their gardening experiences and discuss plans of
+improvement for the approaching spring and summer. Let them write
+letters to the Form II pupils of other schools where similar work has
+been carried on, and give some of their experiences in gardening and
+other plant studies, and also in animal studies. A certain Friday
+afternoon might be appointed for hearing the letters read which were
+received in reply. Suitable short poems that have a direct bearing upon
+the outdoor studies should be read from time to time. Good pictures also
+come in here as an aid in helping the pupils to appreciate written
+descriptions. The first-hand observations made by them will form a basis
+for the better and more appreciative interpretation of these literature
+selections.
+
+For Observation Lesson on Weed Seeds, see page 171.
+
+
+HOW ANIMALS PREPARE FOR WINTER
+
+~Introduction.~--Discuss the preparations that people make for winter,
+such as the storing of food and the providing of warmer clothes and
+homes.
+
+~Method.~--The teacher questions the pupils and encourages them to tell
+what they have learned through their own observation of animals. The
+knowledge of the pupils is supplemented by information given by the
+teacher, but the pupils are left to find out more facts by further
+observations. Thus:
+
+Do you ever see ground-hogs out during winter?
+
+What do they feed upon during the winter?
+
+What is the condition of ground-hogs in late summer and in autumn?
+
+What is the use of the great store of fat that they have in their
+bodies?
+
+Examine the snow near the burrows of ground-hogs and find whether they
+ever come out in mid-winter.
+
+_To the teacher._--The hibernating animals prepare a home or nest and
+lay up a store of food in the form of fat within their bodies. To
+hibernate does not mean the same as to sleep. The hibernating animals
+have much less active organs than the sleeping animals. The heart-beat
+and the respiratory movements are very slow and feeble, consequently a
+very little nourishment suffices to sustain life.
+
+SUMMARY OF LESSONS
+
+(Two lessons of twenty minutes)
+
+     1. Some animals migrate:
+
+     Examples--many birds, butterflies, and some bats; the
+     cariboo, and buffalo.
+
+     2. Some animals hibernate:
+
+     Examples--bear, ground-hog, raccoon, frogs, toads, snakes,
+     and some bats.
+
+     NOTE.--Flies, mosquitoes, and some other insects crawl into
+     crevices and remain at rest during winter, but their bodies
+     are not stored with food.
+
+     3. Some animals build houses and store foods:
+
+     Examples--beaver, squirrel, chipmunk, honey-bee, deer-mouse.
+
+     4. Some animals build homes convenient to food:
+
+     Examples--musk-rat, field-mouse.
+
+     5. Some animals put on warmer clothing:
+
+     Examples--fox, mink, otter, rabbit, horse, cow, partridge,
+     chickadee. The rabbit and weasel turn white, a colour
+     protection.
+
+     6. Many insect larvae form cocoons or pupae cases:
+
+     Examples--emperor-moth, codling moth, tomato worm.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+With literature, reading, and language.
+
+With geography: By a lesson on "The influence of climate upon animal and
+plant life."
+
+
+CHICKENS
+
+     (Consult _Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture_ by
+     Robinson. Ginn & Co., $2.00.)
+
+CONVERSATION LESSON
+
+How many of you keep chickens at your homes?
+
+Why do many kinds of people keep chickens?
+
+What breeds of chickens do you keep?
+
+How many other breeds do you know?
+
+Describe the appearance of a few of the commoner breeds.
+
+Why are there so many different breeds?
+
+Name those that are good laying breeds.
+
+Name breeds that are not usually considered good laying breeds.
+
+_To the teacher._--Chickens are kept by all classes of people. Many keep
+them for the profit in eggs and meat, others keep them as a fad, and
+others to gratify a craving for animal companionship. There are one
+hundred and seventy-five recognized breeds, varying in size from that of
+the Japanese bantam weighing ten ounces to that of the huge Brahma which
+weighs fourteen pounds. The shapes and colours present as great a
+variation as the sizes. The breeds that are usually regarded as good
+layers are White Leghorn, Barred Bock, and Rhode Island Red, while the
+Game breeds are usually regarded as poor layers. Careful tests prove,
+however, that there are good laying and poor laying strains in every
+breed, and care must be taken to select from good strains, since the
+breed is not a sufficient guide.
+
+At the close of the first lesson, assign to the pupils the task of
+making a chicken census of the district as follows:
+
+1. Request each pupil to count the number of hens under two years old at
+his home and also to count the hens that are more than two years old.
+
+2. Request each pupil to find out, if possible, the number of eggs
+obtained at his home during the whole year.
+
+ARITHMETIC LESSON BASED ON THE CHICKEN CENSUS
+
+1. Using the data collected by the pupils, calculate the total number of
+chickens under two years old in the district.
+
+Calculate the number over two years old. (The latter are classed as
+unprofitable.)
+
+2. Using the data obtained by the pupils (provided sufficient data was
+obtained to make it reasonably reliable), calculate the average number
+of eggs laid a year by each hen.
+
+3. If the data collected by the pupils as to the number of eggs is
+thought to be unreliable, make use of the following:
+
+The average number of eggs laid each year by each hen in Ontario is
+seven dozen. Use this average number, and:
+
+(1) Calculate the value of the eggs produced in this district in a year,
+the average price of eggs being twenty cents a dozen.
+
+(2) If the average production of eggs were increased to ten dozen (a
+number that is easily possible under improved management), find the
+value of the eggs that would be produced in a year, and find the gain
+that would result from this better management.
+
+4. If it costs ninety cents a year to feed a hen, find the net annual
+profit to this district from the egg production.
+
+CARE OF CHICKENS
+
+The method of developing conceptions of how to take proper care of
+chickens is based partly upon the pupils' experiences and partly upon a
+knowledge of the history of the original wild hens.
+
+Information can be gathered from the pupils as to the date of hatching
+of the earliest chickens and the date at which the pullets begin to lay.
+Chickens that are hatched in April begin to lay in November or December
+and lay throughout the winter when eggs bring the highest price.
+
+The original wild hens lived in the dry, grassy, and shrubby jungles of
+India. They were free to move about in the open air, and at night they
+perched in the trees, which sheltered them from rain. Hence may be
+inferred what kind of quarters should be provided for chickens.
+
+CARE AND FOOD OF CHICKENS
+
+Points developed
+
+Chickens must have plenty of fresh air without draughts.
+
+Heat is not necessary.
+
+Their quarters must be dry, clean, and well lighted.
+
+They require exercise.
+
+Their food must have in it the materials that are needed to make the
+substance of the egg.
+
+Breakfast: Wheat or corn scattered among straw--the scratching affords
+exercise.
+
+Dinner: Meat scraps, slaughter-house refuse, vegetables, sour milk, and
+rolled oats.
+
+Supper: As at breakfast.
+
+
+PHYSICAL SCIENCE PHASE OF NATURE STUDY
+
+The teacher is advised to read carefully the instructions and General
+Method of Experimental Science, Chapter I, before beginning the lessons
+in Physical Science.
+
+
+SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND GASES
+
+Arrange a collection of objects of various shapes, sizes, colours, and
+weights, as cork, glass, lead, iron, copper, stone, coal, chalk. Show
+that these are alike in one respect, namely, that they have a shape not
+easily changed, that is, they are _solids_. Compare these solids with
+such substances as water, alcohol, oil, molasses, mercury, milk, tar,
+honey, glycerine, gasolene. These latter will pour, and depend for their
+shape on the containing vessel. They are _liquids_. Compare air with
+solids and liquids. Such a material as air is called a _gas_. Other
+examples of illuminating gas, and dentists' "gas"; others will be
+studied in future lessons. Pupils may think all gases are invisible. To
+show that some are not, put a few pieces of copper in a test-tube or
+tumbler and add a little nitric acid. Watch the brown gas fall through
+the air; note how it spreads in all directions. Some gases fall because
+they are heavier than air; others rise because lighter. All gases spread
+out as soon as liberated and try to fill all the available space. Spill
+a little ammonia and note how soon the odour of the gas is smelled in
+all parts of the room.
+
+CHANGE OF STATE
+
+Heat some lead or solder in a spoon till liquid. Let it cool. Do the
+same with wax.
+
+Heat some water in a flask till it becomes steam. Steam is a gas. Cool
+the steam and form water again. (See distillation.) Refer to lava
+(melted rock), moulding iron, melting ice and snow, softening of butter.
+
+All solids may be changed to liquids and even to gases if sufficiently
+heated. Likewise all gases may be changed into liquids and then to
+solids.
+
+EXPANSION OF SOLIDS
+
+In winter pupils may find that the ink is frozen. The teacher directs
+attention to this and inquires why it has occurred. It may be that in a
+lesson on rocks the teacher will ask the pupils to account for all the
+little stones. The following _experiments_ will aim at solving the
+foregoing problems:
+
+1. A brass ball and ring are shown. Pupils handle these and note that
+both are cold and that the ball just passes through the ring. They are
+asked to compare the size of the ball with that of the ring.
+
+2. The spirit-lamp is lighted and examined. Pupils hold their hands over
+the flame to note the heat.
+
+3. The ball is heated in the flame for a short time by one of the
+pupils, and felt cautiously. An attempt is made to pass it through the
+ring. How has the ball changed in feeling? In size? How does one know it
+is larger? What has caused these changes?
+
+4. Cool the ball. Feel it. Try to pass it through the ring now. How has
+it changed in feeling? In size? What caused these changes? How does heat
+affect the ball? How does cold affect it?
+
+The teacher may now give the words _expand_ and _contract_, writing them
+on the black-board and explaining their use. Pupils may then state their
+conclusions: _A brass ball expands when heated and contracts when
+cooled._
+
+A blacksmith can make the following very serviceable apparatus: A scrap
+of iron about eleven inches long, one inch wide, and one-eighth inch
+thick, has one inch bent up at each end. A rod one-eighth inch in
+diameter is made just long enough to pass between the upturned ends of
+the first piece when both are cold. The rod is heated and the experiment
+conducted as in the case of the ball. Two additional facts are learned:
+(1) Iron expands as well as brass; (2) solids expand in length as well
+as in volume. The pupils may now be told that other solids have been
+tried and expansion has invariably followed heating. The conclusion may
+then be made general.
+
+PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
+
+1. When your ink-bottle was placed on the stove, which end became
+warmer? Which expanded the more. Why then did it crack?
+
+2. What other examples like this have you noticed? (Lamp chimneys, fruit
+jars, stove plates)
+
+3. The earth was once very hot and is now cooling. How is the size of
+the earth changing? Does it ever crack? What causes earthquakes?
+
+4. Find out by observation how a blacksmith sets tires.
+
+5. Invent a way to loosen a glass stopper stuck in the neck of a bottle.
+
+6. What does your mother do if the metal rim refuses to come off the
+fruit jar?
+
+7. Next time you cross a railway, notice whether the ends of the rails
+touch. Explain.
+
+8. What allowance is made for contraction in a wire fence? A railway
+bridge? Why?
+
+9. Why do the stove-pipes crack when the fire is first started?
+
+10. Why does the house go "thump" on a very cold night?
+
+11. Draw the ball, ring, and spirit-lamp in position.
+
+12. Describe in writing the experiments we have made.
+
+QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION
+
+You have seen that iron and brass both expand. Do they expand equally?
+Let pupils have a few days to invent a way of answering the question.
+The experiment may then be tried with the compound bar. See _The Ontario
+High School Physics_, pages 217-218, also _First Course in Physics_,
+Milliken and Gale, page 144.
+
+If the equipment of the school is limited, it may be necessary to
+dispense with the ball and ring and generalize from one experiment.
+
+Another easily made apparatus consists of two iron rings with handles.
+One ring will just pass through the other when both are cold. The stove
+may take the place of the spirit-lamp.
+
+A still simpler plan consists in driving two nails into a block at such
+a distance apart that an iron rod (six-inch nail, poker, bolt, etc.)
+will just pass between. On heating the rod the increase in length
+becomes evident.
+
+EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS
+
+Fill a common bottle with coloured water; insert a rubber stopper
+through which passes a glass tube about sixteen inches long. Set the
+bottle in a pan of water and gradually warm the water. The rise of the
+liquid in the tube will indicate expansion. On setting the bottle in
+cold water the fall of the column of coloured water shows contraction.
+See _The Ontario High School Physics_, page 218, also _Science of Common
+Life_, page 48. Macmillan Co., 60 cents.
+
+Set the flask or bottle in a mixture of ice and salt and note that the
+extreme cold causes contraction for a while, then expansion. Note that
+when expansion begins, the water has not begun to freeze, but that it
+does so soon after.
+
+The night before this experiment the children should set out in the cold
+air, tightly corked bottles of water. In the morning they will be found
+burst by the expansion.
+
+APPLICATIONS
+
+1. Why did some of the ink-bottles burst in the cold room?
+
+2. Find large stones split up into two or more fragments. Explain.
+
+3. Why is fall-ploughed land so mellow in spring?
+
+4. Why does ice float? Think what would happen if it did not.
+
+5. Explain the heaving of oats, clover, wheat.
+
+6. Do all liquids expand on freezing? Try melted paraffin.
+
+THE THERMOMETER
+
+Besides the ordinary thermometer the school should possess a chemical
+thermometer graduated from 0 deg. Fahrenheit to 212 deg.
+
+1. Our sensations vary so much under different circumstances and in
+different individuals that they cannot be depended on. Find examples of
+this and show the need of a measuring instrument.
+
+2. The pupils can learn, by examination of the common wall instrument,
+the parts of the thermometer--tube, bulb, liquid (alcohol or mercury),
+and scale.
+
+3. Repeat the experiment for expansion of liquids, showing wherein the
+apparatus resembles the thermometer, warm the thermometer bulb and watch
+the column rise; cool it and note the fall.
+
+4. Set the bulb of the chemical thermometer in boiling water. The
+mercury comes to rest near 212 deg. Bury the bulb in melting snow and
+notice that the column falls to 32 deg. Give names for these points.
+Explain that a degree is one of the 180 equal parts which lie between
+boiling point and freezing-point. Show that 32 deg. below freezing must
+be 0 deg., or zero.
+
+5. The uses of thermometers for indoors and outdoors; for dairy, sick
+room, incubator, and soils; maximum and minimum. Dairy thermometers
+registering 212 deg. Fahrenheit may be obtained; they are cheaper than
+chemical thermometers.
+
+EXPANSION OF AIR
+
+Half fill a flask with water and invert it uncorked over water in a
+plate. Apply a cloth soaked in boiling water to the part that contains
+air. Why does the water leave the flask? Apply cold water. Why does the
+water return? Any ordinary bottle may be used in place of the flask, but
+it is more liable to crack.
+
+Make an air thermometer. See _The Ontario High School Physics_, page
+223, also _Science of Common Life_, page 41. Try to graduate it from the
+mercurial thermometer. Have the boys make a stand for it.
+
+_Inferences._--Heated gases rise because they expand. Hot-air balloons,
+winds, and heating with hot-air furnaces, all depend on this principle.
+
+SOURCES OF HEAT AND LIGHT
+
+NOTES FOR A SERIES OF LESSONS
+
+1. THE SUN.--Our dependence on it. Valuable results of its heat. Simple
+notions as to its size, distance, and nature. Our earth catches a very
+small fraction of the sun's heat; our sun is but one of millions--the
+fixed stars. Show the burning effect of a lens.
+
+2. FUELS.--Wood, oil, coal, alcohol, gas, peat, straw: where obtained;
+special uses of each under varying conditions; need of economy. (This is
+closely related to geography.)
+
+3. ELECTRICITY.--In urban schools use the electric light or some heating
+device for illustration. In rural schools a battery of two or three
+cells (see "Apparatus") will melt a fine strand drawn from a picture
+wire.
+
+Applications: ironing, toasting, cooking; advantages or disadvantages
+compared with gas or wood.
+
+4. FRICTION.--Pupils rub hands together; rub a button on a cloth; saw a
+string across the edge of a board or across the hand; bore a hole
+through a hardwood plank, then feel the auger-bit.
+
+Applications: restoring circulation; "hot-boxes" in machinery;
+lubricants and their uses; lighting matches.
+
+5. POUNDING.--Hammer a nail flat on an anvil or stone; feel it. Bullets
+fired against an iron or stone surface may be picked up very hot. Note
+sparks that can be struck from a stone; percussion caps, flint-lock
+muskets.
+
+6. PRESSURE.--After using a bicycle pump for some time, feel the bottom,
+also the top. If possible, examine an air-compressor and find out the
+means used for cooling the air.
+
+7. SOURCES OF LIGHT.--Sun, moon, oil, tallow, gas, electricity, wax,
+acetylene; advantages of each; relative cost.
+
+PRIMITIVE METHODS OF OBTAINING FIRE: Most savages obtain fire by
+friction; rubbing two pieces of wood together till hot enough to set
+fire to some dry, light material. The natives of Australia placed a flat
+piece of wood on the ground and pressed against this the end of a round
+piece, which they twirled rapidly with their hands till fire was
+produced. The North American Indians did the twirling with their bow
+strings; the Eskimo's plan is somewhat similar. It is impossible to say
+when flint and steel were first used, but we know they continued to be
+the chief means of producing fire till about 1834, when matches were
+invented. Let pupils try to produce fire by these means.
+
+The earliest lamps consisted of shells, skulls of animals, and
+cup-shaped stones filled with fat or fish oils which burned on a wick of
+cloth or the pith of rushes. The Tibetans burn butter, the Eskimos
+whale- or seal-oil, the Arabians palm- or olive-oil. For outdoor
+lighting, torches carried in the hand were used till gas came into
+general use about 1792.
+
+CONDUCTION
+
+Give to four boys strips of copper, aluminium, wood, and glass,
+respectively. They hold these by one end and heat the other end till one
+or more are forced to drop the piece on account of the heat. The boys
+with the metals will soon find them hot throughout, but the other two
+will be able to hold on indefinitely. The teacher gives the terms "good
+conductor" and "poor conductor".
+
+PROBLEMS
+
+1. Are metals generally good conductors? Try with strips of zinc, lead,
+iron, a silver spoon.
+
+2. Are all good conductors equally good? Devise a means of ascertaining.
+See _Science of Common Life_, Chapter VI; also _The Ontario High School
+Physics_, page 274.
+
+3. Is water a good conductor?
+
+Lists of good and poor conductors may then be made, the teacher adding
+to the list. Good: metals; poor: wood, horn, bone, cloth, leather, air,
+water, hair, asbestos, ashes, rock, earth.
+
+PROBLEMS
+
+1. If the interior of the earth is very hot, why do we not feel it?
+
+2. How can the cold snow keep the earth warm?
+
+3. Why does your hand freeze to metals but not to wood?
+
+4. Let the children try to find other instances: wools or furs for
+clothing, fur coats on northern animals, feathers on birds, down quilts,
+tea cosies, sawdust for packing ice, double windows, wooden handles for
+hot irons, asbestos coating for steam pipes.
+
+THE MINERS' SAFETY-LAMP: This is a most important application of
+conduction. Get from the tinsmith a piece of brass gauze six inches
+square. Raise the wick of the spirit-lamp causing it to give a high
+flame and bring the gauze down upon the flame till it touches the wick.
+Note that the flame does not rise above the gauze. Hold a piece of paper
+above the gauze near the flame and note that it does not take fire. Note
+also that the gauze soon becomes hot. The brass wires conduct the heat
+of the flame rapidly away so that there is not heat enough above the
+gauze to cause combustion. Now roll the gauze into a hollow cylinder,
+pin the edges together, insert a cork at each end, and have a short
+candle fastened to the lower one. Try to light the candle with the lamp
+through the gauze. It is not easily done.
+
+The miner carries a lamp made like this, so that if he should be in the
+presence of the explosive gas, "fire damp", it would not explode because
+of the wire gauze shield.
+
+CONVECTION
+
+Water is not a conductor, how then is it heated?
+
+Drop a few pieces of solid colouring matter, (analine blue, blueing, or
+potassium permanganate) into a beaker of cold water. Place the beaker
+over a heater and observe the coloured portion rise.
+
+Wet sawdust will make a good substitute for the colouring matter. A
+sealing jar or even a tin cup will do instead of the beaker. The stove
+or a dish of hot water will take the place of the lamp.
+
+PROBLEMS
+
+1. Using a thermometer, see whether the water at the bottom is warmer
+than that at the top while the beaker is being heated.
+
+2. Heat some oil and pour it over the surface of some cold water. Lower
+a thermometer into this. Does the water at the bottom soon become warm?
+
+3. If your kitchen is provided with a hot-water tank, find out what part
+of the tank first becomes warm after the fire is lighted.
+
+4. In bathing, where do you find the coldest water of a pond or still
+river? See _Science of Common Life_, Chapter VI; also _The Ontario High
+School Physics_, page 280.
+
+CONVECTION IN GASES
+
+A good apparatus may be made by cutting two holes one inch in diameter
+in one side of a chalk box, replace the lid with a piece of glass, place
+a lamp chimney over each hole and a lighted candle under one of the
+chimneys. Hold a piece of smoking touch-paper at each chimney in turn
+and note direction of air current.
+
+APPLICATIONS
+
+1. Winds are caused by the rising of air over heated areas, allowing
+cooler currents to take its place. (Geography)
+
+2. Rooms are ventilated by heating some of the air more than the rest,
+thus producing a current. (Hygiene) Winds are nature's means of
+ventilating the earth.
+
+RADIATION OF HEAT
+
+This should be taken up as an introduction to dew, frost, winds,
+climate, etc.
+
+1. Make an iron ball hot (the end of a poker will answer). Hold the hand
+a few inches below the iron. Does the heat reach the hand by convection?
+By conduction? By means of suitable questions, lead the pupil to see
+that it is not by convection, for the hand is below the hot object while
+heated air rises; it is not by conduction, for air is one of the very
+poorest conductors; moreover, the heat is felt instantly from the poker,
+but it takes an appreciable time for it to come by conduction and
+convection. We say this heat is _radiated_ from the iron. The velocity
+of radiated heat is about 186,000 miles a second.
+
+2. The above experiment may be varied by bringing the hot iron gradually
+toward the bulb of the air thermometer and noting the greatest distance
+at which it will affect the thermometer.
+
+It is by radiation that the sun's heat and light reach us. We get much
+of the heat of stoves, fire-places, and radiators by the same means.
+
+Why does the earth cool off at night? Why does dew form? Why can no dew
+form on a cloudy night? Why is a mountain top or a desert so cold,
+especially at night?
+
+3. Take two tin cans (baking powder boxes will answer) and make holes in
+the lids large enough to admit a thermometer. Blacken one box in the
+flame of an oil lamp. Fill both with boiling water and put in a cool
+place. Test with a thermometer from time to time. Which cools most
+rapidly?
+
+4. Fill the tin cans with cold water, find the temperature, and then
+place them near a hot stove. Which warms faster? Usually dark or rough
+surfaces radiate heat and absorb heat faster than bright or smooth ones.
+An excellent way of testing this is to lay a black cloth and a white one
+side by side on the snow where the sun is shining brightly. The snow
+will melt more rapidly under the black cloth. Painted shingles may be
+substituted for the cloths. Try different colours. The day chosen should
+not be extremely cold.
+
+PROBLEMS
+
+1. Why should we have the outside of a tea-kettle, teapot, or hot-air
+shaft of a bright colour? Why should we have stoves and stove-pipes dull
+black?
+
+2. Why does a coat of snow keep the earth warm?
+
+3. Which is the warmest colour to wear in winter? Does this account for
+the colour of Arctic animals?
+
+4. Which is the coolest colour to wear in the hot sun?
+
+5. Gardeners sometimes strew the ground with coal-dust to help ripen
+their melons. Show the value of this.
+
+6. Suggest a method of protecting a wall from the heat of a stove.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+FORM III
+
+SPRING
+
+
+WINDOW BOXES
+
+Many garden plants should be started in a box of earth in a warm, sunny
+window. In some schools this can be done with a little care in heating
+on cold nights. Small boxes or grape baskets full of rich sandy loam
+with an inch of gravel in the bottom for drainage may be used. Sow the
+seeds in rows or broadcast. To prevent the soil from drying out too
+quickly, cover the box with a pane of glass. When the plants are up,
+give them plenty of light and not too much warmth. On very mild days set
+them in a warm, sheltered place out-of-doors and bring them in again
+early in the evening. This tends to make them hardy. When about three
+inches high, pick the young plants out and set them in other boxes a few
+inches apart. This moving causes the formation of numerous fibrous roots
+and makes stronger plants.
+
+
+WINDOW GARDENS
+
+Window boxes may be used for a whole season on the inside of the
+building in cold weather, and on the outside in warm weather. There is
+almost no limit to the kinds of plants that can be grown in them, but
+they are most suitable for flowers.
+
+Good boxes may be made of dressed lumber so as to fit on the
+window-sill. They should be six inches deep, ten inches wide, and the
+required length. They should have a few small holes in the bottom to
+allow excess water to drain off and should be painted dark green or some
+quiet colour. There should be an inch of gravel in the bottom, some
+rotted sods covering this, and then the box filled with rich sandy loam.
+
+SUITABLE PLANTS
+
+Some flowers suitable for growing in window boxes outside in summer are
+those of drooping habit: lobelia, Kenilworth ivy, verbena, tropeolum,
+petunia, and sweet-alyssum toward the front, and behind, more erect
+plants, such as geranium, heliotrope, begonia, phlox, and nasturtium.
+The box must not be too much crowded.
+
+For inside and in shady situations the following are suitable:
+tradescantia, parlour ivy, moneywort, vinca smilax, climbing fern,
+asparagus fern, dracaena, coleus, centaurea, sword fern, and Boston fern.
+For indoor boxes in winter, the following may be used: abutilon,
+calceolaria, cyclamen, violets, primroses, petunias, geraniums, freesia,
+and such foliage plants as dracaena, cannas, dusty miller, and coleus.
+The following climbing plants may be trained up the window cases:
+asparagus plumosus fern, cobea scandens, smilax, maurandia, and English
+ivy. If drooping or trailing plants are desired, the following may be
+used: oxalis, sweet-alyssum, lobelia, ivy, geranium, Kenilworth ivy, and
+Wandering Jew.
+
+FERTILIZER
+
+As the amount of soil is limited and the number of plants that it has to
+support is great, the soil should be made quite rich and should be
+further fertilized from time to time with a little liquid manure. This
+can be best obtained by taking a strong barrel or large keg and filling
+it about half full of water. Then fill an ordinary coarse potato sack
+with cow-stable manure and set the sack in the barrel for a few days. A
+tap in the bottom of the barrel is most convenient for drawing off the
+liquid manure. A little of this will also be found valuable for watering
+dahlias, roses, and other garden plants during the summer.
+
+
+SOIL STUDIES
+
+The classes of soil should be reviewed. Pupils should gather examples
+from many places. The samples may be kept in bottles of uniform size and
+should include not only the four types but varieties of each, also
+various kinds of loam.
+
+EXERCISES AND EXPERIMENTS
+
+SOIL CONSTITUENTS
+
+1. With a sharp spade, cut a piece about twelve inches deep from (1) the
+forest floor, (2) an old pasture field. Note character and order of the
+layers of soil in (1) leaves, humus, loam, sand, or clay; in (2) grass,
+dead grass, humus, loam, sand, or clay. Observe soils shown in railway
+cuttings, freshly dug wells, post holes.
+
+2. Note the effect produced on the soil of a field by (1) leaving it a
+few years in pasture, (2) ploughing in heavy crops, (3) applying
+barn-yard manure. In all these cases vegetable matter is mixed with the
+soil.
+
+3. Dry some good leaf-mould. Throw a handful on the surface of some
+water. The mineral matter sinks, while the vegetable portion remains
+suspended for some time. Try this experiment with gravel, sand, and
+clay. Note that the gravel sinks rapidly, the sand less rapidly, and
+that the clay takes a long time to settle. If the water be kept in rapid
+motion, the finer soils will all remain suspended till motion becomes
+slower. Apply this in geography. The bed of a stream will consist of
+stones if it be swift, of sand if less swift, and of clay if very slow.
+How are alluvial plains formed?
+
+4. Place half an ounce of dry humus on an iron plate or fire-shovel and
+heat strongly in a stove. Note that it begins to smoke and a large part
+smoulders away to ashes; the mineral portion remains. Weigh the part
+left and find what fraction of the humus consisted of vegetable
+material.
+
+Try to find the proportion of vegetable matter in each of the following:
+loams from various sources, sand, clay, gravel. The last three will show
+scarcely any change. This experiment will give rise to some good
+arithmetical problems in fractions.
+
+WATER IN SOILS
+
+5. Compare a handful of fresh garden soil with the same soil dried. Note
+the glistening of the fresh soil, also its weight and darker colour. The
+fresh soil admits of packing though no water can be squeezed from it. In
+its best condition, the water of the soil adheres as a film of moisture
+about every particle. Free water is to be avoided since it excludes the
+air from the soil.
+
+6. Equal weights of soils of different kinds and degrees of fineness are
+placed in funnels or in inverted bottles with bottoms removed. Water is
+then slowly added to each until it begins to drop from the lower end.
+From this is seen (1) the great value of humus as a water holder, (2)
+the advantage of fine soil over coarse. For retention of water by
+absorption, consult _Nature Study and Life_, Hodge, page 382.
+
+7. Take two wooden boxes (chalk boxes will do), fill one box with moist
+sand and the other with moist leaf-mould. Weigh the boxes separately and
+leave them for three or four days in a warm room. Weigh again and note
+decrease from evaporation. The sand dries out much faster than the
+humus. Test with clay, gravel, and loam, also with mixtures of these and
+leaf-mould.
+
+8. Take three paint cans; punch holes in the bottoms. Fill each with
+good soil well shaken down. Stand the cans in water till the tops are
+moist, then place them in a warm, dry place. Loosen the soil on the top
+of No. 1 to a depth of one inch; on No. 2 to a depth of two inches;
+leave No. 3 untouched. Find out after a few days which is drying out
+fastest. How may soil be treated so as to lessen evaporation of water?
+
+DRAINAGE
+
+9. Gravel and sand allow water to run away rapidly, but where the soil
+is fine or closely packed as in clay soils, under-drains are necessary
+(1) to carry off the surplus water, (2) to allow air to enter the soil,
+(3) to warm the soil (wet soil is colder than dry).
+
+Take two equal-sized tin cans, make several holes in the bottom of one,
+place therein a layer of broken pottery or stones, and fill with good
+soil. Fill the other with similar soil but make no holes for drainage.
+Plant in each can a healthy plant of the same size and kind. Water both
+till the soil is saturated and continue watering every two or three
+days for six weeks. Note (1) the progress of the plants, (2) the
+temperature of the soils, (3) which plant has the largest and deepest
+roots. (See _Bulletin 174_, Ontario Department of Agriculture.)
+
+10. Take five equal-sized boxes, provide for drainage, and fill No. 1
+with wood, earth, or humus, No. 2 with clay, No. 3 with sand, No. 4 with
+a mixture of clay and humus, No. 5 with a mixture of sand and humus.
+Plant corn in each box, set in a warm room, and keep watered for two or
+three weeks. Note in which case growth is most rapid. Set boxes in a dry
+place and cease watering. Which suffers most from the drought? Which
+bakes hardest in the sun? Test the temperature of each after watering
+and standing in the sun for an hour. Sand is warmer than clay, also the
+presence of humus raises the temperature. This item is important, since
+most seeds decay instead of sprouting if the temperature is below 45 deg.
+Fahrenheit.
+
+11. Enumerate the services rendered to the soil by humus.
+
+12. In Experiment 10, let the corn grow for some time and determine
+whether the very rich humus is the best in the end. Sand and clay are
+almost altogether mineral; leaf-mould almost entirely organic; neither
+alone is good, but a mixture gives the best results.
+
+
+GARDEN WORK
+
+The boys of this Form should attend to the fertilizing and spading of
+the plots belonging to the girls of their Form. The girls themselves can
+do all the rest of the work, and they should try to keep the plots
+level, uniform in size, and in a straight line. If the corner posts are
+kept in line and the plots made up the exact size, the appearance of
+the garden will be greatly improved.
+
+The pupils are now old enough to make their own choice of flowers and
+vegetables. Very tall growing plants, such as corn and sunflowers, are
+not desirable in individual plots as they shade other plants near them.
+Corn is best grown in a large plot about twenty feet square. The same
+may be said of vines, such as cucumbers, melons, squash, etc. If the
+plots are small, it is better to plant but a single variety, but in
+large plots from two to four varieties may be arranged to advantage.
+Usually rows of vegetables, such as carrots and beets, may be placed a
+foot apart, cabbage about twice that distance, and tomatoes a little
+farther apart than cabbage.
+
+Generally speaking, plants should be placed so that when full grown they
+will just touch, cover the ground completely, and thus prevent the
+growth of weeds.
+
+As soon as the young plants appear above the ground, light cultivation
+with rakes and claw-hand weeders should be started, so as to keep weeds
+from growing and at the same time to provide a loose surface or earth
+mulch for conserving the moisture and aerating the soil. Thinning should
+also be begun when the plants are quite small, but it should not all be
+done at once. As the plants increase in size, the best ones should be
+left and the poor ones taken out. In some cases plants thus removed may
+be re-set to fill vacant places.
+
+TREE SEEDS
+
+Tree seeds that have been stored over winter should now be planted in
+rows in a small plot. The rows should be a foot apart and the seeds
+quite close together in the row. A cheese-cloth or slat shade should be
+used on this plot, as the hot sun is too strong for tree seedlings when
+they first come up. They should have cultivation every week and watering
+in dry weather. Always water in the evening after school, or even later
+when possible.
+
+TRANSPLANTING
+
+Pupils in this Form should have practice in transplanting, as well as in
+sowing seed. For this purpose seeds should be started about the first of
+April in hotbeds or window boxes, seedlings transplanted into cold
+frames when two or three inches high, and then set out in the garden in
+the latter part of May when danger of frost is past.
+
+TRANSPLANTING FLOWERS AND VEGETABLES
+
+Choose, if possible, a cool cloudy day. Water the plants thoroughly in
+the hotbed or cold frame a few hours before lifting them. Lift them with
+a trowel or small spade, and keep as much earth on their roots as
+possible. With a transplanting trowel, make holes deep enough so that
+the plant will be a little deeper in the soil than before transplanting.
+Unless the soil is moist, a little water put in the hole with the plant
+is beneficial. The evening is considered best for transplanting if the
+weather is clear. If the sun is very hot, the plants should be shaded
+for a few days until the roots become established and begin their work.
+Shingles slanting over the plants from the south side and driven into
+the ground to hold them in position are best. Papers held by means of
+two stones also give good results. The practice of covering them with
+inverted cans is not a good one, as the light is almost completely cut
+off. A few holes in the can would help considerably. Care must be taken
+to pack the earth firmly about the roots. Watering again twenty-four
+hours after transplanting is often necessary. If the plant has a leafy
+top, it is best to take off some of the leaves, as they tend to give off
+water more rapidly than the roots can at first take it in.
+
+TRANSPLANTING TREE SEEDLINGS
+
+Nuts and other tree seeds collected the previous autumn should now be
+planted in the forestry plots in rows a foot apart. As the seeds may not
+all grow, they may be planted close together in the row and thinned out
+the following spring if necessary. They need some shelter from the sun
+the first summer. In large plots this is provided by means of a slat
+covering, but in a small plot cheese-cloth tacked on strips and fastened
+on corner posts is satisfactory. When a shower comes, this cheese-cloth
+screen should be removed so that the rain may moisten the plot evenly.
+Seedlings may be transplanted from the woods or from the forestry rows
+before the leaves open out.
+
+BUDDING
+
+In budding, a slit like the letter T is made in the side of the young
+seedling close to the ground. The bark is raised a little at the point
+where the vertical slit meets the horizontal one, and a bud of desired
+variety with a shield-shaped bit of bark (and perhaps a little wood)
+attached to it is shoved in and the sides of the slit bound down upon
+it. After the bud, or scion, has started to grow, the stock is cut off
+an inch above the point where the bud was inserted. The bud then makes
+rapid growth, and in two years the resulting tree is large enough to set
+in its permanent place in the orchard.
+
+CUTTINGS
+
+Pupils in this Form should try to grow such woody plants as roses and
+grapes from cuttings. Roses are frequently propagated by budding, as in
+the case of apples and peaches. They may also be grown upon their own
+roots or from stem cuttings. Such cuttings should be from well-matured
+wood of the present year taken in the autumn and packed in moist sand
+over the winter. Make the cuttings about three inches in length. The top
+end should be cut off immediately above a bud and the bottom end just
+below a bud, as roots seem to start more readily from a node, or bud.
+Such a cutting may have three or four buds of which only the upper two
+need be left. If both of these grow, the poorer one may afterwards be
+removed.
+
+These rose cuttings should then be inserted in a box of clean, moist
+sand to a depth of two inches, kept in a warm room, and shaded with a
+sheet of newspaper when the sun is very bright. Keep the sand moist but
+not wet, and when possible have gentle bottom heat. When roots have made
+some growth, transplant carefully into small flower-pots, using fairly
+rich, clay loam. In a few weeks they will be ready to plant out in the
+garden.
+
+Grape cuttings should be taken late in the fall when the vines are well
+matured. Such a cutting includes only two joints, the upper one being
+the growing end and the lower the rooting end. They must be stored over
+winter in cold, moist sand, but should not be permitted to freeze. As
+soon as the ground can be prepared in the spring, set them out. They
+should be placed on a slant of about forty-five degrees and covered all
+but the top bud.
+
+LEAF CUTTINGS
+
+Some plants with large and vigorous leaves, such as many of the
+begonias, may be propagated by means of leaf cuttings. Buds readily
+develop from cuts made in the large veins. Take a full-grown healthy
+leaf and remove the stem all but about half an inch. Make a few cuts
+across the larger veins on the under side of the leaves at points where
+main veins branch. Press the leaf firmly down on the top of a box of
+moist sand with the under side next the sand. Keep the leaf in this
+position, using small stones or little pegs pushed through the leaf into
+the sand. Put the box in a warm room and do not let the sand become dry.
+When roots strike into the sand and buds develop from the points where
+the veins were wounded, take a sharp knife and cut out the new plant
+from the old leaf and transplant it into a small flower-pot in good
+soil. Sink the pot in a box of moist sand to prevent its drying out.
+
+ROOT CUTTINGS
+
+Such plants as "sprout from the roots" may be propagated by root
+cuttings. Sections of underground stems may also come under this
+heading, as in the case of horseradish cuttings. But real roots may be
+used for cuttings, as in the case of the blackberry and raspberry. The
+roots should be cut in pieces three or four inches long, planted in a
+horizontal position, and entirely covered with two or three inches of
+soil.
+
+LAYERING
+
+Bush fruits, such as currants and gooseberries, are frequently
+propagated by stem cuttings, as in the case of roses. Another method,
+which is known as layering, consists in bending one or more of the
+lowest branches down against the ground, fastening it there by means of
+a forked stick, and then covering it with two or three inches of earth.
+The part in contact with the moist earth will send out roots, while one
+or more shoots will come up. When roots and shoots have developed, the
+branch is severed from the parent bush and the new plant set in its
+permanent place. Strawberries exhibit a sort of natural layering.
+
+PLANTING AND CARE OF HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS
+
+Perennials grown from seed the previous summer should now be set in
+clumps two or three feet apart in the perennial border or here and there
+beside the fences or walks. The soil should be made fine and fertilized
+with well-rotted manure from the compost heap before setting out the
+young perennials. Dahlias and gladioli which were taken in in the autumn
+should now be set out. The dahlias should be divided and only the best
+roots used. Other perennials that have grown into large clumps should be
+dug up, divided, and re-set in well-fertilized soil.
+
+GARDEN STUDIES
+
+Pupils in this Form have now had enough experience in the growing of
+vegetables and flowers to allow them to make intelligent variety tests.
+They should grow some of the less familiar varieties and report on the
+merits of each variety tested. This, however, should not be carried on
+to the exclusion of the well-known standard varieties. Let the pupils
+consult the best seed catalogues available and choose for themselves
+some varieties not already known to them. They should keep a systematic
+record of all varieties grown and the methods used in cultivating,
+fertilizing, etc. The knowledge thus gained will be of value in after
+years, and the homes will also benefit by it.
+
+BIENNIALS
+
+The pupils should observe the second year's growth of biennials. A
+special plot in the school garden should be set apart for this purpose.
+Have them plant in it a turnip, a carrot, a beet, a cabbage, or any
+other garden biennial saved over winter for the purpose. If desired, the
+pupils might grow their own seed of these varieties. Notice (1) what
+part of the plant has become enlarged with stored up food and how big it
+is when planted, (2) how this part changes in size and texture as the
+flowers and seeds develop, (3) in what way this extra food seems to have
+been used.
+
+
+WILD FLOWERS
+
+STUDY OF THE TRILLIUM
+
+The pupils bring the plants for the lesson. There should be a few purple
+trilliums among the white, and some of the plants should have the
+underground parts intact.
+
+Discuss with the collectors their observations on where the trilliums
+grow, the kind of soil, the depth of the root-stocks below the surface,
+the uses of the root-stocks, insect visitors.
+
+CLASS-ROOM LESSON
+
+The pupils are directed to examine the plant and flowers and find out
+all the means for attracting insects.
+
+Find out why the purple trillium attracts flies and beetles, while the
+white trillium attracts bees and butterflies.
+
+Look into the top of the flower; what figure do the tips of the six
+flower leaves form?
+
+Using the names calyx and corolla, describe the circle of flower leaves
+as to number, colour, and relative position.
+
+Find the stamens and describe as to number and position; find out how
+the stamens are fitted to ensure that the pollen will get upon the
+visiting insects.
+
+Find the pistil and describe its shape. How is the stigma fitted for
+receiving the pollen that is carried by the insect visitors.
+
+_To the teacher._--The trilliums attract insects by their large white
+and purple flowers, which are held up by their long stalks high above
+the three broad leaves. The strong carrion-like odour of the purple
+trillium is attractive to flies and beetles, while bees and butterflies
+find the fragrance of the white trillium more to their liking.
+
+The root-stock serves as a buried store of food to tide the plant over
+the drought of late summer and the severe cold of winter. The
+well-stocked cellar also explains the flourishing condition of the plant
+in early spring. The six stamens stand on close guard around the pistil,
+and insects forcing their way to the nectaries are well peppered with
+pollen.
+
+Continue the observation work by means of field exercises such as the
+following:
+
+What change takes place in the colour of the white trillium as it grows
+old?
+
+Find the ripened seed pods of the trillium, open them, count the number
+of chambers, and examine the seeds.
+
+Do trilliums grow from the same root-stock year after year?
+
+As correlations, represent the trillium in colour and design an
+embroidery pattern based on it.
+
+Lessons similar to that on the trillium may be based on adder's tongue,
+Indian turnip, Dutchman's breeches, violet, and clover.
+
+
+ADAPTATIONS OF ANIMALS
+
+It is not considered necessary to go outside the list of ordinary
+animals to find sufficient illustrations of adaptations, and it is
+recommended that attention be given to these during the study of animals
+prescribed for the regular Course. This may be supplemented by an
+occasional review of adaptive features for the purpose of emphasizing
+the general fitness of animals for their varied habits and surroundings.
+Care must be taken lest the attempt to explain structures by adaptation
+be carried to an extreme, for it is impossible to account for all the
+variations in animal forms.
+
+The following list contains a few of the many examples of adaptations to
+be met with in the Course prescribed for Forms II and III.
+
+The horse walks and runs on the tips of its toes; this gives greater
+speed.
+
+Wild animals of the cow and deer kind can swallow their food hastily so
+that they may retire to a safe retreat; there they regurgitate the food
+and chew it. The domesticated animal retains this habit, though there is
+no longer a need for it.
+
+The wood-hare's fur is brown in summer, hence its enemies cannot see it
+against the brown grass and moss; in winter its colour is white, which,
+against the snow, is a protective colour.
+
+The porcupine is very slow, but its colour and shape make it almost
+impossible to distinguish from a knot on a log. Its quills form an
+effective protection when it is discovered.
+
+The feet of the squirrel are adapted for climbing and its teeth for
+gnawing wood and for opening nuts. The tail serves as a balancing pole
+for leaping from tree to tree and in winter it acts as a protection from
+cold.
+
+The earthworm's shape and movements are suited to its habits of
+burrowing through the soil. Its habits of swallowing the soil fit it for
+burrowing and for obtaining its food at the same time.
+
+Many insect larvae, as the tomato worm and the cabbage-worm, are of the
+same colour as the plants on which they feed, and this enables them to
+escape detection by birds.
+
+The larvae of dragon-flies and May-flies breathe in water by means of
+gills very much as fishes do, but the adult forms are suited for
+breathing in air.
+
+Female birds are usually dull gray or mottled, so that their colours
+blend with their surroundings while they are nesting, and hence they do
+not attract the notice of their enemies.
+
+Birds that swim have webbed feet, which act as oars for pushing them
+through the water. Their feathers are compact and soft for warmth, and
+these properties, together with oil on their surfaces, make them
+waterproof.
+
+The tongue of the woodpecker is long, spear-shaped, and sticky; hence it
+is adapted for catching insects in the holes pecked into the wood.
+
+The tongue of the toad is fastened at the front end, so that a flap can
+be shot out for more than an inch in front of the animal, thus enabling
+it to catch insects on its sticky surface.
+
+The toes of the frog are webbed to make them more serviceable in
+swimming.
+
+The tail of the musk-rat is strong and broad like the blade of an oar
+and serves the same purpose as an oar.
+
+The tail of the fish is more serviceable for swimming than legs would
+be.
+
+
+BIRD TYPES
+
+WOODPECKERS
+
+Woodpeckers are easily distinguished from other birds by their habit of
+perching in a vertical position on the trunks of trees with the tips of
+their tails pressed against the bark. While in this position, they tap
+upon the tree with their sharp, pointed beaks.
+
+THE DOWNY WOODPECKER
+
+Learn to recognize the smallest of our woodpeckers, the Downy. Winter or
+summer it may be found among the apple trees and shade trees, a tiny
+black and white bird little bigger than a wren.
+
+OBSERVATIONS
+
+I
+
+Why is "checkerboard" a good name for this bird?
+
+Are there any distinct lines of white?
+
+Are there any patches of red?
+
+Do its movements reveal energy or listlessness?
+
+How does it move up a tree trunk?
+
+How does it move down a tree trunk?
+
+Find out how it can hold so firmly to the trunk.
+
+Does it use its sharp beak as a drill or as a pick?
+
+_To the teacher._--The downy is spotted black and white, with barred
+wings and a white line down the centre of the back. A bright scarlet
+crown is the colour distinction of the male. This little bird is the
+embodiment of energy and perseverance. It hops nimbly up the trunk,
+tapping here and there with its beak, and then listening for the
+movements of the disturbed wood-borers. If it wishes to descend, it
+wastes no time in turning around, but hops backward down the trunk, or
+jumps off and flies down.
+
+II
+
+Examine an apple tree upon which a downy has been at work and find out
+what it was doing there.
+
+Do you find the birds in pairs during winter? During summer? Distinguish
+the male from the female.
+
+Tie a beef bone with scraps of meat adhering to it to a tree. What birds
+come to it?
+
+Find the nest of the downy and describe the nest and the eggs.
+
+Do the holes made by the downy injure the trees?
+
+Why should the downy be welcomed in our orchards?
+
+Describe the sounds made by the birds.
+
+_To the teacher._--Discuss the pupils' answers to the above problems in
+the class lesson, using a picture of a woodpecker to illustrate the
+features of the bird that adapt it for its habits. Examples: the
+straight, sharp beak suited for drilling; the two backward, projecting
+toes for perching; the spines on the tips of the tail feathers to act as
+a prop.
+
+The downy woodpecker is very useful in the orchard, because it destroys
+great numbers of larvae of the tussock-moth and other insects. The holes
+made in the bark have never been found to injure the trees. The nest is
+made in a hollow tree, the entrance to it being almost perfectly round
+and about one and one-quarter inches in diameter.
+
+The downy woodpecker has a very unmusical voice, but fortunately he is
+aware of this deficiency, and his only attempt at music is drumming with
+his beak upon a hollow limb or tree.
+
+The hairy woodpecker, redheaded woodpecker, flicker, and yellow-bellied
+woodpecker (sapsucker) are other varieties which visit the orchards and
+are suitable for lessons similar to these on the downy woodpecker. They
+are all beneficial birds.
+
+FLYCATCHERS
+
+Members common to this class are: king-bird; house-phoebe, wood-phoebe,
+or pewee; whip-poor-will; least fly-catcher; giant fly-catcher.
+
+Direct the observations of the pupils to the following type features:
+
+Brownish or grayish colours; fringe of long bristles around the mouth
+(explain their use); whistling notes, varying with the different members
+of the family; habit of jumping from the perch, catching an insect while
+on the wing, and returning to the spot from which the flight began;
+nests, chiefly of mud built in a protected place, as under a bridge,
+ledge of rock, or projecting log.
+
+WRENS
+
+The house wren may be studied as a type. Observe its brownish colour,
+faintly mottled; its small size and energetic movements, its tail
+turned nearly vertically upward. Observe and report on other wrens,
+noting any differences.
+
+
+CABBAGE-BUTTERFLY
+
+Have a plant of wild mustard or a cabbage growing in a pot. In June,
+have the pupils, by means of the insect net, catch a number of the white
+butterflies, the adults of the cabbage-worm.
+
+Place the butterflies in jars or bottles and observe them. Make drawings
+of them.
+
+Direct the attention of the pupils to the difference between the wings
+of the male and those of the female. The former has only one dark spot
+on the front wing, while the female has two spots on this wing.
+
+Release the males and put the females in a vivarium with the potted
+plant. (A pasteboard box, with a large piece cut out and the opening
+covered with gauze, makes a good substitute for a vivarium in this
+case.)
+
+Observe the laying of the eggs. How many are placed at one spot? How are
+the eggs protected? The eggs may be gathered from the cabbage plants in
+the garden.
+
+Observe and record the hatching of the tiny worm, its feeding, growth,
+forming of chrysalis, development into adult.
+
+Frequently little yellow silken cocoons are found in vivaria where
+cabbage-worms are kept; these are cocoons of a parasite (braconid) that
+infests the worm.
+
+Because of the ease with which the cabbage-butterfly may be obtained and
+the rapidity of its development in the various stages, it is very
+suitable as a type for the study of metamorphosis.
+
+The sulphur, or puddler (called by the latter name because of its habit
+of settling in groups around the edges of the water holes), is also a
+suitable type. The larvae in this case must be fed on clover.
+
+THE TUSSOCK-MOTH
+
+Begin the study of this insect in June and July by observing the larvae
+feeding on the foliage of the horse-chestnut and other shade trees, and
+direct attention to their destructiveness.
+
+In observing the larvae, note the size, movements, legs, colour, coral
+red head, tufts of hair on the back, and the three long plumes.
+
+Watch the birds among the trees to discover whether they eat the larvae.
+
+Of what use are the tufts of hair? Do the larvae feed by biting or by
+sucking? Describe the damage done by the larvae.
+
+Collect a number of these larvae and place them in the vivarium with some
+twigs of horse-chestnut. Observe the spinning of the cocoon and, about
+two weeks later, look for the emergence of the adult moths.
+
+Observe the two kinds of insects. Describe each. Are there any
+differences in the cocoons from which they emerge?
+
+Which form of insect places the egg mass and is therefore the female?
+Note the number and shape of the eggs and how they are protected.
+
+The female moths have no wings and do not move far from the cocoons from
+which they emerge, while the males have the power of flight.
+
+As outdoor work, look for the egg masses on trees and fences and devise
+means of combating the tussock-moth.
+
+Gathering and destroying the egg masses during the winter is found to be
+fairly effective in checking these insects. Since the cocoons
+frequently contain parasites that prey upon the larvae, it is advisable
+that only the cocoons that have egg masses attached to them should be
+destroyed; the others are harmless and may contain the useful parasites.
+
+The egg masses may be kept over winter in a box in a cool place, and the
+hatching of the tiny larvae and their subsequent rapid growth observed.
+
+POTATO BEETLE
+
+The eggs of this beetle may be found in early summer in clusters on the
+under surfaces of the leaves of potato plants.
+
+EGG.--Observe the size, colour, shape, position, and number in a
+cluster; appearance of head from outer end after a week.
+
+LARVA.--Observe the colour, shape, head, legs, voracious appetite,
+movements, rapid growth, destructiveness.
+
+PUPA.--Observe the larvae disappear from the plants; a search underground
+reveals the resting stage, or pupae. After ten days, the adult beetles
+emerge.
+
+ADULT.--Observe the colour, the hard shell covering the head; the hard
+outer wings and membraneous inner wings; the hard shell on the under
+surface of the body; the feelers, and legs.
+
+Why will spraying with a poison, such as paris-green, kill these
+insects?
+
+REFERENCES
+
+Dearness: _How to Teach the Nature Study Course Stories in Agriculture,
+Bulletin No. 124._
+
+
+FISH
+
+The Nature Study lessons must be based upon observations of the living
+fish, preferably in May or June, September or October. The best place
+for this is on the bank of a clear stream from which it is possible to
+observe the fish in their natural environment. Here their life
+activities, their struggles, their conquests, and silent tragedies are
+enacted before the eyes of the observer. Many observations may be made
+in this way which will create a life-long interest in these reticent,
+yet active creatures. Since this method of study is practicable in but
+few cases, the study of the living fish in the aquarium is the best
+available substitute.
+
+The teacher or the boys of the class can catch a few fish of three or
+four inches in length and carry them in a jar of water to the aquarium.
+Minnows, chub, perch, catfish, or other common forms will do.
+
+OBSERVATIONS
+
+I
+
+The general shape, and the suitability of the shape for swimming.
+
+The surface of the body and the protection it affords. Note the scales
+and the slime, the latter a protection against the growth of fungi, etc.
+
+The gills--two openings behind the flaps at the rear of the head. The
+colours, and their value in concealing the fish. The dark upper surface
+makes it inconspicuous from above; the light under surface blends with
+the shadow and dims it.
+
+The divisions of the body--head, trunk, and tail.
+
+Movements of the fish and the part that the various fins play in these
+movements.
+
+Note that the broad tail fin is the most useful fin for locomotion, the
+others act as balancers or as brakes, or for causing currents of water
+near the gills. Observe the movements of the pair of fins nearest the
+gills, the movements of the mouth, and the currents of water entering
+the mouth and passing through the gill slits. When a fish is kept in a
+very small quantity of water, observe the effect produced on the
+movements of the mouth and gill flaps. What are the uses of these
+movements? The pupils will thus discover the nature of the respiration
+of the fish. Why do fish die if many are kept in a jar of water?
+
+II
+
+By supplying various foods learn what kinds are preferred. Find in the
+actions or habits of the living fish evidences of a sense of smell, of
+sight, of hearing, and of taste.
+
+Nearly all the following points of detailed study can be observed from
+the living fish: shape; size; tongue; teeth; gill slits leading from the
+mouth to the gills; nostrils, number and position; eyes, absence of
+eyelids; fins, size, build; the arrangement of the scales.
+
+PROBLEMS
+
+Why does the fish require a large mouth?
+
+How are the eyes protected? Compare the shape of the eye with the shape
+of the eye of a land animal.
+
+Why are there no openings from the surface directly into the ears? Show
+the suitability of the fins as organs of locomotion in water.
+
+REFERENCES
+
+Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_
+
+Nash: _Fishes of Ontario_ (from Department of Education, free)
+
+Kellogg: _Elementary Zoology_
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+FORM IV
+
+AUTUMN
+
+
+GARDEN WORK
+
+The regular work of cultivation of garden and experimental plots should
+be carefully attended to. Pupils in this Form should be able to do all
+kinds of garden work with a good deal of proficiency. The work of
+selecting the best flowers for seed production should be continued.
+These should be used for planting in the school garden and in home
+gardens as well. This part of the work might be left to the girls. The
+boys should be encouraged to take up the systematic selection of seed
+grain. To get good seed to start with, two methods may be used:
+
+1. Decide upon the kind of grain to be selected and choose from one of
+the best fields a hundred of the best heads--those that are vigorous,
+clean, free from rust or smut, and standing up straight. When the heads
+are dried a little, shell the grain off them and preserve it in a jar in
+a cold, dry place until spring.
+
+2. Take a quart of oats and pick it carefully, keeping only the largest
+and most plump kernels. Keep this for spring planting. At the same time,
+a sample of the poorer grains should be kept for comparison. A regular
+system of selection should be followed from year to year, taking enough
+of the largest, brightest, and most compact heads from the plot each
+autumn to sow a plot of equal size the next spring. After the selection
+of heads has been made, the remainder of the crop may be harvested, and
+the grain from this known as general crop from hand-selected seed of the
+first, second, third year, etc. If the value per acre is required, the
+plots should be made of a certain size easy to compute, such as one rod
+square or one rod by two rods. (10-1/2 ft. by 21 ft. is about 1/200
+acre.) Samples of each crop should be kept in uniform bottles and
+labelled; for example--"From selected heads of 1911". The yield per acre
+in the plot from which the selected heads came should also be noted.
+These will be interesting for purposes of comparison and for testing
+duration of vitality later. If the same amount of grain is used in
+planting a plot each time, the change in bushels per acre may be
+ascertained and also in pounds per bushel. Some of the boys in this Form
+may wish to continue this work of improvement by selection and, if so,
+they should communicate with the Secretary of the Canadian Seed Growers'
+Association, Canadian Building, Ottawa, and receive full instructions to
+enable them to carry on their work practically as well as
+scientifically.
+
+HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS FROM SEED
+
+The teacher should encourage the growing of herbaceous perennials for
+the purpose of beautifying the school grounds. Many plants may be
+started from seed at the school and given to the pupils for home
+planting. These plants require but little attention and provide
+excellent bloom in gardens and home grounds from early in spring before
+annuals are in bloom, on into the autumn. A list of the best varieties
+will be found in Circular 13, on _Elementary Agriculture and
+Horticulture_, a copy of which should be in every school. The seed plot
+should be fertilized and prepared in the usual way, and the seeds
+planted before the first of September. They may be started in June also,
+in which case they make more growth before winter. The plot should be
+well fertilized with thoroughly rotted manure and, if the soil is very
+dry, the plot should be well watered the day before the seeds are
+planted. The seeds are usually quite small and should be covered very
+lightly. The plot should be protected from the hot sun by means of
+cheese-cloth tacked on a frame. The plants should be watered twice a
+week in dry weather. In the late autumn, when the ground freezes, the
+plot should be covered with leaves or straw and some boards, which
+should be removed when the frost comes out in the spring.
+
+
+DECIDUOUS TREES
+
+Before the pupils of this Form leave school they should be able to
+recognize, by name as well as by sight, all of the species of trees
+found in their vicinity. To this end the teacher should help them to
+prepare an inventory of species of trees, shrubs, and vines of the
+vicinity. They should learn to distinguish the different species of
+maples, elms, birches, etc. A named collection of leaves helps
+materially in doing this. The influence of environment upon the growth
+and shape of trees and how trees adapt themselves to the conditions in
+which they live is a most interesting and profitable study, demanding
+careful observation, reflection, and judgment.
+
+REFERENCES
+
+Muldrew: _Sylvan Ontario._ Briggs.
+
+Keeler: _Our Native Trees._ Scribners' Sons. $2.00.
+
+TREES IN RELATION TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT
+
+Consider the influences at work and their effect under the following
+heads:
+
+1. CHARACTER OF THE SOIL AND SUBSOIL.--It may be gravelly, pure sand,
+sandy loam, clay or clay loam, muck or humus, shallow or rocky, and the
+subsoil may be sand, clay or hard clay with stones (hard-pan). Notice
+what species are most common in each kind of soil.
+
+2. WATER SUPPLY.--What species are found naturally in moist ravines or
+along the margins of rivers and lakes, in bogs or swamps, on dry, sandy
+plains, or rocky hillsides. Consider also the rainfall.
+
+3. EXPOSURE TO SUNLIGHT.--Account for the lack of symmetry in the shapes
+of trees. Branches grow only where their leaves can get the light.
+Account for the pith in many tree stems not being in the geometric
+centre. Account for the rapid growth in height made by young trees in
+the woods. Their light supply is chiefly from above, and they stretch up
+toward it as rapidly as possible. Dim light causes rapid growth at the
+expense, however, of strength of tissue, but as these young trees are
+protected in the woods from the strain of wind storms, their slimness
+and lack of toughness is a benefit rather than a hindrance to them.
+Also, the limbs near the ground die off while the trees are still young
+and small, giving us the clear timber tree, free from large knots, tall
+and straight. Make further application of this principle of light in
+relation to the planting of trees for shade and for wood or lumber.
+Account for the large size of the leaves of young trees in the dimly
+lighted woods as compared with the leaves of older trees. The principle
+of rapid growth in dim light is seen here also. It will be noticed that
+the large leaves of the young trees are more thin, soft, and flexible.
+
+4. WIND.--Observe the tops of tall trees that have always been exposed
+to a strong prevailing wind as, for instance, those growing on the tops
+of hills or the eastern shore of a lake which has a prevailing west
+wind. The tops lean in the direction in which the prevailing wind blows.
+Does strong wind help or hinder the growth of a tree? Examples of
+stunted trees on wind swept hills or shores readily show this. It will
+be seen also that the higher branches are poorest on the side most
+exposed to the wind.
+
+5. SUITABILITY OF THE SPECIES TO THE CLIMATE.--Observe that some trees
+retain their leaves much later in the autumn than do others. The beech,
+hickory, red oak, and chestnut are good examples. These are on the
+northern extreme of their territory of growth. The tree best suited to a
+rigorous climate is the one that finishes its work early in the autumn
+and has all its tissues well matured before cold weather sets in.
+Examples: maple, elm, birch, and willow.
+
+
+FRUITS
+
+EXCURSION TO A WELL-KEPT ORCHARD
+
+If the teacher can arrange to take the pupils to see a well-kept orchard
+about the time of the apple harvest, it will help to arouse interest in
+the study of fruits. The trees, as well as the fruit, frequently show
+distinguishing marks whereby they may be identified. Have the pupils
+notice the following points: general shape of tree, colour of bark,
+shape of leaf, method of cultivation, fertilizing, pruning and grafting,
+spraying and its need, orchard pests, method of picking and packing
+apples in barrels and boxes for market.
+
+SMALL FRUITS
+
+Study the method of propagating strawberries and such bush fruits as
+currants, gooseberries, raspberries, and blackberries. Reports issued
+from the Fruit Division of the Experimental Farm at Ottawa give
+information regarding the best varieties suitable for different parts of
+Ontario and Quebec. Have the pupils try propagating strawberries by
+taking the stolons or runners; currants and gooseberries, by means of
+layers or stem cuttings; and raspberries or blackberries, by root
+cuttings or the detaching of root shoots or suckers. Stem and root
+cuttings, when taken in the autumn, may be planted at once or may be
+stored in damp moss or sand in a cold cellar over winter. Stem cuttings
+should be about the size and length of a lead-pencil and root cuttings
+about half that size.
+
+
+AUTUMN WILD FLOWERS
+
+Observations made with garden flowers should be supplemented by
+observation lessons on a few selected wild flowers of the woods, fields,
+and roadsides. Although the spring months afford a much greater variety
+of wild flowers than do the autumn months, they do not afford quite as
+good an opportunity for finding and studying them. The woods and fields
+are drier and more easily reached in the autumn and the fall flowers
+last much longer. Some of the species seen blooming in spring and early
+summer are now in fruit and scattering their seed, so that the pupils
+have a chance to follow out the whole life history of a few chosen
+species. The pupils in this Form might select for special study the
+milkweed, worm-seed mustard, wild aster, and goldenrod. These should be
+observed out-of-doors, preferably, but suitable class-room lessons may
+be taught by using similar matter.
+
+MILKWEED
+
+Taking the milkweed as a type, the following points are to be
+considered:
+
+The kind of soil, where found, and whether in sun or shade.
+
+Try to pull up a small-sized plant. Dig one up and notice the
+underground part.
+
+Note the size of the largest plant seen, also the size of the leaves,
+and how they are arranged to prevent overshadowing.
+
+Break off a leaf and note the white sticky juice, whence the name
+"milkweed". Discuss this milk as a protection to the plant.
+
+Note time of first and last flowering of the plant and the colour and
+odour of the flowers. Watch insects gathering honey on a bright day.
+Note the little sacks of pollen that cling to their feet. They sometimes
+get their feet caught in little slits in the flower and perish.
+
+After the flowers disappear, note the forming of the little boat-shaped
+pods in pairs. Select one that is ripe and notice that it bursts along
+one side which is most protected. Open a pod carefully and notice how
+beautifully the flat, brown seeds are arranged in overlapping rows and
+how each seed has a large tuft of silky down that serves to carry it far
+away in the wind. This silk-like down is sometimes used to stuff
+cushions, and because of it the plant is sometimes called silk weed.
+
+One species of butterfly in particular feeds upon this plant--the
+monarch, or milkweed, butterfly. This is one of the few butterflies that
+birds do not eat. It is protected by a distasteful fluid. Look on the
+under side of the leaves of several plants until you find a pretty, pale
+green cocoon with golden dots, hanging by a thread-like attachment.
+Early in the season the larvae may be found feeding on the leaves.
+
+This plant is troublesome in some fields and gardens and so is classed
+as a weed. When the stems come up in the spring, they are soft and
+tender and are sometimes used as pot herbs.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+Draw a leaf, a flower, a pair of pods, and a seed with its tuft.
+
+Write an account of a visit to the woods to study wild flowers.
+
+
+TREES
+
+A study of the pines of the locality may be commenced in November, after
+the deciduous trees have lost their leaves and have entered their
+quiescent winter period. This is the time when the evergreens stand out
+prominently on the landscape, in sharp contrast with the other trees
+that have been stripped of their broad leaves and now look bare and
+lifeless. If no pines are to be found in the vicinity, cedar or hemlock
+may be substituted. The lessons should, as far as possible, be
+observational. The pupils should be encouraged to make observations for
+themselves out of school. At least one lesson should be conducted
+out-of-doors, a suitable pine tree having been selected beforehand for
+the purpose. The following method will serve as a guide in the outdoor
+study of any species of tree:
+
+THE WHITE PINE
+
+Have the pupils observe the shape and height of the tree from a distance
+and trace the outline with the finger. Compare the shape of this tree
+with others near by of the same species and then with members of other
+species. Have the pupils describe in what particulars the shapes differ
+in different trees. They will come to realize that the difference in
+shape results from differences in length, direction, and arrangement of
+branches. They may notice that other evergreens resemble the pine in
+that the stems are all straight and extend as a gradually tapering shaft
+from the bottom to the top, that all have a more or less conical shape,
+and that the branches grow straight out from the main stem and not
+slanting off as in the case of the maples and elms.
+
+Coming close to the tree, the pupils may first examine the trunk. By
+using a string or tape-line, they may find out how big it is around and
+the length of the diameter. Tell them how big some evergreens are (the
+giant trees of the Pacific Coast are sometimes over forty feet around).
+Have them notice where the trunk is largest, and let them find out why a
+tree needs to be so strong at the ground. Heavy wind puts a great strain
+on it just at this point. Illustrate by driving a long slat or lath into
+the ground firmly: then catching it by the top, push it over, and it
+will break off just at the ground. If a little pine tree could be taken
+up, the pupils would be interested in seeing what long, strong, fibrous
+roots the pine has.
+
+Let them examine the bark of the trunk and describe its colour and
+roughness. The fissures in the bark, which are caused by the enlarging
+of the tree through the formation of new wood under the bark, are deeper
+at the bottom of the tree than at the top--the tree being younger and
+the bark thinner, the nearer to the top we go. How old is the very top,
+down to the first whorl of branches? How old is the stem between the
+first and second whorls? Between the third and fourth? Let the pupils
+find out in this way the age of a little pine that is regular and
+unbroken. The whorls of branches near the ground are usually small and
+dead in young trees and in old trees have completely disappeared. Relate
+the size of the trunk to its age, and also relate the size and length of
+the branches to their age. Where are the youngest branches and how old
+are they? What branches are oldest? Notice how the branch is noticeably
+larger just where it joins the trunk, as this is the point of greatest
+strain. Are the branches the same length on all sides of the trunk? If
+not, find one where branches are shorter on one side than on the other
+and try to discover the cause. Usually, if other trees are near enough
+to shade a certain tree, the branches are shorter and smaller on the
+shaded side.
+
+Let the pupils look up into the tree from beneath and then go a little
+distance away and look at it. They will notice how bare the branches are
+on the inside, and the teacher will probably have to explain why this is
+so. They will discover that the leaves are nearly all out toward the
+ends of the branches. The leaves get light there while the centre of the
+tree top is shaded, and the great question that every tree must try to
+solve is how to get most light for its leaves. The pupils will now see
+an additional reason why the lower limbs should be longer than the upper
+ones. The greater length of the lower limbs brings the leaves out into
+the sunlight.
+
+Why this tree is called an evergreen may now be considered. Why it
+retains its leaves all winter is a problem for more advanced classes,
+but if the question is asked, the teacher may get over the difficulty by
+explaining to the class that the leaves are so small and yet so hardy
+that wind and frost and snow do not injure them.
+
+The pupils may each bring a small branch of twig back to the
+school-room, if the white pine is growing commonly about, otherwise the
+teacher may provide himself with a branch upon which to base another
+observation lesson in the class-room.
+
+If the tree has cones on it, an effort should be made to get a few, as
+they will also be considered in a subsequent class-room lesson. If the
+cones have not yet opened when they are picked, so much the better, as
+they will soon open in a warm room, and the pupils will be able to
+examine the seeds and notice how they whirl through the air in falling.
+If possible, let the pupils have an opportunity of seeing pine trees
+growing in the woods as well as in the open.
+
+OUTLINE OF A CLASS-ROOM LESSON ON THE WHITE PINE
+
+~Inferences.~--If possible, each pupil is supplied with a small branch of
+the white pine and the teacher with a larger branch which can easily be
+seen by all the pupils. Before proceeding to examine the specimens, give
+the pupils a chance to tell what they now know about the white pine, and
+thus review the lesson taken out-of-doors. Then ask a few questions
+bearing upon their own observations, such as: What was the soil like
+where you found the pine tree growing? (They are found most commonly on
+light, sandy soil.) Did you notice any difference between the shapes of
+the pines in the deep woods and the pines in the open fields? Did you
+notice any dead limbs on those in the woods? Why did they die? The
+pupils may conclude that branches whose leaves cannot get the sunlight
+must die. Show that this causes knots in the lumber and exhibit samples.
+This explains also why the trees of the forest have such tall stems
+without branches for a long distance up from the ground. They get the
+light only from above and seem to strive with the surrounding trees to
+reach it. If we want trees to grow tall, how should we plant them?
+(Close together) What would such trees be good for? (Making timber or
+lumber) If we want trees to grow low and have thick and bushy tops, how
+should we plant them? (Far apart) What would such trees be good for?
+(Their shade and their beauty) Good shade trees should be thirty to
+forty feet apart.
+
+Ask the pupils if they have ever been near a pine tree when a gentle
+breeze was blowing, and have them tell the cause of the sound that they
+heard. They may decide that the shape and size of the leaves caused the
+sound when the wind was blowing through the tree top. Have them examine
+the branches in order to discover the following points:
+
+LEAVES.--These are in bunches of five, two to three inches long,
+three-cornered, and with little teeth pointing toward the tip, light
+green near the tip of the bough (young leaves) and darker further down
+(older leaves); age of a leaf the same as the age of the wood it grows
+on, therefore some leaves are one year, some two, and a few three years
+old. No leaves on four-year-old wood, therefore the leaves fall off the
+white pine the third year. Ask pupils to try to find out by observation
+when the leaves fall off the pines. Note the fragrance of the leaves,
+and that they are sometimes put into "pine" cushions, also, how slippery
+they are to walk on.
+
+BUDS.--These are found at the tips of the branches, one large one in the
+centre and several smaller ones grouped around it. Note their
+reddish-brown colour and that they are made up of scales overlapping and
+covered with gum which keeps out the rain, thus protecting the little
+growing tip inside. When buds grow, they become little twigs with leaves
+on. Find where the buds were a year ago. Notice the light colour of the
+twigs that grow during the present season and the darker colour of the
+twigs of the previous year. Where were the buds two years ago? What did
+the centre bud become? (A continuation of the stem) What did the other
+buds, called lateral buds, become? (New branches) Compare the growth
+made in different years.
+
+Notice also how white the wood of the twigs is--the probable reason for
+calling it "white pine".
+
+CONES.--Note the length and shape of the cones and how the seeds are
+placed in them inside the large scales. Get some of the seeds and note
+the wing-like attachment. Take the wing off a seed and drop it from a
+height at the same instant with one that has its wing attached. Note the
+whirling motion and infer what purpose the wing serves in scattering
+seed. Taste the kernel of a pine seed and discover why squirrels are
+fond of them. Burn a pine cone.
+
+Find out what birds like to live in this tree. What has been noticed
+about them and their nests?
+
+Have the pupils keep the seeds until the following spring by putting
+them in a box of dry sand and setting them in a cold place. They should
+then plant them in a corner where they can be partly shaded when the sun
+is bright. Plant them about half an inch deep and keep them watered if
+the weather is dry during the first summer.
+
+NOTE.--The cones drop their seeds from high up in the tree so that the
+wind can carry the seeds long distances. The cones usually stay on the
+trees for a couple of years after they lose their seeds.
+
+CORRELATIONS
+
+Draw a pine tree, a bunch of pine needles, a pine cone, and a pine
+seed.
+
+Write a description of a pine tree seen in the woods; also of one found
+in the open.
+
+Write a list of things for which the white pine is useful.
+
+_To the teacher._--The winter months, besides affording an opportunity
+for seeing trees and plants in their dormant or quiescent condition,
+also afford an opportunity for reading and reflection, for recalling
+observations and experiences of the past season, and for making plans
+for work and study in the school garden, woods, and fields when spring
+returns. The knowledge gained by the pupils through first-hand
+observation of trees, flowers, and gardens can be greatly extended by
+pictures and stories descriptive of these, which the teacher may from
+time to time bring to the school-room. Their personal experiences will
+be the basis for interpretation of many new things which will come up in
+the reading lessons, in selections which the teacher reads from week to
+week, and in books and papers which they themselves read in their homes.
+Thus the interest that is aroused by the first-hand studies of plants in
+garden, orchard, or woodland will be carried over from autumn to spring,
+and the pupils, with the awakening of spring, will take up anew the
+study of plant life with a keener interest because of the time given to
+reading and reflection during the winter. Illustrated magazines dealing
+with gardening and with the study of trees and plants, and such
+magazines as have a children's department, will prove of great
+assistance to the teacher who makes any serious attempt to interest
+pupils in plant studies. Stories of life in the woods and of plant
+studies suitable to young pupils should be used.
+
+REFERENCES
+
+Margaret Morley: _Flowers and their Friends._ Ginn & Co. 50 cents.
+
+Margaret Morley: _Seed Babies._ Ginn & Co. 25 cents.
+
+Margaret Morley: _Little Wanderers._ Ginn & Co. 30 cents.
+
+Alice Lounsberry: _The Garden Book for Young People._ Stokes. $1.50.
+
+Gertrude Stone: _Trees in Prose and Poetry._ Ginn & Co. 45 cents.
+
+
+COMPARATIVE LESSON ON VARIETIES OF WINTER APPLES
+
+KING, BALDWIN, NORTHERN SPY
+
+Discuss the names, keeping and cooking qualities of the apples, and
+bearing qualities of the trees.
+
+Provide each member of the class with a typical representative of each
+of the above varieties of apples.
+
+Compare the three apples as to size, form, colour--including marks;
+hardness, length, and thickness of stem; depth of cavity at the stem
+end; depth and shape of the cavity at the calyx end.
+
+Split each apple from stem to calyx and compare as to the thickness and
+toughness of the skin, the colour of the flesh, the size of the core,
+taste and juiciness of the flesh.
+
+_To the teacher._--All three are apples of fair size, the Baldwin being
+on the average the smallest of the three. All three are roundish, but
+the King is somewhat oval-round, and the Spy, conical-round. The Baldwin
+has a yellowish skin with crimson and red splashes dotted with russet
+spots. The King is reddish, shading to dark crimson. The Spy has a
+yellowish-green skin sprinkled with pink and striped with red.
+
+The beautiful colours make all these apples very popular in the markets
+of American cities and in those of the British Isles; but the soft and
+easily damaged skin of the Spy makes it the least desirable as an apple
+for export.
+
+All keep well and in cool cellars remain in good condition until April.
+They may be kept much longer in cold storage chambers, where the
+temperature is uniformly near the freezing point of the apple.
+
+The Baldwin apple tree is reasonably hardy within the ordinary range for
+apple trees, and its yield is a satisfactory average. The King apple
+tree is not a hardy tree, nor is it a satisfactory bearer except in the
+best apple districts. The Spy is a fairly hardy tree and thrives and
+yields well throughout a wide range; but it does not begin to bear until
+it is about fifteen years old.
+
+A comparative lesson may also be based on selected varieties of autumn
+apples, such as Fameuse, McIntosh Red, Wealthy, Gravenstein, and St.
+Lawrence.
+
+CODLING MOTH
+
+Begin the study of the codling moth in August by examining wormy apples.
+Find out, by asking the pupils, which orchards of the locality had been
+sprayed in the spring.
+
+Ask the pupils to count out at random one hundred apples and to select
+from these the number that are wormy. What percentage of the apples are
+wormy? Compare the percentage of wormy apples in unsprayed, with that in
+sprayed, orchards. The results will afford evidence of the benefit of
+spraying.
+
+Find out, if possible, the dates on which, and the conditions under
+which, the spraying of the orchards with the least number of wormy
+apples was done.
+
+Ask the pupils to bring to the school-room a number of wormy apples.
+Have the pupils cut these open and note the nature and position of the
+hole, or burrow, and the amount of damage done to the apples.
+
+Have the pupils observe the larva and note the size, colour, shape, and
+number of legs.
+
+_To the teacher._--The apple maggot is a less common insect larva and
+may be distinguished from the larva of the codling moth by the fact that
+the former has no legs and has the habit of burrowing in all directions
+through the pulp of the apple, while the larva of the codling moth works
+almost entirely in the core.
+
+The cocoon and pupa phase of this insect may be obtained by keeping the
+wormy apples in a box containing loose paper on which the cocoons will
+be placed, or by searching under the bark scales of apple trees in
+October.
+
+Describe the cocoons. Open some of them and describe the contents. Keep
+the remaining cocoons in a box or vivarium in a cool place during the
+winter.
+
+What birds are seen tapping at the bark scales of the apple trees during
+winter? Examine the bark scales when a downy woodpecker has been at work
+and note that the cocoons have been destroyed.
+
+Should we encourage the visits of woodpeckers to the orchards?
+
+By hanging up a beef bone in the orchard, various birds, including
+woodpeckers, will be induced to visit and perhaps to make their homes in
+the orchard.
+
+REFERENCES
+
+_Common Insects Affecting Fruit Trees, Bulletin No. 158_, Department of
+Agriculture, Parliament Buildings, Toronto.
+
+_Bulletins Nos. 158 and 171_, Ontario Department of Agriculture, deal
+with many insect pests and their remedies.
+
+In May look for the adult moths as they emerge from the cocoons. Observe
+the colour, size, shape, and the bright copper-coloured horse-shoe on
+the front wing--the "brand" of the codling moth.
+
+Examine the little apples when the blossoms are falling. Note the tiny,
+flat, oval-shaped egg at various places on the surfaces of the apples
+and a few days later the tiny worm which emerges from the egg. This soon
+eats its way into the apple, entering usually at the calyx end. If
+spraying is done after the petals have fallen and just before the calyx
+end closes up, a drop of poison is inclosed, and when the larva enters
+it and begins eating its way into the apple, it gets the poison.
+
+
+SOME COMMON ANIMAL FORMS
+
+Brief lessons should be given on some of the lower members of the animal
+kingdom, for the purpose of broadening the interests of the pupils. The
+following are suggested as types: snail, spider, freshwater mussel
+(clam), crayfish (crab), centiped, milliped, salamander, and wood-louse.
+
+These are common animal forms, most of which are frequently seen by the
+pupils, but seldom are their interesting life habits or their places in
+the animal kingdom recognized. The salamander is to many pupils a lizard
+of the most poisonous kind; centipeds and millipeds are worms, and they
+do not recognize that the clam is an animal with sensibilities and
+instincts.
+
+REFERENCES
+
+Kellogg: _Elementary Zoology_
+
+Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_
+
+CENTIPEDS AND MILLIPEDS
+
+Under stones and sticks in moist soil are to be found two worm-like
+forms, both having many legs.
+
+One of these animals is flat, about an inch long, brown in colour, and
+provided with a pair of long feelers. On each division of the body is a
+single pair of legs. This is the _centiped_. The other animal is more
+cylindrical in shape and has two pairs of legs on each division of the
+body. Its colour is a darker brown than that of the centiped, and it has
+a habit of coiling into a spiral shape, when disturbed, so that the soft
+under surface is concealed. This is the _milliped_. Both of these
+animals are quite harmless and feed on decaying vegetable matter. They
+stand midway between worms and insects in forms and habits.
+
+A brief observation lesson on each animal, involving their movements and
+the structural features named above, will enable the pupils to identify
+them and to appreciate their position in the animal kingdom.
+
+SALAMANDERS, OR NEWTS
+
+Some forms of these are found in water, as in streams, ponds, and
+ditches, while other forms are found on land, where they hide under
+stones and sticks. They are commonly mistaken for lizards, which they
+closely resemble in shape; but the two animals may be distinguished by
+the fact that the surface of the body of a salamander is smooth, while
+that of a lizard is covered with scales.
+
+The small red or copper-coloured newts are the most common in Ontario
+and are frequently found on roads after heavy rains. The tiger
+salamanders are larger than the red newts and are marked with orange and
+black spots, hence the name "tiger". Many people believe this species
+to be especially venomous, while in reality it is quite harmless and,
+like the other salamanders, is useful for destroying insects and small
+snails, which form the greater part of its food.
+
+_To the teacher._--The superstition of the salamander's power to
+extinguish a fire into which it is thrown still exists. The early life
+of the salamander is spent in water, the young form being very much like
+a tadpole. The salamanders are close relatives of the frogs and toads
+and may be kept in a jar or vivarium in wet moss or grass. The pupils
+should learn to recognize the animals and should be instructed as to
+their habits.
+
+SPIDERS
+
+~Problems in observation.~--In how many places can you find spiders' webs?
+How many forms of spiders' webs can you find? Are the many webs that are
+found on the meadow grass in the dewy mornings the homes of spiders? If
+so, describe where the spiders live. (At the bottom of tunnels that run
+into the ground.)
+
+What uses do spiders make of their webs? (Trapping prey, supporting egg
+cases, protection, and means of moving, as in the case of cobweb
+spiders.)
+
+Drop a fly upon a spider's web and observe the action of the spider.
+Search under the webs of spiders in attics and sheds and learn, from the
+skeletons found there, what the spider feeds upon. It will be found that
+flies, beetles, and other spiders are killed by this monster.
+
+Watch a spider spinning its web and find out what parts of the body are
+used in this work. It will be seen that the threads are produced from
+little tubes at the rear end of the animal and are placed and fastened
+by means of the feet.
+
+Examine, by the aid of a hand lens, the feet and head of the spider.
+Note the "brushes and combs" on the former. Note, on the latter, the
+four, six, or eight eyes (the number and arrangement vary), and the
+short poison claws at the front of the head. How are the poison claws
+adapted for seizing and piercing? Note the sharp hooks at the lower
+ends.
+
+
+BIRD STUDIES
+
+Continue the lessons in bird identification and in bird types, using the
+methods outlined for these studies in Form III. (See pp. 217-24.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+FORM IV
+
+WINTER
+
+
+FOREST TREES
+
+EVERGREENS
+
+Several species of evergreens have already been studied. These should be
+reviewed, and representatives of other species examined. Mid-winter is
+most suitable for the study of evergreens. The following points should
+be considered:
+
+1. Description leading to identification
+
+2. Nature of soil and water conditions
+
+3. Common uses of each species of evergreen
+
+4. Collection of wood specimens and cones.
+
+WOOD SPECIMENS
+
+Specimens should be uniform in size and should show bark on one side and
+heart wood as well as the outside, or sap wood. They should be about six
+inches long, two inches wide on the side having the bark, and should
+gradually come to an edge toward the pith, or centre. When seasoned, one
+side and one edge should be polished and then oiled or varnished.
+Specimens of the wood of the deciduous trees may also be prepared during
+the winter.
+
+
+FRUITS
+
+During the winter months, some time should be devoted to reading and
+discussing articles on general farming and fruit growing. Such articles
+may be taken from books, magazines, or newspapers, and may be supplied
+partly by the teacher and partly by the pupils. These articles will be
+appreciated by the pupils all the more because of their studies of fruit
+trees during the season. Such topics as the following may be discussed:
+
+1. Best kind of apples, plums, bush fruits, and strawberries. Reports
+from the Dominion and Provincial Departments of Agriculture.
+
+2. Method of raising fruit trees--from seed, grafting, and budding.
+
+3. Demonstrations in pruning. This may be done in early spring by taking
+a class to a neighbouring orchard.
+
+4. Methods of planting and cultivation.
+
+5. Packing and storing.
+
+6. Spraying. Much information is to be found in Horticultural Journals
+and papers, and in Bulletins to be obtained from the Secretary of
+Agriculture for Ontario.
+
+Illustrated articles on gardening and fruit growing should be collected
+for school use. Views of fine gardens, parks, and home grounds will be
+of interest to the pupils. Simple artistic methods of ornamental
+planting with trees, shrubs, vines, and herbaceous perennials can now be
+introduced, and some scheme for improving the school grounds outlined.
+
+Catalogues should be obtained soon after New Year's and, after examining
+their merits, the best varieties of seed and fruit for the district
+should be selected. Horticultural societies, as well as Dominion and
+Provincial Departments of Agriculture, commonly give selected lists with
+descriptions of the different varieties.
+
+
+WEEDS AND WEED SEEDS
+
+The training in the observation and identification of weeds and weed
+seeds, which was begun in Form III, should be continued in Form IV. For
+method see Form III.
+
+
+PHYSICAL SCIENCE PHASE OF NATURE STUDY
+
+WATER PRESSURE
+
+1. Grasp an empty tin can by the top and push it down into a pail of
+water. Note the tendency of the can to rise. The water presses upward.
+Its downward pressure is evident.
+
+2. Tie a large stone to a string, hold it at arm's length, shut the
+eyes, and lower the stone into water. _Note_ the decrease in weight.
+This is also due to upward pressure, which we call buoyancy. The actual
+decrease may be found by means of a spring balance.
+
+3. Try Experiment 2, using a piece of iron the same weight as the stone.
+Is the decrease in weight as evident? Ships made wholly of iron will
+sink. Explain.
+
+4. Put an egg into water; it slowly sinks. Add salt to the water; the
+egg floats.
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Will the human body sink in water? In which is there less danger of
+drowning, lake or sea water?
+
+2. When in bathing, immerse nearly the whole body, then take a full
+inspiration. Note the rise of the body.
+
+3. Why does ice float? (See expansion of water by freezing.)
+
+4. Balloons are bags filled with some light gas, generally hydrogen or
+hot air. They are pushed up by the buoyancy of the air. The rise of
+heated air or water (see Convection) is really due to the same force.
+Clouds, feathers, and thistledown are kept in the air more by the action
+of winds and small air currents than by buoyancy.
+
+STUDY OF AIR
+
+     (Consult _Science of Common Life_, Chaps. VIII, IX, X.)
+
+1. Air takes up space. Put a cork with one hole into the neck of a flask
+or bottle. Insert the stem of a funnel and try to pour in water. Try
+with two holes in the cork. When we call a bottle "empty" what is in it?
+
+2. Air is all around us. Feel it; wave the hands through it; run through
+it; note that the wind is air; inhale the air and watch the chest.
+
+3. Air has weight. This is not easy to demonstrate without an air-pump
+and a fairly delicate balance.
+
+Fit a large glass flask with a tightly fitting rubber stopper having a
+short glass tube passing through it. To the glass tube attach a short
+rubber one and on this put a clamp. Open the clamp and suck out all the
+air possible. Close the clamp and weigh the flask. When perfectly
+balanced, open the clamp and let the air enter again. Note the increase
+in weight.
+
+If an air-pump is available, procure a glass globe provided with a
+stop-cock (see Apparatus). Pump some of the air from the globe, then
+weigh and, while it is on the balance, admit the air again and note
+increase in weight.
+
+Tie a piece of thin sheet rubber over the large end of a thistle tube;
+suck the air out of the tube and note how the rubber is pushed in. This
+is due to the weight or pressure of the air. Turn the tube in various
+positions to show that the pressure comes from all directions. To show
+that "suction" is not a force, let a pupil try to suck water out of a
+flask when there is only one opening through the stopper. If two holes
+are made, the water may be sucked up, that is, _pushed_ up by the weight
+of the air.
+
+Fill a pickle jar with water. Place a piece of writing paper on the top
+and then, holding the paper with the palm of the hand, invert the jar.
+The pressure of the air keeps the water in.
+
+A cubic foot of air weighs nearly 1-1/4 oz. Find the weight of the air
+in your school-room.
+
+The atmosphere exerts about fifteen pounds pressure on every square inch
+of the surface it rests against. Find the weight supported by the top of
+a desk 18 inches by 24 inches. If the surface of the body is eight
+square feet, what weight does it have to sustain? Why does this weight
+not crush us?
+
+THE BAROMETER
+
+The experiments immediately preceding will have paved the way for a
+study of the barometer.
+
+1. Fill a jar with water and invert it, keeping its mouth below the
+surface of the water in another vessel. If the pupils can be led to see
+that the water is sustained in the jar by the air pressing on the water
+in the vessel, they can understand the barometer.
+
+2. Fill a tube about 30 inches long, and 1/4 inch inside diameter with
+water, and invert it over water, as with the jar in the previous
+experiment.
+
+3. Use the same tube or one similar to that in 2 above, but fill with
+mercury and allow the pupils to notice the great weight of the mercury.
+Holding the mercury in with your finger, invert the tube over mercury.
+This time the fluid falls some distance in the tube as soon as the
+finger is removed. A tube of this size requires 1 lb. of mercury.
+
+Lead the pupils to see that the mercury remaining in the tube is
+sustained by the air pressure, and that any increase or decrease of the
+atmospheric pressure will result in the rise or fall of the mercury
+column. Leave the barometer (made as in 3 above) in the room for a few
+days and note whether its weight changes. The use of the instrument in
+predicting weather changes should be emphasized. Compare your barometer
+with the records in the daily papers.
+
+The average height of the barometric column is 30 inches at sea-level.
+Explain how you could estimate heights of mountains and balloons with a
+barometer.
+
+THE COMMON PUMP
+
+This is a valuable application of air pressure. A glass model will prove
+useful, but a model made by pupils will be much more so. (See
+_Laboratory Exercises in Physics_ by Newman.)
+
+The water rises in the pump because the sucker lifts the air from the
+water inside, allowing the air outside to push the water up. A common
+pump will not lift water more than about 30 feet. Why is this? Compare
+the pump to a barometer. (See _The Ontario High School Physics_.)
+
+EXPANSIVE FORCE OF AIR
+
+Air and all other gases manifest a pressure in all directions not due to
+their weight. The power of air to keep tires and footballs inflated and
+that of steam in driving an engine are examples. It is this force that
+prevents the pressure of air from crushing in, since there are many air
+spaces distributed throughout the body.
+
+COMPOSITION OF AIR
+
+This subject and the three immediately following it have a special
+bearing on hygiene.
+
+1. Invert a sealing-jar over a lighted candle. Has the candle used up
+_all_ the air when it goes out?
+
+2. Place a very short candle on a thin piece of cork afloat on water in
+a plate; light the candle, and again invert the jar over it. Note that
+the candle goes out and the water rises only a short distance in the
+jar; therefore _all_ the air has not been used up.
+
+3. Slip the glass top of the jar under the open end and set the jar
+mouth upward on the table without allowing any water to escape. Now
+plunge a lighted splinter into the jar. The flame is extinguished.
+
+Air, therefore, contains an active part that helps the candle to burn
+and an inactive part that extinguishes flame. The names _oxygen_ and
+_nitrogen_ may be given. These gases occur in air in the proportion of
+about 1:4. (This method is not above criticism. Its advantage for young
+pupils lies in its simplicity.)
+
+OXYGEN
+
+Make two or three jars of oxygen, using potassium chlorate and manganese
+dioxide. (See any Chemistry text-book.) Let the pupils examine the
+chemicals, learn their names, and know where to obtain them. Perform the
+following experiments:
+
+1. A glowing splinter relights and burns very brightly if plunged into
+oxygen.
+
+2. A piece of picture wire tipped with sulphur burns with great
+brightness.
+
+3. Burn phosphorus or match heads in a spoon. A spoon may be made by
+attaching to a wire a bit of crayon having a hollow scooped on its upper
+surface. A clay pipe bowl attached to a wire will answer.
+
+From these experiments pupils will learn the value of nitrogen as a
+diluent of the oxygen. Pure oxygen entering the lungs would be just as
+destructive as it would be entering the furnace.
+
+CARBON DIOXIDE
+
+1. Make a jar of this gas. Washing soda and vinegar will answer if
+hydrochloric acid and marble are not obtainable. (Consult the _Science
+of Common Life_, Chap. XIII, and any Chemistry text-book.)
+
+2. Lower a lighted candle first into a jar of air then into the jar of
+carbon dioxide.
+
+3. Make some lime-water by stirring slaked lime with water and allowing
+the mixture to settle. Shake up some clear lime-water with a jar of the
+gas. Pupils will be made to understand that the milky colour will in
+future be considered the test for carbon dioxide.
+
+4. Have one of the pupils cause his breath to bubble through some clear
+lime-water for a minute. Using a bicycle pump, cause some fresh air to
+bubble through lime-water.
+
+5. Hold a clear jar inverted over the candle flame for a few seconds,
+then test with lime-water.
+
+6. Invert a large jar over a leafy plant for a day. Keep in the dark and
+test the jar with lime-water.
+
+Is this gas likely to be in the air? Set a plate of lime-water in the
+school-room for a day or two, and then examine it. Try to pour the gas
+from jar to jar and use a candle as a test. Is the gas heavier than air?
+
+On account of its weight, the gas often collects in the bottoms of old
+wells, mines, and tunnels. It is dangerous there since it will not
+support life.
+
+USES:
+
+1. Add a little water to some baking powder and cause the gas that forms
+to pass through lime-water. What causes the biscuits to "rise"?
+
+2. Mix flour and water in a jar, add a bit of yeast cake and a little
+sugar, and let stand in a warm place. Test the gas that forms, for
+carbon dioxide. What causes bread to rise?
+
+3. Uncork a bottle of ginger ale, shake the bottle, and lead the gas
+that comes off through lime-water.
+
+4. Most portable fire extinguishers depend on the generation of carbon
+dioxide.
+
+Show the similarity between our bodies and the candle. The candle needs
+oxygen; it produces heat, and yields water and carbon dioxide. Much of
+our food is somewhat similar in composition to the wax of a candle; we
+breathe oxygen, our bodies are warmed by a real burning within, and we
+exhale water and carbon dioxide.
+
+After exercise why do we feel more hungry? Why do we breathe faster? Why
+do we feel warmer? Why does the fire burn better when the damper is
+opened?
+
+IMPURITIES OF AIR
+
+All air contains carbon dioxide. If the amount exceeds 6 parts in
+10,000, it becomes an impurity, not so much on its own account as
+because it indicates a poisoned state of the air in a room, since
+organic poisons always accompany it when it is emitted from the lungs.
+
+Other impurities of the air, dependent on the locality and the season,
+are smoke, dust, disease germs, sewer gas, coal-gas, pollen dust.
+
+SOLUTIONS OF SOLIDS
+
+     (Consult the _Science of Common Life_, Chap. VII.)
+
+Have the pupils weigh out equal quantities of sugar, salt, soda, alum,
+blue-vitriol. Shake up with equal quantities of water to compare
+solubilities. Repeat, using hot water. Is it possible to recover the
+substance dissolved? Set out solutions on the table to evaporate, or
+evaporate them rapidly over a stove or spirit-lamp. Try to dissolve
+sand, sulphur, charcoal, in water. Obtain crystals of iodine and show
+how much better, in some cases, alcohol is as a solvent than is water.
+
+APPLICATIONS:
+
+1. Most of our "essences", "tinctures", and "spirits" are alcoholic
+solutions.
+
+2. Digestion is the effort of the body to dissolve food.
+
+3. The food in the soil enters the plant only after solution.
+
+4. The solvent power of water makes it so valuable for washing.
+
+5. Maple sap is water containing sugar in solution.
+
+6. In the salt region along Lake Huron, holes are drilled to the salt
+beds, water is poured in, then pumped out and evaporated. Explain.
+
+7. Meat broth is a solution of certain materials in the meat.
+
+8. How could you manufacture salt from sea water?
+
+SOLUTION OF LIQUIDS
+
+Try to mix oil and water, benzine and water, oil and benzine. Only in
+the third case do we find a permanent mixture, or solution. Try to
+dissolve vinegar, glycerine, alcohol, mercury, with water.
+
+APPLICATIONS:
+
+1. Paint is mixed with oil so that the rain will not wash it off so
+easily.
+
+2. Water will not wash grease stains. Benzine is necessary.
+
+3. Why is it necessary to "shake" the bottle before taking medicine?
+
+SOLUTION OF GASES
+
+Study air dissolved in water, by gently heating water in a test-tube and
+observing the bubbles of air that gather on the inner surface of the
+test-tube. Aquatic animals, such as fish, clams, crayfish, crabs,
+subsist on this dissolved air.
+
+LIMESTONE
+
+Pieces of this rock may be found in all localities. Teach pupils to
+recognize it by its gray colour, its effervescence with acid, and the
+fossils and strata that show in most cases. If exposed limestone rocks
+are near, visit them with the pupils and note the layers, fossils, and
+evidences of sea action. Compare lime with limestone as to touch,
+colour, and action on water and litmus. Try to make lime by putting a
+lump of limestone in the coals for some time; add water to this. Other
+forms of limestone are marble, chalk, egg-shells, clam-shells, scales in
+tea-kettles.
+
+Geographically, the study of limestone is of great importance. Grind
+some limestone very fine, add a very little of this to water, and
+bubble carbon dioxide through for some time; note the disappearance of
+the limestone. This explains how limestone rocks are being slowly worn
+away and why the water of rivers, springs, and wells is so often "hard".
+
+Catch some rain-water in the open and test it for hardness. It will be
+found "soft". Place a few limestone pebbles in a tumbler with this soft
+water and after a day or two test again. The water will be "hard".
+
+Compare, as to hardness, the water from a concrete cistern with that
+from a wooden one.
+
+CARBON
+
+Procure specimens of hard and soft coal, coke, charcoal, graphite, peat,
+and petroleum. Note the distinctive characteristics of each. Discuss the
+uses. Try to set each on fire. Note which burns with a flame when laid
+on the coals or placed over the spirit-lamp. Put a bit of soft coal into
+a small test-tube; heat and light the gas that is produced. This gas,
+when purified, is one kind of illuminating gas. Note the _coke_ left in
+the test-tube.
+
+Fill the bowl of a clay pipe with soft coal and seal it up with plaster
+of paris. After this has hardened, place the bowl in hot coals or in the
+flame of a spirit-lamp and light the coal-gas at the end of the stem.
+After all the gas has been driven off, look for the coke inside.
+
+Heat a bit of wood in a small test-tube and light the gas that is
+evolved. Note the charcoal left.
+
+Cover a piece of wood with sand or earth; heat, and note that charcoal
+is formed. This illustrates the old method of charcoal-burning. This
+subject is closely related to industrial geography.
+
+HYDROGEN
+
+A convenient way to prepare hydrogen is to use zinc and hydrochloric
+acid with a test-tube for a generator. (Consult any Chemistry
+text-book.) Make the gas and burn it at the end of a tube, holding a
+dry, cold tumbler inverted over the flame. Note that water is formed.
+Conclude what water consists of, namely, oxygen and hydrogen. Water may
+be decomposed into oxygen and hydrogen, hence a use of hydrogen may be
+shown by attaching a clay pipe to the generator and filling soap bubbles
+with the gas. When freed these rise quickly.
+
+MAGNETS
+
+If bar magnets cannot be obtained, use a child's horse-shoe magnet.
+
+Procure small pieces of cork, wood, iron, brass, glass, lead, etc., and
+let pupils discover which the magnet attracts.
+
+Have pupils interpose paper, wood, slate, glass, iron, lead, etc., in
+sheets between the magnet and the iron and note the effect on the force
+exerted.
+
+Note that when one end of a magnet touches or comes near the end of a
+nail, the nail becomes a magnet, but not a permanent one.
+
+Magnetize a needle by drawing one of the poles of the magnet from end to
+end of the needle, always in the same direction, about twenty times.
+Suspend the needle horizontally with a piece of silk thread and note its
+position when at rest.
+
+Get a small compass and show how it is related to the foregoing
+experiments. Emphasize its use to mariners. If possible, get a piece of
+lodestone and show its magnetic properties.
+
+ELECTRICITY
+
+Half fill a tumbler with water and add about a teaspoonful of sulphuric
+acid. Set in this a piece of copper and a piece of zinc, but do not let
+them touch. Make a coil by winding insulated wire around a block of wood
+about ten times. Remove the wood and place a compass in the centre of
+the coil. Join the ends of the wire to the two metals in the tumbler.
+The sudden movement of the needle will be taken as the indication of a
+current.
+
+Let pupils try experiments with many pairs of solids, such as lead and
+silver, carbon and glass, wood and iron, tin and zinc, and liquids such
+as vinegar and brine.
+
+Show pupils how to make a simple battery. See home-made apparatus, page
+50, and consult _Laboratory Exercises_ by Newman. Two or three dry cells
+will be found sufficient for any experiments, but the home-made battery
+is to be preferred.
+
+Show pupils how to make a magnet by winding a piece of insulated wire
+around a nail and joining the ends of the wire to the battery. Make a
+horse-shoe magnet by bending the nail and winding the wire about both
+ends in opposite directions.
+
+As an application of the electro-magnet, show pupils how to make a
+telegraph sounder. (See Manual on _Manual Training_.) If possible,
+examine the construction of an electric bell. The motor and electric
+light are other common applications of the current. Take up the uses of
+the motor in factories, and for running street-cars and automobiles.
+Show the necessity for a water-wheel or engine to produce the current,
+and for wires to connect. Explain that batteries are not used to produce
+large currents, but that machines called dynamos, similar to motors,
+when driven by steam or water-power, will yield electric currents as
+batteries do.
+
+STEAM
+
+The power of steam may be shown by loosely corking a flask and boiling
+the water in it until the cork is driven out, or by stopping the spout
+of a boiling tea-kettle, or by letting a stream of steam impinge on a
+toy paper wheel. Encourage pupils to learn all they can about steam and
+gasolene engines and their uses.
+
+FARM TOOLS
+
+This topic should be dealt with only in so far as it can be made a
+subject for actual observation by the pupils. Children should learn to
+be thoughtful and observant and to do all kinds of work, manual as well
+as mental, intelligently.
+
+MACHINES
+
+     (Consult _The Ontario High School Physics_, Chap. IX.)
+
+LEVER.--When a _lever_ is used to lift a log, one end is placed under
+the log, a block called a _fulcrum_ is placed under the lever as close
+as possible to the log, and then the workman pulls down on the outer end
+of the lever. For example, if the fulcrum is one foot from the log and
+ten feet from the man, the latter can raise ten pounds with a pull of
+one pound, but he has to move his end of the lever ten times as far as
+the log rises. Try it. See other examples in plough handles, see-saw,
+balance, scissors, wheel-barrow, pump-handle, handspike, crowbar,
+canthook, nut-crackers.
+
+ROPE AND PULLEY.--In the _rope_ and _pulley_ note that when the pulley
+is a fixed one, the only advantage is a changed direction of the rope.
+When the pulley is _movable_, the horse pulling will have only half the
+weight to draw if the pulley is single, one quarter if double, one sixth
+if triple, etc. Thus in the case of a common hay-fork the horse draws
+only half the weight of the hay, but he walks twice as far as the hay
+moves.
+
+COGS.--If one wheel has eighty _cogs_ and the other ten, the latter will
+turn eight times to the former's once.
+
+BELT.--When a _belt_ runs over two wheels, one having, say, one fifth of
+the diameter of the other, the smaller will revolve five times for one
+revolution of the other.
+
+CRANK.--With a _crank_ two feet long, one may turn a wheel twice as
+easily as with one one foot long, but the hand will move twice as far.
+If a wedge is two inches thick at the large end and ten inches long, a
+man may lift 1000 pounds by striking the wedge a 200-lb. blow.
+
+INCLINED PLANE.--If a plank twelve inches long has one end on the ground
+and the other on a cart four inches high, one man can roll up the plank
+the same weight that would require three men to lift, but he has to move
+the object three times as far.
+
+PROBLEMS
+
+1. Why is a long-handled spade easier to dig with than a short-handled
+one?
+
+2. Which is easier, to dig when the spade is thrust full length or half
+length into the earth?
+
+3. Can a small boy "teeter" on a board against a big boy? How?
+
+4. In helping to move a wagon, why grasp the wheel near its rim?
+
+5. In making a balance, why should the arms be equal? In a balance with
+unequal arms, compare the weights used with the article weighed.
+
+6. In using shears, is it better to place the object you wish to cut
+near the handles or near the points?
+
+7. Where is the best place to put the load on a wheel-barrow?
+
+8. Notice how three horses are hitched to a plough or binder.
+
+9. Where would you grasp the pump-handle when you wish to pump (1)
+easily, (2) quickly?
+
+10. Stretch out your arm and see whether you can hold as heavy a weight
+on your hand as on your elbow.
+
+11. Count the pulleys used in a hay-fork and determine the use of each.
+
+12. If a ton of hay is unloaded at five equal forkfuls, what weight has
+the horse to draw at each load?
+
+13. Count the cogs on the wheels of a fanning-mill, washing-machine,
+apple-parer, or egg-beater, and determine how the direction or rate of
+the motion is changed thereby.
+
+14. Measure the diameter of the large fly-wheel of a thrashing-machine
+engine, and of that which turns the cylinder in the separator. Decide
+how many times the cylinder revolves for one turn of the fly-wheel.
+
+15. Think of all the uses of a wedge. Draw one. Compare the axe, knife,
+and chisel with the wedge.
+
+16. How are heavy logs loaded on a sleigh or truck? How are barrels of
+salt and sugar loaded and unloaded?
+
+17. There are two hills of the same height. One has a gradual slope, the
+other a steep one. Which is easier to climb? In what case is it farthest
+to the top?
+
+18. Why does a cow or horse take a zigzag path when climbing a steep
+hill?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+FORM IV
+
+SPRING
+
+
+METHODS OF IMPROVING HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS
+
+The study of plants should lead to an intelligent appreciation of their
+beauties and a desire to have them growing about. Many of our native
+trees, shrubs, vines, and herbaceous plants are quite as beautiful as
+some that are procured at considerable expense from nurserymen. A great
+work remains to be done in cultivating and popularizing our best native
+species. Up to this point the pupils have been getting acquainted with
+them in their own natural habitat; the next step should be to use them
+in covering up harsh and offensive views about the school and home
+grounds, in softening and giving restful relief to barren yards and bare
+walls, to ugly fences and uninteresting walks and driveways.
+
+Begin to plan some simple improvements for the spring. These may be
+repairing of fences and gates in order to protect the grounds from stray
+animals, the cleaning up of the yards, the gathering of stones which may
+be used in making a rockery, the planting of trees along the sides and
+front of the grounds--a double row of evergreens to overcome a cold
+northern exposure or to exclude from view disagreeable features, the
+laying out of a walk or drive with borders, flower beds, or shrubs in
+little clumps.
+
+Plans of grounds well laid out should be examined and discussed in the
+school-room. Many illustrated magazines give useful suggestions. Plans
+can be worked out on the black-board with the pupils. It will take years
+to complete such a plan, but the pupils should have a part in making the
+plan as well as in carrying it out. The aim should be to encourage the
+use of simple and inexpensive things obtained in the vicinity, wherewith
+to produce harmony and pleasing natural effects.
+
+Comfort and utility must be considered as well as beauty and natural
+design. In the school grounds the outdoor games must also be provided
+for and sufficient room allowed.
+
+Such efforts on the part of the teacher and pupils, if wisely directed,
+are sure to meet with the approval of the parents and must call forth
+the hearty co-operation of the trustees.
+
+It is not well to attempt too much in one year. It is better to do a
+small amount well than to leave much work in a half-done condition.
+
+MAKING AND CARE OF A LAWN
+
+The soil must be drained and not too much shaded by trees. At first it
+should be summer fallowed or cultivated every few weeks throughout the
+summer, to kill the weeds and make it fine and level. A thick seeding of
+lawn grass-seed should be sown early the next spring and raked lightly
+in. All levelling and preparation must have been done the previous
+season.
+
+Coarse grasses, such as timothy, should not be used on a lawn. Red top
+and Kentucky blue-grass in equal parts are best and, if white clover is
+desired, add about half as much white Dutch clover seed as red top. If
+the soil has been prepared as above, there is no need to use a foster
+crop of oats or barley, as is done in seeding down meadows. Roll the
+lawn after seeding and also after heavy rains as soon as the surface
+dries. Shortly after the grass appears, begin to run the lawn-mower over
+it, so as to cut weeds or native grasses that may be gaining a foothold.
+Watering is dangerous, unless carefully and regularly done during the
+summer, the evening being the best time. Merely wetting the surface by
+sprinkling encourages shallow rooting and therefore rapid drying out.
+Regular mowing and rolling are more important.
+
+REFERENCES
+
+Parsons: _How to Plan the Home Grounds._ Doubleday. $1.00
+
+Waugh: _The Landscape Beautiful._ Judd. $2.00
+
+Department of Education: _Improvement of School Grounds._
+
+
+SOIL STUDIES
+
+WEIGHT
+
+Using a balance, compare weights of equal-sized boxes of different
+soils, dried and powdered fine. Note the comparative lightness of humus.
+Weigh a box of earth taken fresh from the field, from this compute (1)
+the weight of a cubic foot of such soil, (2) the weight of the soil to
+the depth of a foot in a ten-acre field.
+
+Repeat the experiment, making it an exercise in percentage.
+
+Fill two glass tubes (lamp chimneys will do), one with finely powdered
+clay, the other with sand. Set the tubes in a pan containing water. Note
+the rise of the water due to capillarity. Through which soil does it
+rise faster? Farther? Try with other soils. Try with fine soil and also
+with the same soil in a lumpy condition. From this give a reason (1)
+for tilling soil, (2) for rolling after seeding.
+
+SUBSOILS
+
+Procure samples of soil from different depths, four inches, eight
+inches, twelve inches, sixteen inches, etc. Note how the soil changes in
+colour and texture. In which do plants succeed best? In most fields the
+richest part of the soil is contained in the upper nine inches; the
+portion below this is called subsoil. This extends to the underlying
+rock and is usually distinguished from the upper portion by its lighter
+colour, poorer texture, and smaller supply of available plant food. The
+difference is due largely to the absence of humus. The character of the
+subsoil has an important bearing on the condition of the upper soil. A
+layer of sand or gravel a few feet below the surface provides natural
+drainage, but if it be too deep, it may allow the water to run away
+rapidly, carrying the plant food down below the roots of the plants. A
+hard clay subsoil will render the top too wet in rainy weather and too
+dry in droughts, because of the small amount of water absorbed. Such a
+soil is benefited by under-draining. A deep and absorptive subsoil
+returns water to the surface, by capillary action, as it is needed. The
+subsoil finally contains a large amount of plant food, which becomes
+gradually changed into a form in which plants can make use of it. Pupils
+should find out the character of the subsoil in their various fields at
+home and its effect on the fertility of the field.
+
+FERTILIZERS
+
+Along with water, the roots take up from the soil various substances
+that are essential to their healthy growth. Potash, phosphoric acid,
+nitrogen, calcium, sulphur, magnesium, and iron are needed by plants,
+but the first three are particularly important. If land is to yield good
+crops year after year, it must be fertilized, that is, there must be
+added chemicals containing the above-mentioned plant foods. Land becomes
+poor from two causes: the plant food in the soil becomes exhausted, and
+poisonous excretions from the roots of one year's crops act injuriously
+on those of the next season. Rotating crops will improve both conditions
+for a while, but eventually the soil will require treatment.
+
+Humus contains plant food and is also an excellent absorbent of the
+poisonous excretions. It is added as barn-yard manure, leaves, or as a
+green crop ploughed in.
+
+The chemicals commonly used comprise nitrate of soda, bone meal,
+sulphate of potash, chloride of potash, lime, ashes, cotton-seed meal,
+dried blood, super-phosphate, rock phosphate, and basic clay.
+
+EXPERIMENTS:
+
+1. Sow wheat on the same plot year after year and note the result when
+no fertilizer is used. Sow wheat on another plot, but use good manure.
+
+2. Try the various commercial fertilizers on the school plots, leaving
+some without treatment.
+
+3. Examine the roots of clover, peas, or beans, and look for nodules.
+These show the presence of bacteria, which convert the atmospheric
+nitrogen into a form in which the plants can use it. Scientific farmers
+have learned the value of inoculating their soil with these germs. A
+crop of peas or clover may produce the same result.
+
+4. Observe Nature's method of supplying soil with humus.
+
+SOIL-FORMING AGENTS
+
+There was once a time when the surface of the earth was bare rock. Much
+of this rock still exists and in many places lies on the surface, but it
+is usually hidden by a layer of soil. Soil is said to be "rock ground to
+meal by Nature's millstones". The process is very slow, but it is
+constantly going on. The pupils should be directed to find evidences of
+this "grinding".
+
+1. RUNNING WATER.--Brooks, creeks, rain, and the tiny streamlets on the
+hills all tell us how soil is carried from place to place. Get some
+muddy water from the river after a heavy rain. Let it settle in a tall
+jar and observe the fine layer formed.
+
+Wash some pebbles clean, place them in a glass jar with some clear
+water, and roll or shake the jar about for a few minutes. Note that the
+water becomes turbid with fine material worn from the stones. A process
+similar to this is constantly going on in rivers, lakes, and seas.
+Account for the presence of gravel beds now situated far away from any
+water.
+
+2. ICE GLACIERS.--How do these act on rocks? Show evidences in Ontario
+as far as these can be illustrated from the surroundings, such as
+polished rocks, boulders, beds of clay, sand, or gravel, small lakes,
+grooved stones, etc.
+
+3. FROST AND HEAT.--See "Expansion of Solids", pages 189, 190. Look for
+splintered or cracked stones. Why do farmers plough in the fall?
+
+4. WIND.--In sections near the lakes the action of the wind in moving
+the sand may be seen and appreciated. There are other places where this
+work is going on on a smaller scale.
+
+5. PLANTS.--Our study of humus shows the value of vegetable matter in
+soil. Besides contributing to the soil, plants break up rocks with their
+roots and dissolve them with acid excretions. It is interesting to study
+how a bare rock becomes covered with soil. First come the lichens which
+need no soil; on the remains of these the mosses grow. The roots of
+mosses and lichens help to disintegrate the rock with their excretions,
+so that, with frost, heat, air, and rain to assist, there is a layer of
+soil gradually formed on which larger plants can live. A forest
+develops. The trees supply shade from the sun and shelter from the wind,
+thus retarding evaporation. The roots of the trees hold the soil from
+being washed away. The dead leaves and fallen stems provide humus, and,
+on account of the water-holding capacity of humus, the forest floor acts
+like a sponge, preventing floods in wet seasons and droughts in dry
+times.
+
+6. ANIMALS.--Pupils should make a list of all burrowing animals and look
+for examples. The work of the earthworms is especially interesting. By
+eating the soil, they improve its texture and expose it to the air.
+Their holes admit air and water to the soil. The worms also drag leaves,
+sticks, and grass into their holes and thus add to the humus.
+
+Darwin estimated that the earthworms in England passed over ten tons of
+soil an acre through their bodies annually. This is left on the surface
+and makes a rich top-dressing.
+
+TILLING THE SOIL
+
+1. It makes the soil finer, thus increasing the surface for holding film
+water and enabling it to conduct more water by capillarity.
+
+2. It saves water from evaporation. (See Experiments 7 and 8, Form III.)
+
+3. It aerates the soil, enabling roots to thrive better.
+
+4. It drains (hence warms) the soil, assuring more rapid growth.
+
+5. It kills weeds.
+
+A large part of the work with soils may be done in connection with the
+garden studies, though most of the above mentioned experiments may be
+tried in the school-room. In ungraded schools any of the experiments may
+be made instructive to all the Forms.
+
+Pupils should be asked to acquaint themselves with the common implements
+used on the farm. They should ascertain the special service rendered by
+each. See _Circular 156_, Dominion Department of Agriculture.
+
+GARDEN WORK
+
+The work in gardening for Form IV should be connected with some definite
+line of experimental work. The garden should be so planned that a part
+of it can be used exclusively for experimental work. Co-operation with
+the Farmer's Experimental Union of the Ontario Agricultural College at
+Guelph is advisable at this point. The following list of experiments is
+suggested as suitable for boys especially, but no pupil should attempt
+more than one experiment each year.
+
+EXPERIMENTS IN PLOTS OUT-OF-DOORS
+
+Experimental plots may be of different sizes, according to the space
+available, from a yard square to a rod square or larger. A plot 10 ft. 5
+in. by 20 ft. 10 in. is almost 1/200 of an acre, so that the actual
+yield on such a plot when multiplied by 200 is an approximation of the
+yield an acre.
+
+1. Testing of varieties of grains, vegetables, or root seeds, including
+potatoes new to the district.
+
+2. Testing different varieties of clovers and fodder grasses. These
+plots should be so situated that they can remain for three years.
+
+3. Thick and thin sowing of grain: Use plots not less than four feet
+square. They may be tried most easily with wheat, oats, or barley,
+although any species of grain may be used. Use four plots of the same
+size, equal in fertility and other soil conditions. In No. 1 put grains
+of wheat or oats, as the case may be, two inches apart each way. In No.
+2 put the grains two inches apart in the row and the rows four inches
+apart. In No. 3 put the grains four inches apart in the row and the rows
+four inches apart. In No. 4 put the grains four inches apart in the row
+and the rows eight inches apart.
+
+If possible, weigh the straw and grain when cut and the grain alone when
+dry and shelled out of the heads.
+
+4. Deep and shallow growing of grain: Use four plots similar to those in
+experiment No. 3. Put the same amount of seed in the different plots. In
+No. 1, one inch deep; in No. 2. two inches deep; in No. 3, four inches
+deep, and in No. 4, six inches deep. Note which is up first, and which
+gives the best yield and best quality.
+
+5. Early and late sowing: Three plots are required. Plant the same
+amount of seed in each and cover to the same depth. Plant No. 1 as early
+as the soil can be made ready; No. 2, two weeks later; and No. 3, two
+weeks later than No. 2. Compare the quality and the yield.
+
+6. Effect of sowing clover with grain the first year: Only two plots are
+required. Sow the same amount of wheat or oats on each plot. On one
+plot put a moderate supply of red clover and none on the other. Weigh
+(or estimate), as in Experiment 3 above, the straw and the grain
+produced on each.
+
+7. Effect of a clover crop on the grain crop succeeding it the following
+year: The same two plots must be used as in No. 6. When the grain was
+cut the previous autumn, the plots should have been left standing
+without cultivation until spring. When the clover has made some growth,
+spade it down and prepare the other plot in the same way. Rake them
+level and sow the same amount of grain in each again. Weigh the crops
+produced on each.
+
+8. Test quality, yield, and time of maturity of several varieties of the
+same species. Samples of such varieties of wheat as Red Fife, White
+Fife, Preston, Turkey Red, Dawson's Golden Chaff, White Russian, etc.,
+may be obtained from the Central Experimental Farm at Ottawa, if not
+available in the district.
+
+9. Effect of different fertilizers (1) on the same crop, (2) on
+different crops: This can be done either out-of-doors in small plots or
+indoors, using pots or boxes.
+
+(1) Effect on the same crop: For example, oats on plots four feet
+square. The following standard fertilizers may be used: stable manure,
+nitrate of soda, muriate of potash, and bone meal.
+
+On plot No. 1, a dressing of stable manure,
+
+On plot No. 2, four oz. nitrate of soda,
+
+On plot No. 3, four oz. muriate of potash,
+
+On plot No. 4, eight oz. bone meal,
+
+On plot No. 5, two oz. nitrate of soda, two oz. muriate of potash, and
+four oz. bone meal.
+
+On plot No. 6, use no fertilizer. Record results.
+
+(2) Effect on different crops: Try a series of experiments similar to
+the above, using (a) peas instead of oats, (b) using corn, (c)
+using cabbage, (d) using potatoes.
+
+FUNCTION OF PARTS OF PLANTS
+
+This may be introduced in Form III and continued in the next Form.
+Already the attention of the pupils has been directed to the essential
+organs of the flower, namely, stamens and pistil. They have noticed the
+two kinds of flowers on pumpkins, corn, and many trees. They have seen
+that only the pistillate flowers produce fruit and seeds, and that when
+the staminate flowers have shed their pollen, they die. They have seen
+the yellow dust that the stamens contain and have seen bees laden with
+it as they emerge from the heart of the flower. Have them watch the bee
+as it enters the flower and notice how it invariably rubs some part of
+its pollen-covered body against the pistil. When on the moist, sticky
+top of the pistil, these little pollen-grains soon begin to grow,
+sending a delicate tube down to the bottom of the pistil to the ovary.
+Inside the ovary are little bodies called the ovules that are moistened
+by a fluid that comes from this delicate pollen tube, and at once they
+begin to enlarge and eventually become the seeds. The coverings
+surrounding them complete the true fruit.
+
+The use of the root in supporting the plant in its normal position is
+apparent to every pupil. To demonstrate the firm hold it has upon the
+soil, have the pupils try to pull up some large plants by the roots.
+They will then notice the branching roots of some plants and the long
+conical roots of others. Compare the colour and other surface features
+of the root and stem. To prove its feeding power, try two plants of
+equal size, taking the root off one and leaving it uninjured in the
+other. Set them side by side in moist earth and notice which withers.
+Take all the leaves off a plant and keep them off for a few weeks. The
+plant dies if its leaves are not allowed to grow. Keep it in the dark
+for a long time, and it finally dies even when water and soil are
+supplied. The leaves, therefore, are essential and require sunlight in
+doing their work. Their complete work will be considered later.
+
+HOW THE PLANT GETS ITS FOOD FROM THE SOIL
+
+When seeds germinate, the lower end of the caulicle, which becomes the
+root, bears large numbers of root-hairs. Inside the root-hairs is
+protoplasm and cell sap. These root-hairs grow among the soil particles
+which lie covered over with a thin film of moisture. It is this moisture
+that is taken up by these root-hairs, and in it is a small amount of
+mineral matter in solution which helps to sustain the plant. The
+transmission of soil water through the delicate cell walls of these
+root-hairs is known as _osmosis_.
+
+GERMINATION OF SOME OF THE COMMON GRAINS
+
+Make a special study of corn, wheat, and buckwheat. Take three plates
+and put moist sand in each to a depth of about half an inch. Spread over
+this a piece of damp cloth. Put in No. 1, one hundred grains of corn; in
+No. 2, the same number of grains of wheat; and in No. 3, the same number
+of grains of buckwheat, peas, or beans. Cover each plate with another
+piece of damp cloth and invert another plate over each to prevent drying
+out. Keep in a warm room and do not allow the cloths to become dry. If
+one of the cloths be left hanging six or eight inches over the side of
+the plate and dipping into a dish of water, the whole cloth will be kept
+moist by capillarity. Note the following points:
+
+1. Changes in the size of the seeds during the first twenty-four hours.
+
+2. In which variety germination seems most rapid.
+
+3. The percentage vitality, that is, the number of seeds which germinate
+out of one hundred.
+
+4. The nature of the coverings and their use. (Protection to the parts
+inside)
+
+5. The parts of the seed inside. (Buckwheat, pea, or bean divides into
+two parts, which become greenish and are called seed leaves. Wheat and
+corn do not divide thus.)
+
+6. The first signs of growth. A little shoot or tiny plant begins to
+develop at one end of the seed. Note which end bears this tiny plant.
+
+7. Note the development of this embryo plant and the formation of stem
+and root.
+
+8. Of what use is the bulky part of the seed? To answer this, let the
+pupils separate the white part of a kernel of corn, which is attached to
+the embryo plant, from the pulpy mass surrounding it. Set five such
+plants in moist sand and also five germinating seeds not so dissected.
+Pupils will discover that the mass surrounding the embryo is for the
+nourishing of the embryo plant. It is a little store of food prepared by
+the mother plant for the little ones that grow from the seeds. Note that
+it disappears as the plant grows.
+
+To further show the great value of this stored plant food, put a
+large-sized pea in a pot of moist moss or sawdust for a few days. When
+it has germinated and its root is a couple of inches long, place the pea
+in a thistle tube or small funnel, with the root projecting down the
+tube into a glass of water in which the funnel tube rests. Place all in
+a sunny window and note how much growth the plant is able to make
+without any food except that which the seed contained.
+
+9. Note the development of the root and root-hairs. It is by means of
+these root-hairs that the plant absorbs moisture. The branching form of
+the root gives greater support to the plant and increased area for
+absorption of water by means of root-hairs.
+
+To show the direction taken by the root and also by the shoot, take a
+glass jar with straight sides like a battery jar (a large fruit jar will
+do); line it inside with a layer of blotting-paper and then fill it with
+moist sawdust. Drop seeds of sunflower or squash down between the paper
+and the glass. The moisture from the blotting-paper will cause them to
+sprout, the shoot or stem always taking an upward direction and the root
+turning downward quite regardless of the position in which the seeds
+were placed.
+
+10. Apply this study to seed planting: Plant seeds of wheat in four pots
+of soil, No. 1, half an inch deep; No. 2, two inches; No. 3, four
+inches; No. 4, six inches. Repeat this experiment, using buckwheat. What
+seeds are up first? What seeds last? Which are best after a week? After
+three or four weeks? From this experiment could you recommend a certain
+depth for the planting of wheat and buckwheat?
+
+11. Does the kind of soil make any difference? To answer this have
+different pupils choose different soils, such as (1) coarse sand, (2)
+fine sand, (3) wet clay, (4) humus or leaf mould, (5) mixed soil or
+loam; and let each put in grains of wheat, two inches deep.
+
+Allow five other pupils to plant seeds of buckwheat, under similar
+conditions. Treat all pots alike as to time of watering and quantity of
+water used on each and give them all equal light and heat. Note which
+come up first. Which are highest in one week, in two weeks, in four
+weeks?
+
+12. This study may be continued in the garden by planting one plot each
+of corn, wheat, and buckwheat. Plots ten feet by twenty feet are large
+enough. Observe the rate of development in the plots. Which seems to
+mature most quickly? Which blossoms first? In what respect are the
+leaves of these plants alike or unlike? How do the stems differ?
+
+Examine the blossoming and seed formation. When the grains are ripe,
+collect a hundred of the best looking and most compact heads of each
+grain and also a hundred of the smallest heads of each. Dry, shell, and
+store the two samples of each grain in separate bottles. These samples
+are for planting the following spring.
+
+13. To show the need of moisture in germination: Fill two flower-pots or
+cans with dry sand; put seeds of sunflower in each, covering them an
+inch deep. Put water in one pot and none in the other. Examine both pots
+after two or three days.
+
+14. To show that heat is needed for germination of seeds: Plant
+sunflower seeds in two pots as above; place one in a warm room and the
+other in a cold room or refrigerator; water both and observe result in
+three days.
+
+15. To show that air is necessary for germination: Fill a pint sealer
+with hydrogen (the gas collected over water in the usual way, as shown
+in any Chemistry text-book). Put a few sunflower seeds in a small sponge
+or wrap them loosely in a piece of soft cloth. Keeping the mouth of the
+jar which has been inverted over water and filled with hydrogen, under
+the surface of the water, introduce the sponge containing the seeds, by
+putting it under the water and pushing it up into the jar. Seal the jar
+without letting the gas get out. Put some seeds in another jar in a wet
+sponge and leave the jar uncovered. Compare results after several days.
+
+Here is a second experiment to prove this. Boil some water in a beaker
+in order to drive out all the air, put a few grains of rice in the
+water, and then add enough oil to make a thin covering on the water.
+This covering will prevent air from mixing with the water again. Put
+some rice in a second beaker without boiling or adding the oil. Leave
+the beakers side by side in a warm room for a week. The seeds will not
+germinate in the boiled water. It is not always easy to get rice that
+will germinate, but when it has been procured, the experiment is easy
+and very interesting. Any other seeds, such as those of pond lily and
+eel-grass, that germinate readily under water, will do as well as rice.
+
+WEEDS
+
+Pupils in this Form should learn to identify a large number of weeds and
+weed seeds. The collecting and mounting of weeds and weed seeds the
+previous summer and autumn will have helped to prepare them for this
+work. In the spring, when flower and vegetable seeds are coming up in
+the garden, it is often difficult for pupils to distinguish the weeds
+from the useful plants. To help in this work of distinguishing the good
+from the bad, the teacher should arrange for a plot having, say, ten
+rows, one row for each variety of weed selected. Each row should be
+designated by a number instead of a name. The identification of these
+growing weeds by name may be given as a problem to the pupils. This
+plot should remain until the pupils have observed the manner of growth
+of each variety, the blossoming and seed formation, and then the root
+growth, as they are being uprooted previous to the ripening of the seed.
+Each pupil should prepare a brief description of each of the ten
+varieties studied, and make drawings of the plant and its parts,
+especially the leaf, flower, seed, and root. They should learn the best
+methods of eradication and add these in their notes. _Farm Weeds_ will
+be of great value in such weed studies.
+
+VINES
+
+Suitable garden vines for study are climbing nasturtium, scarlet runner
+bean, and Japanese hop. Their growth and method of climbing should be
+compared with that of the sweet-pea and morning-glory already studied.
+Observe particularly the kind of leaves and their arrangement, also the
+flowers and fruit. Observe also the gourd family--melon, cucumber, and
+squash--their tendency to climb, and the nature of their flowers and
+fruit.
+
+WILD FLOWERS
+
+In schools where the studies with garden plants, such as have been
+indicated, can be carried on, there will not be as much time for the
+study of wild flowers as in those schools where no garden plants are
+available. A definite list of wild flowers for study should be arranged
+by the teacher early in spring.
+
+The following are common in most parts of Ontario: squirrel-corn,
+Dutchman's breeches, blue cohosh, dog's-tooth violet, water-parsnip,
+catnip, and mallow. In each study observe the following points:
+
+1. Description of leaves and flowers for identification.
+
+2. Storing of food in underground parts.
+
+3. Time of flowering. (Pupils of this Form should keep a flower
+calendar.)
+
+4. Description of fruit and seeds and how these are scattered.
+
+5. Their location, and the character of the soil where found.
+
+Encourage the pupils to transplant a specimen of each from the woods to
+the school or home garden. Moist humus soil and partial shade are the
+best conditions for the growth of these wild wood flowers. Review the
+type lessons given already for Primary classes and apply the information
+thus gained to the observational study of the varieties of flowers named
+above.
+
+PLANTING OF TREES, SHRUBS, AND HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS IN HOME AND SCHOOL
+GROUNDS
+
+This work should be the outcome of the plans made in the winter. If each
+pupil does a little toward the carrying out of the scheme of planting,
+the grounds will soon be wonderfully improved. The teacher should guard
+against over-planting and arrange for the care of the shrubs and flowers
+during the summer holidays.
+
+New varieties of herbaceous perennials, grown from seed planted the
+previous summer or procured from homes in the vicinity, should be
+introduced. As most herbaceous perennials become too thick after a few
+years, it is necessary to keep digging some out year by year, dividing
+and resetting them, and fertilizing the ground.
+
+Native trees and shrubs should be placed so as to obscure undesirable
+views, such as closets and outbuildings, rough fences, or bare walls.
+This principle in planting should be observed in the case of trees.
+Evergreen trees are particularly desirable as screens and shelters from
+cold winds. No planting should be done, on the other hand, that would
+shut out a good view of the school or obscure a beautiful landscape. Too
+frequently unused corners of the school ground are covered with weeds.
+Prevent this by putting trees there and also shrubs. Keep all centres
+open, and let the trees, shrubs, and flowering perennials be massed
+about the corners and along the sides. The informal method of planting
+is to be preferred to formal planting of designs. The Public School
+Inspector will provide a copy of a departmental circular on the
+_Improvement of School Grounds_, which should be carefully studied by
+every teacher.
+
+SHADE TREES
+
+Consider suitable varieties to plant for shade and for ornamental
+effects. White elm, hard and soft maple, white birch, pines, and spruces
+are among the best. Elms and maples are excellent trees for roadside or
+street planting, and should be about forty feet apart. Spruces and pines
+may be planted five or six feet apart along the north and west, to act
+as a wind break. Otherwise, evergreens are best when planted in
+triangular clumps. White birch is particularly ornamental against a dark
+background of evergreens. Specimen trees of horse-chestnut, beech, ash,
+and hickory are also desirable.
+
+TRANSPLANTING
+
+The best time for transplanting trees is in the autumn after the leaves
+have fallen, or in the spring before the buds have opened.
+
+In planting a tree, the following points should be observed:
+
+1. Preserve as much of the root system as possible, and trim off all
+broken or bruised portions.
+
+2. Do not expose the roots to sun or wind while out of the ground. This
+is especially important in transplanting evergreens.
+
+3. Reduce the top of the tree sufficiently to balance with the reduced
+root system.
+
+4. Set the tree a few inches deeper than it was before transplanting.
+
+5. Pack the best top soil closely about the roots, so as to exclude all
+air spaces, since these tend to dry the delicate roots.
+
+6. If the ground is very dry, water should be used in planting;
+otherwise it is of no advantage. Water the trees thoroughly once a week
+in dry weather during the first season.
+
+7. After planting, put a mulch or covering of fine straw, grass, or
+chips for two or three feet around the tree; or establish a soil mulch
+and keep down the grass by frequent cultivation. Grass roots dry out the
+soil.
+
+8. In the case of deciduous trees, have the lowest limbs at least seven
+feet from the ground. Evergreens, however, should never be trimmed, but
+should have their branches right from the ground up--this uninterrupted
+pyramid form is one of their chief beauties.
+
+
+ANIMAL STUDIES
+
+SCALE INSECTS
+
+SAN JOSE SCALE
+
+Certain districts in Ontario and especially those bordering on Lake Erie
+have suffered from the ravages of this scale on apple, peach, pear, and
+other orchard trees. A hand lens should be used in studying these
+insects, observations being carried on from May to September.
+
+Carefully examine the fruits and twigs of orchard trees for evidences of
+the presence of the scale, and learn to identify it and to recognize the
+damages resulting from its attacks.
+
+Observe the almost circular flat scale of a grayish colour and having a
+minute point projecting upward at its centre. The young insects which
+emerge from underneath these scales in the spring crawl around for a
+time, then become stationary, and each one secretes a scale under which
+it matures. The mature males have two wings but the mature females are
+wingless. Note the withering of fruit and twigs due to the insects'
+attacks and the minute openings in the skin of the twig, made by the
+insertion of the sucking mouth parts.
+
+Describe to the pupils how the insect was transported from Japan to
+America and how it is now spread on nursery stock. Give a brief account
+of its destructiveness in the orchards of Essex and Kent.
+
+     (Consult _Bulletin No. 153, Common Insects Affecting Fruit
+     Trees and Fungus Diseases Affecting Fruit Trees_. Bethune &
+     Jarvis, Department of Agriculture, Toronto, free.)
+
+OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE
+
+This is very common throughout the Province on apple and pear trees.
+Observe the unhealthy appearance of the leaves of the infested trees,
+the inferior quality of the fruit, and the gray scales shaped like tiny
+oyster-shells.
+
+The means of destroying these pests should be discussed. The Bulletins
+named above give detailed information in reference to spraying and
+fumigation.
+
+CUTWORMS
+
+     (Consult _Bulletin 52_, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.)
+
+Cutworms are the larvae of medium-sized brown moths that fly at night.
+There are many species of cutworms, all of which are destructive to some
+forms of plants or grasses, grains, and vegetables.
+
+The larvae are rather thick, naked, worm-like forms. They burrow into the
+ground, but emerge at night to feed by cutting through the stems of
+tender plants or by feeding upon the leaves. For the most effective
+method of dealing with these refer to what is said on "Combating Garden
+Pests", Form II.
+
+When a field is known to be infested with cutworms, it is a good plan to
+spread poisoned clover or cabbage leaves over the ground before the seed
+is planted.
+
+WHITE GRUBS
+
+White grubs are large, fat, white larvae of June beetles. These beetles
+are the well-known large, brown, clumsy beetles that blunder into the
+house at night in May or June and drop with a thud upon the floor.
+Three years are spent in the larval form, the grubs living underground
+and feeding on the roots of plants, especially the roots of grains and
+grasses.
+
+Since they are found chiefly in fields recently ploughed from grass,
+they may be held in check by rotation of crops and by fall ploughing,
+which exposes the larvae to the winter frosts.
+
+In May or June, when the adults are feeding on the foliage of fruit and
+shade trees, spraying the trees with London purple is quite effective
+for destroying the beetles before they have laid their eggs among the
+roots of the grass.
+
+Hogs destroy many larvae by rooting in the soil to find them for food.
+
+CRAYFISH
+
+Search for the crayfish in streams and ponds. Why is the crayfish hard
+to find? Hard to capture?
+
+Obtain a living crayfish from a pond or stream and place it in a jar of
+water or in an aquarium.
+
+The crayfish should not be placed in an aquarium containing insects and
+small fish which are to be kept, as it is fierce and voracious.
+
+The pupils should study the living animal, noting its habit of lurking
+under stones; the sweeping of the water with the feelers; the backward
+movement in swimming, produced by bending the tail sharply underneath
+the body; the walking by means of four pairs of legs, the great claws
+being used to turn the animal; the use of the great claws in seizing
+prey and holding food near the mouth; the movements of the small
+appendages under the front part of the animal and the water currents
+caused by these; the movements of the small appendages under the abdomen
+of the animal.
+
+FRESHWATER MUSSEL
+
+The freshwater mussel--"clam" as it is usually called by
+school-boys--may be found in almost any stream.
+
+Place a mussel in the aquarium, and note the opening and closing of the
+valves of the shell; the hinge connecting the valves; the foot
+protruding from the shell; the movements by means of the foot; the
+mantle lobes lining the shell and visible at the open margins; the two
+siphons at the rear of the animal--water currents may be observed
+entering the upper and emerging from the lower of these. Infer uses for
+these currents. Touch the edge of the upper siphon and observe how
+quickly the shell is closed.
+
+Compare the mussel with the snail as to movements and shell.
+
+Compare also with the oyster and sea clam.
+
+Examine empty shells and notice the pearly layer of the shell, the
+action of the hinge, and the marks on the shell to which the muscles for
+closing the shell were attached.
+
+State all the means of protection that you have discovered the animal to
+possess.
+
+
+BIRD STUDY
+
+     (Consult _Bulletin 218. Birds of Ontario in Relation to
+     Agriculture_, Nash. Department of Agriculture, free.)
+
+If the lessons in bird study which are prescribed for Forms I, II, and
+III have been successful, the pupils of Form IV should have a fair
+acquaintance with the habits of the common birds.
+
+A very interesting exercise is to hold a trial upon those birds which
+are viewed with suspicion or which are openly condemned as objectionable
+neighbours. A pupil is appointed to act as judge and other pupils give
+evidence. The evidence must be based upon the pupil's personal
+observations on the habits of the bird.
+
+The following birds are named, and brief descriptions of their habits
+are given as suggestions for materials for bird trials:
+
+ROBIN.--He steals small fruits, such as cherries, currants, etc. He is a
+cheerful, jolly neighbour, who sings sweetly. He eats great numbers of
+cutworms and white grubs.
+
+CROW.--He robs the nests of other birds, and steals chickens, corn, and
+potatoes. He helps the farmer by killing cutworms, white grubs,
+grasshoppers, and other insects.
+
+WOODPECKER.--The members of this family are grievously persecuted
+because they are believed to injure orchard and shade trees by pecking
+holes in the bark from which to suck the sap. Careful observations tend
+to show that the trees are benefited rather than injured by this
+treatment. Woodpeckers are undoubtedly beneficial as destroyers of
+wood-borers and other obnoxious insects.
+
+CROW-BLACKBIRD (bronzed grackle).--His habits are similar to those of
+the crow.
+
+OWLS.--All the owls are held in ill repute because of the crimes of a
+few members of the family. Very seldom does an owl steal a chicken;
+their food consists chiefly of mice, rats, squirrels, grasshoppers, and
+other field pests.
+
+HAWKS.--The hawks are unjustly persecuted for crimes of which they are
+seldom guilty. As a class they are beneficial, not injurious birds.
+
+
+DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF NATURE STUDY
+
+There is a knowledge of Nature which contributes to the earning of a
+living. This is the _utilitarian_ aspect.
+
+There is a knowledge of Nature which may be obtained in such a way as to
+develop the observing and reasoning powers and give a training in
+scientific method. This is the _disciplinary_ aspect.
+
+There is a knowledge which leads the pupil to perceive the beautiful in
+Nature, to enjoy it and so add to his happiness. This is the _aesthetic_
+aspect.
+
+There is a knowledge of Nature which, through the life history of plant
+and animal, throws light on the pupil's own life, gives him an insight
+into all life in its unity, and leads him to look up reverently to the
+author of all life--through Nature up to Nature's God. This is the
+_spiritual_ aspect.
+
+Each of these aspects supplements, interprets, or enforces the others.
+He who omits or neglects any of these perceives but a part of a complete
+whole. Nature Study develops in the pupil a sympathetic attitude toward
+Nature for the purpose of increasing the joy of living. It leads him to
+see Nature through the eyes of the poet and the moralist as well as
+through those of the scientist.
+
+Nature Study is concerned with plants, birds, insects, stones, clouds,
+brooks, etc., but it is not botany, ornithology, entomology, geology,
+meteorology, or geography. In this study, it is the spirit of inquiry
+developed rather than the number of facts ascertained that is important.
+Gradually it becomes more systematic as it advances until, in the high
+school, it passes over into the science group of studies.
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS OF THESE ASPECTS
+
+The simple observational lessons on The Robin, pages 96-7, form the
+bases for further study in more advanced classes. This bird as a
+destroyer of worms, beetles, etc., is a valuable assistant to the farmer
+as, indeed, are practically all birds in this Province. Birds such as
+the duck, goose, partridge, etc., are valuable as food, and laws are
+made to protect them during certain seasons.
+
+The training in inference which a pupil receives in studying the parts
+of a plant or an animal and the adaptation of these parts to function is
+valuable. He studies the plant and the animal as living organisms with
+work to do in the world, and learns how what they do and their manner of
+doing it affect their form and structure.
+
+The short, curved, and slightly hooked bill of the hen and her method of
+breaking open a pea pod or splitting an object too large to swallow
+shows the bill to be a mallet, a wedge, or a pick as the case may be. A
+study of the bills of the duck, woodpecker, and hawk will reveal the
+method by which each gets his food and how the organ is adapted to its
+purpose. Similar studies of the feet and legs of birds will make the
+idea of adaptation increasingly clear.
+
+Literature is rich with tributes to the songs of the birds. The thoughts
+and feelings aroused or suggested by these songs are the topics of much
+of the world's enduring poetry. Longfellow, in his "Birds of
+Killing-worth" (_Tales of a Wayside Inn_) sings exquisitely of the use
+and beauty and worth of birds. Shelley, in his "Skylark", describes in
+glowing verse "the unbodied joy" that "singing still dost soar and
+soaring ever singest". Wordsworth hears the blithe new comer, the
+Cuckoo, and rejoices
+
+    Though babbling only to the vale
+      Of sunshine and of flowers
+    Thou bringest unto me a tale
+      Of visionary hours.
+
+The life story of a bird throws light on our own lives, puts us in
+sympathy with the lives of others, teaches kindness, teaches the duties
+and responsibilities of the higher to the lower, teaches respect for all
+life.
+
+Observe the helpless bird in its nest, helpless as a baby. See the care
+given by the mother and father to keep it warm till its down and
+feathers grow, to feed it till it is able to leave the nest. Watch the
+parents teaching it to fly by repeated short flights. Olive Thorn Miller
+in her _Bird Ways_ gives a delightful sketch of the father robin
+teaching a young robin where to look for worms and how to dig them up.
+When that task was accomplished, his father began to give him "music
+lessons", that is, practice in imitating the Robin's song. Thus, the
+young bird was equipped to make a living and to enjoy life. The social
+life of birds, as they sing their matins, as they choose their mates, as
+they gather in flocks preparatory to migration, furnish many
+opportunities for indirect teaching on many of life's problems.
+
+The Ontario Readers contain many poems that may be used in connection
+with the Nature Study lessons. To supplement the observational studies
+of birds, read from the Third Reader, "The Robin's Song", "The
+Red-winged Blackbird", "The Sandpiper", "To the Cuckoo", "Bob White",
+"The Lark and the Rook", "The Poet's Song".
+
+In the Third Reader, the lessons on "The Fountain", "The Brook", "The
+Tide River", and "A Song of the Sea" form a group that can be used in
+connection with lessons in geography. "A Song for April", "An Apple
+Orchard in the Spring", "The Gladness of Nature", "The Orchard", "A
+Midsummer Song", "Corn-fields", "The Corn Song", "The Death of the
+Flowers", "The Frost", "The Snow-storm", make another group to accompany
+a study of the seasons. A similar group may be selected from the Fourth
+Reader.
+
+The pupil who has made a study of a "brook" as a lesson in geography and
+defined it as "a small natural stream of water flowing from a spring or
+fountain" will, if he studies the following lines from Tennyson's "The
+Brook" and perceives by careful observation the descriptive accuracy and
+aptness of the words in italics, realize that the poet sees much that
+the geographer has not included in his definition.
+
+    I _chatter_ over stony ways,
+      In little sharps and trebles,
+    I _bubble_ into eddying bays,
+      I _babble_ on the pebbles.
+
+           *     *     *
+
+    I _slip_, I _slide_, I _gloom_, I _glance_.
+      Among my skimming swallows;
+
+           *     *     *
+
+    I _murmur_ under moon and stars.
+
+
+           *     *     *
+
+
+    I _linger_ by my shingly bars.
+      I _loiter_ round my cresses.
+
+Correlations such as these add greatly to the pupil's interest in this
+subject.
+
+Given a teacher with a love of out-of-door life, with observant eyes and
+ears, and the spirit that sympathizes with children's curiosity and
+stimulates inquiry, Nature Study will be a joy and an inspiration to
+pupils.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Teachers' Manuals: Nature Study, by
+Ontario Ministry of Education
+
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