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diff --git a/26139-8.txt b/26139-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..15b7b36 --- /dev/null +++ b/26139-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10830 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Teachers' Manuals: Nature Study, by +Ontario Ministry of Education + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Ontario Teachers' Manuals: Nature Study + +Author: Ontario Ministry of Education + +Release Date: July 28, 2008 [EBook #26139] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS: NATURE *** + + + + +Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, Josephine Paolucci and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net. +(This file was produced from images generously made +available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + +ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS + +NATURE STUDY + + +AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION + + +TORONTO +THE RYERSON PRESS + + +COPYRIGHT, CANADA, 1915, BY +THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION FOR ONTARIO +Second Printing, 1918 +Third Printing, 1923 +Fourth Printing, 1924 + +Transcriber's note: Minor typos have been corrected. Italics are +indicated by subscripts (_) and bold words are indicated by tildes (~). + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PAGE +PREFATORY NOTE 1 + +COURSE OF STUDY--DETAILS 3 + + +CHAPTER I + +The Aims of Nature Study; General Methods 13 + Concrete Material 15 + Topics and material must suit the season; + matter suited to the child; use of the commonplace; + order of development of lesson; problems in observation; + note-books and records 15 + +The School Garden 19 + Suggestions; Garden Expenses 20 + +The Excursion 23 + Its value; difficulties; frequency; + suggestions for ungraded schools; + the teacher's excursions; a type excursion 23 + Collections 29 + +Animal Studies 29 + Domestic animals; references 29 + Birds; references 30 + Insects; insect collections 34 + Butterfly and moth collections 37 + +Plant Collections 39 + + +CHAPTER II + +Physical Science Phase of Nature Study 42 + +Instructions and General Method 42 + Value of such lessons; conditions under which experiments + should be performed 42 + Correlations of physical science phase 44 + List of Reference Books and Bulletins on garden and plant + study, physical science, and animal study 45 + +Physical Science--Equipment for Forms III and IV 47 + Desirable apparatus 47 + +Chemicals 48 + +Apparatus 50 + Grenet cells; decomposition apparatus; pneumatic trough; + spirit-lamp; barometer; hygrometer; hints 50 + +Time Apportioned to Nature Study 53 + + +CHAPTER III. FORM I: AUTUMN + +Garden Work 54 + Lessons on a Garden Plant--Pansy 55 + Observation Exercises on the Dandelion 57 + Correlation with literature and reading 59 + Dwarf Nasturtium 59 + +Seeds 60 + Field exercise; class-room lesson based on the collection 60 + Seed Dispersal 61 + Lesson on seeds that fly; correlations 62 + +Twigs and Buds 62 + Lesson on Twigs 62 + Further study of twigs; review lesson 63 + Lesson on Buds 65 + Review lesson; correlations 65 + +Leaves 66 + Field exercises; class-room lesson on leaves 66 + +Garden Studies 68 + Studies in the Pupil's individual Plot 68 + Studies from the Garden as a Whole 69 + +Bulb Planting 69 + Lesson on Bulbs and Bulb Planting 69 + Planting the bulb 70 + + +CHAPTER IV. FORM I: WINTER + +Pet Animals 72 + The Rabbit--Lesson on; correlations 72 + The Domestic Cat--detailed study 75 + The Pigeon--detailed study 76 + +Winter-blooming Plants--Observation and care of 78 + +Trees 79 + Pines of the Locality 79 + The White Pine 79 + Field exercises; class-room lesson 79 + The Elm--field exercise 82 + +Domestic Animals 83 + The Horse; correlations 83 + +Domestic Birds 85 + The Duck--class-room lesson 85 + + +CHAPTER V. FORM I: SPRING + +Garden Work 87 + Garden Studies--window garden 88 + +Wild Flowers 90 + Recognition of Wild Flowers 91 + Lesson in Outline--Bloodroot; correlations 91 + +Insect Study 93 + Cecropia, or Emperor-moth 93 + Dragon-fly 94 + Other Conspicuous Insects 95 + +Birds 95 + The Robin 96 + Field exercises; the nest, eggs, and young 96 + The Song-sparrow 97 + Field exercises; class-room lesson 97 + +The Sheep 99 + Problems for Field Work 99 + + +CHAPTER VI. FORM II: AUTUMN + +Bulb Planting Out-of-Doors 101 + Bed for growing bulbs; planting of bulbs indoors 101 + +Garden Work 103 + Seed selection; storing seeds; + harvesting and storing of garden crops; class-room lesson; + autumn cultivation 103 + +Garden Studies 106 + Garden Records; correlations 107 + +Climbing Plants 108 + +Trees 109 + Storing of Tree Seeds 110 + +A Flower 110 + Type--Nasturtium 110 + +Soil Studies 112 + Kinds of Soil 112 + +Animal Studies 113 + Bird Migration; correlations 113 + Common Wild Animals 114 + General method for field work 114 + The Wood-chuck 116 + The Chipmunk--field exercises 117 + The Eastern Swallow-tail Butterfly 118 + + +CHAPTER VII. FORM II: WINTER + +Care of Plants in the Home 120 + +Trees 121 + Collection of Wood Specimens 122 + +Related Reading 122 + +The Dog 123 + Class-room lesson; observation exercises; correlations 123 + +Lessons Involving Comparison 125 + Cat and dog; experiments for assisting in the study + of the cat; comparison of the horse and cow 126 + +The Squirrel 129 + Field exercises; class-room lesson 129 + +Winter Birds 130 + Field exercises; class-room lesson; correlations 130 + +Animals of the Zoological Gardens 132 + + +CHAPTER VIII. FORM II: SPRING + +Garden Work 133 + Combating Garden Pests 134 + Cutworms; root-maggots; flea-beetles 134 + Seed Germination 135 + +Plants for Individual Plots 137 + Studies Based on Observations of Growing Plants 137 + Planting and care of sweet-peas 138 + +Wild Flowers 139 + +Weeds 140 + +The Apple Tree 141 + Field exercise; class-room lesson; + field exercise following class-room lesson 141 + +Bird Study 143 + +The Toad 143 + Field exercises; class-room lesson; detailed study; + life history of the toad 143 + +The Earthworm 147 + Class-room lesson; references 148 + +The Aquarium 149 + Aquarium Specimens 150 + Mosquito; study of adult form; the development; references 150 + Caddice-fly 152 + +Insects Suitable for Lessons in Form II 153 + + +CHAPTER IX. FORM III: AUTUMN + +Garden Work 154 + Treatment of Fungi 154 + Treatment of Insects--cabbage-worm 156 + +Plants 158 + Annuals, Biennials, and Perennials 158 + Class-room lesson 158 + Garden Studies 159 + Annuals, biennials, perennials 159 + Special Study of Garden Plants 160 + Sweet-pea; pumpkin; corn; correlations 160 + +Seed Dispersal--Lesson 164 + Detailed Study of Seed Dispersal--class-room lesson 165 + Seed collections; man as a disperser of seeds 166 + +The Sugar Maple--field exercises 168 + Maple Leaves--class-room lesson; correlations 169 + +Weed Studies 170 + Observation lesson on weed seeds 171 + +Grasshopper--field exercises; class-room lesson 172 + +Aphides 174 + +Tomato Worm--the adult; the chrysalis 175 + +The Crow; correlations 177 + + +CHAPTER X. FORM III: WINTER + +Care of Plants in the Home 178 + Plant Cuttings 179 + Selection of cuttings; potting of rooted cuttings 179 + +Evergreens--class-room lesson 181 + +Collection of Wood Specimens 182 + +Related Reading 183 + +How Animals Prepare for Winter 183 + Summary of Lessons; correlations 184 + +Chickens 185 + Conversation lesson; arithmetic lesson; + care and food of chickens 185 + +Physical Science Phase of Nature Study 188 + +Solids, Liquids, and Gases 188 + Change of State 189 + Expansion of Solids 189 + Practical applications; questions for further investigation 190 + Expansion of Liquids--applications 192 + The Thermometer 193 + Expansion of Air 194 + Sources of Heat and Light 194 + Notes for a Series of Lessons 194 + Conduction--problems 196 + Convection--problems, convection in gases; applications 198 + Radiation of Heat--problems 199 + + +CHAPTER XI. FORM III: SPRING + +Window Boxes 201 + +Window Gardens 201 + Suitable Plants; Fertilizer 202 + +Soil Studies--constituents 203 + +Garden Work 206 + Tree Seeds 207 + Transplanting--flowers, vegetables, tree seedlings 208 + Budding 209 + Cuttings--leaf cuttings, root cuttings, layering 211 + Planting and Care of Herbaceous Perennials 212 + Garden Studies--biennials 212 + +Wild Flowers 213 + Study of the Trillium 213 + Class-room lesson on the specimens 213 + +Adaptations of Animals 215 + +Bird Types 217 + Woodpeckers--the downy woodpecker; observations 217 + Flycatchers 219 + Wrens 219 + +Insect Types 220 + Cabbage-butterfly 220 + Tussock-moth 221 + Potato beetle 222 + References 222 + +Fish--Observations; problems; references 223 + + +CHAPTER XII. FORM IV: AUTUMN + +Garden Work 225 + Herbaceous Perennials from Seed 226 + +Trees--Deciduous; references 227 + Trees in Relation to their Environment 228 + +Fruits--Excursion to a well-kept orchard 229 + Small Fruits 230 + +Autumn Wild Flowers--Milkweed; correlations 230 + +Trees--The White Pine 232 + Outline of a class-room lesson on the white pine; + correlations; references 235 + +Apples--Comparative Lesson on Winter Varieties 239 + King, Baldwin, Northern Spy 239 + Codling moth; references 240 + +Some Common Animal Forms; references 242 + Centipeds and millipeds 243 + Salamanders or newts 243 + Spiders 244 + +Bird Studies 245 + + +CHAPTER XIII. FORM IV: WINTER + +Forest Trees 246 + Evergreens; Wood Specimens 246 + +Fruits 247 + +Weeds and Weed Seeds 248 + +Physical Science Phase of Nature Study 248 + Water Pressure--exercises 248 + Study of Air 249 + The barometer; the common pump; expansive + force of air; composition of air; + oxygen; carbon dioxide; impurities of air 250 + Solutions of Solids 255 + Solutions of Liquids 256 + Solutions of Gases 256 + Limestone 256 + Carbon 257 + Hydrogen 258 + Magnets 258 + Electricity 259 + Steam 260 + Farm tools--machines; problems 260 + + +CHAPTER XIV. FORM IV: SPRING + +Method of Improving Home and School Grounds 263 + Making and Care of a Lawn; References 264 + +Soil Studies 265 + Weight 265 + Subsoils 266 + Fertilizers--experiments 268 + Soil-forming Agents 268 + Tilling the Soil 269 + Garden Work--experiments in plots out-of-doors 270 + Function of Parts of Plants 273 + How the plant gets its food from the soil; + germination of some of the common grains 274 + Weeds 278 + Vines 279 + Wild Flowers 279 + Planting of Trees, Shrubs, and Herbaceous + Perennials in Home and School Grounds 280 + Shade trees; transplanting 281 + +Animal Studies 283 + Scale Insects 283 + San José scale; oyster-shell bark-louse; cutworms; white grubs 283 + Crayfish 285 + Freshwater Mussel 286 + +Bird Study 287 + +Different Aspects of Nature Study 288 + + + + +PREFATORY NOTE + + +This Manual is placed in the hands of the teachers in the hope that the +suggestions which it contains on lesson topics, materials, books of +reference, and methods in teaching will be found helpful to all teachers +and in particular to those who have had little or no instruction in +Nature Study during their academic or professional training. + +The first Chapter of the Manual discusses topics which have general +reference to the subject as a whole. The remaining part of the Manual +deals more particularly with the subject in its application to the +different Public and Separate School Forms. While this division of the +matter into Forms is convenient for general classification, it is not to +be regarded as arbitrary. Materials and methods of presentation suitable +for one class of pupils in a certain Form might, under different +conditions, be quite unsuitable for another class of pupils in the same +Form. For example, work which would be suitable for a class in Form I +made up of pupils admitted to a school at seven or eight years of age, +after two years' training in a kindergarten where nature lessons +received special attention, would not be suitable for a Form I class +made up of pupils admitted to a school at five years of age with no such +previous training. In selecting work for any class the teacher, +therefore, should not be guided solely by the arbitrary divisions of the +Manual, but should exercise his own judgment, taking into account his +environment and the attainments of his pupils. To facilitate such a +selection, page references are given in the details of the Course of +Study, which in reality forms a detailed expansion of the Public and +Separate School Course in Nature Study. By means of these references, +the teacher may find, in any department of the subject, typical matter +suited to the development of his pupils. + +The numerous type lessons that are contained in the Manual are intended +to suggest principles of method that are to be applied in lessons upon +the same and similar topics, but the teacher is cautioned against +attempting to imitate these lessons. This error can be avoided by the +teacher's careful preparation of the lesson. This preparation should +include the careful study of the concrete materials that are to be used. +The books, bulletins, etc., that are named in the Manual as references +will be found helpful. + +To facilitate teaching through the experimental and investigation +methods, special attention has been given to the improvising of simple +apparatus from materials within the reach of every teacher. + +From the character of the subject the Course of Study must be more or +less elastic, and the topics detailed in the programme are intended to +be suggestive rather than prescriptive. It may be that, owing to local +conditions, topics not named are among the best that can be used, but +all substitutions and changes should be made a subject of consultation +with the Inspector. The treatment of the subject must always be suited +to the age and experience of the pupils, to the seasons of the year, +accessibility of materials, etc. Notes should not be dictated by the +teacher. Mere information, whether from book, written note, or teacher, +is not Nature Study. The acquisition of knowledge must be made secondary +to awakening and maintaining the pupil's interest in nature and to +training him to habits of observation and investigation. + +As a guide to the minimum of work required, it is suggested that at +least one lesson be taught from the subjects outlined under each general +heading in the detailed Course of Study, with a minimum average of three +lessons from the subjects under each general heading. + + + + +PUBLIC AND SEPARATE SCHOOL + +COURSE OF STUDY + +DETAILS + + +FORM I + +AUTUMN + +GARDEN WORK AND GARDEN STUDIES: + +Division of the garden plots, removal of weeds and observations on these +weeds, identification of garden plants, observation lessons based on +garden plants, selection of seeds, harvesting and disposing of the crop. +(See pp. 54-9.) + +STUDY OF PLANTS: + +Class lessons based on a flowering garden plant, as pansy, aster, +nasturtium; study of a field plant, as buttercup, goldenrod, dandelion. +(See pp. 55-9.) + +Potted and garden plants: Observation lesson based on a bulb; planting +bulbs in pots, or in the garden. (See pp. 69-71.) + +BIRDS AND CONSPICUOUS INSECTS: + +Identification of a few common birds, as robin, English sparrow, +meadow-lark; observation lessons on the habits of these birds; +collection of the adult forms, the larvæ and the cocoons of a few common +moths and butterflies, as emperor-moth, promothea moth, eastern +swallow-tail butterfly. (See pp. 30-9 and 93-8.) + +COMMON TREES: + +Identification of a few common trees, as white pine, elm, maple; +observations on the general shape, branches, leaves, and bark of these +trees. (See pp. 62-7 and 79-82.) + +WINTER + +FARM ANIMALS, INCLUDING FOWLS: + +Habits and characteristics of a few domestic animals, as horse, cow, +sheep, hen, duck; the uses of these animals, and how to take care of +them. (See pp. 83-6.) + +PET ANIMALS: + +Observations on the habits, movements, and characteristics of pet +animals, as cat, pigeon, bantam, rabbit, etc.; conversations about the +natural homes and habits of these animals, and inferences upon their +care. (See pp. 72-7.) + +COMMON TREES: + +Observations on the branching of common trees. (See pp. 79-82.) + +SPRING + +GARDEN WORK: + +Preparation, planting, and care of the garden plot; observations on the +growing plants. (See pp. 87-90.) + +FLOWERS: + +Identification and study of a few spring flowers, as trillium, +bloodroot, hepatica, spring-beauty. (See pp. 90-2.) + +BIRDS AND INSECTS: + +Identification and study of the habits of a few common birds, as +song-sparrow, blue-bird, wren; observations of the form and habits of a +few common insects, as house-fly, dragon-fly. (See pp. 30-3 and 93-9.) + +COMMON TREES: + +Observations on the opening buds of the trees which were studied in the +Autumn. (See p. 65.) + + +FORM II + +AUTUMN + +BIRDS AND INSECTS: + +Autumn migration of birds; identification and observations on the habits +and movements of a few common insects, including their larval forms, as +grasshopper, eastern swallow-tail butterfly. (See pp. 113-4 and 118-9.) + +ANIMALS OF THE FARM, FIELD, AND WOOD: + +Observations on the homes and habits of wild animals, as frog, toad, +squirrel, ground-hog; habits and structures, including adaptive +features, of domestic animals, as dog, cat, horse, cow. (See pp. 83 and +123-30.) + +TREES OF THE FARM, ROADSIDE, WOOD, AND ORCHARD: + +Observations on the shapes, sizes, rate of growth, and usefulness of +common orchard, shade, and forest trees, as apple, elm, horse-chestnut. +(See pp. 109-10.) + +WILD FLOWERS AND WEEDS: + +Identification and study of a few common weeds, noting their means of +persistence and dispersal. (See pp. 139-40.) + +CARE OF POTTED AND GARDEN PLANTS: + +Preparation of pots and garden beds for bulbs; selecting and storing +garden seeds; observations on the habits of climbing plants, and +application of the knowledge gained to the care required for these +plants. (See pp. 101-9 and 120.) + +WINTER + +BIRDS: + +Identification of winter birds and study of their means of protection +and of obtaining food. (See pp. 130-2.) + +ANIMALS OF THE FARM: + +Comparative study of the horse and cow, of the dog and cat, and of the +duck and hen. (See pp. 123-8.) + +ANIMALS OF THE PARK AND ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN: + +Observations on the general structural features, noting the natural +adaptations of such animals as bear, lion, deer, tiger, etc. (See p. +132.) + +TREES: + +Winter study of trees, noting buds, branches, and foliage of spruce, +cedar, horse-chestnut, etc. (See pp. 121-3.) + +SPRING + +BIRDS AND INSECTS: + +Observations on the structure, adaptations and development of insect +larvæ kept in an aquarium, as larva of mosquito, dragon-fly, +caddice-fly; spring migration of birds. (See pp. 149-153.) + +ANIMALS OF THE FIELD AND WOODS: + +Observations on the forms, homes, habits, and foods of wild animals, +continued. (See pp. 114-8, 143-9.) + +ORCHARD TREES: + +The buds and blossoms of apple, and cherry or plum, observed through the +stages up to fruit formation. (See pp. 141-3.) + +EXPERIMENTS IN THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS: + +Germination of seeds and general observations on the stages of +development; testing the conditions required for seed germination; +introductory exercises in soil study as a preparation for seed planting. +(See pp. 133-8 and 112-3.) + +WILD FLOWERS AND WEEDS: + +Field and class-room study of marsh marigold, Jack-in-the-pulpit, +violet, etc. (See pp. 139-40.) + + +FORM III + +AUTUMN + +BIRDS AND INSECTS: + +Observations on the habits and the ravages of common noxious insects, as +cabbage-worm, grasshopper, tussock-moth, etc.; discussion of means of +checking these insects. (See pp. 156-7 and 172-7.) + +FARM AND WILD ANIMALS OF THE LOCALITY: + +Field study and class-room lessons on the habits and structure, +including adaptive features, of common animals, as musk-rat, fox, fish, +sheep. (See pp. 99 and 183-5.) + +GARDEN AND EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS: + +Harvesting of garden and field crops; preparation of cuttings from +geraniums, begonia, currant, etc.; identification of garden plants; seed +dispersal. (See pp. 154, 179-80, and 164-8.) + +STUDY OF COMMON FLOWERS, TREES, AND FRUITS: + +Characteristics of annuals, biennials, and perennials; life histories of +common plants, as sweet-pea, Indian corn, etc. (See pp. 158-64 and +168-70.) + +STUDY OF WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION: + +Identification of the common noxious weeds of the locality; collection, +description, and identification of weed seeds; cause of the prevalence +of the weeds studied, and means of checking them. (See pp. 164-8 and +170-2.) + +WINTER + +FARM AND WILD ANIMALS OF THE LOCALITY: + +Habits and instincts of common domestic animals, as fowls, sheep, and +hogs; the economic values of these animals. (See pp. 185-8.) + +GARDEN WORK AND EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS: + +The characteristics of common house plants, and care of these plants. +(See pp. 178-9.) + +STUDY OF COMMON FLOWERS, TREES, AND FRUITS: + +Comparative study of common evergreens, as balsam, spruce, hemlock, +etc.; collection of wood specimens. (See pp. 181-3.) + +OBSERVATIONS OF NATURAL PHENOMENA: + +Simple experiments to show the nature of solids, liquids, and gases. +(See pp. 188-9.) + +HEAT PHENOMENA: + +Source of heat, changes of volume in solids, liquids, and gases, +accompanying changes in temperature; heat transmission; the thermometer +and its uses. (See pp. 189-200.) + +SPRING + +BIRDS AND INSECTS: + +Field and class lessons on the habits, movements, and foods of common +birds, as crow, woodpecker, king-bird, phoebe, blackbird, etc. (See pp. +217-22.) + +GARDEN WORK AND EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS: + +Care of garden plots; transplanting; testing best varieties; making of, +and caring for, window boxes; propagation of plants by budding, +cuttings, and layering. (See pp. 201-3 and 208-13.) + +COMMON WILD FLOWERS: + +Field lessons on the habitat of common wild flowers; class-room study of +the plant organs including floral organs; study of weeds and weed seeds +continued, also the study of garden and field annuals, biennials, and +perennials. (See Autumn.) (See pp. 170-2 and 212-5.) + +SOIL STUDIES AND EXPERIMENTS: + +The components of soils, their origin, properties, and especially their +water absorbing and retaining properties; the relation of soils to plant +growth; experiments demonstrating the benefits of mulching and of +drainage. (See pp. 203-6.) + + +FORM IV + +AUTUMN + +INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL INSECTS AND BIRDS: + +Identification of common insects and observations on their habits; means +of combating such insects, as codling moth, etc.; bird identification, +and study of typical members of some common families, as woodpeckers, +flycatchers; spiders. (See pp. 217-22 and 240-5.) + +ORNAMENTAL AND EXPERIMENTAL GARDEN PLOTS: + +Observations and conclusions based upon experimental plots; common +shrubs, vines, and trees, and how to grow them. (See pp. 225-30 and +279.) + +FUNCTIONS OF PLANT ORGANS: + +Simple experiments illustrating roots as organs of absorption, stems as +organs of transmission, and leaves as organs of respiration, +transpiration, and food building. (See pp. 273-8.) + +ECONOMIC STUDY OF PLANTS: + +Comparative study of varieties of winter apples, of fall apples, or of +other fruits of the locality; visits to orchards; weed studies +continued. (See Form III.) (See pp. 229-30 and 239-40.) + +RELATION OF SOIL AND SOIL TILLAGE TO FARM CROPS: + +Soil-forming agents, as running water, ice, frost, heat, wind, plants, +and animals, and inferences as to methods of tillage. (See pp. 268-70.) + +WINTER + +AIR AND LIQUID PRESSURE: + +Simple illustrations of the buoyancy of liquids and of air; simple tests +to demonstrate that air fills space and exerts pressure; the application +of air pressure in the barometer, the common pump, the bicycle tire, +etc. (See pp. 248-52.) + +OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE: + +Generate each of these gases and test for properties, as colour, odour, +combustion, action with lime-water; the place occupied by these gases in +nature. (See pp. 252-5.) + +PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF HEAT, STEAM, AND ELECTRICITY: + +Making a simple voltaic cell, an electro-magnet, and a simple +electroscope. Test the current by means of the two latter and also with +an electric bell. Explain the application of the above in the electric +telegraph and motor. Simple demonstration of pressure of steam; history +and uses of the steam-engine. (See pp. 259-60.) + +SPRING + +INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL INSECTS AND BIRDS: + +Identification of noxious insects and observations thereon; study of +representatives of common families of birds, as thrushes, warblers, +sparrows; economic values of birds. (See pp. 283-5 and 286-7.) + +AQUATIC ANIMALS: + +Observation exercises upon the habits, movements, and structures, +including adaptive features of aquatic animals, as crayfish, mussel, +tadpole, etc. (See pp. 285-6.) + +ORNAMENTAL AND EXPERIMENTAL GARDEN PLOTS: + +Experimental plots demonstrating the benefits of seed selection; +ornamental plots of flowering perennials and bulbous plants; how to +improve the school grounds and the home lawns. (See pp. 270-3 and +263-5.) + +TREE STUDIES: + +Comparison of the values of the common varieties of shade trees, how to +plant and how to take care of shade trees. (See pp. 280-2.) + +THE FUNCTIONS OF PLANT ORGANS: + +Examination of the organs of common flowers; use of root, flower organs, +fruit, and seed. (See pp. 273-8.) + +ECONOMIC STUDY OF PLANTS: + +Plants of the lawn and garden; weed studies. (See pp. 263-5, 270-3, and +278-9.) + +RELATION OF SOIL AND SOIL TILLAGE TO FARM CROPS: + +Study of subsoils; capillarity in soils; benefits of crop rotations and +mulching; experiments in fertilizing, mulching, depth of planting, and +closeness of planting. (See pp. 265-7.) + + + + +NATURE STUDY + + + + +CHAPTER I + + +THE AIMS OF NATURE STUDY + +Nature Study means primarily the study of natural things and preferably +of living things. Like all other subjects, it must justify its position +on the school curriculum by proving its power to equip the pupil for the +responsibilities of citizenship. That citizen is best prepared for life +who lives in most sympathetic and intelligent relation to his +environment, and it is the primary aim of Nature Study to maintain the +bond of interest which unites the child's life to the objects and +phenomena which surround him. To this end it is necessary to adapt the +teaching, in matter and method, to the conditions of the child's life, +that he may learn to understand the secrets of nature and be the better +able to control and utilize the forces of his natural environment. + +At all times, the teacher must keep in mind the fact that it is not the +quantity of matter taught but the interest aroused and the spirit of +investigation fostered, together with carefulness and thoroughness, +which are the important ends to be sought. With a mind trained to +experiment and stimulated by a glimpse into nature's secrets, the worker +finds in his labour a scientific interest that lifts it above drudgery, +while, from a fuller understanding of the forces which he must combat +or with which he must co-operate, he reaps better rewards for his +labours. + +The claims of Nature Study to an educative value are based not upon a +desire to displace conventional education, but to supplement it, and to +lay a foundation for subsequent reading. Constant exercise of the senses +strengthens these sources of information and develops alertness, and at +the same time the child is kept on familiar ground--the world of +realities. It is for these reasons that Nature Study is frequently +defined as "The Natural Method of Study". Independent observation and +inference should be encouraged to the fullest degree, for one of the +most important, though one of the rarer accomplishments of the modern +intellect, is to think independently and to avoid the easier mode of +accepting the opinions of others. Reading from nature books, the study +of pictures, and other such matter, is not Nature Study. These may +supplement Nature Study, but must not displace the actual vitalizing +contact between the child and natural objects and forces. + +It is this contact which is at the basis of clear, definite knowledge; +and clearness of thought and a feeling of at-homeness with the subject +is conducive to clearness and freedom of expression. The Nature Study +lesson should therefore be used as a basis for language lessons. + +Undoubtedly one of the most important educative values that can be +claimed for Nature Study is its influence in training the pupil to +appreciate natural objects and phenomena. This implies the widening and +enriching of human interests through nurturing the innate tendency of +the child to love the fields and woods and birds; the checking of the +selfish and destructive impulses by leading him to see the usefulness of +each creature, the harmony of its relation to its environment, and the +significance of its every part. Nor is it a mistake to cultivate the +more sentimental love of nature which belongs to the artist and the +poet. John Ruskin emphasizes this value in these words: "All other +efforts are futile unless you have taught the children to love trees and +birds and flowers". + + +GENERAL METHODS IN NATURE STUDY + + +CONCRETE MATERIAL + +It is evident that concrete material must be provided and so distributed +that each member of the class will have a direct opportunity to exercise +his senses, and, from his observations, to deduce inferences and form +judgments. The objects chosen should be mainly from the common things of +the locality. The teacher should be guided in the selection by the +interests of the pupils, first finding out from them the things upon +which they are expending their wonder and inquiry. Trees, field crops, +flowers, birds, animals of the parks, woods, or farmyard, all form +suitable subjects for study. + +TOPICS AND MATERIAL MUST SUIT THE SEASON + +The material should be selected not only with reference to locality but +also with due regard to season. For example, better Nature Study lessons +can be taught on the elm tree of the school grounds than on the giant +Douglas fir of British Columbia; and on the oriole whose nest is in the +elm tree than on the eagle portrayed in Roberts' animal stories; and it +is manifestly unwise to teach lessons on snow in summer, or on flowers +and ants in winter. + +MATTER MUST BE SUITED TO THE CHILD + +For the urban pupil the treatment of the material must be different from +that in the case of the pupil of the rural school. Rural school pupils +have already formed an extensive acquaintance with many plants and +animals which are entirely unknown to the children of the city. The +simpler facts which are interesting and instructive to the pupils of the +urban classes would prove commonplace and trivial to rural pupils. For +example, while it is necessary to show the city child a squirrel that he +may learn the size, colour, and general appearance of the animal, the +efforts of the pupil of the rural school should be directed to the +discovery of the less evident facts of squirrel life. + +USE OF THE COMMONPLACE + +It must be kept in mind that besides leading the pupils to discover new +sources of interest, the teacher should strive to accomplish that which +is even greater, namely, to lead them to discover new truth and new +beauty in old, familiar objects. It may be true that "familiarity breeds +contempt" and there is always a danger that the objects with which +children have associated in early life may be passed by as uninteresting +while they go in search of something "new and interesting". + +For example, to be able to recognize many plants and to call them by +name is no doubt something of an accomplishment, but it should not be +the chief aim of the teacher in conducting Nature Study lessons on +plants. It is of much greater importance that the child should be led to +love the flowers and to appreciate their beauty and their utility. Such +appreciation will result in the desire to protect and to produce fine +flowers and useful plants, and this end can be reached only through +intelligent acquaintanceship. There can be no true appreciation without +knowledge, and this the child gets chiefly by personal observation and +experiment. With reference to the wild flowers of the woods and fields, +the method employed is that of continuous observation. + +ORDER OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE LESSON + +Each animal or plant should be studied as a living, active organism. The +attention of the pupils should be focused upon activities; for these +appeal to the child nature and afford the best means for securing +interest and attention. What does this animal do? How does it do it? How +is it fitted for doing this? How does this plant grow? What fits it for +growing in this way? These are questions which should exercise the mind +of the child. They are questions natural in the spirit of inquiry in +child nature and give vitality to nature teaching. They are an effective +means of establishing a bond of sympathy between the child and nature. +The child who takes care of a plant or animal because it is his own, +does so at first from a purely personal motive, which is perfectly +natural to childhood; but while he studies its needs and observes its +movements and changes, gradually and unconsciously this interest will be +transferred to the plant or animal for its own sake. The nature of the +child is thus broadened during the process. + +PROBLEMS IN OBSERVATION + +In studying the material provided, whether it be in the class-room, or +during a nature excursion, or by observations made in the farmyard at +home, the teacher must guide the efforts of the pupils by assigning to +them definite and suitable problems. Care must be taken to reach the +happy mean of giving specific directions without depriving the pupils of +the pleasure of making original discovery. For example, instead of +asking them to study the foot of the horse and learn all they can about +it, more specific problems should be assigned, such as: Observe how the +hoof is placed on the ground in walking. What are the arrangements for +lessening the shock when the hoof strikes the ground? Examine the under +surface of the hoof and discover what prevents the unshod horse from +slipping. + +NOTE-BOOKS AND RECORDS + +In Grades higher than Form I, written exercises should be required and +also sketches representing the objects studied. For this purpose a +Nature Study note-book is necessary--a loose-leaf note-book being +preferable because of necessary corrections, rearrangements, additions, +or omissions. + +In all records and reports, independence of thought and of expression +should be encouraged. The drawing and the oral or written description +should express what is actually observed, not what the book or some +member of the class says has been, or should be, observed. The +descriptions should be in the pupil's own words, because these are most +in keeping with his own ideas on the subject. More correct forms of +expression may be obtained when notes are taken from the teacher's +dictation, but this is fatal to the development of originality. + +The disparity of the results in individual work gives opportunity for +impressing upon the pupil, in the first place, the necessity for more +accurate observation and, secondly, the impossibility of reaching a +correct general conclusion without having studied a large number of +examples. The development of critical and judicious minds, which may +result from carefully observing many examples and generalizing from +these observations, is vastly more important than the memorizing of many +facts. + + +THE SCHOOL GARDEN + +In the study of garden plants there is added a certain new interest +arising out of experimentation, cultivation, and ownership. The love of +the gardener has in it elements that the love of the naturalist does not +usually possess--a sort of paternal love and care for the plants +produced in his garden; but every gardener should be a naturalist as +well. Most people have a higher appreciation for that which they own and +which they have produced or acquired at some expense or personal +sacrifice; therefore it is that the growing of plants in home and school +gardens or in pots and window boxes is so strongly advocated throughout +this Course. Ownership always implies responsibility, which is at once +the chief safeguard of society and the foundation of citizenship. A +careless boy will never respect the property of others so much as when +he himself has proprietary interests involved. We believe, therefore, +that every teacher should encourage his pupils to cultivate plants and, +if possible, to own a plot of ground however small. + +The teacher should not merely aim at _making_ a garden in the school +grounds. The great question is rather how best to use a school garden in +connection with the training of boys and girls. To learn to do garden +work well is indeed worth while and provides a highly beneficial kind of +manual training. To understand something of soils and methods of +cultivation, of fertilizers and drainage, the best kinds of flowers, +vegetables, fruits, and farm crops, and how to grow them successfully, +is very important in such a great agricultural country as this; but the +greatest of all results which we may hope to realize in connection with +school gardening is the ennobling of life and character. The pupils are +taught to observe the growing plants with great care, noting +developments day by day. This adds to their appreciation of the beauties +and adaptations found among plants on every side, and cannot fail to +produce good results in moral as well as in mental development. The +teachers must always remember that the gardeners with whom they are +working are more important than the gardens which they cultivate. + +The best garden is not always the largest and most elaborate one. It is +rather the garden that both teacher and pupils have been most deeply +interested in. It is the garden in which they have experienced most +pleasure and profit that makes them want to have another better than the +last. No school is too small to have a garden of some kind, and no +garden is too small to become the joy and pride of some boy or girl. + +SUGGESTIONS + +For the benefit of teachers beginning their duties on the first of +September, in school sections where school gardening has never been +carried on, the following suggestions are offered: + +1. See if the grounds will permit of a part being used for a garden. To +ascertain this, note the size of the present grounds and see if they +meet the requirements of the Department as laid down in the Regulations. +If they do not, consult your Inspector at once and acquaint him with +your plans. If the grounds are to be enlarged, try to take in sufficient +land of good quality to make a good garden. The part chosen for the +garden should be both convenient and safe. Examine the soil to see if it +is well drained and sufficiently deep to permit of good cultivation. +Lack of fertility can be overcome by good fertilizing. + +2. See that the fences and gates are in good repair. When circumstances +will permit, a woven wire fence that will exclude dogs, pigs, and +poultry is most desirable. If not used to inclose the whole grounds, it +should at least inclose the part used for gardening. + +3. Begin modestly and provide room for extension as the work progresses. +Sow clover on the part to be held in reserve for future gardening +operations. + +4. If local public sentiment is not strongly in favour of school +gardening, or is somewhat adverse, begin on a small scale. If the work +is well done, you will soon have both moral and financial support. + +5. See that the land is well drained. Plough it early in the autumn and, +if a load of well-rotted manure is available, spread it on the land +before ploughing. Commercial fertilizer may also be used on the plots +the following spring, but no stable manure. + +6. In spring, when dry enough, cultivate thoroughly with disc and drag +harrows. Build up a compost heap in the rear of the garden with sods and +stable manure, for use in the autumn and also the following spring. + +GARDEN EXPENSES + +In connection with those schools where the teacher holds a diploma from +the Ontario Agricultural College in Elementary Agriculture and +Horticulture, there is no difficulty in meeting the expenses for seeds, +tools, fertilizers, and labour, as the Government grant for such +purposes is sufficient. In other schools, however, where the teacher +holds no such diploma (and such is the case in most of the schools as +yet), other means of meeting the expenses must be resorted to. The +following are offered as suggestions along this line: + +1. Part of the grant made to every school for the maintaining of the +school grounds should be available for school garden expenses. + +2. An occasional school entertainment may add funds that could not be +used to better advantage. + +3. An occasional load of stable manure supplied free from neighbouring +farms will help to solve the fertilizer problem. + +4. Donations of plants and seeds by the parents and other interested +persons and societies will be forthcoming, if the teacher is in earnest +and his pupils interested. + +5. If it is required, the trustees could make a small grant each year +toward the cost of tools. + +6. Fencing and cultivation of the garden can often be provided for by +volunteer assistance from the men of the school section. + +7. It is often possible to grow a garden crop on a fairly large scale, +the school being formed into a company for this purpose and the proceeds +to be used to meet garden expenses. + +8. The pupils can readily bring the necessary tools from home for the +first season's work. + +9. Many Agricultural and Horticultural societies offer very substantial +cash prizes for school garden exhibits, and all funds so obtained should +be used to improve the garden from which the exhibits were taken. + +10. An earnest, resourceful teacher will find a way of meeting the +necessary expenses. + + +THE EXCURSION + +Nature Study is essentially an outdoor subject. While it is true that a +considerable amount of valuable work may be done in the class-room by +the aid of aquaria, insectaria, and window boxes, yet the great book of +nature lies outside the school-house walls. The teacher must lead or +direct his pupils to that book and help them to read with reverent +spirit what is written there by its great Author. + +~Value.~--The school excursion is valuable chiefly because it brings the +pupil into close contact with the objects that he is studying, permits +him to get his knowledge at first hand, and gives him an opportunity of +studying these objects in their natural environment. Incidentally the +excursion yields outdoor exercise under the very best conditions--no +slight advantage for city children especially; and it gives the teacher +a good opportunity to study the pupils from a new standpoint. It also +provides a means of gathering Nature Study material. + +~Difficulties.~--Where is the time to be found? How can a large class of +children be managed in the woods or fields? If only one class be taken, +how, in an ungraded school, are the rest of the children to be employed? +Will the excursion not degenerate into a mere outing? What if the woods +are miles away? These are all real problems, and the Nature Study +teacher, desirous of doing his work well, will have to face some of them +at least. + +SHORT EXCURSIONS + +The excursion need not occupy much time. It should be well planned +beforehand. _One_ object only should be kept in view and announced to +the class before starting. Matters foreign or subordinate to this +should be neglected for the time. The following are suggested as objects +for excursions: + +~Objects.~--A bird's nest in an adjacent meadow; a ground-hog's hole; a +musk-rat's home; crayfish or clams in the stream near by; a pine (or +other) tree; a toad's day-resort; the soil of a field; the pests of a +neighbouring orchard; a stone-heap or quarry; ants' nests or earthworms' +holes; the weeds of the school yard; buds; the vegetable or animal life +of a pond; sounds of spring; tracks in the snow; a spider's web. + +Such excursions may be accomplished at the expenditure of very little +time. Many of them will take the pupils no farther than the boundaries +of the school yard. + +Of course the locality will influence the character of the excursion, as +it will that of the whole of the work done in Nature Study, but in any +place the thoughtful teacher may find material for open-air work at his +very door. + +Much outside work can be done without interfering with the regular +programme. The teacher may arrange a systematic list of questions and +problems for the pupils to solve from their own observations, and these +observations may be made by the pupils at play hours, or while coming or +going from school, or on Saturdays. The following will serve as an +example of the treatment that may be followed: + +~Pests of Apple Trees.~--Look on the twigs of your apple trees for little +scales. Bring an infected branch to school. Note whether +unhealthy-looking or dead branches are infected. Examine scales with a +lens. Loosen one, turn it over, and examine with a lens the under side. + +For eggs, look closely at the twigs in June. Do you see white specks +moving? If so examine them with a lens. + +Are there any small, prematurely ripe apples on the ground in the +orchard? Cut into one of these and look for a "worm". Look for apples +with worm holes in the side. Are there worms in these apples? What is in +them? Note the dirty marks that the larva has left. Keep several apples +in a close box and watch for the "worms" to come out. Examine the bark +of apple trees for pupæ in the fall. + +FREQUENCY OF EXCURSIONS + +As to the frequency of excursions, the teacher will be the best judge. +It is desirable that they occur naturally in the course of the Nature +Study work as the need for them arises. One short trip each week with a +single object in view is much more satisfactory than a whole afternoon +each term spent in aimless wandering about the woods. + +EXCURSIONS TO A DISTANCE + +Long-distance excursions will of necessity be infrequent. If the woods +are far away, one such trip in May or June would prove valuable to +enable the pupils to become acquainted with wild flowers, and another in +October to gather tree seeds, autumn leaves, pupæ, and other material +for winter study. When a large class is to be taken on an excursion, +preparations must be made with special care. The teacher and one or two +assistants should go over the ground beforehand and arrange for the work +to be done. Some work must be given to every pupil, and prompt obedience +to every command and signal must be required. The class, for example, +may decide to search a small wood or meadow to find out what flowers are +there. The pupils should be dispersed throughout the field to hunt for +specimens and to meet at a known signal to compare notes. + +SUGGESTIONS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS + +1. The teacher may take all the classes, choosing an object of study +from which he can teach lessons suitable to all ages, a bird's nest, for +example. + +2. In many sections, the little ones are dismissed at 3.30 p.m. +Opportunity is thus given for an excursion with the seniors. + +3. The older pupils may be assigned work and left in charge of a +monitor, elected by themselves, who shall be responsible for their +conduct, while the teacher is working outside with the lower Forms. + +4. Boys who are naturally interested in outdoor work should be +encouraged to show the others anything of interest they may have found. + +5. An occasional Saturday excursion may be arranged. + +~Discipline.~--The teacher should insist on making the excursion a serious +part of the school work, not merely recreation. School-room behaviour +cannot be expected, but the boisterous conduct of the playground should +give place to earnest expectancy. The pupils should keep within sound of +the teacher's voice (a sharp whistle may be used) and should promptly +respond to every call. Topics of conversations should as far as possible +be restricted to those pertaining to the object of the excursion or +related matters. + +In visiting woods, children should be trained to study flowers in their +environment and leave them there, plucking or digging for none except +for some excellent reason. The same respect should be shown to birds and +their nests, and to insects, and all other living things encountered. + +THE TEACHER'S EXCURSIONS + +As soon as possible after coming to a section, the teacher should +acquaint himself with the woods, groves, streams, or other haunts that +may provide him with material for his indoor or outdoor work. He can +then direct the pupils effectively. The teacher should go over the route +of an excursion shortly before it takes place. This prevents waste of +time in looking for the objects that he wishes his pupils to see. If the +teacher wishes to increase his love for nature, he must take many walks +without his pupils. + +The school garden offers a partial solution of the difficulties +mentioned above. It brings a large amount of material to the doors of +the school. Plants of the farm or the garden may be studied under +various changeable conditions, and it will be seen that insect pests, +weeds, and fungous diseases follow the lessons on plants, while lessons +on birds and toads follow those on insects. With sections of the garden +devoted to the cultivation of wild flowers, ferns, and forest trees, the +specially organized excursion will become less of a necessity, although +it will still continue to be a valuable factor in Nature Study work. + +After an excursion is over, it should be discussed in class. The various +facts learned should be reviewed and related. If any pupils have made +inaccurate observations, they should be required to observe again to +correct their errors. Finally, the excursion may form the subject of a +composition. + +A TYPE EXCURSION + +~A Bird's Nest.~--The children have been instructed to study the +meadow-lark, beginning about March twenty-first. While engaged in this +work, a nest is discovered near the school. The teacher is informed and +the pupils are conducted to the spot. + +What is growing in the field? Is there a long or a short growth? Did the +mother bird make much noise as she rose from the nest? Did this help to +reveal its presence? Is the nest easy to see? The class will halt a few +paces from it and try to find it. How many eggs? Their colour? Note the +arch of grass so beautifully concealing the nest. + +Returning to school, the facts observed are reviewed. The pupils may +then express themselves by written composition or by drawings, +paintings, or modellings of the nest, the eggs, or the surroundings. +Frequent visits to the nest should not be made, and the pupils should be +warned not to disturb the bird, as she may desert the nest on slight +provocation. + +A second excursion may be made, when the eggs are hatched, to see the +young birds. + +~A Wasp's Nest.~--A nest having been discovered, the pupils note how it is +suspended and how it is situated with regard to concealment or to +protection from rain, its colour, the material of the nest, and the +position of the entrance. Is the opening ever deserted? How many wasps +enter and how many leave the nest in a minute? Try to follow one and +watch what he does. Wasps may be found biting wood from an old board +fence. This they chew into pulp, and from this pulp their paper is made. +Get the children to verify this by observations. If the nest is likely +to become a nuisance, smoke out the wasps, take the nest carefully down, +and use it for indoor study, examining the inside of the nest to +ascertain the nature and the structure of the comb which, in this case +is entirely devoted to larvæ. + +COLLECTIONS + +General school collections of such objects as noxious weeds, weed seeds, +wild flowers, noxious insects, leaves of forest trees, rocks or stones +of the locality, etc., should be undertaken. + +All the pupils should contribute as many specimens as possible to each +collection and should assist in the work of preparing them. + +In addition to the above collections it is advisable that pupils who +show special interest in this phase of nature work should be encouraged +to make individual collections. + +Collections, when properly prepared, have a value within themselves, +because of the beauty and variety of the forms that they contain, and +also because of their usefulness in illustrating nature lessons and in +the identifying of insects, weeds, etc. Nevertheless the chief value of +the collection rests in the making of it, because of the training that +it gives the collector in carefulness and thoroughness, and also because +it causes the child to study natural objects in their natural +surroundings. + + +ANIMAL STUDIES + +DOMESTIC ANIMALS + +The teacher, before attempting to teach lessons on domestic animals, +should carefully consider how his lessons will best fulfil the following +important aims: + +1. The cultivation of a deeper sympathy for, and a more complete +understanding of, farm animals. + +2. The development of more kindly treatment of domestic animals through +awakened sympathy and more intelligent understanding. + +3. Implanting the idea that the best varieties are the most interesting +and profitable. + +The following domestic animals are suggested as being suitable for +study: horse, cow, sheep, dog, cat, goose, duck, hen. + +There are two practical methods of observation work; namely, home +observation and class-room observation. + +The observation work on some of the animals named must of necessity be +done out of school. In this the teacher can direct the efforts of the +pupils by assigning to them definite problems to be solved by their +study of the animals. + +The results of their observations can be discussed in the class in +lessons of ten or fifteen minutes length. It may frequently be necessary +to re-assign the problems in order that the pupils may correct their +observations. + +It is possible for the teacher or the pupils to bring to the school-room +certain of the animals, as the dog, cat, duck, hen, and the observations +may then be made by the whole class directly under the guidance of the +teacher. + +REFERENCES + +Crawford: _Guide to Nature Study._ Copp Clark Co., 90 cents. + +Dearness: _How to Teach the Nature Study Course._ Copp Clark Co., 60 +cents. + +Shaler: _Domesticated Animals._ Scribners, $2.50. + +Smith: _The Uses and Abuses of Domestic Animals._ Jarrold & Sons, 50 +cents. + + +BIRDS + +The chief aims in developing lessons on birds are: + +1. To teach the children to recognize their bird neighbours, to love +them for their beauty, and sweet songs, and their sprightly ways. + +2. To train the pupils to appreciate them for their usefulness in +destroying insect pests. + +Many persons spend their lives surrounded by singing birds, yet they +never hear their songs. Many children see and hear the birds, but if +they have not been brought into sympathetic relation with them, they +never learn to appreciate them; on the contrary, their attitude becomes +one of indifference or of destructiveness. Too often, boys cruelly +destroy the nests and young and persecute the old birds with stone and +catapult. The cowardice of such acts should be condemned, but more +effective lessons may be taught through leading the children to find in +the birds assistants and companions that contribute to their material +progress and to their joy in life. + +With these aims in view, the teacher will readily perceive that the most +effective work in bird study results from observing the living birds in +their natural environment. Field excursions are valuable for this, but +good results can seldom be attained when the class is large, for birds +are shy and will hide or fly away from the unusual excitement. Quietness +is absolutely necessary for success. Better results are obtained when +only one or two accompany the teacher. If the teacher selects a few who +are interested in birds, and there are always some pupils in every +school who are readily interested in bird study, these few can soon be +made sufficiently acquainted with the more common birds, so that they +will be able to point them out to the other pupils of the school, and +thus they become the teacher's assistants in the work. + +By beginning with the most common and conspicuous birds, an acquaintance +grows rapidly. Early spring is a good time to begin, when the first +birds return from their winter sojourn. The teacher and pupils may now +learn to recognize the birds, because there are only a few, and these +are easily seen, as the robin, blue-bird, junco, meadow-lark, goldfinch, +bronzed grackle, sapsucker, blue jay, downy woodpecker, and flicker. + +The teacher, assisted by the pupils who already know these birds, +directs the younger pupils to where these birds may be seen, and they +are also required to describe the birds observed and to identify them by +means of the bird chart or colour key. + +The description should include: + +Size (compare with some common bird); shape; colour of head, back, and +breast; conspicuous markings, as crest, stripes, bright patches of +feathers; movements in flight or on the ground; song, call notes; +whether in flocks, or pairs, or single birds. + +Later in spring, other birds will attract attention, as the +song-sparrow, phoebe, wren, horned lark, cowbird, and red-winged +blackbird; while in summer the oriole, catbird, vesper sparrow, American +redstart, night hawk, scarlet tanager, and crested flycatcher are some +of the birds that will call for attention, because of their plumage, +songs, or peculiar habits. + +When a nest has been found by a pupil, he should report it to the +teacher, and the other pupils should be permitted to visit it only upon +promising not to molest the nest or to annoy the mother bird by +remaining too long near it. While it is well that the pupils should see +the nest with the young birds, they should be taught to respect the +desire of the bird for quietness and seclusion. + +In studying the nest, observe: Concealment, protection, size, comfort, +number and colour of eggs, young birds, size, colour, covering, food. +The pupils should be asked to observe the feeding of birds thus: + +Watch the wrens returning to the nest; what do they carry to their +young? Where do the wrens get the snails and grubs? Observe how the +robins find the worms and how they pull them out of the ground. Follow +the downy woodpecker to the apple tree and find out what he was pecking. +Watch the crow in the pasture field and learn whether this bird kills +grasshoppers and crickets. + +Observe the birds that pick seeds out of the weeds. + +Collecting birds' eggs should be condemned, because it nearly always +leads to the robbing of the nests. The practice of exchanging eggs is +the chief cause of this; for although an occasional boy will collect +wisely, the greater number are simply anxious to add to their collection +without regard for the sacredness of the birds' homes. + +A collection of birds' nests may be made after the nests have been +abandoned for the season, and it will be found useful for interesting +the pupils in the ingenuity, neatness, and instinctive foresight of the +builders. + +REFERENCES + +Chapman and Reed: _Colour Key to North American Birds_ $2.75 + +Reed: _Bird Guide, Pts. I and II_ .75 + +Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_ .75 + +Cornish: _Thirty Lessons in Nature Study on Birds._ Dominion Book +Company 1.00 + +_Canadian Birds in Relation to Agriculture._ This chart has pictures in +colours of eighty-eight Canadian birds. G. M. Hendry Co., $3.00. + +_The Audubon Charts._ These three charts have pictures of fifty-five +birds; the pictures are larger in the latter charts than in the first +named. G. M. Hendry Co., $2.00 each. + +_Coloured Bird Pictures_, Mumford, Chicago, (separate coloured pictures) +are very suitable for illustrating nature lessons on birds. + + +INSECTS + +There are three classes of insects that are of immediate interest to the +pupils of the Junior Grades, and the teacher who makes direct use of +this natural interest has taken possession of the key to success in +insect study in the primary classes. + +The three classes, basing the classification upon their power to attract +attention, are: + +The beautiful insects, including moths, butterflies, and beetles, + +The wonderful insects, including such insects as ants, ant-lions, +caddice-flies, etc., + +The economic insects, including bees, silk-worms, codling-moths, etc. + +Economic insects are interesting because of their relations to the +occupations of the home. The successful growing of farm, orchard, and +garden crops practically depends upon keeping a proper balance of insect +and bird life. + +The teacher who feels that his knowledge of insects is too limited to +allow him to undertake the teaching of this branch of Nature Study +should cast his misgivings aside; for it is not difficult for the +teacher who knows nothing about insects at the outset to become +acquainted with such members of the three classes named above as attract +the attention of the pupils of the Nature Study classes. + +The following suggestions in insect study are offered as guides to +teacher or pupil: + +Obtain books and pamphlets from the Department of Agriculture, Toronto, +on the subject of Insect Pests on Farm Crops and Fruit Trees. + +Secure a good general book on insects. _Modern Nature Study_, by Silcox +and Stevenson, contains illustrations of several of the most common +moths and butterflies, which are clear enough to make possible the +identification of the forms represented. Comstock's _Manual for the +Study of Insects_ is the best general book on the subject. This, and +Holland's _The Moth Book_ and _The Butterfly Book_, are valuable for +those who wish to follow the study of insects at any length. + +Begin by studying the more conspicuous moths, butterflies, and beetles, +and especially by studying the injurious forms which thrust themselves +into prominence by causing destruction of grain, vegetable, or fruit +crops in the locality. The utility phase of lessons on these insects +will appeal to the older children and also to their parents. Moreover, +these are the easiest insects to identify and upon which to obtain +literature dealing with their life histories and habits. + +Carefully observe the colour, size, and shape of the insect, and note +the plant on which it is feeding and its manner of feeding. Consult +available books on plant pests to find descriptions of the insects that +feed upon this plant, and study carefully what is said about the insect +observed. If this method is persistently followed, the teacher will be +surprised at the rapidity with which his acquaintance with insects +broadens. + +Pictures of moths, butterflies, and beetles are of great assistance in +the identification of these insects. + +A school collection, made from the insects studied, is useful for future +collection and for identification of insects. Do not allow any insect to +be killed unless it is a good specimen intended to fill a place in the +collection, or unless it is known to be an injurious insect. The +teacher, by exercising proper control of the collecting, has an +efficient means of teaching the sacredness of life. The fact should be +emphasized that killing even an insect, when there is no good reason for +doing so, is the act of a mean and selfish coward. + +In addition to a collection of insects, including larval and pupal +forms, collections of insect nests, of plant galls, of markings of +engraver beetles, of burrows of tree borers, and of samples of the +destructive workings of insect pests should be made. + +While nothing is more beautiful than a carefully prepared collection of +moths, butterflies, and beetles with their infinite variety of form and +colour, nothing is more disgusting than a badly preserved collection of +distorted, shrivelled, vermin-infested specimens. The teacher should +avail himself of the collecting instinct which is prominent in boys of +nine to fourteen years of age and of their desire to have things done +well, to develop in them habits of carefulness, neatness, and +thoroughness. + +INSECT COLLECTIONS + +See Manual on _Manual Training_, for details for making collecting +appliances. + +Agricultural Bulletin No. 8, _Nature Collections for Schools_, +Department of Education, Ontario, for detailed instructions on making +insect collections. + +The outfit for collecting is neither expensive nor hard to prepare. It +consists of (1) an insect net for catching the insects, made by sewing a +bag of cheese-cloth to a stout ring one foot in diameter, which is +fastened to a broom handle; (2) a cyanide bottle for killing the +insects, prepared by pouring some soft plaster-paris over a few lumps of +potassium cyanide (three pieces, each of the size of a pea) in a +wide-mouthed bottle. When the plaster has set, keep the bottle tightly +corked to retain the poisonous gases. (3) Pins to mount the specimens. +Entomological pins, Nos. 2, 3, and 4, are the best for general use. +Beetles are usually pinned through the right wing-cover at about one +fourth of its length from the front end of it. Moths and butterflies are +pinned through the thorax. Small insects may be fastened to a very small +pin, which in turn is set into a bit of cork, supported by a pin of +ordinary size. (4) Spreading board for moths and butterflies. (5) Insect +boxes to hold the specimens. This should be secured before the +collection is begun. It is a common mistake to believe that any box +whatever will do for storing insects. It is necessary to encourage +effort in drying, spreading, pinning, and labelling, by providing an +effective means of permanently preserving the specimens. In cigar-boxes, +pasteboard boxes, and such makeshifts, the specimens soon become broken, +covered with dust, and marred in other ways, and the collectors become +discouraged; hence it is necessary to secure good boxes from dealers in +entomological supplies. + +A sponge saturated with carbon bisulphide should be placed in the box at +intervals of not more than three months, to ensure the killing of +parasites that destroy the specimens. + +Entomological supplies may be obtained from Chapman & Co., London, Ont., +or from G. M. Hendry Co., Toronto, Ont., or from Messrs. Watters Bros., +Guelph, Ont. + +BUTTERFLY AND MOTH COLLECTIONS + +For a study of the metamorphosis of butterflies and moths, it is +necessary to have an insect cage. This can be purchased from any dealer +in entomological supplies or it may be made by the pupils in the Manual +Training Class. See Manual on _Manual Training_. A very satisfactory +cage may be made, by the teacher or larger pupils, from a soap box, by +tacking wire gauze over the open surface of the box, removing the nails +from one of the boards of the bottom, and converting this board into a +door by attaching it in its former position by light hinges and a hook +and staple. The box, if now placed on end with two inches of loose soil +in the bottom, will constitute a satisfactory insect cage, or vivarium. + +A large lamp chimney with gauze tied over the upper end is useful for +inclosing a small plant upon which eggs or insect larvæ are developing. +The base of the chimney may be thrust an inch into the soil and the +development of the larva as it feeds upon the growing plant can be +studied. + +The following are larvæ suitable for study and may be found in the +places named: + +The tomato worm on tomato or tobacco plants. (Look for stems whose +leaves have been stripped off.) + +The milkweed butterfly larvæ on milkweed, + +The potato beetle on potato vines, + +The eastern swallow-tail butterfly on parsnip or carrot plants, + +The tussock-moth on horse-chestnuts, + +The promothea moth on lilac bushes, + +The cabbage-butterfly on cabbage or mustard plants, + +The red-spotted purple, banded purple, and viceroy butterfly larvæ on +willow and alder, + +Cocoons of tussock-moth and tiger-moth under bark, logs, and rubbish in +early autumn. + +Larvæ of the emperor-moth (cecropia) may be found wandering about, +apparently aimlessly, in September; but they are searching for suitable +places for attaching their cocoons to orchard and forest trees. + +After the leaves have fallen from shrubs and trees, cocoons can be found +more easily on the naked twigs or in withered, rolled-up leaves that are +fastened by the silk of the cocoon to the branches. + +Larvæ, when placed in the cage, should be supplied with green plant food +such as they were found feeding upon, and the pupils should be +instructed to observe the chrysalis building or the cocoon weaving. It +will be found that some larvæ burrow into the soil. + +During winter the cage should be kept in a cool place, such as a shed, +so that the winter conditions may be as nearly natural as possible. + +In a few cases, the development within the cocoon is quite rapid; and +the adult form hatches out in a few weeks, for example, the +cabbage-butterfly, monarch or milkweed butterfly, and tussock-moth. For +this reason these are preferable for study by Form I pupils. In April +the cage should be placed in the school-room, that the pupils may +observe the emergence of the insects and the spreading of the wings. The +insects can be fed with syrup or honey until they are strong, then the +pupils should set them free. + +Reference.--_Reports of the Entomological Society of Ontario_, +Department of Agriculture. + + +PLANT COLLECTIONS + +The instructions given below for collecting, pressing, and mounting +plants are applicable to wild flowers, grains, grasses, and weeds. + +~The specimen.~--Select a plant which in form and size is typical of its +species and which is in full flower. Care must be taken to dig down and +secure the root. + +If the plant is too large for the mounting sheet, cut out the central +part, and use the root, lower leaves, upper leaves, and flower. If the +root is very thick, cut slices lengthwise off the sides so as to reduce +it to a flat form that is not too bulky. + +Before the plant has had time to wither, spread it out flat on a sheet +of paper and spread another sheet over it, taking care to straighten the +leaves and flower out. Blotting-paper is preferable, but any soft paper +that will absorb moisture will make a very good substitute. + +~Pressing and drying.~--Place several sheets of paper above and below the +specimen. Any number of specimens prepared as described in the last +paragraph may be placed in a pile, one over another, resting on the +floor or on a table. Place on top of the pile a board which is large +enough to cover the surface of the pile, and on the board place a weight +of about fifteen pounds of bricks, or other convenient material. A box +containing sand, stones, or coal may be used in place of the board and +weights. The weight prevents the shrivelling and distortion of the +plants. + +To prevent discoloration and mildewing of the plants, the papers around +them must be changed at the end of the following successive intervals: +two days, three days, five days, one week, etc., until they are quite +dry. The length of time required for pressing and drying depends upon +the quantity of sap in the plants and also upon the dryness or humidity +of the atmosphere. + +~Mounting.~--When dry, the specimens are mounted on sheets of heavy white +paper. These sheets are cut to a standard size, eleven inches by +fourteen inches, or sheets of half this size, namely, seven inches by +eleven inches; are permissible. The best method of attaching the plant +to the sheet is by pasting narrow strips of gummed paper across the +plant in such positions as will serve to hold all parts of it in +position. + +~Labelling.~--The name of the specimen, the date of collection, the place +from which collected, and the name of the collector are to be neatly +written in a column in the lower right-hand corner of the sheet. Printed +labels which are pasted on this corner of the sheet are also used. + +Collections of leaves may be prepared by the same process as that given +for plants. Leaves will retain their autumn tints if their surface is +covered with varnish or paraffin, which will prevent the admission of +air. + +To cover with paraffin dip the leaf for a moment into melted paraffin. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +PHYSICAL SCIENCE PHASE OF NATURE STUDY + + +INSTRUCTIONS AND GENERAL METHOD + +The preceding portions of this Manual dealt with living things. There is +another phase of Nature Study which has a more direct relation to the +physical sciences, Chemistry and Physics, two subjects that are +essentially experimental in their methods. + +Although the lessons that follow are grouped in one portion of this +book, the teacher should understand that he is to introduce them into +his work as the occasion demands. They may be used to throw light on +other parts of the school work. The experimental method is somewhat +advanced for young children, hence no lessons are outlined for Forms I +and II. In ungraded schools, Forms III and IV may be combined for the +subject. It will be found most convenient to take this portion of the +Nature Study during the winter months. + +VALUE OF SUCH LESSONS + +1. They are _interesting_, hence there is attention. The senses must be +alert, hence pupils are trained to observe accurately. + +2. After the experiment comes the inference, hence reasoning powers are +developed. + +3. They enable the teacher to make exceedingly _concrete_ some very +difficult abstract principles. + +4. They can be _correlated_ with a large number of other subjects and +made to have a beneficial influence on the whole of the school work. + +5. The great advance that is being made in all useful inventions to-day +is largely due to the study of the physical sciences. Many boys and +girls (seventy-five per cent.) never attend the High School. The +Elementary School owes them a taste at least of these sciences that have +such a bearing on their lives, that have surrounded them with so many +mechanical contrivances for their comfort and convenience, and that +explain so many common natural phenomena. Give a boy a taste for +experimental science, and there is some chance that after leaving school +he will not throw aside his studies to subsist intellectually on the +newspaper, but that he will continue to investigate for himself, and +make himself a well-informed man, an influential man in his section. The +Elementary School must aim at fitting the boys and girls for life. + +6. The advent of the experiment marks the downfall of superstition, +prejudice, and reliance on authority and tradition. To lead a child to +think for himself is a great achievement. + +7. The use of the experiment in gaining knowledge will result in a +cautiousness in accepting statements and making decisions. + +CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH EXPERIMENTS SHOULD BE PERFORMED + +1. They should be introduced into the school work naturally, as answers +to questions which arise either in the regular course of the work or +from suggestions made by the teacher at appropriate times. + +2. As far as possible, the pupils should assist in performing the +experiment. In small rural schools the scarcity of apparatus will +necessitate the teacher's doing most of the work. In Form V classes and +Continuation Schools the pupils may do the experiments individually. + +3. The bearing of an experiment is not always evident; the teacher must +be ready with judicious questions to lead the class to the proper +conclusions. + +4. The pupils must be acquainted with all the apparatus used. They must +know what the teacher is doing and must be near enough to see the +result. + +5. A problem may be suggested, and a few days allowed for the pupils to +think out a means of solution. If they invent and make their own +apparatus, so much the better. + +6. Whenever possible, the experiment should be applied to some natural +phenomenon or everyday occurrence. + +CORRELATIONS OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE PHASE + +Geography.--The value of Physical Science in the Elementary School is +largely due to the light it throws on geographical data. Numerous +examples will appear in the succeeding pages. + +Hygiene.--Experiments in carbon dioxide, oxygen, air, water, sound, and +light, are absolutely necessary, if the children are to grasp with any +degree of clearness the principles of respiration and ventilation, and +the phenomena of hearing and seeing. + +Manual Training.--Many pieces of apparatus may be made by the boys in +their work with wood or iron. Some of the elementary principles of +chemistry enable the girls to do their cooking intelligently. A +knowledge of some of the principles of machines will help the pupils to +understand the tools they may use in any employment. + +Drawing.--Careful drawing of the apparatus used helps to fix the +experiment in the mind and at the same time gives practice in art. + +Composition.--Pupils must have ideas before they can write. The +description of the experiment will make a good composition exercise, +oral or written. + + +LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS AND BULLETINS + + +GARDEN AND PLANT STUDY + +Bulletins of the Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto. + +Bulletins of the Dominion Department of Agriculture, Ottawa. + +Improvement of School Grounds. Department of Education, Toronto. + +Atkinson. First Studies of Plant Life. Ginn & Co. 60 cents. + +Bailey. Manual of Gardening. Macmillan Co. $2.00. + +Blanchan. Nature's Garden. Doubleday Co. $2.00. + +Comstock, A. M. Handbook of Nature Study. Comstock Pub. Co. $3.25. + +Gray. Field, Forest, and Garden Botany. Amer. Book Co. $1.40. + +Green, Louise. Among School Gardens. Charities Pub. Co. $1.25. + +Hodge. Nature Study and Life. Ginn & Co. $1.50. + +Holtz. Nature Study. Scribners' Sons. $1.50. + +Jackson and Dougherty. Agriculture through the Laboratory and School +Garden. Judd. $1.50. + +James. Agriculture. Appleton & Co. 80 cents. + +Keeler. Our Native Trees. Scribners' Sons. $2.00. + +Osterhout. Experiments with Plants. Macmillan Co. $1.50. + +Parsons. How to Plan the Home Grounds. Doubleday Co. $1.00. + +Sergeant. Corn Plants. Houghton, Mifflin Co. 75 cents. + + +PHYSICAL SCIENCE + +Miller. Minerals and How They Occur. The Copp, Clark Co. $1.50. + +Milliken and Gale. First Course in Physics. Ginn & Co. $2.00. + +Newman. Laboratory Exercises. Ginn & Co. 10c. each. + +Remsen. College Chemistry. Am. Pub. Co. $2.50. + +Simmons and Syenhouse. Science of Common Life. The Macmillan Company, +$1.00. + +Woodhull. Home-made Apparatus. + +High School Text-books. + + +ANIMAL STUDY + +Bulletin No. 52. Dominion Department of Agriculture, Ottawa. + +Bulletin No. 134. Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto. + +Bulletin No. 161. Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto. + +Bulletin No. 124. Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto. + +Reports of Entomological Society of Ontario. Department of Education. + +Fishes of Ontario. Nash. Department of Education. + +Bailey and Coleman. First Course in Biology. The Macmillan Company. +$1.25. + +Buchanan. Senior Country Reader. The Macmillan Company. 40 cents. + +Chapman. Bird Life. Appleton. $2.00. + +Crawford. Guide to Nature Study. The Copp, Clark Co. 90 cents. + +Dearness. How to Teach the Nature Study Course. The Copp, Clark Co. 60 +cents. + +Jordan and Kellogg. Animal Life. Appleton & Co. $1.20. + +Kellogg. Elementary Zoology. Holt & Co. $1.35. + +Reed. Bird Guide--Parts I and II. Musson Book Co., Toronto. 40 cents +each. + +Shaler. Domesticated Animals. Scribners' Sons. $2.50. + +Silcox and Stevenson. Modern Nature Study. The Macmillan Company. 75 +cents. + +NOTE.--The bulletins named above are supplied free to schools. Chemical +and Physical Apparatus and Entomological Supplies may be obtained from +G. M. Hendry Co., Victoria Street, Toronto. Rocks and Minerals may be +obtained from the Ward Natural Science establishment, Rochester, or from +the Central Scientific Co., Chicago. + + +PHYSICAL SCIENCE + +FORMS III AND IV + +DESIRABLE APPARATUS + +1 lb. glass tubing in 3 ft. lengths 3/16 in. to 1/4 in. outside diameter. +6 Florence flasks, 4 oz. to 8 oz. $ .50 +1 Funnel, 3 in. diameter .10 +1 Beaker, 8 oz. .10 +1 Evaporating dish .10 +3 ft. pure gum rubber tubing 1/8 in. inside .25 +1/2 sq. foot thin sheet rubber .20 +1 doz. test-tubes 6 in. by 5/8 in. .20 +1/2 doz. test-tubes 6 in. by 7/8 in. .10 +Capillary glass tubing, 3 sizes .10 +2 rubber stoppers No. 2, one hole +1 " " " 4, " " +1 " " " 7, two holes .30 +2 watch glasses .10 +Ball and ring 1.00 +2 Dry cells .60 +2 Bar magnets .50 +1 Chemical thermometer 212 deg. F. to 0 deg. F. .40 +1 Spirit-lamp .20 +1 Retort, 4 oz. stoppered .15 +Wax candles .10 +Retort stand of iron, two rings .85 +1 Thistle tube .10 +Common corks, assorted .10 +Filter paper 5 in. diameter .05 +Test-tube holder .10 +Test-tube rack .10 +Test-tube cleaner .10 +1 piece glass tubing 30 in. long, 1/4 in. inside, for barometer .20 +1 clamp for closing rubber tube .10 +Covered copper wire .10 +Small compass .50 +Glass model of common pump 1.00 +Globe for weighing air 2.50 +Small piece of platinum foil, 1/2 in. by 2 in. .25 +Glass prism 60 .50 +Tuning fork 4-1/2 in. .50 +Electric bell .50 +Motor (Ajax) 1.50 +Balance 10.00 +Air-pump 15.00 +Iron wire gauze .05 +Sheet metals, iron, copper, zinc, lead, aluminum .25 +2 lamp chimneys, straight ones preferred, at 10c .20 +Iron ball, 2 in. in diameter .20 +2 dairy thermometers at 15c .30 + +CHEMICALS + +Sulphuric acid, 1 lb. .10 +Hydrochloric acid, 8 oz. .10 +Nitric acid, 4 oz. .10 +Washing soda .05 +Sugar .05 +Salt .05 +Blue vitriol .10 +Alum .05 +Saltpetre .05 +Sulphur .05 +Potass. permanganate .05 +Lime .05 +Plaster-paris .05 +Potass. bichromate .10 +Methylated spirits, 1 pt. .10 +Alcohol, 95% .10 +Iodine crystals .10 +Mercury, 1 lb. 1.00 +Pot. chlorate .15 +Manganese dioxide .10 +Phosphorus .10 +Sweet oil, 2 oz. .10 +Benzine, 2 oz. .10 + +The following tools will be found very valuable: saw, square, plane, +brace and bit, knife, hammer, glass cutter, files--round, flat, and +triangular. + +Where the circumstances will not allow of the purchase of the preceding +list, the following apparatus is recommended as sufficient for the +performance of a large number of the experiments: + +1/2 lb. glass tubing in 3 ft. lengths, 3/16 in. + and 1/4 in. outside $ .20 +2 Florence flasks, 4 oz. .15 +1 Funnel .10 +2 ft. pure gum rubber tubing, 1/8 in. inside .15 +1/2 doz. test-tubes assorted, 5/8 to 7/8 diameter, 6 in. long .20 +2 rubber stoppers, No. 2, one hole .10 +1 rubber stopper, No. 4, one hole .10 +Expansion of heat apparatus (made at blacksmith's) .10 +Common corks, assorted .10 +1 chemical thermometer 0 deg. F. to 212 deg. F. .40 +1 spirit-lamp, 4 oz. .10 +1 thistle tube .10 +Covered wire, copper .10 + +CHEMICALS + +Iodine crystals .10 +Sulphuric acid, 1 lb. .10 +Methylated spirits 1 pt. .20 +Alcohol, 95% .10 +Mercury, 1/2 lb. .50 +Pot. chlorate .15 +Manganese dioxide .10 + +The following may be obtained, for either list, at little or no cost +from household stores or home-made sources: washing soda, sugar, salt, +ammonia, coal, coke, saltpetre, sulphur, blue vitriol, alum, potass. +bichromate, blueing, lime, pickle-jars, wire gauze, candles, wire, sheet +metals, test-tube holder and rack, balance, battery cells, horse-shoe +magnet, pneumatic trough, lamp chimneys, tin cans, melting spoon, +bicycle pump, baking-powder. + +For home-made apparatus, consult _Laboratory Exercises in Physics_ by +Newman, Ginn & Co., 50c., and Manual on _Manual Training_. + +Reference has been made in the preceding experiments to the use of +simple and easily contrived apparatus. The more of this the pupils can +contrive and make under the direction of the teacher, the more valuable +will be the course in Physical Science. + +GRENET CELLS + +Into a pint gem-jar put water 10 parts, sulphuric acid 1 part, potass, +bichromate 1 part. Have jar three quarters full. Cut a piece of board 4 +in. square, bore two holes in it, and through the holes thrust two +pieces of electric light carbon, 5 in. or 6 in. long. The outer edges of +the carbons should not be more than two inches apart. With a saw, cut a +slit in the board between the holes and insert a strip of zinc 2 in. by +7 in. previously rubbed over with mercury. Set the three elements in the +jar, connect the two carbons to one wire, and the zinc to another. + +One cell of this kind will run a small motor, operate a telegraph +sounder, make a simple electro-magnet, or ring an electric bell; two +cells will decompose water: three will heat a piece of fine iron wire +red-hot. + +DECOMPOSITION APPARATUS + +1. Cut the neck end from a pickle bottle. Get a No. 1 stopper, (rubber) +with two holes in it and insert a piece of platinum foil 2 in. by 1/8 +in. into each hole so that 1/2 in. projects above and below. Insert a +tight plug beside each strip, thus holding it fast and making the +stopper watertight. Insert the stopper into the neck of the jar. Pour +into the vessel thus formed enough water to cover the platinums, and add +a few drops of sulphuric acid. Touch the wires from the battery to the +lower ends of the strips. Note bubbles of gas arise from the platinums. +These may be collected in test-tubes and found by test to be oxygen and +hydrogen. + +2. Fasten a strip of platinum 1 in. by 1/8 in. to each wire from the +battery and dip these into some acidulated water contained in a tumbler. +The decomposition of the water into two gases can be seen, but the gases +cannot be collected so readily as in 1 above. Bits of electric light +carbon will do instead of platinum if the current is not too weak. + +PNEUMATIC TROUGH + +When oxygen or other gas is to be collected over water, use a milk pan +or similarly shaped vessel. + +SPIRIT-LAMP + +Use an ink-bottle to contain the alcohol and several strands of string +for the wick; make a hole in a piece of tin and draw the wick through; +then let the tin rest on the neck of the bottle to support the wick. + +BAROMETER + +A siphon barometer takes less mercury than a cistern barometer. To the +open end of the barometer tube attach a piece of strong rubber tubing 4 +in. long and to this a piece of glass tubing 3 in. long. Fill the tube +thus formed with mercury to within 3 in. from the top. Holding the short +glass tube open end up, turn the long tube closed end up. (A tube of 1/8 +in. bore needs only one quarter of the mercury required to fill a tube +1/4 in. bore.) + +HYGROMETER + +For a hygrometer, suspend two dairy thermometers side by side against +the wall, cover the bulb of one with thin muslin, and let the muslin +hang down and dip into water in some small vessel placed about three +inches below the bulb on a little shelf. + +HINTS + +To avoid explosions, a spirit-lamp should be kept filled. + +Toy rubber balloons answer well for sheet rubber. + +Red ink makes good colouring matter. + +Make touch-paper by soaking any porous paper in a solution of saltpetre, +and drying it. + +Instead of bending glass tubes, join them with rubber tubing. + +To make a test-tube holder, fold a sheet of paper until it is about half +an inch wide and wrap this around the tube. + +To bend glass tubing, hold in the flame of the spirit-lamp and rotate +between the fingers till it becomes soft and flexible, remove from the +flame, and bend. + +To break glass tubing, first scratch with a file. + +To break glass bottles, make neatly a deep cut with a file, then touch +the glass near the cut with a red-hot wire. When a crack appears, move +the hot wire and the crack will follow. Several heatings may be +necessary. + +In the case of a heavy glass bottle, file the cut as before, wrap the +bottle with string dipped in alcohol, light it, and after it has burned, +plunge the bottle vertically into cold water. + +Melted paraffin is good for closing small leaks. + + +TIME APPORTIONED TO NATURE STUDY + +The Nature Study lesson should be given a definite place on the +time-table. It is recommended that each class should have at least one +lesson of fifteen minutes in length, a week. In addition to this, about +five minutes a week should be spent in assigning problems for +out-of-door work and in discussing the observations which the pupils +have made on problems previously assigned. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +FORM I + +AUTUMN + + +GARDEN WORK + +On the re-opening of school after the summer holidays, the pupils should +see that their plots are put into good order without delay. If they have +been neglected during the holidays, a good deal of attention will be +needed, and in some cases it may not be possible to reclaim them because +of prolonged neglect. If such plots are found, they should be cleaned +off completely, spaded up, and left in readiness for planting the +following spring. All plots should be cultivated throughout the month of +September to keep the soil mellow and prevent the growth of weeds. The +pupils should be allowed to pick flowers from their own plots, but +should always leave a few in bloom for the sake of the general +appearance of the garden. Paths should be kept clean, and all rubbish, +weeds, dead plants, etc., removed to the compost heap, which should be +in the least conspicuous part of the garden. Hoes, rakes, and claw-hand +weeders should be used in cleaning up and cultivating the plots. The +soil should be kept fine and loose on top to prevent drying out. + +LESSONS ON A GARDEN PLANT + +PANSY + +LESSON I + +~Materials.~--A flower for each pupil + A plant set into a flower-pot + A leaf for each pupil + A pile of leaves containing a few pansy + leaves and several of other kinds. + +~Introduction.~--A conversation with the pupils about their favourite +flowers. + +~Observations.~--The pansy flowers are now distributed and the general +form of the flower is first noted. The resemblance to the face of an +animal will be discovered. The name _corolla_ is given, but no other +botanical terms are to be introduced in this lesson. + +The details of colours, perfumes, velvety feeling of the corolla, and +the number of leaflets in it are next _discovered_ and described by the +_pupils_. Lastly, in a withering flower they discover the seed cases and +the little seeds. + +LESSON II + +The conception of the relationship between the flower, root, and stem is +developed by a method similar to the following: + +What soon happens to a pansy flower after it is broken from the plant? +Are the flowers that you have in your hands withering? + +How can you keep them from withering? + +Hence, what must the flower get from the stem? + +Where does the stem get the moisture? + +Hence, what is one use of the root? + +A pupil is asked to pull the plant out of the soil in the flower-pot. +What is another use that you have discovered for the root? + +The plant is now uprooted from the soil, and the pupils examine the root +to find how it is fitted for gathering water and food from the soil and +for holding the plant in place. + +Note the number of branches touching a great deal of soil and also the +twisted form of the roots for grasping the soil. + +The form of the leaves is studied by the pupils, and, as a test of the +accuracy of their observation, they are asked to pick out the pansy +leaves from the pile of leaves. + +_To the teacher._--The pupils must be active participants in the lesson. +They must use their eyes, hands, and even their noses in gaining +first-hand impressions, and they are to be required to express in their +own way the things that they discover. The beautiful flower with its +face like that of an animal is an appeal to the child's imagination, and +the child's interest in the _use_ of things is utilized in the study of +the relations of root, stem, and flower. + +This lesson may be used as the basis for busy work by means of the +following correlations: + +1. With art: + +Represent the flower in colours. + +2. With reading and literature: + +The pupils are required to express the meaning and sentiment of the +following stanza: + + The pansy wakes in early spring + To make our world more bright; + All summer long its happy face + Fills children with delight, + +Lessons similar to those on the pansy may be based upon the following +plants of the garden or field: dandelion, aster, buttercup, nasturtium, +goldenrod. The teacher in preparing the lesson should read a description +of the plant from a Nature Study book and should also study the plant +itself until he is familiar with all the phases of its life. + +OBSERVATION EXERCISES ON THE DANDELION + +The exercises given below are suggestive for out of school observation +work, but must not be too long. By way of preparation for an exercise of +this kind, the interest of the pupils in the dandelion must first be +aroused. + +FIRST EXERCISE + +The teacher places the pupils at the school windows from which +dandelions are visible and asks them to name any flower that they can +see. A short conversation about the brightness of the flower follows. + +The pupils are next instructed to: + +1. Find dandelions late in the evening, and find out how they prepare to +go to sleep and how they are tucked in for the night. + +2. Find where the leaves of the dandelion are, and bring a leaf to +school next morning, and also observe how the leaves are grouped or +placed. + +_To the teacher._--Dandelion flowers close up in the evening; the green +leaves beneath the head wrap closely around the flowers to form a snug +covering. The leaves have margins with teeth shaped like those of a +lion, and from this the plant gets its name, for the name is the French +_dent de lion_, which is pronounced very much like the word dandelion. +The use of the leaf cluster as a system of rain-spouts for guiding the +rain toward the root should be noted. + +SECOND EXERCISE + +1. Why is the dandelion easy to find? + +2. What makes it easy to find even in long grass? + +3. What insect friends visit the dandelion? + +4. Find out just how these visitors act during their visits, and find +whether they carry anything to or away from the flowers. + +_To the teacher._--The bright yellow colour of the dandelion attracts +attention. When it grows in long grass, the flower stalk grows long, so +that the flower surmounts its obstructions and climbs up to the +sunshine. The flowers are visited by ants, bees, and wasps, and these +may be seen burrowing into the flowers in search of honey. If their +bodies and legs be touched, the yellow pollen of the flowers will be +found sticking to them. + +THIRD EXERCISE + +1. Look for flower heads that do not open to the sun. Do not disturb +them, but watch them for a few days and find out what they become. + +2. Examine the large white balls of the dandelions and find out what +they are. + +3. Blow the down away. What does it carry with it? + +_To the teacher._--In this exercise the pupils will learn that the large +white balls are the mature, or ripened, flowers and are composed of +little brown seeds, each being a little airship for wafting it away. + +CORRELATION WITH LITERATURE AND READING + +When the above exercises have been completed, the pupil's knowledge of +the dandelion may be utilized in interpreting the following stanzas: + + Oh dandelion! yellow as gold, + What do you do all day? + I just wait here in the tall green grass + Till the children come to play. + + And what do you do when your hair is white + And the children come to play? + They take me up in their dimpled hands + And blow my hair away. + +In addition to the dandelion, the following plants are suitable for +observation exercises: morning-glory, wild balsam, sweet-pea, +snap-dragon, nasturtium. + +DWARF NASTURTIUM + +~Observations.~--The size of the plant at the time of flowering; its +leaves--size, colour, shape, length of petiole and how arranged; colours +found in the flower, comparison with others of same species found in the +garden; size and shape of the flower and the length of its stems. Do the +flowers grow higher than the leaves? Do they look better when with the +leaves or when alone? Note the perfume and taste of the flower stem, the +insect visitors, and what part of the flower they tried to get at, when +the first blossom was seen, and how long the blossoms continued to come +out. Do they keep well in bouquets? Do they stand hot, dry weather as +well as other flowers? When did the frost kill them? Compare with the +climbing nasturtium. Find the seeds. + + +SEEDS + +The autumn months are the best for seed studies, for almost all annuals +are ripening their seeds at this time of year. + +FIELD EXERCISE + +Assign to the pupils the following exercise: + +Collect the seed pods from as many plants of your garden plots, or home +gardens, or wild plants, as possible, and be careful to write the name +of each plant on the paper in which you put the seed pod of that plant. +Notice the part of the plant from which the seed pod is formed. + +CLASS-ROOM LESSON BASED ON THIS COLLECTION + +The pupils place the seed pods on their desks, and observations and +problems are dealt with of which the following are representative: + +How does each seed case open? + +What are the seeds for? + +How many seeds are in each case? + +Why should a plant have so many seeds? + +How are the seed cases fitted for protecting the seeds? + +Are any two seeds alike in shape? + +Are the seeds easy to find if they are spilled upon the ground? + +What makes them hard to find? + +Where do nearly all seeds spend the winter? + +Of what use is the hard shell of the seed? + +SEED DISPERSAL + +Study only a few of the more striking examples of seed dispersal with +the Form I class. Seeds that fly and seeds that steal rides are good +examples of classes of seeds whose methods of dispersal will prove of +interest to children. + +LESSON ON SEEDS THAT FLY + +~Materials.~--A milkweed pod; a ripe dandelion head. + +~Introduction.~--A short conversation about the effects of the crowding of +plants, as carrots and turnips, in a garden plot, and hence the need for +the scattering of seeds. + +~Observations.~--Open a milkweed pod in the presence of the class, so that +they may see how the pod opens, how beautifully the seeds are arranged, +and how the silk tufts are so closely packed in together. + +Allow a pupil to lift a seed out, blow it in the air, and observe how +the silk opens out like an umbrella. Distribute seeds, one to each +pupil. Ask the pupils to find out why this little airship is able to +carry the seed. They will find that the seeds though broad, are thin and +light, and the silky plumes very light. + +Ask the pupils to release their milkweed seeds at recess, when out of +school, and find out how far they can fly. This is an interesting +experiment for a windy day. + +The white balls of the dandelion are next examined, the tiny seeds are +found standing on tiptoe on a raised platform, each grasping a tiny +parachute and waiting for a puff of wind to start them off. A pupil is +permitted to give the puff. Seeds are distributed, and the means of +flight is compared with that of the milkweed. The shape of the seeds is +observed and also the tiny anchor points at the lower end of the seed +for clutching the ground when the seed alights. + +Another lesson on seeds that fly can be based on the study of tree +seeds, using those of the maple, elm, basswood, pine, and spruce. + +CORRELATIONS + +1. Drawing of milkweed pods and seeds, and drawing of the dandelion +seed-ball and the seeds when floating in the air. + +2. Reading and literature. Interpret the thought and read expressively: + + Dainty milkweed babies, wrapped in cradles green, + Rocked by Mother Nature, fed by hands unseen, + Brown coats have the darlings, slips of milky white, + And wings, but that's a secret, they're folded out of sight. + + +TWIGS AND BUDS + +The study of buds is a part of tree study and may be taken as +observation work in the class-room. This somewhat detailed study should +follow the general lessons on tree study. + +The materials for the lessons may be collected by the pupils at the time +of the field lesson and kept fresh in a jar of water until required for +use. + +LESSON ON TWIGS + +~Materials.~--A twig of horse-chestnut about six inches long, for each +pupil. + +A twig of the same tree with the leaves still on it. + +~Observations.~--The twigs are distributed and the teacher asks the pupils +to examine them and to describe all marks and projections that can be +found on the twig. + +Answers are required from the pupils separately. The pupil's answer in +each case should be sufficiently clear for all the class to recognize +the feature that the answer is intended to describe. A few brief +questions will guide the answerer in making his description more +definite, but the description should be the result of the pupil's +observation and expressed in his own words. + +The meaning or use of each feature should be discussed, when possible, +immediately after it has been described. + +The following features will be discovered and the problems suggested +will be solved: + +The brown or greenish-brown bark. + +The buds. + +One bud (sometimes two) is at the end of the twig. + +Some buds are along the side of the twig. + +What caused the end bud to grow larger than the others? + +There is a leaf scar under each bud. + +Of what use is it to the bud to be between the twig and the leaf stalk? + +The bands of rings, one or more on each twig. + +The tiny oval pores, each surrounded by a little raised band. + +The detailed study of the buds is left for a separate lesson. + +FURTHER STUDY OF TWIGS + +The study in detail of various features is illustrated in the following: + +Look closely at the leaf scars and describe them fully, as to shape, +colour, and marks. + +Do the scars look like fresh wounds, or are they healed over? Of what +use to the tree is the healing of the scar? + +We will learn later that the part of the twig between each pair of bands +of rings represents one year's growth. How old is your twig? Who has the +oldest twig? + +Do all twigs grow at the same rate? + +Who has the twig that had the most rapid growth? + +_To the teacher._--The bud at the end of the twig or its branches is +called the end bud; there are two leaf scars underneath it. The buds +along the sides of the stem are called side buds, the latter are smaller +than the end bud. The bud situated between the stem of the leaf and the +twig is in a sheltered position. This position also puts the bud close +to the pantry door, for the plant food is prepared in the leaf. The leaf +scars are yellowish-brown, or if they are the scars from the leaves of +former years, are dark brown in colour. Each scar is shaped like a +horse-shoe and tiny dots are found in the position that the horse-shoe +nails would have. Even before the leaf falls, a layer of corklike +substance has formed over the scar. This layer is a protection against +the entrance of frost and rain and germs of fungi and it also prevents +the loss of sap from the scar. The tiny oval pores, each as large as the +point of a needle, are the breathing pores of the twig. The bands of +rings are the scars of the scales of the end buds of successive years. +This latter fact can be discovered when the bud is opening. + +REVIEW LESSON + +The review lesson should consist of a review of the points taken up in +the lessons that were based on the horse-chestnut twig, supplemented by +the examination of the twigs of elm, apple, or lilac. + +LESSON ON BUDS + +~Materials.~--Twigs and buds of horse-chestnut, one for each pupil. An +opening bud. (A bud or a twig placed in water in a warm room will +develop rapidly.) + +~Lesson.~--Distribute specimens, and review the positions of the buds. + +Pupils examine the buds and tell all they can about them. They describe +the colour, shape, and size of the buds, and also their gummy and +scalelike covering. + +Of what use are the gum and scales? Of what use is the brown colour of +the bud? + +They next find out what is inside the little brown house. They open the +buds and try to identify the contents. There will be some uncertainty as +to the meaning of the contents. Leave this over till spring. + +_To the teacher._--The brown colour of the bud makes it an absorbent of +sunlight, and also serves as a protection from observation by the sharp +eyes of bud-eating birds. The gummy scales are waterproof, and the +scales, by spreading open gradually, cause the waterproof property to be +retained even after the bud has grown quite large. The inner part of the +bud is composed of two, four, or six tiny leaves folded up and supported +on a short bit of stem. Some of the buds have, in addition to leaves, a +tiny young flower cluster. All of these things are densely covered with +white down. The down is the fur coat to protect the tender parts from +the cold. + +REVIEW LESSON + +Review the lesson on buds, but substitute buds of the lilac or apple for +the horse-chestnut buds of the original lesson. + +CORRELATIONS + +The observational study of the buds and twigs is a good preparation for +busy work in art and manual training, and the pupils may be assigned +exercises, such as charcoal drawing of a horse-chestnut twig, paper +cutting of a lilac twig and buds, clay or plasticine modelling of twigs +and buds. + +For oral and written language exercises, enlarge the vocabulary of the +pupils by requiring sentences containing the words--scales, twigs, buds, +protection, terminal, lateral, leaf stalk, blade, etc. + + +LEAVES + +Leaves, because of their abundance and the ease with which they may be +obtained, are valuable for Nature Study work. It is possible to arouse +the interest of even young children in the study of leaves, but care +must be taken not to make the observation work too minute and the +descriptions too technical for the primary classes. + +FIELD EXERCISES + +An excursion to the school grounds or to some neighbouring park will +suffice to bring the pupils into direct contact with the following +plants: a maple tree, a Boston ivy (or other climbing vine), a +nasturtium, a geranium. + +Ask the pupils to find out where and how leaves are placed on each of +these plants, that is, whether they are on the inner parts of the +branches of the tree or out at the ends of the branches. Do the leaves +overlap one another or does each make room for its neighbours? Are the +leaves spread out flat or curled up? What holds the leaves out straight +and flat? What do the leaves need to make them green and healthy? + +Are the leaves placed in the right way, and are they of the right form +to get these things? + +_To the teacher._--The leaves of the plants named are quite noticeably +so placed on the plants, have such relations to one another, and are of +such outline that they present the greatest possible surface to the +_air_ and _sunshine_ and _rain_. The leaf stalk and midrib and veins are +stiff and strong to keep the leaves spread out. Compare with the ribs of +an umbrella. The benefit of sunshine to leaves and plants can be +developed by discussing with the pupils the paleness and delicateness of +plants that have been kept in a dark place, such as in a dark cellar. +They are also acquainted with the refreshing effect of rains upon +leaves. The use of air to the leaves is not so easy to develop with +pupils of this age, but the use of air for breathing just as boys and +girls need air for breathing may be told them. + +CLASS-ROOM LESSON ON LEAVES + +~Introduction.~--Tell me all the things that you know upon which leaves +grow. On trees, bushes, flowers, plants, vegetables, etc. + +Are leaves all of the same shape? + +To-day we are going to learn the names of some of the shapes of leaves. + +~Observations.~--Show the class the heart-shaped leaf of catalpa or lilac, +and obtain from the pupils the name _heart-shape_. Use the following +types: + + Maple leaf as star-shape, + Grass or wheat or corn as ribbon-shape, + Nasturtium or water-lily as shield-shape, + Ash or rowan, as feather-shape. + +~Drill.~--Pupils pick out the shape named. Pupils name the plant to which +each belongs. Which shape do you think is the prettiest? + + +GARDEN STUDIES + +If the pupils of this Form have planted and cared for garden plots of +their own, they will have a greater love for the flowers or vegetables +that grow in them than for any others in the garden, because they have +watched their development throughout. For them such continuous +observation cannot but result in a quickening of perception and a +deepening of interest and appreciation. + +STUDIES IN THE PUPIL'S INDIVIDUAL PLOT + +What plant is the first to appear above ground? What plant is the last +to appear? Describe what each plant was like when it first appeared +above ground. What plants grow the fastest? What effect has cold +weather, warm weather, dry weather, on the growth of the plants? + +What weeds grow in the plot? + +Why do these weeds obstruct the growth of the other plants? + +What kind of root has each weed? + +Find out what kind of seeds each weed produces? + +Why is each weed hard to keep out of fields? + +What garden plants produce flowers? + +How are the seeds protected? + +Compare the seeds with those that you planted. + +Select the seeds of the largest plants and finest flowers for next +year's seeding. + +STUDIES FROM THE GARDEN AS A WHOLE + +What plants grow tallest? + +What plants are most suitable for borders? + +What plants are valuable for their flowers? + +What plants are valuable for their edible roots, for their edible +leaves, for their edible seeds? + +How are the edible parts stored for winter use? + +Compare the plants that are crowded, with others of the same kind that +are not crowded. + +Compare the rate of growth of the plants in a plot that is kept hoed and +raked with the rate of growth of plants in a neglected plot. + + +BULB PLANTING + +The planting of bulbs in pots for winter blooming should be commenced +with pupils in Form I and continued in the higher Forms. As a rule, the +potted bulbs will be stored and cared for in the home, as most +school-rooms are not heated continuously during the winter. Paper-white +narcissus and freesia are most suitable and should be planted about the +fifteenth of October, so that the plants will be in bloom for Christmas. + +LESSON ON BULBS AND BULB PLANTING + +~Materials.~--The bulbs to be planted. + +As many four-inch flower-pots or tomato cans as are required. + +Soil, composed of garden loam, sand, and well-rotted manure in equal +proportions. Stones for drainage. + +Sticks for labels (smooth pieces of shingle, one and a half inches wide +and sharpened at one end, will answer). + +Pictures of the plants in bloom. + +~Observations.~--The attention of the pupils is directed to the bulbs, and +they are asked to describe the size, form, and colour of each kind of +bulb. + +A bulb is cut across to make possible the study of the parts, and the +pupils observe the scales or rings which are the bases of the leaves of +the plant from which the bulb grew. The use of the fleshy mass of the +bulb as a store of food for the plant that will grow from it is +discussed. + +The sprout in the centre of the scales with its yellowish-green tip is +observed, and its meaning inferred. + +The picture is shown to illustrate the possibilities within the bulb. + +PLANTING THE BULB + +The teacher directs, but the work is done by the pupils, and the reasons +for the following operations are developed: + +What is the use of the one-inch layer of pebbles, or broken brick, or +stone, that is placed in the bottom of the pot? + +Why are the bulbs planted near the top of the soil? + +Why is the soil packed firmly around the bulbs? + +Why must the soil be well wetted? + +Why is the pot set in a cool, dark place for a month or more? + +_To the teacher._--The pebbles or broken bricks are for giving drainage. +The bulbs are planted with their tips just showing above the surface of +the soil and there is about half an inch of space between the top of the +soil and the upper edge of the pot in order to facilitate watering. The +potted bulbs must be set in a cool, dark place until they are well +rooted. This is subjecting them to their natural winter conditions, and +it will cause them to yield larger flowers, a great number of flowers, +and flowers that are more lasting. Sand in the soil permits of the more +free passing of air through the soil. Basements and cellars are usually +suited for storing bulbs until they have rooted, but they must not be +warm enough to promote rapid growth. The pots when stored should be +covered with leaves, sawdust, or coarse sand to prevent drying out. The +soil must be kept moist, but not wet. Paper-white narcissus, if brought +out of the dark after three or four weeks, will be in bloom at the end +of another month if kept in the window of a warm room. Care must be +taken not to expose the plants to bright light until they have become +green. The bulbs of the white narcissus are to be thrown away after the +flowers have withered, as they will not bloom again, but freesia bulbs +may be kept and planted again the following year. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +FORM I + +WINTER + + +LESSONS ON A PET ANIMAL: THE RABBIT + +I + +The lesson is introduced by a conversation with the pupils about their +various pets. + +Since we are to have a rabbit brought to the school we must learn how to +take care of it, and the proper method of taking care of it is based +upon a knowledge of the habits of the wild rabbit. + +Where do wild rabbits live? + +What sort of home does a rabbit have? + +In what ways does this home protect the rabbit? + +Hence, what kind of home must we have ready for the rabbit? + +What does the rabbit eat? + +Are there any of these foods that are not good for its health? + +Give a list of foods that you can bring for the rabbit. Why will the +rabbit, when kept in a hutch, require less food than one that runs +about? + +Since the rabbit likes a soft bed, what can you bring for its bed? + +II + +~Observations.~--The teacher or a pupil brings a rabbit to the +school-room, where, during recreation periods, the pupils make +observations on topics suggested by the teacher, such as: + +Its choice of food; its timidity; its movements--hopping, squatting, +listening, scratching, and gnawing. + +These observations are discussed in the class and are corrected or +verified. + +_To the teacher._--Wild rabbits live in the woods or in shrubbery at the +edges of fields. The home of the rabbit is either a burrow under ground +or a sheltered place under a root or log closely concealed among the +bushes. This home is dry and affords a shelter from enemies, and from +wind, rain, and snow. From this we know that we must provide a dry bed +for our rabbit in a strong box in which it will feel secure, and in +which it will be protected from wind and rain. The food of the rabbit +consists of vegetables and soft young clover and grains. It also gnaws +the bark of trees, and in winter it feeds upon buds. We can, therefore, +feed our rabbit on carrots, beets, apples, oats, bran, grass, and leaves +of plants, and we must provide it with some twigs to gnaw, for gnawing +helps to keep its large chisel-shaped teeth in good condition. We must +be careful not to give it too much exercise, and we must not give it any +cabbage, because this is not good for the rabbit's health. A dish of +water must be placed in the hutch, for the rabbit needs water to drink. + +III + +Details, if studied in isolation, are uninteresting to Form I pupils. +Detailed study should be based upon the animal's habits, movements, and +instincts, and each detail should be studied as an answer to questions +such as: How is the animal able to perform these movements? How is the +animal fitted for this habit of life, etc.? + +Watch the rabbit moving. How does a rabbit move? + +Which legs are the more useful for hopping? How are the hind legs fitted +for making long hops? + +Why is the rabbit able to defend itself by kicking with its hind feet? +Find out how the rabbit is fitted for burrowing. + +Listen carefully and find out whether the rabbit makes much noise while +moving. Of what advantage is it to the rabbit to move silently? + +Find out, by examining the feet of the rabbit, what causes it to make +very little noise. + +How are rabbits prepared for living during cold weather? + +Test the ability of the rabbit to hear faint noises. Why is it necessary +for the rabbit to be able to hear faint sounds? + +How is it fitted for hearing faint sounds? + +Examine the teeth and find out how they are fitted for gnawing. + +_To the teacher._--The long, strong, hind legs of the rabbit are bent in +the form of levers and enable the animal to take long, quick hops. + +When the rabbit attacks, it frequently defends itself by vigorous kicks +with its hind feet, which are armed with long, strong claws. Ernest +Thompson-Seton's story of Molly Cottontail and "Raggylug", in _Wild +Animals I Have Known_, contains an interesting account of how Molly +rescued Raggy from a snake by this manner of fighting. The rabbit has +many enemies, hence it has need of large, movable ears to aid its acute +sense of hearing. The thick pads of hair on the soles of its feet enable +it to move noiselessly. The thick, soft, inner hair keeps the animal +warm, while the longer, stiffer, outer hair sheds the rain. + +Impress upon the pupils the cruelty of rough handling of the rabbit and +of neglecting to provide it with a place for exercise and with a clean, +dry home. + +The following pet animals may be studied, using the same order and +general method of treatment: pigeon, cat, canary, guinea pig, white +mouse, raccoon, squirrel, parrot. + +In many cases these animals can be brought to school by the pupils. +Encourage the keeping of pet animals by the pupils, for the best lessons +grow out of the actual care of the pets. The study of a pet bird may be +conducted along lines similar to the outline given below for the study +of the pigeon. + +CORRELATIONS + +With literature and reading: Ernest Thompson-Seton's "Raggylug". + +With art: Charcoal drawing representing the rabbit in various attitudes, +as squatting, listening, hopping. + +With modelling in clay or plasticine. + +With paper cutting. + +With language: The vocabulary of the pupils is enlarged by the +introduction of new words whose meaning is made clear by means of the +concrete illustration furnished by direct observation of the rabbit. + +They use these new words in sentences which they form in describing the +rabbit; for example: hutch, gnaw, padded, cleft lip, timid. + +The rabbit has padded feet so that it can walk without noise. The rabbit +has a soft bed in its hutch. + +THE DOMESTIC CAT + +The following facts are suggested as topics for a first lesson on the +domestic cat. The teacher can rely upon the pupil's knowledge of the +cat to furnish these statements of fact during a conversation lesson: + +The cat goes about at night as readily as during the day. + +The cat can hear faint noises quite readily. + +The cat can walk noiselessly. + +The cat creeps along until it is close to its prey, then pounces upon +it, and seizes it with its claws. + +The cat enjoys attention and purrs if it is stroked gently. + +The cat likes to sleep in a warm place. + +The cat can fight viciously with her claws. + +The cat keeps her fur smooth and clean and her whiskers well brushed +with her paws. + +The cat eats birds, mice, rats, meat, fish, milk, bread, and cake. + +DETAILED STUDY + +Base the study of the details upon the facts of habit, movements, +instincts, etc., which were developed in the preceding lesson. + +~Observations.~--Find out how the cat's feet are fitted for giving a +noiseless tread. + +Find the claws. + +How are the claws fitted for seizing prey? + +How are the claws protected from being made dull by striking against +objects when the cat is walking? + +THE PIGEON + +A pigeon is kept in a cage in the school-room and the pupils observe: +its size as compared with that of other birds; outline of body, +including shape of head; the feathers, noting quill feathers, and +covering or contour feathers; manner of feeding and drinking; movements, +as walking, flying, tumbling. + +The owner or the teacher describes the dove-cot, the necessity of +keeping it clean, the use of tobacco stems for killing vermin in the +nest, the two white eggs, the habits of male and female in taking turns +in hatching, the parents' habit of half digesting the food in their own +crops and then pouring it into the crops of the young, the rapid growth +of the young, the next pair of young hatched before the first pair is +full-fledged. + +Descriptions of the habits of one or more well-known varieties--pouters, +fantails, homing pigeons, etc. Read stories of the training and flights +of homing pigeons, from Ernest Thompson-Seton's _Arnex_. + +MORE DETAILED STUDY FOR CLASS WORK + +Compare the uses of the quill and contour feathers. Find out how these +two kinds differ in texture; the differences fitting them for their +difference in function. The names quill and contour may be replaced by +some simple names, as feathers for flying and feathers for covering the +body. + +Study the adaptations for flight, noting the smooth body surface, the +overlapping feathers of the wing for lifting the bird upward as the wing +comes down, the long wing bones, the strong breast, and the covering of +feathers giving lightness and warmth. The warmth and lightness of +feathers is illustrated by the feather boas worn by ladies. + +Examine the feet and find out why pigeons are able to perch on trees. + +Examine the beak, mouth, tongue, nostrils, eyes, ears. How is the bill +adapted for picking up grains and seeds? + + +OBSERVATION AND CARE OF WINTER-BLOOMING PLANTS + +Children are most interested in things which they own and care for +themselves. If a child plants a bulb or a slip and succeeds in bringing +it to maturity, it will be to him the most interesting and, at the same +time, will bring him more into sympathy with plants wherever he may find +them. The teacher should impress upon the pupil the desirability of +having beautiful flowers in the home in winter, when there are none to +be had out-of-doors. + +Every pupil should be encouraged to have one plant at least, and the +bulbs planted in October and stored away in the dark in the home cellar +will require a good deal of care and afford an excellent opportunity for +observing plant growth and the development of flowers. If the pots have +been stored in a cool cellar and have been kept slightly moist, the +bulbs will have made sufficient root growth in a month and should be +brought up into a warmer room where they can get some sunshine every +day. The pupils will make a report each week as to what changes are +noticeable in the growing plant. They will note the appearance of pale +green shoots, which later develop into leaves and at least one flower +stalk. They should make a drawing once every week and show it to the +teacher, and the teacher should make it a point to see a number of the +pupils' plants by calling at their homes. In this way the pupils come to +know what plants need for their development in the way of soil, water, +light, and heat. This interest will soon be extended, until, in a very +few years, the children will add new and beautiful plants to the home +collection and assume the responsibility of caring for all of them. + + +TREES + +PINES OF THE LOCALITY + +This study may be commenced in November after the deciduous trees have +lost their leaves and have entered their quiescent winter period. This +is the time when the evergreens stand out so prominently on the +landscape in such sharp contrast with the others that have been stripped +of their broad leaves and now look bare and lifeless. If no pines are to +be found in the vicinity, balsam or spruce may be substituted. The +lessons should, as far as possible, be observational. The pupils should +be encouraged to make some observations for themselves out of school. At +least one lesson should be conducted out-of-doors, a suitable pine tree +having been selected beforehand for the purpose. The following method +might serve as a guide in the study of any species of tree. + +THE WHITE PINE + +FIELD EXERCISES + +Have the pupils observe the shape and height of the tree from a +distance, tracing the outline with the finger. Compare the shape of this +tree with that of other evergreens and also with that of the +broad-leafed trees. Have them describe in what particulars the shapes +differ in different trees. They will come to realize that the difference +in shape results from difference in length, direction, and arrangement +of branches. They may notice that other evergreen trees resemble the +pine in that the stems are all straight and extend as a gradually +tapering shaft from the bottom to the top, that all have a more or less +conical shape, and that the branches grow more or less straight out +from the main stem, not slanting off as in the case of the maples and +elms. + +Coming close to the tree, the pupils may first examine the trunk. By +using a string or tape-line, find its diameter and how big it is around. +Tell them how big some evergreens are (the giant trees of the Pacific +Coast are sometimes over forty feet around). Have them notice where the +trunk is largest, and let them find out why a tree needs to be so strong +at the ground. Heavy wind puts a great strain on it just at this point. +Illustrate by taking a long slat or lath, drive it into the ground +firmly, and then, catching it by the top, push it over. It will break +off just at the ground. If a little pine tree could be taken up, the +pupils would be interested in seeing what long, strong, fibrous roots +the pine has. + +Let them examine the bark of the trunk and describe its colour and +roughness. The fissures in the bark, which are caused by the enlarging +of the tree by the formation of new wood under the bark, are deeper at +the bottom of the tree than at the top, the tree being younger and the +bark thinner the nearer to the top we go. + +Let the pupils look up into the tree from beneath and then go a little +distance away and look at it. They will notice how bare the branches are +on the inside, and the teacher will probably have to explain why this is +so. They will discover that the leaves are nearly all out toward the +ends of the branches as they get light there, while the centre of the +tree top is shaded, and the great question that every tree must try to +solve is how to get most light for its leaves. The pupils will now see +an additional reason why the lower limbs should be longer than the upper +ones. The greater length of the lower limbs brings the leaves out into +the sunlight. + +The reason for calling this tree an "evergreen" may now be considered. +Why it retains its leaves all winter is a problem for more advanced +classes; but if the question is asked, the teacher may get over the +difficulty by explaining to the class that the leaves are so small, and +yet so hardy, that wind, frost, or snow does not injure them. Each pupil +may bring a small branch or twig back to the school-room for use in a +class-room lesson. + +CLASS-ROOM LESSON + +~Materials.~--Small branches--one for each pupil, cones, bark, pieces of +pine board. + +~Introduction.~--Review the general features of the pine that were +observed in the field lesson. + +~Observations.~--The branches are distributed. Pupils test the strength +and suppleness of the branches and find the gummy nature of the surface. + +Of what value are these qualities to the tree during winter storms? + +Examine the texture, stiffness, and fineness of the needles. + +Note that the needles are in little bunches. How many are in each bunch? + +Are there any buds on the branches? + +If so, where are the buds? + +How are the buds protected from rain? + +The pupils examine the cones and describe their general shape. + +The pupils are asked to break open the tough scales and find the seeds. + +Allow the seeds to fall through the air, and thus the pupils will +discover the use of the wings attached to the seeds. + +The wood is next examined, its colour and odour are noted, and its +hardness is tested. + +Find articles in the school-room that are made of pine wood. + +ELM + +The following topics are suggested for aiding in the selection of matter +for a lesson on a typical broad-leafed tree: + +The height of the tree. + +The part of the height that is composed of tree tops. + +The umbrella shape or dome shape of the top. + +The gracefully drooping branches of the outer part of the top. + +Try to find other trees with tops like that of the elm. + +The diameter of the trunk. + +The diameter is almost uniform up to the branches. + +The branches all come off from one point, like the ribs of an umbrella. + +The thick bark, that of the old trees being marked by deep furrows. + +The birds that make their nests in the elm. + +In spring find and examine the flowers, fruits, seeds, and also the +leaves. + +FIELD EXERCISE + +A good out-of-door exercise to follow the general lesson outlined above, +is to require the pupils to find all the elm trees or a number of elm +trees growing in the locality and to describe their location and the +kind of soil on which they grow. + +The maple, oak, horse-chestnut, and apple are also suitable trees upon +which to base lessons for Form I. + + +DOMESTIC ANIMALS + +Domestic animals not only furnish suitable subjects for observation +work, but also afford good opportunities for developing that sympathetic +interest in animal life which will cause the pupils to more nearly +appreciate the useful animals and to treat them more humanely. + +THE HORSE + +I + +~Introduction.~--By means of a conversation with the pupils, find out what +they know about the horse and lead them to think about his proper +treatment. + +~Lesson.~--The matter and method are suggested by the following: + +What are the different things for which horses are useful? + +What kinds of horses are most useful for hauling heavy loads? + +Why are they most useful? + +What kinds are the most useful for general farm work? Why are they the +most useful? + +What kinds are the most useful for driving? + +Are there any other animals that would be as useful as the horse for all +these things? + +What causes some horses to be lean and weary while others are fat and +brisk? + +What kinds of stables should horses have as to warmth, dryness, and +fresh air? + +Why is it cruel to put a frosty bit into a horse's mouth? + +When a horse is warm from driving on a cold day, how should he be +protected if hitched out-of-doors? + +Why, when he is warm from driving, should the blanket not be put on +until he has been in the stable for a little while? + +Correlate with reading from _Black Beauty_. + +II + +~Preparation.~--I want you to find out some more things about the horse, +but you will understand these things better if you remember that long +ago all horses were wild, just as some horses are wild on the prairies +to-day, and that the habits learned by wild horses remain in our tame +horses. + + The teacher should read to the class parts of "The Pacing + Mustang" from Ernest Thompson-Seton's _Wild Animals I Have + Known_, or "Kaweah's Run" from _Neighbours with Claws and + Hoofs_. This will give the pupils a motive for making the + required observations. + +~Observations.~--Compare the length of the legs of the horse with his +height. + +Of what use were these long legs to the wild horses? + +What causes horses to "shy"? Of what use was this habit to wild horses? + +In how many directions can a horse move his ears? Of what use was this +to wild horses? + +When horses in a field are alarmed, do they rush together or keep apart, +and where are the young foals found at this time? Of what use were these +habits to wild horses? Are the eyes of the horse so placed that he can +see behind him and to either side as well as in front? Of what use was +this to wild horses? + +_To the teacher._--The horse is an animal which is strong, swift, +graceful, gentle, obedient, docile. The pupils should learn that, in +return for his good services, the horse should be treated with kindness +and consideration. + +The legs of the horse are long, straight, and strong, and the single toe +(or hoof) means that the horse walks on the tip of one toe, and the hoof +is in reality a large toe nail developed to protect the tip of the toe. +To these features is due the great speed of the horse. Horses gather +together in the field with the foals in the most protected part of the +group, just as wild horses found it necessary to do for protection. The +wild horses "shied" at a fierce enemy concealed in the grass, and the +tame horse shies at a strange object. + +CORRELATIONS + +With literature and reading: By interpretation of _The Bell of Atri_. + +With language: By exercise on new words, as graceful, etc. + + +DOMESTIC BIRDS + +THE DUCK + +~Home Observations.~--Compare the duck and the drake as to size, +colouring, calls, and other sounds. + +Observe the position of the birds when standing. Observe their mode of +walking, of swimming, and of flying. Where do they prefer to make their +nests? Why is the duck more plain in dress than the drake? What is the +shape, size, and build of the nest? Describe the eggs. When does the +duck sleep? Why can it not sleep upon a perch as hens do? How do ducks +feed on land? Compare with the feeding of hens. Observe how ducks feed +when in water. Observe the various sounds, as alarm notes, call notes, +social sounds. + +Describe the preening of the feathers and explain the meaning of it. + +Compare the appearance of the young ducks with that of the older ones. +Do the young ducks need to be taught to swim? + +CLASS-ROOM LESSON + +Provide, where convenient, a duck for class study. + +~Observations.~--Colour, size, general shape of the body, and the relation +of the shape to ease of swimming; divisions of the body. + +Size of head, length of neck, and the relation of the length of the neck +to the habit of feeding in water. + +The legs and web feet, and the relation of these to the bird's awkward +walking and ease in swimming. + +The bill and its relation to the bird's habits of feeding by scooping +things from the bottom of the water and then straining the water out. +The sensitive tip of the bill by which the duck can feel the food. + +The feathers, their warmth, and compactness for shedding water. The oil +spread over them during the preening is useful as a protection against +water. + +The bill, feet, and feathers should be compared with those of the hen +and goose, and reasons for the similarities and differences should be +discussed. + +The uses that people make of ducks and their feathers and eggs; the +gathering of eider-down. + +For desk work, make drawings of the duck when swimming, flying, and +standing. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +FORM I + +SPRING + + +GARDEN WORK + +The pupils in Form I cannot be expected to do heavy work, such as +spading plots or making paths. In some cases the larger boys will +undertake to line out the walks and do the spading or digging. Sometimes +it may be best to engage a man to do the spading. In any case the boys +and girls should do the measuring and marking out of the plots. If +stable manure is used in fertilizing the plots, it must be well rotted +and then carefully spaded into the plots. The rest of the work should be +done by the pupils themselves under the direction of the teacher. This +work will include the levelling of the plots with hoes and rakes, and +the trimming of the edges to the exact size of the plots, as determined +by a string drawn taut about the four corner pickets. If the pupils in +this Form have individual plots, each pupil will mark out his drills, +put in the seeds, and cover them. The teacher may give demonstrations in +connection with the work but should not do the work for the pupils. + +The teacher must use his own judgment as to what seeds to allow the +pupils to plant. One variety of vegetable and one of flowers is +sufficient for Form I pupils, and it is desirable that large seeds be +chosen for them and such as are pretty sure to grow under ordinary +circumstances. Beans, beets, radishes, or lettuces are suitable as +vegetables, and nasturtiums, balsams, or four-o'clocks as flowers. +These seeds should be planted at least an inch apart in the drill and +the drills, twelve to fifteen inches apart. Large seeds may have an inch +of soil over them and smaller seeds much less. Unless the soil is very +dry, watering should not be allowed, and in any case it is better to +water the plot thoroughly the day before planting the seed instead of +after, as is commonly done. The pupils must not allow a crust to form +over the plot either before the seeds come up or after. Claw-hand +weeders are convenient for loosening the soil close to the plants, and +small-sized garden rakes can be used between the rows as soon as the +seedlings appear. It is always better to cultivate before the weeds get +a start, and thus prevent their growth. Usually the young plants will be +too thick in the row, so that thinning should be begun when the plants +are about two inches high. The edges of the plots should be kept +straight and the paths clean and level. Each plot should have a wooden +label bearing the owner's name or number and Form. The teacher is +referred to _Circular 13_ of the Ontario Department of Education, +_Elementary Agriculture and Horticulture_, for lists of seeds, tools, +etc. + +GARDEN STUDIES + +The pupils should be in the garden every day as soon as gardening +commences. In this way only will they be able to follow and appreciate +the whole life of the plant from seed to seed again. The teacher should +give a few minutes daily to receiving verbal reports from the pupils. +All new developments that the pupils notice should be reported for the +good of all. The teacher should make a practice of visiting the garden +for a few minutes daily before or after school, in order that he may be +in a position to direct the pupils in their studies in the garden. The +pupils should watch for the first appearance of the young plants above +ground, noting how they get through the soil, and the size, shape, and +colour of the first leaves. They can readily determine whether all of +the seeds grow. They will then watch for the opening of the second pair +of leaves and compare them with the first pair. They should report the +amount of growth made from day to day, and also what insect enemies +attack the plants, and what animals, such as toads and birds, are seen +during the season. They will also have occasion to note the effect of +rain and sun upon the soil and upon the plants. The first vegetables fit +for use and the first flowers in bloom will be reported. While they give +special attention to the development of the plants in their own plots, +they will of course observe what is going on in the garden generally. + +Correlate with the interpretation of "The Seed" in _Nature in +Verse_.--Lovejoy. Silver, Burdett & Co., 60 cents. + +WINDOW GARDEN + +The pupils should plant some seeds in sand or moist sawdust in boxes or +pots in the school-room, so that they may be able to examine the +progress of germination. In this way they will come to realize that +every good seed has in it a tiny plant asleep and that warmth and +moisture are needed to awaken it and help it to grow. It sends one +delicate shoot down into the soil and another up into the light. Another +interesting way to plant seeds is in egg-shells filled with fine, moist +soil, which are set in rows in a box of sand. One seed only should be +put in a shell. The plants may be grown to quite a size and then set out +in the garden plot, the shell having first been broken off and the ball +of earth containing the roots carefully set down in a small hole, packed +about with garden soil, and watered. The pupils should draw diagrams or +maps of their plots and afterwards of the whole garden. (See Manual on +_Geography_.) They can mark the lines of plants, and those who can write +can give in short, simple sentences the main things noticed from day to +day. They should give the day and date when the seeds were planted, when +plants came up, when rain storms occurred, when work in weeding, +thinning, and cultivating was done, when the plants were fit to use, and +how they were disposed of, etc. This will serve as profitable seat work +in writing, drawing, and language. Simple problems based upon dimensions +of plots and the value of vegetables, etc., afford excellent +supplementary exercises in arithmetic. + + +WILD FLOWERS + +The admiration that even little children have for the wild flowers of +the woods and their delight in finding and gathering them is sufficient +justification for including them in studies for Form I. The teacher must +be careful, however, lest he go too far in the critical examination of +the parts of the flowers, forgetting that little children are not +interested in stamens and petals, but in the fresh, fragrant, and +delicate blossoms that beautify the little banks and hollows of every +woodland and that brighten up the fields and roadsides in spring time. +The teacher should aim to deepen that childish admiration and give to +the child a more intelligent appreciation of the beauties of the wild +flowers and a desire to protect them from extermination. + +No attempt should be made to prohibit the picking of wild flowers, but +the pupils should be instructed not to pull up plants by the roots. The +picking of flowers in moderation does not injure the plants, but rather +tends to increase their vigour. Pupils should pick flowers with some +purpose in view, rather than to see how big a bunch each can gather. The +teacher should show them how to arrange a few flowers in a neat bouquet +and emphasize the fact that a great mass of blossoms crushed closely +together is far from being artistic or ornamental. Pupils should then be +encouraged to make up pretty bouquets for the teacher's desk, for the +home dining-room, and for old or invalid people who love +flowers--especially those plucked by the hands of thoughtful children. + +RECOGNITION OF WILD FLOWERS + +The pupils should learn to recognize each year a few species of wild +flowers by name as well as by sight. This may be accomplished in two +ways, (1) by means of excursions to the woods a few times each year +during the spring and summer months, and (2) by having occasional +observation lessons in the school-room based upon the flowers gathered +for the school-room bouquets. Both methods are to be recommended, but it +must be borne in mind that a wilted, lacerated flower has no interest +for a little child. + +LESSON IN OUTLINE + +BLOODROOT + +Plants are always most interesting when studied in their natural +environment, and this is one reason why the school excursion deserves +the highest commendation as a method of studying wild flowers. When +studying wild flowers out-of-doors, the pupils should notice what seems +to be the favourite or usual location for the particular species under +consideration. + +Have the pupils observe the following about the bloodroot: + +It seems to prefer fairly dry, rich soil, on or near a hillside. It +opens its beautiful white blossoms early in the spring, as if to enjoy +the bright sunshine before the trees put out their thick coat of leaves +to shade it. It, like many another early spring flower, comes into bloom +so early in the spring because it got ready the summer before. The +teacher should carefully dig up a specimen--root and all--as young +pupils cannot be depended on to get up all of the underground part. Note +the large amount of plant food stored up in the underground stem, how +the flower was protected before it opened out, and what becomes of the +protection. Note the peculiar beauty of the snow-white blossoms with +their yellow centres, and how beautiful they look as they nestle amongst +the handsome green leaves with their pinkish-tinted stems. Wound the +root, and notice the reddish, bloodlike juice whence the plant derives +its name. Indians sometimes use this juice for war-paint, and some +mothers give it to their children on sugar as a cure for coughs and +colds. + +Other wild flowers suitable for Form I are buttercup, spring beauty, +dog's-tooth violet, hepatica, and trillium. + +If there is a corner of the school ground that is partly shaded, and if +the soil is fairly mellow and moist, some of these wild flowers should +be transplanted there where they will grow well and can be seen every +day during the blooming period. + +The leaves and flowers of the bloodroot and the above-mentioned wild +flowers can be used for drawing. + +CORRELATIONS + +Oral and written descriptions of the flowers studied afford suitable +exercises in language and composition. + + +INSECT STUDY + +CECROPIA, OR EMPEROR-MOTH + +The larvæ of this, the largest of Canadian moths, may be found early in +September, as they wander about in search of a suitable branch upon +which to fasten their cocoons. If the pupils are not successful in +finding the larvæ, the cocoons can be found after the leaves have +fallen, because their size makes them conspicuous. The only difficulty +in finding them is due to their being of the same colour as the withered +leaves, so that they are easily mistaken for the latter. + +The pupils should be directed to look carefully at what appears at first +sight to be a withered leaf attached to a tree or shrub, and in this way +many cocoons of various moths will be found. + +~Observe.~--The large size--from three to four inches long; the greenish +colour; the stumpy legs; movements, as walking, feeling, clinging; the +rows of warts, and short, stiff spines on these; the feeding habits, +biting or sucking; eggs of parasites, for frequently these are found on +the larvæ. + +Place the larva in a box covered with gauze, and observe the spinning +and weaving of the cocoon. + +From what part of the body is the silk obtained? With what organs are +the threads placed in position? What part of the cocoon is made first +and what part is made last? What time is required for making the cocoon? +How is the cocoon fastened to the tree? What provision is made in the +cocoon for warmth, for protection from birds, for shelter from rain? + +Cut open a cocoon and examine the pupa, noting the mummy-like case on +which can be seen the impressions of the wings developing within. + +If the cocoon is kept in the vivarium in a cool place, so that the +conditions may be as nearly as possible like the natural conditions, the +adult moth will emerge about the first of May. In April the cocoon +should be wetted occasionally, as it would be if exposed to rains; this +ensures more perfect development of the insect. + +~Observe.~--At what part of the cocoon the moth makes an opening; the slow +spreading and strengthening of the wings; the size and coloration of the +moth; the feathery feelers; the position of the wings and sucking mouth +parts when at rest. + +Require the pupils to make drawings of the cocoon, larva, and adult. + +The promothea moth, whose cocoons are common on lilac bushes, may be +studied in the same way as the emperor. + +Reference.--Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_ + +DRAGON-FLY + +The larvæ of this insect may be obtained in May or June by scraping +leaves, weeds, and mud from the bottom of ponds and allowing the mud and +water to settle in a pail or tub. The larvæ may be distinguished from +other aquatic creatures by the long insect-like body, three pairs of +legs, and the "mask"--a flap with pincers at the end. This mask can be +turned under the head and body when not in use, or it can be projected +in front of the larva for catching prey. At the rear end are three +tubes, which fit together to form the breathing tube. + +The pupils should observe the above features, and also the movements, +seizing of prey, breathing, moulting, semi-resting or pupa stage, at the +close of which the pupa climbs up a reed or stalk of grass and bursts +the skin from which the adult emerges. + +The pupils should put into the aquarium various kinds of insects and +decide what foods are preferred by the larva and the adult. + +~Observe.~--The size, length of body, movements in flight, lace-like +wings, and insect-killing habits of the dragon-fly. + +Should dragon-flies be protected? Give reasons. Are all dragon-flies of +the same size, build, and colour? At what time of year are dragon-flies +most numerous? + +~Reference.~--Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_. + +OTHER CONSPICUOUS INSECTS + +The potato-beetle, giant water-bug, eastern swallow-tail butterfly, and +promothea moth are insects suitable as types to be studied by the pupils +of Form I. The giant water-bug is the large, broad, grayish-brown insect +that is found on the sidewalks in May and June mornings. (For +information on the eastern swallow-tail and promothea see Metamorphosis, +in Butterfly and Moth Collections.) + + +BIRDS + +Bird studies for Form I should be limited to observations made directly +upon a few common birds, such as the robin, house-sparrow (English), +song-sparrow, flicker, house-wren, crow, bronzed grackle, and +meadow-lark. These are easily reached by the pupils of every rural and +village school, and the purpose of the lessons should be to teach the +pupils to recognize these birds, and by making use of child interest in +living active creatures, to develop their interest in birds. + +THE ROBIN + +FIELD EXERCISES + +I + +Observe the robins and find out the following things: + +1. Are all robins of the same colour? If not of the same colour, what +difference do you note? + +2. Does the bird run or hop? Imitate its movements. + +3. Listen to its song. Is it sweet or harsh? Is it loud or low? Is it +cheerful or gloomy? + +4. Watch the robin as it moves along the grass and learn how it finds +out where the worms are. + +_To the teacher._--The pupils should be given a few days in which to +find out answers to these questions, and at the end of that time the +answers should be discussed in the class. + +Male robins have more pronounced colours than female robins. The beak is +yellower, the breast is brighter, the back and the top of the head are +darker. Robins both run and hop. The sense of sight of the robin is very +acute, but its sense of hearing is even more keen. The bird may be +observed turning its head to one side to listen for the sound of a worm +which is still inside its burrow. + +II + +A second set of exercises may now be assigned which will demand a more +detailed study of the bird, namely, a study of the size, colour, form of +body, manner of flight, and length of beak. + +III + +THE NEST, EGGS, AND YOUNG + +1. Find out various places in which robins build their nests. In what +ways are these places all alike? Examine the materials of the nest and +find out why the nests are built in the kind of places in which they are +found. + +2. Describe the eggs. + +3. What kinds of food do the parent birds bring to the young? Does the +father bird aid in bringing food to the young? + +_To the teacher._--The nests are found in well-sheltered parts of apple +trees and evergreens, in sheds, under ledges of roofs, and in other +sheltered places. The nests, since they are composed largely of mud and +grass, would easily be washed away if exposed to rain storms. The food +brought to the young consists of worms and insect larvæ, and the father +bird is very industrious in helping to take care of his family. It is +the father bird that sings, and the mother bird devotes all her energies +to working and scolding. + +THE SONG-SPARROW + +FIELD EXERCISES + +In early March, when the streams are just beginning to break from +underneath the ice and spots of ground peep here and there through the +snow, assign to the pupils an exercise such as the following: + +Watch for a small, gray-brown bird which perches near the top of a bush, +or small tree, and sings the "Tea-kettle Song". + +Try to interpret the song in the words: + +"Maids! Maids! Maids! Put on the tea-kettle, tea-kettle, tea-kettle, +tea-kettle, tea-kettle-ettle." + +Is the song bright and cheerful or dull and gloomy? Does the bird sing +this song often? + +Approach close to the bird. Are there any stripes or spots on its breast +or head? + +Describe the flight of the bird from its perch, when it is disturbed. + +_To the teacher._--It is possible for the pupils to distinguish the +song-sparrow by means of the above exercises. It is one of the first +birds to return in the spring, and, as it is a lusty singer, it will +attract the attention of all who are looking for birds. The dark brown +spot in the centre of the breast is a distinguishing mark, and the more +observant will find the three ashy-gray stripes on its head and the dark +line through the eye. + +When disturbed, it does not rise into the air, but flies downward and +disappears with a swish of its tail. The nest is usually built on the +ground or in a low bush or tree. It is composed of grass, fine roots, or +weed stems, and lined with fine grass or hair. The eggs are usually four +or five, but sometimes there are as many as seven. They are white with a +greenish-blue tint and are closely spotted with brown. + +CLASS-ROOM LESSON + +Discuss with the pupils the observations that they have made on the +field exercises. + +Generalize as to the similarity of the places in which the pupils have +seen the sparrow singing, and as to the times of day in which the bird +sings. + +Teach the marks of identification which some have discovered, using for +this purpose pictures of the bird or black-board drawings; and encourage +those who have not yet seen the song-sparrow to try again and to secure +the assistance of those who have succeeded. + +Compare the size and form of the song-sparrow with that of the +house-sparrow (English). + +Tell the pupils the great value of the bird in killing cutworms, +plant-lice, caterpillars, ground-beetles, grasshoppers, flies, and other +insects. It also helps to prevent the spread of weeds by eating +thousands of seeds of noxious weeds. + +Assign the pupils some other things to discover, as for example: Through +how many months of the summer does the bird sing? Find the nest. Why is +it hard to find? Describe the eggs, as to size, colour, and number. Do +not disturb the nest and do not visit it very often. + +_To the teacher._--Base lessons in bird study upon the English sparrow, +flicker, wren, and meadow-lark. + + +THE SHEEP + +PROBLEMS FOR FIELD WORK + +How do sheep find one another when they have become separated? + +How old are the lambs before they can keep up with the old sheep when +running? What fits the lamb for running so well? + +Watch the lambs when they are playing, and find out whether they play: + +1. I'm the king of the castle. + +2. Follow the leader. + +Find out by watching a flock of sheep what is meant by "Men follow one +another like a flock of sheep". + +Describe how sheep move when they are going very fast. + +Why should sheep be kept in a well-ventilated building that protects +them from snow and rain but is not very warm? + +_To the teacher._--Each movement, habit, and instinct implied in this +exercise is explained by the life of the wild sheep. Their natural home +is in the mountain, and their swift movement is that of bounding from +rock to rock as they follow the strongest and boldest (their leader) to +a place of safety. The legs of the lamb grow rapidly, beyond all +proportion to the rate of growth of the body, so that within two weeks +after birth the young lamb is almost as strong of limb and fleet of foot +as its mother. In their games the lambs are fitting themselves for their +place in the flock, and these games very much resemble those named in +the exercise. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +FORM II + +AUTUMN + + +BULB PLANTING OUT-OF-DOORS + +Tulips and daffodils (narcissus) are the most suitable bulbs for +out-of-door planting. The best varieties for outdoor culture are usually +designated in catalogues. Bulbs should not be planted in individual +plots, but in borders and ornamental beds. The latter should not be +placed in the centre of a lawn, as is frequently done. Bulbs should be +planted before the last of October. + +BEDS FOR GROWING BULBS + +To make a bulb bed, throw out the top soil to a depth of eight or nine +inches, put about three inches of well-rotted stable manure in the +bottom, and cover it with about three inches of the soil which was +thrown out. Rake the plot level and then place the bulbs about eight +inches apart on the top of the soil, arranging them in any design +chosen. Cover them with the rest of the soil and rake it level. There +will be about five inches of soil over the bulbs. When a solid crust has +formed over the bed, put on a covering of leaves, straw, or branches of +evergreens, and some pieces of boards to hold them in place. This +covering does not protect the bulbs from freezing, but prevents too +rapid thawing out in the spring. This covering should remain until the +tips of the bulbs are showing above ground, when it should be removed. +Ordinarily the bulbs may be left a second year before digging up. They +should then be re-set or replaced with new ones, and the bed made and +fertilized as before. + +In clay soil the bulbs should not be set quite so deep as in sandy soil, +and the bulbs have better drainage about their roots if a handful of +sand is placed under each bulb in planting. + +Crocus bulbs may be planted in clumps anywhere about the grounds or +borders by simply making a small hole about five inches deep, dropping +the bulb in, and covering it. Lily of the valley grows best in partial +shade in some unfrequented corner. + +PLANTING OF BULBS INDOORS + +Read again the instructions given under this heading in Form I work, +regarding soil, planting, and care. The Chinese sacred lily and trumpet +narcissus may be chosen for the pupils of this Form. The narcissus, also +called daffodil, may be held back until early spring if kept in a cool, +dark cellar, but the Chinese sacred lily, which is also a variety of +narcissus, comes into bloom from four to six weeks after planting. It is +usually grown in water in a bowl of suitable size. Place a few pieces of +charcoal in the bottom of the bowl, set the bulb upon them, and pack +coloured stones and shells around it as a support. Keep the bowl about +two thirds full of water and set it in a warm, sunny place. It does not +need to be set in the dark, as is the case with other bulbs. These may +also be grown in soil in the same way as other varieties of narcissus. +When blooming is over, the bulbs may be thrown away, as they cannot be +used again. + + +GARDEN WORK + +(See Autumn work for Form I.) + +The pupils in Form II should be given more responsibility with reference +to the care and management of their garden plots. If they have had a +couple of years in gardening while in Form I, they will have gained +sufficient knowledge as to the needs of plants and sufficient practice +in garden craft to do a certain amount of work quite independently. The +boys of Form II are able, with suitable garden tools, to do all the work +needed in the management of their own plots and may even be allowed to +do some of the harder work for the girls of their Form. + +SEED SELECTION + +Besides the usual work of weeding, cultivating, and harvesting of their +crops, the pupils should undertake some work in seed selection. This +work not only results in the improvement of the plants grown from year +to year, but also helps to train the pupils in painstaking observation +and the discerning of minute points of excellence. The ambition to +produce, by careful selection and thorough cultivation, a grain or +flower better than has been, is aroused, and, as the pupil's interest +increases, his love for the art increases and his efforts meet with +greater success. + +The teacher should aim from the first to use only the best available +seed even if the cost be greater. He should send for a number of +catalogues and carefully choose those varieties of seeds that possess +evident merit for the purpose intended. In the case of flowers, the +pupils should be asked to decide what individual plants showed greatest +excellence, and these should be marked, and the seed from them +preserved for next season's planting. When the flower is in full bloom, +a small string tag should be tied to the flower stem (string tags can be +got from a local merchant). On this tag should be written in lead-pencil +the name of the species, the shade, and date of flowering. These flowers +should be left to ripen thoroughly, and then the seed picked and sealed +up in small envelopes, which the pupils should make as part of their +manual training work. The date on the tag should be transferred to the +seed envelope. + +STORING SEEDS + +All the envelopes should be collected, placed in a mouse-proof box, and +stored in a cool, dry place until time to plant in the spring. Small +bottles are excellent for holding seed and safer than envelopes. If such +selection is carried on systematically, it will result in an increase of +yield and of quality not to be equalled by even the best seed that the +markets have to offer. Thus the school garden may become the centre of +interest for the community. Seeds of good varieties can be distributed +to the ratepayers, and the standard of gardening and horticulture +raised. Here, as elsewhere, much--almost everything--depends upon the +teacher's interest and ability to lead as well as to instruct. + +HARVESTING AND STORING OF GARDEN CROPS + +As soon as the vegetables reach their best stage of development, they +should be taken from the garden by the owner. All dead plants and refuse +should be removed and covered up in a compost heap. The boys of this +Form should also assist in doing part of the general work of the school +garden. They might take up from the garden border such tender plants as +dahlias, gladioli, and Canna lilies. These should be dried off and +stored in a cool, dry cellar. If the cellar be warm, it is necessary to +cover the bulbs with garden soil to prevent their drying out too much. + +CLASS-ROOM LESSON + +The pupils are led, through conversation, to state their experiences and +observations. The teacher assists them in interpreting their +observations and organizing their knowledge and stimulates them to +thoughtful search for further information. + +Discuss with the pupils such questions as: + +What are people busy doing on their farms and in their gardens at this +time of year? Why do they harvest and store the wheat, oats, corn, +potatoes, and apples, etc.? Are there any countries in which people do +not need to gather in the grains, vegetables, and fruits? + +The discussion of these questions will direct their thought to the need +of storing sufficient food for animals and for man to last through the +winter, when these things do not grow. They must be gathered to protect +them from destruction by storms of wind and rain and the severe frosts +of winter. People who live in very warm countries find foods growing all +the year round, and they do not need to prepare for winter, but these +people are always lazy and unprogressive. + +Discuss the means taken to protect the various crops, as follows: + +Why can grain be kept in barns or granaries or in stacks? Why can +apples, turnips, and potatoes not be kept in the same way as grains? +What are the conditions that are best suited for keeping the latter +products? Name some kinds of crops that cannot be kept in any of the +ways already discussed. Why can they not be kept in these ways? + +These discussions will develop the idea of the necessity of keeping +apples, potatoes, and turnips, in cellars, root-houses, and pits, where +they cannot freeze, but where they are kept at uniformly low +temperatures which are as close as possible to their freezing points. +The air must not be too dry, as dryness causes them to shrivel up. In +dry cellars they should be covered with fine soil. Very delicate fruits, +such as cherries, grapes, peaches, plums, strawberries, etc., can only +be kept for a length of time by preserving or canning them. + +Correlate with lessons in Household Management on preserving and +canning. + +FALL CULTIVATION + +When the garden has been finally cleaned out, the plot should be spaded +up and left without raking. Clay soil especially is much improved in +physical qualities by thus being exposed to the air and frost. All +garden tools should receive a special cleaning up before storing for +winter. + + +GARDEN STUDIES + +The observational studies suggested under this head for Form I will be +followed also in Form II. The pupils of Form II will be expected to make +more critical observations in connection not only with the plants +growing in their own individual plots, but also with those plants which +other pupils have been growing. They should give some attention also to +the plants in the perennial flower border. + +GARDEN RECORDS. + +In this Form the pupils should begin to make garden records on such +points as the following: + +1. Description of the plant--size, habit of growth, kind of leaves and +their arrangement, date of flowering, form, size and colouring of the +flowers, points of merit or the reverse, description of the seed and how +scattered, how disposed of, and the value. + +2. The work done in the garden from day to day, with dates. + +3. The effect of rain, drought, or other weather conditions on the +growth of the plants. + +4. What insects were seen visiting the flowers and what they were +doing--whether beneficial or harmful. + +5. What birds or other animals were found frequenting the garden. (See +Animal Studies, pp. 30, 96, 217.) + +6. What plants suffered from earliest frosts; what from subsequent +frosts; what ones proved to be most hardy, etc. + +7. What plants the pupils like most in the garden, and what ones seem to +suit the soil and weather conditions best. + +The pupils in this Form, by direct observation, should come to +appreciate the development of the fruit and seed from the flower. Their +work in seed selection, based upon the excellence of the flower, helps +to ensure this line of observation. + +CORRELATIONS + +Art: Drawing of leaves, flowers, and vegetables, in colour when +possible. + +Arithmetic: Calculations as to dimensions, number of plants, number of +flowers on a plant and seeds in a flower, value of products of flowers +and vegetables. Cost of seeds, fertilizer, and labour, gross and net +proceeds. Statement showing the above. + +Composition: General connected account or story of the work done and the +things learned during the season, as taken from the garden diary and +from memory. + +Exercises in writing and spelling, as suitable seat work. + +Geography: Weather observations, as related to the garden work and to +plant growth. Comparison of the soil of the garden with other samples +from the district, as to composition and origin. Direction, as related +to the paths or walks in the garden. + +Map drawing: Plans of plots and of whole garden and grounds, represented +on sand-table, paper, or black-board. Map drawing on a horizontal +surface is best for the first year or two. + +The products of the garden, as compared with home products, as food +supplies for man and beast. + +Manual Training: Making of seed envelopes and boxes, modelling in clay +of fruits and vegetables. + + +CLIMBING PLANTS + +Observe particularly the sweet-pea and morning-glory. + +Consider the following points: + +1. Advantages gained by climbing, such as securing of more light, +production of many leaves and flowers, and not so much stem. + +2. Method of climbing--sweet-pea by tendrils that wind around the +support; morning-glory by twining its rough stem closely around its +support. Do all morning-glory vines twine in the same direction? Find +other vines that climb. Examine their modes of climbing. + +3. Time of flowering and notes on how to plant. + +Make drawings of the leaves and blossoms. + + +TREES + + (See type lesson on trees under Form I.) + +In this Form it is better to follow closely the development of one or +two selected trees in school or on the home grounds than to attempt to +observe many different species. Allow the pupils to choose their own +trees for study and, if possible, have them select one at home and +another near the school or on the way to school. The following points +might receive attention: The name of the species, whence obtained and by +whom planted if known; its approximate height, size, and age; its +location, and the nature of the soil; its general shape, and whether or +not influenced at present or at some time in the past by proximity to +other trees; description and arrangement of its branches, leaves, and +buds, its bark, flowers, and fruit; time of leafing out and blossoming; +colouring and falling of leaves and ripening of seeds; the amount of +growth for the year compared with that of previous years as shown by the +younger branches; qualities of beauty and usefulness of the tree. +Drawing exercises. + +At least two visits should be made to the woods during the autumn +months, one when the leaves of the trees begin to colour and another +when the leaves have fallen. Consider the preparation made for winter in +the woods and fields, the use of dead leaves in the woods as a +protection to forest vegetation and as soil-making material. Bring back +samples of leaves and of leaf mould or humus for class-room observation. +Note the effect of frost in hastening the falling of leaves--frost does +not give the brilliant hues to leaves, as many people think. Consider +the relationship of the forest trees to animal life. + +STORING OF TREE SEEDS + +Make a collection of nuts and other tree seeds, some of which should be +put in the school collection and the rest planted in the garden or +stored away for spring planting. The seeds of evergreens should be kept +dry and cold, but other seeds, as a rule, are best packed in a box of +slightly moist sand set in a cold place or buried in the ground. + + +A FLOWER + +TYPE: NASTURTIUM + +I + +Teacher and pupils visit the nasturtium bed, where the flowers stand up +boldly, surrounded by the shield-shaped leaves. A search for the young +flower buds and for the very old flowers leads to the discovery that +these are snugly sheltered under the shields. + +The greenish-yellow calyx, which is closely wrapped around the bud, is +next examined. Its name is given, and its use as a protector is +discussed. + +The strong seed cases are opened and the seeds are discovered. The +pupils are instructed to watch the insects that visit the bright +flowers. Name the insects. Describe their movements. Catch a few and +find the yellow powder on their furry little bodies and legs. + +II + +Each member of the class brings a flower to the school-room. The +varieties of colours of the flowers are discussed. The cave-like form of +each flower is noted. The velvety feeling of the corolla and the +delicate perfume are likewise sensed by the pupils. + +The pupils nip off the point of the cave and taste the nectar (honey), +and thus learn why the insects visit the flowers. They next trace the +course of the coloured lines on the corolla and find that they all point +into the cave. + +Continuing their explorations of the mouth of the cave, the pupils will +discover the little boxes containing the yellow powder that the flower +dusts upon the insects. The names _pollen_ and _pollen boxes_ are given. + +The fringe on the edges of the leaves of the corolla for the purpose of +preventing the insects stealing into the cave without receiving their +baptism of pollen, is discovered. + +The teacher should, at this point, give a brief explanation of the +valuable work done by the insects in carrying pollen to cause seeds to +grow in the next flower that the insect visits. The position of the tiny +brush (stigma, but do not give this name) held up by the seed case for +rubbing the pollen off the insect, should also be observed. + +~Summary.~--Name and point out the parts of the flower (calyx, corolla, +pollen boxes, seed cases). + +What useful work do insects do for the flower? + +What reward do they receive for their work? + +What advertisements do the flowers put out for attracting themselves? +(Bright colours, sweet perfumes, and honey) + +Flowers suitable for lessons in Form II are nasturtium, larkspur, +snap-dragon, morning-glory, and sweet-pea. + +NOTE.--Botanical names should be reduced to a minimum. + + +SOIL STUDIES + + (See _Soils_ by Fletcher.) + +Soil should have a place in a Nature Study Course because: + +1. It is so closely related to life. + +2. It lends itself so admirably to the experimental method. + +3. It is so liable to be overlooked and considered as common and +valueless. + +KINDS OF SOIL + +_Gravel_ is composed of small, rounded stones of various colours, sizes, +and shapes. Occurs in beds, generally mixed with sand. Get a sample and +examine the constituents. Lead the pupils to see that the pebbles are +the result of the breaking up of larger rocks. What has made the corners +smooth and rounded? What use is made of gravel? Have the pupils find +some gravelly land. + +_Sand_ is composed of small angular pieces of hard rock. Have a few +samples from different places brought to school, note fineness and +colours, examine with a lens and note resemblance to pieces of broken +stone. Draw a magnet through the sand and note black particles adhering, +showing presence of iron in some form. Show the hardness by rubbing +against the surface of a piece of glass. Sand is used for mortar, +concrete, and glass. The chief sand-forming rocks are quartz and +granite. Show pupils how to recognize these. Examine a sample of sand +under a lens. + +_Clay._ Note colour and odour of fresh sample. Dry and pulverize and +note extreme fineness of the particles by rubbing between the fingers +(an ounce of clay contains about four and one half million particles). +Clay is made from crushed rocks, chiefly feldspars. Mix clay with a +little water and note sticky character. Compare with sand in this +respect. Which makes the best road in wet weather, gravel, sand, or +clay? Note how hard the clay bakes after being moistened. Uses of +clay--pottery, bricks, tile. Pupils should visit a brick- or tile-yard +and watch the process of manufacture. In many parts of the world there +are beds of clay of extreme fineness and whiteness, from which beautiful +china is made. + +_Humus_ is decayed vegetable matter. Pupils should gather soil from the +forest, bog, or marsh. Note dark colour. Examine carefully and see what +you can find in it that is not in sand or clay. + +Most of our farm land consists of these four soils mixed in various +proportions, and it gets its name from the one that preponderates. Thus +we have our sandy, gravelly, or clay _loams_. Humus is likely to be +present in all fields, because vegetable matter grows, to some extent, +everywhere; but freshly broken land, reclaimed swamps, and prairie lands +are likely to be especially well supplied. The great value of humus in +the soil will appear in later studies. + + +ANIMAL STUDIES + +BIRD MIGRATION + + (Consult _Bird Life_ by Frank M. Chapman, and _Bird Studies_ + by G. A. Cornish.) + +In the autumn, direct attention to the flight of wild ducks and geese +and to the gathering into flocks of robins, crows, bronze grackles, +blue herons, sparrows, and other birds in preparation for migration. + +Discuss with the pupils the reasons for migration, namely, scarcity of +food, the cold, the snow. In the spring, the return is stimulated by the +nesting instinct. + +Note how the birds are guided--some, for example the ducks and geese, by +their leaders, while others have no guides but their instincts. + +In winter, require the pupils to observe the kinds of birds that are to +be seen in the gardens, fields, orchards, and woods, having them note +the scarcity of birds and the absence of many forms that are with us in +the summer. + +CORRELATIONS + +Geography: By pointing out on the map the countries into which the birds +go, namely, Central America, Brazil, etc. + +Reading and literature: By interpreting + + Where did you spend the dreary winter? + In a green and sunny land, + By the warm sea-breezes fanned, + Where orange trees with fruit are bent, + There the dreary time I've spent. + +COMMON WILD ANIMALS + +GENERAL METHOD FOR FIELD WORK + +The best method for studying wild animals is to assign to each pupil +some animal as his particular subject of study. + +Begin by finding out from the pupils the wild animals that each one +knows to be near his home, and assign to each pupil a number of problems +on the animal which is most convenient for him to study. + +In some cases, only one pupil will be studying a particular kind of +animal, while in other cases several pupils may be studying the same +kind of animal. The latter method has the advantage of giving +opportunity for comparison of results. Differences should serve as +stimuli to more careful observation, in order to verify or disprove +previous conclusions. + +The observations and inferences, together with drawings illustrating the +animals, their homes, etc., are recorded in the Nature Study note-books. +These are discussed in the class, verified or corrected, and +supplemented by descriptions of lives and habits of the animals from +nature writers or naturalists, such as Charles G. D. Roberts, Ernest +Thompson-Seton, etc. + +When pupils become interested in this form of study, they become nature +students in the true meaning of the term. The pupil is brought into +contact with the animal in its natural environment and, under these +conditions, the natural habits, interests, and activities of the wild +creatures are more likely to appeal to the sympathy of child nature than +under any other method of study. The method has also the advantage of +being one of original discovery, and consequently it trains in +self-reliance and independence of thought. + +Finally, since close and careful observation is necessary, the child +learns that it is unwise to alarm the animal, and thus a better +relationship between child life and animal life is fostered. + +It may be objected that this method is slow and that little is +accomplished. This may be true from the view-point of matter learned, +but from the view-point of child training more can be accomplished from +the study of a single living animal than from the study of a score of +pictures or stuffed skins. + +A second method that is recommended is the study of tame animals. By +conversations with the boys of the school the teacher will find what +tame squirrels, ground-hogs, raccoons, foxes, and other animals are +available for class-room work. The possessors of these animals are +usually quite willing to bring them to school for the class to study. + +The movements, habits, food, and other topics, may be studied by direct +observations guided by the teacher's questions or problems. + +A third method and, unfortunately, the one which is in most general use, +is the study of animals by means of stuffed specimens and pictures, +supplemented by descriptions and stories by the teacher. These lessons +may be called information lessons, but they are not worthy of the name +Nature Study. Indeed, if conditions are such that it is the only method +available for animal study, it is advised that the time be spent on +other branches of the subject; but if living animals are made the basis +of study, stuffed specimens may be found useful for identification and +for confirming observations on minute structural features, colour, etc. + +THE WOOD-CHUCK + +The problems outlined below are intended to illustrate the plan of study +suggested in the first general method. They are assigned to a boy who +has discovered a ground-hog burrow, in order to direct him in his +observations on the animal. + +What is the kind of soil dug out in making the burrow? Why is this soil +suitable for the burrow? What size of stones are dug out in burrowing? +Are there more entrances than one? + +By slowly approaching the animal, find out how close it will permit you +to come. At what times of day does the ground-hog come out? Give reasons +for its coming out at these times rather than at mid-day. Upon what does +the animal feed? Describe the colour of the animal and find out any +advantages in this colour. Observe the following actions: running, +hiding, keeping sentry, and scouting. + +Do more wood-chucks than one live in one burrow? When do the young +wood-chucks first come out of the burrow? Describe their size, colour, +and habits. Are wood-chucks ever seen during the winter? Do they use the +same burrow year after year? Describe the sounds made by the animal. +What injury does the animal cause to the fields? + +Describe the fur, teeth, and claws, and show their relation to the +animal's habits of life. + +Dig out a burrow and draw a plan of it. Make pictures showing the +various attitudes of the animal. + +THE CHIPMUNK + +FIELD EXERCISES + +Describe the size, colour, shape, length of tail, and movements of the +chipmunk. Compare with the red squirrel. + +Have all chipmunks the same number of stripes? + +Discover its home; method of carrying grain, nuts, or other foods; +whether it is found most commonly on the ground, in trees, or among logs +and stones. Try to tame it by placing food where it can reach it and, +finally, try to have it feed from your hand. + +Find out why there is no loose soil around the entrance to its burrow, +whether more families than one live in one burrow, whether the chipmunk +comes out during winter, or how early in the spring. Learn to +distinguish the sounds of the animal, as expressing alarm, surprise, +anger, playfulness. + +_To the teacher._--Chipmunks carry grain, etc., in their cheeks. +Frequently these are so full that they must be emptied to permit them to +enter their burrows. It is not uncommon for several to spend the winter +in the same burrow, having a common storehouse connected by passages to +the main burrow. These little animals are easily tamed and soon learn to +take food from the hand. They are not hibernating animals, for they +store food for winter, and though they are not asleep all winter, yet +they rarely come out of their burrows while there is snow on the ground. + +EASTERN SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLY + +No butterfly is more suitable for study by the Junior Forms than the +Eastern Swallow-tail. It is one of the most beautiful and attractive of +our butterflies and lays its eggs so accommodatingly on every carrot or +parsnip bed that it gives ample opportunity for observation. + +If possible, have the pupils observe the insect in the act of placing +the eggs, one here and one there, on the under surface of the leaves of +the plants, noting the busy movements; discuss the advantage of +scattering the eggs, and also that of placing them on the under surface +of the leaves. + +If the egg placing cannot be observed, there will be little difficulty +in finding the large yellow and green larva with a head shaped like +that of a miniature sea-horse. If the larva itself is not easily found, +the leaves stripped bare of green blade and the droppings on the ground +will reveal its presence. + +Why was it difficult to see such a large, and now that it is seen, +conspicuous object? Lead the pupils to notice that the yellow and green +bands harmonize in colour with the green leaves and alternate streaks of +golden sunlight. + +Does the larva feed by biting or by sucking? How many legs has the +larva? Cover the plant and larva with a paper bag, or inverted bottle, +or a lamp chimney with a gauze top until the larva is full grown; or +place the larva in a vivarium, feed it on carrot leaves, and observe its +growth. + +When full grown, the larva builds for itself a snail-shaped, fairly firm +case, fastened by a slender girdle of silk to a piece of wood or other +support. Keep this over winter, and in March, or early April, the +black-and-blue-and-gold insect emerges. + +Observe the movements of the wings in flight, the long tube with which +it sucks honey from flowers, the three pairs of legs, the position of +the wings when at rest; compare the structure with that of the larva. +Make drawings of the butterfly and paint its colours. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +FORM II + +WINTER + + +CARE OF PLANTS IN THE HOME + +The care of flowering bulbs, which was begun in Form I, will be +continued in Form II. The growing of new plants from cuttings will now +be taken up. In those schools which are kept continuously heated, potted +plants may be kept throughout the year. The pupils will come to +appreciate the plants' needs and learn how to meet them in the supply of +good soil, water, and sunlight. The following points should be observed: + +1. Good potting soil can be made by building up alternating layers of +sods and stable manure and allowing this compost to stand until +thoroughly rotted. A little sharp sand mixed with this forms an +excellent soil for most house plants. + +2. Thorough watering twice a week is better than adding a little water +every day. + +3. The leaves should be showered with water once a week to free them +from dust. + +4. An ounce of whale-oil soap dissolved in a quart of water may be used +to destroy plant-lice. Common soap-suds may also be used for this +purpose, but care should be taken to rinse the plants in clean water +after using a soap wash. + +5. Most plants need some direct sunlight every day if possible, although +most of the ferns grow without it. + +6. Plants usually need re-potting once a year. Many kinds may be set +out-of-doors in flower beds in May and left until September, when they +may be taken up and placed in pots, or cuttings may be made from them +for potting. + +7. A flower exhibition at the school once or twice a year, or at a local +exhibition, adds to the interest. + +8. The pupils should report to the teacher, from time to time, the +progress of their plants and make many drawings showing their +development. + + +TREES + +In November or December make a study of Canadian evergreens, choosing +spruce, balsam, and cedar if available. The pupils should learn to +distinguish the different species by an examination of the leaves, buds, +arrangement of branches, bark, seeds, and cones. The age of young trees +can be determined by noting the successive whorls of branches. In this +way also the age of the leaves may be determined. On some trees the +leaves persist for seven or eight years. Evergreens are frequently used +as Christmas trees and their branches for house decorations. On which +species do the leaves persist longest? How do they compare with the +pines? The leaves are always as old as the wood upon which they grow. + +Have the pupils notice how the small leaves and horizontal branches +resist the clinging of snow in winter. Each branch bends down enough to +cause the snow to slide off on to the one next below, and so on, until +it reaches the ground. The conical shape of the tree also facilitates +this action of dislodging the snow. They will also notice that these +trees are well adapted to withstand wind, as the top part, which is most +exposed to the wind, is much smaller and more pliable than the part next +the bottom. The gum, or resinous covering, of the buds protects them +from injury by rain or snow. Some kinds of pine, such as the pitch pine, +have a great abundance of gum and turpentine. Resin and pine tar are +made chiefly from this species. Heat a piece of pine wood--a knot or +root is best. The gum will be seen oozing out of the wood. Pine torches +were much used in the early days of settlement in Canada. Examine the +gum "blisters" in the bark of the balsam tree. From this source the +"Canada Balsam" gum of commerce is taken. The gum and resin in the wood +and bark help to preserve the wood from decay. + +COLLECTION OF WOOD SPECIMENS + +During the winter months the boys may prepare specimens of wood for the +school collection. These specimens should be cut green and dried. They +should be uniform in length--not more than six inches--and should show +the bark at one side. The side showing the bark should be two inches +wide at most, six inches long, and running in a V-shaped, radial section +toward the pith. A tangential section also shows well the annual layers. +A piece of slab as cut lengthwise off a round stick is tangential. Also +visit wood-working factories for specimens of rare or foreign woods. In +securing these specimens, care should be taken not to mutilate trees. + + +RELATED READING + +Winter is nature's quiescent period. Continuous active observation +out-of-doors among the plants of the forest and garden gives place for +a time to indoor work and reflection. Pupils need time for reading and +reflection, and no time is so opportune as the quiet winter season. +During these months some time should be devoted to the reading of nature +stories and extracts from magazines and books dealing with plant as well +as animal life. Pupils should review their gardening experiences and +discuss plans of improvement for the approaching spring and summer. Let +them write letters to the Form II pupils of other schools where similar +work has been carried on, giving some of their experiences in gardening +and plant and animal studies. A certain Friday afternoon might be +appointed for hearing the letters read which have been received in +reply. Suitable short poems that have a direct bearing upon their +outdoor studies should be read from time to time. Good pictures come in +here also as an aid in helping the children to appreciate written +descriptions. The first-hand observations made by the pupils will form a +basis for the better and more appreciative interpretation of these +literature selections. + + +THE DOG + +CLASS-ROOM LESSON + +Use the conversation method, since this is an animal that is well known +to all the pupils. By natural, easy conversation with the pupils, +encourage them to tell what they know about the usefulness and the other +qualities of their canine friends. + +The pupils know that some dogs are useful for hunting wild animals, +others for driving or herding cattle and sheep, others for guarding +their master's property, others for hauling sleighs and wagons, while +others are of use as pets or playfellows. + +Discuss with the pupils the qualities that make the dog so generally +useful to us. In this discussion, guide the thoughts of the pupils to +the qualities of faithfulness, loyalty to his friends, and docility--few +animals are so easily taught. Note his strength and swiftness--he can +continue in a race until he catches almost any other animal. Note also +his bravery--for he does not hesitate to attack an animal many times +larger than himself. + +Short stories of the following type may be told, to illustrate the chief +qualities of the dog: + + A dog was trained to guard any article that his master + placed under his charge, and not to permit any one to touch + it until his master gave his consent. One day, when + returning from the mill, the master placed a sack of flour + inside the gate for a neighbour who had asked him to do so, + and then continued on his way without noticing that his dog + had taken charge of the sack. All through the afternoon of + that day and through the long, cold night that followed, the + faithful animal remained at his post. When the owner of the + sack came next morning to get it, the dog, although numb + with cold and famished with hunger, would not permit him to + take the flour. Nor could the stout-hearted creature be + persuaded either by threats or by coaxing, until his master + was brought, when, at his first word of command, the dog + bounded joyfully toward him. + +Conclude the lesson by a short discussion of the proper care and +treatment that should be given to dogs. The dog requires a fairly warm +but dry kennel, with a soft bed of straw or rugs. The food should +consist chiefly of porridge, milk, bread, biscuit, and a little meat. +Only dogs that are running a great deal out of doors should be given +much meat. The dog should be given bones to pick; picking bones is as +good for a dog's teeth as a tooth-brush is for a boy's. + +OBSERVATION EXERCISES + +By making observations upon your dog at home, find answers to these +problems: + +1. How does a dog hold a bone while he is picking it, and how does he +get the meat off the bone? + +2. Examine the dog's feet and find out: + +(1) Why he does not slip while running. + +(2) What protects the soles of his feet from injury as he bounds over +rough ground. + +3. Which is the sharper, a dog's eye or his nose? Watch how he finds his +master in a crowd or finds an object that you have hidden. + +CORRELATIONS + +Language: + +1. Require oral or written reproduction of the stories used in +illustration in the lesson on The Dog. + +2. Require the pupils to relate incidents from dog life that have come +within their own experiences. + +Art and Modelling: + +1. A sleeping dog. + +2. A dog waiting for his master. + + +LESSONS INVOLVING COMPARISON + +It will be found helpful, both for increasing interest in the +observations and for fixing the facts in memory, to study an animal by +comparing its habits, qualities, and physical peculiarities with those +of another animal which is somewhat similar. Where differences are +discovered, explanations of the differences should be developed in such +a way that a tendency may be cultivated for interpreting the adaptation +of structure to use and of life habits to surrounding conditions. + +CAT AND DOG + +Compare the movement of a cat when approaching its prey with the +movement of the dog when chasing a squirrel. + +Account for the difference. + +The natural habit of the cat is to hunt alone and rely upon stealth, +while dogs hunt in packs and tire their prey by running and by +terrifying noises. + +Other differences and their explanations, which the pupils should be led +to discover are: + +The dog is a more useful animal to man than is the cat. + +The cat's body is longer and more slender, and this gives it greater +suppleness in crawling and leaping. + +The cat's eye is larger and the pupil is especially large at night, to +enable it to see. + +The cat's whiskers are longer; they help in guiding it at night. + +The cat's tongue is rougher; it uses it for cleaning bones. + +The pads on the cat's feet are softer, so that it can move more silently +in stealing upon its prey. + +The cat's claws are sharper, because it uses them for seizing its prey, +while the dog seizes its prey with its teeth. + +The dog is more faithful to its master because it is a more sociable +animal. In its natural state every dog is faithful to the pack and to +the leader; the cat is not a social animal, but is by nature solitary +and independent. + +The dog's sense of smell is keener than that of the cat, but its sense +of hearing is less acute. Account for these differences from the +animals' habits of hunting. Why does the cat bring home living animals +to her kittens, while the dog buries dead animals? The cat trains the +kittens to approach by stealth and then to pounce on the right spot. +Wild animals related to the dog bury the "kill" which is too large to be +eaten at one meal. + +EXPERIMENTS FOR ASSISTING IN THE STUDY OF THE CAT + +1. Gently scratch with a pin at some distance from where a cat is lying. +What do the movements of the cat indicate? + +2. Put a fish in water and watch a cat trying to get it. + +3. Sprinkle water on a cat's fur and find out why she dislikes being +wetted. + +4. Attach a ball to a string and move it near a cat. Describe the +movements, as stalking, springing, seizing, retreating. + +5. Put some catnip in a room out of reach of the cat and observe the +movements of the animal. + +Nearly all children make pets of the house cat, and although the cat is +a domestic animal of thieving propensities and an enemy of birds, yet it +would be unwise to teach the younger children any enmity toward her. +The establishment of sympathy with animal life, the humanizing effect +upon child nature of having a kitty for a playfellow, will offset many +times over the amount of depredation of which she may be guilty. + +COMPARISON OF THE HORSE AND COW + +Assign problems for the pupils to solve by observations made upon the +animals in the field or farmyard. + +1. What features of build give to the horse greater speed than the cow? + +2. Compare the movements of the heads of the horse and cow while +cropping grass. Account for the difference. + +3. How has nature fitted the cow and the horse respectively, for +defence? + +4. Which end of the body does the horse raise first when it is getting +up? Which end of its body does the cow raise first? Account for the +difference. + +_To the teacher._--The horse is the swifter and more graceful runner +because the body is less bulky and the legs are longer and straighter. +In cropping grass the cow pushes its nose forward and breaks the grass +off, a process which is made necessary because the cow has no upper +front teeth. The strong, sharp horns, short, powerful neck, and heavy +shoulders are an efficient equipment for the cow's method of defence, +while the long, strong legs and powerful hindquarters of the horse +enable it to deal terrific blows with its hard hoofs. The horse rises +upon its forelegs before raising the rear of its body, while the cow +raises its hindquarters first. + + +THE SQUIRREL + +FIELD EXERCISES + +~Problems~: + +Is it true that squirrels have little roads along the ground? + +Does the squirrel come down a tree head foremost, or tail foremost? + +Are a squirrel's feet close together or wide apart when it is climbing? + +How many kinds of feeling can a squirrel express by its voice? + +How does a squirrel open a nut? + +Examine a squirrel's tracks in the snow; which foot-prints are in front? + +Try to gain the confidence of a squirrel by never chasing it and by +placing some favourite food for it. + +CLASS-ROOM LESSON + +A tame squirrel is very desirable for concrete study. + +Describe the shape, size, and colour. + +Find out how the legs and feet are fitted for climbing and leaping. + +Compare the length of the tail with that of the body. Of what use is the +tail in cold weather? Of what use is the tail in leaping? + +Examine the teeth and find out how they are fitted for opening nuts; +gnawing wood. + +_To the teacher._--The legs of the squirrel are short so that it can +press its body close to the tree when climbing. The claws are strong and +sharp and the hindquarters are very strong, and are, in consequence, +well fitted for leaping. The tail of the squirrel is very long and +bushy and serves as a fur for keeping the squirrel's nose warm in +winter. The tail is also used for balancing the body when the animal is +leaping from bough to bough. + +The front teeth of the squirrel are very large and strong and are shaped +like chisels. + + +WINTER BIRDS + +In the class lesson on winter birds, take up the birds that the pupils +have seen, such as chickadee, blue jay, quail, ruffed grouse, hairy +woodpecker, downy woodpecker, great horned owl, house-sparrow, snow +bunting (snow bird), pine grosbeak, snowy owl, and purple finch. The +four latter are to be noted as winter visitors. Use pictures for +illustrating these birds. The habits and winter food of the birds should +also be described from the view-point of how these adapt the birds for +spending the winter in a cold climate. Direct the children to look for +grosbeaks in the pine and rowan trees, where they may be seen feeding on +the seeds. The ruffed grouse (commonly called partridge) feeds on the +buds of trees in winter; its legs and feet are thickly covered with +feathers in winter but are bare in summer. + +FIELD EXERCISES + +Arouse the interest of the pupils by a conversation of about three +minutes on birds that they have seen during the winter, and assign the +following exercise: + +Take a walk through the orchards and woods on a bright winter day. What +birds do you see? What are these birds doing? Are they found singly or +in flocks? What bird sounds do you hear? + +CLASS-ROOM LESSON + +The method is conversational and based upon the observations made by the +pupils during the field exercises. + +The discussion would involve the winter habits of some of the more +common birds, as, for example, the ruffed grouse (commonly though +incorrectly called the partridge). This bird takes shelter from the +winter storms in the centre of a dense evergreen or burrows deep into a +snow bank. The close covering of feathers upon its feet serves not only +to keep the feet warm, but also as snow-shoes. In the evenings these +birds may frequently be seen in the tops of such trees as maple, birch, +cherry, and poplar, the buds of which form the greater part of their +winter food. + +The snow bird, or snow bunting, is another bird commonly seen in winter. +Flocks of these hardy little winter visitors frequent the roads and +fields during winter. Its summer home is in the far north. + +Another visitor from the sub-arctic regions is the pine grosbeak, which +is often mistaken for the robin, for these two birds are nearly equal in +size. The carmine colour of the upper surface of the male grosbeak +distinguishes it from the grays and blacks of the upper part of the +robin. The grosbeak frequents the rowan trees. + +The bird sounds which attract attention during the winter are the +cheerful notes of the chickadee, the bold clarion call of the blue jay, +and the sharp tap, tap, tap, of the downy woodpecker. + +The downy woodpecker and the chickadee have snug winter homes within +hollow trees, but, when the weather is favourable, they go about +searching industriously for the eggs and larvæ of insects that infest +forest and orchard trees. + +CORRELATIONS + +Literature: + + Do you know the chickadee, + In his brownish ashen coat, + With a cap so black and jaunty, + And a black patch on his throat? + +Language: Write a story about the winter experiences of a downy +woodpecker. + +Geography: Describe the summer home of the snow bird. + + +ANIMALS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS + +Pupils who have an opportunity to visit museums or zoological gardens +will observe more intelligently if the visit is preceded by such a +discussion in the class-room as will arouse their curiosity respecting +the habits, movements, and adaptive features of the animals about to be +studied. + +CLASS-ROOM LESSON + +Name the kinds of bears you have seen or have read about. What kind was +the largest? + +Are all bears wholly flesh-eating animals? Find out what food the +keepers give these animals. + +What features give to the bear his great strength? Observe the length of +his "arms", teeth, claws. + +Does the bear climb a pole in the same way that a boy does? + +Read: + +Rogers. Wild Animals Every Child Should Know. McClelland, Goodchild, & +Stewart. 50 cents. + +Thompson-Seton. Wild Animals I Have Known. Briggs. $1.50. + +Roberts. Children of the Wild. Macmillan. $1.35. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +FORM II + +SPRING + + +GARDEN WORK + +The pupils have now arrived at an age when they are able to do most of +the work of preparing and planting their own plots. The seeds have been +selected and placed in readiness for planting long before the ground is +ready. The plans for the garden and the varieties to be sown in the +different plots have likewise been arranged. Fertilizers, lines, tools, +and labels are made ready for use. With such thorough preparation the +making and planting of the garden becomes a pleasure and a delight to +both teacher and pupils. The garden diary should begin as soon as the +snow disappears from the garden and be continued until all the work is +completed in the autumn, and the garden again blanketed in snow. + +The main points to be safeguarded are: + +1. Thorough cultivation and fertilization. + +2. The best available seed carefully planted. Guard against thick sowing +and deep covering. + +3. Frequent cultivation and careful thinning while the plants are quite +small. + +4. Vigilance in detecting the appearance of cutworms or other injurious +insects and promptness in combating them. + +5. Protection of the garden against injury from dogs, pigs, poultry, and +English sparrows. + +6. Failure of some plots, through the owner's absence from school for +long periods. + +COMBATING GARDEN PESTS + +CUTWORMS + +In gardens where the soil is light or sandy, cutworms are most likely to +be troublesome. Watch for them about the time that the plants are nicely +above ground. They come up at night and cut the young plants off just +above the ground. They are about an inch long, gray and brown, fat and +greasy-looking. To protect the plants put one quarter of a pound of +paris-green with twenty-five pounds of slightly moistened bran, using a +little sugar in the water and stirring the paris-green into the bran +very thoroughly. If too wet, add more dry bran. It should crumble +through the fingers. Sprinkle a little of this mixture with the fingers +along the row close to the plants. The cutworms eat this poisoned bran +quite readily. Care must be exercised in using this poison lest poultry +should get at it. On the other hand, poultry should not be allowed to +get into the garden. Wrapping a piece of paper around the stem when +transplanting young plants will help to save them from cutworms. + +ROOT MAGGOTS + +Root maggots of cabbage, radish, and onions are the larvæ of flies +similar in appearance to house-flies but a little smaller. When the +plants are young, the flies lay their white eggs on the stem close to +the ground. When the eggs hatch, the larvæ crawl down under the ground +and cause the plants to decay. The wilting of the leaves is the first +sign of the trouble. Prevention is better than cure in this case. Dust +some dry white hellebore along the rows of onions or radishes and around +the cabbage plants; or, for radishes, make a decoction of insect powder +(Pyrethrum), four ounces to one gallon of water, and pour around the +root, using half a teacupful to each plant. + +FLEA-BEETLES + +The turnip flea-beetle quickly destroys young plants of the cruciferæ +family by eating their leaves. Paris-green, one part to twenty parts of +pulverized gypsum (land plaster) dusted on the plants while damp, helps +to destroy these insects. + +_To the teacher._--When pupils who are absent find it impossible to give +the necessary attention to their garden plots at school, they should +turn them over to other pupils or to the teacher, who may at his own +discretion use the produce for purposes of general garden revenue. + +SEED GERMINATION + +The seeds for the garden should be purchased quite early in the spring. +As the planting of poor seed is often the cause of much disappointment, +it is well to test the germinating power of the different varieties to +be planted. The pupils of this Form should test especially those +varieties which they have chosen. To do this, place about twenty-five +seeds in a germinating dish, which may be made as follows: Take a deep +plate, such as a soup plate, fill it about half full of moist sand, and +spread over this a piece of moist cloth. Put the seeds upon this cloth +and cover them with a second piece of damp cloth or moss. To prevent +drying out invert over it another plate and set all in a warm dry place +(about 70 to 80 degrees F.). After a few days count the number of seeds +that have germinated. This will be a guide in planting as to how thick +the seed should be sown. + +The pupils should watch the development of germinating grains, such as +corn and beans, germinated in the same way as in the last exercise. The +following points may be observed: + +1. The first change noticed. (Swelling of the seed) + +2. The appearance of a growing shoot and its direction. (Root) + +3. The second shoot and its direction. (Stem) + +4. The appearance of the first pair of leaves. + +5. The appearance of root-hairs and rootlets. + +6. What becomes of the main body of the seed. + +7. How the second pair of leaves differs from the first pair. + +8. Length of time required to produce the first pair of leaves. + +Pupils may be taught the conditions that are necessary for the +germination of seeds by means of a few simple experiments which can be +carried on in the school-room. + +1. In February, plant a few seeds of the pea, or oat, or wheat, in a box +of soil, and place the box outside the school window. + +2. In April, plant a few seeds similar to those used in No. 1, in a box +of perfectly dry soil, and set the box inside the school window. + +3. Plant a few seeds similar to those used in No. 1, in a jar containing +soil that is kept very wet, and set the jar in the school window. + +4. Plant a few seeds, similar to those used in No. 1. in a box +containing soil that is moist but not wet, and set the box in the school +window. + +5. Plant seeds as in No. 4, except that the box is kept in a dark +cupboard. + +Compare the results of the above with reference to: + +1. The number of seeds that germinate. + +2. The growth and condition of the plants. + +Form conclusions with reference to: + +1. The conditions that are required for seed germination. + +2. The benefits of well-drained soil. + +Pupils make drawings showing the boxes and plants. + + +PLANTS FOR INDIVIDUAL PLOTS + +The pupils of this Form should not attempt to grow more than two +varieties of flowers and two of vegetables. Of flowers, mixed asters and +Shirley poppy are to be recommended, the poppy being an early blooming +flower and the aster late blooming. Carrots and radishes are desirable +vegetables, as the carrot matures late and the radish early. Two or +three crops of radishes may be grown on the same ground in one season. +Besides these, a few others should be chosen for special study, such as +the potato, onion, corn, and sunflower. + +STUDIES BASED ON OBSERVATIONS OF GROWING PLANTS + +Attention should be given to the growing habits of plants, the size and +rate of development, the method of multiplying and propagation, and the +part used for food. The potato is a tuber which is nothing more than +the swollen end of an underground stem; the onion a bulb composed of the +bases of thickened leaves; the corn an example of a jointed stem or +grass having two kinds of flowers, the tassels being the staminate +flowers and the cob with its silk the pistillate ones; the sunflower an +example of a compound flower made up of many little flowers each of +which produces a single seed. + +Observations should also be made upon the progress in germination of the +nuts and other tree seeds collected in the fall. When the seeds fall +from the elms and soft maples in the spring, some of them should be +collected and planted in the forestry plot, or nursery. + +PLANTING AND CARE OF SWEET-PEAS + +1. Sow as early as possible in spring. + +2. Sow on well-drained land and never in the shade or near grass. Grass +roots rob the sweet-pea roots of water. + +3. Use a small amount of fertilizer--well-rotted manure spaded deeply +into the soil. This is best done in the autumn. + +4. Make the trench in the fall about five or six inches deep. + +5. Plant in a trench in April from half an inch to an inch apart. + +6. Cover from three inches to four inches deep. + +7. Water thoroughly once or twice a week, and have the soil lower along +the row than farther out, so as to hold the water. + +8. Put a mulch of lawn clippings along the row on each side to prevent +drying out. + + +WILD FLOWERS + +Arrange an excursion to the woods when the spring flowers are in bloom. +Keep a flower calendar, showing: + +1. The date when a plant was first found in bloom + +2. The name of the plant + +3. Place where found + +4. Name of the pupil who found it. + +When in the woods discuss the following points: + +1. Why these wild flowers come into bloom so early in spring. They have +a large supply of food stored up from the previous summer. + +2. Dig down with a trowel or heavy knife and find this storehouse of +food. It may be in the form of bulb, corm, or rhizome. + +3. The blooming of the spring flowers in the woods before the leaves of +the trees reach their full development, thus taking advantage of the +sunlight. + +4. Mark a few clumps or individual plants and visit them again after a +month. Look for the growing fruit with its seeds. + +5. The leaves of the hepatica seen at the time when the blossoms appear +are leaves which grew the previous season. Dig up a plant and notice the +new leaves starting. + +6. The kind of soil each seems to grow best in and the amount of light +it receives. + +7. Have the pupils examine the flowers and leave them growing. They +should gather a few for the school-room. + +8. Have the pupils write a short account of their visit to the woods. +Have them make drawings of the different flowers collected. + +Dig up a few specimens of wild flowers and transplant in a shady corner +in the grounds or school garden. The following varieties are suggested +for special observation and study: hepatica, violet, anemone, columbine, +Indian turnip, marsh marigold. + +Teach one or two lessons on wild flowers, similar to the lessons +illustrated for the nasturtium. + + +WEEDS + +Pupils in this Form should learn to identify most of the weeds that are +found in the garden plots and a few of those commonly found in fields +and along roadsides. The large bulletin _Farm Weeds_, published by the +Dominion Department of Agriculture, will be of great value in helping to +identify the weeds and also in gaining useful information regarding them +and the best means of eradicating them. + +The following species are recommended for special study during the +season: mustard (such varieties as are found in the vicinity), Canada +thistle, purslane, lamb's quarter, pink-rooted pigweed, and quack grass. +The pupils should be familiar with the general appearance of the plant; +its appearance when coming up in the spring; whether annual, biennial, +or perennial; nature of the root, and whether hard to pull up; if hard +to eradicate, why so; its rate of growth compared with the garden +plants; the number of seeds produced by a single plant; how the seeds +are scattered. + + +THE APPLE TREE + +(When the buds are beginning to open) + + +FIELD EXERCISE + +The pupils, during an excursion that is conducted by the teacher or +while making individual observations, obtain answers to problems of the +following type: + +What is the shape of the top of the apple tree? + +Are all apple trees of the same shape? + +What is the height of the trunk? + +Measure the girth of the trunk of the largest? + +Are the leaf buds and flower buds more numerous near the inside of the +tree top or more numerous at the outer part of the top? + +_To the teacher._--When discussing the answers to the above problems, +develop the conception of the convenience of the low stature of the tree +for gathering the apples, of the wide-spreading branches for bearing a +large crop, of the stoutness of the trunk for supporting the weight, and +also of the position of the buds as adapting them for securing sunshine. + +CLASS-ROOM LESSON ON THE APPLE TREE + +~Materials.~--Twigs bearing flower and leaf buds. These are gathered by +the pupils from the apple trees that were studied during the field +exercises. + +Each pupil finds on his twig the objects and markings, etc., as in the +following outline: + +Describe the shape of the twig. + +Where were the apples that grew last year attached? + +Describe the positions of the buds on the twigs. + +Which buds are the larger, those at the end or those on the side of the +twig? + +Describe the condition of the bud scales. + +Open the buds and find what they contain. + +Of what use are the bud scales? + +How many blossoms are in one bud? + +Of what use to the young leaves is the downy covering? + +FIELD EXERCISE FOLLOWING CLASS-ROOM LESSON + +(Just after the blossoms are fully open) + +What is the colour of the apple blossom? + +Find the little green cup on which the petals rest. + +Describe the cup. + +Find the other things that are on the rim of, or that are within, the +cup. What are they? + +What insects visit the flowers? + +Does the cup fall off when the petals fall? + +Does the cup close up as soon as the petals fall? + +What does the green cup grow to be? + +_To the teacher._--Apple trees have somewhat round or pyramid-shaped +tops, varying in detail with the variety of apple tree. The twigs are +short and usually crooked. The fruit twigs are called spurs. The buds at +the ends of the twigs and spurs are the largest and contain both leaves +and blossoms, and there are usually several blossoms in each bud. The +bud scales burst apart and drop off as the leaves and blossoms develop. +The side buds produce leaves only. The petals and pollen boxes are borne +on the rim of the green cup, and inside the cup are found the five tips +of the seed cases. When the petals drop off, the rim of the cup remains +spread out for a short time. This is the proper time for spraying, so +that the cup may hold a drop of poison to kill the tiny worms which +cause apples to be wormy. It is the green cup that grows and forms the +flesh of the apple. + +Orchard trees suitable for lessons for Form II are apple, plum, pear, +peach, and cherry. + + +BIRD STUDY + +A valuable exercise in bird study, suitable for the pupils of Form II, +is the study of a pair of birds and the history of their home through +the entire season. + +A record, with dates, should be kept, and the following topics are +suggested for observation: + +Where the nest is located, protection of the nest, part of building done +by each bird; eggs, number, colour, size, time required for hatching; +young birds, number, description, how fed and upon what foods, time +required before ready to leave the nest; history for a time after +leaving the nest. + +Birds suitable for study by the pupils of Form II are the crow, flicker, +downy woodpecker, blue-bird, chipping-sparrow, phoebe, wren. + +Correlate with art, by requiring drawings and models of the nest and its +surroundings, and with language, by having pupils write the history of +the nest and family. + + +THE TOAD + +FIELD EXERCISES + +Direct the pupils to watch for toads under the street lamps and on the +lawns in the evenings, and to observe what they are doing. + +Find out, by turning over boards, logs of wood, stones, and old stumps, +where toads spend the daytime. + +If there is a sandy beach near by, an interesting nature lesson is to +trace a toad to its daytime retreat under a log or stone. Its wanderings +and adventures during the night can be traced from the record that its +trail makes in the sand. + +Are toads that live in light-coloured sand of the same colour as those +that live in black clay? Of what value to the toad are these differences +in colour? + +The pupils are thus led to see that although the toad is not a handsome +animal, yet its rough, dark skin is of great value to it for concealment +among the lumps of soil with which it harmonizes. + +Can a dog be induced to seize a toad? Will he seize it as readily a +second time as he did the first? The secretion from the glands of the +toad have a biting, acid effect on the dog's mouth. This secretion will +not injure a person's hands unless the skin is broken, and even then it +does not "cause warts". + +How many toads can you find on your lawn in one evening? How many in the +vegetable garden? How many in the flower beds? + +Place a toad on loose soil among some weeds and observe how it proceeds +to get out of sight. + +Is it true that a toad is attracted by music? Give reasons for your +answer. + +CLASS-ROOM LESSON + +Secure a few living toads and keep them in a box covered with a pane of +glass. Be sure to put moist soil and damp moss in the bottom of the box +in which toads, frogs, newts, or snakes are kept. This enables these +animals to live in comfort, and they soon become sufficiently accustomed +to their surroundings to act in a normal way. + +~Observation.~--By flicking in front of a toad a small feather or a bit of +meat attached to a thread, the darting out of the tongue for catching +prey on its adhesive surface may be observed. + +The children, by bringing slugs, caterpillars, grubs, and various +insects for the toads, may learn what composes the food of the animal. +It is to be observed that the toad does not snap at an object until it +moves. + +DETAILED STUDY + +~Observation.~--General shape; division into head, trunk, and limbs; size +of head and mouth; position and structure of eyes and ears; difference +in the size of the fore and hind limbs, and explanation of this +difference by references to the use of the limbs; the hind foot, uses of +the web; the glands on the surface of the body and their uses for +protection. + +Why is a large mouth useful? How are the ears fitted for life in water? + +In conclusion, the teacher should make sure that the pupils appreciate +the usefulness of the toad and also the beauty represented in its +adaptations to its conditions of life. In these particulars the toad is +a good illustration of the adage "Handsome is that handsome does". + +LIFE HISTORY OF THE TOAD + +In early spring look for the toads on the surface of the water in ponds. +The music of the toads at this time of year has been described by one +naturalist as "one of the sweetest sounds of nature". + +The eggs may be found in these ponds at this time. They are attached to +long strings of jelly which entwine among grasses and other objects in +the ponds. (Frogs' eggs are in masses of jelly, not in strings.) Place +some of the eggs in a jar of water and set the jar in the window of the +school-room. A great mass of eggs is too much to put in a jar, a few +dozen eggs in a pint of water will be more likely to develop. The water +in the jar should be changed twice a week. + +~Observations.~--The light and dark areas of the eggs, the dark area +gradually increasing in size; the increase in the length of the egg; the +gradual change of the dark area into the general shape of a tadpole with +head and tail, the first appearance of the gills, the separation from +the jelly, the movement by means of the tail, the disappearance of the +gills, the growth of the hind legs and, later, of the forelegs, and the +disappearance of the tail. + +~Questions and Observations.~--What is the use of the dark colour of the +area from which the tadpole is formed? + +Explain the uses of the strings of jelly. + +Describe how the tadpole swims. + +Upon what does the young tadpole feed? + +What is the advantage of external gills at this stage in the tadpole's +life? + +~Later Observations.~--The disappearance of the gills, the budding out of +the hind legs and, later, the forelegs. While the legs are growing out, +the tail gradually becomes smaller, at the same time the shape changes +to that of the adult toad with a broad body and large mouth and eyes. + +~Questions.~--What movements has the toad which the tadpole did not have? + +What makes these movements possible? + +Why is the mouth of the toad better suited to its manner of life than +the small mouth of the tadpole would be? + +Of what advantage to the tadpole was the smooth outline of its body, and +why is the rougher outline of the toad's body better suited for the life +of the latter? + +Why would gills be unsuitable for the life of the toad? + +_To the teacher._--From the dark area of the egg the tadpole develops, +the dark colour absorbs the sunlight, and this causes growth. The jelly +holds the eggs up so that the sun can reach them and it also keeps them +from being swept away by the water. The tadpole is very small, and +external gills are needed to keep it in very close contact with the +water. The tail does not drop off, the substance in it is absorbed into +the body of the growing toad to serve as nutriment. + +Since all the changes in the development of the toad from egg to adult +form take place in about one month, this comparatively rapid development +makes the life history of the toad particularly suitable for observation +work. + +The development of the eggs of the frog or newt may be studied from +preparations made in precisely the same way as those for the study of +the development of the toad. + +If observations on the developments of two forms are carried on at one +time, interesting comparisons can be made on such points as, shape and +size of the eggs, time required for development, shapes and colours of +the tadpoles, activity of the tadpoles, etc. + + +THE EARTHWORM + +~Time.~--May or June, in connection with gardening, when the working of +the worms in the moist soil of the garden is quite noticeable. + +Outdoor studies may be assigned, as: + +Observe the loose soil at the entrance to the burrows. Insert a straw in +the burrow and, following it, dig downward with a garden trowel and +learn the nature of the earthworm's home. + +Are earthworms ever found out of their burrows during the day? If so, on +what kind of days? Why do earthworms burrow deep in dry weather? + +Earthworms can breathe only when the surfaces of their bodies are in +moist conditions. + +Go out at night with a lantern to where earthworms are known to have +burrows, observe the worms stretched out with the rear ends of their +bodies attached to the burrows, and note how quickly they draw back when +they are touched. Do they draw back if the ground is jarred near them? +Do they draw back when the light falls upon them? + +State the facts which are taught by the observations which were made on +the above topics. + +CLASS-ROOM LESSON + +Put two or three earthworms into a jar of rich, damp soil, on top of +which there is a layer of sand a quarter of an inch thick. Put bits of +cabbage, onion, grass, and other plants on the surface and cover the jar +with a glass slip or cardboard. + +After a few days, examine the jar, noting the number of burrows, the +foods selected, the castings, the food dragged into the burrows. Pour +water into the jar and observe the actions of the worms. Can an +earthworm live in water? + +Place an earthworm on a moist plate or board and direct the pupils to +study it, as follows: + +Distinguish the head from the rear end, the upper from the lower +surface. Observe the means of living. To assist in the latter +observation, stroke the worm from rear to head and find the four double +rows of bristles. Why is it difficult to pull an earthworm out of its +burrow? + +Find the mouth. Has the earthworm any eyes, ears, or nose? Place a pin +in the path of a moving worm and try to explain why it turns aside +before touching the obstacle. Test the sensitiveness to feeling. Why is +it cruel to put an earthworm on a fishhook? + +From the soil castings found in the jar, infer the value of earthworms +for enriching and pulverizing soil. (See "Soil Studies", p. 269.) + +REFERENCES + +Bailey and Coleman: _First Course in Biology._ Macmillan Co. $1.25. + +Crawford: _Guide to Nature Study._ The Copp, Clark Co. 90 cents. + +Kellogg: _Elementary Zoology._ Holt & Co. $1.35. + + +THE AQUARIUM + +A large glass aquarium may be purchased from any School Supply Company +at a cost of a few dollars, but a small globe-shaped aquarium such as is +used for gold-fishes will be found suitable for school purposes. If it +is not possible to secure either of these, a large glass jar, such as a +battery jar or large fruit jar, will be found to answer quite well. + +To set up the aquarium, put into the jar about two inches of clean shore +sand (sand from a sand pit, washed until the water comes away clear, +will do). Secure from a pond some water-plants, place these in the jar +with their roots covered with sand and secured in position by small +stones. Pour in water until the jar is nearly full, taking care not to +wash the roots out of place, and then put in a freshwater clam and a few +water snails. These are scavengers, for the clam feeds upon organisms +that float in the water, while the snails eat the green scum that grows +on the glass. + +The other aquarium specimens may now be put in. One fish about three +inches long to a gallon of water is about the right proportion. When +there is a sufficient quantity of plant life to keep the water properly +oxygenated and enough animal life to supply the carbon dioxide necessary +to keep the plants growing well, the aquarium is said to be _balanced_. + +The balanced aquarium does not require that the water be changed more +often than once in two months. + +Too much direct sunlight causes too rapid growth of green slime, hence +the aquarium should not be set in a window. Close to a window through +which the sun shines upon it for an hour or longer each day is the best +position. + +Do not supply more food to the animals in the aquarium than they can eat +up clean. + +Crayfish, perch, trout, and other freshwater fishes are destructive of +insect larvæ and other aquarium specimens, hence care must be taken in +selecting the specimens that are put together into an aquarium. + +Suitable animals for the aquarium: mosquito larvæ, dragon-fly larvæ, +caddice-fly larvæ, crayfish, clam, water snails, tadpoles, fish, frog, +turtle. + + +AQUARIUM SPECIMENS + +MOSQUITO + +Time.--May or June. + +~Questions and Observations.~--At what time of the year are mosquitoes +most plentiful? In what localities are they most plentiful? Why are +they most plentiful in these places? Are mosquitoes ever seen during +fall or winter? How do you account for their rapid increase in number +early in summer? + +How do mosquitoes find their victims? Observe the humming noise and try +to discover how it is made. + +Watch a mosquito as it draws blood from your hand. Does the point of the +beak pierce the skin? + +Capture a number of mosquitoes and place them in a jar containing some +water and a few straws or sticks standing upright out of the water. +Cover the mouth of the jar with a glass plate or fine gauze. Watch for +the rafts of mosquitoes' eggs on the surface of the water. + +The eggs may also be found on the surface of ponds or open rain barrels, +and may be transferred to water in a jar in the laboratory. + +STUDY OF THE ADULT FORM + +Note the shape, colour, sucking tube, wings, and legs. Compare with the +house-fly. + +Distinguish the male insect from the female; the former has feathery +feelers, and has mouth parts unsuited for biting. + +How many kinds of mosquitoes have you seen? Direct attention to the kind +which causes the spread of malaria. It is recognized by its habit of +standing with its body pointing at right angles to the surface on which +its feet are placed or, in other words, it appears to stand on its head. + +THE DEVELOPMENT + +Describe the egg raft. + +Observe the wigglers (hatched in about a day); the divisions of the +body of the wigglers; position of the wigglers when at rest. Observe +that the tail end is upward. Lead the pupils to perceive that this is +the means of getting air. + +Observe the rapid movement toward the bottom when disturbed; the means +of causing this movement; the change into the large-headed pupæ--a +change which takes place about ten days after hatching; the almost +motionless character of the pupæ; the change from the pupæ forms into +the adult--a change which takes place at about the fourth day of pupæ +life. + +Put some mosquito larvæ (wigglers) into the fish aquarium. Are +mosquitoes of any use? The wigglers are the food on which some young +fishes live. Young bass and trout feed upon them. + +Put some kerosene on the surface of a jar in which there are mosquito +larvæ. Describe a method of destroying mosquitoes. + +The teacher tells about the mosquito as the cause of the spread of +malaria. From the fact that the eggs hatch on stagnant water, deduce a +benefit arising from the draining of land. + +REFERENCES + +Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_ + +Hodge: _Nature Study and Life_ + +CADDICE-FLY + +Time: May. + +The caddice-flies are very interesting insects, owing to the habits of +the larvæ of building little cases of wood, stones, or shells, in which +they pass their development stages under water. + +These larvæ are easily found during the month of May in little streams +of water everywhere throughout the Province. Look for what at first +sight appears to be a bit of twig or a cylinder of stone about an inch +long moving along the bottom as though carried by currents. Closer +observation will result in the discovery that this is a little case +composed of grains, of bits of stick, or of sand and tiny shells, and +the head of the occupant may be seen projecting from one end. + +Collect some of these larvæ in a jar of water and transfer them to the +aquarium. Direct the pupils to look for others in the streams, so that +they may observe their appearances and movements in their natural +environment. If kept in jars, the water must be changed every day, and +the top should be covered to prevent the escape of the adults. + +~Observe.~--The shape of the various kinds of cases; the materials, and +how fastened together (chiefly by silk); the part of the larva that +protrudes from the case; the movement, and how caused; the fitness of +the case as a protection. Note hardness, colour, and shape as protective +features. + +The pupils will be fortunate if they observe the sudden rise of the +larva to the surface of the water and the almost instantaneous change +into the four-winged fly. + + +INSECTS SUITABLE FOR LESSONS IN FORM II + +Walking-stick insect, katydid, cricket, mole-cricket, clothes-moth, +giant water-bug, potato beetle, click-beetle, luna moth, and +swallow-tail butterfly. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +FORM III + +AUTUMN + + +GARDEN WORK + +The pupils in this Form should be able to do all of the work required of +them in the garden without assistance. They should aim at intensive and +thorough cultivation and, in the autumn, when the plants of their +gardens ripen, these should be removed and the soil carefully spaded. +They should continue the work of selecting the seed from the best +flowers, as indicated in the work for Form II, and should grow some seed +from vegetables and perennials seen to be particularly good. + +Boys in this Form may also wish to do some gardening for profit. In some +cases where there is plenty of space, this may be carried on in a part +of the school garden set aside for that purpose. Usually, however, it +will be found most convenient to carry it on in the home garden. Best +varieties for local markets should then be grown and attention given to +the proper time and manner of marketing or storing for a later market. +Cool, well-ventilated cellars are best for most fruits and vegetables. + + +TREATMENT OF FUNGI + +During the summer and early autumn months attention should be given to +the spraying of plants for blight and for injurious insects. The potato +is commonly affected by a fungous disease which causes the stalks to +blacken and die before the tubers have matured. This disease may be +prevented in large measure by the use of a fungicide known as Bordeaux +mixture. This may be prepared as follows: + +Take one pound of copper sulphate (blue vitriol); make it fine by +pounding it in a bag or cloth and then dissolve it in water, using a +wooden pail. It dissolves rapidly if put in a little cheese-cloth sack, +which is suspended near the top of the pail by putting a stick across +the pail and tying the sack of copper sulphate to it. Dilute this +solution to five gallons. Take also a pound of unslaked or quick-lime +and add a cupful of water to it. When it begins to swell up and get hot, +add more water slowly, and, when the action ceases, dilute to five +gallons. Mix these two solutions together in a tub or barrel, and churn +them up, or stir them together vigorously. They give a deep +robin's-egg-blue mixture, which is slightly alkaline and should be used +at once. The solutions can be kept separate as stock solutions +throughout the summer and then diluted and mixed whenever needed. Care +should be observed in not mixing the solutions before each has been +diluted to the strength, one pound to five gallons. A piece of blue +litmus paper will be convenient to prove that the mixture is alkaline. +If alkaline, as it should be, the paper remains blue when dipped in it. +If the mixture turns the litmus paper red, it must have more lime-water +added to make it alkaline. The potato tops should be thoroughly sprayed +with this mixture when about ten inches high and then once every two +weeks, until they have been treated three or four times. This is to +prevent blight and not to kill bugs. If the potato-beetle is troubling +the potatoes, add paris-green to the Bordeaux mixture--a teaspoonful to +every two gallons. To prove the value of this treatment have a trial +plot of potatoes which receive all attention save spraying with Bordeaux +mixture. If a heavy rain should follow the spraying, it should be +repeated. + +Potato-scab may be prevented to a large degree by soaking the tubers +before cutting for planting in a solution of formalin (a 40-per cent. +solution of formaldehyde) one-half pint to fifteen gallons of water. +Seed grain is frequently treated this way before sowing, to destroy smut +spores. A pound of formalin is put in forty gallons of water in a large +barrel. A bag full of the grain to be treated is set in the barrel of +formalin mixture for about two hours and then taken and dried on a floor +that has been previously washed with water containing formalin. A +solution of copper sulphate (bluestone), one pound in twenty gallons of +water is sometimes used. The grain is left in this solution for twelve +hours and then dried for sowing. All bags and utensils should also be +disinfected with this formalin solution. + +TREATMENT OF INSECTS + +In order to poison insects successfully, it is necessary to determine +how the insect feeds. If it is a biting insect, that is one that eats +the leaf, such as the potato beetle, paris-green should be used. +Paris-green sometimes burns the tender leaves. This may be prevented by +adding a tablespoonful of lime to each pail of water used. It may also +be used dry with flour or dust. + +If the insect feeds by sucking the juices from the leaf, as is the case +with plant-lice, then a solution that kills by contact must be used, +such as whale-oil soap, one ounce to a quart of water. Tobacco-water is +sometimes mixed with the soap solution as follows: + +Four pounds of tobacco-waste is steeped in nine gallons of hot water for +five hours; this is then strained, and to the tobacco-water one pound of +whale-oil soap dissolved in one gallon of hot water is added and mixed +thoroughly. + +Kerosene emulsion, which is made as follows, is very destructive to +plant-lice and scale insects: + +Dissolve a quarter of a pound of common laundry soap in half a gallon of +rain-water and, while hot, mix with one gallon of coal-oil and churn +vigorously for five minutes to get a smooth, creamy mixture. On cooling, +it thickens and is diluted before using by adding nine quarts of warm +water to one quart of the emulsion. Use smaller quantities in correct +proportions when only a few plants are to be treated. + +CABBAGE-WORM + +The larvæ of the cabbage-butterfly sometimes do a great deal of harm by +eating the cabbage leaves. It will not do to use paris-green on cabbage, +as the leaves are for eating. Instead, use pyrethrum or insect powder, +which may be diluted by mixing with cheap flour--one ounce of insect +powder to five of flour. Mix thoroughly and leave in a closed tin over +night. Dust the mixture on the leaves from a cheese-cloth bag by tapping +with a small stick or from a dusting-pan. If used while the dew is on +the leaves, it sticks better. Insect powder is not poisonous to man as +is paris-green, and so may be used freely on cabbage or other similar +plants. + + +PLANTS + +ANNUALS, BIENNIALS, AND PERENNIALS + +CLASS-ROOM LESSON + +By means of questions based upon the pupils' knowledge of a few common +annuals, such as the oat, sweet-pea, and garden aster, develop the +following points: + +1. These plants are always grown from seeds. + +2. These plants produce flowers and ripe seeds during one season's +growth. + +3. These plants wither and die in the autumn. + +Plants having these characteristics are called _annuals_. The teacher +explains the meaning of the word and requires the pupils to name a few +other annuals. + +In a similar way, discuss a few common types of _biennials_, such as +turnip, cabbage, hollyhock, and develop the following points: + +1. These plants produce no flowers and seeds during the first year of +their life. + +2. These plants, during the first year, lay up a store of food in roots, +leaves, or stems. + +3. The food is used in the second year of the plant's life to nourish +the flowers and seeds. + +A biennial should be grown for two years in the school garden to furnish +material for concrete study. + +In a similar way discuss a few common types of _perennials_, such as +rhubarb, dahlia, apple tree, and develop the following points: + +1. These plants may or may not produce seeds during the first year's +growth. + +2. Some of these plants are herbs, but most of them are trees and +shrubs. + +3. Food is stored in roots or stems to provide for early spring growth. + +4. These plants live on from year to year. + +GARDEN STUDIES + +ANNUALS + +~Observations.~--Some plants, such as poppy and candy-tuft, are early +blooming, while others, such as aster and cosmos, bloom in late summer, +hence a selection should be made that will yield a succession of bloom +throughout the season. + +Some are hardy annuals which can be grown from open planting, even when +the weather is cold. These often seed themselves; for example, +sweet-pea, morning-glory, phlox, poppy, sweet-alyssum. + +Some are half-hardy annuals, such as asters, balsams, stocks, and +nasturtiums. These must be started indoors or in hotbeds, or if in +plots, not until the soil is quite warm. + +The heights of annuals vary, and consequently they must be arranged in +the bed in such a way that tall plants will not shade the short ones. + +BIENNIALS + +~Observations.~--During the first year food is stored in the root of the +turnip, carrot, parsnip, and beet, in the leaves of the cabbage, and in +the stem of the hollyhock. + +Flowers and seeds are produced during the second year, and the +storehouse becomes empty, dry, and woody. Preparation for winter is +therefore, in the case of biennials, preparation for a renewal of growth +the following spring. + +PERENNIALS + +~Observations.~--The highest forms of plant life are found in this class; +namely, the strong, large, hardy trees and shrubs. + +The herbaceous perennials are equipped with underground parts that act +as storehouses of food to ensure the growth of the plant through +successive seasons. Examples: the roots of dahlia, rhubarb, dandelion, +and chicory; the underground stems of potato, onion, tulip, +scutch-grass, Canada thistle, etc. + +Many of the wild flowers that bloom in early spring belong to this +class, and their rapid growth then is made possible by the store of food +in the underground parts. Examples: trillium, bloodroot, squirrel-corn, +Indian turnip, Solomon's seal, etc. + +SPECIAL STUDY OF GARDEN PLANTS + +A few plants should be selected for special study, and the following are +recommended: annuals--sweet-pea, pumpkin, and corn; biennials--cabbage, +parsnip, and carrot; perennials--dahlia, rhubarb, and couch-grass. + +It is desirable that the observations be made upon the plants in the +garden, but they may be conducted in the class-room upon specimens +brought into the room by the pupils. + +SWEET-PEA + +Examine the stem of the sweet-pea and describe its form, its uniform +slender structure, and the fact that it climbs. Find out just how it +climbs. The pupils will observe the tendrils, which are extensions of +the midribs of the leaves. + +Describe the leaves, noting what is meant by calling them _compound_. + +Observe the position of the flower, its colours, odour, size, and form. +What insect does it resemble in shape? What different features of the +flower enable it to attract attention? + +The names and uses of the floral organs may be taught to this class. For +example: + +Pupils find the green blanket that protects the bud. This is the +_calyx_. + +The beautiful, attractive part is the _corolla_. + +The parts that produce the pollen are called _stamens_. + +The case that holds the seeds is the _pistil_. + +Examine flowers of different ages and trace the change from the minute +pistil to the pod. + +Study, comparatively, the flowers of the field-pea, bean, or wild vetch. + +Select a few of the finest blossoms of the sweet-pea and put tags on +them while they are still in bloom. When they ripen, collect the seeds +and preserve them for spring planting. + +Conduct observation lessons on the pumpkin and corn, in which the pupils +will discover such facts as those given below. + +PUMPKIN + +Notice the method of growth--the stem no stronger than that of the +sweet-pea, but lying flat on the ground. Notice the little roots sent +out here and there where the stem touches the ground. This gives extra +nourishment. The leaves are not numerous and grow only in one direction, +but are very large--entirely too large to be borne upon an upright stem. +Notice the large funnel-like flowers and that not all of them set fruit. +Examine the flowers. Some of them have stamens for producing pollen, but +no pistil. These never produce fruit, for pumpkins are simply enlarged +and ripened pistils. Look for insects and examine them to find out +whether they are carrying pollen. Notice younger pumpkins and even +blossoms toward the end of the vine. Pick all the blossoms and small +pumpkins off a vine, leaving only one of the best growing pumpkins. See +whether this one grows larger than one of equal age on a vine having +young pumpkins developing on it. Notice the arrangement of the seeds +inside a ripe pumpkin. Collect some seeds, wash clean, and dry for +spring planting. It is desirable to plant pumpkins late in May, so that +they will have flowers on their vines as late as September. + +Study the flowers of the cucumber and compare them with those of the +pumpkin. + +CORN + +This plant is native to America, was greatly prized by the aborigines, +and even worshipped by some of them. Note the upright character of the +plant and how the stalk is divided into sections by the joints, or +nodes. Count these joints and also the leaves, and note the relationship +of leaves and joints in the stalk, and how the leaves come off in +different directions so as not to shade each other. Note the strong, +stringy threads in the leaf, which give strength to the leaf as well as +circulation of sap. They are strong and elastic, allowing of movement. +The same strengthening fibres are seen in the stalk when it is broken +across. In the stalk these fibres are arranged in a tubular form, as +this gives greatest strength, the centre being soft and weak. The stalks +are largest near the base, where the greatest stiffness is required. The +nodes are also closer together here for strength. The stem is made much +stronger by the bases of the leaves being wrapped so firmly around for a +distance above the point of attachment at the node. Notice the +close-fitting sheath or rain-guard, where the blade of the leaf leaves +the stalk. This prevents rain soaking down inside the leaf sheath, but +lets it run down the outside to the root where it is needed. As the +plant gets older and taller, new roots come out from the node next above +the root and sometimes from the second node above. These prop-roots are +needed for support as the stalk lengthens, and they also reinforce the +feeding capacity. + +Note the appearance of little cobs in the axils of the leaves. As soon +as the silk appears, take a cob off and open it carefully. The little +cob, which corresponds to the pistil in other plants, is covered with +small and undeveloped kernels, and to each kernel one of the strands of +so-called silk is attached. Whilst this little cob is forming, a bunch, +or tassel, of flowers is forming on the top of the corn plant. Open one +of these flowers and find the stamens with pollen-grains inside. This +pollen, when shed, falls upon the silk, and each grain sends a tiny tube +down inside the silk to the delicate ovules on the cob, fertilizing them +and starting them to develop. The silk then withers. The wind carries +this pollen. + +Find out how the silk is fitted for catching the pollen. What is the +need for the great quantity of pollen that the plant produces? + +Strip off the husks and compare the tough, hard husks that are found on +the outside with the soft paper-like husks found close to the cob. Show +how each kind is fitted for its particular work. + +Pupils make experiments in the corn plot to find: + +1. Whether the corn grows faster: + +(1) When the soil is kept mellow or when the soil is hard; + +(2) When the days are warm or when they are cool; + +(3) When the nights are cool or when they are warm. + +2. The effect of growing black corn and golden corn in the same or in +adjoining plots. Account for the result. + +CORRELATIONS + +Art: Clay-modelling and drawing exercises on the whole plant, and also +upon the ear. + +Literature: Interpretation and reading of "Blessing the Corn-fields", +from _Hiawatha_. + +History: The name Indian corn originated in the early colonial days of +the Eastern and Central States, when the pioneers obtained corn from the +Indians. The Indians showed the settlers how to kill the trees by +girdling and how to plant the corn among the standing trunks, and thus +have corn ready for roasting by August, and for grinding into meal or +for boiling to make hominy by September. + + +SEED DISPERSAL + +The lessons on seed dispersal which were begun in Form I should be +continued in this Form. + +I. LESSON + +Select a few weeds belonging to species which produce large numbers of +seeds, such as wild mustard, white cockle, false-flax, etc. Distribute +the seed pods among the pupils of the class and require them to estimate +the number of seeds produced by each plant. + +By references to observations made in the garden, help the pupils to +recall the bad results, both to parent plants and to young seedlings, of +improper scattering of seeds, namely: + +1. The excessive crowding and shading, which causes the plants to become +weak. + +2. Insufficient food and moisture for the large number of plants, which +causes the plants to be small and worthless. + +Discuss how the crowding of cultivated plants is prevented and, in a +general way, how nature provides for the scattering of seeds. + +The great work of the plant is the production and dispersal of its +seeds. + +Ask the pupils to be on the alert to find examples of plants in which +provision is made for the dispersal of the seeds, and to bring these +plants to the class for the next lesson. + +DETAILED STUDY OF SEED DISPERSAL + +II. CLASS-ROOM LESSON + +Make use of the specimens gathered by the pupils and by the teacher for +observing and classifying as follows: + +1. Seeds that steal rides. Examples--burdock, blue burr, pitch-fork +weed, barley, stick-tight, hound's tongue. + +2. Seeds that are carried in edible fruits which have attractive +colours, tastes, etc. Examples--apple, grape, cherry, rowan, hawthorn. + +3. Seeds that are carried by the wind. Examples--dandelion, thistle, +milkweed, maple, pine, elm. + +4. Seeds that are scattered by being shot from bursting pods. +Examples--violet, jewel-weed (touch-me-not), sweet-pea, witch-hazel. + +5. Seeds that are scattered by plants which are rolled along by the +wind. Examples--Russian thistle, tumble-mustard, tumble-grass. + +6. Seeds that float. Very many seeds float, although not specially +fitted for floating, and some, such as the cocoa-nut and water-lily, are +especially adapted for dispersal by water. + +_To the teacher._--Require the pupils to observe the special structure +that facilitates the dispersal of the seed. As an illustration, ask the +pupils to find the seeds of the burdock and to describe what the burr is +really like. They find that the burr is a little basket filled with +seeds. The basket has many little hooks which catch on the hair of +animals and, since these hooks turn inwards, they serve to hold the +basket in such a position that all the seeds are not likely to drop out +at one time. The pupils should also observe that these baskets are quite +firmly attached to the parent plant until the seeds are ripe; after that +the baskets break off the plant at the slightest pull. + +SEED COLLECTIONS + +During late summer and in the autumn the seeds of the weeds that have +been identified by the pupils should be collected. + +Instruct the pupils to rub the ripened seed pods between the hands until +the seeds are thrashed out, at the same time blowing away the chaff. The +seeds are now placed in small phials or in small envelopes and these are +carefully labelled. If possible, fill each phial so that there may be +sufficient seed for use by all the members of the class in the lessons +on seed description and identification which are to be taken during the +winter months, when Nature Study material is less plentiful than it is +in the summer and autumn. The phials or envelopes may be stored in a +shallow box, or the phials may be mounted on a stout card. They may be +attached to this card either by stout thread sewed through the card and +passing around the phial, or by brass cleats, which may be obtained with +the phials from dealers in Nature Study supplies. + +MAN AS A DISPERSER OF SEEDS + +Man as an agent in the dispersal of seeds should be made a topic for +discussion. + +Obtain, through the pupils, samples of seed-grain, clover seed, timothy +seed, turnip seed, etc. Ask the pupils to examine these and count the +number of weed seeds found in each. + +The results will reveal a very common way in which the seeds of noxious +weeds are introduced. + +Describe the introduction from Europe to the wheat-fields of the Prairie +Provinces of such weeds as Russian thistle, false-flax, French-weed. The +seeds of these weeds were carried in seed-grain, fodder for animals, and +also in the hay and straw used by the immigrants as packing for their +household goods. + +Careful farmers will not allow thrashing-machines, seed drills, +fanning-mills, etc., to come from farms infested with noxious weeds to +do work upon their farms, nor will they buy manure, straw, or hay that +was produced on dirty farms. + + +THE SUGAR MAPLE + +FIELD EXERCISES + +Select a convenient sugar maple as a type. Ask the pupils to observe and +to describe the height of the tree, the height of the trunk below the +branches, the shape and size of the crown, the diameter of the trunk, +the colour of the bark, the markings on the bark, the number and +direction of the branches, and the density of the foliage. Compare the +density of the foliage with that of other kinds of trees. Require the +pupils to make a crayon drawing of the tree. + +Examine the crop of grain produced near a shade tree. Compare the crop +on the north side of the tree with that on the south side. Account for +the difference. + +Is the crop around the tree inferior to that in the rest of the field? + +Find out how long the various sugar maple shade trees in the locality +have been planted. Is it a tree of rapid or slow growth? Are these sugar +maples infested with insects or attacked by fungi? + +Do these trees yield sap that is suitable for making maple syrup? + +Examine trees that have been tapped and find whether the old wounds +become overgrown or cause decay. + +Find out all you can about the uses that are made of maple wood. + +_To the teacher._--The sugar maple is the most highly prized of our +native trees for ornament and shade. It grows fairly rapidly and +becomes a goodly-sized tree within twenty years after it is planted. The +symmetrical dome-shaped crown and the dense foliage of restful dark +green give to it a fine appearance. It is hardy and has few insect +pests, and its value is enhanced by the abundant yield of rich sap. + +As a commercial tree it has few superiors; the wood is hard and durable +and takes a high polish. It is used for flooring, furniture, boat +building, for the wooden parts of machinery and tools, and for making +shoe-pegs and shoe lasts. As fuel maple wood is surpassed only by +hickory. + +MAPLE LEAVES + +CLASS-ROOM LESSON + +The pupils bring to the class leaves of the sugar maple. Each pupil is +provided with a leaf and makes direct observations under the guidance of +the teacher. + +~Observations.~--Colour, dark green on the upper surface, lighter green on +the lower surface. Surface smooth and shiny. + +Shape: star-shaped, broader than long. + +Lobes: usually five, often three; each lobe has usually two large teeth. + +Base has a heart-shaped notch; petiole long and slender, usually red. + +Veins are stiff and run out to the points of the teeth. + +Distribute leaves of the _red_ maple and ask the pupils to note the +general resemblance. Next ask them to compare the leaves as to shape, +texture, and teeth on the margin. + +Ask the pupils to find red maple trees and also to find maples with +leaves that are different from those of the red maple and those of the +sugar maple. + +Make a collection of maple leaves when they are in autumn colours. (See +Collections, page 33, in General Method.) + +_To the teacher._--The leaves of the red maple are longer than broad, +and are not so smooth and shiny as the leaves of the sugar maple. There +are numerous "saw teeth" on the margins of the lobes. The silver maple, +with leaves having silver-white under surfaces, is another common +species. + +A lesson similar to that on leaf studies may be based on the fruits +(keys) of the maples. + +The oak, ash, elm, beech, or birch may be taken up in lessons similar to +those outlined for the study of the maple. + +CORRELATIONS + +With literature and reading: By interpreting "The Maple", _The Ontario +Readers, Third Book_, page 179; + +With art: By sketching the tree and reproducing the autumn leaves in +colour work. + + +WEED STUDIES + +In every locality there are about a dozen weeds that are particularly +troublesome, and the pupils of Form III should be taught to identify +these and to understand the characteristics which make each weed +persistent. + +To produce these results it will be necessary to have exercises such as +the following: + +1. The teacher exhibits a weed to the pupils and directs their attention +to a few of the outstanding features of the plant. + +2. The pupils are required, as a field exercise, to observe where the +weed is abundant; and whether in hay field, pasture, hoe crop, or in +grain. The pupils will bring specimens to the class. + +3. Detailed study in the class of specimens of the weed brought by the +pupils to find offensive odours and prickles, also the character of the +leaves, flowers, seed pods, and seeds, including the means of dispersal; +the underground parts, whether underground stem, tap-root, or fibrous +root, and the value of the underground parts as a means of persistence. + +4. The pupils make a collection of the weeds that have been studied. +(See Plant Collection, page 39, in General Method.) + +5. The pupils make collections of the seeds of the weeds that have been +studied. + +OBSERVATION LESSON ON WEED SEEDS + +The seed of a weed should always be exhibited and studied in association +with a fresh or a mounted specimen of the weed. + +Each pupil should use a hand lens in examining the seed. + +The pupils examine the seed of each species and describe it according to +the following scheme: + +NAME OF SEED + + _Colour:_ + _Size:_ (in fractions of an inch) + _Shape:_ + _Details:_ + _Occurrence:_ + +The results of the pupils' study of the ox-eye daisy would then appear +in the following form: + +SEED OF OX-EYE DAISY + + _Colour:_ Black and greenish-white in stripes, + _Size:_ One sixteenth of an inch, + _Shape:_ Club-shaped, + _Details_: Grooved lengthwise, yellow peg in large end, + _Occurrence:_ A common impurity in grass seed. + + +GRASSHOPPER + + (Consult the Manual on _Suggestions for Teachers of + Science_: Zoology, First year.) + +The ease with which this insect may be obtained in August or September, +together with its fairly large size, makes it a suitable specimen for +insect study. It is also a typical insect, so that a careful study +serves as a basis for a knowledge of the class _insecta_. + +FIELD EXERCISES + +Problems to be assigned for outdoor observation: Locomotion by flying, +leaping, walking; protective coloration and habit of "lying low"; its +behaviour when caught; in what kinds of fields it is most plentiful; in +what kinds of weather it is most active; its position on the grass or +grain when feeding; the nature and extent of the damage done by it. + +Use a class period for discussion of the above. Confirm, correct, or +incite to more careful observation. + +CLASS-ROOM LESSON + +(Studied as a typical insect) + +~Observations.~--The three divisions of the body--head, thorax, abdomen; +the segmental division of the two latter parts; the hard, protecting +covering; the movements of the abdomen; the two large compound eyes and +three small eyes; the feelers; the two pairs of mouth feelers; the +cutting mandibles; the three pairs of legs (one pair for leaping) and +two pairs of wings on the thorax; the breathing pores, the ears, +ovipositors of the female. + +The young grasshoppers may be found in spring or early summer, and a few +even in late summer, among the grass of old meadows and pastures. They +are easily recognized because of their general resemblance to the adult +and are in the stage of development called the _nymph_ phase. Note the +hairy body and the absence of wings. + +_To the teacher._--The moulting of the nymph is a very interesting +process to observe and so is the laying of the eggs by the female in a +burrow that she prepares in the soil. If females secured in July are +kept in a jar having two inches of soil in the bottom, they will lay +their eggs in the soil; the nests and eggs may then be taken up and +examined. + +In order that we may not destroy our friends and helpers, it is +expedient to know what creatures help to hold pests in check. + +The enemies of grasshoppers are birds and insect parasites. Under the +wings of grasshoppers may frequently be found little red mites; these +kill the grasshoppers to which they are attached. The blister-beetles +lay their eggs in the grasshoppers' nests, and the larvæ of the beetles +feed upon and destroy the eggs. + +The birds that are especially useful in destroying grasshoppers are the +meadow-lark, crow, bobolink, quail, grasshopper sparrow. + +The curious hairlike worms known to the school boys as "hair snakes" +because of the belief that they are parts of horse hairs turned into +snakes, are worms that pass the early part of their life within the +bodies of grasshoppers and, when the insects die, the worms escape and +are washed by rains into troughs and ponds where their movements attract +attention. + +Study the cricket and house-fly and compare the cricket with the +grasshopper. + + +APHIDES + +In September obtain leaves of sweet-pea, apple, rose bush, maple, oak, +turnip, etc., on which the insects are feeding; also provide specimens +of woolly aphides on the bark of apple trees or stems of goldenrod or +alder. + +Observe the nature of the injury to the leaves and plants on which these +insects feed. + +Do the insects bite the leaves or suck the juices? Give evidence in +support of your answer. + +Sprinkle paris-green on the leaves; does this kill the insects? Why does +it not? Spray the insects with a little oil, such as kerosene, or with +water in which the stub of a cigar has been soaked; what is the effect? + +Insects that suck juices from inside the leaf escape the poisoning from +solutions in the leaf surfaces; such insects are killed by oils which +enter the breathing pores and cause poisoning. + +Search in the garden, orchard, and forest for plants attacked by +aphides. Carefully observe the lady-birds that are frequently found +where there are aphides. Lady-birds (also called lady-bugs), are small, +spotted beetles, broad oval in form, of bright colours, red and black, +or yellow and black, or black and white. + +They are of great service to the farmer and gardener because their foods +consists largely of plant-lice (aphides). + +Watch the action of ants which are found among the aphides. The ants may +be observed stroking the aphides with their feelers, causing the aphides +to excrete a sweet fluid on which the ant feeds. Aphides are sometimes +called ant-cows. + +Direct the attention of the pupils to the difference between the male +and female aphides; the males have wings, but the females are wingless. + + +TOMATO WORM + +THE ADULT + +The adult moth may be captured on spring evenings when the lilacs are in +bloom, as it buzzes about among the lilac blossoms sucking their honey. +It is frequently mistaken for the humming-bird when thus engaged. It may +also be observed during the summer evenings laying its eggs on the +leaves of tomato vines. + +Observe the worms that hatch from these eggs and note their rapid +growth. Keep the larvæ in a box in the school-room and feed them on +tomato leaves. Note their size and colour, the oblique stripes on the +sides, the horn which is used for terrifying assailants, the habit of +remaining rigid for hours--hence the name sphinx moth. + +The larvæ burrow into the ground in September to form the chrysalides, +hence there should be soil in the vivarium in which they are kept. + +THE CHRYSALIS + +~Observations.~--The shape, colour, nature of the covering, the long +handle, the wing impressions, the segmental part, the emergence of the +adult in May or early June. + +What organ of the insect was contained in the "handle" of the chrysalis? + +The adult is one of the handsomest of moths, because of its graceful, +clear-cut shape and the variegated grays and yellows of its dress. Look +on poplar, cotton-wood, plum, and pine trees, and on tobacco plants for +relatives of the tomato worm, the large green larvæ whose chrysalis and +adult forms resemble those of the tomato worm. + + +THE CROW + +Crows are so plentiful that there will be no difficulty in making +observations on the living birds in the free state in spring or summer. +(As the crow is a bird that is easily tamed, it may be possible to have +a tame crow in the class-room for more careful study of the details of +structure.) + +~Observations.~--Describe its attitude when perched, movements of the +wings in flight, speed of flight. Why does the crow perch high up in +trees? What gives to the crow its swift flight? + +Study the various calls of the crow and note the alarm, threat, summons, +and expression of fear. + +Find the nest and note its position, size, build, materials, eggs, and +young. How is the nest concealed? What makes it strong? + +Are crows often seen on the ground? Do they walk or hop? + +Observe and report on the crow's habits of feeding. It eats corn, +potatoes, oats, beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, cutworms, and +occasionally birds' eggs or young birds. + +Why do king-birds chase and thrash the crow? Are scarecrows effective in +keeping crows off the grain fields? + +Note the sentinels that are on the watch to warn other crows of danger. + +Give reasons for the belief that the crow is a wise bird. + +Give reasons for regarding the crow as a neighbour of doubtful +character. Give reasons why crows should be protected. + +NOTE.--Crows will not pull up corn and seed that has been covered with +coal-tar before it is planted. + +In addition to the animals already named, the musk-rat, raccoon, fox, +flying-squirrel, robin, wren, and king-bird will be found convenient for +study in many localities. + +The swimming of the musk-rat, and how its shape, fur, feet, and tail fit +it for a life in water are topics suitable for observational exercises, +as are also its food, its winter home, and the burrows leading from the +water into the banks. In the case of the winter home, the location, the +structure, the submerged entrance, the living-room, and the surrounding +moat, are topics of interest. + +CORRELATIONS + +With literature: By reading animal stories, such as, _The Kindred of the +Wild_ and "Red Fox," by Charles G. D. Roberts; and _Wild Animals I Have +Known_, by Ernest Thompson-Seton. + +With language: By oral and written descriptions of the animals that have +been observed. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +FORM III + +WINTER + + +CARE OF PLANTS IN THE HOME + +The care of flowering bulbs which was begun in Form I will be continued +in Form II. The growing of new plants from cuttings will now be taken +up. In those schools which are kept continuously heated, potted plants +may be kept throughout the year. The pupils will come to appreciate the +plant's needs and learn how to meet them in the supply of good soil, +water, and sunlight. The following points should be observed: + +1. Good potting soil can be made by building up alternating layers of +sods and stable manure and allowing this compost to stand until +thoroughly rotted. A little sharp sand mixed with this forms an +excellent soil for most house plants. + +2. Thorough watering twice a week is better than adding a little water +every day. + +3. The leaves should be showered with water once a week to cleanse them +from dust. + +4. An ounce of whale-oil soap dissolved in a quart of water may be used +to destroy plant-lice. Common soap-suds may also be used for this +purpose, but care should be taken to rinse the plants in clean water +after using a soap wash. + +5. Most plants need some direct sunlight every day if possible, although +most of the ferns grow without it. + +6. Plants usually need re-potting once a year. Many kinds may be set +out-of-doors in flower beds in May and left until September, when they +may be taken up and placed in pots, or cuttings made from them for +potting. + +7. A flower exhibition at the school once or twice a year, or at a local +exhibition, adds to the interest. + +8. The pupils should report to the teacher from time to time the +progress of their plants and make many drawings showing their +development. + +PLANT CUTTINGS + +The pupils will be interested to know that it is possible to produce new +plants without waiting for them to grow up from the seed. It will indeed +be quite a surprise to them to see a new plant complete in all its parts +grow up from a small piece of stem, root, or even leaf. With a little +care even children may propagate plants in this way. + +SELECTION OF CUTTINGS + +Begin with some of the common herbaceous bedding-plants, such as +geranium, coleus, or fuschia. These are such common bedding-plants that +they are easily obtained in the autumn. Only well-matured stems of the +season's growth, such as will break with a slight snap when bent, should +be used. + +Let the pupils provide themselves with sharp knives for the lesson, with +small boxes or pots, and with some moist, clean sand--not potting soil. +A few holes should be bored in the bottom of the box, then a layer of +fine gravel put in to provide for good drainage, and over it layers of +moist sand. Take a slip or growing end of a stem about three inches in +length, always cutting it at or just below a node, or joint, and +leaving only a couple of small leaves on the top of the slip. Insert it +to about half its depth in the box of moist sand. These cuttings may be +placed a few inches apart in the box, which should then be placed in a +warm, light room for a few weeks until the roots develop. The cuttings +should be partly shaded by papers from the strong sunlight, and the sand +kept slightly moist but not wet. Bottom heat and a moist, warm +atmosphere hasten their development. + +Another very convenient and very successful method of starting cuttings +is to take a six-inch flower-pot, put two inches of fine gravel in the +bottom, set a four-inch unglazed flower-pot in the centre, and fill up +the space around it with sand and garden-loam, mixed. Put a cork in the +hole in the bottom of the small flower-pot, and then fill it with water. +Put the cuttings around in the space between the two pots and set in a +fairly warm room in moderate light. + +POTTING OF ROOTED CUTTINGS + +When the cuttings are well rooted, which requires from three to six +weeks according to the variety and growth conditions furnished, they +should be carefully lifted with a trowel and each set in a small pot or +can. First put in the bottom a few small stones to secure drainage, and +then a little good potting soil. Set the plant in place and fill in +around with more soil and pack this firmly around the roots. Keep room +in the top of the pot for water. When the new plant has made some +growth, it may be shifted to a larger pot. Geraniums and coleus (foliage +plants) should not be kept more than two seasons. Take cuttings off the +old plants and then throw the latter away. + + +EVERGREENS + +In December make a study of Canadian evergreens, choosing spruce, +balsam, and cedar, if available, or substitute hemlock for any one of +these. + +Compare the general features of these trees, such as shape, direction of +branches, colour, persistence of leaves through the winter. + +Have the pupils notice how nature fits these trees to endure the snows +and storms of winter by: + +1. The tapering cone which causes the snow to slide off the tree. + +2. The fine, needle-shaped leaves to which only very sticky snow will +adhere. + +3. The very tough, flexible, and elastic branches, which bend in the +wind and under the weight of snow, but spring back to their old +positions. + +4. The resin in leaves, stems, and buds, which enables the trees to +resist frost and rain. + +Teach the pupils to distinguish these trees by their differences in +colour and form and also by the differences in their leaves and cones. + +CLASS-ROOM LESSON + +Distribute small twigs of balsam and require the pupils to observe and +describe the length, shape, and colour of the leaves. + +Next distribute small twigs of spruce and require the pupils to compare +the spruce leaves with those of the balsam in length, shape, and colour. + +Next distribute twigs of cedar and proceed similarly. + +The cones may be dealt with in a similar manner. Require the pupils to +make a census of the evergreens of the locality, recording the class of +evergreen, the size, and the use of each kind for shade, ornament, or +for commercial purposes. + +_To the teacher._--The balsam, spruce, and hemlock are difficult for the +beginner to distinguish, but this may be done by noting the following +points of difference in their leaves: + +The leaf of the hemlock is the only one that has a distinct leaf-stalk. +Look for this tiny stalk. + +The leaf of the hemlock, like that of the balsam, is flat, but the +hemlock leaf is much the shorter. + +The leaf of the spruce is not flat, but is three-sided or nearly so. Its +colour is uniform, while the under surface of the hemlock leaf, and also +of the balsam leaf, is of a decidedly lighter colour than the upper +surface. + +Note that the spruce _type_ is studied; no attempt is made at this stage +to differentiate the several species of spruce. + + +COLLECTION OF WOOD SPECIMENS + +During the winter months the boys may prepare specimens of wood for the +school collection. These specimens should be cut when green, and dried +afterwards. They should be uniform in length--not more than six +inches--and should show the bark on one side. The side showing the bark +should be two inches wide at most, six inches long, and running in a +V-shaped, radial section toward the pith. A tangential section also +shows well the rounded layers. A piece of slab as cut lengthwise off a +round stick is tangential. Care should be taken not to mutilate trees in +taking these specimens. Specimens of rare or foreign woods may be +obtained at wood-working factories. + +RELATED READING + +Winter is Nature's quiescent period. Continuous active observation in +the out-of-doors among the plants of the forest and garden gives place +for a time to indoor work and reflection. Pupils need time for reading +and reflection, and no time is so opportune as the quiet winter season. +During these months some time should be devoted to the reading of nature +stories and extracts from magazines and books dealing with plant as well +as with animal life. + +Pupils should review their gardening experiences and discuss plans of +improvement for the approaching spring and summer. Let them write +letters to the Form II pupils of other schools where similar work has +been carried on, and give some of their experiences in gardening and +other plant studies, and also in animal studies. A certain Friday +afternoon might be appointed for hearing the letters read which were +received in reply. Suitable short poems that have a direct bearing upon +the outdoor studies should be read from time to time. Good pictures also +come in here as an aid in helping the pupils to appreciate written +descriptions. The first-hand observations made by them will form a basis +for the better and more appreciative interpretation of these literature +selections. + +For Observation Lesson on Weed Seeds, see page 171. + + +HOW ANIMALS PREPARE FOR WINTER + +~Introduction.~--Discuss the preparations that people make for winter, +such as the storing of food and the providing of warmer clothes and +homes. + +~Method.~--The teacher questions the pupils and encourages them to tell +what they have learned through their own observation of animals. The +knowledge of the pupils is supplemented by information given by the +teacher, but the pupils are left to find out more facts by further +observations. Thus: + +Do you ever see ground-hogs out during winter? + +What do they feed upon during the winter? + +What is the condition of ground-hogs in late summer and in autumn? + +What is the use of the great store of fat that they have in their +bodies? + +Examine the snow near the burrows of ground-hogs and find whether they +ever come out in mid-winter. + +_To the teacher._--The hibernating animals prepare a home or nest and +lay up a store of food in the form of fat within their bodies. To +hibernate does not mean the same as to sleep. The hibernating animals +have much less active organs than the sleeping animals. The heart-beat +and the respiratory movements are very slow and feeble, consequently a +very little nourishment suffices to sustain life. + +SUMMARY OF LESSONS + +(Two lessons of twenty minutes) + + 1. Some animals migrate: + + Examples--many birds, butterflies, and some bats; the + cariboo, and buffalo. + + 2. Some animals hibernate: + + Examples--bear, ground-hog, raccoon, frogs, toads, snakes, + and some bats. + + NOTE.--Flies, mosquitoes, and some other insects crawl into + crevices and remain at rest during winter, but their bodies + are not stored with food. + + 3. Some animals build houses and store foods: + + Examples--beaver, squirrel, chipmunk, honey-bee, deer-mouse. + + 4. Some animals build homes convenient to food: + + Examples--musk-rat, field-mouse. + + 5. Some animals put on warmer clothing: + + Examples--fox, mink, otter, rabbit, horse, cow, partridge, + chickadee. The rabbit and weasel turn white, a colour + protection. + + 6. Many insect larvæ form cocoons or pupæ cases: + + Examples--emperor-moth, codling moth, tomato worm. + +CORRELATIONS + +With literature, reading, and language. + +With geography: By a lesson on "The influence of climate upon animal and +plant life." + + +CHICKENS + + (Consult _Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture_ by + Robinson. Ginn & Co., $2.00.) + +CONVERSATION LESSON + +How many of you keep chickens at your homes? + +Why do many kinds of people keep chickens? + +What breeds of chickens do you keep? + +How many other breeds do you know? + +Describe the appearance of a few of the commoner breeds. + +Why are there so many different breeds? + +Name those that are good laying breeds. + +Name breeds that are not usually considered good laying breeds. + +_To the teacher._--Chickens are kept by all classes of people. Many keep +them for the profit in eggs and meat, others keep them as a fad, and +others to gratify a craving for animal companionship. There are one +hundred and seventy-five recognized breeds, varying in size from that of +the Japanese bantam weighing ten ounces to that of the huge Brahma which +weighs fourteen pounds. The shapes and colours present as great a +variation as the sizes. The breeds that are usually regarded as good +layers are White Leghorn, Barred Bock, and Rhode Island Red, while the +Game breeds are usually regarded as poor layers. Careful tests prove, +however, that there are good laying and poor laying strains in every +breed, and care must be taken to select from good strains, since the +breed is not a sufficient guide. + +At the close of the first lesson, assign to the pupils the task of +making a chicken census of the district as follows: + +1. Request each pupil to count the number of hens under two years old at +his home and also to count the hens that are more than two years old. + +2. Request each pupil to find out, if possible, the number of eggs +obtained at his home during the whole year. + +ARITHMETIC LESSON BASED ON THE CHICKEN CENSUS + +1. Using the data collected by the pupils, calculate the total number of +chickens under two years old in the district. + +Calculate the number over two years old. (The latter are classed as +unprofitable.) + +2. Using the data obtained by the pupils (provided sufficient data was +obtained to make it reasonably reliable), calculate the average number +of eggs laid a year by each hen. + +3. If the data collected by the pupils as to the number of eggs is +thought to be unreliable, make use of the following: + +The average number of eggs laid each year by each hen in Ontario is +seven dozen. Use this average number, and: + +(1) Calculate the value of the eggs produced in this district in a year, +the average price of eggs being twenty cents a dozen. + +(2) If the average production of eggs were increased to ten dozen (a +number that is easily possible under improved management), find the +value of the eggs that would be produced in a year, and find the gain +that would result from this better management. + +4. If it costs ninety cents a year to feed a hen, find the net annual +profit to this district from the egg production. + +CARE OF CHICKENS + +The method of developing conceptions of how to take proper care of +chickens is based partly upon the pupils' experiences and partly upon a +knowledge of the history of the original wild hens. + +Information can be gathered from the pupils as to the date of hatching +of the earliest chickens and the date at which the pullets begin to lay. +Chickens that are hatched in April begin to lay in November or December +and lay throughout the winter when eggs bring the highest price. + +The original wild hens lived in the dry, grassy, and shrubby jungles of +India. They were free to move about in the open air, and at night they +perched in the trees, which sheltered them from rain. Hence may be +inferred what kind of quarters should be provided for chickens. + +CARE AND FOOD OF CHICKENS + +Points developed + +Chickens must have plenty of fresh air without draughts. + +Heat is not necessary. + +Their quarters must be dry, clean, and well lighted. + +They require exercise. + +Their food must have in it the materials that are needed to make the +substance of the egg. + +Breakfast: Wheat or corn scattered among straw--the scratching affords +exercise. + +Dinner: Meat scraps, slaughter-house refuse, vegetables, sour milk, and +rolled oats. + +Supper: As at breakfast. + + +PHYSICAL SCIENCE PHASE OF NATURE STUDY + +The teacher is advised to read carefully the instructions and General +Method of Experimental Science, Chapter I, before beginning the lessons +in Physical Science. + + +SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND GASES + +Arrange a collection of objects of various shapes, sizes, colours, and +weights, as cork, glass, lead, iron, copper, stone, coal, chalk. Show +that these are alike in one respect, namely, that they have a shape not +easily changed, that is, they are _solids_. Compare these solids with +such substances as water, alcohol, oil, molasses, mercury, milk, tar, +honey, glycerine, gasolene. These latter will pour, and depend for their +shape on the containing vessel. They are _liquids_. Compare air with +solids and liquids. Such a material as air is called a _gas_. Other +examples of illuminating gas, and dentists' "gas"; others will be +studied in future lessons. Pupils may think all gases are invisible. To +show that some are not, put a few pieces of copper in a test-tube or +tumbler and add a little nitric acid. Watch the brown gas fall through +the air; note how it spreads in all directions. Some gases fall because +they are heavier than air; others rise because lighter. All gases spread +out as soon as liberated and try to fill all the available space. Spill +a little ammonia and note how soon the odour of the gas is smelled in +all parts of the room. + +CHANGE OF STATE + +Heat some lead or solder in a spoon till liquid. Let it cool. Do the +same with wax. + +Heat some water in a flask till it becomes steam. Steam is a gas. Cool +the steam and form water again. (See distillation.) Refer to lava +(melted rock), moulding iron, melting ice and snow, softening of butter. + +All solids may be changed to liquids and even to gases if sufficiently +heated. Likewise all gases may be changed into liquids and then to +solids. + +EXPANSION OF SOLIDS + +In winter pupils may find that the ink is frozen. The teacher directs +attention to this and inquires why it has occurred. It may be that in a +lesson on rocks the teacher will ask the pupils to account for all the +little stones. The following _experiments_ will aim at solving the +foregoing problems: + +1. A brass ball and ring are shown. Pupils handle these and note that +both are cold and that the ball just passes through the ring. They are +asked to compare the size of the ball with that of the ring. + +2. The spirit-lamp is lighted and examined. Pupils hold their hands over +the flame to note the heat. + +3. The ball is heated in the flame for a short time by one of the +pupils, and felt cautiously. An attempt is made to pass it through the +ring. How has the ball changed in feeling? In size? How does one know it +is larger? What has caused these changes? + +4. Cool the ball. Feel it. Try to pass it through the ring now. How has +it changed in feeling? In size? What caused these changes? How does heat +affect the ball? How does cold affect it? + +The teacher may now give the words _expand_ and _contract_, writing them +on the black-board and explaining their use. Pupils may then state their +conclusions: _A brass ball expands when heated and contracts when +cooled._ + +A blacksmith can make the following very serviceable apparatus: A scrap +of iron about eleven inches long, one inch wide, and one-eighth inch +thick, has one inch bent up at each end. A rod one-eighth inch in +diameter is made just long enough to pass between the upturned ends of +the first piece when both are cold. The rod is heated and the experiment +conducted as in the case of the ball. Two additional facts are learned: +(1) Iron expands as well as brass; (2) solids expand in length as well +as in volume. The pupils may now be told that other solids have been +tried and expansion has invariably followed heating. The conclusion may +then be made general. + +PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS + +1. When your ink-bottle was placed on the stove, which end became +warmer? Which expanded the more. Why then did it crack? + +2. What other examples like this have you noticed? (Lamp chimneys, fruit +jars, stove plates) + +3. The earth was once very hot and is now cooling. How is the size of +the earth changing? Does it ever crack? What causes earthquakes? + +4. Find out by observation how a blacksmith sets tires. + +5. Invent a way to loosen a glass stopper stuck in the neck of a bottle. + +6. What does your mother do if the metal rim refuses to come off the +fruit jar? + +7. Next time you cross a railway, notice whether the ends of the rails +touch. Explain. + +8. What allowance is made for contraction in a wire fence? A railway +bridge? Why? + +9. Why do the stove-pipes crack when the fire is first started? + +10. Why does the house go "thump" on a very cold night? + +11. Draw the ball, ring, and spirit-lamp in position. + +12. Describe in writing the experiments we have made. + +QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION + +You have seen that iron and brass both expand. Do they expand equally? +Let pupils have a few days to invent a way of answering the question. +The experiment may then be tried with the compound bar. See _The Ontario +High School Physics_, pages 217-218, also _First Course in Physics_, +Milliken and Gale, page 144. + +If the equipment of the school is limited, it may be necessary to +dispense with the ball and ring and generalize from one experiment. + +Another easily made apparatus consists of two iron rings with handles. +One ring will just pass through the other when both are cold. The stove +may take the place of the spirit-lamp. + +A still simpler plan consists in driving two nails into a block at such +a distance apart that an iron rod (six-inch nail, poker, bolt, etc.) +will just pass between. On heating the rod the increase in length +becomes evident. + +EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS + +Fill a common bottle with coloured water; insert a rubber stopper +through which passes a glass tube about sixteen inches long. Set the +bottle in a pan of water and gradually warm the water. The rise of the +liquid in the tube will indicate expansion. On setting the bottle in +cold water the fall of the column of coloured water shows contraction. +See _The Ontario High School Physics_, page 218, also _Science of Common +Life_, page 48. Macmillan Co., 60 cents. + +Set the flask or bottle in a mixture of ice and salt and note that the +extreme cold causes contraction for a while, then expansion. Note that +when expansion begins, the water has not begun to freeze, but that it +does so soon after. + +The night before this experiment the children should set out in the cold +air, tightly corked bottles of water. In the morning they will be found +burst by the expansion. + +APPLICATIONS + +1. Why did some of the ink-bottles burst in the cold room? + +2. Find large stones split up into two or more fragments. Explain. + +3. Why is fall-ploughed land so mellow in spring? + +4. Why does ice float? Think what would happen if it did not. + +5. Explain the heaving of oats, clover, wheat. + +6. Do all liquids expand on freezing? Try melted paraffin. + +THE THERMOMETER + +Besides the ordinary thermometer the school should possess a chemical +thermometer graduated from 0° Fahrenheit to 212°. + +1. Our sensations vary so much under different circumstances and in +different individuals that they cannot be depended on. Find examples of +this and show the need of a measuring instrument. + +2. The pupils can learn, by examination of the common wall instrument, +the parts of the thermometer--tube, bulb, liquid (alcohol or mercury), +and scale. + +3. Repeat the experiment for expansion of liquids, showing wherein the +apparatus resembles the thermometer, warm the thermometer bulb and watch +the column rise; cool it and note the fall. + +4. Set the bulb of the chemical thermometer in boiling water. The +mercury comes to rest near 212°. Bury the bulb in melting snow and +notice that the column falls to 32°. Give names for these points. +Explain that a degree is one of the 180 equal parts which lie between +boiling point and freezing-point. Show that 32° below freezing must be +0°, or zero. + +5. The uses of thermometers for indoors and outdoors; for dairy, sick +room, incubator, and soils; maximum and minimum. Dairy thermometers +registering 212° Fahrenheit may be obtained; they are cheaper than +chemical thermometers. + +EXPANSION OF AIR + +Half fill a flask with water and invert it uncorked over water in a +plate. Apply a cloth soaked in boiling water to the part that contains +air. Why does the water leave the flask? Apply cold water. Why does the +water return? Any ordinary bottle may be used in place of the flask, but +it is more liable to crack. + +Make an air thermometer. See _The Ontario High School Physics_, page +223, also _Science of Common Life_, page 41. Try to graduate it from the +mercurial thermometer. Have the boys make a stand for it. + +_Inferences._--Heated gases rise because they expand. Hot-air balloons, +winds, and heating with hot-air furnaces, all depend on this principle. + +SOURCES OF HEAT AND LIGHT + +NOTES FOR A SERIES OF LESSONS + +1. THE SUN.--Our dependence on it. Valuable results of its heat. Simple +notions as to its size, distance, and nature. Our earth catches a very +small fraction of the sun's heat; our sun is but one of millions--the +fixed stars. Show the burning effect of a lens. + +2. FUELS.--Wood, oil, coal, alcohol, gas, peat, straw: where obtained; +special uses of each under varying conditions; need of economy. (This is +closely related to geography.) + +3. ELECTRICITY.--In urban schools use the electric light or some heating +device for illustration. In rural schools a battery of two or three +cells (see "Apparatus") will melt a fine strand drawn from a picture +wire. + +Applications: ironing, toasting, cooking; advantages or disadvantages +compared with gas or wood. + +4. FRICTION.--Pupils rub hands together; rub a button on a cloth; saw a +string across the edge of a board or across the hand; bore a hole +through a hardwood plank, then feel the auger-bit. + +Applications: restoring circulation; "hot-boxes" in machinery; +lubricants and their uses; lighting matches. + +5. POUNDING.--Hammer a nail flat on an anvil or stone; feel it. Bullets +fired against an iron or stone surface may be picked up very hot. Note +sparks that can be struck from a stone; percussion caps, flint-lock +muskets. + +6. PRESSURE.--After using a bicycle pump for some time, feel the bottom, +also the top. If possible, examine an air-compressor and find out the +means used for cooling the air. + +7. SOURCES OF LIGHT.--Sun, moon, oil, tallow, gas, electricity, wax, +acetylene; advantages of each; relative cost. + +PRIMITIVE METHODS OF OBTAINING FIRE: Most savages obtain fire by +friction; rubbing two pieces of wood together till hot enough to set +fire to some dry, light material. The natives of Australia placed a flat +piece of wood on the ground and pressed against this the end of a round +piece, which they twirled rapidly with their hands till fire was +produced. The North American Indians did the twirling with their bow +strings; the Eskimo's plan is somewhat similar. It is impossible to say +when flint and steel were first used, but we know they continued to be +the chief means of producing fire till about 1834, when matches were +invented. Let pupils try to produce fire by these means. + +The earliest lamps consisted of shells, skulls of animals, and +cup-shaped stones filled with fat or fish oils which burned on a wick of +cloth or the pith of rushes. The Tibetans burn butter, the Eskimos +whale- or seal-oil, the Arabians palm- or olive-oil. For outdoor +lighting, torches carried in the hand were used till gas came into +general use about 1792. + +CONDUCTION + +Give to four boys strips of copper, aluminium, wood, and glass, +respectively. They hold these by one end and heat the other end till one +or more are forced to drop the piece on account of the heat. The boys +with the metals will soon find them hot throughout, but the other two +will be able to hold on indefinitely. The teacher gives the terms "good +conductor" and "poor conductor". + +PROBLEMS + +1. Are metals generally good conductors? Try with strips of zinc, lead, +iron, a silver spoon. + +2. Are all good conductors equally good? Devise a means of ascertaining. +See _Science of Common Life_, Chapter VI; also _The Ontario High School +Physics_, page 274. + +3. Is water a good conductor? + +Lists of good and poor conductors may then be made, the teacher adding +to the list. Good: metals; poor: wood, horn, bone, cloth, leather, air, +water, hair, asbestos, ashes, rock, earth. + +PROBLEMS + +1. If the interior of the earth is very hot, why do we not feel it? + +2. How can the cold snow keep the earth warm? + +3. Why does your hand freeze to metals but not to wood? + +4. Let the children try to find other instances: wools or furs for +clothing, fur coats on northern animals, feathers on birds, down quilts, +tea cosies, sawdust for packing ice, double windows, wooden handles for +hot irons, asbestos coating for steam pipes. + +THE MINERS' SAFETY-LAMP: This is a most important application of +conduction. Get from the tinsmith a piece of brass gauze six inches +square. Raise the wick of the spirit-lamp causing it to give a high +flame and bring the gauze down upon the flame till it touches the wick. +Note that the flame does not rise above the gauze. Hold a piece of paper +above the gauze near the flame and note that it does not take fire. Note +also that the gauze soon becomes hot. The brass wires conduct the heat +of the flame rapidly away so that there is not heat enough above the +gauze to cause combustion. Now roll the gauze into a hollow cylinder, +pin the edges together, insert a cork at each end, and have a short +candle fastened to the lower one. Try to light the candle with the lamp +through the gauze. It is not easily done. + +The miner carries a lamp made like this, so that if he should be in the +presence of the explosive gas, "fire damp", it would not explode because +of the wire gauze shield. + +CONVECTION + +Water is not a conductor, how then is it heated? + +Drop a few pieces of solid colouring matter, (analine blue, blueing, or +potassium permanganate) into a beaker of cold water. Place the beaker +over a heater and observe the coloured portion rise. + +Wet sawdust will make a good substitute for the colouring matter. A +sealing jar or even a tin cup will do instead of the beaker. The stove +or a dish of hot water will take the place of the lamp. + +PROBLEMS + +1. Using a thermometer, see whether the water at the bottom is warmer +than that at the top while the beaker is being heated. + +2. Heat some oil and pour it over the surface of some cold water. Lower +a thermometer into this. Does the water at the bottom soon become warm? + +3. If your kitchen is provided with a hot-water tank, find out what part +of the tank first becomes warm after the fire is lighted. + +4. In bathing, where do you find the coldest water of a pond or still +river? See _Science of Common Life_, Chapter VI; also _The Ontario High +School Physics_, page 280. + +CONVECTION IN GASES + +A good apparatus may be made by cutting two holes one inch in diameter +in one side of a chalk box, replace the lid with a piece of glass, place +a lamp chimney over each hole and a lighted candle under one of the +chimneys. Hold a piece of smoking touch-paper at each chimney in turn +and note direction of air current. + +APPLICATIONS + +1. Winds are caused by the rising of air over heated areas, allowing +cooler currents to take its place. (Geography) + +2. Rooms are ventilated by heating some of the air more than the rest, +thus producing a current. (Hygiene) Winds are nature's means of +ventilating the earth. + +RADIATION OF HEAT + +This should be taken up as an introduction to dew, frost, winds, +climate, etc. + +1. Make an iron ball hot (the end of a poker will answer). Hold the hand +a few inches below the iron. Does the heat reach the hand by convection? +By conduction? By means of suitable questions, lead the pupil to see +that it is not by convection, for the hand is below the hot object while +heated air rises; it is not by conduction, for air is one of the very +poorest conductors; moreover, the heat is felt instantly from the poker, +but it takes an appreciable time for it to come by conduction and +convection. We say this heat is _radiated_ from the iron. The velocity +of radiated heat is about 186,000 miles a second. + +2. The above experiment may be varied by bringing the hot iron gradually +toward the bulb of the air thermometer and noting the greatest distance +at which it will affect the thermometer. + +It is by radiation that the sun's heat and light reach us. We get much +of the heat of stoves, fire-places, and radiators by the same means. + +Why does the earth cool off at night? Why does dew form? Why can no dew +form on a cloudy night? Why is a mountain top or a desert so cold, +especially at night? + +3. Take two tin cans (baking powder boxes will answer) and make holes in +the lids large enough to admit a thermometer. Blacken one box in the +flame of an oil lamp. Fill both with boiling water and put in a cool +place. Test with a thermometer from time to time. Which cools most +rapidly? + +4. Fill the tin cans with cold water, find the temperature, and then +place them near a hot stove. Which warms faster? Usually dark or rough +surfaces radiate heat and absorb heat faster than bright or smooth ones. +An excellent way of testing this is to lay a black cloth and a white one +side by side on the snow where the sun is shining brightly. The snow +will melt more rapidly under the black cloth. Painted shingles may be +substituted for the cloths. Try different colours. The day chosen should +not be extremely cold. + +PROBLEMS + +1. Why should we have the outside of a tea-kettle, teapot, or hot-air +shaft of a bright colour? Why should we have stoves and stove-pipes dull +black? + +2. Why does a coat of snow keep the earth warm? + +3. Which is the warmest colour to wear in winter? Does this account for +the colour of Arctic animals? + +4. Which is the coolest colour to wear in the hot sun? + +5. Gardeners sometimes strew the ground with coal-dust to help ripen +their melons. Show the value of this. + +6. Suggest a method of protecting a wall from the heat of a stove. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +FORM III + +SPRING + + +WINDOW BOXES + +Many garden plants should be started in a box of earth in a warm, sunny +window. In some schools this can be done with a little care in heating +on cold nights. Small boxes or grape baskets full of rich sandy loam +with an inch of gravel in the bottom for drainage may be used. Sow the +seeds in rows or broadcast. To prevent the soil from drying out too +quickly, cover the box with a pane of glass. When the plants are up, +give them plenty of light and not too much warmth. On very mild days set +them in a warm, sheltered place out-of-doors and bring them in again +early in the evening. This tends to make them hardy. When about three +inches high, pick the young plants out and set them in other boxes a few +inches apart. This moving causes the formation of numerous fibrous roots +and makes stronger plants. + + +WINDOW GARDENS + +Window boxes may be used for a whole season on the inside of the +building in cold weather, and on the outside in warm weather. There is +almost no limit to the kinds of plants that can be grown in them, but +they are most suitable for flowers. + +Good boxes may be made of dressed lumber so as to fit on the +window-sill. They should be six inches deep, ten inches wide, and the +required length. They should have a few small holes in the bottom to +allow excess water to drain off and should be painted dark green or some +quiet colour. There should be an inch of gravel in the bottom, some +rotted sods covering this, and then the box filled with rich sandy loam. + +SUITABLE PLANTS + +Some flowers suitable for growing in window boxes outside in summer are +those of drooping habit: lobelia, Kenilworth ivy, verbena, tropeolum, +petunia, and sweet-alyssum toward the front, and behind, more erect +plants, such as geranium, heliotrope, begonia, phlox, and nasturtium. +The box must not be too much crowded. + +For inside and in shady situations the following are suitable: +tradescantia, parlour ivy, moneywort, vinca smilax, climbing fern, +asparagus fern, dracæna, coleus, centaurea, sword fern, and Boston fern. +For indoor boxes in winter, the following may be used: abutilon, +calceolaria, cyclamen, violets, primroses, petunias, geraniums, freesia, +and such foliage plants as dracæna, cannas, dusty miller, and coleus. +The following climbing plants may be trained up the window cases: +asparagus plumosus fern, cobea scandens, smilax, maurandia, and English +ivy. If drooping or trailing plants are desired, the following may be +used: oxalis, sweet-alyssum, lobelia, ivy, geranium, Kenilworth ivy, and +Wandering Jew. + +FERTILIZER + +As the amount of soil is limited and the number of plants that it has to +support is great, the soil should be made quite rich and should be +further fertilized from time to time with a little liquid manure. This +can be best obtained by taking a strong barrel or large keg and filling +it about half full of water. Then fill an ordinary coarse potato sack +with cow-stable manure and set the sack in the barrel for a few days. A +tap in the bottom of the barrel is most convenient for drawing off the +liquid manure. A little of this will also be found valuable for watering +dahlias, roses, and other garden plants during the summer. + + +SOIL STUDIES + +The classes of soil should be reviewed. Pupils should gather examples +from many places. The samples may be kept in bottles of uniform size and +should include not only the four types but varieties of each, also +various kinds of loam. + +EXERCISES AND EXPERIMENTS + +SOIL CONSTITUENTS + +1. With a sharp spade, cut a piece about twelve inches deep from (1) the +forest floor, (2) an old pasture field. Note character and order of the +layers of soil in (1) leaves, humus, loam, sand, or clay; in (2) grass, +dead grass, humus, loam, sand, or clay. Observe soils shown in railway +cuttings, freshly dug wells, post holes. + +2. Note the effect produced on the soil of a field by (1) leaving it a +few years in pasture, (2) ploughing in heavy crops, (3) applying +barn-yard manure. In all these cases vegetable matter is mixed with the +soil. + +3. Dry some good leaf-mould. Throw a handful on the surface of some +water. The mineral matter sinks, while the vegetable portion remains +suspended for some time. Try this experiment with gravel, sand, and +clay. Note that the gravel sinks rapidly, the sand less rapidly, and +that the clay takes a long time to settle. If the water be kept in rapid +motion, the finer soils will all remain suspended till motion becomes +slower. Apply this in geography. The bed of a stream will consist of +stones if it be swift, of sand if less swift, and of clay if very slow. +How are alluvial plains formed? + +4. Place half an ounce of dry humus on an iron plate or fire-shovel and +heat strongly in a stove. Note that it begins to smoke and a large part +smoulders away to ashes; the mineral portion remains. Weigh the part +left and find what fraction of the humus consisted of vegetable +material. + +Try to find the proportion of vegetable matter in each of the following: +loams from various sources, sand, clay, gravel. The last three will show +scarcely any change. This experiment will give rise to some good +arithmetical problems in fractions. + +WATER IN SOILS + +5. Compare a handful of fresh garden soil with the same soil dried. Note +the glistening of the fresh soil, also its weight and darker colour. The +fresh soil admits of packing though no water can be squeezed from it. In +its best condition, the water of the soil adheres as a film of moisture +about every particle. Free water is to be avoided since it excludes the +air from the soil. + +6. Equal weights of soils of different kinds and degrees of fineness are +placed in funnels or in inverted bottles with bottoms removed. Water is +then slowly added to each until it begins to drop from the lower end. +From this is seen (1) the great value of humus as a water holder, (2) +the advantage of fine soil over coarse. For retention of water by +absorption, consult _Nature Study and Life_, Hodge, page 382. + +7. Take two wooden boxes (chalk boxes will do), fill one box with moist +sand and the other with moist leaf-mould. Weigh the boxes separately and +leave them for three or four days in a warm room. Weigh again and note +decrease from evaporation. The sand dries out much faster than the +humus. Test with clay, gravel, and loam, also with mixtures of these and +leaf-mould. + +8. Take three paint cans; punch holes in the bottoms. Fill each with +good soil well shaken down. Stand the cans in water till the tops are +moist, then place them in a warm, dry place. Loosen the soil on the top +of No. 1 to a depth of one inch; on No. 2 to a depth of two inches; +leave No. 3 untouched. Find out after a few days which is drying out +fastest. How may soil be treated so as to lessen evaporation of water? + +DRAINAGE + +9. Gravel and sand allow water to run away rapidly, but where the soil +is fine or closely packed as in clay soils, under-drains are necessary +(1) to carry off the surplus water, (2) to allow air to enter the soil, +(3) to warm the soil (wet soil is colder than dry). + +Take two equal-sized tin cans, make several holes in the bottom of one, +place therein a layer of broken pottery or stones, and fill with good +soil. Fill the other with similar soil but make no holes for drainage. +Plant in each can a healthy plant of the same size and kind. Water both +till the soil is saturated and continue watering every two or three +days for six weeks. Note (1) the progress of the plants, (2) the +temperature of the soils, (3) which plant has the largest and deepest +roots. (See _Bulletin 174_, Ontario Department of Agriculture.) + +10. Take five equal-sized boxes, provide for drainage, and fill No. 1 +with wood, earth, or humus, No. 2 with clay, No. 3 with sand, No. 4 with +a mixture of clay and humus, No. 5 with a mixture of sand and humus. +Plant corn in each box, set in a warm room, and keep watered for two or +three weeks. Note in which case growth is most rapid. Set boxes in a dry +place and cease watering. Which suffers most from the drought? Which +bakes hardest in the sun? Test the temperature of each after watering +and standing in the sun for an hour. Sand is warmer than clay, also the +presence of humus raises the temperature. This item is important, since +most seeds decay instead of sprouting if the temperature is below 45° +Fahrenheit. + +11. Enumerate the services rendered to the soil by humus. + +12. In Experiment 10, let the corn grow for some time and determine +whether the very rich humus is the best in the end. Sand and clay are +almost altogether mineral; leaf-mould almost entirely organic; neither +alone is good, but a mixture gives the best results. + + +GARDEN WORK + +The boys of this Form should attend to the fertilizing and spading of +the plots belonging to the girls of their Form. The girls themselves can +do all the rest of the work, and they should try to keep the plots +level, uniform in size, and in a straight line. If the corner posts are +kept in line and the plots made up the exact size, the appearance of +the garden will be greatly improved. + +The pupils are now old enough to make their own choice of flowers and +vegetables. Very tall growing plants, such as corn and sunflowers, are +not desirable in individual plots as they shade other plants near them. +Corn is best grown in a large plot about twenty feet square. The same +may be said of vines, such as cucumbers, melons, squash, etc. If the +plots are small, it is better to plant but a single variety, but in +large plots from two to four varieties may be arranged to advantage. +Usually rows of vegetables, such as carrots and beets, may be placed a +foot apart, cabbage about twice that distance, and tomatoes a little +farther apart than cabbage. + +Generally speaking, plants should be placed so that when full grown they +will just touch, cover the ground completely, and thus prevent the +growth of weeds. + +As soon as the young plants appear above the ground, light cultivation +with rakes and claw-hand weeders should be started, so as to keep weeds +from growing and at the same time to provide a loose surface or earth +mulch for conserving the moisture and aerating the soil. Thinning should +also be begun when the plants are quite small, but it should not all be +done at once. As the plants increase in size, the best ones should be +left and the poor ones taken out. In some cases plants thus removed may +be re-set to fill vacant places. + +TREE SEEDS + +Tree seeds that have been stored over winter should now be planted in +rows in a small plot. The rows should be a foot apart and the seeds +quite close together in the row. A cheese-cloth or slat shade should be +used on this plot, as the hot sun is too strong for tree seedlings when +they first come up. They should have cultivation every week and watering +in dry weather. Always water in the evening after school, or even later +when possible. + +TRANSPLANTING + +Pupils in this Form should have practice in transplanting, as well as in +sowing seed. For this purpose seeds should be started about the first of +April in hotbeds or window boxes, seedlings transplanted into cold +frames when two or three inches high, and then set out in the garden in +the latter part of May when danger of frost is past. + +TRANSPLANTING FLOWERS AND VEGETABLES + +Choose, if possible, a cool cloudy day. Water the plants thoroughly in +the hotbed or cold frame a few hours before lifting them. Lift them with +a trowel or small spade, and keep as much earth on their roots as +possible. With a transplanting trowel, make holes deep enough so that +the plant will be a little deeper in the soil than before transplanting. +Unless the soil is moist, a little water put in the hole with the plant +is beneficial. The evening is considered best for transplanting if the +weather is clear. If the sun is very hot, the plants should be shaded +for a few days until the roots become established and begin their work. +Shingles slanting over the plants from the south side and driven into +the ground to hold them in position are best. Papers held by means of +two stones also give good results. The practice of covering them with +inverted cans is not a good one, as the light is almost completely cut +off. A few holes in the can would help considerably. Care must be taken +to pack the earth firmly about the roots. Watering again twenty-four +hours after transplanting is often necessary. If the plant has a leafy +top, it is best to take off some of the leaves, as they tend to give off +water more rapidly than the roots can at first take it in. + +TRANSPLANTING TREE SEEDLINGS + +Nuts and other tree seeds collected the previous autumn should now be +planted in the forestry plots in rows a foot apart. As the seeds may not +all grow, they may be planted close together in the row and thinned out +the following spring if necessary. They need some shelter from the sun +the first summer. In large plots this is provided by means of a slat +covering, but in a small plot cheese-cloth tacked on strips and fastened +on corner posts is satisfactory. When a shower comes, this cheese-cloth +screen should be removed so that the rain may moisten the plot evenly. +Seedlings may be transplanted from the woods or from the forestry rows +before the leaves open out. + +BUDDING + +In budding, a slit like the letter T is made in the side of the young +seedling close to the ground. The bark is raised a little at the point +where the vertical slit meets the horizontal one, and a bud of desired +variety with a shield-shaped bit of bark (and perhaps a little wood) +attached to it is shoved in and the sides of the slit bound down upon +it. After the bud, or scion, has started to grow, the stock is cut off +an inch above the point where the bud was inserted. The bud then makes +rapid growth, and in two years the resulting tree is large enough to set +in its permanent place in the orchard. + +CUTTINGS + +Pupils in this Form should try to grow such woody plants as roses and +grapes from cuttings. Roses are frequently propagated by budding, as in +the case of apples and peaches. They may also be grown upon their own +roots or from stem cuttings. Such cuttings should be from well-matured +wood of the present year taken in the autumn and packed in moist sand +over the winter. Make the cuttings about three inches in length. The top +end should be cut off immediately above a bud and the bottom end just +below a bud, as roots seem to start more readily from a node, or bud. +Such a cutting may have three or four buds of which only the upper two +need be left. If both of these grow, the poorer one may afterwards be +removed. + +These rose cuttings should then be inserted in a box of clean, moist +sand to a depth of two inches, kept in a warm room, and shaded with a +sheet of newspaper when the sun is very bright. Keep the sand moist but +not wet, and when possible have gentle bottom heat. When roots have made +some growth, transplant carefully into small flower-pots, using fairly +rich, clay loam. In a few weeks they will be ready to plant out in the +garden. + +Grape cuttings should be taken late in the fall when the vines are well +matured. Such a cutting includes only two joints, the upper one being +the growing end and the lower the rooting end. They must be stored over +winter in cold, moist sand, but should not be permitted to freeze. As +soon as the ground can be prepared in the spring, set them out. They +should be placed on a slant of about forty-five degrees and covered all +but the top bud. + +LEAF CUTTINGS + +Some plants with large and vigorous leaves, such as many of the +begonias, may be propagated by means of leaf cuttings. Buds readily +develop from cuts made in the large veins. Take a full-grown healthy +leaf and remove the stem all but about half an inch. Make a few cuts +across the larger veins on the under side of the leaves at points where +main veins branch. Press the leaf firmly down on the top of a box of +moist sand with the under side next the sand. Keep the leaf in this +position, using small stones or little pegs pushed through the leaf into +the sand. Put the box in a warm room and do not let the sand become dry. +When roots strike into the sand and buds develop from the points where +the veins were wounded, take a sharp knife and cut out the new plant +from the old leaf and transplant it into a small flower-pot in good +soil. Sink the pot in a box of moist sand to prevent its drying out. + +ROOT CUTTINGS + +Such plants as "sprout from the roots" may be propagated by root +cuttings. Sections of underground stems may also come under this +heading, as in the case of horseradish cuttings. But real roots may be +used for cuttings, as in the case of the blackberry and raspberry. The +roots should be cut in pieces three or four inches long, planted in a +horizontal position, and entirely covered with two or three inches of +soil. + +LAYERING + +Bush fruits, such as currants and gooseberries, are frequently +propagated by stem cuttings, as in the case of roses. Another method, +which is known as layering, consists in bending one or more of the +lowest branches down against the ground, fastening it there by means of +a forked stick, and then covering it with two or three inches of earth. +The part in contact with the moist earth will send out roots, while one +or more shoots will come up. When roots and shoots have developed, the +branch is severed from the parent bush and the new plant set in its +permanent place. Strawberries exhibit a sort of natural layering. + +PLANTING AND CARE OF HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS + +Perennials grown from seed the previous summer should now be set in +clumps two or three feet apart in the perennial border or here and there +beside the fences or walks. The soil should be made fine and fertilized +with well-rotted manure from the compost heap before setting out the +young perennials. Dahlias and gladioli which were taken in in the autumn +should now be set out. The dahlias should be divided and only the best +roots used. Other perennials that have grown into large clumps should be +dug up, divided, and re-set in well-fertilized soil. + +GARDEN STUDIES + +Pupils in this Form have now had enough experience in the growing of +vegetables and flowers to allow them to make intelligent variety tests. +They should grow some of the less familiar varieties and report on the +merits of each variety tested. This, however, should not be carried on +to the exclusion of the well-known standard varieties. Let the pupils +consult the best seed catalogues available and choose for themselves +some varieties not already known to them. They should keep a systematic +record of all varieties grown and the methods used in cultivating, +fertilizing, etc. The knowledge thus gained will be of value in after +years, and the homes will also benefit by it. + +BIENNIALS + +The pupils should observe the second year's growth of biennials. A +special plot in the school garden should be set apart for this purpose. +Have them plant in it a turnip, a carrot, a beet, a cabbage, or any +other garden biennial saved over winter for the purpose. If desired, the +pupils might grow their own seed of these varieties. Notice (1) what +part of the plant has become enlarged with stored up food and how big it +is when planted, (2) how this part changes in size and texture as the +flowers and seeds develop, (3) in what way this extra food seems to have +been used. + + +WILD FLOWERS + +STUDY OF THE TRILLIUM + +The pupils bring the plants for the lesson. There should be a few purple +trilliums among the white, and some of the plants should have the +underground parts intact. + +Discuss with the collectors their observations on where the trilliums +grow, the kind of soil, the depth of the root-stocks below the surface, +the uses of the root-stocks, insect visitors. + +CLASS-ROOM LESSON + +The pupils are directed to examine the plant and flowers and find out +all the means for attracting insects. + +Find out why the purple trillium attracts flies and beetles, while the +white trillium attracts bees and butterflies. + +Look into the top of the flower; what figure do the tips of the six +flower leaves form? + +Using the names calyx and corolla, describe the circle of flower leaves +as to number, colour, and relative position. + +Find the stamens and describe as to number and position; find out how +the stamens are fitted to ensure that the pollen will get upon the +visiting insects. + +Find the pistil and describe its shape. How is the stigma fitted for +receiving the pollen that is carried by the insect visitors. + +_To the teacher._--The trilliums attract insects by their large white +and purple flowers, which are held up by their long stalks high above +the three broad leaves. The strong carrion-like odour of the purple +trillium is attractive to flies and beetles, while bees and butterflies +find the fragrance of the white trillium more to their liking. + +The root-stock serves as a buried store of food to tide the plant over +the drought of late summer and the severe cold of winter. The +well-stocked cellar also explains the flourishing condition of the plant +in early spring. The six stamens stand on close guard around the pistil, +and insects forcing their way to the nectaries are well peppered with +pollen. + +Continue the observation work by means of field exercises such as the +following: + +What change takes place in the colour of the white trillium as it grows +old? + +Find the ripened seed pods of the trillium, open them, count the number +of chambers, and examine the seeds. + +Do trilliums grow from the same root-stock year after year? + +As correlations, represent the trillium in colour and design an +embroidery pattern based on it. + +Lessons similar to that on the trillium may be based on adder's tongue, +Indian turnip, Dutchman's breeches, violet, and clover. + + +ADAPTATIONS OF ANIMALS + +It is not considered necessary to go outside the list of ordinary +animals to find sufficient illustrations of adaptations, and it is +recommended that attention be given to these during the study of animals +prescribed for the regular Course. This may be supplemented by an +occasional review of adaptive features for the purpose of emphasizing +the general fitness of animals for their varied habits and surroundings. +Care must be taken lest the attempt to explain structures by adaptation +be carried to an extreme, for it is impossible to account for all the +variations in animal forms. + +The following list contains a few of the many examples of adaptations to +be met with in the Course prescribed for Forms II and III. + +The horse walks and runs on the tips of its toes; this gives greater +speed. + +Wild animals of the cow and deer kind can swallow their food hastily so +that they may retire to a safe retreat; there they regurgitate the food +and chew it. The domesticated animal retains this habit, though there is +no longer a need for it. + +The wood-hare's fur is brown in summer, hence its enemies cannot see it +against the brown grass and moss; in winter its colour is white, which, +against the snow, is a protective colour. + +The porcupine is very slow, but its colour and shape make it almost +impossible to distinguish from a knot on a log. Its quills form an +effective protection when it is discovered. + +The feet of the squirrel are adapted for climbing and its teeth for +gnawing wood and for opening nuts. The tail serves as a balancing pole +for leaping from tree to tree and in winter it acts as a protection from +cold. + +The earthworm's shape and movements are suited to its habits of +burrowing through the soil. Its habits of swallowing the soil fit it for +burrowing and for obtaining its food at the same time. + +Many insect larvæ, as the tomato worm and the cabbage-worm, are of the +same colour as the plants on which they feed, and this enables them to +escape detection by birds. + +The larvæ of dragon-flies and May-flies breathe in water by means of +gills very much as fishes do, but the adult forms are suited for +breathing in air. + +Female birds are usually dull gray or mottled, so that their colours +blend with their surroundings while they are nesting, and hence they do +not attract the notice of their enemies. + +Birds that swim have webbed feet, which act as oars for pushing them +through the water. Their feathers are compact and soft for warmth, and +these properties, together with oil on their surfaces, make them +waterproof. + +The tongue of the woodpecker is long, spear-shaped, and sticky; hence it +is adapted for catching insects in the holes pecked into the wood. + +The tongue of the toad is fastened at the front end, so that a flap can +be shot out for more than an inch in front of the animal, thus enabling +it to catch insects on its sticky surface. + +The toes of the frog are webbed to make them more serviceable in +swimming. + +The tail of the musk-rat is strong and broad like the blade of an oar +and serves the same purpose as an oar. + +The tail of the fish is more serviceable for swimming than legs would +be. + + +BIRD TYPES + +WOODPECKERS + +Woodpeckers are easily distinguished from other birds by their habit of +perching in a vertical position on the trunks of trees with the tips of +their tails pressed against the bark. While in this position, they tap +upon the tree with their sharp, pointed beaks. + +THE DOWNY WOODPECKER + +Learn to recognize the smallest of our woodpeckers, the Downy. Winter or +summer it may be found among the apple trees and shade trees, a tiny +black and white bird little bigger than a wren. + +OBSERVATIONS + +I + +Why is "checkerboard" a good name for this bird? + +Are there any distinct lines of white? + +Are there any patches of red? + +Do its movements reveal energy or listlessness? + +How does it move up a tree trunk? + +How does it move down a tree trunk? + +Find out how it can hold so firmly to the trunk. + +Does it use its sharp beak as a drill or as a pick? + +_To the teacher._--The downy is spotted black and white, with barred +wings and a white line down the centre of the back. A bright scarlet +crown is the colour distinction of the male. This little bird is the +embodiment of energy and perseverance. It hops nimbly up the trunk, +tapping here and there with its beak, and then listening for the +movements of the disturbed wood-borers. If it wishes to descend, it +wastes no time in turning around, but hops backward down the trunk, or +jumps off and flies down. + +II + +Examine an apple tree upon which a downy has been at work and find out +what it was doing there. + +Do you find the birds in pairs during winter? During summer? Distinguish +the male from the female. + +Tie a beef bone with scraps of meat adhering to it to a tree. What birds +come to it? + +Find the nest of the downy and describe the nest and the eggs. + +Do the holes made by the downy injure the trees? + +Why should the downy be welcomed in our orchards? + +Describe the sounds made by the birds. + +_To the teacher._--Discuss the pupils' answers to the above problems in +the class lesson, using a picture of a woodpecker to illustrate the +features of the bird that adapt it for its habits. Examples: the +straight, sharp beak suited for drilling; the two backward, projecting +toes for perching; the spines on the tips of the tail feathers to act as +a prop. + +The downy woodpecker is very useful in the orchard, because it destroys +great numbers of larvæ of the tussock-moth and other insects. The holes +made in the bark have never been found to injure the trees. The nest is +made in a hollow tree, the entrance to it being almost perfectly round +and about one and one-quarter inches in diameter. + +The downy woodpecker has a very unmusical voice, but fortunately he is +aware of this deficiency, and his only attempt at music is drumming with +his beak upon a hollow limb or tree. + +The hairy woodpecker, redheaded woodpecker, flicker, and yellow-bellied +woodpecker (sapsucker) are other varieties which visit the orchards and +are suitable for lessons similar to these on the downy woodpecker. They +are all beneficial birds. + +FLYCATCHERS + +Members common to this class are: king-bird; house-phoebe, wood-phoebe, +or pewee; whip-poor-will; least fly-catcher; giant fly-catcher. + +Direct the observations of the pupils to the following type features: + +Brownish or grayish colours; fringe of long bristles around the mouth +(explain their use); whistling notes, varying with the different members +of the family; habit of jumping from the perch, catching an insect while +on the wing, and returning to the spot from which the flight began; +nests, chiefly of mud built in a protected place, as under a bridge, +ledge of rock, or projecting log. + +WRENS + +The house wren may be studied as a type. Observe its brownish colour, +faintly mottled; its small size and energetic movements, its tail +turned nearly vertically upward. Observe and report on other wrens, +noting any differences. + + +CABBAGE-BUTTERFLY + +Have a plant of wild mustard or a cabbage growing in a pot. In June, +have the pupils, by means of the insect net, catch a number of the white +butterflies, the adults of the cabbage-worm. + +Place the butterflies in jars or bottles and observe them. Make drawings +of them. + +Direct the attention of the pupils to the difference between the wings +of the male and those of the female. The former has only one dark spot +on the front wing, while the female has two spots on this wing. + +Release the males and put the females in a vivarium with the potted +plant. (A pasteboard box, with a large piece cut out and the opening +covered with gauze, makes a good substitute for a vivarium in this +case.) + +Observe the laying of the eggs. How many are placed at one spot? How are +the eggs protected? The eggs may be gathered from the cabbage plants in +the garden. + +Observe and record the hatching of the tiny worm, its feeding, growth, +forming of chrysalis, development into adult. + +Frequently little yellow silken cocoons are found in vivaria where +cabbage-worms are kept; these are cocoons of a parasite (braconid) that +infests the worm. + +Because of the ease with which the cabbage-butterfly may be obtained and +the rapidity of its development in the various stages, it is very +suitable as a type for the study of metamorphosis. + +The sulphur, or puddler (called by the latter name because of its habit +of settling in groups around the edges of the water holes), is also a +suitable type. The larvæ in this case must be fed on clover. + +THE TUSSOCK-MOTH + +Begin the study of this insect in June and July by observing the larvæ +feeding on the foliage of the horse-chestnut and other shade trees, and +direct attention to their destructiveness. + +In observing the larvæ, note the size, movements, legs, colour, coral +red head, tufts of hair on the back, and the three long plumes. + +Watch the birds among the trees to discover whether they eat the larvæ. + +Of what use are the tufts of hair? Do the larvæ feed by biting or by +sucking? Describe the damage done by the larvæ. + +Collect a number of these larvæ and place them in the vivarium with some +twigs of horse-chestnut. Observe the spinning of the cocoon and, about +two weeks later, look for the emergence of the adult moths. + +Observe the two kinds of insects. Describe each. Are there any +differences in the cocoons from which they emerge? + +Which form of insect places the egg mass and is therefore the female? +Note the number and shape of the eggs and how they are protected. + +The female moths have no wings and do not move far from the cocoons from +which they emerge, while the males have the power of flight. + +As outdoor work, look for the egg masses on trees and fences and devise +means of combating the tussock-moth. + +Gathering and destroying the egg masses during the winter is found to be +fairly effective in checking these insects. Since the cocoons +frequently contain parasites that prey upon the larvæ, it is advisable +that only the cocoons that have egg masses attached to them should be +destroyed; the others are harmless and may contain the useful parasites. + +The egg masses may be kept over winter in a box in a cool place, and the +hatching of the tiny larvæ and their subsequent rapid growth observed. + +POTATO BEETLE + +The eggs of this beetle may be found in early summer in clusters on the +under surfaces of the leaves of potato plants. + +EGG.--Observe the size, colour, shape, position, and number in a +cluster; appearance of head from outer end after a week. + +LARVA.--Observe the colour, shape, head, legs, voracious appetite, +movements, rapid growth, destructiveness. + +PUPA.--Observe the larvæ disappear from the plants; a search underground +reveals the resting stage, or pupæ. After ten days, the adult beetles +emerge. + +ADULT.--Observe the colour, the hard shell covering the head; the hard +outer wings and membraneous inner wings; the hard shell on the under +surface of the body; the feelers, and legs. + +Why will spraying with a poison, such as paris-green, kill these +insects? + +REFERENCES + +Dearness: _How to Teach the Nature Study Course Stories in Agriculture, +Bulletin No. 124._ + + +FISH + +The Nature Study lessons must be based upon observations of the living +fish, preferably in May or June, September or October. The best place +for this is on the bank of a clear stream from which it is possible to +observe the fish in their natural environment. Here their life +activities, their struggles, their conquests, and silent tragedies are +enacted before the eyes of the observer. Many observations may be made +in this way which will create a life-long interest in these reticent, +yet active creatures. Since this method of study is practicable in but +few cases, the study of the living fish in the aquarium is the best +available substitute. + +The teacher or the boys of the class can catch a few fish of three or +four inches in length and carry them in a jar of water to the aquarium. +Minnows, chub, perch, catfish, or other common forms will do. + +OBSERVATIONS + +I + +The general shape, and the suitability of the shape for swimming. + +The surface of the body and the protection it affords. Note the scales +and the slime, the latter a protection against the growth of fungi, etc. + +The gills--two openings behind the flaps at the rear of the head. The +colours, and their value in concealing the fish. The dark upper surface +makes it inconspicuous from above; the light under surface blends with +the shadow and dims it. + +The divisions of the body--head, trunk, and tail. + +Movements of the fish and the part that the various fins play in these +movements. + +Note that the broad tail fin is the most useful fin for locomotion, the +others act as balancers or as brakes, or for causing currents of water +near the gills. Observe the movements of the pair of fins nearest the +gills, the movements of the mouth, and the currents of water entering +the mouth and passing through the gill slits. When a fish is kept in a +very small quantity of water, observe the effect produced on the +movements of the mouth and gill flaps. What are the uses of these +movements? The pupils will thus discover the nature of the respiration +of the fish. Why do fish die if many are kept in a jar of water? + +II + +By supplying various foods learn what kinds are preferred. Find in the +actions or habits of the living fish evidences of a sense of smell, of +sight, of hearing, and of taste. + +Nearly all the following points of detailed study can be observed from +the living fish: shape; size; tongue; teeth; gill slits leading from the +mouth to the gills; nostrils, number and position; eyes, absence of +eyelids; fins, size, build; the arrangement of the scales. + +PROBLEMS + +Why does the fish require a large mouth? + +How are the eyes protected? Compare the shape of the eye with the shape +of the eye of a land animal. + +Why are there no openings from the surface directly into the ears? Show +the suitability of the fins as organs of locomotion in water. + +REFERENCES + +Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_ + +Nash: _Fishes of Ontario_ (from Department of Education, free) + +Kellogg: _Elementary Zoology_ + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +FORM IV + +AUTUMN + + +GARDEN WORK + +The regular work of cultivation of garden and experimental plots should +be carefully attended to. Pupils in this Form should be able to do all +kinds of garden work with a good deal of proficiency. The work of +selecting the best flowers for seed production should be continued. +These should be used for planting in the school garden and in home +gardens as well. This part of the work might be left to the girls. The +boys should be encouraged to take up the systematic selection of seed +grain. To get good seed to start with, two methods may be used: + +1. Decide upon the kind of grain to be selected and choose from one of +the best fields a hundred of the best heads--those that are vigorous, +clean, free from rust or smut, and standing up straight. When the heads +are dried a little, shell the grain off them and preserve it in a jar in +a cold, dry place until spring. + +2. Take a quart of oats and pick it carefully, keeping only the largest +and most plump kernels. Keep this for spring planting. At the same time, +a sample of the poorer grains should be kept for comparison. A regular +system of selection should be followed from year to year, taking enough +of the largest, brightest, and most compact heads from the plot each +autumn to sow a plot of equal size the next spring. After the selection +of heads has been made, the remainder of the crop may be harvested, and +the grain from this known as general crop from hand-selected seed of the +first, second, third year, etc. If the value per acre is required, the +plots should be made of a certain size easy to compute, such as one rod +square or one rod by two rods. (10-1/2 ft. by 21 ft. is about 1/200 +acre.) Samples of each crop should be kept in uniform bottles and +labelled; for example--"From selected heads of 1911". The yield per acre +in the plot from which the selected heads came should also be noted. +These will be interesting for purposes of comparison and for testing +duration of vitality later. If the same amount of grain is used in +planting a plot each time, the change in bushels per acre may be +ascertained and also in pounds per bushel. Some of the boys in this Form +may wish to continue this work of improvement by selection and, if so, +they should communicate with the Secretary of the Canadian Seed Growers' +Association, Canadian Building, Ottawa, and receive full instructions to +enable them to carry on their work practically as well as +scientifically. + +HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS FROM SEED + +The teacher should encourage the growing of herbaceous perennials for +the purpose of beautifying the school grounds. Many plants may be +started from seed at the school and given to the pupils for home +planting. These plants require but little attention and provide +excellent bloom in gardens and home grounds from early in spring before +annuals are in bloom, on into the autumn. A list of the best varieties +will be found in Circular 13, on _Elementary Agriculture and +Horticulture_, a copy of which should be in every school. The seed plot +should be fertilized and prepared in the usual way, and the seeds +planted before the first of September. They may be started in June also, +in which case they make more growth before winter. The plot should be +well fertilized with thoroughly rotted manure and, if the soil is very +dry, the plot should be well watered the day before the seeds are +planted. The seeds are usually quite small and should be covered very +lightly. The plot should be protected from the hot sun by means of +cheese-cloth tacked on a frame. The plants should be watered twice a +week in dry weather. In the late autumn, when the ground freezes, the +plot should be covered with leaves or straw and some boards, which +should be removed when the frost comes out in the spring. + + +DECIDUOUS TREES + +Before the pupils of this Form leave school they should be able to +recognize, by name as well as by sight, all of the species of trees +found in their vicinity. To this end the teacher should help them to +prepare an inventory of species of trees, shrubs, and vines of the +vicinity. They should learn to distinguish the different species of +maples, elms, birches, etc. A named collection of leaves helps +materially in doing this. The influence of environment upon the growth +and shape of trees and how trees adapt themselves to the conditions in +which they live is a most interesting and profitable study, demanding +careful observation, reflection, and judgment. + +REFERENCES + +Muldrew: _Sylvan Ontario._ Briggs. + +Keeler: _Our Native Trees._ Scribners' Sons. $2.00. + +TREES IN RELATION TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT + +Consider the influences at work and their effect under the following +heads: + +1. CHARACTER OF THE SOIL AND SUBSOIL.--It may be gravelly, pure sand, +sandy loam, clay or clay loam, muck or humus, shallow or rocky, and the +subsoil may be sand, clay or hard clay with stones (hard-pan). Notice +what species are most common in each kind of soil. + +2. WATER SUPPLY.--What species are found naturally in moist ravines or +along the margins of rivers and lakes, in bogs or swamps, on dry, sandy +plains, or rocky hillsides. Consider also the rainfall. + +3. EXPOSURE TO SUNLIGHT.--Account for the lack of symmetry in the shapes +of trees. Branches grow only where their leaves can get the light. +Account for the pith in many tree stems not being in the geometric +centre. Account for the rapid growth in height made by young trees in +the woods. Their light supply is chiefly from above, and they stretch up +toward it as rapidly as possible. Dim light causes rapid growth at the +expense, however, of strength of tissue, but as these young trees are +protected in the woods from the strain of wind storms, their slimness +and lack of toughness is a benefit rather than a hindrance to them. +Also, the limbs near the ground die off while the trees are still young +and small, giving us the clear timber tree, free from large knots, tall +and straight. Make further application of this principle of light in +relation to the planting of trees for shade and for wood or lumber. +Account for the large size of the leaves of young trees in the dimly +lighted woods as compared with the leaves of older trees. The principle +of rapid growth in dim light is seen here also. It will be noticed that +the large leaves of the young trees are more thin, soft, and flexible. + +4. WIND.--Observe the tops of tall trees that have always been exposed +to a strong prevailing wind as, for instance, those growing on the tops +of hills or the eastern shore of a lake which has a prevailing west +wind. The tops lean in the direction in which the prevailing wind blows. +Does strong wind help or hinder the growth of a tree? Examples of +stunted trees on wind swept hills or shores readily show this. It will +be seen also that the higher branches are poorest on the side most +exposed to the wind. + +5. SUITABILITY OF THE SPECIES TO THE CLIMATE.--Observe that some trees +retain their leaves much later in the autumn than do others. The beech, +hickory, red oak, and chestnut are good examples. These are on the +northern extreme of their territory of growth. The tree best suited to a +rigorous climate is the one that finishes its work early in the autumn +and has all its tissues well matured before cold weather sets in. +Examples: maple, elm, birch, and willow. + + +FRUITS + +EXCURSION TO A WELL-KEPT ORCHARD + +If the teacher can arrange to take the pupils to see a well-kept orchard +about the time of the apple harvest, it will help to arouse interest in +the study of fruits. The trees, as well as the fruit, frequently show +distinguishing marks whereby they may be identified. Have the pupils +notice the following points: general shape of tree, colour of bark, +shape of leaf, method of cultivation, fertilizing, pruning and grafting, +spraying and its need, orchard pests, method of picking and packing +apples in barrels and boxes for market. + +SMALL FRUITS + +Study the method of propagating strawberries and such bush fruits as +currants, gooseberries, raspberries, and blackberries. Reports issued +from the Fruit Division of the Experimental Farm at Ottawa give +information regarding the best varieties suitable for different parts of +Ontario and Quebec. Have the pupils try propagating strawberries by +taking the stolons or runners; currants and gooseberries, by means of +layers or stem cuttings; and raspberries or blackberries, by root +cuttings or the detaching of root shoots or suckers. Stem and root +cuttings, when taken in the autumn, may be planted at once or may be +stored in damp moss or sand in a cold cellar over winter. Stem cuttings +should be about the size and length of a lead-pencil and root cuttings +about half that size. + + +AUTUMN WILD FLOWERS + +Observations made with garden flowers should be supplemented by +observation lessons on a few selected wild flowers of the woods, fields, +and roadsides. Although the spring months afford a much greater variety +of wild flowers than do the autumn months, they do not afford quite as +good an opportunity for finding and studying them. The woods and fields +are drier and more easily reached in the autumn and the fall flowers +last much longer. Some of the species seen blooming in spring and early +summer are now in fruit and scattering their seed, so that the pupils +have a chance to follow out the whole life history of a few chosen +species. The pupils in this Form might select for special study the +milkweed, worm-seed mustard, wild aster, and goldenrod. These should be +observed out-of-doors, preferably, but suitable class-room lessons may +be taught by using similar matter. + +MILKWEED + +Taking the milkweed as a type, the following points are to be +considered: + +The kind of soil, where found, and whether in sun or shade. + +Try to pull up a small-sized plant. Dig one up and notice the +underground part. + +Note the size of the largest plant seen, also the size of the leaves, +and how they are arranged to prevent overshadowing. + +Break off a leaf and note the white sticky juice, whence the name +"milkweed". Discuss this milk as a protection to the plant. + +Note time of first and last flowering of the plant and the colour and +odour of the flowers. Watch insects gathering honey on a bright day. +Note the little sacks of pollen that cling to their feet. They sometimes +get their feet caught in little slits in the flower and perish. + +After the flowers disappear, note the forming of the little boat-shaped +pods in pairs. Select one that is ripe and notice that it bursts along +one side which is most protected. Open a pod carefully and notice how +beautifully the flat, brown seeds are arranged in overlapping rows and +how each seed has a large tuft of silky down that serves to carry it far +away in the wind. This silk-like down is sometimes used to stuff +cushions, and because of it the plant is sometimes called silk weed. + +One species of butterfly in particular feeds upon this plant--the +monarch, or milkweed, butterfly. This is one of the few butterflies that +birds do not eat. It is protected by a distasteful fluid. Look on the +under side of the leaves of several plants until you find a pretty, pale +green cocoon with golden dots, hanging by a thread-like attachment. +Early in the season the larvæ may be found feeding on the leaves. + +This plant is troublesome in some fields and gardens and so is classed +as a weed. When the stems come up in the spring, they are soft and +tender and are sometimes used as pot herbs. + +CORRELATIONS + +Draw a leaf, a flower, a pair of pods, and a seed with its tuft. + +Write an account of a visit to the woods to study wild flowers. + + +TREES + +A study of the pines of the locality may be commenced in November, after +the deciduous trees have lost their leaves and have entered their +quiescent winter period. This is the time when the evergreens stand out +prominently on the landscape, in sharp contrast with the other trees +that have been stripped of their broad leaves and now look bare and +lifeless. If no pines are to be found in the vicinity, cedar or hemlock +may be substituted. The lessons should, as far as possible, be +observational. The pupils should be encouraged to make observations for +themselves out of school. At least one lesson should be conducted +out-of-doors, a suitable pine tree having been selected beforehand for +the purpose. The following method will serve as a guide in the outdoor +study of any species of tree: + +THE WHITE PINE + +Have the pupils observe the shape and height of the tree from a distance +and trace the outline with the finger. Compare the shape of this tree +with others near by of the same species and then with members of other +species. Have the pupils describe in what particulars the shapes differ +in different trees. They will come to realize that the difference in +shape results from differences in length, direction, and arrangement of +branches. They may notice that other evergreens resemble the pine in +that the stems are all straight and extend as a gradually tapering shaft +from the bottom to the top, that all have a more or less conical shape, +and that the branches grow straight out from the main stem and not +slanting off as in the case of the maples and elms. + +Coming close to the tree, the pupils may first examine the trunk. By +using a string or tape-line, they may find out how big it is around and +the length of the diameter. Tell them how big some evergreens are (the +giant trees of the Pacific Coast are sometimes over forty feet around). +Have them notice where the trunk is largest, and let them find out why a +tree needs to be so strong at the ground. Heavy wind puts a great strain +on it just at this point. Illustrate by driving a long slat or lath into +the ground firmly: then catching it by the top, push it over, and it +will break off just at the ground. If a little pine tree could be taken +up, the pupils would be interested in seeing what long, strong, fibrous +roots the pine has. + +Let them examine the bark of the trunk and describe its colour and +roughness. The fissures in the bark, which are caused by the enlarging +of the tree through the formation of new wood under the bark, are deeper +at the bottom of the tree than at the top--the tree being younger and +the bark thinner, the nearer to the top we go. How old is the very top, +down to the first whorl of branches? How old is the stem between the +first and second whorls? Between the third and fourth? Let the pupils +find out in this way the age of a little pine that is regular and +unbroken. The whorls of branches near the ground are usually small and +dead in young trees and in old trees have completely disappeared. Relate +the size of the trunk to its age, and also relate the size and length of +the branches to their age. Where are the youngest branches and how old +are they? What branches are oldest? Notice how the branch is noticeably +larger just where it joins the trunk, as this is the point of greatest +strain. Are the branches the same length on all sides of the trunk? If +not, find one where branches are shorter on one side than on the other +and try to discover the cause. Usually, if other trees are near enough +to shade a certain tree, the branches are shorter and smaller on the +shaded side. + +Let the pupils look up into the tree from beneath and then go a little +distance away and look at it. They will notice how bare the branches are +on the inside, and the teacher will probably have to explain why this is +so. They will discover that the leaves are nearly all out toward the +ends of the branches. The leaves get light there while the centre of the +tree top is shaded, and the great question that every tree must try to +solve is how to get most light for its leaves. The pupils will now see +an additional reason why the lower limbs should be longer than the upper +ones. The greater length of the lower limbs brings the leaves out into +the sunlight. + +Why this tree is called an evergreen may now be considered. Why it +retains its leaves all winter is a problem for more advanced classes, +but if the question is asked, the teacher may get over the difficulty by +explaining to the class that the leaves are so small and yet so hardy +that wind and frost and snow do not injure them. + +The pupils may each bring a small branch of twig back to the +school-room, if the white pine is growing commonly about, otherwise the +teacher may provide himself with a branch upon which to base another +observation lesson in the class-room. + +If the tree has cones on it, an effort should be made to get a few, as +they will also be considered in a subsequent class-room lesson. If the +cones have not yet opened when they are picked, so much the better, as +they will soon open in a warm room, and the pupils will be able to +examine the seeds and notice how they whirl through the air in falling. +If possible, let the pupils have an opportunity of seeing pine trees +growing in the woods as well as in the open. + +OUTLINE OF A CLASS-ROOM LESSON ON THE WHITE PINE + +~Inferences.~--If possible, each pupil is supplied with a small branch of +the white pine and the teacher with a larger branch which can easily be +seen by all the pupils. Before proceeding to examine the specimens, give +the pupils a chance to tell what they now know about the white pine, and +thus review the lesson taken out-of-doors. Then ask a few questions +bearing upon their own observations, such as: What was the soil like +where you found the pine tree growing? (They are found most commonly on +light, sandy soil.) Did you notice any difference between the shapes of +the pines in the deep woods and the pines in the open fields? Did you +notice any dead limbs on those in the woods? Why did they die? The +pupils may conclude that branches whose leaves cannot get the sunlight +must die. Show that this causes knots in the lumber and exhibit samples. +This explains also why the trees of the forest have such tall stems +without branches for a long distance up from the ground. They get the +light only from above and seem to strive with the surrounding trees to +reach it. If we want trees to grow tall, how should we plant them? +(Close together) What would such trees be good for? (Making timber or +lumber) If we want trees to grow low and have thick and bushy tops, how +should we plant them? (Far apart) What would such trees be good for? +(Their shade and their beauty) Good shade trees should be thirty to +forty feet apart. + +Ask the pupils if they have ever been near a pine tree when a gentle +breeze was blowing, and have them tell the cause of the sound that they +heard. They may decide that the shape and size of the leaves caused the +sound when the wind was blowing through the tree top. Have them examine +the branches in order to discover the following points: + +LEAVES.--These are in bunches of five, two to three inches long, +three-cornered, and with little teeth pointing toward the tip, light +green near the tip of the bough (young leaves) and darker further down +(older leaves); age of a leaf the same as the age of the wood it grows +on, therefore some leaves are one year, some two, and a few three years +old. No leaves on four-year-old wood, therefore the leaves fall off the +white pine the third year. Ask pupils to try to find out by observation +when the leaves fall off the pines. Note the fragrance of the leaves, +and that they are sometimes put into "pine" cushions, also, how slippery +they are to walk on. + +BUDS.--These are found at the tips of the branches, one large one in the +centre and several smaller ones grouped around it. Note their +reddish-brown colour and that they are made up of scales overlapping and +covered with gum which keeps out the rain, thus protecting the little +growing tip inside. When buds grow, they become little twigs with leaves +on. Find where the buds were a year ago. Notice the light colour of the +twigs that grow during the present season and the darker colour of the +twigs of the previous year. Where were the buds two years ago? What did +the centre bud become? (A continuation of the stem) What did the other +buds, called lateral buds, become? (New branches) Compare the growth +made in different years. + +Notice also how white the wood of the twigs is--the probable reason for +calling it "white pine". + +CONES.--Note the length and shape of the cones and how the seeds are +placed in them inside the large scales. Get some of the seeds and note +the wing-like attachment. Take the wing off a seed and drop it from a +height at the same instant with one that has its wing attached. Note the +whirling motion and infer what purpose the wing serves in scattering +seed. Taste the kernel of a pine seed and discover why squirrels are +fond of them. Burn a pine cone. + +Find out what birds like to live in this tree. What has been noticed +about them and their nests? + +Have the pupils keep the seeds until the following spring by putting +them in a box of dry sand and setting them in a cold place. They should +then plant them in a corner where they can be partly shaded when the sun +is bright. Plant them about half an inch deep and keep them watered if +the weather is dry during the first summer. + +NOTE.--The cones drop their seeds from high up in the tree so that the +wind can carry the seeds long distances. The cones usually stay on the +trees for a couple of years after they lose their seeds. + +CORRELATIONS + +Draw a pine tree, a bunch of pine needles, a pine cone, and a pine +seed. + +Write a description of a pine tree seen in the woods; also of one found +in the open. + +Write a list of things for which the white pine is useful. + +_To the teacher._--The winter months, besides affording an opportunity +for seeing trees and plants in their dormant or quiescent condition, +also afford an opportunity for reading and reflection, for recalling +observations and experiences of the past season, and for making plans +for work and study in the school garden, woods, and fields when spring +returns. The knowledge gained by the pupils through first-hand +observation of trees, flowers, and gardens can be greatly extended by +pictures and stories descriptive of these, which the teacher may from +time to time bring to the school-room. Their personal experiences will +be the basis for interpretation of many new things which will come up in +the reading lessons, in selections which the teacher reads from week to +week, and in books and papers which they themselves read in their homes. +Thus the interest that is aroused by the first-hand studies of plants in +garden, orchard, or woodland will be carried over from autumn to spring, +and the pupils, with the awakening of spring, will take up anew the +study of plant life with a keener interest because of the time given to +reading and reflection during the winter. Illustrated magazines dealing +with gardening and with the study of trees and plants, and such +magazines as have a children's department, will prove of great +assistance to the teacher who makes any serious attempt to interest +pupils in plant studies. Stories of life in the woods and of plant +studies suitable to young pupils should be used. + +REFERENCES + +Margaret Morley: _Flowers and their Friends._ Ginn & Co. 50 cents. + +Margaret Morley: _Seed Babies._ Ginn & Co. 25 cents. + +Margaret Morley: _Little Wanderers._ Ginn & Co. 30 cents. + +Alice Lounsberry: _The Garden Book for Young People._ Stokes. $1.50. + +Gertrude Stone: _Trees in Prose and Poetry._ Ginn & Co. 45 cents. + + +COMPARATIVE LESSON ON VARIETIES OF WINTER APPLES + +KING, BALDWIN, NORTHERN SPY + +Discuss the names, keeping and cooking qualities of the apples, and +bearing qualities of the trees. + +Provide each member of the class with a typical representative of each +of the above varieties of apples. + +Compare the three apples as to size, form, colour--including marks; +hardness, length, and thickness of stem; depth of cavity at the stem +end; depth and shape of the cavity at the calyx end. + +Split each apple from stem to calyx and compare as to the thickness and +toughness of the skin, the colour of the flesh, the size of the core, +taste and juiciness of the flesh. + +_To the teacher._--All three are apples of fair size, the Baldwin being +on the average the smallest of the three. All three are roundish, but +the King is somewhat oval-round, and the Spy, conical-round. The Baldwin +has a yellowish skin with crimson and red splashes dotted with russet +spots. The King is reddish, shading to dark crimson. The Spy has a +yellowish-green skin sprinkled with pink and striped with red. + +The beautiful colours make all these apples very popular in the markets +of American cities and in those of the British Isles; but the soft and +easily damaged skin of the Spy makes it the least desirable as an apple +for export. + +All keep well and in cool cellars remain in good condition until April. +They may be kept much longer in cold storage chambers, where the +temperature is uniformly near the freezing point of the apple. + +The Baldwin apple tree is reasonably hardy within the ordinary range for +apple trees, and its yield is a satisfactory average. The King apple +tree is not a hardy tree, nor is it a satisfactory bearer except in the +best apple districts. The Spy is a fairly hardy tree and thrives and +yields well throughout a wide range; but it does not begin to bear until +it is about fifteen years old. + +A comparative lesson may also be based on selected varieties of autumn +apples, such as Fameuse, McIntosh Red, Wealthy, Gravenstein, and St. +Lawrence. + +CODLING MOTH + +Begin the study of the codling moth in August by examining wormy apples. +Find out, by asking the pupils, which orchards of the locality had been +sprayed in the spring. + +Ask the pupils to count out at random one hundred apples and to select +from these the number that are wormy. What percentage of the apples are +wormy? Compare the percentage of wormy apples in unsprayed, with that in +sprayed, orchards. The results will afford evidence of the benefit of +spraying. + +Find out, if possible, the dates on which, and the conditions under +which, the spraying of the orchards with the least number of wormy +apples was done. + +Ask the pupils to bring to the school-room a number of wormy apples. +Have the pupils cut these open and note the nature and position of the +hole, or burrow, and the amount of damage done to the apples. + +Have the pupils observe the larva and note the size, colour, shape, and +number of legs. + +_To the teacher._--The apple maggot is a less common insect larva and +may be distinguished from the larva of the codling moth by the fact that +the former has no legs and has the habit of burrowing in all directions +through the pulp of the apple, while the larva of the codling moth works +almost entirely in the core. + +The cocoon and pupa phase of this insect may be obtained by keeping the +wormy apples in a box containing loose paper on which the cocoons will +be placed, or by searching under the bark scales of apple trees in +October. + +Describe the cocoons. Open some of them and describe the contents. Keep +the remaining cocoons in a box or vivarium in a cool place during the +winter. + +What birds are seen tapping at the bark scales of the apple trees during +winter? Examine the bark scales when a downy woodpecker has been at work +and note that the cocoons have been destroyed. + +Should we encourage the visits of woodpeckers to the orchards? + +By hanging up a beef bone in the orchard, various birds, including +woodpeckers, will be induced to visit and perhaps to make their homes in +the orchard. + +REFERENCES + +_Common Insects Affecting Fruit Trees, Bulletin No. 158_, Department of +Agriculture, Parliament Buildings, Toronto. + +_Bulletins Nos. 158 and 171_, Ontario Department of Agriculture, deal +with many insect pests and their remedies. + +In May look for the adult moths as they emerge from the cocoons. Observe +the colour, size, shape, and the bright copper-coloured horse-shoe on +the front wing--the "brand" of the codling moth. + +Examine the little apples when the blossoms are falling. Note the tiny, +flat, oval-shaped egg at various places on the surfaces of the apples +and a few days later the tiny worm which emerges from the egg. This soon +eats its way into the apple, entering usually at the calyx end. If +spraying is done after the petals have fallen and just before the calyx +end closes up, a drop of poison is inclosed, and when the larva enters +it and begins eating its way into the apple, it gets the poison. + + +SOME COMMON ANIMAL FORMS + +Brief lessons should be given on some of the lower members of the animal +kingdom, for the purpose of broadening the interests of the pupils. The +following are suggested as types: snail, spider, freshwater mussel +(clam), crayfish (crab), centiped, milliped, salamander, and wood-louse. + +These are common animal forms, most of which are frequently seen by the +pupils, but seldom are their interesting life habits or their places in +the animal kingdom recognized. The salamander is to many pupils a lizard +of the most poisonous kind; centipeds and millipeds are worms, and they +do not recognize that the clam is an animal with sensibilities and +instincts. + +REFERENCES + +Kellogg: _Elementary Zoology_ + +Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_ + +CENTIPEDS AND MILLIPEDS + +Under stones and sticks in moist soil are to be found two worm-like +forms, both having many legs. + +One of these animals is flat, about an inch long, brown in colour, and +provided with a pair of long feelers. On each division of the body is a +single pair of legs. This is the _centiped_. The other animal is more +cylindrical in shape and has two pairs of legs on each division of the +body. Its colour is a darker brown than that of the centiped, and it has +a habit of coiling into a spiral shape, when disturbed, so that the soft +under surface is concealed. This is the _milliped_. Both of these +animals are quite harmless and feed on decaying vegetable matter. They +stand midway between worms and insects in forms and habits. + +A brief observation lesson on each animal, involving their movements and +the structural features named above, will enable the pupils to identify +them and to appreciate their position in the animal kingdom. + +SALAMANDERS, OR NEWTS + +Some forms of these are found in water, as in streams, ponds, and +ditches, while other forms are found on land, where they hide under +stones and sticks. They are commonly mistaken for lizards, which they +closely resemble in shape; but the two animals may be distinguished by +the fact that the surface of the body of a salamander is smooth, while +that of a lizard is covered with scales. + +The small red or copper-coloured newts are the most common in Ontario +and are frequently found on roads after heavy rains. The tiger +salamanders are larger than the red newts and are marked with orange and +black spots, hence the name "tiger". Many people believe this species +to be especially venomous, while in reality it is quite harmless and, +like the other salamanders, is useful for destroying insects and small +snails, which form the greater part of its food. + +_To the teacher._--The superstition of the salamander's power to +extinguish a fire into which it is thrown still exists. The early life +of the salamander is spent in water, the young form being very much like +a tadpole. The salamanders are close relatives of the frogs and toads +and may be kept in a jar or vivarium in wet moss or grass. The pupils +should learn to recognize the animals and should be instructed as to +their habits. + +SPIDERS + +~Problems in observation.~--In how many places can you find spiders' webs? +How many forms of spiders' webs can you find? Are the many webs that are +found on the meadow grass in the dewy mornings the homes of spiders? If +so, describe where the spiders live. (At the bottom of tunnels that run +into the ground.) + +What uses do spiders make of their webs? (Trapping prey, supporting egg +cases, protection, and means of moving, as in the case of cobweb +spiders.) + +Drop a fly upon a spider's web and observe the action of the spider. +Search under the webs of spiders in attics and sheds and learn, from the +skeletons found there, what the spider feeds upon. It will be found that +flies, beetles, and other spiders are killed by this monster. + +Watch a spider spinning its web and find out what parts of the body are +used in this work. It will be seen that the threads are produced from +little tubes at the rear end of the animal and are placed and fastened +by means of the feet. + +Examine, by the aid of a hand lens, the feet and head of the spider. +Note the "brushes and combs" on the former. Note, on the latter, the +four, six, or eight eyes (the number and arrangement vary), and the +short poison claws at the front of the head. How are the poison claws +adapted for seizing and piercing? Note the sharp hooks at the lower +ends. + + +BIRD STUDIES + +Continue the lessons in bird identification and in bird types, using the +methods outlined for these studies in Form III. (See pp. 217-24.) + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +FORM IV + +WINTER + + +FOREST TREES + +EVERGREENS + +Several species of evergreens have already been studied. These should be +reviewed, and representatives of other species examined. Mid-winter is +most suitable for the study of evergreens. The following points should +be considered: + +1. Description leading to identification + +2. Nature of soil and water conditions + +3. Common uses of each species of evergreen + +4. Collection of wood specimens and cones. + +WOOD SPECIMENS + +Specimens should be uniform in size and should show bark on one side and +heart wood as well as the outside, or sap wood. They should be about six +inches long, two inches wide on the side having the bark, and should +gradually come to an edge toward the pith, or centre. When seasoned, one +side and one edge should be polished and then oiled or varnished. +Specimens of the wood of the deciduous trees may also be prepared during +the winter. + + +FRUITS + +During the winter months, some time should be devoted to reading and +discussing articles on general farming and fruit growing. Such articles +may be taken from books, magazines, or newspapers, and may be supplied +partly by the teacher and partly by the pupils. These articles will be +appreciated by the pupils all the more because of their studies of fruit +trees during the season. Such topics as the following may be discussed: + +1. Best kind of apples, plums, bush fruits, and strawberries. Reports +from the Dominion and Provincial Departments of Agriculture. + +2. Method of raising fruit trees--from seed, grafting, and budding. + +3. Demonstrations in pruning. This may be done in early spring by taking +a class to a neighbouring orchard. + +4. Methods of planting and cultivation. + +5. Packing and storing. + +6. Spraying. Much information is to be found in Horticultural Journals +and papers, and in Bulletins to be obtained from the Secretary of +Agriculture for Ontario. + +Illustrated articles on gardening and fruit growing should be collected +for school use. Views of fine gardens, parks, and home grounds will be +of interest to the pupils. Simple artistic methods of ornamental +planting with trees, shrubs, vines, and herbaceous perennials can now be +introduced, and some scheme for improving the school grounds outlined. + +Catalogues should be obtained soon after New Year's and, after examining +their merits, the best varieties of seed and fruit for the district +should be selected. Horticultural societies, as well as Dominion and +Provincial Departments of Agriculture, commonly give selected lists with +descriptions of the different varieties. + + +WEEDS AND WEED SEEDS + +The training in the observation and identification of weeds and weed +seeds, which was begun in Form III, should be continued in Form IV. For +method see Form III. + + +PHYSICAL SCIENCE PHASE OF NATURE STUDY + +WATER PRESSURE + +1. Grasp an empty tin can by the top and push it down into a pail of +water. Note the tendency of the can to rise. The water presses upward. +Its downward pressure is evident. + +2. Tie a large stone to a string, hold it at arm's length, shut the +eyes, and lower the stone into water. _Note_ the decrease in weight. +This is also due to upward pressure, which we call buoyancy. The actual +decrease may be found by means of a spring balance. + +3. Try Experiment 2, using a piece of iron the same weight as the stone. +Is the decrease in weight as evident? Ships made wholly of iron will +sink. Explain. + +4. Put an egg into water; it slowly sinks. Add salt to the water; the +egg floats. + +EXERCISES + +1. Will the human body sink in water? In which is there less danger of +drowning, lake or sea water? + +2. When in bathing, immerse nearly the whole body, then take a full +inspiration. Note the rise of the body. + +3. Why does ice float? (See expansion of water by freezing.) + +4. Balloons are bags filled with some light gas, generally hydrogen or +hot air. They are pushed up by the buoyancy of the air. The rise of +heated air or water (see Convection) is really due to the same force. +Clouds, feathers, and thistledown are kept in the air more by the action +of winds and small air currents than by buoyancy. + +STUDY OF AIR + + (Consult _Science of Common Life_, Chaps. VIII, IX, X.) + +1. Air takes up space. Put a cork with one hole into the neck of a flask +or bottle. Insert the stem of a funnel and try to pour in water. Try +with two holes in the cork. When we call a bottle "empty" what is in it? + +2. Air is all around us. Feel it; wave the hands through it; run through +it; note that the wind is air; inhale the air and watch the chest. + +3. Air has weight. This is not easy to demonstrate without an air-pump +and a fairly delicate balance. + +Fit a large glass flask with a tightly fitting rubber stopper having a +short glass tube passing through it. To the glass tube attach a short +rubber one and on this put a clamp. Open the clamp and suck out all the +air possible. Close the clamp and weigh the flask. When perfectly +balanced, open the clamp and let the air enter again. Note the increase +in weight. + +If an air-pump is available, procure a glass globe provided with a +stop-cock (see Apparatus). Pump some of the air from the globe, then +weigh and, while it is on the balance, admit the air again and note +increase in weight. + +Tie a piece of thin sheet rubber over the large end of a thistle tube; +suck the air out of the tube and note how the rubber is pushed in. This +is due to the weight or pressure of the air. Turn the tube in various +positions to show that the pressure comes from all directions. To show +that "suction" is not a force, let a pupil try to suck water out of a +flask when there is only one opening through the stopper. If two holes +are made, the water may be sucked up, that is, _pushed_ up by the weight +of the air. + +Fill a pickle jar with water. Place a piece of writing paper on the top +and then, holding the paper with the palm of the hand, invert the jar. +The pressure of the air keeps the water in. + +A cubic foot of air weighs nearly 1-1/4 oz. Find the weight of the air +in your school-room. + +The atmosphere exerts about fifteen pounds pressure on every square inch +of the surface it rests against. Find the weight supported by the top of +a desk 18 inches by 24 inches. If the surface of the body is eight +square feet, what weight does it have to sustain? Why does this weight +not crush us? + +THE BAROMETER + +The experiments immediately preceding will have paved the way for a +study of the barometer. + +1. Fill a jar with water and invert it, keeping its mouth below the +surface of the water in another vessel. If the pupils can be led to see +that the water is sustained in the jar by the air pressing on the water +in the vessel, they can understand the barometer. + +2. Fill a tube about 30 inches long, and 1/4 inch inside diameter with +water, and invert it over water, as with the jar in the previous +experiment. + +3. Use the same tube or one similar to that in 2 above, but fill with +mercury and allow the pupils to notice the great weight of the mercury. +Holding the mercury in with your finger, invert the tube over mercury. +This time the fluid falls some distance in the tube as soon as the +finger is removed. A tube of this size requires 1 lb. of mercury. + +Lead the pupils to see that the mercury remaining in the tube is +sustained by the air pressure, and that any increase or decrease of the +atmospheric pressure will result in the rise or fall of the mercury +column. Leave the barometer (made as in 3 above) in the room for a few +days and note whether its weight changes. The use of the instrument in +predicting weather changes should be emphasized. Compare your barometer +with the records in the daily papers. + +The average height of the barometric column is 30 inches at sea-level. +Explain how you could estimate heights of mountains and balloons with a +barometer. + +THE COMMON PUMP + +This is a valuable application of air pressure. A glass model will prove +useful, but a model made by pupils will be much more so. (See +_Laboratory Exercises in Physics_ by Newman.) + +The water rises in the pump because the sucker lifts the air from the +water inside, allowing the air outside to push the water up. A common +pump will not lift water more than about 30 feet. Why is this? Compare +the pump to a barometer. (See _The Ontario High School Physics_.) + +EXPANSIVE FORCE OF AIR + +Air and all other gases manifest a pressure in all directions not due to +their weight. The power of air to keep tires and footballs inflated and +that of steam in driving an engine are examples. It is this force that +prevents the pressure of air from crushing in, since there are many air +spaces distributed throughout the body. + +COMPOSITION OF AIR + +This subject and the three immediately following it have a special +bearing on hygiene. + +1. Invert a sealing-jar over a lighted candle. Has the candle used up +_all_ the air when it goes out? + +2. Place a very short candle on a thin piece of cork afloat on water in +a plate; light the candle, and again invert the jar over it. Note that +the candle goes out and the water rises only a short distance in the +jar; therefore _all_ the air has not been used up. + +3. Slip the glass top of the jar under the open end and set the jar +mouth upward on the table without allowing any water to escape. Now +plunge a lighted splinter into the jar. The flame is extinguished. + +Air, therefore, contains an active part that helps the candle to burn +and an inactive part that extinguishes flame. The names _oxygen_ and +_nitrogen_ may be given. These gases occur in air in the proportion of +about 1:4. (This method is not above criticism. Its advantage for young +pupils lies in its simplicity.) + +OXYGEN + +Make two or three jars of oxygen, using potassium chlorate and manganese +dioxide. (See any Chemistry text-book.) Let the pupils examine the +chemicals, learn their names, and know where to obtain them. Perform the +following experiments: + +1. A glowing splinter relights and burns very brightly if plunged into +oxygen. + +2. A piece of picture wire tipped with sulphur burns with great +brightness. + +3. Burn phosphorus or match heads in a spoon. A spoon may be made by +attaching to a wire a bit of crayon having a hollow scooped on its upper +surface. A clay pipe bowl attached to a wire will answer. + +From these experiments pupils will learn the value of nitrogen as a +diluent of the oxygen. Pure oxygen entering the lungs would be just as +destructive as it would be entering the furnace. + +CARBON DIOXIDE + +1. Make a jar of this gas. Washing soda and vinegar will answer if +hydrochloric acid and marble are not obtainable. (Consult the _Science +of Common Life_, Chap. XIII, and any Chemistry text-book.) + +2. Lower a lighted candle first into a jar of air then into the jar of +carbon dioxide. + +3. Make some lime-water by stirring slaked lime with water and allowing +the mixture to settle. Shake up some clear lime-water with a jar of the +gas. Pupils will be made to understand that the milky colour will in +future be considered the test for carbon dioxide. + +4. Have one of the pupils cause his breath to bubble through some clear +lime-water for a minute. Using a bicycle pump, cause some fresh air to +bubble through lime-water. + +5. Hold a clear jar inverted over the candle flame for a few seconds, +then test with lime-water. + +6. Invert a large jar over a leafy plant for a day. Keep in the dark and +test the jar with lime-water. + +Is this gas likely to be in the air? Set a plate of lime-water in the +school-room for a day or two, and then examine it. Try to pour the gas +from jar to jar and use a candle as a test. Is the gas heavier than air? + +On account of its weight, the gas often collects in the bottoms of old +wells, mines, and tunnels. It is dangerous there since it will not +support life. + +USES: + +1. Add a little water to some baking powder and cause the gas that forms +to pass through lime-water. What causes the biscuits to "rise"? + +2. Mix flour and water in a jar, add a bit of yeast cake and a little +sugar, and let stand in a warm place. Test the gas that forms, for +carbon dioxide. What causes bread to rise? + +3. Uncork a bottle of ginger ale, shake the bottle, and lead the gas +that comes off through lime-water. + +4. Most portable fire extinguishers depend on the generation of carbon +dioxide. + +Show the similarity between our bodies and the candle. The candle needs +oxygen; it produces heat, and yields water and carbon dioxide. Much of +our food is somewhat similar in composition to the wax of a candle; we +breathe oxygen, our bodies are warmed by a real burning within, and we +exhale water and carbon dioxide. + +After exercise why do we feel more hungry? Why do we breathe faster? Why +do we feel warmer? Why does the fire burn better when the damper is +opened? + +IMPURITIES OF AIR + +All air contains carbon dioxide. If the amount exceeds 6 parts in +10,000, it becomes an impurity, not so much on its own account as +because it indicates a poisoned state of the air in a room, since +organic poisons always accompany it when it is emitted from the lungs. + +Other impurities of the air, dependent on the locality and the season, +are smoke, dust, disease germs, sewer gas, coal-gas, pollen dust. + +SOLUTIONS OF SOLIDS + + (Consult the _Science of Common Life_, Chap. VII.) + +Have the pupils weigh out equal quantities of sugar, salt, soda, alum, +blue-vitriol. Shake up with equal quantities of water to compare +solubilities. Repeat, using hot water. Is it possible to recover the +substance dissolved? Set out solutions on the table to evaporate, or +evaporate them rapidly over a stove or spirit-lamp. Try to dissolve +sand, sulphur, charcoal, in water. Obtain crystals of iodine and show +how much better, in some cases, alcohol is as a solvent than is water. + +APPLICATIONS: + +1. Most of our "essences", "tinctures", and "spirits" are alcoholic +solutions. + +2. Digestion is the effort of the body to dissolve food. + +3. The food in the soil enters the plant only after solution. + +4. The solvent power of water makes it so valuable for washing. + +5. Maple sap is water containing sugar in solution. + +6. In the salt region along Lake Huron, holes are drilled to the salt +beds, water is poured in, then pumped out and evaporated. Explain. + +7. Meat broth is a solution of certain materials in the meat. + +8. How could you manufacture salt from sea water? + +SOLUTION OF LIQUIDS + +Try to mix oil and water, benzine and water, oil and benzine. Only in +the third case do we find a permanent mixture, or solution. Try to +dissolve vinegar, glycerine, alcohol, mercury, with water. + +APPLICATIONS: + +1. Paint is mixed with oil so that the rain will not wash it off so +easily. + +2. Water will not wash grease stains. Benzine is necessary. + +3. Why is it necessary to "shake" the bottle before taking medicine? + +SOLUTION OF GASES + +Study air dissolved in water, by gently heating water in a test-tube and +observing the bubbles of air that gather on the inner surface of the +test-tube. Aquatic animals, such as fish, clams, crayfish, crabs, +subsist on this dissolved air. + +LIMESTONE + +Pieces of this rock may be found in all localities. Teach pupils to +recognize it by its gray colour, its effervescence with acid, and the +fossils and strata that show in most cases. If exposed limestone rocks +are near, visit them with the pupils and note the layers, fossils, and +evidences of sea action. Compare lime with limestone as to touch, +colour, and action on water and litmus. Try to make lime by putting a +lump of limestone in the coals for some time; add water to this. Other +forms of limestone are marble, chalk, egg-shells, clam-shells, scales in +tea-kettles. + +Geographically, the study of limestone is of great importance. Grind +some limestone very fine, add a very little of this to water, and +bubble carbon dioxide through for some time; note the disappearance of +the limestone. This explains how limestone rocks are being slowly worn +away and why the water of rivers, springs, and wells is so often "hard". + +Catch some rain-water in the open and test it for hardness. It will be +found "soft". Place a few limestone pebbles in a tumbler with this soft +water and after a day or two test again. The water will be "hard". + +Compare, as to hardness, the water from a concrete cistern with that +from a wooden one. + +CARBON + +Procure specimens of hard and soft coal, coke, charcoal, graphite, peat, +and petroleum. Note the distinctive characteristics of each. Discuss the +uses. Try to set each on fire. Note which burns with a flame when laid +on the coals or placed over the spirit-lamp. Put a bit of soft coal into +a small test-tube; heat and light the gas that is produced. This gas, +when purified, is one kind of illuminating gas. Note the _coke_ left in +the test-tube. + +Fill the bowl of a clay pipe with soft coal and seal it up with plaster +of paris. After this has hardened, place the bowl in hot coals or in the +flame of a spirit-lamp and light the coal-gas at the end of the stem. +After all the gas has been driven off, look for the coke inside. + +Heat a bit of wood in a small test-tube and light the gas that is +evolved. Note the charcoal left. + +Cover a piece of wood with sand or earth; heat, and note that charcoal +is formed. This illustrates the old method of charcoal-burning. This +subject is closely related to industrial geography. + +HYDROGEN + +A convenient way to prepare hydrogen is to use zinc and hydrochloric +acid with a test-tube for a generator. (Consult any Chemistry +text-book.) Make the gas and burn it at the end of a tube, holding a +dry, cold tumbler inverted over the flame. Note that water is formed. +Conclude what water consists of, namely, oxygen and hydrogen. Water may +be decomposed into oxygen and hydrogen, hence a use of hydrogen may be +shown by attaching a clay pipe to the generator and filling soap bubbles +with the gas. When freed these rise quickly. + +MAGNETS + +If bar magnets cannot be obtained, use a child's horse-shoe magnet. + +Procure small pieces of cork, wood, iron, brass, glass, lead, etc., and +let pupils discover which the magnet attracts. + +Have pupils interpose paper, wood, slate, glass, iron, lead, etc., in +sheets between the magnet and the iron and note the effect on the force +exerted. + +Note that when one end of a magnet touches or comes near the end of a +nail, the nail becomes a magnet, but not a permanent one. + +Magnetize a needle by drawing one of the poles of the magnet from end to +end of the needle, always in the same direction, about twenty times. +Suspend the needle horizontally with a piece of silk thread and note its +position when at rest. + +Get a small compass and show how it is related to the foregoing +experiments. Emphasize its use to mariners. If possible, get a piece of +lodestone and show its magnetic properties. + +ELECTRICITY + +Half fill a tumbler with water and add about a teaspoonful of sulphuric +acid. Set in this a piece of copper and a piece of zinc, but do not let +them touch. Make a coil by winding insulated wire around a block of wood +about ten times. Remove the wood and place a compass in the centre of +the coil. Join the ends of the wire to the two metals in the tumbler. +The sudden movement of the needle will be taken as the indication of a +current. + +Let pupils try experiments with many pairs of solids, such as lead and +silver, carbon and glass, wood and iron, tin and zinc, and liquids such +as vinegar and brine. + +Show pupils how to make a simple battery. See home-made apparatus, page +50, and consult _Laboratory Exercises_ by Newman. Two or three dry cells +will be found sufficient for any experiments, but the home-made battery +is to be preferred. + +Show pupils how to make a magnet by winding a piece of insulated wire +around a nail and joining the ends of the wire to the battery. Make a +horse-shoe magnet by bending the nail and winding the wire about both +ends in opposite directions. + +As an application of the electro-magnet, show pupils how to make a +telegraph sounder. (See Manual on _Manual Training_.) If possible, +examine the construction of an electric bell. The motor and electric +light are other common applications of the current. Take up the uses of +the motor in factories, and for running street-cars and automobiles. +Show the necessity for a water-wheel or engine to produce the current, +and for wires to connect. Explain that batteries are not used to produce +large currents, but that machines called dynamos, similar to motors, +when driven by steam or water-power, will yield electric currents as +batteries do. + +STEAM + +The power of steam may be shown by loosely corking a flask and boiling +the water in it until the cork is driven out, or by stopping the spout +of a boiling tea-kettle, or by letting a stream of steam impinge on a +toy paper wheel. Encourage pupils to learn all they can about steam and +gasolene engines and their uses. + +FARM TOOLS + +This topic should be dealt with only in so far as it can be made a +subject for actual observation by the pupils. Children should learn to +be thoughtful and observant and to do all kinds of work, manual as well +as mental, intelligently. + +MACHINES + + (Consult _The Ontario High School Physics_, Chap. IX.) + +LEVER.--When a _lever_ is used to lift a log, one end is placed under +the log, a block called a _fulcrum_ is placed under the lever as close +as possible to the log, and then the workman pulls down on the outer end +of the lever. For example, if the fulcrum is one foot from the log and +ten feet from the man, the latter can raise ten pounds with a pull of +one pound, but he has to move his end of the lever ten times as far as +the log rises. Try it. See other examples in plough handles, see-saw, +balance, scissors, wheel-barrow, pump-handle, handspike, crowbar, +canthook, nut-crackers. + +ROPE AND PULLEY.--In the _rope_ and _pulley_ note that when the pulley +is a fixed one, the only advantage is a changed direction of the rope. +When the pulley is _movable_, the horse pulling will have only half the +weight to draw if the pulley is single, one quarter if double, one sixth +if triple, etc. Thus in the case of a common hay-fork the horse draws +only half the weight of the hay, but he walks twice as far as the hay +moves. + +COGS.--If one wheel has eighty _cogs_ and the other ten, the latter will +turn eight times to the former's once. + +BELT.--When a _belt_ runs over two wheels, one having, say, one fifth of +the diameter of the other, the smaller will revolve five times for one +revolution of the other. + +CRANK.--With a _crank_ two feet long, one may turn a wheel twice as +easily as with one one foot long, but the hand will move twice as far. +If a wedge is two inches thick at the large end and ten inches long, a +man may lift 1000 pounds by striking the wedge a 200-lb. blow. + +INCLINED PLANE.--If a plank twelve inches long has one end on the ground +and the other on a cart four inches high, one man can roll up the plank +the same weight that would require three men to lift, but he has to move +the object three times as far. + +PROBLEMS + +1. Why is a long-handled spade easier to dig with than a short-handled +one? + +2. Which is easier, to dig when the spade is thrust full length or half +length into the earth? + +3. Can a small boy "teeter" on a board against a big boy? How? + +4. In helping to move a wagon, why grasp the wheel near its rim? + +5. In making a balance, why should the arms be equal? In a balance with +unequal arms, compare the weights used with the article weighed. + +6. In using shears, is it better to place the object you wish to cut +near the handles or near the points? + +7. Where is the best place to put the load on a wheel-barrow? + +8. Notice how three horses are hitched to a plough or binder. + +9. Where would you grasp the pump-handle when you wish to pump (1) +easily, (2) quickly? + +10. Stretch out your arm and see whether you can hold as heavy a weight +on your hand as on your elbow. + +11. Count the pulleys used in a hay-fork and determine the use of each. + +12. If a ton of hay is unloaded at five equal forkfuls, what weight has +the horse to draw at each load? + +13. Count the cogs on the wheels of a fanning-mill, washing-machine, +apple-parer, or egg-beater, and determine how the direction or rate of +the motion is changed thereby. + +14. Measure the diameter of the large fly-wheel of a thrashing-machine +engine, and of that which turns the cylinder in the separator. Decide +how many times the cylinder revolves for one turn of the fly-wheel. + +15. Think of all the uses of a wedge. Draw one. Compare the axe, knife, +and chisel with the wedge. + +16. How are heavy logs loaded on a sleigh or truck? How are barrels of +salt and sugar loaded and unloaded? + +17. There are two hills of the same height. One has a gradual slope, the +other a steep one. Which is easier to climb? In what case is it farthest +to the top? + +18. Why does a cow or horse take a zigzag path when climbing a steep +hill? + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +FORM IV + +SPRING + + +METHODS OF IMPROVING HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS + +The study of plants should lead to an intelligent appreciation of their +beauties and a desire to have them growing about. Many of our native +trees, shrubs, vines, and herbaceous plants are quite as beautiful as +some that are procured at considerable expense from nurserymen. A great +work remains to be done in cultivating and popularizing our best native +species. Up to this point the pupils have been getting acquainted with +them in their own natural habitat; the next step should be to use them +in covering up harsh and offensive views about the school and home +grounds, in softening and giving restful relief to barren yards and bare +walls, to ugly fences and uninteresting walks and driveways. + +Begin to plan some simple improvements for the spring. These may be +repairing of fences and gates in order to protect the grounds from stray +animals, the cleaning up of the yards, the gathering of stones which may +be used in making a rockery, the planting of trees along the sides and +front of the grounds--a double row of evergreens to overcome a cold +northern exposure or to exclude from view disagreeable features, the +laying out of a walk or drive with borders, flower beds, or shrubs in +little clumps. + +Plans of grounds well laid out should be examined and discussed in the +school-room. Many illustrated magazines give useful suggestions. Plans +can be worked out on the black-board with the pupils. It will take years +to complete such a plan, but the pupils should have a part in making the +plan as well as in carrying it out. The aim should be to encourage the +use of simple and inexpensive things obtained in the vicinity, wherewith +to produce harmony and pleasing natural effects. + +Comfort and utility must be considered as well as beauty and natural +design. In the school grounds the outdoor games must also be provided +for and sufficient room allowed. + +Such efforts on the part of the teacher and pupils, if wisely directed, +are sure to meet with the approval of the parents and must call forth +the hearty co-operation of the trustees. + +It is not well to attempt too much in one year. It is better to do a +small amount well than to leave much work in a half-done condition. + +MAKING AND CARE OF A LAWN + +The soil must be drained and not too much shaded by trees. At first it +should be summer fallowed or cultivated every few weeks throughout the +summer, to kill the weeds and make it fine and level. A thick seeding of +lawn grass-seed should be sown early the next spring and raked lightly +in. All levelling and preparation must have been done the previous +season. + +Coarse grasses, such as timothy, should not be used on a lawn. Red top +and Kentucky blue-grass in equal parts are best and, if white clover is +desired, add about half as much white Dutch clover seed as red top. If +the soil has been prepared as above, there is no need to use a foster +crop of oats or barley, as is done in seeding down meadows. Roll the +lawn after seeding and also after heavy rains as soon as the surface +dries. Shortly after the grass appears, begin to run the lawn-mower over +it, so as to cut weeds or native grasses that may be gaining a foothold. +Watering is dangerous, unless carefully and regularly done during the +summer, the evening being the best time. Merely wetting the surface by +sprinkling encourages shallow rooting and therefore rapid drying out. +Regular mowing and rolling are more important. + +REFERENCES + +Parsons: _How to Plan the Home Grounds._ Doubleday. $1.00 + +Waugh: _The Landscape Beautiful._ Judd. $2.00 + +Department of Education: _Improvement of School Grounds._ + + +SOIL STUDIES + +WEIGHT + +Using a balance, compare weights of equal-sized boxes of different +soils, dried and powdered fine. Note the comparative lightness of humus. +Weigh a box of earth taken fresh from the field, from this compute (1) +the weight of a cubic foot of such soil, (2) the weight of the soil to +the depth of a foot in a ten-acre field. + +Repeat the experiment, making it an exercise in percentage. + +Fill two glass tubes (lamp chimneys will do), one with finely powdered +clay, the other with sand. Set the tubes in a pan containing water. Note +the rise of the water due to capillarity. Through which soil does it +rise faster? Farther? Try with other soils. Try with fine soil and also +with the same soil in a lumpy condition. From this give a reason (1) +for tilling soil, (2) for rolling after seeding. + +SUBSOILS + +Procure samples of soil from different depths, four inches, eight +inches, twelve inches, sixteen inches, etc. Note how the soil changes in +colour and texture. In which do plants succeed best? In most fields the +richest part of the soil is contained in the upper nine inches; the +portion below this is called subsoil. This extends to the underlying +rock and is usually distinguished from the upper portion by its lighter +colour, poorer texture, and smaller supply of available plant food. The +difference is due largely to the absence of humus. The character of the +subsoil has an important bearing on the condition of the upper soil. A +layer of sand or gravel a few feet below the surface provides natural +drainage, but if it be too deep, it may allow the water to run away +rapidly, carrying the plant food down below the roots of the plants. A +hard clay subsoil will render the top too wet in rainy weather and too +dry in droughts, because of the small amount of water absorbed. Such a +soil is benefited by under-draining. A deep and absorptive subsoil +returns water to the surface, by capillary action, as it is needed. The +subsoil finally contains a large amount of plant food, which becomes +gradually changed into a form in which plants can make use of it. Pupils +should find out the character of the subsoil in their various fields at +home and its effect on the fertility of the field. + +FERTILIZERS + +Along with water, the roots take up from the soil various substances +that are essential to their healthy growth. Potash, phosphoric acid, +nitrogen, calcium, sulphur, magnesium, and iron are needed by plants, +but the first three are particularly important. If land is to yield good +crops year after year, it must be fertilized, that is, there must be +added chemicals containing the above-mentioned plant foods. Land becomes +poor from two causes: the plant food in the soil becomes exhausted, and +poisonous excretions from the roots of one year's crops act injuriously +on those of the next season. Rotating crops will improve both conditions +for a while, but eventually the soil will require treatment. + +Humus contains plant food and is also an excellent absorbent of the +poisonous excretions. It is added as barn-yard manure, leaves, or as a +green crop ploughed in. + +The chemicals commonly used comprise nitrate of soda, bone meal, +sulphate of potash, chloride of potash, lime, ashes, cotton-seed meal, +dried blood, super-phosphate, rock phosphate, and basic clay. + +EXPERIMENTS: + +1. Sow wheat on the same plot year after year and note the result when +no fertilizer is used. Sow wheat on another plot, but use good manure. + +2. Try the various commercial fertilizers on the school plots, leaving +some without treatment. + +3. Examine the roots of clover, peas, or beans, and look for nodules. +These show the presence of bacteria, which convert the atmospheric +nitrogen into a form in which the plants can use it. Scientific farmers +have learned the value of inoculating their soil with these germs. A +crop of peas or clover may produce the same result. + +4. Observe Nature's method of supplying soil with humus. + +SOIL-FORMING AGENTS + +There was once a time when the surface of the earth was bare rock. Much +of this rock still exists and in many places lies on the surface, but it +is usually hidden by a layer of soil. Soil is said to be "rock ground to +meal by Nature's millstones". The process is very slow, but it is +constantly going on. The pupils should be directed to find evidences of +this "grinding". + +1. RUNNING WATER.--Brooks, creeks, rain, and the tiny streamlets on the +hills all tell us how soil is carried from place to place. Get some +muddy water from the river after a heavy rain. Let it settle in a tall +jar and observe the fine layer formed. + +Wash some pebbles clean, place them in a glass jar with some clear +water, and roll or shake the jar about for a few minutes. Note that the +water becomes turbid with fine material worn from the stones. A process +similar to this is constantly going on in rivers, lakes, and seas. +Account for the presence of gravel beds now situated far away from any +water. + +2. ICE GLACIERS.--How do these act on rocks? Show evidences in Ontario +as far as these can be illustrated from the surroundings, such as +polished rocks, boulders, beds of clay, sand, or gravel, small lakes, +grooved stones, etc. + +3. FROST AND HEAT.--See "Expansion of Solids", pages 189, 190. Look for +splintered or cracked stones. Why do farmers plough in the fall? + +4. WIND.--In sections near the lakes the action of the wind in moving +the sand may be seen and appreciated. There are other places where this +work is going on on a smaller scale. + +5. PLANTS.--Our study of humus shows the value of vegetable matter in +soil. Besides contributing to the soil, plants break up rocks with their +roots and dissolve them with acid excretions. It is interesting to study +how a bare rock becomes covered with soil. First come the lichens which +need no soil; on the remains of these the mosses grow. The roots of +mosses and lichens help to disintegrate the rock with their excretions, +so that, with frost, heat, air, and rain to assist, there is a layer of +soil gradually formed on which larger plants can live. A forest +develops. The trees supply shade from the sun and shelter from the wind, +thus retarding evaporation. The roots of the trees hold the soil from +being washed away. The dead leaves and fallen stems provide humus, and, +on account of the water-holding capacity of humus, the forest floor acts +like a sponge, preventing floods in wet seasons and droughts in dry +times. + +6. ANIMALS.--Pupils should make a list of all burrowing animals and look +for examples. The work of the earthworms is especially interesting. By +eating the soil, they improve its texture and expose it to the air. +Their holes admit air and water to the soil. The worms also drag leaves, +sticks, and grass into their holes and thus add to the humus. + +Darwin estimated that the earthworms in England passed over ten tons of +soil an acre through their bodies annually. This is left on the surface +and makes a rich top-dressing. + +TILLING THE SOIL + +1. It makes the soil finer, thus increasing the surface for holding film +water and enabling it to conduct more water by capillarity. + +2. It saves water from evaporation. (See Experiments 7 and 8, Form III.) + +3. It aerates the soil, enabling roots to thrive better. + +4. It drains (hence warms) the soil, assuring more rapid growth. + +5. It kills weeds. + +A large part of the work with soils may be done in connection with the +garden studies, though most of the above mentioned experiments may be +tried in the school-room. In ungraded schools any of the experiments may +be made instructive to all the Forms. + +Pupils should be asked to acquaint themselves with the common implements +used on the farm. They should ascertain the special service rendered by +each. See _Circular 156_, Dominion Department of Agriculture. + +GARDEN WORK + +The work in gardening for Form IV should be connected with some definite +line of experimental work. The garden should be so planned that a part +of it can be used exclusively for experimental work. Co-operation with +the Farmer's Experimental Union of the Ontario Agricultural College at +Guelph is advisable at this point. The following list of experiments is +suggested as suitable for boys especially, but no pupil should attempt +more than one experiment each year. + +EXPERIMENTS IN PLOTS OUT-OF-DOORS + +Experimental plots may be of different sizes, according to the space +available, from a yard square to a rod square or larger. A plot 10 ft. 5 +in. by 20 ft. 10 in. is almost 1/200 of an acre, so that the actual +yield on such a plot when multiplied by 200 is an approximation of the +yield an acre. + +1. Testing of varieties of grains, vegetables, or root seeds, including +potatoes new to the district. + +2. Testing different varieties of clovers and fodder grasses. These +plots should be so situated that they can remain for three years. + +3. Thick and thin sowing of grain: Use plots not less than four feet +square. They may be tried most easily with wheat, oats, or barley, +although any species of grain may be used. Use four plots of the same +size, equal in fertility and other soil conditions. In No. 1 put grains +of wheat or oats, as the case may be, two inches apart each way. In No. +2 put the grains two inches apart in the row and the rows four inches +apart. In No. 3 put the grains four inches apart in the row and the rows +four inches apart. In No. 4 put the grains four inches apart in the row +and the rows eight inches apart. + +If possible, weigh the straw and grain when cut and the grain alone when +dry and shelled out of the heads. + +4. Deep and shallow growing of grain: Use four plots similar to those in +experiment No. 3. Put the same amount of seed in the different plots. In +No. 1, one inch deep; in No. 2. two inches deep; in No. 3, four inches +deep, and in No. 4, six inches deep. Note which is up first, and which +gives the best yield and best quality. + +5. Early and late sowing: Three plots are required. Plant the same +amount of seed in each and cover to the same depth. Plant No. 1 as early +as the soil can be made ready; No. 2, two weeks later; and No. 3, two +weeks later than No. 2. Compare the quality and the yield. + +6. Effect of sowing clover with grain the first year: Only two plots are +required. Sow the same amount of wheat or oats on each plot. On one +plot put a moderate supply of red clover and none on the other. Weigh +(or estimate), as in Experiment 3 above, the straw and the grain +produced on each. + +7. Effect of a clover crop on the grain crop succeeding it the following +year: The same two plots must be used as in No. 6. When the grain was +cut the previous autumn, the plots should have been left standing +without cultivation until spring. When the clover has made some growth, +spade it down and prepare the other plot in the same way. Rake them +level and sow the same amount of grain in each again. Weigh the crops +produced on each. + +8. Test quality, yield, and time of maturity of several varieties of the +same species. Samples of such varieties of wheat as Red Fife, White +Fife, Preston, Turkey Red, Dawson's Golden Chaff, White Russian, etc., +may be obtained from the Central Experimental Farm at Ottawa, if not +available in the district. + +9. Effect of different fertilizers (1) on the same crop, (2) on +different crops: This can be done either out-of-doors in small plots or +indoors, using pots or boxes. + +(1) Effect on the same crop: For example, oats on plots four feet +square. The following standard fertilizers may be used: stable manure, +nitrate of soda, muriate of potash, and bone meal. + +On plot No. 1, a dressing of stable manure, + +On plot No. 2, four oz. nitrate of soda, + +On plot No. 3, four oz. muriate of potash, + +On plot No. 4, eight oz. bone meal, + +On plot No. 5, two oz. nitrate of soda, two oz. muriate of potash, and +four oz. bone meal. + +On plot No. 6, use no fertilizer. Record results. + +(2) Effect on different crops: Try a series of experiments similar to +the above, using (a) peas instead of oats, (b) using corn, (c) +using cabbage, (d) using potatoes. + +FUNCTION OF PARTS OF PLANTS + +This may be introduced in Form III and continued in the next Form. +Already the attention of the pupils has been directed to the essential +organs of the flower, namely, stamens and pistil. They have noticed the +two kinds of flowers on pumpkins, corn, and many trees. They have seen +that only the pistillate flowers produce fruit and seeds, and that when +the staminate flowers have shed their pollen, they die. They have seen +the yellow dust that the stamens contain and have seen bees laden with +it as they emerge from the heart of the flower. Have them watch the bee +as it enters the flower and notice how it invariably rubs some part of +its pollen-covered body against the pistil. When on the moist, sticky +top of the pistil, these little pollen-grains soon begin to grow, +sending a delicate tube down to the bottom of the pistil to the ovary. +Inside the ovary are little bodies called the ovules that are moistened +by a fluid that comes from this delicate pollen tube, and at once they +begin to enlarge and eventually become the seeds. The coverings +surrounding them complete the true fruit. + +The use of the root in supporting the plant in its normal position is +apparent to every pupil. To demonstrate the firm hold it has upon the +soil, have the pupils try to pull up some large plants by the roots. +They will then notice the branching roots of some plants and the long +conical roots of others. Compare the colour and other surface features +of the root and stem. To prove its feeding power, try two plants of +equal size, taking the root off one and leaving it uninjured in the +other. Set them side by side in moist earth and notice which withers. +Take all the leaves off a plant and keep them off for a few weeks. The +plant dies if its leaves are not allowed to grow. Keep it in the dark +for a long time, and it finally dies even when water and soil are +supplied. The leaves, therefore, are essential and require sunlight in +doing their work. Their complete work will be considered later. + +HOW THE PLANT GETS ITS FOOD FROM THE SOIL + +When seeds germinate, the lower end of the caulicle, which becomes the +root, bears large numbers of root-hairs. Inside the root-hairs is +protoplasm and cell sap. These root-hairs grow among the soil particles +which lie covered over with a thin film of moisture. It is this moisture +that is taken up by these root-hairs, and in it is a small amount of +mineral matter in solution which helps to sustain the plant. The +transmission of soil water through the delicate cell walls of these +root-hairs is known as _osmosis_. + +GERMINATION OF SOME OF THE COMMON GRAINS + +Make a special study of corn, wheat, and buckwheat. Take three plates +and put moist sand in each to a depth of about half an inch. Spread over +this a piece of damp cloth. Put in No. 1, one hundred grains of corn; in +No. 2, the same number of grains of wheat; and in No. 3, the same number +of grains of buckwheat, peas, or beans. Cover each plate with another +piece of damp cloth and invert another plate over each to prevent drying +out. Keep in a warm room and do not allow the cloths to become dry. If +one of the cloths be left hanging six or eight inches over the side of +the plate and dipping into a dish of water, the whole cloth will be kept +moist by capillarity. Note the following points: + +1. Changes in the size of the seeds during the first twenty-four hours. + +2. In which variety germination seems most rapid. + +3. The percentage vitality, that is, the number of seeds which germinate +out of one hundred. + +4. The nature of the coverings and their use. (Protection to the parts +inside) + +5. The parts of the seed inside. (Buckwheat, pea, or bean divides into +two parts, which become greenish and are called seed leaves. Wheat and +corn do not divide thus.) + +6. The first signs of growth. A little shoot or tiny plant begins to +develop at one end of the seed. Note which end bears this tiny plant. + +7. Note the development of this embryo plant and the formation of stem +and root. + +8. Of what use is the bulky part of the seed? To answer this, let the +pupils separate the white part of a kernel of corn, which is attached to +the embryo plant, from the pulpy mass surrounding it. Set five such +plants in moist sand and also five germinating seeds not so dissected. +Pupils will discover that the mass surrounding the embryo is for the +nourishing of the embryo plant. It is a little store of food prepared by +the mother plant for the little ones that grow from the seeds. Note that +it disappears as the plant grows. + +To further show the great value of this stored plant food, put a +large-sized pea in a pot of moist moss or sawdust for a few days. When +it has germinated and its root is a couple of inches long, place the pea +in a thistle tube or small funnel, with the root projecting down the +tube into a glass of water in which the funnel tube rests. Place all in +a sunny window and note how much growth the plant is able to make +without any food except that which the seed contained. + +9. Note the development of the root and root-hairs. It is by means of +these root-hairs that the plant absorbs moisture. The branching form of +the root gives greater support to the plant and increased area for +absorption of water by means of root-hairs. + +To show the direction taken by the root and also by the shoot, take a +glass jar with straight sides like a battery jar (a large fruit jar will +do); line it inside with a layer of blotting-paper and then fill it with +moist sawdust. Drop seeds of sunflower or squash down between the paper +and the glass. The moisture from the blotting-paper will cause them to +sprout, the shoot or stem always taking an upward direction and the root +turning downward quite regardless of the position in which the seeds +were placed. + +10. Apply this study to seed planting: Plant seeds of wheat in four pots +of soil, No. 1, half an inch deep; No. 2, two inches; No. 3, four +inches; No. 4, six inches. Repeat this experiment, using buckwheat. What +seeds are up first? What seeds last? Which are best after a week? After +three or four weeks? From this experiment could you recommend a certain +depth for the planting of wheat and buckwheat? + +11. Does the kind of soil make any difference? To answer this have +different pupils choose different soils, such as (1) coarse sand, (2) +fine sand, (3) wet clay, (4) humus or leaf mould, (5) mixed soil or +loam; and let each put in grains of wheat, two inches deep. + +Allow five other pupils to plant seeds of buckwheat, under similar +conditions. Treat all pots alike as to time of watering and quantity of +water used on each and give them all equal light and heat. Note which +come up first. Which are highest in one week, in two weeks, in four +weeks? + +12. This study may be continued in the garden by planting one plot each +of corn, wheat, and buckwheat. Plots ten feet by twenty feet are large +enough. Observe the rate of development in the plots. Which seems to +mature most quickly? Which blossoms first? In what respect are the +leaves of these plants alike or unlike? How do the stems differ? + +Examine the blossoming and seed formation. When the grains are ripe, +collect a hundred of the best looking and most compact heads of each +grain and also a hundred of the smallest heads of each. Dry, shell, and +store the two samples of each grain in separate bottles. These samples +are for planting the following spring. + +13. To show the need of moisture in germination: Fill two flower-pots or +cans with dry sand; put seeds of sunflower in each, covering them an +inch deep. Put water in one pot and none in the other. Examine both pots +after two or three days. + +14. To show that heat is needed for germination of seeds: Plant +sunflower seeds in two pots as above; place one in a warm room and the +other in a cold room or refrigerator; water both and observe result in +three days. + +15. To show that air is necessary for germination: Fill a pint sealer +with hydrogen (the gas collected over water in the usual way, as shown +in any Chemistry text-book). Put a few sunflower seeds in a small sponge +or wrap them loosely in a piece of soft cloth. Keeping the mouth of the +jar which has been inverted over water and filled with hydrogen, under +the surface of the water, introduce the sponge containing the seeds, by +putting it under the water and pushing it up into the jar. Seal the jar +without letting the gas get out. Put some seeds in another jar in a wet +sponge and leave the jar uncovered. Compare results after several days. + +Here is a second experiment to prove this. Boil some water in a beaker +in order to drive out all the air, put a few grains of rice in the +water, and then add enough oil to make a thin covering on the water. +This covering will prevent air from mixing with the water again. Put +some rice in a second beaker without boiling or adding the oil. Leave +the beakers side by side in a warm room for a week. The seeds will not +germinate in the boiled water. It is not always easy to get rice that +will germinate, but when it has been procured, the experiment is easy +and very interesting. Any other seeds, such as those of pond lily and +eel-grass, that germinate readily under water, will do as well as rice. + +WEEDS + +Pupils in this Form should learn to identify a large number of weeds and +weed seeds. The collecting and mounting of weeds and weed seeds the +previous summer and autumn will have helped to prepare them for this +work. In the spring, when flower and vegetable seeds are coming up in +the garden, it is often difficult for pupils to distinguish the weeds +from the useful plants. To help in this work of distinguishing the good +from the bad, the teacher should arrange for a plot having, say, ten +rows, one row for each variety of weed selected. Each row should be +designated by a number instead of a name. The identification of these +growing weeds by name may be given as a problem to the pupils. This +plot should remain until the pupils have observed the manner of growth +of each variety, the blossoming and seed formation, and then the root +growth, as they are being uprooted previous to the ripening of the seed. +Each pupil should prepare a brief description of each of the ten +varieties studied, and make drawings of the plant and its parts, +especially the leaf, flower, seed, and root. They should learn the best +methods of eradication and add these in their notes. _Farm Weeds_ will +be of great value in such weed studies. + +VINES + +Suitable garden vines for study are climbing nasturtium, scarlet runner +bean, and Japanese hop. Their growth and method of climbing should be +compared with that of the sweet-pea and morning-glory already studied. +Observe particularly the kind of leaves and their arrangement, also the +flowers and fruit. Observe also the gourd family--melon, cucumber, and +squash--their tendency to climb, and the nature of their flowers and +fruit. + +WILD FLOWERS + +In schools where the studies with garden plants, such as have been +indicated, can be carried on, there will not be as much time for the +study of wild flowers as in those schools where no garden plants are +available. A definite list of wild flowers for study should be arranged +by the teacher early in spring. + +The following are common in most parts of Ontario: squirrel-corn, +Dutchman's breeches, blue cohosh, dog's-tooth violet, water-parsnip, +catnip, and mallow. In each study observe the following points: + +1. Description of leaves and flowers for identification. + +2. Storing of food in underground parts. + +3. Time of flowering. (Pupils of this Form should keep a flower +calendar.) + +4. Description of fruit and seeds and how these are scattered. + +5. Their location, and the character of the soil where found. + +Encourage the pupils to transplant a specimen of each from the woods to +the school or home garden. Moist humus soil and partial shade are the +best conditions for the growth of these wild wood flowers. Review the +type lessons given already for Primary classes and apply the information +thus gained to the observational study of the varieties of flowers named +above. + +PLANTING OF TREES, SHRUBS, AND HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS IN HOME AND SCHOOL +GROUNDS + +This work should be the outcome of the plans made in the winter. If each +pupil does a little toward the carrying out of the scheme of planting, +the grounds will soon be wonderfully improved. The teacher should guard +against over-planting and arrange for the care of the shrubs and flowers +during the summer holidays. + +New varieties of herbaceous perennials, grown from seed planted the +previous summer or procured from homes in the vicinity, should be +introduced. As most herbaceous perennials become too thick after a few +years, it is necessary to keep digging some out year by year, dividing +and resetting them, and fertilizing the ground. + +Native trees and shrubs should be placed so as to obscure undesirable +views, such as closets and outbuildings, rough fences, or bare walls. +This principle in planting should be observed in the case of trees. +Evergreen trees are particularly desirable as screens and shelters from +cold winds. No planting should be done, on the other hand, that would +shut out a good view of the school or obscure a beautiful landscape. Too +frequently unused corners of the school ground are covered with weeds. +Prevent this by putting trees there and also shrubs. Keep all centres +open, and let the trees, shrubs, and flowering perennials be massed +about the corners and along the sides. The informal method of planting +is to be preferred to formal planting of designs. The Public School +Inspector will provide a copy of a departmental circular on the +_Improvement of School Grounds_, which should be carefully studied by +every teacher. + +SHADE TREES + +Consider suitable varieties to plant for shade and for ornamental +effects. White elm, hard and soft maple, white birch, pines, and spruces +are among the best. Elms and maples are excellent trees for roadside or +street planting, and should be about forty feet apart. Spruces and pines +may be planted five or six feet apart along the north and west, to act +as a wind break. Otherwise, evergreens are best when planted in +triangular clumps. White birch is particularly ornamental against a dark +background of evergreens. Specimen trees of horse-chestnut, beech, ash, +and hickory are also desirable. + +TRANSPLANTING + +The best time for transplanting trees is in the autumn after the leaves +have fallen, or in the spring before the buds have opened. + +In planting a tree, the following points should be observed: + +1. Preserve as much of the root system as possible, and trim off all +broken or bruised portions. + +2. Do not expose the roots to sun or wind while out of the ground. This +is especially important in transplanting evergreens. + +3. Reduce the top of the tree sufficiently to balance with the reduced +root system. + +4. Set the tree a few inches deeper than it was before transplanting. + +5. Pack the best top soil closely about the roots, so as to exclude all +air spaces, since these tend to dry the delicate roots. + +6. If the ground is very dry, water should be used in planting; +otherwise it is of no advantage. Water the trees thoroughly once a week +in dry weather during the first season. + +7. After planting, put a mulch or covering of fine straw, grass, or +chips for two or three feet around the tree; or establish a soil mulch +and keep down the grass by frequent cultivation. Grass roots dry out the +soil. + +8. In the case of deciduous trees, have the lowest limbs at least seven +feet from the ground. Evergreens, however, should never be trimmed, but +should have their branches right from the ground up--this uninterrupted +pyramid form is one of their chief beauties. + + +ANIMAL STUDIES + +SCALE INSECTS + +SAN JOSÉ SCALE + +Certain districts in Ontario and especially those bordering on Lake Erie +have suffered from the ravages of this scale on apple, peach, pear, and +other orchard trees. A hand lens should be used in studying these +insects, observations being carried on from May to September. + +Carefully examine the fruits and twigs of orchard trees for evidences of +the presence of the scale, and learn to identify it and to recognize the +damages resulting from its attacks. + +Observe the almost circular flat scale of a grayish colour and having a +minute point projecting upward at its centre. The young insects which +emerge from underneath these scales in the spring crawl around for a +time, then become stationary, and each one secretes a scale under which +it matures. The mature males have two wings but the mature females are +wingless. Note the withering of fruit and twigs due to the insects' +attacks and the minute openings in the skin of the twig, made by the +insertion of the sucking mouth parts. + +Describe to the pupils how the insect was transported from Japan to +America and how it is now spread on nursery stock. Give a brief account +of its destructiveness in the orchards of Essex and Kent. + + (Consult _Bulletin No. 153, Common Insects Affecting Fruit + Trees and Fungus Diseases Affecting Fruit Trees_. Bethune & + Jarvis, Department of Agriculture, Toronto, free.) + +OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE + +This is very common throughout the Province on apple and pear trees. +Observe the unhealthy appearance of the leaves of the infested trees, +the inferior quality of the fruit, and the gray scales shaped like tiny +oyster-shells. + +The means of destroying these pests should be discussed. The Bulletins +named above give detailed information in reference to spraying and +fumigation. + +CUTWORMS + + (Consult _Bulletin 52_, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.) + +Cutworms are the larvæ of medium-sized brown moths that fly at night. +There are many species of cutworms, all of which are destructive to some +forms of plants or grasses, grains, and vegetables. + +The larvæ are rather thick, naked, worm-like forms. They burrow into the +ground, but emerge at night to feed by cutting through the stems of +tender plants or by feeding upon the leaves. For the most effective +method of dealing with these refer to what is said on "Combating Garden +Pests", Form II. + +When a field is known to be infested with cutworms, it is a good plan to +spread poisoned clover or cabbage leaves over the ground before the seed +is planted. + +WHITE GRUBS + +White grubs are large, fat, white larvæ of June beetles. These beetles +are the well-known large, brown, clumsy beetles that blunder into the +house at night in May or June and drop with a thud upon the floor. +Three years are spent in the larval form, the grubs living underground +and feeding on the roots of plants, especially the roots of grains and +grasses. + +Since they are found chiefly in fields recently ploughed from grass, +they may be held in check by rotation of crops and by fall ploughing, +which exposes the larvæ to the winter frosts. + +In May or June, when the adults are feeding on the foliage of fruit and +shade trees, spraying the trees with London purple is quite effective +for destroying the beetles before they have laid their eggs among the +roots of the grass. + +Hogs destroy many larvæ by rooting in the soil to find them for food. + +CRAYFISH + +Search for the crayfish in streams and ponds. Why is the crayfish hard +to find? Hard to capture? + +Obtain a living crayfish from a pond or stream and place it in a jar of +water or in an aquarium. + +The crayfish should not be placed in an aquarium containing insects and +small fish which are to be kept, as it is fierce and voracious. + +The pupils should study the living animal, noting its habit of lurking +under stones; the sweeping of the water with the feelers; the backward +movement in swimming, produced by bending the tail sharply underneath +the body; the walking by means of four pairs of legs, the great claws +being used to turn the animal; the use of the great claws in seizing +prey and holding food near the mouth; the movements of the small +appendages under the front part of the animal and the water currents +caused by these; the movements of the small appendages under the abdomen +of the animal. + +FRESHWATER MUSSEL + +The freshwater mussel--"clam" as it is usually called by +school-boys--may be found in almost any stream. + +Place a mussel in the aquarium, and note the opening and closing of the +valves of the shell; the hinge connecting the valves; the foot +protruding from the shell; the movements by means of the foot; the +mantle lobes lining the shell and visible at the open margins; the two +siphons at the rear of the animal--water currents may be observed +entering the upper and emerging from the lower of these. Infer uses for +these currents. Touch the edge of the upper siphon and observe how +quickly the shell is closed. + +Compare the mussel with the snail as to movements and shell. + +Compare also with the oyster and sea clam. + +Examine empty shells and notice the pearly layer of the shell, the +action of the hinge, and the marks on the shell to which the muscles for +closing the shell were attached. + +State all the means of protection that you have discovered the animal to +possess. + + +BIRD STUDY + + (Consult _Bulletin 218. Birds of Ontario in Relation to + Agriculture_, Nash. Department of Agriculture, free.) + +If the lessons in bird study which are prescribed for Forms I, II, and +III have been successful, the pupils of Form IV should have a fair +acquaintance with the habits of the common birds. + +A very interesting exercise is to hold a trial upon those birds which +are viewed with suspicion or which are openly condemned as objectionable +neighbours. A pupil is appointed to act as judge and other pupils give +evidence. The evidence must be based upon the pupil's personal +observations on the habits of the bird. + +The following birds are named, and brief descriptions of their habits +are given as suggestions for materials for bird trials: + +ROBIN.--He steals small fruits, such as cherries, currants, etc. He is a +cheerful, jolly neighbour, who sings sweetly. He eats great numbers of +cutworms and white grubs. + +CROW.--He robs the nests of other birds, and steals chickens, corn, and +potatoes. He helps the farmer by killing cutworms, white grubs, +grasshoppers, and other insects. + +WOODPECKER.--The members of this family are grievously persecuted +because they are believed to injure orchard and shade trees by pecking +holes in the bark from which to suck the sap. Careful observations tend +to show that the trees are benefited rather than injured by this +treatment. Woodpeckers are undoubtedly beneficial as destroyers of +wood-borers and other obnoxious insects. + +CROW-BLACKBIRD (bronzed grackle).--His habits are similar to those of +the crow. + +OWLS.--All the owls are held in ill repute because of the crimes of a +few members of the family. Very seldom does an owl steal a chicken; +their food consists chiefly of mice, rats, squirrels, grasshoppers, and +other field pests. + +HAWKS.--The hawks are unjustly persecuted for crimes of which they are +seldom guilty. As a class they are beneficial, not injurious birds. + + +DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF NATURE STUDY + +There is a knowledge of Nature which contributes to the earning of a +living. This is the _utilitarian_ aspect. + +There is a knowledge of Nature which may be obtained in such a way as to +develop the observing and reasoning powers and give a training in +scientific method. This is the _disciplinary_ aspect. + +There is a knowledge which leads the pupil to perceive the beautiful in +Nature, to enjoy it and so add to his happiness. This is the _æsthetic_ +aspect. + +There is a knowledge of Nature which, through the life history of plant +and animal, throws light on the pupil's own life, gives him an insight +into all life in its unity, and leads him to look up reverently to the +author of all life--through Nature up to Nature's God. This is the +_spiritual_ aspect. + +Each of these aspects supplements, interprets, or enforces the others. +He who omits or neglects any of these perceives but a part of a complete +whole. Nature Study develops in the pupil a sympathetic attitude toward +Nature for the purpose of increasing the joy of living. It leads him to +see Nature through the eyes of the poet and the moralist as well as +through those of the scientist. + +Nature Study is concerned with plants, birds, insects, stones, clouds, +brooks, etc., but it is not botany, ornithology, entomology, geology, +meteorology, or geography. In this study, it is the spirit of inquiry +developed rather than the number of facts ascertained that is important. +Gradually it becomes more systematic as it advances until, in the high +school, it passes over into the science group of studies. + +ILLUSTRATIONS OF THESE ASPECTS + +The simple observational lessons on The Robin, pages 96-7, form the +bases for further study in more advanced classes. This bird as a +destroyer of worms, beetles, etc., is a valuable assistant to the farmer +as, indeed, are practically all birds in this Province. Birds such as +the duck, goose, partridge, etc., are valuable as food, and laws are +made to protect them during certain seasons. + +The training in inference which a pupil receives in studying the parts +of a plant or an animal and the adaptation of these parts to function is +valuable. He studies the plant and the animal as living organisms with +work to do in the world, and learns how what they do and their manner of +doing it affect their form and structure. + +The short, curved, and slightly hooked bill of the hen and her method of +breaking open a pea pod or splitting an object too large to swallow +shows the bill to be a mallet, a wedge, or a pick as the case may be. A +study of the bills of the duck, woodpecker, and hawk will reveal the +method by which each gets his food and how the organ is adapted to its +purpose. Similar studies of the feet and legs of birds will make the +idea of adaptation increasingly clear. + +Literature is rich with tributes to the songs of the birds. The thoughts +and feelings aroused or suggested by these songs are the topics of much +of the world's enduring poetry. Longfellow, in his "Birds of +Killing-worth" (_Tales of a Wayside Inn_) sings exquisitely of the use +and beauty and worth of birds. Shelley, in his "Skylark", describes in +glowing verse "the unbodied joy" that "singing still dost soar and +soaring ever singest". Wordsworth hears the blithe new comer, the +Cuckoo, and rejoices + + Though babbling only to the vale + Of sunshine and of flowers + Thou bringest unto me a tale + Of visionary hours. + +The life story of a bird throws light on our own lives, puts us in +sympathy with the lives of others, teaches kindness, teaches the duties +and responsibilities of the higher to the lower, teaches respect for all +life. + +Observe the helpless bird in its nest, helpless as a baby. See the care +given by the mother and father to keep it warm till its down and +feathers grow, to feed it till it is able to leave the nest. Watch the +parents teaching it to fly by repeated short flights. Olive Thorn Miller +in her _Bird Ways_ gives a delightful sketch of the father robin +teaching a young robin where to look for worms and how to dig them up. +When that task was accomplished, his father began to give him "music +lessons", that is, practice in imitating the Robin's song. Thus, the +young bird was equipped to make a living and to enjoy life. The social +life of birds, as they sing their matins, as they choose their mates, as +they gather in flocks preparatory to migration, furnish many +opportunities for indirect teaching on many of life's problems. + +The Ontario Readers contain many poems that may be used in connection +with the Nature Study lessons. To supplement the observational studies +of birds, read from the Third Reader, "The Robin's Song", "The +Red-winged Blackbird", "The Sandpiper", "To the Cuckoo", "Bob White", +"The Lark and the Rook", "The Poet's Song". + +In the Third Reader, the lessons on "The Fountain", "The Brook", "The +Tide River", and "A Song of the Sea" form a group that can be used in +connection with lessons in geography. "A Song for April", "An Apple +Orchard in the Spring", "The Gladness of Nature", "The Orchard", "A +Midsummer Song", "Corn-fields", "The Corn Song", "The Death of the +Flowers", "The Frost", "The Snow-storm", make another group to accompany +a study of the seasons. A similar group may be selected from the Fourth +Reader. + +The pupil who has made a study of a "brook" as a lesson in geography and +defined it as "a small natural stream of water flowing from a spring or +fountain" will, if he studies the following lines from Tennyson's "The +Brook" and perceives by careful observation the descriptive accuracy and +aptness of the words in italics, realize that the poet sees much that +the geographer has not included in his definition. + + I _chatter_ over stony ways, + In little sharps and trebles, + I _bubble_ into eddying bays, + I _babble_ on the pebbles. + + * * * + + I _slip_, I _slide_, I _gloom_, I _glance_. + Among my skimming swallows; + + * * * + + I _murmur_ under moon and stars. + + + * * * + + + I _linger_ by my shingly bars. + I _loiter_ round my cresses. + +Correlations such as these add greatly to the pupil's interest in this +subject. + +Given a teacher with a love of out-of-door life, with observant eyes and +ears, and the spirit that sympathizes with children's curiosity and +stimulates inquiry, Nature Study will be a joy and an inspiration to +pupils. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Teachers' Manuals: Nature Study, by +Ontario Ministry of Education + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS: NATURE *** + +***** This file should be named 26139-8.txt or 26139-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/6/1/3/26139/ + +Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, Josephine Paolucci and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net. +(This file was produced from images generously made +available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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