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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Apple-Tree, by L. H. Bailey
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Apple-Tree
+       The Open Country Books--No. 1
+
+Author: L. H. Bailey
+
+Release Date: July 26, 2008 [EBook #26132]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE APPLE-TREE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Diane Monico, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images produced by Core Historical
+Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+
+
+THE OPEN COUNTRY BOOKS
+
+A continuing company of genial little books
+about the out-of-doors
+
+Under the editorship of
+L. H. BAILEY
+
+1. The Apple-Tree               L. H. Bailey
+2. A Home Vegetable Garden      Ella M. Freeman
+3. The Cow                      Jared Van Wagenen, Jr.
+
+Others about weather and the sky, scenery,
+camps, recreation, quadrupeds, fishes, birds,
+insects, reptiles, plants, and the places in the
+open.
+
+
+
+
+The Open Country Books--No. 1
+
+THE APPLE-TREE
+
+BY
+L. H. BAILEY
+
+NEW YORK
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+1922
+_All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1922,
+BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+
+Set up and electrotyped. Published January, 1922.
+
+FERRIS PRINTING COMPANY
+NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER                                                     PAGE
+
+I. Where There is no Apple-Tree                                7
+
+II. The Apple-Tree in the Landscape                           10
+
+III. The Buds on the Twigs                                    15
+
+IV. The Weeks Between the Flower and the Fruit                19
+
+V. The Brush Pile                                             27
+
+VI. The Pruning of the Apple-Tree                             36
+
+VII. Maintaining the Health and Energy of the Apple-Tree      41
+
+VIII. How an Apple-Tree is Made                               48
+
+IX. The Dwarf Apple-Tree                                      54
+
+X. Whence Comes the Apple-Tree?                               60
+
+XI. The Varieties of Apple                                    66
+
+XII. The Pleasant Art of Grafting                             79
+
+XIII. The Mending of the Apple-Tree                           85
+
+XIV. Citizens of the Apple-Tree                               89
+
+XV. The Apple-Tree Regions                                    97
+
+XVI. The Harvest of the Apple-Tree                           102
+
+XVII. The Appraisal of the Apple-Tree                        107
+
+
+[Illustration: 1. The home apple-tree]
+
+
+
+
+THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+WHERE THERE IS NO APPLE-TREE
+
+
+The wind is snapping in the bamboos, knocking together the resonant
+canes and weaving the myriad flexile wreaths above them. The palm
+heads rustle with a brisk crinkling music. Great ferns stand in the
+edge of the forest, and giant arums cling their arms about the trunks
+of trees and rear their dim jacks-in-the-pulpit far in the branches;
+and in the greater distance I know that green parrots are flying in
+twos from tree to tree. The plant forms are strange and various,
+making mosaic of contrasting range of leaf-size and leaf-shape, palm
+and grass and fern, epiphyte and liana and clumpy mistletoe, of grace
+and clumsiness and even misproportion, a tall thick landscape all
+mingled into a symmetry of disorder that charms the attention and
+fascinates the eye.
+
+It is a soft and delicious air wherein I sit. A torrid drowse is in
+the receding landscape. The people move leisurely, as befits the world
+where there is no preparation for frost and no urgent need of
+laborious apparel. There are tardy bullock-carts, unconscious donkeys,
+and men pushing vehicles. There are odd products and unaccustomed
+cakes and cookies on little stands by the roadside, where the turbaned
+vendor sits on the ground unconcernedly.
+
+There are strange fruits in the carts, on the donkeys that move down
+the hillsides from distant plantations in the heart of the jungle, on
+the trees by winding road and thatched cottage, in the great crowded
+markets in the city. I recognize coconuts and mangoes, star-apples and
+custard-apples and cherimoyas, papayas, guavas, mamones, pomegranates,
+figs, christophines, and the varied range of citrus fruits. There are
+also great polished apples in the markets, coming from cooler regions,
+tied by their stems, good to look at but impossible to relish; and I
+understand how these people of the tropics think the apple an inferior
+fruit, so successfully do the poor varieties stop the desire for more.
+There are vegetables I have never seen before.
+
+I am conscious of a slowly moving landscape with people and birds and
+beasts of burden and windy vegetation, of prospects in which there are
+no broad smooth farm fields with fences dividing them, of scenery full
+of herbage, in which every lineament and action incite me and
+stimulate my desire for more, of days that end suddenly in the
+blackness of night.
+
+Yet, somehow, I look forward to the time when I may go to a more
+accustomed place. Either from long association with other scenes or
+because of some inexpressible deficiency in this tropic splendor, I am
+not satisfied even though I am exuberantly entertained. Something I
+miss. For weeks I wondered what single element I missed most. Out of
+the numberless associations of childhood and youth and eager manhood
+it is difficult to choose one that is missed more than another. Yet
+one day it came over me startlingly that I missed the apple-tree,--the
+apple-tree, the sheep, and the milch cattle!
+
+The farm home with its commodious house, its greensward, its great
+barn and soft fields and distant woods, and the apple-tree by the
+wood-shed; the good home at the end of the village with its sward and
+shrubbery, and apple roof-tree; the orchard, well kept, trim and
+apple-green, yielding its wagon-loads of fruits; the old tree on the
+hillside, in the pasture where generations of men have come and gone
+and where houses have fallen to decay; the odor of the apples in the
+cellar in the cold winter night; the feasts around the fireside,--I
+think all these pictures conjure themselves in my mind to tantalize me
+of home.
+
+And often in my wanderings I promise myself that when I reach home I
+shall see the apple-tree as I had never seen it before. Even its bark
+and its gnarly trunk will hold converse with me, and its first tiny
+leaves of the budding spring will herald me a welcome. Once again I
+shall be a youth with the apple-tree, but feeling more than the
+turbulent affection of transient youth can understand. Life does not
+seem regular and established when there is no apple-tree in the yard
+and about the buildings, no orchards blooming in the May and laden in
+the September, no baskets heaped with the crisp smooth fruits; without
+all these I am still a foreigner, sojourning in a strange land.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE APPLE-TREE IN THE LANDSCAPE
+
+
+The April sun is soft on the broad open fenced fields, waking them
+gently from the long deep sleep of winter. Little rills are running
+full. The grass is newly coolly green. Fresh sprouts are in the sod.
+By copse and highway the shad-bushes salute with their handkerchiefs.
+Apple-trees show tips of verdure. It is good to see the early greens
+of changing spring. It is good to look abroad on an apple-tree
+landscape.
+
+As to its vegetation, the landscape is low and flat, not tall. There
+is a vast uniformity in plant forms, a subdued and constrained
+humility. A month later the leafage will be in glory, but that also
+will have an aspect of sameness and moderation. Perhaps the actual
+variety of species will be greater than in many parts of the abounding
+tropics, and to the careful observer the luxuriance will be as great,
+although not so big; but as I look abroad I am impressed with the
+economy of the prospect. It comes nearer to my powers of assimilation,
+quiets me with a deep satisfaction; the contrasts are subdued, the
+processes grade into each other imperceptibly in the land of the
+lingering twilight.
+
+In this prospect are maples and elms and apple-trees. The maples and
+elms are of the fields and roadsides. The apple-trees are of human
+habitations and human labor; they cluster about the buildings, or
+stand guard at a gate; they are in plantations made by hands. As I see
+them again, I wonder whether any other plant is so characteristically
+a home-tree.
+
+So is the apple-tree, even when full grown, within the reach of
+children. It can be climbed. Little swings are hung from the branches.
+Its shade is low and familiar. It bestows its fruit liberally to all
+alike.
+
+The apple is a sturdy tree. Short of trunk and short of continuous
+limb, it is yet a stout and rugged object, the indirectness of its
+branching branches adding to its picturesque quality. It is a tree of
+good structure. Although its limbs eventually arch to the ground, if
+left to themselves, they yet have great strength. The angularity of
+the branching, the frequent forking, the big healing or hollow knots
+with rounding callus-lips, give the tree character. Anywhere it would
+be a marked tree, unlike any other.
+
+The bark on the older surface sheds in short oblong irregular scales
+or plates that detach perhaps at both ends and often at the sides,
+clinging by the middle until the curl loosens them and they fall to
+the ground. These plates or chips are more or less rowed up and down
+the trunk and on the larger branches, yet the apple bark is not ridged
+and furrowed as on the elm. The bark is not checked in squares as on
+old pear-trees nor peeling as on cherries. In dry weather, the loose
+old bark is dark brown-gray, often supporting gray lichens, but in
+rain it is soft and nearly black, yielding pleasantly to the touch. In
+the forks, the bark is not so readily cast and there the chips may lie
+in heaps. On the young limbs and small trunks the bark is tight and
+close, not splitting into seams or furrows with the expansion of the
+cylinder but stretching and throwing off detached flakes and chips.
+Under the chips various insects hide or make some of their
+transformations. There the codlin-moth pupates. The old remains of
+scale insects may be found on the exterior. In the furrows about the
+dormant buds the eggs of plant-lice pass the winter.
+
+To destroy these breeding and hiding places, many careful
+apple-growers scrape away the loose bark, being careful not to expose
+the quick living tissue; and on the younger wood the eggs of aphis and
+other pests, as well as cocoons and nymphs, are destroyed by vigorous
+winter spraying. The regular spraying of apple-trees, in the different
+seasons, more or less sterilizes the bark. Many forms of canker, due
+to fungi and bacteria, invade the bark, making sunken areas and scars,
+often so serious as to destroy the tree. All these features are
+discoverable in the apple-tree.
+
+The trunk of the apple-tree is short and stout, usually not perfectly
+cylindrical and not prominently buttressed at the base. In old trees
+it is usually ribbed or ridged, sometimes tortuous with spiral-like
+grooves, often showing the bulge where the graft was set. The wood is
+fine-grained and of good color, and lends itself well to certain kinds
+of cabinet work and to the turning-lathe for household objects; it
+should be better known.
+
+[Illustration: 2. The apple-tree in the landscape]
+
+If left to itself, the tree branches near the ground, making many
+strong secondary scaffold trunks; but the plant does not habitually
+have more than one bole, even though it may branch from the very base;
+it is a real tree, even though small, and not a huge shrub. In the
+natural condition, the trunk often rises only a foot or two before
+it is lost in the branches; at other times it may be four or six feet
+high. Under cultivation, the lowest branches are usually removed when
+the tree begins to grow, and an evident clean trunk is produced. In
+Europe and the Eastern States, it has been the practice to trim the
+trunk clean to the height of four or six feet; but in hotter and drier
+regions the trunk is kept short to insure against sun-scald; and with
+the better tillage implements of the present day it may not be
+necessary to train the heads so high.
+
+In old hill pastures, in many parts of the North, one sees curious
+umbrella forms and other shapes of apple-trees, due to browsing by
+cattle. A little tree gets a start in the pasture. When cattle are
+turned in, they browse the tender terminal growth. The plant spreads
+at the base, in a horizontal direction. With the repeated browsing on
+top, the tree becomes a dense conical mound. Eventually, the leader
+may get a strong headway, and grows beyond the reach of the browsers.
+As it rises out of grasp, it sends off its side shoots, forming a
+head. The cattle browse the under side of this head, as far as they
+are able to reach, causing the tree to assume a grotesque hour-glass
+shape, flat on the under part of the head, with a cone of green
+herbage at the ground. Sometimes pastures are full of little hummocks
+of trees that have not yet been able to overtop the grazers.
+
+The winter apple-tree in the free is a reassuring object. It has none
+of the sleekness of many horticultural forms, nor the fragility of
+peaches, sour cherries and plums. It stands boldly against the sky,
+with its elbows at all angles and its scaly bark holding the snow.
+Against evergreens it shows its ruggedness specially well. It
+presents forms to attract the artist. Even when gnarly and broken, it
+does not convey an impression of decrepitude and decay but rather of a
+hardy old character bearing his burdens. In every winter landscape I
+look instinctively for the apple-tree.
+
+We are so accustomed to the apple-tree as a part of an orchard, where
+it is trimmed into shape and its bolder irregularities controlled,
+that we do not think it has beauty when left to itself to grow as it
+will. An apple-tree that takes its own course, as does a pine-tree or
+an oak, is looked on as unkempt and unprofitable and as a sorry object
+in the landscape, advertizing the neglect of the owner. Yet if the
+apple-tree had never borne good fruit, we should plant it for its
+bloom and its picturesqueness as we plant a hawthorn or a locust-tree.
+
+In winter and in summer, and in the months between, my apple-tree is a
+great fact. It is a character in the population of my scenery,
+standing for certain human emotions. The tree is a living thing, not
+merely a something that bears apples.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+THE BUDS ON THE TWIGS
+
+
+Now the buds begin to break. The firm winter-buds swell. Their scales
+part. Tips of green appear. Tiny leaves come forth, neatly rolled
+inward, growing as they expand, the stalks lengthening. Resurrection
+is astir in the tree.
+
+Several leaves issue from every bud. From some buds arise only leaves;
+from others a flower-cluster emerges from the leaf-rosette, showing
+faint color even before it expands. Very close together and tight
+these unopened little flowers are packed as they emerge; if we had
+looked at them with a lens as they lay in the bud in the long winter
+we should understand why; now they escape their bonds and rapidly grow
+as they are delivered, yet at first pressed together by head and stem
+in their soft gray wool.
+
+Thus are there two kinds of buds on the twig of the bearing
+apple-tree,--the leaf-buds (sending forth leaves only), and the
+flower-buds (bearing both leaves and flowers). And if we wish to
+analyze more closely, we discover two kinds of leaf-buds,--those that
+send forth a rapidly growing shoot bearing the leaves, and those from
+which the leaf-cluster remains practically sessile on the branch.
+These latter, or the strongest and best of them, will probably give
+rise to short fruiting spurs and the others to elongated leafy
+branches.
+
+Before me as I write is an apple limb more than three feet long. It
+has been a vigorous grower, for it is only three years old. The years
+can be readily made out; there are two sets of "rings" separating
+them. You may see these rings on all young apple limbs. They represent
+the scars of the scales of the past terminal buds.
+
+Three years ago my shoot was sent off from its parent branch; that
+year it grew but four inches, bearing leaves on its sides, in the
+axils of which developed buds for the winter and at the end a larger
+terminal bud. Let us call this shoot 1918. Two years ago (1919),
+whilst I was in a distant land, the terminal bud gave rise to a shoot
+nineteen inches long; two buds near the end of the 1918 shoot pushed
+out clusters of leaves and made spurs about one-half inch long; all
+the other buds, five in number, remained dormant, and now they are
+dead and are rapidly becoming mere scars. Last year (1920) the
+terminal bud of 1919 gave rise to a shoot fifteen inches long; three
+buds at the base of this two-year (1919) shoot remained dormant;
+fourteen buds produced spurs. It is now the spring of 1921; the 1920
+shoot has four dormant buds at its base, ten rosettes of leaves from
+the other buds, and a pushing terminal shoot.
+
+On my branch this year, therefore, are 5 plus 3 plus 4, or 12 dormant
+buds of all the years; 2 plus 14 plus 10, or 26 spurs; 1 terminal bud
+continuing the onward growth.
+
+[Illustration: 3. The bloom of the apple-tree]
+
+It is evident that the last two years were good ones for my apple
+limb, for the growths were long (19 and 15 inches) and most of the
+buds produced spurs. The result is evidenced also in the fact that the
+limb is this year laden with potential bloom. On 1918 the two spurs
+bear flowers, one of them only a single bloom and the other five
+blooms. On 1919 twelve of the fourteen spurs are bearing flowers in
+the following numbers: 5 flowers, 5, 5, 7, 5, 6, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 = 63
+flowers. On 1920 are no spurs bearing flowers, but the terminal bud
+(as is frequent on vigorous young trees) bears five flowers. Here,
+therefore, on this yard of three-year-old twig are seventy-four
+blossoms.
+
+But there will not be seventy-four fruits; some of the flowers are
+small and weak; others, as the petals fall, show unmistakable signs of
+failing. A few of them show the plump form of an embryo apple: I think
+there are a score of such promises. But I know that others will fail
+later from physiological causes, and others probably from onslaught of
+insects or disease or from accidents. If six fair fruits mature on a
+branch like this, the crop will be good; and probably the branch would
+not have vigor enough to set as many fruit-buds the following year or
+to bear as many fruits.
+
+It is good to watch the opening of the apple bloom: pink buds swelling
+and puffing out each day, the woolly stems elongating, the five
+overlapping incurving petals spreading and growing big, the stamens,
+about twenty, straightening up and lengthening their filaments that
+are attached on the flower-rim; the big light yellow anthers shedding
+pollen; the five green styles in the center. In some flowers the
+styles do not develop, and we have one reason why many flowers are
+sterile.
+
+The flower-clusters differ much among themselves, in size of parts,
+number of flowers, color; on some trees the flowers appear in advance
+of most of the leafage, but usually they are coincident with the
+leaves. Sometimes the flower-stems or peduncles are branched, bearing
+two or three flowers, and in that case there may be a small green leaf
+or bract where the fork arises. The placing of the petals in the bud
+at the epoch of expansion may differ in two flowers on the same tree.
+One petal may stand guard outside the others and free from them, both
+edges uncovered, while the remaining petals are spiral with one edge
+under and one edge over; or there may be two guard petals, one on
+either side; or sometimes all the petals may be spiral, one margin
+out, one margin in; in some cases all the petals stand free as the
+flower is expanding, with no margin interlapping. Sometimes one petal
+is missing, and again the petals may be six.
+
+This infinite variety within the bonds of so great regularity lends a
+subtle charm to natural objects, that is wholly absent in man's
+perfected machine-work. Man aims at uniformity, two and two alike;
+nature aims at endless difference, every object or even every member
+of an object having its own character. Much of man's energy is
+expended in trying to overcome the diverseness of nature.
+
+Gradually and slowly the flower balloons enlarge and puff themselves
+up, the petals standing together at their tips; all the variety is
+united into a harmony of exuberance, color and form; then one day
+there is a shower of genial rain, a warm sun, birds in the air, bees
+released, grasses soft and lush, and behold! the apple-tree is in
+bloom,--a great heavenly mound of white and pink exhaling a faint
+delicious breath. Then the pulses stir, the dogs bark at the edges of
+the wood, the fields call, the scented winds lead on forever.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+THE WEEKS BETWEEN THE FLOWER AND THE FRUIT
+
+
+The petals expand broadly, usually losing most of their pink. The
+blade is oblong and rounded at the end, at first cupped and then
+nearly flat, three-fourths of an inch long, narrowed at the base into
+a short stem-like part and usually hairy there, the edges perhaps wavy
+but entire. The expanse of the flower may be one and one-half to two
+inches. The brush of stamens, erect in the center, sheds its pollen
+and the anthers collapse.
+
+Then the petals fall, like flakes of snow, borne often by the wind.
+There remain the stout woolly flower-stems an inch or more long and
+bearing minute dry bracts, with the young fruit at the summit topped
+by the five recurving woolly sepals and the pencil of stamens and
+styles. The bloom being gone, the flowering system of the apple is
+thenceforth little observed. Not until the fruit begins to color do we
+come back to the apple-tree to look at it closely; yet in these
+intervening weeks some of the most interesting transformations take
+place, and on the exact observance of them depends to a large extent
+one's success in the rearing and saving of a good crop of apples.
+
+Here is the flower of the apple-tree (Fig. 3). It is a comely
+blossom, fragrant and pinky white, flatly spread to the sky, carrying
+the spirit of the cool of the spring. What concerns us now, however,
+is the cluster of stamens and pistils in the center, for these organs
+are directly concerned in the production of the fruit. The petals soon
+fall, but the remains of these interior organs persist, even unto the
+ripening of the fruit.
+
+The anther is attached at the back of its base or middle to the top of
+the filament in the suture separating the two large cells. These
+anther-cells split along the outer margins, releasing the
+pollen-grains.
+
+[Illustration: 4. Longitudinal section of the flower.]
+
+In the center of the ring of stamens are the five style-branches,
+which are united at the base into a short hairy column; the column is
+borne on the ovary, which is sunken deep into the receptacle or stem
+(Fig. 4). It is down these style-branches that the pollen-tube passes
+on its way to the ovules or embryo seeds. The top of the style is
+expanded into a cupped stigma on which are many glutinous points. One
+can observe the browning and ripening of the stigma after pollen has
+been deposited by wind, bees or other agencies. When the ovules are
+fertilized, the forming fruit enlarges regularly unless it meets with
+misfortune or is crowded out for lack of room and nourishment.
+
+If one cuts across the ovary or embryo fruit below the recurving
+sepals, one will see under a lens that it is neatly five-celled (Fig.
+5). In each cell are two ovules; these, if all goes well, will ripen
+into ten seeds. These five cells comprise most of the diameter in the
+cross-section: but as the ovary enlarges and the young fruit grows,
+one may see that the inner part comprising the cells begins to have a
+character of its own and to be differentiated from the surrounding
+flesh.
+
+[Illustration: 5. Cross-section of the ovary.]
+
+The "blossom" falls. In reality only the petals fall. What is left is
+well shown in Fig. 6. Here remain the upstanding stamens with the
+empty anthers, and in the center one could see the five styles if the
+specimen were in hand. Here also are the calyx-lobes, widely spreading
+and even recurved. The photograph for Fig. 6 was taken May 3. On May
+17 another cluster was photographed from the same tree (Fig. 7). Three
+of the flowers have produced sturdy young apples. The stems or
+pedicels have become stouter, and they begin to spread. Note that the
+calyx now is closed, the old stamens protruding, a circumstance that
+will have special significance when we become acquainted with the
+codlin-moth. Note also that one flower has failed, and remains as it
+was two weeks earlier; it will soon fall. The young apples begin to
+take shape. They show a glow of red on the cheek. They are fuzzy all
+over. One of them is already injured on one side, having been stung by
+a curculio or other insect: there are keen senses about the
+apple-tree.
+
+[Illustration: 6. May 3--When the petals have fallen]
+
+[Illustration: 7. May 17--When the young fruits begin to show]
+
+Two weeks later (May 31) still another cluster was taken from the same
+tree (Fig. 8). Here are three fruits erect on their stems; one of them
+is more than an inch in diameter either way, sturdy and unblemished;
+another shows deformity due to insect puncture; the third remains
+small and presently will drop. A scar in the leaf-axil marks the
+failure of another flower. Four blossoms were in this cluster, but
+only one fruit now has a chance to come to uninjured maturity, and two
+have already failed. The big apple has now lost most of its fuzziness
+and begins to assume a delicate "bloom" on its surface; the smallest
+one--the one that soon will perish--still holds some of its fuzz. A
+section of this smallest fruit discloses empty cells; apparently it
+was not fertilized.
+
+[Illustration: 8. May 31--The success and failure]
+
+[Illustration: 9. June 14--The one big apple]
+
+Another two weeks have passed. It is June 14th. From the same tree is
+taken the photograph, Fig. 9. Here is a big apple, 1-1/2 inch in
+diameter; and there is a dead shrivelled fruit that dropped when I
+touched it. Of the several flowers in the cluster, all have failed but
+one. This one fruit has now passed the danger of the blossom-end
+infection by the codlin-moth and it has no blemishes. The many whitish
+spots characteristic of the variety are now conspicuous all over the
+surface. The ribs begin to show. There is a faint blush on the upper
+side. The fuzz has disappeared and the bloom is becoming evident. The
+calyx is tightly closed, although the tips of the sepals are spread
+widely. The stem is stout. The weight of the apple inclines it nearly
+to the horizontal. Yet this good apple is not symmetrical; one side is
+larger than the other. I cut it crosswise and find two cells on the
+larger side developing two strong seeds each, whilst those on the
+smaller side have a single seed each and one of these seeds is small
+and perhaps would not have matured. The fleshy part of the apple,
+outside the core, now occupies about as much of the diameter as the
+core itself and much more than one-half the bulk of the fruit.
+Already my apple, now half grown, shows many of its distinctive
+characteristics.
+
+Yet another fortnight has come and gone, and it is June 28th. It has
+been good "growing weather." Summer is here, full-orbed, regal,
+bringing the abundance of the earth. Here are two stout apples hanging
+on their stems (Fig. 10), for they are now too heavy to be held erect.
+The larger fruit is a trifle more than two inches in diameter. The
+feature spots are now still more prominent on these apples, the ribs
+more pronounced, the blush against the sun more warm. Both these
+fruits, from one spur, will mature; but the smaller one will be
+blemished, for the apple-scab fungus has established itself on the
+crown and about the calyx. Already the growth is checked in that area,
+and the apple looks flattened. There is no evidence in either apple of
+codlin-moth invasion. The adjoining spur, not clearly shown in the
+photograph, is barren; it gave no flowers this year, and it shows no
+indication of a blossom-bud for next year. The leaves are thick and
+vigorous, yet they bear marks of insect injury and one of them has
+been extensively skeletonized. On the whole, however, the fruits have
+the mastery, and they now make a brave show.
+
+[Illustration: 10. June 28, and the apples have taken their form]
+
+July has passed this way. Tomorrow it will be August. The odor of
+apples is now in my tree. There are big striped apples on the ground,
+plucked by the wind, the hold loosened by bugs for they too have felt
+the fullness of July. Three apples, one of them three inches through
+and two and one-half inches high, and the others nearly as big, hang
+at the level of my eyes. You may see them in Fig. 11. Here rises again
+my boyhood spent in an orchard now passed away, as father and mother
+have passed, as playmates have fallen one by one, the old place
+holding only memories. Here is my boyhood because the earth is always
+young and repeats her miracles for the children by my side as it did
+for me so many many years ago. Yet the miracles are greater now than
+they were then. They have more meaning. Now are they part of some
+great order. They are not separate. Without moving my feet, I lay my
+hands on apples, Virginia creeper, asparagus, marigold, sweet sultan,
+oxalis, plantain, crab-grass, white clover, all growing securely in
+one place, and everyone like unto itself alone. Here is the
+everlasting miracle before my eyes, and all miracles are mysteries.
+Once I thought I should understand such things when I was "grown up,"
+but I find myself still a boy.
+
+[Illustration: 11. July 31, and the apples are getting ripe]
+
+These three apples on the last of the days of July look fair and
+sound, partly hidden in the leaves, the deep red colors covering them
+in broad splashed stripes and relieved by light dots. Yet when I raise
+the leaves or when I lift the apples apart, I find the burrows of
+insects. They know that these apples are good. It is astonishing how
+nature covers up the wounds, how she conceals the sore places, and how
+fair she makes everything look. Were it not that she covers the
+depredations of man, the earth would not long remain habitable by him.
+
+Summer is ended. Today the sun is on the equator, and we are at the
+equinox when nights are equal to the days, as the word testifies. The
+harvest is over. The apples are no more. Yet the tree still is active
+and preparing for another year (Fig. 12). The spurs are now thick and
+stout, bearing sturdy hard leaves. The bud in the center is a big
+one, already recognized as a fruit-bud: here is the promise of
+speckled, furrowed, striped apples next August. Thereby I learn that
+it is not enough to be good to the tree in the year in which I desire
+its fruit: I must begin the year before, and the year before that, and
+even back at the time when the tree is planted; and if the tree at
+planting-time is not a good tree, it will be at a disadvantage perhaps
+all its life long.
+
+[Illustration: 12. September 22, and the buds are formed for the next
+year's crop]
+
+Finally the apple is ripe and ready. At the stem end is the "cavity,"
+a depression, deep or shallow, according to variety, in which the stem
+is set. At the blossom end is the "basin," also with the
+characteristics of the variety as to depth and width and contour, in
+which the calyx-lobes persist, and inside the calyx are the remains of
+the dead stamens and styles; the calyx may be "closed" or "open," the
+character being a mark of the particular variety.
+
+Cut the apple through the center lengthwise (Fig. 13); note the curved
+outline of the core (the pistil) extending half or more across the
+fruit; if you do not see this outline, cut an apple until you do;
+carefully open the five cells or compartments and within the parchment
+walls find the two seeds attached by their points which are directed
+toward the stem end; perhaps one of the seeds has failed, but probably
+a cavity marks its place; perhaps both seeds have failed; perhaps the
+cell has more than two seeds.
+
+[Illustration: 13. The apples in section]
+
+Cut an apple cross-wise: note the five radiating cells of the core,
+the number and attachment of the seeds; note the ten points, imbedded
+in the flesh, marking the outline of the core. Cut an apple cross-wise
+above the core and beneath it; note where these points vanish and try
+to harmonize them with the core-outline as seen in the lengthwise
+section; probably you will discover why you may not see the
+core-outline in all the lengthwise sections you make. Before you leave
+the fruit, note whether single seeds in a cell are the same shape as
+the two seeds in a cell.
+
+The flesh outside the core-outline is interpreted to be stem structure
+rather than pistil structure. Sometimes an apple bears a scale-like
+leaf on its exterior, suggesting that the outer part of the fruit is
+stem. The older morphologists interpreted the apple flower to comprise
+a hollowed calyx (calyx-tube) inside which is the pistil and on the
+rim of which are the petals and stamens. The structure now is regarded
+as a hollowed receptacle or stem (hypanthium), with the pistil inside,
+the petals and stamens on its rim. We noted in the flower that the
+ovary part of the pistil is solidly imbedded in this receptacle, but
+that the five styles are free. The pear and quince are of similar
+structure, but the peach, plum and cherry are simple ripened pistils.
+
+Here, in this chapter, we have discovered some of the epochs in the
+life of the apple. Usually we let the imagination run only to the
+mature fruit, thinking of the harvest, but in all the weeks before the
+harvest the apple has been growing and taking form. As these weeks
+have not been blank to the apple-tree, so shall they not be blank to
+me.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+THE BRUSH PILE
+
+
+Today I visited the brush pile back of the orchard. Here the trimmings
+of the winter are placed, waiting to be burned when dry. How many are
+the archives that will be destroyed! Here are histories in every bud
+and twig and scar, of the seasons, of the accidents and deaths, the
+records of the tree as there are records of families.
+
+These records are not written in numbers or in letters, nor yet in
+hieroglyphs; yet are they understandable. Alphabet is not needed, and
+the key is simple.
+
+From the brush pile of records I took one. I must describe it in part
+by a picture (Fig. 14). On the living trees at this writing the petals
+mostly have fallen and the leaves are nearly full grown. This branch
+was cut in winter. It has lain in the snow and rain, putting forth no
+flowers or leaves. Yet we can read it.
+
+It is May, 1921. The terminal shoot is obviously of 1920; we shall
+name it No. 1. It is a foot long, smooth and glossy, terminating at
+the base (_o_) in a "ring" and at a short stub or branchlet. If we
+count the buds on all sides of the shoot and at the tip we find them
+to be 13. The largest one is at the tip, and they are mostly
+successively smaller toward the base. Apparently the growth-energy was
+expended in the upper parts of the twig, making large full buds. In
+fact, the three or four lowermost buds are scarcely developed and
+would not grow unless the limb were broken off above them; they are
+dormant buds.
+
+[Illustration: 14. A three-year record.--In a leisure hour, trace the
+history of these parts; it will open your eyes.]
+
+Looking along the shoot, I find that every six buds stand in the same
+line: the sixth bud is over the first, seventh over the second, eighth
+over the third. If I were to fasten a string to bud No. 1 and wind it
+around the stem to my left, passing over every bud until I had reached
+the sixth, I should find that it had made two circuits of the stem
+(passed twice around it) and had passed over five spaces between buds.
+This is the leaf-arrangement or phyllotaxy of the apple-tree,
+expressed by the fraction 2/5. The space between two buds is
+two-fifths of a diameter, and two circuits (ten-fifths) must be passed
+before a bud comes over the one from which we started. The 2/5
+leaf-arrangement obtains on cherry, peach, apricot, pear, raspberry
+and many others; but a very different order is that of the linden,
+grape, currant, lilies, elm, maple.
+
+We cannot understand this simple unbranched terminal twig (No. 1)
+until we know what took place last year. A year ago, in the spring of
+1920, a terminal bud that had formed in 1919 expanded and gave rise to
+this rapidly growing shoot. By the end of May or early June this shoot
+had grown to twelve inches long, for the growth in length on the twigs
+of trees is usually completed that early. This shoot bore leaves on
+the 2/5 arrangement; in the axil of every leaf was a bud, the
+strongest buds being with the strongest leaves at the middle and top
+of the shoot; in the autumn of 1920 these leaves fell, but the buds
+remained, persisted the winter, and were ready to "grow" in the early
+spring of 1921. We see them on No. 1 (Fig. 14).
+
+[Illustration: 15. The growing shoot, with a bud in each axil, and a
+spur on last year's growth.]
+
+In 1921 these buds on No. 1, then, would have grown. New leaves would
+have come from the bud itself; in fact, the winter buds of the apple
+are packed with miniature leaves and sometimes with flowers as well.
+The shoot coming out of the bud may remain very short, constituting a
+"spur," or grow with long internodes, making a slender twig. Fig. 15
+shows a branch with new elongated growth, _b_ to _a_, and a shoot or
+spur (_c_) arising from a bud of the previous year. Note the "ring,"
+or division beyond _b_, marking the turn of the year.
+
+It will be noted in Fig. 14 that the buds are of two shapes and sizes,
+such as _a, a, a_, representing one kind and _b, b_, the other kind.
+The former, small and pointed, are leaf-buds; from them will arise a
+shoot bearing only leaves. The latter, _b_, large and rounded and
+usually more fuzzy, are flower-buds (fruit-buds): from them will arise
+a short shoot bearing leaves and a cluster of flowers; and we hope
+that at least one of the flowers will set fruit.
+
+We are now ready to resume our lesson with the branch before us. We
+have identified the slender terminal part, No. 1, as the growth of
+1920. We are now to account for all the remaining buds and branchlets.
+
+If No. 1 grew in 1920, then the main shoot of No. 2 grew in 1919, from
+the point _o o_. It is also one foot long. Near its base are four
+small buds that remained dormant in 1920. There are nine branches
+(_d_) of various lengths besides the terminal shoot No. 1, all of
+which grew in 1920, for they are naturally a year younger than the
+main axis from which they arise; these branches are the same age as
+No. 1, with buds that would have produced shoots in 1921. But the
+terminal buds of eight of these lateral shoots (all but the lowermost)
+bear blossom-buds at the end; note their size and shape. Had not the
+branch been cut, these buds would have bloomed in 1921; the eight of
+them would have produced probably forty to fifty flowers; perhaps two
+or three good fruits would have resulted. Note that two of the lateral
+branches or spurs are short and weak: these would soon perish. The No.
+2 branch has a dead end (_e_); in some way the terminal bud was
+destroyed, and No. 1 sprang from a lateral bud beneath it, changing
+the direction of growth.
+
+If No. 2 grew in 1919, then No. 3 grew in 1918. It also grew about one
+foot in length, showing that the conditions in the three years must
+have been very uniform. There are remains of five dormant buds at its
+base. There are seven side branches. As the main axis is three years
+old, so these lateral shoots are two years old; they are the same age
+as the axis No. 2. The lower one (_s_) grew less than an inch in 1919,
+and made a fruit-bud; in 1920 it blossomed and one fruit set as is
+shown by the square scar at the end; as the scar is small and the twig
+weak, we are safe in assuming that the apple was very small or else
+did not mature. A bud formed at the side of _s_ to continue the growth
+of the spur next year (1921), but it is a leaf-bud; apparently there
+was not sufficient energy to bear flowers and to make a fruit-bud; so
+there would have been no more fruit on this spur earlier than 1922:
+thus do we see that the alternate bearing of the apple-tree may have
+some of its origin in the fruit-spur.
+
+The side spur _f_ produced a terminal blossom-bud in 1919. In 1920 six
+flowers opened,--I could count the scars. One of the flowers produced
+a fruit, as I tell by the square scar at the end; the thickened stem
+also indicates fruit-bearing. The side bud in this case is a
+fruit-bud, but it is small and weak and is probably incapable of
+producing a fruit. There are no strong leaf-buds to take up the work,
+and this spur (_f_) would probably soon have died, as also would spur
+_s_.
+
+The side shoot _g_ grew to _h_ in 1919 and made a flower-bud. In 1920
+this bud gave blossoms and one fruit resulted; the scar is prominent
+and there is an enlargement of the tissue indicating that the fruit
+probably attained good size; in 1920 also, two side spurs were formed
+each with weak blossom-buds, also a terminal shoot (beyond _h_) with
+leaf-bud at the end.
+
+The other shoots have similar histories: the long shoot _i_ bore a
+fruit-bud at _k_ in 1919 and a fruit in 1920; in 1920 it also made
+three lateral shoots and a terminal shoot, with flower-buds
+terminating two of them. Shoot _l_ bore flowers at its point in 1920
+but did not carry the fruit to maturity; it also made two side growths
+and one terminal growth, all terminated by flower-buds, to be blown in
+1921. The shoot _m_ is a short spur that made a flower-bud in 1919 and
+in 1920 carried three little fruits for a time and made a flower-bud
+in 1920. Shoot _n_ remained very short in 1919, making a terminal
+leaf-bud; in 1920 it grew two inches and made a weak flower-bud.
+
+If shoot No. 3 grew in 1918, then No. 4 grew in 1917; but the branch
+is severed and I cannot trace the record farther. We could trace the
+family history many years if we had the unpruned tree before us.
+
+Here, then, in my yard-long manuscript are forty bud-records on the
+main axis, counting the terminals on No. 2 and No. 3. I can find
+record of 144 buds on the side shoots. This makes a grand total of 184
+buds. There is a total growth in length of 108 inches, or 9 feet. Each
+of the buds that has already "grown" has produced an average of
+probably ten leaves, or say 340 leaves in total. If there were an
+average of five flowers to the cluster, then about 150 flowers would
+have been carried on my branch, with the potentiality of 150 fruits;
+but in fact not more than three or four maturing fruits would have
+been produced in these years: and I should think this a good
+proportion as blossoms and apples go. Certainly the branch has done
+its part. There have been three eventful years.
+
+I would not have my reader to suppose that one may always distinguish
+leaf-buds and fruit-buds at a glance. I may be mistaken in some of the
+above determinations, but they are essentially correct for I have the
+twig before me. In some varieties of apples the differences between
+the two kinds of buds are less marked. The certain way is to dissect
+the bud: one may then see what it contains.
+
+It now remains to determine how the branch was placed in the tree. It
+must have been upright or very nearly so, for the main axis is
+essentially straight and the branchlets are about equally developed on
+all sides; moreover, there is no indication in the bark that one
+exposure was the "weather side." The big twig _i_ apparently found a
+light and unoccupied space into which to develop, but its extension is
+not greatly out of proportion. I suppose, however, that my branch was
+not topmost in the tree; there is no indication in very long growth or
+strong upward tendency of the branchlets to mark the branch as a
+"leader."
+
+Years ago I became fascinated with the study of knots and knot-holes
+in the timber of wood-piles. They are excellent records of the events
+in the life of trees. In print I have tried to show what they mean. I
+also worked out the life-histories of twigs and published them in
+nature-study leaflets and elsewhere. Hundreds of children were
+interested in the twigs and buds, finding them unusual, every one of
+them a different story, and yet not difficult to read. These lessons
+gave meaning to trees and seasons. Such observations have always meant
+much to me, even when made in the most casual way in the midst of
+constraining activities. And now in this later day I come back to a
+bare twig with all the joy of youth. The records of the years are in
+these piles of brush.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+THE PRUNING OF THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+We have found that not all the buds grow. We also know that some of
+the spurs and shoots perish, not alone from accident but from defeat
+in the struggle to live. The chances of success are relatively few.
+The pruning process begins early in the life of the tree, and it
+continues ceaselessly until the end.
+
+To the apple-tree in the wild, strict pruning is the assurance of
+success. No tree can reach maturity unless more parts perish than are
+able to live. The young forest tree has branchlets and leaves along
+its side and at the top. All these perish as the trunk rises, often
+leaving marks on the bark, curls in the wood, and knot-holes large and
+small. Thousands of perished buds and branches are the price of a
+straight bole and great clear sheets of boards. Yet these perished
+parts bore their burden in their day and time, and contributed to the
+ultimate success: there could have been no tree without them.
+
+Any tree-top discloses the pruning in action if one looks intently.
+Part of it is recorded in the buds that never put forth a leaf; more
+of it in little shoots left behind; and there are large and small
+limbs, dead and dying, yellowing apparently before their time, hanging
+on till the last hold is broken. Were it not for the benevolent
+processes of decay, the ground would be strewn with the fallen parts
+accumulating through the years.
+
+In nature, the great result is to yield abundant quantity of seeds,
+that the species may propagate itself after its kind. Man may desire
+fruits relatively few, but large of size and excellent of quality,
+without spot or blemish; this means greater opportunity and care to
+the single fruit. Pruning is essential, to converge the energy of the
+plant into fewer branches, to give the fruits space and light, to
+increase the efficiency of measures for the control of diseases and
+insects. Part of the pruning consists in removing certain branches,
+and part of it in eliminating the fruits themselves by the careful
+process of thinning.
+
+The pruning of nature is fortuitous. The tree has the irregularity and
+abandon of the picturesque. The pruning of man is for a different end,
+and it produces the comely well-proportioned tree of the orchards. The
+tree becomes a manipulated subject, comforting to the eye of the
+thrifty pomologist.
+
+Branch-pruning is essentially the removal of superfluous
+branches,--those that crowd, that cross each other, that are so placed
+as to be profitless, that are in the way, that are injured or
+diseased. For the most part, the branches should be removed when they
+are small; but it is not possible to foresee all that may be needed in
+the training of the tree and, therefore, the frequent advice to prune
+only with a hand-knife cannot be followed. One needs a sharp
+pruning-saw and sometimes a chisel on a long handle. Usually it is not
+necessary to remove branches more than an inch or one and one-half
+inch in diameter if pruning is carefully practiced every year; but
+sometimes even well-pruned trees must be shaped, corrected and
+improved by the cutting of larger branches.
+
+Pruning is usually best performed in early spring. The branch should
+be cut close to the main limb or trunk and parallel with it, leaving
+no stub; the healing process is then likely to proceed more rapidly.
+The wound should be smooth and clean, without breaks, splinters or
+splits; the knot-holes in logs and trunks are usually the consequence
+of long "stubs" and torn injured parts. The tree is to be left
+shapely, with a uniform distribution of branches, plenty of
+fruit-bearing wood, easy to spray and from which to pick the fruit, of
+the form characteristic of the variety.
+
+In all the usual customary pruning of the apple-tree, dressing of the
+wounds is not necessary. It is much more important to give the added
+attention to the proper making of the wounds and the thoughtful choice
+of the parts to be removed. Wounds two inches and more in diameter may
+be protected with good paint, so that they will not check and
+therefore not hold water, until the callus covers them. Good judgment
+in pruning is more profitable than recipes to repair damage.
+
+Fruit-pruning, or thinning, is the removing of so much fruit, when it
+is small, as will allow the remainder to mature to its best and
+constitute a maximum yield; it reduces the quantity of inferior fruit,
+lessens the number of culls and the labor at packing time, conserves
+the energy of the tree by preventing the maturity of great numbers of
+seeds, diminishes diseases and pests. The overloading of the tree not
+only imposes a heavy tax on its vitality but is likely to break the
+limbs and to work much physical damage.
+
+Thinning may consist in removing part of the fruit in the cluster (in
+the case of varieties that tend to mature more than one fruit from
+each flower-cluster), in picking all the fruits from certain clusters
+or pairs of clusters, or in cutting away some of the fruit-spurs
+before blossoming time.
+
+The removal of the fruit itself is usually performed after the
+"June-drop," when the extent of the crop is evident. The fruits are
+pulled off by hand or cut with thinning-shears, the latter practice
+being the better since it is not so likely to break the fruit-spurs.
+The least promising fruits are taken away and the remaining apples are
+left at least five or six inches apart in most varieties. The extent
+of thinning must be governed by the variety, thrift of the tree,
+result desired, and other conditions. To secure the best results, the
+apples should be thinned when still small.
+
+Thinning by early-spring removal of fruit-spurs is a very special
+practice. It is employed on dwarf trees and on those specially
+trained. It should be undertaken only by a careful and experienced
+man. It is not to be inferred that the fruit of the apple is all borne
+on spurs, for some of it may be derived from terminal buds on the new
+axial growths or even from lateral buds; but the spurs are conspicuous
+and readily recognized. Of course the ordinary pruning of the tree
+removes fruit-bearing wood and is therefore a thinning process.
+
+Within sensible limits, therefore, pruning is an invigorating process
+in the sense that it deflects the energy to remaining parts of the
+tree. What is called too heavy pruning, whereby the tree throws out
+abundance of water-sprouts, is illustration of this fact: the tree is
+thrown into heavy growth of adventitious shoots. The tree may not
+produce more pounds of substance, or even more total feet in length,
+but new energy is developed in certain parts.
+
+In the restoration, or so-called renovation, of old neglected trees,
+the two primary considerations are to prune vigorously and to till and
+fertilize the land. Sometimes old trees must be mended as explained in
+Chapter XIII. Of course they must be sprayed for what ails them. If
+the variety is poor, the tree may be top-grafted (Chapter XII). In
+some cases, it is hardly possible to make neglected trees bear
+satisfactorily, for they were never of value: there is nothing to
+restore. It may be a question of soil and location, of lack of
+pollination, of trees so weak or so misshapen that effort on them is
+wasted. But tillage, pruning, spraying, should produce worth-while
+results in most cases.
+
+In the care of the fruit-tree there is no practice which brings the
+grower into such intimate knowledge of the plant as that of pruning
+and thinning. The operator sees the tree as a whole, taking it all in;
+then he sees it in small detail in all its parts, even to the spurs
+and buds. With simple good tools, sharp and keen, and with a practiced
+eye, he applies a deft and swift handicraft, cutting true, making a
+fair clean wound, leaving the tree comely and ready for its highest
+effort. The pride of good workmanship may find expression. The
+operator feels also the sense of mastery that is in him, whereby he
+corrects the tree, removes the wayward parts, keeps and encourages all
+that is best. To engage in this kind of education requires that one
+approaches the work with due preparation of mind and I think also with
+consecration of heart.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+MAINTAINING THE HEALTH AND ENERGY OF THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+The apple-tree starts life fresh and vigorous. It grows rapidly. The
+shoots are long and straight. The wood is smooth and fair and supple.
+The leaves are usually large. It is good to see the young trees
+acquire size and take shape.
+
+Room in the ground and in the air is ample with the young apple-tree.
+It is free to grow. Probably the ground was newly prepared and tilled
+when the tree was planted; at least, a hole was dug and fine good
+earth was placed about the roots. Probably insects had not found
+permanent encampment on the tree. It had been well pruned, so that it
+carried the minimum of superfluous and competing parts.
+
+But in time the difficulties come. The tree probably slows down. It
+becomes too thick of branches. The land is not tilled. It is not
+manured. Insects and fungi make headway. The tree overbears. As the
+years go on, the tree is thrown into alternate bearing, one year a
+crop too heavy, one year a crop too light. The tree becomes broken,
+diseased, gnarly, unshapely.
+
+We have seen that the fruit-spur in bearing is likely to make a
+leaf-bud for the next year's activities rather than a flower-bud. It
+is assumed that the making of a flower-bud requires more energy than
+the making of a plain leaf-bud; if this is true, there may not be
+energy enough to carry a flower-cluster and to make a new flower-bud
+at the same time. But if the tree is in proper vigor, is well fed,
+protected from noxious organisms, not allowed to overbear, it should
+have sufficient energy to make a crop every year, frosts and accidents
+excepted. It is assumed, of course, that self-sterile varieties have
+good pollinizing varieties near them; it is always well to plant two
+or more kinds near together. Whether the continuity of bearing is
+exhibited on the same fruit-spurs or whether there may be an
+alternation in the spurs on the same tree, is of no moment in this
+discussion. It is enough to say that there is no reason in the nature
+of the case why an apple-tree should bear only every other year; it is
+probably a question of nutrition.
+
+The first essential to continued health and vigor is to start with a
+strong unblemished tree. It is to be planted before its vitality is
+lessened by exposure and hard usage. The more direct the transfer from
+nursery to orchard, the better. It is to be placed in good ground,
+well drained and deeply spaded or plowed. The apple-tree thrives on
+many kinds of land, but light sand, hard clay, and muck are equally to
+be avoided. "Good corn land" is commonly considered to be good apple
+land. Certain soils and regions are particularly adaptable to
+commercial apple-growing, but the amateur may plant quite
+independently of this fact. The observant man notes the many
+conditions under which the apple-tree may be grown with satisfaction.
+
+If the land is not uniformly prepared, then the hole dug for the tree
+should be larger than demanded by spread of roots, and the earth
+fined in the bottom of it. Trees should be planted when perfectly
+dormant, preferably in spring, at least in the northern parts.
+
+The roots should be cut back to sound unsplintered wood, and very long
+roots may well be shortened. The reader is aware that roots have no
+regular order or arrangement as do the buds from which branches arise.
+It is not necessary to try to shape the root-system to any formal
+regularity.
+
+As a good part of the root-system is destroyed when the tree is dug,
+so is the top reduced to insure something like a balance. Half or more
+of the top, on a three-year-old tree, is cut away, the long growths
+being shortened to perhaps three or four good buds. If limbs are left
+to form the framework of the future top, they should be alternate with
+each other at some distance apart so that weak crotches do not form.
+
+The tree is planted snugly, the earth being filled among the roots so
+that no air-holes remain. The tree is shaken up and down to settle the
+earth densely. Once or twice in filling, the earth is packed with the
+feet. The purpose is to keep the tree firm and stiff against winds,
+and to give all its roots close contact with the earth. Properly
+planted, so that it will not whip or dry out, the tree gets a hold
+quickly and begins to grow strongly. The first start-off of the tree
+is important.
+
+Apple-trees are held in vigor by plenty of room. For the standard
+varieties in regular orchards, the recommended distance either way is
+40 feet, or 35 x 40 feet. Some varieties may go as close as 30 feet;
+and in regions (as parts of central and western North America) in
+which the trees are not expected to attain such great size as in the
+eastern country, the planting may be even less than this of the
+upright-growing kinds. The spaces between the trees may be utilized
+for a few years with other crops, even with other fruits, as peaches
+or berries. Orchardists sometimes plant smaller-growing and
+early-bearing varieties of apples between the regular trees as
+"fillers," taking them out as the room is needed. Of course all kinds
+of double cropping require that extra attention be given to the
+tilling and fertilizing of the plantation.
+
+The general advice for the growing of strong apple-trees is to give
+the land good tillage from the first and to withhold other cropping
+after the trees come into profitable bearing. Clean tillage for the
+first part of the season and the raising of a cover-crop in the latter
+part, to be plowed under, is a standard and dependable procedure.
+Trees live long in continuous sod and they may thrive, but they may be
+expected to show gains under tillage. Vast areas of apple plantings
+are in sod, but this of itself does not demonstrate the desirability
+of the sod practice. Allowing trees to remain in sod usually leads to
+neglect.
+
+There is a modification of sod-practice in some parts of the country
+that gives excellent results, under certain conditions. The grass is
+cut and allowed to lie, not being removed for hay. Manure and
+fertilizer are added as top-dressing, as needed. This method is known
+as the "sod mulch system." It is not a practice of partial neglect,
+like the prevailing sod orchards, but a regular designed method of
+producing results. Its application can hardly be as widespread as
+clean tillage, on level lands.
+
+It is a common opinion that hillsides and more or less inaccessible
+slopes should be planted to apples. This may be true in the sense
+that apples will grow on such areas and that such plantations are
+better than fallow land. In fact, many such lands are profitable in
+orchards. When they do not allow of tillage, easy spraying, and
+economy in harvesting, however, they cannot compete with level
+orchards.
+
+To maintain the health and energy of the apple-tree, the land should
+be enriched. This may be accomplished by the application of animal
+manures, chemical fertilizers, or cover-crops, or preferably by a
+combination of these means. Not many persons possess sufficient farm
+manures to supply the general crops and the apple-orchard; but every
+application the orchard receives is all to the good. Five to ten tons
+of good stable manure to the acre annually is a good addition for an
+orchard in bearing. This may be supplemented by cover-crops and bag
+fertilizers in years in which the manure is not available. Experiments
+are yet inconclusive on the fertilizing of apple-trees, but it is fair
+to assume that on most lands, particularly on old lands, the addition
+of chemical fertilizer is advantageous. A bearing apple-tree may
+receive two to eight pounds of nitrate of soda (depending on its size
+and on soil) applied to the full feeding area of the roots, five to
+nine pounds of acid phosphate, two or three pounds of muriate of
+potash; always ask advice.
+
+The pasturing of orchards is often defensible and sometimes even
+desirable. If the trees are growing too rapidly, they may be "slowed
+down" by seeding to grass for a time; and pasturing with hogs, and
+possibly with sheep, may afford a way of keeping the area in condition
+and of adding fertilizer. Sheep that do not have access to
+drinking-water and salt gnaw the trees. Hogs root up the ground and
+thereby provide a rude kind of tillage. If animals are fed other food
+in the orchard, the fertilizer increment will be considerable.
+
+In house-lot conditions, the apple-tree usually receives sufficient
+food if the land is well enriched for garden purposes; but trees in
+sod should have liberal top-dressings of fertilizer every year and of
+stable manure every other year.
+
+The apple-tree should have a good supply of moisture. Planted on banks
+and in hard places about buildings, it may suffer in this respect. The
+land should be so graded that the rainfall will not run off. In
+orchard conditions, the moisture is conserved by the addition of humus
+to the land, and by thorough judicious tillage; and in dry regions it
+is supplied by irrigation.
+
+The energy of the apple-tree, and its ability to produce, is conserved
+by holding all diseases and noxious insects in check. The means at the
+command of the apple-grower are now many. No longer is the man
+helpless, nor does he need to appeal to the moon or to "atmospheric
+influences" for reasons. The natural histories of fungi and insects,
+that do so much damage, are now a part of common understandable
+knowledge. To acquire at least a working understanding of the
+commonest of these subjects is in itself a great satisfaction and
+gives one a sense of dominion. The good books and bulletins are
+sufficient to keep one well informed. All these organisms are tenants
+of the apple-tree, and from the naturist's point of view alone they
+are not to be overlooked.
+
+It is not to be inferred that all apple-trees will yield equally well
+with equally good treatment. There is difference in trees as there is
+in cows. We may not know why. But even so, it is our part to do the
+best we can: this is our privilege.
+
+The tillage and care of plants lessen the struggle for existence. So
+is the apple-tree protected from the crowds, from contest for moisture
+and food, from insects, and from the competition within itself.
+Thereby is it able to express all its possibilities. Even the dormant
+potentialities may be wakened, and the plant makes a wide departure
+from its native state. This is not an original state of sin, but a
+state of repression in which it is held in a world that is full of so
+many things beside apple-trees. I may till my orchard ever so well,
+manipulate the trees ever so promptly, yet if the plantation then is
+allowed to run to neglect the processes of depreciation gain the
+mastery; the struggle for existence is restored.
+
+To keep one's apple-tree in the pink of perfection is as joyful an
+enterprise as to do anything else well. It is only the well-conditioned
+tree that yields its glorious harvest year by year.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+HOW AN APPLE-TREE IS MADE
+
+
+If the seeds of a Baldwin or Winesap apple are planted, we do not
+expect to get a Baldwin or Winesap; we shall probably raise a very
+inferior fruit. The apple has not been bred "true to seed" as has the
+cabbage and sweet pea. To get the tree "true to name," of the desired
+variety and with no chance of failure (barring accident), is one of
+the niceties of horticulture. This is accomplished with great
+precision and despatch.
+
+The apple-tree is started from the seed. It cannot be grown freely by
+means of cuttings, as can the grape and currant. In commercial
+practice the seeds are collected mostly from cider mills or from
+pomace. The seeds may be washed from the pomace, allowed to dry, and
+then mixed in sand, charcoal, sawdust or other material to prevent
+dessication and kept until spring, when they are sown. Or, if the land
+is not so wet in winter that the seed will drown or be washed out, the
+seed in the pomace (not separated) may be sown in autumn. The seeds
+are sown in drills, after the manner of onions or turnips, one to two
+or even three inches deep. They germinate readily in the cool of
+spring, and the plants should reach a height of twelve inches and more
+the first year.
+
+If these plants were grown directly into bearing trees, it is
+probable that no two trees would produce the same kind of fruit. Some
+of the fruit might be summer apples, some of it winter apples, some
+red, yellow or striped, some of it flat, oblong or spherical, most of
+it sour but perhaps some of it sweet. Probably every kind would be
+inferior to the parent stock or to standard varieties, although there
+is a fair chance that a superior kind might originate from a field of
+such plants.
+
+Therefore, it is not the variety (that is, the top) that is wanted in
+the raising of these numerous plants, but merely the roots, on which
+desired varieties may be grown by the clever art of graftage. Yet not
+even all the roots may be wanted, for the growing plants may differ or
+vary in their stature and vigor as well as in their fruit. The
+discriminating grower, therefore, discards the weak and puny treelings
+at the digging time; or if the weak plants seem still to have promise,
+they may be allowed to grow another year before they are dug for the
+grafting.
+
+This digging time is the autumn of the first year, when the plants
+have grown one season. They are then to be used as "stocks" on which
+to graft Baldwin, Winesap or other varieties. The growing of these
+apple stocks is a business by itself. Formerly, most of the stocks
+used in North America were imported from France, where special skill
+has been developed in the growing of them and where the requisite
+labor is available. But now the stocks are grown also in deep rich
+bottom lands of the Middle West, as in Kansas, where, in the long
+seasons, a large growth may be attained.
+
+The methods of graftage of the commercial apple-tree are two--by
+cion-grafting whereby a bit of wood with two or three buds is inserted
+on the stock, by bud-grafting (budding) whereby a single bud with a
+bit of bark attached is inserted under the bark of the stock.
+
+Cion-grafting is practiced in winter under cover. The stock is cut off
+at the crown and the cion spliced on it, or the root may be cut in two
+or more pieces and each piece receive a cion. The union is made by the
+whip-graft method (Fig. 16). The cion is tied securely, to keep it in
+place. The piece-root method is allowable only when the root is long
+and strong, so that a well-rooted plant results the first year. The
+cion is a cutting of the last year's growth (as of No. 1, in Fig. 14).
+However accomplished, the process is to supply the cion with roots; it
+is planted in another plant instead of in the ground.
+
+[Illustration: 16. The whip-graft before tying.]
+
+The cion-grafts are now planted in the nursery row in spring. The cion
+starts growth rapidly, only one shoot being allowed to remain; this
+shoot forms the trunk or bole of the future tree. At the end of the
+first season, the little tree is said to be one year old, although the
+root is at least two years old; at the end of the second year it is
+two years old; the tree is sometimes sold as a two-year-old, but
+usually a year later as a three-year-old having a four-year-old root.
+In fact, however, the root and top may be considered, in a way, to be
+of the same age, particularly if only a piece of the root is employed,
+for the cion grew on its parent tree the same year the root was
+growing in the nursery.
+
+The tree grew from the seed but it is no longer a "seedling" or a
+"natural;" it is now a grafted tree, destined to produce a named
+recognized variety of apple, maybe York Imperial, maybe Jonathan. We
+find seedling trees in old fields, in fence-rows, and in woods. These
+have grown from scattered seeds and have come to fruit without the
+arts of the propagator. They bear their own tops or heads, rather than
+the heads that a thrifty horticulturist would have put on them. Now
+and then such a tree produces superior fruit; then a discriminating
+pomologist discovers it, names it a new variety, and propagates it as
+other varieties are propagated. Thus have most of the prized varieties
+originated, without knowledge on the part of man of the ultimate
+processes. But now with the accumulating knowledge of the
+plant-breeder we hope to be able to foresee and probably to produce
+varieties of given qualities.
+
+[Illustration: 17. A "bud" before tying.]
+
+Bud-grafting is practiced in summer. The young trees, obtained from
+the grower of apple stocks, are planted regularly in nursery rows in
+spring, the top having been cut back to the crown so that a strong
+vigorous shoot will arise. In July and August or September, when this
+shoot is the size of a lead pencil and larger and the bark will peel
+(or separate from the wood), a single bud is inserted near the ground
+(Fig. 17). This bud is deftly cut from the current year's growth of
+the desired variety; it grows in the axil of a leaf (Fig. 15). The
+leaf is removed but a small part of the stalk or petiole is retained
+with the bud to serve as a handle. A boat-shaped or shield-shaped
+piece of bark is removed with the bud. This piece, known technically
+as a "bud," is inserted in an incision on the stock, so that it slips
+underneath the bark and next the wood, with only the bud itself
+showing in the slit; it is then tied in place.
+
+The stock on which the bud is inserted has a two-year root, and the
+root is entire. For this reason, budded trees are usually very large
+and strong for their age when compared with piece-root trees grown
+under similar conditions of climate, tillage and soil.
+
+The bud does not grow the year it is inserted in the stock; it is
+dormant until the following spring, as it would have been had it
+remained on its parent branch; but soon after it is inserted it
+attaches itself fast to the stock: it is a bud implanted from one twig
+to another. The following spring, if the operation is successful, the
+bud "grows," sending up a strong shoot that makes the trunk of the
+future tree. The top of the stock is cut away; in the merchantable
+tree, the bend or place may be seen where the stock and cion meet.
+
+As in the case of cion-grafting, we now have a top of a known variety
+growing on the root of an unknown kind. The tree is sold at two or
+three years, counting the age of the top; and of course the tree is no
+longer called a seedling, and it produces its implanted variety as
+accurately as does the cion-grafted tree. Equally good trees are
+produced by both cion-grafting and bud-grafting.
+
+The apple-tree is now "propagated," and is ready for the planting.
+Great hopes will be built on it, and the tree will probably do its
+part to justify them. Nobody knows how a bud from a Baldwin tree holds
+the memory of a Baldwin or from a Winesap tree the memory of a
+Winesap. Neither does anyone know why of two seeds that look alike one
+will unerringly produce a cabbage and the other a cauliflower. So
+accustomed are we to these results that we never challenge a twig of
+apple or a seed of cabbage: we assume that the twig or the seed
+"knows." Nor have we yet approached this question in our elaborate
+studies of plant-breeding. Here is one of the mysteries that baffles
+the skill of the physiologist and chemist, yet it is a mystery so very
+common that we know it not, albeit the life on the planet would
+otherwise be utter confusion.
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+THE DWARF APPLE-TREE
+
+
+We have learned that many kinds of apples and apple-trees may come
+from a batch of seeds. Differences are expressed in the tree as well
+as in the fruit. In fact, stature is usually one of the
+characteristics of the variety. Here I open Downing's great book, "The
+Fruits and Fruit-Trees of America," and find the description of a
+certain variety beginning: "Tree while young very slow in its growth,
+but makes a compact well-formed head in the orchard," and another:
+"Tree vigorous, upright spreading, and productive." We know the small
+stature and early bearing of the Wagener (wherefore it is often
+planted in the orchard as a filler), and the great wide-spreading head
+of the Tompkins King with the apples scattered through the tree.
+
+Now it so happens that in the course of time certain great races of
+the apple-tree have arisen, we do not know just why or how. There is
+the race or family of the russets and of the Fameuse. So are there
+several races very small in stature, remaining perhaps no larger than
+bushes. If we were to propagate any of the ordinary apples on such
+diminutive stocks, we should have a "dwarf apple-tree."
+
+The dwarf apple, then, is not a question of variety but of stock. Any
+variety may be grown as a dwarf by grafting it on a plant that
+naturally remains small, although some varieties are more adaptable
+than others to the purpose.
+
+If seeds of the natural diminutive apple-tree are sown, a variety of
+trees and apples may be expected. The fruits would probably be
+inferior. Probably the stature would vary between different seedlings.
+If we are to get the effect of dwarfness, we must be sure that the
+stock is itself really dwarf. Therefore, to eliminate variation and
+also because seeds of natural dwarf apples may not be had in
+sufficient quantity, the stocks are propagated by layers rather than
+by seeds.
+
+The diminutive tree, when well established, is cut off near the
+ground. Sprouts arise. Some kinds sucker very freely. If earth is
+mounded up around the sprouts, roots form on them and the sprouts may
+be removed and treated as if they were seedling stocks. Usually the
+mounding is not performed until the shoots have made one season's
+growth. Gooseberries and some other plants are often propagated by
+mound-layers. In the case of the gooseberry, however, it is desired
+that the layer reproduce the parent--it may be Downing or
+Whitesmith--and therefore it is planted without further manipulation.
+But in the case of the apple, we do not want the layer to reproduce
+the parent, for the parent would probably bear an inferior fruit since
+it does not represent an "improved" or recognized variety; therefore
+the layer is grafted or budded with the particular variety we desire
+to grow as a dwarf tree.
+
+Dwarf trees are grown in America, if at all, only in gardens, where
+extra attention may be given them. Only high-class kinds should be
+attempted on dwarfs, for the quantity-production of commercial apples
+must be obtained by less intensive methods on cheaper lands.
+
+Better fruits often are grown on dwarf than on standards, for two
+reasons: It is usual to propagate only the best varieties on dwarf
+stock; the little tree must receive extra care in pruning and in every
+other way. Its bushel of apples must be choice, every one, to make the
+effort of growing the tree worth the while. Under European conditions
+where land is high-priced and labor has been relatively cheap, it is
+possible (and common) to raise apples on dwarfs for market, as it is
+profitable to terrace the hillsides with human labor; but in North
+America the conditions are practically the reverse and the dwarf tree
+cannot compete with the standard orchard tree.
+
+The growing of a dwarf tree is essentially a gardening practice. It
+requires great skill. The spurs are produced and protected to a
+nicety. Every fruit may be the separate product of handwork. The
+fertilizing, mulching, watering, are carefully regulated for every
+tree. Often the trees are trained on cordons, espaliers, trellises or
+walls. The individual fruits may be tied up or bagged. All this is
+very different from the raising of apples by means of tractors and
+other machinery, gangs of pruners and pickers, broadside extensive
+methods, with highly organized systems of handling and marketing, in
+all of which the money-measure is the chief consideration. It is for
+all these reasons that the growing of a few dwarf apple-trees may
+afford such intimate satisfaction to a careful man who prizes the
+result of his skill.
+
+The dwarfs are grown as little trees branching near the ground, headed
+in at top and side and kept within shape and bounds. If they are of
+the dwarfest dwarfs and not trained on trellis or wall (as they
+usually are not in America), the fruit may be gathered by a man
+standing on the ground, even from old trees. The dwarfs are planted
+eight to ten feet apart when grown in regular plantation.
+
+Be it said that certain kinds of stocks produce trees only semi-dwarf;
+and in all cases if the tree is planted so deep that roots strike from
+the cion, the top will probably outgrow the stock, being supplied in
+part or even entirely by its own roots.
+
+This brings us to a consideration of some of the kinds of dwarf
+stocks, or dwarf races of the apple-tree. Be it said, in understanding
+of the subject, that there are naturally dwarf forms of many plants,
+and probably all ordinary plants are capable of producing them. Thus
+there are very compact condensed forms of arbor-vitae, Norway spruce,
+peach-tree. These have originated as seed sports and are multiplied by
+cuttings. So are there dwarf tomatoes, dwarf China asters, dwarf sweet
+peas, all coming more or less true from seeds, for these species (of
+short generations) have been bred to reproduce their variations. The
+inquirer must not suppose, therefore, that the races of dwarf
+apple-trees are an anomally in the vegetable kingdom.
+
+It is customary to speak of two classes or races of dwarf apple-trees,
+the Paradise and the Doucin. The former kinds are the smaller, the
+trees on their own roots sometimes reaching not more than four feet in
+height at full bearing maturity. On the Paradise stocks, the grafted
+apple-tree is very small; it is a true dwarf. The Doucin trees are by
+nature larger, and apples grafted on them make semi-dwarf trees,
+midway in stature between the real dwarfs and the common standard or
+"free" apple-trees.
+
+The case is not so simple, however, as this brief statement would make
+it appear. There are many kinds of Paradise stock, as also of Doucin.
+If one were to bring together living plants of all the kinds of
+natural dwarfs and semi-dwarfs that could be found in nurseries and
+growing collections, one would undoubtedly find a nearly complete
+series, so far as stature of tree is concerned, from the very dwarf to
+the full-sized standard tree. To say that a person is growing grafted
+dwarf apple-trees does not signify how large the trees may be expected
+to grow, for one may not know the particular kind of stocks on which
+the variety is grafted. In fact, it is considered even in Europe,
+where dwarf apples are chiefly grown, that the proper identification
+of dwarf stocks is still a subject for careful investigation.
+
+When the Paradise dwarfs first came into existence is undetermined.
+They appear to have been known in the Middle Ages. The many races, as
+the Dutch, French, Metz, Nonsuch, Broad-leaved, indicate an ancient
+origin. We cannot be too certain what apple-trees were meant in the
+early references to the Paradise apple. The fruits of the present
+natural Paradise apple-trees are not sufficiently attractive to
+justify us in considering them the "Tree of Paradise" or apple of the
+Garden of Eden, which circumstance is supposed by some to account for
+the name. "Paradise" was originally a park or pleasure ground, applied
+also to the Garden of Eden, and later to horticultural gardens. John
+Parkinson wrote his great treatise on horticulture, 1629, under the
+title, "Paradisi in Sole Paradisus terrestris; or, a Choice Garden of
+all Sorts of Rarest Flowers, etc." Now we use the word for gardens of
+bliss.
+
+The word Doucin, from the Italian, is supposed originally to have
+designated apples of sweet flavor, but it now applies technically to a
+class or race of semi-dwarf apple-trees.
+
+For the purpose of this little book, however, the interest in the
+dwarf apple centers not so much in the origin of the stock as in the
+natural-history of the tree itself and the good skill of hand and
+heart that one may expend in the growing of it. If one would come
+close to a plant, knowing it intimately in every season, causing it to
+respond to sympathetic treatment through a series of years, then a
+garden collection of dwarf apples may satisfy the desire. It is too
+bad that we do not have time to cultivate the dwarfs often in the
+yards and gardens of North America. We are more familiar with the
+raising of dwarf pears (which are grafted on quince stocks since there
+is no similar race of natural dwarf pear-tree), but we do not give
+them the thumb-and-finger care that is demanded for the choicest
+results. The abundance of apples in the market should only stimulate
+the desire of the connoisseur to have trees and fruits that are wholly
+personal. The market produce can never gratify the affections.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+WHENCE COMES THE APPLE-TREE?
+
+
+If the dwarf apple-tree goes back to the Middle Ages and perhaps
+farther, then whence comes the apple originally? No one can surely
+answer. Carbonized apples are found in the remains of the prehistoric
+lake dwellings of Switzerland. When recorded history begins, apples
+were well known and widely distributed. The apple-tree is wild in many
+parts of Europe, but it is difficult to determine whether, in a given
+region, it is indigenous or has run wild from cultivation. Wild
+apple-trees are common in North America, but no one supposes that the
+orchard apple is native here.
+
+Expert opinion generally considers that the apple is native in the
+region of the Caspian Sea and probably in southeastern Europe. Perhaps
+it had spread westward before the Aryan migrations. It had also
+probably spread eastward, but it is not a cultivated fruit in China
+and Japan except apparently as introduced in recent time. The apple is
+essentially a fruit of central and northern Europe, and of European
+migration and settlement.
+
+It is a fertile retrospect to conceive of the apple as an attendant of
+the course of Western civilization. Without voice and leaving no
+record, it has nevertheless followed man in his wanderings, encouraged
+his attainment of permanent habitations, succored him in his
+emergencies. What the apple has contributed to sustenance can never be
+known, but we are aware that it yields its fruit abundantly, that it
+thrives in widely unlike regions and conditions, that the tree has the
+ruggedness to endure severe climates and to provide food that can be
+stored and transported. In the ages it must have stood guard at many a
+rude camp and fireside. It would be fascinating to know what the
+apple-tree has witnessed.
+
+These early apples must have been very crude fruits measured by the
+produce of the present day. But other food was crude and man was
+crude. The North American Indians found the apple to be worth their
+effort; remains of some of the so-called Indian orchards of the Five
+Nations in New York persisted until the present generation. These were
+seedling apple-trees, grown from the stocks introduced by the white
+man. The French missionaries are said to have carried the apple far
+into the interior, and early settlers took seeds with them. The
+legends and records of Johnny Appleseed, sowing the seeds as he went,
+are still familiar. My father, like other pioneers, took seeds from
+the old New England trees into the wilderness of the West; the
+resulting trees were top-grafted, some of them as late as my time; I
+can remember the apples some of these seedling trees bore, the like of
+which I have never seen again, probably poor apples if we had them in
+this day but to a boy at the edge of the forest the very essence of
+goodness. As early as 1639, apples had been picked from trees planted
+on Governor's Island in Boston harbor. Governor John Endicott of
+Massachusetts Colony had an apple-tree nursery in the early day; in
+1644 he says that five hundred of his trees were destroyed by fire.
+So the apple came early to be a standby on the new continent.
+
+The apples of the colonists were not all for eating, but for drinking.
+The butts and barrels of cider put in cellars in the early times seem
+to us most surprising. Herein are suggestions of old social customs
+that might lead us into interesting historical excursions. The oldest
+book I possess on the apple is "Vinetum Britannicum: or, a Treatise of
+Cider," published in London in 1676; it treats also of other beverages
+made from fruits and of "the newly-invented ingenio or mill, for the
+more expeditious and better making of cider." The gradual change in
+customs, whereby the eating of the apple (rather than the drinking of
+it) has come to be paramount, is a significant development; the use of
+apple-juice may now proceed on another basis, on the principle of
+preservation and pasteurization rather than of fermentation.
+
+It is the custom to call the apple _Pyrus Malus_. This is the name
+given by the great Linnaeus, with whom the modern accurate naming of
+plants and animals begins. The nomenclature of plants starts with his
+"Species Plantarum," 1753. Pyrus is the genus or group comprising the
+pears and apples, and Linnaeus included the quince; Malus is Latin for
+the apple-tree. Together the names represent genus and species,--the
+malus Pyrus.
+
+These statements are easy enough to make, but it is impossible to
+demonstrate whether the common pomological apples are derived from one
+original species or from two or more. Many technical botanical names
+have been given in the group, but we need not pause with them here. It
+is enough for our purpose to know that the natural-history of the
+apple, as of anything else that runs to time immemorial, passes at
+the end into obscurity. We seem never to reach the ultimate origins or
+to find an end to our quests.
+
+There are other apples than the common pomological orchard types.
+There are the crabs. In general usage, the word "crab" designates an
+apple that is small, sour and crabbed. Such apples are wildings or
+seedlings. They are merely depreciated forms of _Pyrus Malus_, and
+probably much like the first apples known to man. What are known to
+horticulturists as crab-apples, however, are other species of Pyrus,
+of different character and origin. We need not pause with the
+discussion of them, except to say that the commonest kinds are the
+little long-stemmed fruits of _Pyrus baccata_ (berry Pyrus), native in
+eastern Europe and Siberia. These are the "Siberian crabs." The leaves
+and twigs are smooth, and the calyx falls away from the fruit, leaving
+a bare blossom end. These little hard handsome fruits are used in the
+making of conserves. Certain larger crab-apples, in which the blossom
+end is not clean or bare, as the Transcendent and Hyslop, are probably
+hybrids between the true crabs and the common apple; this class
+provides the main crab-apples of the markets.
+
+When the settlers came to the country west and south of New England,
+they found another kind of crab-apples in the woods, truly native. The
+fruits were hard and sour, but they could be buried to ripen. The
+trees are much like a thorn-apple,--low, spreading, twiggy, thorny;
+but the pink-white large fragrant flowers are very different. The wild
+crab-apple was called _Pyrus coronaria_ by Linnaeus, the "garland
+Pyrus." On the prairies is another species, _Pyrus ioensis_; it yields
+a charming double-flowered form, "Bechtel's crab." In the South are
+other species. In fact, _P. coronaria_ itself may not be a single
+species. These wild crabs run into many forms. In the northern
+Mississippi and prairie country are native apples good enough to be
+introduced into cultivation under varietal names. These are _Pyrus
+Soulardii_, a species bearing the name of J. G. Soulard, Illinois
+horticulturist. These crab-apples are probably natural hybrids between
+_Pyrus Malus_ and the prairie crab, _P. ioensis_. Had there been no
+European apple to be introduced by colonists, it is probable that
+improved forms would have been evolved from the native species. In
+that event, North American pomology would have had a very different
+character.
+
+There remains a very different class of apple-trees, grown only for
+ornament and usually known as "flowering apples." They are mostly
+native in China and Japan. They are small trees, or even almost
+bushes, with profuse handsome flowers and some of them with very
+ornamental little fruits. They have come to this country largely from
+Japan where they are grown for decoration, as the cherries of Japan
+are grown not for fruit but for their flowers, being of very different
+species from the cherries of Europe and America. The common apple
+itself yields varieties grown only for ornament, as one with
+variegated leaves, one with double flowers, and one with drooping
+branches. These are known mostly in Europe; but these forms do not
+compare in interest with the handsome species of the Far East.
+
+All these differing species of the apple-tree multiply the interest
+and hold the attention in many countries. They make the apple-tree
+group one of the most widespread and adaptable of temperate-region
+trees. It will be seen that there are three families of them,--the
+Eurasian family, from which come the pomological apples; the North
+American family, which has yielded little cultivated material; the
+East-Asian family, abundant in highly ornamental kinds. There are no
+apple-trees native in the southern hemisphere.
+
+The apple-tree, taken in its general sense, has a broad meaning. What
+may be accomplished by breeding and hybridizing is beyond
+imagination.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+THE VARIETIES OF APPLE
+
+
+Every seedling of the pomological apples is a new variety. Some of
+these seedlings are so good that they are named and introduced into
+cultivation. They are grafted on other stocks, and become part of the
+great inheritance of desirable apples.
+
+It is to be expected that in the long processes of time in many
+countries the number of varieties will accumulate to high numbers. No
+one knows all the kinds that have been named and propagated, but they
+run into many thousands. No one book contains them all, although some
+of the manuals are voluminous. Varieties drop out of existence, being
+no longer propagated; new varieties come in.
+
+So the lists of varieties gradually change. A list of one hundred
+years ago would contain many names strange to us. Thus, of the sixty
+apples in "A Select List of Fruit-Trees" by Bernard M'Mahon, published
+in "The American Gardener's Calendar," in 1806, not more than six or
+eight would be understandable to a planter of the present day.
+
+With the standardizing of practices in the commercial growing of
+fruits, the tendency is to reduce the number of varieties to small
+proportions; it is these varieties that the nurserymen propagate.
+Here and there over the country are still trees of the extra-quality
+but uncommercial varieties known to a former generation. If the
+amateur now wants to grow these varieties, he must find cions as best
+he can by patient correspondence, and graft them on his own trees.
+When I planted an orchard twenty-five years ago, I found cions of
+Jefferis here, of Dyer there, of Mother, Swaar and Chenango in other
+places.
+
+In the enlarged edition of Downing's "Fruits and Fruit-Trees of
+America," 1872, are descriptions of 1856 varieties, of which 1099 are
+American in origin, 585 foreign, 172 of origin unknown. The lists are
+not only much smaller in these days, but the foreign element tends to
+pass out. With the introduction of the Russian apples for the cold
+North in the latter part of the past century, the importation of
+foreign varieties practically ceased, as it ceased also for the pears
+at an earlier date with the introductions of Manning, Wilder and
+others. The epoch of the "testing" of varieties passed away, and with
+it has gone an appreciative attitude toward fruits and even toward
+life that constitutes a sad lack in our day.
+
+About thirty years ago (1892) I compiled an inventory of all the
+varieties of apple-trees sold in North America, as listed in the
+ninety-five nurserymen's catalogues that came to my hand. The inventory
+contains 878 varieties. In the present year, however, perhaps not more
+than 100 varieties are handled by nurserymen in Eastern United States.
+Probably the dealer and grower would consider even this small number
+much too great. The highly developed standardized business of the
+present day, aiming at quantity-production, naturally reduces the
+variety of products, whether in manufacturing or horticulture, and
+aims at uniformity. Under the influence of this leadership, we are
+losing many of the old products, varieties of apples among the rest.
+
+Why do we need so many kinds of apples? Because there are so many
+folks. A person has a right to gratify his legitimate tastes. If he
+wants twenty or forty kinds of apples for his personal use, running
+from Early Harvest to Roxbury Russet, he should be accorded the
+privilege. Some place should be provided where he may obtain trees or
+cions. There is merit in variety itself. It provides more points of
+contact with life, and leads away from uniformity and monotony.
+
+The leading varieties of apples, that have become dominant over wide
+regions, have been great benefactors to man. The original tree should
+be carefully preserved till the last, by historical or other
+societies; and then a monument should be placed at the spot. Monuments
+have been erected to the Baldwin, Northern Spy, McIntosh and other
+apples. We should never lose our touch with the origins of men,
+events, notable achievements, outstanding products of nature.
+
+I fear it is now a habit with many fruit-growers to minimize the
+interest in varieties, placing the emphasis on tillage, spraying and
+management of plantations. Yet, the only reason why we expend all the
+labor is that we may grow a given kind of apple; the variety is the
+final purpose.
+
+In this little book we cannot discuss varieties at length. There are
+special books on this fascinating subject. But we may have before us a
+compiled list by way of interesting suggestion. The list is sorted
+from the Catalogue of Fruits of the American Pomological Society,
+1901, the last year in which the catalogue was published with quality
+rated on a scale of 10. On such a scale, Ben Davis ranks 4-5; Baldwin,
+5-6; Wealthy and York Imperial, 6-7; Rhode Island Greening, 7-8;
+Northern Spy, 8-9; Yellow Newtown (Albermarle Pippin) 9-10. There is
+no apple in the entire catalogue of 324 kinds (not including
+crab-apples) rated wholly lower than 4 in quality except one alone and
+this is grown for cider only, although several varieties of minor
+importance bear the marks 3-4. Only two varieties are rated
+exclusively 10, the Garden Royal, a Massachusetts summer-fall apple,
+little known to planters, and the familiar Esopus Spitzenberg. Of
+course judgments differ widely in these matters, as there are no
+inflexible criteria for the scoring of quality; yet this extensive
+list is probably our soundest approach to the subject.
+
+The varieties in the catalogue of the American Pomological Society are
+starred if "known to succeed in a given district" and double-starred
+"if highly successful." North America is thrown into nineteen
+districts for the purposes of this catalogue (which comprises other
+fruits besides apples). For our purposes we may combine them into six
+more or less indefinite great regions: n. e., the northeastern part of
+the country, Delaware and Pennsylvania to eastern Canada; s. e., the
+parts south of this area and mostly east of the Mississippi; n. c.,
+north central, from Kansas and Missouri north; s. w., Texas to
+Arizona; mt., the mountain states of the Rockies west to the Sierras,
+including of course much high plains country; pac., the Pacific slope,
+Washington to southern California.
+
+Of the varieties starred and double-starred in these various
+geographical regions there are 107; these are listed herewith. Of
+course the intervening twenty years might change the rating of some of
+these apples, other varieties have come to the front, and certain ones
+of these older worthies are receding still further into the
+background; but the exhibit is suggestive none the less.
+
+Arkansas--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.
+Bailey (Sweet)--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Baker--n.e.
+Baldwin--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., s.w., pac.
+Beach--s.e.
+Belle Bonne--n.e.
+Ben Davis--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt., pac.
+Bietigheimer--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Bledsoe--s.e.
+Blenheim--n.e., n.c.
+Blue Pearmain--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Bough, Sweet--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Bryan--s.e., mt.
+Buckingham--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Canada Reinette--n.e., n.c., mt.
+Clayton--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Clyde--n.e., n.c.
+Cogswell--n.e.
+Cooper--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Cracking--s.e., n.c.
+Doyle--s.e.
+Early Pennock--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Esopus (Spitzenburg)--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., pac.
+Ewalt--n.e., s.e., mt.
+Fallawater--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Fall Harvey--n.e., mt.
+Fall Jenneting--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Fall Orange--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Fall Pippin--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.
+Fanny--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w.
+Farrar--s.e.
+Foundling--n.e.
+Gano--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.
+Gilbert--s.e.
+Golding--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Gravenstein--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., s.w., pac.
+Hagloe--n.e., s.e.
+Hoover--s.e., n.c., mt., pac.
+Hopewell--n.c.
+Horse--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Hubbardston--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w.
+Hunge--s.e.
+Huntsman--s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.
+Isham (Sweet)--n.c.
+Jacobs Sweet--n.e.
+Kent--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Kernodle--s.e.
+Lady Sweet--n.e., mt.
+Lankford--n.e., s.e.
+Lawver--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Lilly (of Kent)--n.e.
+Lowe--s.e.
+Lowell--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+McAfee--n.e., s.e, mt.
+McCuller--s.e.
+McMahon--n.e., n.c., mt.
+Magog--n.e.
+Maverack--s.e.
+Milwaukee--n.c.
+Minister--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Monmouth--s.e., n.c., mt.
+Newell--n.c.
+Nickajack--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Northern Spy--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., pac.
+Northwestern (Greening)--n.e., n.c., mt.
+Oconee--n.e., s.e.
+Ohio Nonpareil--n.e., s.e.
+Ohio Pippin--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Ortley--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Paragon--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Patten (Greening)--n.c.
+Pease--n.e.
+Peck (Pleasant)--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Peter--n.c.
+Pewaukee--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Porter--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Pumpkin Sweet--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Quince--n.e., n.c.
+Ramsdell (Sweet)--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Red Astrachan--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt., pac.
+Rhode Island (Greening)--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt., pac.
+Ridge (Pippin)--n.e.
+Rolfe--n.e.
+Rome--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.
+Stark--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.
+Starkey--n.e., s.e.
+Stayman Winesap--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Sterling--n.e., n.c.
+Summer King--n.e., s.e.
+Swaar--n.e., n.c., mt., pac.
+Taunton--s.e.
+Titovka--n.e., mt.
+Tompkins King--n.e., s.e., mt., pac.
+Twenty Ounce--n.e., s.e., s.w., mt.
+Utter--n.c.
+Vanhoy--n.e., s.e.
+Virginia Greening--s.e., mt.
+Washington (Strawberry)--n.e., s.e., mt.
+Watson--s.e.
+White Pippin--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., pac.
+Wine--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Wistal--s.e., s.w.
+Wolf River--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Yellow Bellflower--n.e., s.e., s.w., mt., pac.
+Yellow Newtown--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt., pac.
+Yopp--s.e.
+York Imperial--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.
+
+There are many odd varieties of apple not found in any list but about
+which questions are likely to arise. One of these is the
+Sweet-and-Sour. There is an old ribbed variety of this name, the ribs
+having an acid flesh and the furrows sweetish; it is little known and
+of no special value. Apples are sometimes found that are sweetish on
+one side and sourish on the other. The reasons for this kind of
+variation are no more understood than are those responsible for
+variance in color or shape or durability. One yet sometimes hears the
+pleasant fable that sweet-and-sour apples are produced by splitting
+the bud when the tree was propagated.
+
+The Surprise is a small whitish apple with light red flesh. It is
+indeed a surprise to bite into such an apple, but it has little merit.
+It is an early winter variety.
+
+One is frequently asked about the Sheepnose apple, particularly by
+older people who remember it from early days and who deplore its
+infrequency in these latter times. The sheepnose shape--long-conical--is
+an infrequent variation, as apples go, and apparently none of these
+forms chances to have sufficient merit to keep it in the lists. The
+name is often applied to the Black Gilliflower, an old apple more than
+three inches long, dark red, of light weight perhaps because of the
+large core, ripening late in autumn to midwinter. It seems to be
+specially prized by children, perhaps in part because of its unusual
+shape and in part by its aromatic fragrance; but it is not a high-class
+apple, and is now little seen. With the Rambo, Vandevere, some of the
+russets, Early Harvest, Jersey Sweet and other old worthies, it
+probably will pass away unless rescued here and there by the amateur.
+To the lover of choice fruit nothing is old; every succeeding crop is
+as choice and new as is the new year itself, and one waits for it
+again and again.
+
+One hears of seedless and no-core apples, as also of pears. The core
+is present but greatly reduced in size, and the seeds may be few and
+small. I have also raised practically seedless tomatoes. All these are
+infrequent variations that may be propagated by asexual parts
+(cuttings, cions), but as yet none of them has any outstanding value.
+
+The reader will now ask me about the water-core apples, so much sought
+and prized by youngsters. The water-core is not characteristic of a
+variety, although occurring in some varieties more frequently than in
+others. It is a physiological condition, supposed to be associated
+with a relatively low transpiration (evaporation) so that excess water
+is held in the fruit. In certain seasons this condition is marked, and
+also in cloudy regions and often on young trees that have an
+over-supply of moisture. Yet such cores occur in old trees and
+sometimes with more or less regularity. What the physiological
+inability may be in such cases to dispose of excess moisture appears
+to be undetermined.
+
+Now and then one finds a double apple, with two fruits grown solidly
+together, two blossom ends and a single stem. A seedling tree I knew
+as a boy bore such apples frequently, sometimes a score of them among
+the crop of the year. This, of course, is a malformation or
+teratological state. Apparently two flowers coalesce to form these
+fruits. On the tree of which I speak, the two fruits were about equal
+in size, making a large, widened, edible apple, but I have known of
+other cases in which a diminutive undeveloped fruit is attached to the
+side of a normal one.
+
+Perhaps the oddest of them all is the "Bloomless apple." It is said to
+have no flowers. In fact, however, the flowers are present but they
+lack showy petals and are therefore not conspicuous. The bloomless
+apple is a monstrous state, the cause of which is unknown. Now and
+then a tree is reported. It was described at least as long ago as
+1768, and in 1770 Muenchhausen called it _Pyrus apetala_ (the
+petalless pyrus). The flowers have no stamens, and apparently they are
+pollinated from any other apples in the vicinity. In 1785, Moench
+described it as _Pyrus dioica_ (the dioecious pyrus, sexes separated
+on different plants). The ovary is also malformed, having six or seven
+and sometimes probably more cells, and bearing ten to fifteen styles.
+The resulting fruit has a core character unknown in other apples but
+approached in certain apple-like fruits, as the medlar. The fruit has
+a hole or opening from the calyx (which is open) into the core; and
+the core is roughly double, one series above the other. The fruit, in
+such specimens as I have seen or read about, has no horticultural
+merit; but it is a curiosity of great botanical interest. It appears
+now and then in widely separated places, the trees probably having
+originated as chance seedlings. The fruits from the different
+originations are not always the same in size and form, but the flowers
+apparently all have the same malformed character.
+
+The apple is preeminently the home fruit. It is not transitory. It
+spans every season. In an indifferent cellar I keep apples till apples
+come again. The apple stands up, keeps well on the table. Children may
+handle it. In color and form it satisfies any taste. Its rondure is
+perfect. The cavity is deep, graceful and well moulded, holding the
+good stem securely. The basin is a natural summit and termination of
+the curvatures, bringing all the lines together, finishing them in
+the ornaments of the remaining calyx. The fruit adapts itself to the
+hand. The fingers close pleasantly over it, fitting its figure. It has
+a solid feel. The flesh of a good apple is crisp, breaking, melting,
+coolly acid or mildly sweet. It has a fracture, as one bites it,
+possessed by no other fruit. One likes to feel the snap and break of
+it. There is a stability about it that satisfies; it holds its shape
+till the last bite. One likes to linger on an apple, to sit by a
+fireside to eat it, to munch it waiting on a log when there is no
+hurry, to have another apple with which to invite a friend.
+
+Now I am not thinking of the Ben Davis apple or any of its kind. I do
+not want to be doomed to one variety of apple, or even to half a dozen
+kinds, and particularly I do not want a poor one. There are enough
+good apples, if we can get them. The days of the amateur fruit-growers
+seem to be passing. At least we do not hear much of them in society or
+in many of the meetings of horticulturists. There may be many reasons,
+but two are evident: we give the public indifferent fruits, and
+thereby neither educate the taste or stimulate the desire for more; we
+do not provide them places from which they can get plants of many of
+the choicest things. Yet on a good amateur interest in fruits depends,
+in the end, the real success of commercial fruit-growing. Just now we
+are trying to increase the consumption of apples, to lead the people
+to eat an apple a day: it cannot be accomplished by customary
+commercial methods. To eat an apple a day is a question of affections
+and emotions.
+
+We have had great riches in our varieties of apples. It has been a
+vast resource to have a small home plantation of many good varieties,
+each perfect in its season. The great commercial apple-growing has
+been carried to high perfection of organization and care. More perfect
+apples are put on the market, in proportion to numbers, than ever
+before,--carefully grown and graded and handled. I have watched this
+American development with growing pride. The quantity-production makes
+for greater perfection of product, but it does not make for variety
+and human interest, nor for high-quality varieties. We shall still
+improve it. Masterful men will perfect organizations. The high
+character and attainment of the commanding fruit-growers, nurserymen
+and dealers are good augury for the future. But all this is not
+sufficient. Quantity-production will be an increasing source of
+wealth, but it cannot satisfy the soul.
+
+The objects and productions of high intrinsic merit are preserved by
+the amateur. It is so in art and letters. It is necessarily so. A body
+of amateurs is an essential background to the development of science.
+The late Professor Pickering, renowned astronomer, encouraged the
+amateur societies of star-observers, and others. The amateurs in the
+background, disinterested and unselfish, support appropriations by
+legislatures for even abstruse public work. The amateur is the
+embodiment of the best in the common life, the conservator of
+aspirations, the fulfillment of democratic freedom. I hope pomology
+will not lag in this respect. In all lines I hope that professionalism
+will not subjugate the man who follows a subject for the love of it
+rather than for the gain of it or for the pride of it. In
+horticulture, when we lose the amateur, who, as the word means, is the
+lover, we lose the ideals.
+
+Naturally, the nurseryman cannot grow trees of all the good apples
+that may be wanted. The experiment stations cannot maintain living
+museums of them, for their function is to investigate rather than to
+preserve. Arboretums are concerned with other activities. Is there not
+some person of means, desiring to do good to his successors, ready now
+to establish a fructicetum _in perpetuum_ for the purpose of
+preserving a single tree of at least one hundred of the choicest
+apples, to the end that a record may be kept and that amateurs may be
+supplied with cions thereof?
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+THE PLEASANT ART OF GRAFTING
+
+
+If I procure cuttings of a good apple, what shall I do with them that
+they may give me of their fruitage?
+
+The cuttings will probably be dormant twigs of the last season's
+growth. They may not be expected to grow when placed in the ground.
+They are therefore planted in another tree, becoming cions. The case
+is in no way different in principle from the propagating of the young
+tree in the nursery, of which we already have learned. The nurseryman
+works with a small stock, a mere slip of a seedling one or two years
+old. The grower would better not attempt the making of nursery trees.
+It is better for him to purchase regular nursery trees and to graft
+the cions on them; or he may put the cions in any older tree that is
+available.
+
+I have spoken of my own collecting of certain dessert apples. I
+"worked" them on young Northern Spy trees, purchased when two or three
+years old; they were grafted after they had stood a year in the
+orchard. These Northern Spy trees, used in this case as stocks, were
+regularly grown by nurserymen. The Northern Spy was chosen because of
+its hardiness and straight, clean, erect growth, making it a vigorous
+and comely stock. Weak-growing varieties are usually rejected for this
+purpose. Some growers use Oldenburg as stock, and there are other
+good kinds.
+
+From the young stock, the old head is to be removed and a new head
+(the new variety) grown in its stead. The tree, therefore, will be
+combined of three kinds of apple,--the root of unknown quality; the
+trunk or body under a varietal name; the top, of the variety desired.
+Any number of different kinds of apple wood may be worked into the
+tree if the tree is large enough. If the operations are well performed
+so that there are no imperfect unions, and if the pruning is
+judicious, the tree may be grafted many times, in whole or in part.
+
+I have said that my father brought apple seeds from New England and
+that the resulting seedlings were top-grafted. One of these trees was
+early top-worked to "Holland Pippin," which seldom bore. It stood in
+the yard near the smoke-house, where it found abundant nourishment. It
+grew to great size. In time I became a grafter of trees for the
+neighborhood, and often as I returned at night would have cions of
+different kinds in my pockets. It became a pastime to graft these
+cions in the old tree. More than thirty varieties were placed there.
+It was with keen anticipation, as the years came, that I looked for
+the annual crop, to see what strange inhabitants would appear in the
+great tree-top. I do not remember how many of these varieties came
+into bearing before the tree was finally gathered to the wood-box, but
+they were a goodly number, probably more than a score. I used often to
+wonder how it was that the nutrients taken in by the roots of the
+Vermont seedling and transported in the tissues of the Holland Pippin,
+combined with the same air, could produce so many diverse apples and
+even pears (for I had pears in that tree) each with the marks and
+flavor proper to its kind. The little cions I grafted into the tree
+were soon lost in the overgrowth, and yet all the branches that came
+from them carried the genius of one single variety and of none other.
+And I often speculated whether there were any reflex action of these
+many varieties on the root, demanding a certain kind of service from
+it.
+
+The cions (sometimes still called "grafts") are cut in winter or early
+spring, when well matured and perfectly dormant. Placed in sand in a
+cool cellar so they will not shrivel, they are kept until grafting
+time, which is early spring, usually before the leaves start on the
+stock. The cions may be placed on the tree by several methods, but
+only two are commonly employed,--the whip-graft and the cleft-graft.
+The former is adapted to small stocks, the size of one's finger or
+smaller; it is the method employed in root-grafting in the nursery,
+and Fig. 16 explains it.
+
+The requirement is to cause the cion and stock to grow together
+solidly, making one piece of wood. The growing plastic region is
+associated with the cambium tissues underneath the bark. It is
+necessary, therefore, to bring the "line betwixt the wood and the
+bark" together in the two parts, and to hold the junction firm and
+also well protected from evaporation until union takes place. The
+method of putting the parts together, the form of whittling, is a
+matter of convenience and practice.
+
+The case was put in this way by old Robert Sharrock, "Fellow of
+New-College," in his "History of the Propagation and Improvement of
+Vegetables by the concurrence of Art and Nature" (I quote from the
+second edition, Oxford, 1672): "Grafting is an Art of so placing the
+Cyon upon a stock, that the Sap may pass from the stock to the Cyon
+without Impediment." Batty Langley, in 1729, gave this direction in
+the "Pomona": "The Stocks being cleft, you must therefore cut the Cion
+in the Form of a Wedge, which must always be cut from a Bud, for the
+Reasons aforesaid; and then with a Grafting-Chizel open the Slit, and
+place the Cion therein, so that their Barks may be exactly even and
+smooth."
+
+Still earlier (1626) did William Lawson, in "A New Orchard and
+Garden," set forth the rationale of the practice in his Chapter X, "On
+Grafting," in this wise: "Now are we come to the most curious point of
+our faculty: curious in conceit, but indeed as plaine and easie as the
+rest, when it is plainly shewne, which we commonly call Graffing, or
+(after some) Grafting. I cannot Etymoligize, nor shew the original of
+the word, except it come of graving and carving. But the thing or
+matter is: The reforming of the Fruit of one Tree with the fruit of
+another, by an artificial transplacing or transposing of a twig, bud
+or leafe, (commonly called a Graft) taken from one tree of the same,
+or some other kind, and placed or put to, or into another tree in due
+time and manner."
+
+If the whip-graft is to be below the ground, it is sufficient to tie
+the parts tightly with string and cover with earth; if above ground,
+wax is applied over the string to prevent drying out. On the small
+shoots of young trees, the whip-graft is often employed, but it is not
+used in large trees.
+
+The cleft-graft is shown in Fig. 18. The trunk or branch is cut off;
+two cions are inserted in a cleft made with a knife. The "stub" is
+covered with grafting-wax (Fig. 19). Cleft-grafting is the usual
+method for the orchardist.
+
+[Illustration: 18. The cleft-graft.]
+
+[Illustration: 19. The cleft-graft after waxing.]
+
+In either kind of grafting, the cion carries about three leaf-buds. If
+"wood" (cion-shoots) is scarce, only one bud may be taken, but this
+reduces the chances of success. One bud may not grow, or the young
+shoot may be injured. The lowest bud is usually most likely to grow;
+it pushes through the wax.
+
+In young trees set for the purpose of top-working, the trunk may be
+cut off at the desired height and two cions inserted. The entire top
+is then removed at once; this is allowable only on young trees.
+Probably the better practice is to graft the main small side limbs and
+the main trunk or leader higher up. Usually it is better to leave some
+of the branches on the tree, not removing them all till the second or
+third year.
+
+In old apple-trees, the main branches are grafted, where they are an
+inch or two in diameter. Care is taken so to choose the branches that
+a well-shaped free-headed tree will result. Only a small part of the
+top is removed the first year, and three or four years may be required
+to change the top all over, the old branches being removed as the new
+ones grow. In about three years, or four, the grafts should begin to
+bear,--about as soon as strong three-year-old trees planted in the
+orchard.
+
+Any variety of the pomological apples will grow on any other variety,
+but apples do not take well on other species, as does the pear. The
+pear may be made to grow on the apple, but the graft is short-lived
+and the practice is not recommended. Boys may graft indiscriminately
+for practice, but grown-ups, having arrived at the unfortunate age of
+discretion, must operate only on those kinds known to succeed when
+joined. I have never known a boy who did not want to graft anything,
+as soon as his attention was called to the operation. The boy does not
+take it for granted: he wants to try.
+
+
+
+
+XIII
+
+THE MENDING OF THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+Many accidents overtake the apple-tree. The hired man skins the tree
+with the harrow; fire runs through the dry grass; hard winters shatter
+the vitality, and parts of the tree die; borers enter; rabbits and
+mice gnaw the bark in winter; loads of fruit and burdens of ice crush
+the tree; wind storms play mischief; bad pruning leaves long stubs,
+and rot develops; cankers produce dead ragged wounds; fire-blight
+destroys the tissue; a poorly formed tree with bad crotches splits
+easily; grafts fail to take, and long dead ends are left; the tree is
+injured by pickers; vandals wreak their havoc. All these accidents
+must be met and the damages repaired. The surgeon must be summoned.
+
+We must first understand how a wound heals on a tree. Note any
+wound,--knot-hole on the trunk, place where wood has been removed. The
+exposed wound itself does not heal; it is covered and inclosed by
+tissue built out from the edges or periphery of the wound. This tissue
+is like a roll. It is the callus. Eventually the tissue meets in the
+center, and the lid is thereby put on the place, and it is sealed. The
+exposed wood has died, if it is the cross-section of a branch or a
+deep wound, and it remains under the callus a dead body. If the wood
+has not started to decay in the meantime, the place is safe, but too
+often invasion has begun before the process is complete, the rot
+disease finally extends to the heart of the tree, causing it to become
+hollow. If the center of the wound falls in, the callus cannot cover
+it, and an open sore remains. In these cavities birds may sometimes
+build.
+
+Therefore there are two points for the surgeon to consider in respect
+to the wound itself--whether it is so placed on the tree that the
+callus forms readily; whether the wound is kept healthy during
+exposure.
+
+All ragged tissue being removed, deep-wound surfaces should be kept
+aseptic. For ordinary cases, white-lead paint with plenty of linseed
+oil is a good protective from the germs of decay. On old wood, no
+longer active, creosote is good, perhaps followed by coal-tar.
+Usually, however, paint is quite sufficient. Small exposures usually
+receive no dressing. When the fresh surface wood is exposed by removal
+of bark, it is necessary to keep the tissue from drying out, and
+antiseptics are usually not applied. Bandaging with cloth is the usual
+practice, after the wound is cleaned and trimmed.
+
+The repairs fall into two classes,--those that require merely removal
+of injured parts and treatment of the wounds, and those that demand
+the ingrafting of new wood.
+
+We have learned, in the discussion of pruning, that long projecting
+ends of severed branches do not heal. The branches to be removed
+should be cut back close to the larger branch or to the juncture with
+another. In repairing injured trees, all projecting parts that do not
+have life in themselves must be removed. All wounds should be left
+smooth, without splinters or hanging bark. Decaying wood is to be
+removed, and the area cleaned out and disinfected.
+
+The nature-lover may find much to interest him in the observation of
+knot-holes as he comes and goes. Every knot-hole has a history; this
+history usually can be traced by one whose eye is keen and who becomes
+practiced in connecting cause with final result. One prides oneself on
+the ability to work out the obscure cases. An old neglected apple
+orchard thereby affords much entertainment.
+
+If a very large branch breaks off, the remaining part is cut back to
+fresh hard wood; antiseptic is applied; the other part of the tree may
+be shortened-in to aid in restoring the proportion or balance.
+
+Deep cavities caused by rot are cleaned out, disinfected with bordeaux
+mixture, gas-tar, or other material, and the place filled completely
+with cement.
+
+In some cases, new wood is added in the form of cions of last year's
+twigs. Such cions may be set around the edge of a stub, thrust between
+the bark and the wood, to start new branches where an important one
+was broken off. The cions are cut wedge-shape (much as those in Fig.
+18) and a bandage is tied around the stub to hold them in place; the
+exposed parts are covered with grafting-wax. The operation is
+performed in spring.
+
+Sometimes cions are used to bridge a girdle. Usually a girdle heals
+itself if the injury does not extend into the wood, and if it is bound
+up to prevent drying out; but when the injury is deep and the exposed
+wood has become dry and hard, the cions may be used. The cions are
+somewhat longer than the width of the girdle. The edges of the girdle
+are trimmed to fresh tight bark; cions are cut wedge-shape at either
+end; the ends are inserted underneath the bark at bottom and top of
+the wound; edges of the wound are securely bandaged; entire work is
+covered with wax. The cions are many, so close that they nearly touch.
+The buds on the cions are not allowed to produce branches. This
+process is known as bridge-grafting.
+
+With some experience, the cultivator soon learns to make many deft
+applications of ingrafting. Sometimes a piece of bark may be used as a
+patch. In the bracing of crotches in young trees, the two trunks may
+be joined by uniting a small branch from either one, twisting them
+together to form a bridge like a bolt; they can be made to grow
+together, forming a solid union. Bolting the parts with iron rods, or
+holding them together by means of chains, is the usual and commonly
+the better method. The iron is not to go around a limb, however, for
+girdling results; the rods or chains should be secured by bolts bored
+through the wood and pulling against large heads or washers.
+
+The usual repairs are easily made. When trees are badly injured, and
+particularly when the tree is low in vitality, it may not be worth
+while to engage in surgery. It may be better to plant a new tree.
+Saving very old trees by the mending processes is not likely to be
+satisfactory. The grower should transfer his affection to a young
+tree. If the tree has had good care throughout its life, it probably
+will not need much surgery in old age. The grower will be willing,
+when the time comes, to take a photograph for memory's sake and to let
+the tree come to a timely and artistic end.
+
+
+
+
+XIV
+
+CITIZENS OF THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+Many years ago, my old friend, the late Dr. J. A. Lintner, State
+Entomologist of New York, compiled a list of 356 insects that feed on
+the apple-tree. Later authorities place the number at nearly five
+hundred species. It must be a good plant that has such a host of
+denizens. The number of fungi is also large; and the tree often
+supports lichens, algae, and other forms of life.
+
+The apple-tree is not single in its denizens. No plant lives alone. It
+has association with its fellows, perhaps contest for space and
+nourishment. It provides habitat for many organisms, many of which
+live on its bounty. I have never seen a bearing apple-tree that was
+not a colonizing place for other living things. We accept these things
+as matters of course, as being in place, living their part in nature.
+Therefore, one cannot understand the apple-tree unless one knows
+something of its citizenry.
+
+Probably the most prominent citizen of the apple-tree is the
+codlin-moth. Its larva is the apple-worm, the one that makes "wormy
+apples," the burrows going to the core and out again. The insect is
+native in Europe, but has been known in North America nearly two
+hundred years, and is widespread in the apple countries of the world.
+
+If one has screens in the apple cellar, one is likely to find small
+moths on them in the spring, larger than a clothes moth, about
+three-fourths inch in spread of the soft gray watered-silk wings. This
+is the imago or mature form of the insect known as the codlin-moth (it
+lives on codlins or apples). The larvae or "worms" were brought into
+the cellar in the apples; some of them crawled out, spun themselves in
+a cocoon and pupated; in due season the moth emerged, ready to lay the
+eggs for other larvae. Ordinarily the fruit-grower does not see the
+moth, for it is a small object amidst the foliage of apple-trees; the
+larva or apple-worm he knows well.
+
+There may be two or more broods of apple-worms, depending on the
+length of the season. In the northern apple regions of North America
+there is usually only one brood, with a partial second brood. The
+first brood is hatched from eggs laid by moths that emerge in spring.
+The moths come from larvae that have lain in cocoons all winter, hidden
+under bark on the trunks and main branches of the apple-tree, in
+crevices in nearby posts and fences, and sometimes in the ground. The
+pupae are the transformed larvae or worms that left the apple of the
+previous year, usually before it fell, and crawled down the tree to
+find a place to spin the silken brown cocoons in which they wrapped
+themselves to undergo the wonderful transformation.
+
+So is the cycle complete: egg laid in early spring, mostly on the
+leaves; larva hatched in about one week, crawling to the young apple
+to feed, where it lives for perhaps a month; larva departed from the
+fruit to form a cocoon and to remain quiescent till it pupates the
+following spring (if there is no second brood) when it transforms into
+a moth; the moth alive for one week or ten days, laying perhaps as
+many as one hundred eggs or even more. If there is a second or third
+brood, the pupa resurrects in ten days or so into the moth; eggs are
+laid; larvae are hatched; pupae again are formed; and thus is the
+process continued. But the winter stage is the larva, although perhaps
+in store-houses the moths may emerge earlier and survive till spring.
+
+The eggs of the first brood are commonly laid on the leaves and fruit.
+The young larva or worm eats very little on the foliage. It usually
+crawls into the blossom end of the apple. The young apple stands
+erect, with the calyx open (Fig. 6); later the calyx closes and
+protects the larva that hatched there, forming a good cover for its
+operations (Fig. 7). The worm drives for the core, where it eats the
+young seeds and burrows extensively; then, when nearly grown, it sets
+out for the surface, eating a straight burrow; an opening is made
+through the skin of the apple, but this exit is plugged until the
+animal is ready to leave the place and to crawl down the tree to
+pupate. The larvae of later broods may enter at the side of the apple,
+where a leaf affords protection or where two fruits come together; but
+the life-history is the same, varying in its rapidity.
+
+This account discloses the vulnerable point in the life-history, if
+one is to destroy the insects and to grow fair fruit; if poison is
+lodged on the erect open-topped little apple, the young larva will get
+it before he injures the fruit. If the application of the poison is
+delayed until the calyx closes (Fig. 7), there will be small chance
+of reaching the worm. The best way to reach the second brood is to
+destroy all the first brood. The standard practice, therefore, is to
+spray the trees soon after the petals fall, with the idea of
+depositing arsenic in the blossom end.
+
+But the season of egg-laying is long, often extending over a period of
+three or four weeks, for the moths do not all emerge from the cocoons
+simultaneously. It is customary, therefore, to spray again about two
+weeks after the first application, with the hope of catching the young
+worms on their way to the fruit.
+
+There is no question about the efficacy of spraying. Its value has
+been demonstrated time and again. The methods and the materials may be
+learned from the experiment station publications in any State, wherein
+the advice is kept up-to-date.
+
+In the days before the perfecting of the spraying processes, the
+codlin-moth was controlled by catching the pupating larvae. Taking
+advantage of the habit of the worm to find lodgment under the bark on
+the trunk, it was the practice to scrape the loose bark from bole and
+large branches to destroy the hiding-places and then to tie a band of
+cloth around the trunk. Under this band the worms were taken, as they
+spun themselves up in the cocoons. This is a lesson taken from the
+industrious woodpeckers, who, in the winter, search the trees for the
+pupae and make holes through the flakes of bark to get them. The
+scraping of apple-trees is not much recommended now for the reason
+that this special necessity is passed, and because the better tillage
+and care together with the soaking of the branches and trunk in the
+spraying operation, tend to keep the tree vigorous and the bark
+properly exfoliated.
+
+So the worm in the apple has a delicate and interesting history. From
+egg to imago the transformations proceed with regularity, and they are
+marvelous. Had we not traced the sequence, no man could tell by
+appearances that the larva, the pupa and the moth are one and the same
+animal. They seem to have nothing in common. So is the egg stage as
+different as the other three, but we are measurably prepared for this
+epoch, since we know seeds so well; the egg and the seed are
+analogous. That a moth in the air should come from a crawling worm in
+an apple is indeed one of the miracles of nature. The worm leaves the
+apple ere it falls; how the worm knows the time is again a mystery. By
+some instinct, it is able to cognize a dying apple. The later worms,
+either the lastlings from the early brood or the product of subsequent
+broods, may remain in the apple when it is harvested, particularly in
+an apple picked before it is quite mature and from which the worm has
+not escaped.
+
+The apple-worm ruins the crop by killing many of the fruits and by
+blemishing the remainder. Seldom are there two worms in an apple. They
+seem to respect each other's hunting-ground. From the worm's point of
+view and from man's, one is enough.
+
+If man has dominion and if he needs apples, then is he within his
+rights if he joins issue with the insects. Yet is the insect as
+interesting for all that. I think we should miss many of the
+satisfactions of life, and certainly some of the disciplines, if there
+were no insects. My apple-tree is a great place for a naturalist. Van
+Bruyssel wrote a book on "The Population of an Old Pear-Tree." "When
+certain blue spirits begin to flit about me," he writes, "I depart
+from my study to go and read, in what I am allowed, even by my
+clerical uncle, to call my book of devotions. The devotions I mean are
+not in my book-case. No publisher, if he ever thought of such a thing,
+could bring them out. They are a page of the book of Nature, opened in
+the country, under blue sky, displayed at all season." What a
+marvelous company Van Bruyssel found on his old pear tree; and what
+inexhaustible worlds did Fabre discover in the lives of the spider,
+the fly, the caterpillar, the wasps, the mason-bees and others!
+
+Therefore we need not pause with the other four hundred and more
+insect citizens of the apple-tree. Some of them, as the San Jose
+scale, are not peculiarly apple-tree insects. My tree has another crew
+of inhabitants, and to this company we may now have introduction.
+
+The spots on the leaves and fruits are not deposits of dirt nor are
+they caused by mysterious conditions in the atmosphere, as once
+supposed, nor is it in the nature of leaves to be spotted and of
+fruits to be scabby; nor are the one-sided dwarfed fruits merely
+accidents. The organism responsible for these blemishes is less
+evident than the codlin-moth; yet what fruit-grower knows the eggs of
+the codlin-moth? But the organisms are as definite as are the insects;
+no longer are the fungi things without form and without positive
+cycles.
+
+On the ground are apple leaves, shed in the autumn. On the leaves are
+spots or lesions,--injured or "diseased"--infected with the apple-scab
+fungus. Under a good microscope the investigator finds immature
+fruiting bodies in these areas. In the early days of Spring, these
+bodies or winter-spores mature. A rain discharges them in astonishing
+numbers. Rising in the air (for they are incredibly light), these
+spores lodge on the unfolding leaves and flowers of the apple, and
+there begin to germinate, invading the tissue. The tissue is
+penetrated and killed so rapidly that the practiced eye soon discovers
+a "spot." The leaf, if badly infected, may not reach full size; it may
+curl; it may die and fall; the tree thereby is injured.
+
+From the fungus in the active diseased areas, another kind of spore
+develops rapidly. It is the summer-spore, which may be produced in
+prodigious numbers, and being discharged carries the disease
+elsewhere.
+
+All summer the process of spore-formation and distribution keeps up.
+If conditions are favorable, the tree is invaded in foliage and fruit.
+The flower-stems in the unfolding buds are attacked by the
+winter-spores and the flower falls. The apples become spotted from the
+invasion of the summer-spores, perhaps misshapen. Late infections may
+not show at picking time, but develop on the fruit in storage. The
+affected leaves are cast in the autumn, the winter-spores begin to
+form, the snows come and hide the processes, in spring the spores
+mature; and so does the round of life go on and on.
+
+There are beautiful forms in these fragile fungus threads that eat
+their way into the tissues of the host. There are fascinating
+phenomena in the growth and reproduction. Even so and for all that,
+man protects his tree by spraying it with poison, and thereby again
+does he have dominion.
+
+The spraying for apple-scab is with lime-sulfur to which may be added
+arsenate of lead. This treatment, properly timed, may suffice also
+for the codlin-moth. As the fungus may attack the flower-stems and
+kill them, so is the first application made when the flower-buds open
+and the stems begin to separate, but before the flowers expand; the
+operator has a period of one to three days in which to spray. A second
+spraying is given just after the blossoms fall, as for codlin-moth; if
+the season is wet, a third application may be made ten to fourteen
+days later; if the fungus seems to spread, a fourth spraying may be
+applied in midsummer. These sprayings, variously modified, control not
+only the codlin-moth and the scab fungus but also scale, blister-mite,
+plant-lice, leaf-roller, case-bearer, bud-moth, red-bug and others.
+
+In the tropics one sees trees bearing great burdens of orchids and
+bromeliads and ferns and mosses, and one wonders at the strange and
+exuberant population. Yet here is my apple-tree supporting epiphytes
+and parasites and insects, protector and nurse of a goodly company;
+and birds nest on the branches thereof.
+
+
+
+
+XV
+
+THE APPLE-TREE REGIONS
+
+
+The northern hemisphere is the home of the apple, particularly Central
+Europe, Canada, the United States. In certain regions in the southern
+hemisphere the temperature and humidity are right for the good growing
+of apples, mostly in elevated areas. In New Zealand and parts of
+Australia, apple-growing is assuming large proportions. Their export
+trade to Europe and parts of South America has come to be important
+and undoubtedly is destined greatly to increase.
+
+In Europe, where land is often limited and high in price, apple-trees
+may be planted closer than in America, even in field conditions, and
+more attention is given to pruning, heading-in, and the development of
+fruit-spurs in the interior of the tree-top. I noticed this practice
+in New Zealand, also. In these directions, the Europeans have much to
+teach us in the careful growing of good apples. In Europe, the
+definite training of the apple-tree begins in the nursery;
+quantity-production, with standardization, is not there the aim.
+
+In North America the general practice is to let the tree take its
+course, reaching its full natural stature. The pruning is mostly
+corrective, to keep the tree in shape and to prevent the top from
+becoming too thick, rather than in the development of fruiting wood.
+The consequence is that our trees become very large, specially in New
+York and New England where they are long-lived. In the western
+country, as we have learned, the apple-tree tends to be shorter-lived
+and does not usually attain such great size. In the New York apple
+country, orchards may be in good bearing at forty to sixty years from
+planting, and individual trees may be productive much longer than
+this. The trees come into good bearing in ten to fifteen years. In the
+irrigated regions of the West, the trees may be expected to bear a
+good crop two to five years earlier; to what age they may attain, in
+large plantations, it is yet too early to state.
+
+The commercial apple regions of North America are in Canada and the
+northern United States, comprising about two or three tiers of States,
+with important extensions southward into the mountains and in special
+parts. The Southern States are not known as apple-growing country,
+except in special restricted elevated areas, although there are
+considerable plantations near the Gulf of Mexico.
+
+The geography of apple-growing on the North American continent cannot
+be better displayed than by copying the table of contents of the
+larger part of Chapters III and II in Folger and Thomson's excellent
+recent book, "The Commercial Apple Industry of North America:"
+
+
+_Commercial Apple Production in Canada_
+
+    Nova Scotia
+    Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick
+    Quebec
+    Ontario
+    British Columbia.
+
+_Leading Apple Regions of the United States_
+
+    Western New York
+    Hudson Valley
+    New England Baldwin belt
+    The Champlain district
+    New Jersey
+    Delaware
+    Shenandoah-Cumberland district
+    Piedmont district of Virginia
+    Minor regions in Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Virginia
+    Mountain region of North Carolina
+    Mountain region of Georgia
+    Ohio
+      Southern Ohio, Rome Beauty district
+      Minor regions in Ohio
+    Kentucky
+    Michigan
+    Illinois
+      Southern Illinois early apple region
+      Mississippi Valley region of Illinois
+    Ozark region
+    Missouri River region
+    Arkansas Valley of Kansas
+      Southeastern Illinois
+    Colorado
+    New Mexico
+    Utah
+    Montana
+    Washington
+      Yakima Valley
+      Wenatchee North Central Washington district
+      Spokane district
+      Walla Walla district
+    Oregon
+      Hood River Valley
+      Rogue River Valley
+      Other apple districts in Oregon
+    Idaho
+      Payette district
+      Boise Valley
+      Twin Falls
+      Lewiston section
+    California
+      Watsonville district
+      Sebastopol apple district
+      Yucaipa section
+    Wisconsin
+    Minnesota
+
+The varieties of the South and the North, and largely also of the West
+and the East, are prevailingly different. Canada has a set of apples
+quite its own. These differences are marked when one visits
+exhibitions in the various regions. Let the visitor who is a good
+judge of apples in Michigan and Ohio attempt to judge them in an
+exhibition in the Annapolis Valley of Nova Scotia, in the Province of
+Quebec, in North Carolina, in Minnesota, in Oregon. He will be
+impressed with the wonderful diversity, as well as the undeveloped
+resources, of the continent.
+
+Southward, apples do not keep well. There are no true winter apples in
+the Southern States, outside mountain regions. A winter apple of the
+North becomes a fall apple in the South. In fact, there are marked
+differences in keeping quality within a single State. On gravelly
+lands or warm slopes in the southern part of New York, the Northern
+Spy may become practically a late autumn apple; in the northern parts
+of the State it is a firm crisp all-winter keeper. In the winter
+apple, the ripening process proceeds in storage. When the season is so
+long that maturity is reached on the tree, the subsequent duration is
+relatively short.
+
+It is not to be inferred, however, that apples are to be grown only in
+regions and soils naturally well adapted. Such adaptations should be
+controlling in commercial plantations; but if man has dominion he
+should be able to accomplish much in untoward or even in hostile
+conditions. Even the city lot may be able to yield a harvest, if the
+occupant of it is minded in fruits rather than in other things. Every
+observant traveler has noted cases in which good results in the
+rearing of plants and animals have been attained in places that no one
+would choose for the purpose: the man has overcome his obstacles. I
+was impressed with this fact in visiting a greenhouse in the Shetland
+Islands. Cultivation has been carried far beyond the optimum regions.
+The merit of the man's performance is measured in the excellence of
+his result rather than in the quantity of it. The application of skill
+is the highest test of ability in plant-growing, and this is often
+expressed in the most difficult places.
+
+Whatever may be the adaptability of any general territory to the
+growing of apples in a large way, the probability is that a man of
+resources and skill will be able to raise good apples for himself,
+unless, of course, the region is prohibitive. The amateur may be a law
+unto himself in many of these matters, delighting in the ingenuity
+that enables him to overcome.
+
+
+
+
+XVI
+
+THE HARVEST OF THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+Finally the apple is ripe, a fair goodly object joyous in the sun,
+inviting to every sense. Hanging amidst its foliage, bending the twig
+with its weight, it is at once a pattern in good shape, perfect in
+configuration, in sheen beyond imitation, in fragrance the very
+affluence of all choice clean growth, its surface spread with a bloom
+often so delicate that the unsympathetic see it not; and yet the rains
+do not spoil it.
+
+The apple must be picked. Do not let it fall. Probably it is over-ripe
+when it falls; the hold is loosened; its time is up. Wormy apples may
+fall before they are ripe; the worm injury, if it begins early, causes
+them to ripen prematurely. A premature apple is not a good apple,
+albeit the small boy relishes it but only because he may get his apple
+earlier; in the apple season, when ripe fruits are abundant, the boy
+does not choose the wormy one.
+
+Pick the apple from the tree. It will do you good. It is ever so much
+better than to pick it from a box on the market or out of a quart-can
+in the ice-chest. You will feel some sense of responsibility when you
+pick it, some reaction of relationship to its origin. We know that we
+understand folks better when we see them at home.
+
+In varieties that mature before winter, the apple is of best quality
+when it ripens on the tree and is picked when fit to eat. In this
+respect it differs from the pear. One reason why store apples are
+usually poor is because they must be picked long before ripe to stand
+shipment. In my experience it is most difficult to find a man who will
+pick apples when ripe; he is usually possessed to pull them green,
+thinking that if the fruit is full grown and has a red cheek it is
+therefore ready to be plucked.
+
+One would expect the best summer and fall apples to come from nearby
+local orchards, but practically this is not the case because the
+grower will not allow them to remain on the tree until they are fit.
+Of course the really ripe apple will not keep long and it does not
+stand rough handling, but this does not affect the fact that, for
+eating, an apple should be naturally ripe. In every city, small or
+large, a good trade can be built up for local ripe hand-picked fruit
+of the first quality, in competition with the best commercial supply.
+
+Winter apples are picked in the Northern States in October, sometimes
+late in September. They are then full grown, but are hard and
+inedible. The red varieties are full colored; the green ones show more
+or less yellow. Light early frost does not injure them on the tree.
+Usually they are placed at first in piles or windrows; and from these
+piles they are barreled or boxed for market. If the choicest grades
+are to be made, they should be taken to a packing-house.
+
+The apple is an easy fruit to pick. The stem parts readily from the
+spur or twig. Yet if the harvester is choice of his trees he will work
+deftly rather than roughly, not to injure the bearing wood. The fruits
+are placed in baskets as they are plucked, sometimes in a bag slung
+over the shoulders but this is not the best way when the apples are
+ripe. In the packing-house, the fruits are sorted into uniform grades
+if they are for market.
+
+The better the trees are tilled, pruned and sprayed, the more uniform
+will be the crop, and particularly if the fruit is thinned on the
+tree; yet the second-class and even cull apples will be many under
+ordinary conditions. The purchaser, noting the price of extra-grade
+apples, may not realize that he buys only the remainder in a long
+process of grading, extending really over the season or even
+throughout the life of the orchard. In all this time, the grower has
+borne the risks of frosts and hail, insect and fungus invasions, lack
+of help, and disastrously low prices. A finished product of high
+quality is always expensive.
+
+The usual apples on the open market are not the kind I have here tried
+to describe. They are the product of indifferent orchards or of
+careless handling. They are purchased for cooking; and the eating of
+apples out of hand because they are attractive and really good is an
+unknown experience with great numbers of our people. The polished
+shiny apples of the fruit-stands are a delusion. The practice of
+burnishing the fruits produces a most inartistic result, destroying
+the natural bloom and violating the appearance of a natural apple. It
+is one thing to clean a fruit if it is soiled (which is seldom the
+case with boxed or barreled apples); it is quite another thing to rub
+and furbish an apple as if it were a billiard ball or glass marble and
+not a living object that grew on a tree,--it sets false standards
+before the children. Yet all this is in line with much of our practice
+whereby, in cookery and manipulation, we disguise our foods and show
+our lack of appreciation of the products themselves.
+
+For home use, winter apples may well be stored in boxes in a cool
+moist cellar if such a place is available. For best results in long
+keeping, the temperature should be maintained below 40 degrees F. In a
+cellar containing a furnace, the fruits shrivel from too much
+evaporation, as also in an attic or other dry room. If the fruit must
+be stored in such places, it is well to keep the box or barrel tightly
+closed, and the individual apples may be wrapped in thin paper.
+
+The apples must be sorted now and then, to remove the decaying ones;
+if the fruit was carefully sprayed, handled and graded in the first
+place and not too ripe, the necessity of frequent sorting will be
+considerably reduced. But in any case, the keeping of apples, except
+under good cold-storage, is at best a process of continually saving
+the most durable fruits. An "outside cellar," if properly ventilated,
+usually is a good place in which to keep apples. With the use of
+furnaces for heating and the cramped quarters of city apartments, the
+keeping of apples for home supply is constantly more difficult.
+
+There is no apple like the one that comes up fresh from the cellar on
+a winter night, cool, crisp, solid yet ready. It is the fruit of the
+home fireside. I often wonder whether one in a hundred of the people
+know what a really good and timely apple is.
+
+The yield of an apple-tree depends on many factors,--age, size,
+thriftiness, care it has received, whether it has escaped frost and
+other injuries; and some varieties are much more prolific than others.
+Some apples are "shy bearers," and for this reason soon are lost to
+propagation unless they have some superlative merit; Yellow
+Bellflower is an example of a shy, or at least an irregular, bearer.
+The great commercial varieties are of course good bearers, as Baldwin,
+Ben Davis, Stayman, York Imperial, Oldenburg, Rome, McIntosh, Wealthy,
+Yellow Transparent, Jonathan.
+
+An apple-tree at full bearing is a wonderful sight at the harvest,
+particularly in such varieties as McIntosh and Baldwin, in which the
+fruit is highly colored and hangs well toward the outside of the
+tree-top. While the first bearing year may yield only a half dozen
+fruits, the crop increases rapidly with the added years,--one peck,
+one bushel, five bushels, ten bushels, thirty bushels, even to sixty
+and seventy bushels on large sturdy old trees of some varieties. The
+amateur, however, first prizes the quality and regularity of his
+product for the sheer joy of it; then every added bushel is so much to
+the good.
+
+
+
+
+XVII
+
+THE APPRAISAL OF THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+Now, therefore, in these sixteen little chapters have I tried to
+explain what I feel about the apple-tree. It is a version to my
+friend, the reader, not a treatise.
+
+As the interpretation is in the realm of the sensibilities, so do I
+aim not directly at concreteness. Yet as it is now the fashion to
+"score" all our products by a scale of "points," I make a reasonable
+concession to it. But I do not like the scoring of the fruit
+independently of the tree on which it grew as if the fruit were only a
+commodity. I know we cannot bring the tree to the exhibition-room, yet
+the perfect measure, nevertheless, is the tree and the fruit together.
+In these later times we have said much against the use of the museum
+specimen to the exclusion of the living object in its natural place:
+let us be cautious, then, that we do not forget apple-trees in our
+studies of apples.
+
+Here I shall not arrange numerical scales of points for the
+apple-tree. Sufficient for this occasion is the naming of the points,
+letting the reader place his own percentage-value on each of them; for
+I am trying to teach, not to instruct.
+
+Yet I must insert, for the reader's benefit, certain good rules and
+scores that have been adopted for the "judging" of the fruit by those
+experienced in these matters. This excellent exercise of judging
+fruits at exhibitions has gained much headway. Students of schools and
+colleges are trained for the "judging teams," and great technical
+perfection has been attained.
+
+To be exact is an exigency of science. I fear that we make exactness
+an end, but that is neither here nor there on this occasion and I
+shall not now pursue the subject further; I hope the judging trains
+the judge to see what he looks at in other things as well as in
+apples, that it leads him into the pleasant paths of causes and
+effects, that it opens the eyes of the blind.
+
+The customary judging of plants and animals and their products
+consists in assessing the attributes against a scale of perfection.
+Thus, if "form" or "conformation" is worth 10 points in the hundred
+(by the estimation of good authorities), the judge must decide whether
+the particular animal before him merits 6 or 7, more or less. So if
+"flavor" in an apple is considered to be worth 20 points of the
+hundred, the judge makes up his mind what rating, within that limit,
+he shall accord to the fruit he is testing. The arrangement in tabular
+form of the features for any product, with the number of points stated
+for each, all summing 100, constitutes a "score-card." Thus there may
+be a score-card for Merino sheep, another for Shropshires, one for
+apples, and for any other objects whatsoever.
+
+At competitive exhibitions, the element of comparison comes in.
+Perhaps it is the only criterion to be considered in a particular
+case,--whether this apple is better than that or than any number of
+others, which of several "plates" or samples of apples merits first
+mention, which of two or more collections of varieties is altogether
+most worthy of a prize. In these cases, the different fruits or
+collections may be scored by the card, and the total footings
+determine where the award shall go. Or, the different entries may be
+judged in general, "by the eye;" this is the usual method, and is
+satisfactory in the hands of persons whose standing and experience
+carry conviction.
+
+If one is to evaluate an apple-tree against a scale or code, these are
+some of the features, in relative order of importance, to be
+considered:
+
+     1. Whether the tree is typical of the variety, in shape,
+     manner of growth, character of foliage and bloom.
+
+     2. Whether it is sound of all injury and disease, and free
+     of blemish.
+
+     3. Whether it is duly vigorous and productive.
+
+     4. Whether its fruit is characteristic of the variety or
+     kind.
+
+     5. Whether the pruning has been good; the thinning; the
+     spraying.
+
+     6. Whether the performance of the tree has fulfilled
+     reasonable expectations.
+
+The judging of fruits is facilitated by such score-cards and
+explanations as the following:
+
+     1. For comparison of different dessert varieties.
+
+Conformation              10
+Size                       5
+Color                     20
+Core                       5
+Uniformity                 5
+Durability (keeping)      10
+Condition                  5
+Freedom from blemish      10
+Quality                   30
+                        ----
+                         100
+
+     2. For comparison of plates or samples of the same variety.
+
+Form                      15
+Size                      15
+Color                     25
+Uniformity                25
+Freedom from blemish      20
+                        ----
+                         100
+
+
+DIRECTIONS FOR JUDGING PLATES OF APPLES IN AN EXHIBITION
+
+Following are directions and explanations issued to judging teams in
+exhibition contests, by an agricultural college:
+
+     (1) _Form_: The shape and conformation of the apples on any
+     one plate should be typical for the variety, the region of
+     growth being somewhat considered. All specimens on a plate
+     should be uniform in shape. When competition is close, a
+     careful comparison of the more minute characteristics of the
+     basin, cavity and stem are made.
+
+     (2) _Size_: The specimens on any one plate should be uniform
+     in size and of the size most acceptable on the market for
+     the variety. A plate may be marked down for being either
+     under or over the accepted commercial size. In many
+     exhibits, the ideal size is given in the premium
+     announcements.
+
+     (3) _Colors_: All specimens in an entry should be uniformly
+     colored in the way that is considered perfect for the
+     variety in the district where grown. In judging color, one
+     should consider (_a_) the depth and attractiveness of the
+     ground color, (_b_) the brightness and attractiveness of the
+     over-color, (_c_) the amount of the over-color. In a yellow
+     or green apple, the yellow or green should be clear and even
+     all over, considering the maturity of the specimen. In
+     varieties that are typically blushed, (e. g., Maiden Blush)
+     the specimens should show a distinct tinge of red on the
+     cheek exposed to the sun. With such apples as Rhode Island
+     Greening, that are only sometimes blushed, the presence or
+     absence of the blush should not detract except that the
+     apples on any one plate should be uniform. With apples
+     typically over-colored, an intense color for the variety is
+     desirable.
+
+     The _bloom_ may be wiped from apples, but in no case should
+     polished specimens be given the preference. Some exhibits
+     have special rules regarding polishing of apples.
+
+     (4) _Conditions_: Refers to the degree of ripeness. An apple
+     to be in perfect condition should be firm for the variety
+     and free from the withering that comes when apples are
+     picked too green or when the fruit is over-ripe or has not
+     been stored properly.
+
+     (5) _Freedom from blemish_: All specimens should be free
+     from blemishes of all kinds. One should look particularly
+     for (_a_) marks of fungous or other disease, including
+     stippin, (_b_) injury from insects of all kinds, (_c_)
+     mechanical injury, including loss of stem. Unmistakable
+     evidence of codlin-moth injury or San Jose scale should
+     disqualify a plate. Other blemishes are considered important
+     in about the order named: Side worms, scab, stippin,
+     curculio or red-bug, skin punctures, bruises, stem pulled,
+     russet (not typical for variety) and limb rub. The extent of
+     scab spots should be considered. Minute spots are not as
+     serious as some other blemishes, while spots which deform
+     the apple should disqualify the plate.
+
+     _Other information_: Five specimens constitute a plate,
+     except when the rules of the contest or exhibit state
+     otherwise. Any variation from this rule disqualifies the
+     plate.
+
+     When a plate is not labelled with the correct variety name,
+     it should not be judged, but is disqualified and if possible
+     the correct name is applied. If one specimen on a plate is
+     not as labelled, the whole plate is disqualified.
+
+     In some judging contests, the plates are not labelled with
+     the variety name, and the contestant is supposed to make the
+     identification.
+
+     _Precaution_: Avoid pressing the specimens with the thumb
+     and finger so as to bruise the fruit. The degree of firmness
+     can be determined by gentle pressure with the inside of the
+     whole hand.
+
+     Defects, apparent or otherwise, should not be probed with
+     the finger nail, pin, or other hard object.
+
+     Special care should be exercised to replace all specimens on
+     the right plate.
+
+Having in mind these definite criteria, the reader will know what is
+meant by a "good apple" and also a good apple-tree. Measurements of
+perfection aid us to estimate the deficiencies.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+He who knows the apple-tree knows also its region. The landscape is
+his in every blessed year; he sees the chariots of the months come
+down from the distances and pass by him into the twilights. Clouds are
+his and the repeating shadows on the hills. The morning when the
+blossoms are laden with the fragrance of the night, high noon when the
+bees are busy, the gloaming when the birds drop into the boughs, these
+are his by divine right. The smell of new-plowed fields is his, with
+the urgent promise in them. Seed time and harvest, as old as the
+procreant earth and as new as the latest sunrise, are his to conjure.
+The verities are his for the asking, the strong things of cultivated
+fields and of wild places. And mastery is his, that comes of the
+amelioration of the land and the education of the tree. All these are
+everyman's, and yet they are his alone.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+                                 PAGE
+
+Acid phosphate                     45
+
+Age of apple-trees                 98
+
+Alternate bearing                  42
+
+American Pomological Society       66
+
+Apple-scab                         95
+
+Appleseed, Johnny                  61
+
+Arsenate of lead                   95
+
+Australia, Apples in               97
+
+
+Bacteria                           12
+
+Bark of apple-tree                 11
+  of cherry                        11
+  of elm                           11
+  of pear-tree                     11
+
+Bearing year                       42
+
+Black Gilliflower                  73
+
+Bloomless apple                    75
+
+Bolting trees                      88
+
+Bridge-grafting                    88
+
+Brush pile                         27
+
+Budding                        50, 51
+
+Buds                       15, 19, 27
+
+
+Calyx-tube                         26
+
+Canada, apples in                  98
+
+Canker                             12
+
+Cherimoya                           8
+
+Cherry, bark of                    11
+
+Christophine                        8
+
+Cider, treatise on                 62
+
+Cion-grafting                  50, 79
+
+Citrus fruits                       8
+
+Cleft-grafting                     82
+
+Coconut                             8
+
+Codlin-moth                    12, 89
+
+Custard apple                       8
+
+
+Diseases                           46
+
+Distance apart                     43
+
+Double apples                      74
+
+Doucin stocks                      57
+
+Downing, quoted                54, 67
+
+Dwarf apple-trees                  54
+
+
+Elm, bark of                       11
+
+Endicott, Gov.                     61
+
+Enriching the land                 45
+
+Exhibitions                       108
+
+
+Fertilizing                40, 44, 45
+
+Fig                                 8
+
+Flower, structure of               20
+
+Folger and Thomson, quoted         98
+
+Fructicetum                        78
+
+Fruit-spurs and bearing            42
+
+Fungi                              12
+
+
+Girdles                            87
+
+Graftage                       49, 79
+
+Grafts                             81
+
+Guava                               8
+
+
+Harvesting                        102
+
+Hillsides for orchards             44
+
+Hogs in orchards                   45
+
+Hypanthium                         26
+
+
+Insects                        46, 89
+
+
+Judging apples                    108
+
+
+Knots                      11, 85, 87
+
+
+Land for apples                    42
+
+Langley, Batty                     82
+
+Lawson, William                    82
+
+Leaf-arrangement                   29
+
+Lichens                            11
+
+Lime-sulphur                       95
+
+Linnaeus                           62
+
+Lintner, J. A.                     89
+
+
+Malus                              62
+
+Mamone                              8
+
+Mango                               8
+
+Manning, mentioned                 67
+
+M'Mahon, quoted                    66
+
+Medlar                             75
+
+Mending trees                      85
+
+Moench, cited                      75
+
+Mound-layering                     55
+
+Muenchhausen, cited                75
+
+
+Natural trees                      51
+
+New Zealand, apples in             97
+
+Nitrate of soda                    45
+
+
+Origin of apple-tree               60
+
+Ornamental apples                  64
+
+Ovary                              20
+
+
+Paint for wounds                   86
+
+Papaya                              8
+
+Paradise stocks                    57
+
+Parkinson, John                    58
+
+Pasturing                          45
+
+Pear, bark of                      11
+
+Phosphate, acid                    45
+
+Phyllotaxy                         29
+
+Picking apples                    102
+
+Piece-roots                        50
+
+Pistil                         20, 26
+
+Plant-breeder                      51
+
+Planting                       42, 43
+
+Plant-lice                         12
+
+Pollen-tube                        20
+
+Pollination                        40
+
+Pomegranate                         8
+
+Propagation of apple-tree      48, 54
+
+Pruning               36, 40, 86, 104
+
+Pyrus baccata                      63
+  coronaria                        63
+  diocia                           75
+  Ioensis                          63
+  Malus                        62, 63
+  Soulardii                        64
+
+
+Receptacle of flower               26
+
+Regions for apples             97, 99
+
+Repairing trees                    85
+
+Root-grafting                      50
+
+Roots                              43
+
+
+Scale insects                      12
+
+Scale of points                   108
+
+Score-card                        108
+
+Seedless apple                     74
+
+Seedling trees                 48, 51
+
+Seeds, planting                    48
+
+Sharrock, Robert                   81
+
+Sheep in orchards                  45
+
+Sheepnose                          73
+
+Sod in orchards                    44
+
+Soil for apples                    42
+
+Spraying              40, 91, 95, 104
+
+Star-apple                          8
+
+Stigma                             20
+
+Stocks                             49
+
+Storing                           105
+
+Struggle for existence             47
+
+Style                              20
+
+Surgery                            86
+
+Surprise                           73
+
+Sweet-and-Sour                     73
+
+
+Thinning                       38, 39
+
+Thomson and Folger                 98
+
+Tilling               40, 44, 47, 104
+
+Tree surgery                       86
+
+
+Varieties                          66
+  list of                          70
+
+
+Water-core                         74
+
+Whip-graft                         50
+
+Wilder, mentioned                  67
+
+Wormy apples                  89, 102
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Notes
+
+Some illustrations have been moved from their original positions to
+avoid breaking up the text, and to put them in numerical order.
+
+Variations in spelling and punctuation have been retained from the
+original book except for the following changes:
+
+Page 51: Both instances of "varities" changed to "varieties".
+
+Page 74: "occuring" changed to "occurring".
+
+Page 75: "dioecious pyrus" was originally typeset with an oe ligature.
+
+Page 91: "foilage" changed to "foliage".
+
+Page 93: "analagous" changed to "analogous".
+
+Page 94: "or" changed to "nor". "investigatior" changed to
+"investigator".
+
+Page 100: "gravly" changed to "gravelly".
+
+Page 113 (Index): "Appleseed, Johny" changed to "Appleseed, Johnny".
+"Bark of Cheery" changed to "Bark of Cherry".
+
+Page 115 (Index): "Linnaeus" changed to "Linnaeus" to match text.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Apple-Tree, by L. H. Bailey
+
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+
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