initial commit of ebook 26132HEADmain

152 files changed, 12172 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/26132-8.txt b/26132-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0d18349
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,3836 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Apple-Tree, by L. H. Bailey
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Apple-Tree
+       The Open Country Books--No. 1
+
+Author: L. H. Bailey
+
+Release Date: July 26, 2008 [EBook #26132]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE APPLE-TREE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Diane Monico, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images produced by Core Historical
+Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+
+
+THE OPEN COUNTRY BOOKS
+
+A continuing company of genial little books
+about the out-of-doors
+
+Under the editorship of
+L. H. BAILEY
+
+1. The Apple-Tree               L. H. Bailey
+2. A Home Vegetable Garden      Ella M. Freeman
+3. The Cow                      Jared Van Wagenen, Jr.
+
+Others about weather and the sky, scenery,
+camps, recreation, quadrupeds, fishes, birds,
+insects, reptiles, plants, and the places in the
+open.
+
+
+
+
+The Open Country Books--No. 1
+
+THE APPLE-TREE
+
+BY
+L. H. BAILEY
+
+NEW YORK
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+1922
+_All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1922,
+BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+
+Set up and electrotyped. Published January, 1922.
+
+FERRIS PRINTING COMPANY
+NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER                                                     PAGE
+
+I. Where There is no Apple-Tree                                7
+
+II. The Apple-Tree in the Landscape                           10
+
+III. The Buds on the Twigs                                    15
+
+IV. The Weeks Between the Flower and the Fruit                19
+
+V. The Brush Pile                                             27
+
+VI. The Pruning of the Apple-Tree                             36
+
+VII. Maintaining the Health and Energy of the Apple-Tree      41
+
+VIII. How an Apple-Tree is Made                               48
+
+IX. The Dwarf Apple-Tree                                      54
+
+X. Whence Comes the Apple-Tree?                               60
+
+XI. The Varieties of Apple                                    66
+
+XII. The Pleasant Art of Grafting                             79
+
+XIII. The Mending of the Apple-Tree                           85
+
+XIV. Citizens of the Apple-Tree                               89
+
+XV. The Apple-Tree Regions                                    97
+
+XVI. The Harvest of the Apple-Tree                           102
+
+XVII. The Appraisal of the Apple-Tree                        107
+
+
+[Illustration: 1. The home apple-tree]
+
+
+
+
+THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+WHERE THERE IS NO APPLE-TREE
+
+
+The wind is snapping in the bamboos, knocking together the resonant
+canes and weaving the myriad flexile wreaths above them. The palm
+heads rustle with a brisk crinkling music. Great ferns stand in the
+edge of the forest, and giant arums cling their arms about the trunks
+of trees and rear their dim jacks-in-the-pulpit far in the branches;
+and in the greater distance I know that green parrots are flying in
+twos from tree to tree. The plant forms are strange and various,
+making mosaic of contrasting range of leaf-size and leaf-shape, palm
+and grass and fern, epiphyte and liana and clumpy mistletoe, of grace
+and clumsiness and even misproportion, a tall thick landscape all
+mingled into a symmetry of disorder that charms the attention and
+fascinates the eye.
+
+It is a soft and delicious air wherein I sit. A torrid drowse is in
+the receding landscape. The people move leisurely, as befits the world
+where there is no preparation for frost and no urgent need of
+laborious apparel. There are tardy bullock-carts, unconscious donkeys,
+and men pushing vehicles. There are odd products and unaccustomed
+cakes and cookies on little stands by the roadside, where the turbaned
+vendor sits on the ground unconcernedly.
+
+There are strange fruits in the carts, on the donkeys that move down
+the hillsides from distant plantations in the heart of the jungle, on
+the trees by winding road and thatched cottage, in the great crowded
+markets in the city. I recognize coconuts and mangoes, star-apples and
+custard-apples and cherimoyas, papayas, guavas, mamones, pomegranates,
+figs, christophines, and the varied range of citrus fruits. There are
+also great polished apples in the markets, coming from cooler regions,
+tied by their stems, good to look at but impossible to relish; and I
+understand how these people of the tropics think the apple an inferior
+fruit, so successfully do the poor varieties stop the desire for more.
+There are vegetables I have never seen before.
+
+I am conscious of a slowly moving landscape with people and birds and
+beasts of burden and windy vegetation, of prospects in which there are
+no broad smooth farm fields with fences dividing them, of scenery full
+of herbage, in which every lineament and action incite me and
+stimulate my desire for more, of days that end suddenly in the
+blackness of night.
+
+Yet, somehow, I look forward to the time when I may go to a more
+accustomed place. Either from long association with other scenes or
+because of some inexpressible deficiency in this tropic splendor, I am
+not satisfied even though I am exuberantly entertained. Something I
+miss. For weeks I wondered what single element I missed most. Out of
+the numberless associations of childhood and youth and eager manhood
+it is difficult to choose one that is missed more than another. Yet
+one day it came over me startlingly that I missed the apple-tree,--the
+apple-tree, the sheep, and the milch cattle!
+
+The farm home with its commodious house, its greensward, its great
+barn and soft fields and distant woods, and the apple-tree by the
+wood-shed; the good home at the end of the village with its sward and
+shrubbery, and apple roof-tree; the orchard, well kept, trim and
+apple-green, yielding its wagon-loads of fruits; the old tree on the
+hillside, in the pasture where generations of men have come and gone
+and where houses have fallen to decay; the odor of the apples in the
+cellar in the cold winter night; the feasts around the fireside,--I
+think all these pictures conjure themselves in my mind to tantalize me
+of home.
+
+And often in my wanderings I promise myself that when I reach home I
+shall see the apple-tree as I had never seen it before. Even its bark
+and its gnarly trunk will hold converse with me, and its first tiny
+leaves of the budding spring will herald me a welcome. Once again I
+shall be a youth with the apple-tree, but feeling more than the
+turbulent affection of transient youth can understand. Life does not
+seem regular and established when there is no apple-tree in the yard
+and about the buildings, no orchards blooming in the May and laden in
+the September, no baskets heaped with the crisp smooth fruits; without
+all these I am still a foreigner, sojourning in a strange land.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE APPLE-TREE IN THE LANDSCAPE
+
+
+The April sun is soft on the broad open fenced fields, waking them
+gently from the long deep sleep of winter. Little rills are running
+full. The grass is newly coolly green. Fresh sprouts are in the sod.
+By copse and highway the shad-bushes salute with their handkerchiefs.
+Apple-trees show tips of verdure. It is good to see the early greens
+of changing spring. It is good to look abroad on an apple-tree
+landscape.
+
+As to its vegetation, the landscape is low and flat, not tall. There
+is a vast uniformity in plant forms, a subdued and constrained
+humility. A month later the leafage will be in glory, but that also
+will have an aspect of sameness and moderation. Perhaps the actual
+variety of species will be greater than in many parts of the abounding
+tropics, and to the careful observer the luxuriance will be as great,
+although not so big; but as I look abroad I am impressed with the
+economy of the prospect. It comes nearer to my powers of assimilation,
+quiets me with a deep satisfaction; the contrasts are subdued, the
+processes grade into each other imperceptibly in the land of the
+lingering twilight.
+
+In this prospect are maples and elms and apple-trees. The maples and
+elms are of the fields and roadsides. The apple-trees are of human
+habitations and human labor; they cluster about the buildings, or
+stand guard at a gate; they are in plantations made by hands. As I see
+them again, I wonder whether any other plant is so characteristically
+a home-tree.
+
+So is the apple-tree, even when full grown, within the reach of
+children. It can be climbed. Little swings are hung from the branches.
+Its shade is low and familiar. It bestows its fruit liberally to all
+alike.
+
+The apple is a sturdy tree. Short of trunk and short of continuous
+limb, it is yet a stout and rugged object, the indirectness of its
+branching branches adding to its picturesque quality. It is a tree of
+good structure. Although its limbs eventually arch to the ground, if
+left to themselves, they yet have great strength. The angularity of
+the branching, the frequent forking, the big healing or hollow knots
+with rounding callus-lips, give the tree character. Anywhere it would
+be a marked tree, unlike any other.
+
+The bark on the older surface sheds in short oblong irregular scales
+or plates that detach perhaps at both ends and often at the sides,
+clinging by the middle until the curl loosens them and they fall to
+the ground. These plates or chips are more or less rowed up and down
+the trunk and on the larger branches, yet the apple bark is not ridged
+and furrowed as on the elm. The bark is not checked in squares as on
+old pear-trees nor peeling as on cherries. In dry weather, the loose
+old bark is dark brown-gray, often supporting gray lichens, but in
+rain it is soft and nearly black, yielding pleasantly to the touch. In
+the forks, the bark is not so readily cast and there the chips may lie
+in heaps. On the young limbs and small trunks the bark is tight and
+close, not splitting into seams or furrows with the expansion of the
+cylinder but stretching and throwing off detached flakes and chips.
+Under the chips various insects hide or make some of their
+transformations. There the codlin-moth pupates. The old remains of
+scale insects may be found on the exterior. In the furrows about the
+dormant buds the eggs of plant-lice pass the winter.
+
+To destroy these breeding and hiding places, many careful
+apple-growers scrape away the loose bark, being careful not to expose
+the quick living tissue; and on the younger wood the eggs of aphis and
+other pests, as well as cocoons and nymphs, are destroyed by vigorous
+winter spraying. The regular spraying of apple-trees, in the different
+seasons, more or less sterilizes the bark. Many forms of canker, due
+to fungi and bacteria, invade the bark, making sunken areas and scars,
+often so serious as to destroy the tree. All these features are
+discoverable in the apple-tree.
+
+The trunk of the apple-tree is short and stout, usually not perfectly
+cylindrical and not prominently buttressed at the base. In old trees
+it is usually ribbed or ridged, sometimes tortuous with spiral-like
+grooves, often showing the bulge where the graft was set. The wood is
+fine-grained and of good color, and lends itself well to certain kinds
+of cabinet work and to the turning-lathe for household objects; it
+should be better known.
+
+[Illustration: 2. The apple-tree in the landscape]
+
+If left to itself, the tree branches near the ground, making many
+strong secondary scaffold trunks; but the plant does not habitually
+have more than one bole, even though it may branch from the very base;
+it is a real tree, even though small, and not a huge shrub. In the
+natural condition, the trunk often rises only a foot or two before
+it is lost in the branches; at other times it may be four or six feet
+high. Under cultivation, the lowest branches are usually removed when
+the tree begins to grow, and an evident clean trunk is produced. In
+Europe and the Eastern States, it has been the practice to trim the
+trunk clean to the height of four or six feet; but in hotter and drier
+regions the trunk is kept short to insure against sun-scald; and with
+the better tillage implements of the present day it may not be
+necessary to train the heads so high.
+
+In old hill pastures, in many parts of the North, one sees curious
+umbrella forms and other shapes of apple-trees, due to browsing by
+cattle. A little tree gets a start in the pasture. When cattle are
+turned in, they browse the tender terminal growth. The plant spreads
+at the base, in a horizontal direction. With the repeated browsing on
+top, the tree becomes a dense conical mound. Eventually, the leader
+may get a strong headway, and grows beyond the reach of the browsers.
+As it rises out of grasp, it sends off its side shoots, forming a
+head. The cattle browse the under side of this head, as far as they
+are able to reach, causing the tree to assume a grotesque hour-glass
+shape, flat on the under part of the head, with a cone of green
+herbage at the ground. Sometimes pastures are full of little hummocks
+of trees that have not yet been able to overtop the grazers.
+
+The winter apple-tree in the free is a reassuring object. It has none
+of the sleekness of many horticultural forms, nor the fragility of
+peaches, sour cherries and plums. It stands boldly against the sky,
+with its elbows at all angles and its scaly bark holding the snow.
+Against evergreens it shows its ruggedness specially well. It
+presents forms to attract the artist. Even when gnarly and broken, it
+does not convey an impression of decrepitude and decay but rather of a
+hardy old character bearing his burdens. In every winter landscape I
+look instinctively for the apple-tree.
+
+We are so accustomed to the apple-tree as a part of an orchard, where
+it is trimmed into shape and its bolder irregularities controlled,
+that we do not think it has beauty when left to itself to grow as it
+will. An apple-tree that takes its own course, as does a pine-tree or
+an oak, is looked on as unkempt and unprofitable and as a sorry object
+in the landscape, advertizing the neglect of the owner. Yet if the
+apple-tree had never borne good fruit, we should plant it for its
+bloom and its picturesqueness as we plant a hawthorn or a locust-tree.
+
+In winter and in summer, and in the months between, my apple-tree is a
+great fact. It is a character in the population of my scenery,
+standing for certain human emotions. The tree is a living thing, not
+merely a something that bears apples.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+THE BUDS ON THE TWIGS
+
+
+Now the buds begin to break. The firm winter-buds swell. Their scales
+part. Tips of green appear. Tiny leaves come forth, neatly rolled
+inward, growing as they expand, the stalks lengthening. Resurrection
+is astir in the tree.
+
+Several leaves issue from every bud. From some buds arise only leaves;
+from others a flower-cluster emerges from the leaf-rosette, showing
+faint color even before it expands. Very close together and tight
+these unopened little flowers are packed as they emerge; if we had
+looked at them with a lens as they lay in the bud in the long winter
+we should understand why; now they escape their bonds and rapidly grow
+as they are delivered, yet at first pressed together by head and stem
+in their soft gray wool.
+
+Thus are there two kinds of buds on the twig of the bearing
+apple-tree,--the leaf-buds (sending forth leaves only), and the
+flower-buds (bearing both leaves and flowers). And if we wish to
+analyze more closely, we discover two kinds of leaf-buds,--those that
+send forth a rapidly growing shoot bearing the leaves, and those from
+which the leaf-cluster remains practically sessile on the branch.
+These latter, or the strongest and best of them, will probably give
+rise to short fruiting spurs and the others to elongated leafy
+branches.
+
+Before me as I write is an apple limb more than three feet long. It
+has been a vigorous grower, for it is only three years old. The years
+can be readily made out; there are two sets of "rings" separating
+them. You may see these rings on all young apple limbs. They represent
+the scars of the scales of the past terminal buds.
+
+Three years ago my shoot was sent off from its parent branch; that
+year it grew but four inches, bearing leaves on its sides, in the
+axils of which developed buds for the winter and at the end a larger
+terminal bud. Let us call this shoot 1918. Two years ago (1919),
+whilst I was in a distant land, the terminal bud gave rise to a shoot
+nineteen inches long; two buds near the end of the 1918 shoot pushed
+out clusters of leaves and made spurs about one-half inch long; all
+the other buds, five in number, remained dormant, and now they are
+dead and are rapidly becoming mere scars. Last year (1920) the
+terminal bud of 1919 gave rise to a shoot fifteen inches long; three
+buds at the base of this two-year (1919) shoot remained dormant;
+fourteen buds produced spurs. It is now the spring of 1921; the 1920
+shoot has four dormant buds at its base, ten rosettes of leaves from
+the other buds, and a pushing terminal shoot.
+
+On my branch this year, therefore, are 5 plus 3 plus 4, or 12 dormant
+buds of all the years; 2 plus 14 plus 10, or 26 spurs; 1 terminal bud
+continuing the onward growth.
+
+[Illustration: 3. The bloom of the apple-tree]
+
+It is evident that the last two years were good ones for my apple
+limb, for the growths were long (19 and 15 inches) and most of the
+buds produced spurs. The result is evidenced also in the fact that the
+limb is this year laden with potential bloom. On 1918 the two spurs
+bear flowers, one of them only a single bloom and the other five
+blooms. On 1919 twelve of the fourteen spurs are bearing flowers in
+the following numbers: 5 flowers, 5, 5, 7, 5, 6, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 = 63
+flowers. On 1920 are no spurs bearing flowers, but the terminal bud
+(as is frequent on vigorous young trees) bears five flowers. Here,
+therefore, on this yard of three-year-old twig are seventy-four
+blossoms.
+
+But there will not be seventy-four fruits; some of the flowers are
+small and weak; others, as the petals fall, show unmistakable signs of
+failing. A few of them show the plump form of an embryo apple: I think
+there are a score of such promises. But I know that others will fail
+later from physiological causes, and others probably from onslaught of
+insects or disease or from accidents. If six fair fruits mature on a
+branch like this, the crop will be good; and probably the branch would
+not have vigor enough to set as many fruit-buds the following year or
+to bear as many fruits.
+
+It is good to watch the opening of the apple bloom: pink buds swelling
+and puffing out each day, the woolly stems elongating, the five
+overlapping incurving petals spreading and growing big, the stamens,
+about twenty, straightening up and lengthening their filaments that
+are attached on the flower-rim; the big light yellow anthers shedding
+pollen; the five green styles in the center. In some flowers the
+styles do not develop, and we have one reason why many flowers are
+sterile.
+
+The flower-clusters differ much among themselves, in size of parts,
+number of flowers, color; on some trees the flowers appear in advance
+of most of the leafage, but usually they are coincident with the
+leaves. Sometimes the flower-stems or peduncles are branched, bearing
+two or three flowers, and in that case there may be a small green leaf
+or bract where the fork arises. The placing of the petals in the bud
+at the epoch of expansion may differ in two flowers on the same tree.
+One petal may stand guard outside the others and free from them, both
+edges uncovered, while the remaining petals are spiral with one edge
+under and one edge over; or there may be two guard petals, one on
+either side; or sometimes all the petals may be spiral, one margin
+out, one margin in; in some cases all the petals stand free as the
+flower is expanding, with no margin interlapping. Sometimes one petal
+is missing, and again the petals may be six.
+
+This infinite variety within the bonds of so great regularity lends a
+subtle charm to natural objects, that is wholly absent in man's
+perfected machine-work. Man aims at uniformity, two and two alike;
+nature aims at endless difference, every object or even every member
+of an object having its own character. Much of man's energy is
+expended in trying to overcome the diverseness of nature.
+
+Gradually and slowly the flower balloons enlarge and puff themselves
+up, the petals standing together at their tips; all the variety is
+united into a harmony of exuberance, color and form; then one day
+there is a shower of genial rain, a warm sun, birds in the air, bees
+released, grasses soft and lush, and behold! the apple-tree is in
+bloom,--a great heavenly mound of white and pink exhaling a faint
+delicious breath. Then the pulses stir, the dogs bark at the edges of
+the wood, the fields call, the scented winds lead on forever.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+THE WEEKS BETWEEN THE FLOWER AND THE FRUIT
+
+
+The petals expand broadly, usually losing most of their pink. The
+blade is oblong and rounded at the end, at first cupped and then
+nearly flat, three-fourths of an inch long, narrowed at the base into
+a short stem-like part and usually hairy there, the edges perhaps wavy
+but entire. The expanse of the flower may be one and one-half to two
+inches. The brush of stamens, erect in the center, sheds its pollen
+and the anthers collapse.
+
+Then the petals fall, like flakes of snow, borne often by the wind.
+There remain the stout woolly flower-stems an inch or more long and
+bearing minute dry bracts, with the young fruit at the summit topped
+by the five recurving woolly sepals and the pencil of stamens and
+styles. The bloom being gone, the flowering system of the apple is
+thenceforth little observed. Not until the fruit begins to color do we
+come back to the apple-tree to look at it closely; yet in these
+intervening weeks some of the most interesting transformations take
+place, and on the exact observance of them depends to a large extent
+one's success in the rearing and saving of a good crop of apples.
+
+Here is the flower of the apple-tree (Fig. 3). It is a comely
+blossom, fragrant and pinky white, flatly spread to the sky, carrying
+the spirit of the cool of the spring. What concerns us now, however,
+is the cluster of stamens and pistils in the center, for these organs
+are directly concerned in the production of the fruit. The petals soon
+fall, but the remains of these interior organs persist, even unto the
+ripening of the fruit.
+
+The anther is attached at the back of its base or middle to the top of
+the filament in the suture separating the two large cells. These
+anther-cells split along the outer margins, releasing the
+pollen-grains.
+
+[Illustration: 4. Longitudinal section of the flower.]
+
+In the center of the ring of stamens are the five style-branches,
+which are united at the base into a short hairy column; the column is
+borne on the ovary, which is sunken deep into the receptacle or stem
+(Fig. 4). It is down these style-branches that the pollen-tube passes
+on its way to the ovules or embryo seeds. The top of the style is
+expanded into a cupped stigma on which are many glutinous points. One
+can observe the browning and ripening of the stigma after pollen has
+been deposited by wind, bees or other agencies. When the ovules are
+fertilized, the forming fruit enlarges regularly unless it meets with
+misfortune or is crowded out for lack of room and nourishment.
+
+If one cuts across the ovary or embryo fruit below the recurving
+sepals, one will see under a lens that it is neatly five-celled (Fig.
+5). In each cell are two ovules; these, if all goes well, will ripen
+into ten seeds. These five cells comprise most of the diameter in the
+cross-section: but as the ovary enlarges and the young fruit grows,
+one may see that the inner part comprising the cells begins to have a
+character of its own and to be differentiated from the surrounding
+flesh.
+
+[Illustration: 5. Cross-section of the ovary.]
+
+The "blossom" falls. In reality only the petals fall. What is left is
+well shown in Fig. 6. Here remain the upstanding stamens with the
+empty anthers, and in the center one could see the five styles if the
+specimen were in hand. Here also are the calyx-lobes, widely spreading
+and even recurved. The photograph for Fig. 6 was taken May 3. On May
+17 another cluster was photographed from the same tree (Fig. 7). Three
+of the flowers have produced sturdy young apples. The stems or
+pedicels have become stouter, and they begin to spread. Note that the
+calyx now is closed, the old stamens protruding, a circumstance that
+will have special significance when we become acquainted with the
+codlin-moth. Note also that one flower has failed, and remains as it
+was two weeks earlier; it will soon fall. The young apples begin to
+take shape. They show a glow of red on the cheek. They are fuzzy all
+over. One of them is already injured on one side, having been stung by
+a curculio or other insect: there are keen senses about the
+apple-tree.
+
+[Illustration: 6. May 3--When the petals have fallen]
+
+[Illustration: 7. May 17--When the young fruits begin to show]
+
+Two weeks later (May 31) still another cluster was taken from the same
+tree (Fig. 8). Here are three fruits erect on their stems; one of them
+is more than an inch in diameter either way, sturdy and unblemished;
+another shows deformity due to insect puncture; the third remains
+small and presently will drop. A scar in the leaf-axil marks the
+failure of another flower. Four blossoms were in this cluster, but
+only one fruit now has a chance to come to uninjured maturity, and two
+have already failed. The big apple has now lost most of its fuzziness
+and begins to assume a delicate "bloom" on its surface; the smallest
+one--the one that soon will perish--still holds some of its fuzz. A
+section of this smallest fruit discloses empty cells; apparently it
+was not fertilized.
+
+[Illustration: 8. May 31--The success and failure]
+
+[Illustration: 9. June 14--The one big apple]
+
+Another two weeks have passed. It is June 14th. From the same tree is
+taken the photograph, Fig. 9. Here is a big apple, 1-1/2 inch in
+diameter; and there is a dead shrivelled fruit that dropped when I
+touched it. Of the several flowers in the cluster, all have failed but
+one. This one fruit has now passed the danger of the blossom-end
+infection by the codlin-moth and it has no blemishes. The many whitish
+spots characteristic of the variety are now conspicuous all over the
+surface. The ribs begin to show. There is a faint blush on the upper
+side. The fuzz has disappeared and the bloom is becoming evident. The
+calyx is tightly closed, although the tips of the sepals are spread
+widely. The stem is stout. The weight of the apple inclines it nearly
+to the horizontal. Yet this good apple is not symmetrical; one side is
+larger than the other. I cut it crosswise and find two cells on the
+larger side developing two strong seeds each, whilst those on the
+smaller side have a single seed each and one of these seeds is small
+and perhaps would not have matured. The fleshy part of the apple,
+outside the core, now occupies about as much of the diameter as the
+core itself and much more than one-half the bulk of the fruit.
+Already my apple, now half grown, shows many of its distinctive
+characteristics.
+
+Yet another fortnight has come and gone, and it is June 28th. It has
+been good "growing weather." Summer is here, full-orbed, regal,
+bringing the abundance of the earth. Here are two stout apples hanging
+on their stems (Fig. 10), for they are now too heavy to be held erect.
+The larger fruit is a trifle more than two inches in diameter. The
+feature spots are now still more prominent on these apples, the ribs
+more pronounced, the blush against the sun more warm. Both these
+fruits, from one spur, will mature; but the smaller one will be
+blemished, for the apple-scab fungus has established itself on the
+crown and about the calyx. Already the growth is checked in that area,
+and the apple looks flattened. There is no evidence in either apple of
+codlin-moth invasion. The adjoining spur, not clearly shown in the
+photograph, is barren; it gave no flowers this year, and it shows no
+indication of a blossom-bud for next year. The leaves are thick and
+vigorous, yet they bear marks of insect injury and one of them has
+been extensively skeletonized. On the whole, however, the fruits have
+the mastery, and they now make a brave show.
+
+[Illustration: 10. June 28, and the apples have taken their form]
+
+July has passed this way. Tomorrow it will be August. The odor of
+apples is now in my tree. There are big striped apples on the ground,
+plucked by the wind, the hold loosened by bugs for they too have felt
+the fullness of July. Three apples, one of them three inches through
+and two and one-half inches high, and the others nearly as big, hang
+at the level of my eyes. You may see them in Fig. 11. Here rises again
+my boyhood spent in an orchard now passed away, as father and mother
+have passed, as playmates have fallen one by one, the old place
+holding only memories. Here is my boyhood because the earth is always
+young and repeats her miracles for the children by my side as it did
+for me so many many years ago. Yet the miracles are greater now than
+they were then. They have more meaning. Now are they part of some
+great order. They are not separate. Without moving my feet, I lay my
+hands on apples, Virginia creeper, asparagus, marigold, sweet sultan,
+oxalis, plantain, crab-grass, white clover, all growing securely in
+one place, and everyone like unto itself alone. Here is the
+everlasting miracle before my eyes, and all miracles are mysteries.
+Once I thought I should understand such things when I was "grown up,"
+but I find myself still a boy.
+
+[Illustration: 11. July 31, and the apples are getting ripe]
+
+These three apples on the last of the days of July look fair and
+sound, partly hidden in the leaves, the deep red colors covering them
+in broad splashed stripes and relieved by light dots. Yet when I raise
+the leaves or when I lift the apples apart, I find the burrows of
+insects. They know that these apples are good. It is astonishing how
+nature covers up the wounds, how she conceals the sore places, and how
+fair she makes everything look. Were it not that she covers the
+depredations of man, the earth would not long remain habitable by him.
+
+Summer is ended. Today the sun is on the equator, and we are at the
+equinox when nights are equal to the days, as the word testifies. The
+harvest is over. The apples are no more. Yet the tree still is active
+and preparing for another year (Fig. 12). The spurs are now thick and
+stout, bearing sturdy hard leaves. The bud in the center is a big
+one, already recognized as a fruit-bud: here is the promise of
+speckled, furrowed, striped apples next August. Thereby I learn that
+it is not enough to be good to the tree in the year in which I desire
+its fruit: I must begin the year before, and the year before that, and
+even back at the time when the tree is planted; and if the tree at
+planting-time is not a good tree, it will be at a disadvantage perhaps
+all its life long.
+
+[Illustration: 12. September 22, and the buds are formed for the next
+year's crop]
+
+Finally the apple is ripe and ready. At the stem end is the "cavity,"
+a depression, deep or shallow, according to variety, in which the stem
+is set. At the blossom end is the "basin," also with the
+characteristics of the variety as to depth and width and contour, in
+which the calyx-lobes persist, and inside the calyx are the remains of
+the dead stamens and styles; the calyx may be "closed" or "open," the
+character being a mark of the particular variety.
+
+Cut the apple through the center lengthwise (Fig. 13); note the curved
+outline of the core (the pistil) extending half or more across the
+fruit; if you do not see this outline, cut an apple until you do;
+carefully open the five cells or compartments and within the parchment
+walls find the two seeds attached by their points which are directed
+toward the stem end; perhaps one of the seeds has failed, but probably
+a cavity marks its place; perhaps both seeds have failed; perhaps the
+cell has more than two seeds.
+
+[Illustration: 13. The apples in section]
+
+Cut an apple cross-wise: note the five radiating cells of the core,
+the number and attachment of the seeds; note the ten points, imbedded
+in the flesh, marking the outline of the core. Cut an apple cross-wise
+above the core and beneath it; note where these points vanish and try
+to harmonize them with the core-outline as seen in the lengthwise
+section; probably you will discover why you may not see the
+core-outline in all the lengthwise sections you make. Before you leave
+the fruit, note whether single seeds in a cell are the same shape as
+the two seeds in a cell.
+
+The flesh outside the core-outline is interpreted to be stem structure
+rather than pistil structure. Sometimes an apple bears a scale-like
+leaf on its exterior, suggesting that the outer part of the fruit is
+stem. The older morphologists interpreted the apple flower to comprise
+a hollowed calyx (calyx-tube) inside which is the pistil and on the
+rim of which are the petals and stamens. The structure now is regarded
+as a hollowed receptacle or stem (hypanthium), with the pistil inside,
+the petals and stamens on its rim. We noted in the flower that the
+ovary part of the pistil is solidly imbedded in this receptacle, but
+that the five styles are free. The pear and quince are of similar
+structure, but the peach, plum and cherry are simple ripened pistils.
+
+Here, in this chapter, we have discovered some of the epochs in the
+life of the apple. Usually we let the imagination run only to the
+mature fruit, thinking of the harvest, but in all the weeks before the
+harvest the apple has been growing and taking form. As these weeks
+have not been blank to the apple-tree, so shall they not be blank to
+me.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+THE BRUSH PILE
+
+
+Today I visited the brush pile back of the orchard. Here the trimmings
+of the winter are placed, waiting to be burned when dry. How many are
+the archives that will be destroyed! Here are histories in every bud
+and twig and scar, of the seasons, of the accidents and deaths, the
+records of the tree as there are records of families.
+
+These records are not written in numbers or in letters, nor yet in
+hieroglyphs; yet are they understandable. Alphabet is not needed, and
+the key is simple.
+
+From the brush pile of records I took one. I must describe it in part
+by a picture (Fig. 14). On the living trees at this writing the petals
+mostly have fallen and the leaves are nearly full grown. This branch
+was cut in winter. It has lain in the snow and rain, putting forth no
+flowers or leaves. Yet we can read it.
+
+It is May, 1921. The terminal shoot is obviously of 1920; we shall
+name it No. 1. It is a foot long, smooth and glossy, terminating at
+the base (_o_) in a "ring" and at a short stub or branchlet. If we
+count the buds on all sides of the shoot and at the tip we find them
+to be 13. The largest one is at the tip, and they are mostly
+successively smaller toward the base. Apparently the growth-energy was
+expended in the upper parts of the twig, making large full buds. In
+fact, the three or four lowermost buds are scarcely developed and
+would not grow unless the limb were broken off above them; they are
+dormant buds.
+
+[Illustration: 14. A three-year record.--In a leisure hour, trace the
+history of these parts; it will open your eyes.]
+
+Looking along the shoot, I find that every six buds stand in the same
+line: the sixth bud is over the first, seventh over the second, eighth
+over the third. If I were to fasten a string to bud No. 1 and wind it
+around the stem to my left, passing over every bud until I had reached
+the sixth, I should find that it had made two circuits of the stem
+(passed twice around it) and had passed over five spaces between buds.
+This is the leaf-arrangement or phyllotaxy of the apple-tree,
+expressed by the fraction 2/5. The space between two buds is
+two-fifths of a diameter, and two circuits (ten-fifths) must be passed
+before a bud comes over the one from which we started. The 2/5
+leaf-arrangement obtains on cherry, peach, apricot, pear, raspberry
+and many others; but a very different order is that of the linden,
+grape, currant, lilies, elm, maple.
+
+We cannot understand this simple unbranched terminal twig (No. 1)
+until we know what took place last year. A year ago, in the spring of
+1920, a terminal bud that had formed in 1919 expanded and gave rise to
+this rapidly growing shoot. By the end of May or early June this shoot
+had grown to twelve inches long, for the growth in length on the twigs
+of trees is usually completed that early. This shoot bore leaves on
+the 2/5 arrangement; in the axil of every leaf was a bud, the
+strongest buds being with the strongest leaves at the middle and top
+of the shoot; in the autumn of 1920 these leaves fell, but the buds
+remained, persisted the winter, and were ready to "grow" in the early
+spring of 1921. We see them on No. 1 (Fig. 14).
+
+[Illustration: 15. The growing shoot, with a bud in each axil, and a
+spur on last year's growth.]
+
+In 1921 these buds on No. 1, then, would have grown. New leaves would
+have come from the bud itself; in fact, the winter buds of the apple
+are packed with miniature leaves and sometimes with flowers as well.
+The shoot coming out of the bud may remain very short, constituting a
+"spur," or grow with long internodes, making a slender twig. Fig. 15
+shows a branch with new elongated growth, _b_ to _a_, and a shoot or
+spur (_c_) arising from a bud of the previous year. Note the "ring,"
+or division beyond _b_, marking the turn of the year.
+
+It will be noted in Fig. 14 that the buds are of two shapes and sizes,
+such as _a, a, a_, representing one kind and _b, b_, the other kind.
+The former, small and pointed, are leaf-buds; from them will arise a
+shoot bearing only leaves. The latter, _b_, large and rounded and
+usually more fuzzy, are flower-buds (fruit-buds): from them will arise
+a short shoot bearing leaves and a cluster of flowers; and we hope
+that at least one of the flowers will set fruit.
+
+We are now ready to resume our lesson with the branch before us. We
+have identified the slender terminal part, No. 1, as the growth of
+1920. We are now to account for all the remaining buds and branchlets.
+
+If No. 1 grew in 1920, then the main shoot of No. 2 grew in 1919, from
+the point _o o_. It is also one foot long. Near its base are four
+small buds that remained dormant in 1920. There are nine branches
+(_d_) of various lengths besides the terminal shoot No. 1, all of
+which grew in 1920, for they are naturally a year younger than the
+main axis from which they arise; these branches are the same age as
+No. 1, with buds that would have produced shoots in 1921. But the
+terminal buds of eight of these lateral shoots (all but the lowermost)
+bear blossom-buds at the end; note their size and shape. Had not the
+branch been cut, these buds would have bloomed in 1921; the eight of
+them would have produced probably forty to fifty flowers; perhaps two
+or three good fruits would have resulted. Note that two of the lateral
+branches or spurs are short and weak: these would soon perish. The No.
+2 branch has a dead end (_e_); in some way the terminal bud was
+destroyed, and No. 1 sprang from a lateral bud beneath it, changing
+the direction of growth.
+
+If No. 2 grew in 1919, then No. 3 grew in 1918. It also grew about one
+foot in length, showing that the conditions in the three years must
+have been very uniform. There are remains of five dormant buds at its
+base. There are seven side branches. As the main axis is three years
+old, so these lateral shoots are two years old; they are the same age
+as the axis No. 2. The lower one (_s_) grew less than an inch in 1919,
+and made a fruit-bud; in 1920 it blossomed and one fruit set as is
+shown by the square scar at the end; as the scar is small and the twig
+weak, we are safe in assuming that the apple was very small or else
+did not mature. A bud formed at the side of _s_ to continue the growth
+of the spur next year (1921), but it is a leaf-bud; apparently there
+was not sufficient energy to bear flowers and to make a fruit-bud; so
+there would have been no more fruit on this spur earlier than 1922:
+thus do we see that the alternate bearing of the apple-tree may have
+some of its origin in the fruit-spur.
+
+The side spur _f_ produced a terminal blossom-bud in 1919. In 1920 six
+flowers opened,--I could count the scars. One of the flowers produced
+a fruit, as I tell by the square scar at the end; the thickened stem
+also indicates fruit-bearing. The side bud in this case is a
+fruit-bud, but it is small and weak and is probably incapable of
+producing a fruit. There are no strong leaf-buds to take up the work,
+and this spur (_f_) would probably soon have died, as also would spur
+_s_.
+
+The side shoot _g_ grew to _h_ in 1919 and made a flower-bud. In 1920
+this bud gave blossoms and one fruit resulted; the scar is prominent
+and there is an enlargement of the tissue indicating that the fruit
+probably attained good size; in 1920 also, two side spurs were formed
+each with weak blossom-buds, also a terminal shoot (beyond _h_) with
+leaf-bud at the end.
+
+The other shoots have similar histories: the long shoot _i_ bore a
+fruit-bud at _k_ in 1919 and a fruit in 1920; in 1920 it also made
+three lateral shoots and a terminal shoot, with flower-buds
+terminating two of them. Shoot _l_ bore flowers at its point in 1920
+but did not carry the fruit to maturity; it also made two side growths
+and one terminal growth, all terminated by flower-buds, to be blown in
+1921. The shoot _m_ is a short spur that made a flower-bud in 1919 and
+in 1920 carried three little fruits for a time and made a flower-bud
+in 1920. Shoot _n_ remained very short in 1919, making a terminal
+leaf-bud; in 1920 it grew two inches and made a weak flower-bud.
+
+If shoot No. 3 grew in 1918, then No. 4 grew in 1917; but the branch
+is severed and I cannot trace the record farther. We could trace the
+family history many years if we had the unpruned tree before us.
+
+Here, then, in my yard-long manuscript are forty bud-records on the
+main axis, counting the terminals on No. 2 and No. 3. I can find
+record of 144 buds on the side shoots. This makes a grand total of 184
+buds. There is a total growth in length of 108 inches, or 9 feet. Each
+of the buds that has already "grown" has produced an average of
+probably ten leaves, or say 340 leaves in total. If there were an
+average of five flowers to the cluster, then about 150 flowers would
+have been carried on my branch, with the potentiality of 150 fruits;
+but in fact not more than three or four maturing fruits would have
+been produced in these years: and I should think this a good
+proportion as blossoms and apples go. Certainly the branch has done
+its part. There have been three eventful years.
+
+I would not have my reader to suppose that one may always distinguish
+leaf-buds and fruit-buds at a glance. I may be mistaken in some of the
+above determinations, but they are essentially correct for I have the
+twig before me. In some varieties of apples the differences between
+the two kinds of buds are less marked. The certain way is to dissect
+the bud: one may then see what it contains.
+
+It now remains to determine how the branch was placed in the tree. It
+must have been upright or very nearly so, for the main axis is
+essentially straight and the branchlets are about equally developed on
+all sides; moreover, there is no indication in the bark that one
+exposure was the "weather side." The big twig _i_ apparently found a
+light and unoccupied space into which to develop, but its extension is
+not greatly out of proportion. I suppose, however, that my branch was
+not topmost in the tree; there is no indication in very long growth or
+strong upward tendency of the branchlets to mark the branch as a
+"leader."
+
+Years ago I became fascinated with the study of knots and knot-holes
+in the timber of wood-piles. They are excellent records of the events
+in the life of trees. In print I have tried to show what they mean. I
+also worked out the life-histories of twigs and published them in
+nature-study leaflets and elsewhere. Hundreds of children were
+interested in the twigs and buds, finding them unusual, every one of
+them a different story, and yet not difficult to read. These lessons
+gave meaning to trees and seasons. Such observations have always meant
+much to me, even when made in the most casual way in the midst of
+constraining activities. And now in this later day I come back to a
+bare twig with all the joy of youth. The records of the years are in
+these piles of brush.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+THE PRUNING OF THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+We have found that not all the buds grow. We also know that some of
+the spurs and shoots perish, not alone from accident but from defeat
+in the struggle to live. The chances of success are relatively few.
+The pruning process begins early in the life of the tree, and it
+continues ceaselessly until the end.
+
+To the apple-tree in the wild, strict pruning is the assurance of
+success. No tree can reach maturity unless more parts perish than are
+able to live. The young forest tree has branchlets and leaves along
+its side and at the top. All these perish as the trunk rises, often
+leaving marks on the bark, curls in the wood, and knot-holes large and
+small. Thousands of perished buds and branches are the price of a
+straight bole and great clear sheets of boards. Yet these perished
+parts bore their burden in their day and time, and contributed to the
+ultimate success: there could have been no tree without them.
+
+Any tree-top discloses the pruning in action if one looks intently.
+Part of it is recorded in the buds that never put forth a leaf; more
+of it in little shoots left behind; and there are large and small
+limbs, dead and dying, yellowing apparently before their time, hanging
+on till the last hold is broken. Were it not for the benevolent
+processes of decay, the ground would be strewn with the fallen parts
+accumulating through the years.
+
+In nature, the great result is to yield abundant quantity of seeds,
+that the species may propagate itself after its kind. Man may desire
+fruits relatively few, but large of size and excellent of quality,
+without spot or blemish; this means greater opportunity and care to
+the single fruit. Pruning is essential, to converge the energy of the
+plant into fewer branches, to give the fruits space and light, to
+increase the efficiency of measures for the control of diseases and
+insects. Part of the pruning consists in removing certain branches,
+and part of it in eliminating the fruits themselves by the careful
+process of thinning.
+
+The pruning of nature is fortuitous. The tree has the irregularity and
+abandon of the picturesque. The pruning of man is for a different end,
+and it produces the comely well-proportioned tree of the orchards. The
+tree becomes a manipulated subject, comforting to the eye of the
+thrifty pomologist.
+
+Branch-pruning is essentially the removal of superfluous
+branches,--those that crowd, that cross each other, that are so placed
+as to be profitless, that are in the way, that are injured or
+diseased. For the most part, the branches should be removed when they
+are small; but it is not possible to foresee all that may be needed in
+the training of the tree and, therefore, the frequent advice to prune
+only with a hand-knife cannot be followed. One needs a sharp
+pruning-saw and sometimes a chisel on a long handle. Usually it is not
+necessary to remove branches more than an inch or one and one-half
+inch in diameter if pruning is carefully practiced every year; but
+sometimes even well-pruned trees must be shaped, corrected and
+improved by the cutting of larger branches.
+
+Pruning is usually best performed in early spring. The branch should
+be cut close to the main limb or trunk and parallel with it, leaving
+no stub; the healing process is then likely to proceed more rapidly.
+The wound should be smooth and clean, without breaks, splinters or
+splits; the knot-holes in logs and trunks are usually the consequence
+of long "stubs" and torn injured parts. The tree is to be left
+shapely, with a uniform distribution of branches, plenty of
+fruit-bearing wood, easy to spray and from which to pick the fruit, of
+the form characteristic of the variety.
+
+In all the usual customary pruning of the apple-tree, dressing of the
+wounds is not necessary. It is much more important to give the added
+attention to the proper making of the wounds and the thoughtful choice
+of the parts to be removed. Wounds two inches and more in diameter may
+be protected with good paint, so that they will not check and
+therefore not hold water, until the callus covers them. Good judgment
+in pruning is more profitable than recipes to repair damage.
+
+Fruit-pruning, or thinning, is the removing of so much fruit, when it
+is small, as will allow the remainder to mature to its best and
+constitute a maximum yield; it reduces the quantity of inferior fruit,
+lessens the number of culls and the labor at packing time, conserves
+the energy of the tree by preventing the maturity of great numbers of
+seeds, diminishes diseases and pests. The overloading of the tree not
+only imposes a heavy tax on its vitality but is likely to break the
+limbs and to work much physical damage.
+
+Thinning may consist in removing part of the fruit in the cluster (in
+the case of varieties that tend to mature more than one fruit from
+each flower-cluster), in picking all the fruits from certain clusters
+or pairs of clusters, or in cutting away some of the fruit-spurs
+before blossoming time.
+
+The removal of the fruit itself is usually performed after the
+"June-drop," when the extent of the crop is evident. The fruits are
+pulled off by hand or cut with thinning-shears, the latter practice
+being the better since it is not so likely to break the fruit-spurs.
+The least promising fruits are taken away and the remaining apples are
+left at least five or six inches apart in most varieties. The extent
+of thinning must be governed by the variety, thrift of the tree,
+result desired, and other conditions. To secure the best results, the
+apples should be thinned when still small.
+
+Thinning by early-spring removal of fruit-spurs is a very special
+practice. It is employed on dwarf trees and on those specially
+trained. It should be undertaken only by a careful and experienced
+man. It is not to be inferred that the fruit of the apple is all borne
+on spurs, for some of it may be derived from terminal buds on the new
+axial growths or even from lateral buds; but the spurs are conspicuous
+and readily recognized. Of course the ordinary pruning of the tree
+removes fruit-bearing wood and is therefore a thinning process.
+
+Within sensible limits, therefore, pruning is an invigorating process
+in the sense that it deflects the energy to remaining parts of the
+tree. What is called too heavy pruning, whereby the tree throws out
+abundance of water-sprouts, is illustration of this fact: the tree is
+thrown into heavy growth of adventitious shoots. The tree may not
+produce more pounds of substance, or even more total feet in length,
+but new energy is developed in certain parts.
+
+In the restoration, or so-called renovation, of old neglected trees,
+the two primary considerations are to prune vigorously and to till and
+fertilize the land. Sometimes old trees must be mended as explained in
+Chapter XIII. Of course they must be sprayed for what ails them. If
+the variety is poor, the tree may be top-grafted (Chapter XII). In
+some cases, it is hardly possible to make neglected trees bear
+satisfactorily, for they were never of value: there is nothing to
+restore. It may be a question of soil and location, of lack of
+pollination, of trees so weak or so misshapen that effort on them is
+wasted. But tillage, pruning, spraying, should produce worth-while
+results in most cases.
+
+In the care of the fruit-tree there is no practice which brings the
+grower into such intimate knowledge of the plant as that of pruning
+and thinning. The operator sees the tree as a whole, taking it all in;
+then he sees it in small detail in all its parts, even to the spurs
+and buds. With simple good tools, sharp and keen, and with a practiced
+eye, he applies a deft and swift handicraft, cutting true, making a
+fair clean wound, leaving the tree comely and ready for its highest
+effort. The pride of good workmanship may find expression. The
+operator feels also the sense of mastery that is in him, whereby he
+corrects the tree, removes the wayward parts, keeps and encourages all
+that is best. To engage in this kind of education requires that one
+approaches the work with due preparation of mind and I think also with
+consecration of heart.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+MAINTAINING THE HEALTH AND ENERGY OF THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+The apple-tree starts life fresh and vigorous. It grows rapidly. The
+shoots are long and straight. The wood is smooth and fair and supple.
+The leaves are usually large. It is good to see the young trees
+acquire size and take shape.
+
+Room in the ground and in the air is ample with the young apple-tree.
+It is free to grow. Probably the ground was newly prepared and tilled
+when the tree was planted; at least, a hole was dug and fine good
+earth was placed about the roots. Probably insects had not found
+permanent encampment on the tree. It had been well pruned, so that it
+carried the minimum of superfluous and competing parts.
+
+But in time the difficulties come. The tree probably slows down. It
+becomes too thick of branches. The land is not tilled. It is not
+manured. Insects and fungi make headway. The tree overbears. As the
+years go on, the tree is thrown into alternate bearing, one year a
+crop too heavy, one year a crop too light. The tree becomes broken,
+diseased, gnarly, unshapely.
+
+We have seen that the fruit-spur in bearing is likely to make a
+leaf-bud for the next year's activities rather than a flower-bud. It
+is assumed that the making of a flower-bud requires more energy than
+the making of a plain leaf-bud; if this is true, there may not be
+energy enough to carry a flower-cluster and to make a new flower-bud
+at the same time. But if the tree is in proper vigor, is well fed,
+protected from noxious organisms, not allowed to overbear, it should
+have sufficient energy to make a crop every year, frosts and accidents
+excepted. It is assumed, of course, that self-sterile varieties have
+good pollinizing varieties near them; it is always well to plant two
+or more kinds near together. Whether the continuity of bearing is
+exhibited on the same fruit-spurs or whether there may be an
+alternation in the spurs on the same tree, is of no moment in this
+discussion. It is enough to say that there is no reason in the nature
+of the case why an apple-tree should bear only every other year; it is
+probably a question of nutrition.
+
+The first essential to continued health and vigor is to start with a
+strong unblemished tree. It is to be planted before its vitality is
+lessened by exposure and hard usage. The more direct the transfer from
+nursery to orchard, the better. It is to be placed in good ground,
+well drained and deeply spaded or plowed. The apple-tree thrives on
+many kinds of land, but light sand, hard clay, and muck are equally to
+be avoided. "Good corn land" is commonly considered to be good apple
+land. Certain soils and regions are particularly adaptable to
+commercial apple-growing, but the amateur may plant quite
+independently of this fact. The observant man notes the many
+conditions under which the apple-tree may be grown with satisfaction.
+
+If the land is not uniformly prepared, then the hole dug for the tree
+should be larger than demanded by spread of roots, and the earth
+fined in the bottom of it. Trees should be planted when perfectly
+dormant, preferably in spring, at least in the northern parts.
+
+The roots should be cut back to sound unsplintered wood, and very long
+roots may well be shortened. The reader is aware that roots have no
+regular order or arrangement as do the buds from which branches arise.
+It is not necessary to try to shape the root-system to any formal
+regularity.
+
+As a good part of the root-system is destroyed when the tree is dug,
+so is the top reduced to insure something like a balance. Half or more
+of the top, on a three-year-old tree, is cut away, the long growths
+being shortened to perhaps three or four good buds. If limbs are left
+to form the framework of the future top, they should be alternate with
+each other at some distance apart so that weak crotches do not form.
+
+The tree is planted snugly, the earth being filled among the roots so
+that no air-holes remain. The tree is shaken up and down to settle the
+earth densely. Once or twice in filling, the earth is packed with the
+feet. The purpose is to keep the tree firm and stiff against winds,
+and to give all its roots close contact with the earth. Properly
+planted, so that it will not whip or dry out, the tree gets a hold
+quickly and begins to grow strongly. The first start-off of the tree
+is important.
+
+Apple-trees are held in vigor by plenty of room. For the standard
+varieties in regular orchards, the recommended distance either way is
+40 feet, or 35 x 40 feet. Some varieties may go as close as 30 feet;
+and in regions (as parts of central and western North America) in
+which the trees are not expected to attain such great size as in the
+eastern country, the planting may be even less than this of the
+upright-growing kinds. The spaces between the trees may be utilized
+for a few years with other crops, even with other fruits, as peaches
+or berries. Orchardists sometimes plant smaller-growing and
+early-bearing varieties of apples between the regular trees as
+"fillers," taking them out as the room is needed. Of course all kinds
+of double cropping require that extra attention be given to the
+tilling and fertilizing of the plantation.
+
+The general advice for the growing of strong apple-trees is to give
+the land good tillage from the first and to withhold other cropping
+after the trees come into profitable bearing. Clean tillage for the
+first part of the season and the raising of a cover-crop in the latter
+part, to be plowed under, is a standard and dependable procedure.
+Trees live long in continuous sod and they may thrive, but they may be
+expected to show gains under tillage. Vast areas of apple plantings
+are in sod, but this of itself does not demonstrate the desirability
+of the sod practice. Allowing trees to remain in sod usually leads to
+neglect.
+
+There is a modification of sod-practice in some parts of the country
+that gives excellent results, under certain conditions. The grass is
+cut and allowed to lie, not being removed for hay. Manure and
+fertilizer are added as top-dressing, as needed. This method is known
+as the "sod mulch system." It is not a practice of partial neglect,
+like the prevailing sod orchards, but a regular designed method of
+producing results. Its application can hardly be as widespread as
+clean tillage, on level lands.
+
+It is a common opinion that hillsides and more or less inaccessible
+slopes should be planted to apples. This may be true in the sense
+that apples will grow on such areas and that such plantations are
+better than fallow land. In fact, many such lands are profitable in
+orchards. When they do not allow of tillage, easy spraying, and
+economy in harvesting, however, they cannot compete with level
+orchards.
+
+To maintain the health and energy of the apple-tree, the land should
+be enriched. This may be accomplished by the application of animal
+manures, chemical fertilizers, or cover-crops, or preferably by a
+combination of these means. Not many persons possess sufficient farm
+manures to supply the general crops and the apple-orchard; but every
+application the orchard receives is all to the good. Five to ten tons
+of good stable manure to the acre annually is a good addition for an
+orchard in bearing. This may be supplemented by cover-crops and bag
+fertilizers in years in which the manure is not available. Experiments
+are yet inconclusive on the fertilizing of apple-trees, but it is fair
+to assume that on most lands, particularly on old lands, the addition
+of chemical fertilizer is advantageous. A bearing apple-tree may
+receive two to eight pounds of nitrate of soda (depending on its size
+and on soil) applied to the full feeding area of the roots, five to
+nine pounds of acid phosphate, two or three pounds of muriate of
+potash; always ask advice.
+
+The pasturing of orchards is often defensible and sometimes even
+desirable. If the trees are growing too rapidly, they may be "slowed
+down" by seeding to grass for a time; and pasturing with hogs, and
+possibly with sheep, may afford a way of keeping the area in condition
+and of adding fertilizer. Sheep that do not have access to
+drinking-water and salt gnaw the trees. Hogs root up the ground and
+thereby provide a rude kind of tillage. If animals are fed other food
+in the orchard, the fertilizer increment will be considerable.
+
+In house-lot conditions, the apple-tree usually receives sufficient
+food if the land is well enriched for garden purposes; but trees in
+sod should have liberal top-dressings of fertilizer every year and of
+stable manure every other year.
+
+The apple-tree should have a good supply of moisture. Planted on banks
+and in hard places about buildings, it may suffer in this respect. The
+land should be so graded that the rainfall will not run off. In
+orchard conditions, the moisture is conserved by the addition of humus
+to the land, and by thorough judicious tillage; and in dry regions it
+is supplied by irrigation.
+
+The energy of the apple-tree, and its ability to produce, is conserved
+by holding all diseases and noxious insects in check. The means at the
+command of the apple-grower are now many. No longer is the man
+helpless, nor does he need to appeal to the moon or to "atmospheric
+influences" for reasons. The natural histories of fungi and insects,
+that do so much damage, are now a part of common understandable
+knowledge. To acquire at least a working understanding of the
+commonest of these subjects is in itself a great satisfaction and
+gives one a sense of dominion. The good books and bulletins are
+sufficient to keep one well informed. All these organisms are tenants
+of the apple-tree, and from the naturist's point of view alone they
+are not to be overlooked.
+
+It is not to be inferred that all apple-trees will yield equally well
+with equally good treatment. There is difference in trees as there is
+in cows. We may not know why. But even so, it is our part to do the
+best we can: this is our privilege.
+
+The tillage and care of plants lessen the struggle for existence. So
+is the apple-tree protected from the crowds, from contest for moisture
+and food, from insects, and from the competition within itself.
+Thereby is it able to express all its possibilities. Even the dormant
+potentialities may be wakened, and the plant makes a wide departure
+from its native state. This is not an original state of sin, but a
+state of repression in which it is held in a world that is full of so
+many things beside apple-trees. I may till my orchard ever so well,
+manipulate the trees ever so promptly, yet if the plantation then is
+allowed to run to neglect the processes of depreciation gain the
+mastery; the struggle for existence is restored.
+
+To keep one's apple-tree in the pink of perfection is as joyful an
+enterprise as to do anything else well. It is only the well-conditioned
+tree that yields its glorious harvest year by year.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+HOW AN APPLE-TREE IS MADE
+
+
+If the seeds of a Baldwin or Winesap apple are planted, we do not
+expect to get a Baldwin or Winesap; we shall probably raise a very
+inferior fruit. The apple has not been bred "true to seed" as has the
+cabbage and sweet pea. To get the tree "true to name," of the desired
+variety and with no chance of failure (barring accident), is one of
+the niceties of horticulture. This is accomplished with great
+precision and despatch.
+
+The apple-tree is started from the seed. It cannot be grown freely by
+means of cuttings, as can the grape and currant. In commercial
+practice the seeds are collected mostly from cider mills or from
+pomace. The seeds may be washed from the pomace, allowed to dry, and
+then mixed in sand, charcoal, sawdust or other material to prevent
+dessication and kept until spring, when they are sown. Or, if the land
+is not so wet in winter that the seed will drown or be washed out, the
+seed in the pomace (not separated) may be sown in autumn. The seeds
+are sown in drills, after the manner of onions or turnips, one to two
+or even three inches deep. They germinate readily in the cool of
+spring, and the plants should reach a height of twelve inches and more
+the first year.
+
+If these plants were grown directly into bearing trees, it is
+probable that no two trees would produce the same kind of fruit. Some
+of the fruit might be summer apples, some of it winter apples, some
+red, yellow or striped, some of it flat, oblong or spherical, most of
+it sour but perhaps some of it sweet. Probably every kind would be
+inferior to the parent stock or to standard varieties, although there
+is a fair chance that a superior kind might originate from a field of
+such plants.
+
+Therefore, it is not the variety (that is, the top) that is wanted in
+the raising of these numerous plants, but merely the roots, on which
+desired varieties may be grown by the clever art of graftage. Yet not
+even all the roots may be wanted, for the growing plants may differ or
+vary in their stature and vigor as well as in their fruit. The
+discriminating grower, therefore, discards the weak and puny treelings
+at the digging time; or if the weak plants seem still to have promise,
+they may be allowed to grow another year before they are dug for the
+grafting.
+
+This digging time is the autumn of the first year, when the plants
+have grown one season. They are then to be used as "stocks" on which
+to graft Baldwin, Winesap or other varieties. The growing of these
+apple stocks is a business by itself. Formerly, most of the stocks
+used in North America were imported from France, where special skill
+has been developed in the growing of them and where the requisite
+labor is available. But now the stocks are grown also in deep rich
+bottom lands of the Middle West, as in Kansas, where, in the long
+seasons, a large growth may be attained.
+
+The methods of graftage of the commercial apple-tree are two--by
+cion-grafting whereby a bit of wood with two or three buds is inserted
+on the stock, by bud-grafting (budding) whereby a single bud with a
+bit of bark attached is inserted under the bark of the stock.
+
+Cion-grafting is practiced in winter under cover. The stock is cut off
+at the crown and the cion spliced on it, or the root may be cut in two
+or more pieces and each piece receive a cion. The union is made by the
+whip-graft method (Fig. 16). The cion is tied securely, to keep it in
+place. The piece-root method is allowable only when the root is long
+and strong, so that a well-rooted plant results the first year. The
+cion is a cutting of the last year's growth (as of No. 1, in Fig. 14).
+However accomplished, the process is to supply the cion with roots; it
+is planted in another plant instead of in the ground.
+
+[Illustration: 16. The whip-graft before tying.]
+
+The cion-grafts are now planted in the nursery row in spring. The cion
+starts growth rapidly, only one shoot being allowed to remain; this
+shoot forms the trunk or bole of the future tree. At the end of the
+first season, the little tree is said to be one year old, although the
+root is at least two years old; at the end of the second year it is
+two years old; the tree is sometimes sold as a two-year-old, but
+usually a year later as a three-year-old having a four-year-old root.
+In fact, however, the root and top may be considered, in a way, to be
+of the same age, particularly if only a piece of the root is employed,
+for the cion grew on its parent tree the same year the root was
+growing in the nursery.
+
+The tree grew from the seed but it is no longer a "seedling" or a
+"natural;" it is now a grafted tree, destined to produce a named
+recognized variety of apple, maybe York Imperial, maybe Jonathan. We
+find seedling trees in old fields, in fence-rows, and in woods. These
+have grown from scattered seeds and have come to fruit without the
+arts of the propagator. They bear their own tops or heads, rather than
+the heads that a thrifty horticulturist would have put on them. Now
+and then such a tree produces superior fruit; then a discriminating
+pomologist discovers it, names it a new variety, and propagates it as
+other varieties are propagated. Thus have most of the prized varieties
+originated, without knowledge on the part of man of the ultimate
+processes. But now with the accumulating knowledge of the
+plant-breeder we hope to be able to foresee and probably to produce
+varieties of given qualities.
+
+[Illustration: 17. A "bud" before tying.]
+
+Bud-grafting is practiced in summer. The young trees, obtained from
+the grower of apple stocks, are planted regularly in nursery rows in
+spring, the top having been cut back to the crown so that a strong
+vigorous shoot will arise. In July and August or September, when this
+shoot is the size of a lead pencil and larger and the bark will peel
+(or separate from the wood), a single bud is inserted near the ground
+(Fig. 17). This bud is deftly cut from the current year's growth of
+the desired variety; it grows in the axil of a leaf (Fig. 15). The
+leaf is removed but a small part of the stalk or petiole is retained
+with the bud to serve as a handle. A boat-shaped or shield-shaped
+piece of bark is removed with the bud. This piece, known technically
+as a "bud," is inserted in an incision on the stock, so that it slips
+underneath the bark and next the wood, with only the bud itself
+showing in the slit; it is then tied in place.
+
+The stock on which the bud is inserted has a two-year root, and the
+root is entire. For this reason, budded trees are usually very large
+and strong for their age when compared with piece-root trees grown
+under similar conditions of climate, tillage and soil.
+
+The bud does not grow the year it is inserted in the stock; it is
+dormant until the following spring, as it would have been had it
+remained on its parent branch; but soon after it is inserted it
+attaches itself fast to the stock: it is a bud implanted from one twig
+to another. The following spring, if the operation is successful, the
+bud "grows," sending up a strong shoot that makes the trunk of the
+future tree. The top of the stock is cut away; in the merchantable
+tree, the bend or place may be seen where the stock and cion meet.
+
+As in the case of cion-grafting, we now have a top of a known variety
+growing on the root of an unknown kind. The tree is sold at two or
+three years, counting the age of the top; and of course the tree is no
+longer called a seedling, and it produces its implanted variety as
+accurately as does the cion-grafted tree. Equally good trees are
+produced by both cion-grafting and bud-grafting.
+
+The apple-tree is now "propagated," and is ready for the planting.
+Great hopes will be built on it, and the tree will probably do its
+part to justify them. Nobody knows how a bud from a Baldwin tree holds
+the memory of a Baldwin or from a Winesap tree the memory of a
+Winesap. Neither does anyone know why of two seeds that look alike one
+will unerringly produce a cabbage and the other a cauliflower. So
+accustomed are we to these results that we never challenge a twig of
+apple or a seed of cabbage: we assume that the twig or the seed
+"knows." Nor have we yet approached this question in our elaborate
+studies of plant-breeding. Here is one of the mysteries that baffles
+the skill of the physiologist and chemist, yet it is a mystery so very
+common that we know it not, albeit the life on the planet would
+otherwise be utter confusion.
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+THE DWARF APPLE-TREE
+
+
+We have learned that many kinds of apples and apple-trees may come
+from a batch of seeds. Differences are expressed in the tree as well
+as in the fruit. In fact, stature is usually one of the
+characteristics of the variety. Here I open Downing's great book, "The
+Fruits and Fruit-Trees of America," and find the description of a
+certain variety beginning: "Tree while young very slow in its growth,
+but makes a compact well-formed head in the orchard," and another:
+"Tree vigorous, upright spreading, and productive." We know the small
+stature and early bearing of the Wagener (wherefore it is often
+planted in the orchard as a filler), and the great wide-spreading head
+of the Tompkins King with the apples scattered through the tree.
+
+Now it so happens that in the course of time certain great races of
+the apple-tree have arisen, we do not know just why or how. There is
+the race or family of the russets and of the Fameuse. So are there
+several races very small in stature, remaining perhaps no larger than
+bushes. If we were to propagate any of the ordinary apples on such
+diminutive stocks, we should have a "dwarf apple-tree."
+
+The dwarf apple, then, is not a question of variety but of stock. Any
+variety may be grown as a dwarf by grafting it on a plant that
+naturally remains small, although some varieties are more adaptable
+than others to the purpose.
+
+If seeds of the natural diminutive apple-tree are sown, a variety of
+trees and apples may be expected. The fruits would probably be
+inferior. Probably the stature would vary between different seedlings.
+If we are to get the effect of dwarfness, we must be sure that the
+stock is itself really dwarf. Therefore, to eliminate variation and
+also because seeds of natural dwarf apples may not be had in
+sufficient quantity, the stocks are propagated by layers rather than
+by seeds.
+
+The diminutive tree, when well established, is cut off near the
+ground. Sprouts arise. Some kinds sucker very freely. If earth is
+mounded up around the sprouts, roots form on them and the sprouts may
+be removed and treated as if they were seedling stocks. Usually the
+mounding is not performed until the shoots have made one season's
+growth. Gooseberries and some other plants are often propagated by
+mound-layers. In the case of the gooseberry, however, it is desired
+that the layer reproduce the parent--it may be Downing or
+Whitesmith--and therefore it is planted without further manipulation.
+But in the case of the apple, we do not want the layer to reproduce
+the parent, for the parent would probably bear an inferior fruit since
+it does not represent an "improved" or recognized variety; therefore
+the layer is grafted or budded with the particular variety we desire
+to grow as a dwarf tree.
+
+Dwarf trees are grown in America, if at all, only in gardens, where
+extra attention may be given them. Only high-class kinds should be
+attempted on dwarfs, for the quantity-production of commercial apples
+must be obtained by less intensive methods on cheaper lands.
+
+Better fruits often are grown on dwarf than on standards, for two
+reasons: It is usual to propagate only the best varieties on dwarf
+stock; the little tree must receive extra care in pruning and in every
+other way. Its bushel of apples must be choice, every one, to make the
+effort of growing the tree worth the while. Under European conditions
+where land is high-priced and labor has been relatively cheap, it is
+possible (and common) to raise apples on dwarfs for market, as it is
+profitable to terrace the hillsides with human labor; but in North
+America the conditions are practically the reverse and the dwarf tree
+cannot compete with the standard orchard tree.
+
+The growing of a dwarf tree is essentially a gardening practice. It
+requires great skill. The spurs are produced and protected to a
+nicety. Every fruit may be the separate product of handwork. The
+fertilizing, mulching, watering, are carefully regulated for every
+tree. Often the trees are trained on cordons, espaliers, trellises or
+walls. The individual fruits may be tied up or bagged. All this is
+very different from the raising of apples by means of tractors and
+other machinery, gangs of pruners and pickers, broadside extensive
+methods, with highly organized systems of handling and marketing, in
+all of which the money-measure is the chief consideration. It is for
+all these reasons that the growing of a few dwarf apple-trees may
+afford such intimate satisfaction to a careful man who prizes the
+result of his skill.
+
+The dwarfs are grown as little trees branching near the ground, headed
+in at top and side and kept within shape and bounds. If they are of
+the dwarfest dwarfs and not trained on trellis or wall (as they
+usually are not in America), the fruit may be gathered by a man
+standing on the ground, even from old trees. The dwarfs are planted
+eight to ten feet apart when grown in regular plantation.
+
+Be it said that certain kinds of stocks produce trees only semi-dwarf;
+and in all cases if the tree is planted so deep that roots strike from
+the cion, the top will probably outgrow the stock, being supplied in
+part or even entirely by its own roots.
+
+This brings us to a consideration of some of the kinds of dwarf
+stocks, or dwarf races of the apple-tree. Be it said, in understanding
+of the subject, that there are naturally dwarf forms of many plants,
+and probably all ordinary plants are capable of producing them. Thus
+there are very compact condensed forms of arbor-vitae, Norway spruce,
+peach-tree. These have originated as seed sports and are multiplied by
+cuttings. So are there dwarf tomatoes, dwarf China asters, dwarf sweet
+peas, all coming more or less true from seeds, for these species (of
+short generations) have been bred to reproduce their variations. The
+inquirer must not suppose, therefore, that the races of dwarf
+apple-trees are an anomally in the vegetable kingdom.
+
+It is customary to speak of two classes or races of dwarf apple-trees,
+the Paradise and the Doucin. The former kinds are the smaller, the
+trees on their own roots sometimes reaching not more than four feet in
+height at full bearing maturity. On the Paradise stocks, the grafted
+apple-tree is very small; it is a true dwarf. The Doucin trees are by
+nature larger, and apples grafted on them make semi-dwarf trees,
+midway in stature between the real dwarfs and the common standard or
+"free" apple-trees.
+
+The case is not so simple, however, as this brief statement would make
+it appear. There are many kinds of Paradise stock, as also of Doucin.
+If one were to bring together living plants of all the kinds of
+natural dwarfs and semi-dwarfs that could be found in nurseries and
+growing collections, one would undoubtedly find a nearly complete
+series, so far as stature of tree is concerned, from the very dwarf to
+the full-sized standard tree. To say that a person is growing grafted
+dwarf apple-trees does not signify how large the trees may be expected
+to grow, for one may not know the particular kind of stocks on which
+the variety is grafted. In fact, it is considered even in Europe,
+where dwarf apples are chiefly grown, that the proper identification
+of dwarf stocks is still a subject for careful investigation.
+
+When the Paradise dwarfs first came into existence is undetermined.
+They appear to have been known in the Middle Ages. The many races, as
+the Dutch, French, Metz, Nonsuch, Broad-leaved, indicate an ancient
+origin. We cannot be too certain what apple-trees were meant in the
+early references to the Paradise apple. The fruits of the present
+natural Paradise apple-trees are not sufficiently attractive to
+justify us in considering them the "Tree of Paradise" or apple of the
+Garden of Eden, which circumstance is supposed by some to account for
+the name. "Paradise" was originally a park or pleasure ground, applied
+also to the Garden of Eden, and later to horticultural gardens. John
+Parkinson wrote his great treatise on horticulture, 1629, under the
+title, "Paradisi in Sole Paradisus terrestris; or, a Choice Garden of
+all Sorts of Rarest Flowers, etc." Now we use the word for gardens of
+bliss.
+
+The word Doucin, from the Italian, is supposed originally to have
+designated apples of sweet flavor, but it now applies technically to a
+class or race of semi-dwarf apple-trees.
+
+For the purpose of this little book, however, the interest in the
+dwarf apple centers not so much in the origin of the stock as in the
+natural-history of the tree itself and the good skill of hand and
+heart that one may expend in the growing of it. If one would come
+close to a plant, knowing it intimately in every season, causing it to
+respond to sympathetic treatment through a series of years, then a
+garden collection of dwarf apples may satisfy the desire. It is too
+bad that we do not have time to cultivate the dwarfs often in the
+yards and gardens of North America. We are more familiar with the
+raising of dwarf pears (which are grafted on quince stocks since there
+is no similar race of natural dwarf pear-tree), but we do not give
+them the thumb-and-finger care that is demanded for the choicest
+results. The abundance of apples in the market should only stimulate
+the desire of the connoisseur to have trees and fruits that are wholly
+personal. The market produce can never gratify the affections.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+WHENCE COMES THE APPLE-TREE?
+
+
+If the dwarf apple-tree goes back to the Middle Ages and perhaps
+farther, then whence comes the apple originally? No one can surely
+answer. Carbonized apples are found in the remains of the prehistoric
+lake dwellings of Switzerland. When recorded history begins, apples
+were well known and widely distributed. The apple-tree is wild in many
+parts of Europe, but it is difficult to determine whether, in a given
+region, it is indigenous or has run wild from cultivation. Wild
+apple-trees are common in North America, but no one supposes that the
+orchard apple is native here.
+
+Expert opinion generally considers that the apple is native in the
+region of the Caspian Sea and probably in southeastern Europe. Perhaps
+it had spread westward before the Aryan migrations. It had also
+probably spread eastward, but it is not a cultivated fruit in China
+and Japan except apparently as introduced in recent time. The apple is
+essentially a fruit of central and northern Europe, and of European
+migration and settlement.
+
+It is a fertile retrospect to conceive of the apple as an attendant of
+the course of Western civilization. Without voice and leaving no
+record, it has nevertheless followed man in his wanderings, encouraged
+his attainment of permanent habitations, succored him in his
+emergencies. What the apple has contributed to sustenance can never be
+known, but we are aware that it yields its fruit abundantly, that it
+thrives in widely unlike regions and conditions, that the tree has the
+ruggedness to endure severe climates and to provide food that can be
+stored and transported. In the ages it must have stood guard at many a
+rude camp and fireside. It would be fascinating to know what the
+apple-tree has witnessed.
+
+These early apples must have been very crude fruits measured by the
+produce of the present day. But other food was crude and man was
+crude. The North American Indians found the apple to be worth their
+effort; remains of some of the so-called Indian orchards of the Five
+Nations in New York persisted until the present generation. These were
+seedling apple-trees, grown from the stocks introduced by the white
+man. The French missionaries are said to have carried the apple far
+into the interior, and early settlers took seeds with them. The
+legends and records of Johnny Appleseed, sowing the seeds as he went,
+are still familiar. My father, like other pioneers, took seeds from
+the old New England trees into the wilderness of the West; the
+resulting trees were top-grafted, some of them as late as my time; I
+can remember the apples some of these seedling trees bore, the like of
+which I have never seen again, probably poor apples if we had them in
+this day but to a boy at the edge of the forest the very essence of
+goodness. As early as 1639, apples had been picked from trees planted
+on Governor's Island in Boston harbor. Governor John Endicott of
+Massachusetts Colony had an apple-tree nursery in the early day; in
+1644 he says that five hundred of his trees were destroyed by fire.
+So the apple came early to be a standby on the new continent.
+
+The apples of the colonists were not all for eating, but for drinking.
+The butts and barrels of cider put in cellars in the early times seem
+to us most surprising. Herein are suggestions of old social customs
+that might lead us into interesting historical excursions. The oldest
+book I possess on the apple is "Vinetum Britannicum: or, a Treatise of
+Cider," published in London in 1676; it treats also of other beverages
+made from fruits and of "the newly-invented ingenio or mill, for the
+more expeditious and better making of cider." The gradual change in
+customs, whereby the eating of the apple (rather than the drinking of
+it) has come to be paramount, is a significant development; the use of
+apple-juice may now proceed on another basis, on the principle of
+preservation and pasteurization rather than of fermentation.
+
+It is the custom to call the apple _Pyrus Malus_. This is the name
+given by the great Linnaeus, with whom the modern accurate naming of
+plants and animals begins. The nomenclature of plants starts with his
+"Species Plantarum," 1753. Pyrus is the genus or group comprising the
+pears and apples, and Linnaeus included the quince; Malus is Latin for
+the apple-tree. Together the names represent genus and species,--the
+malus Pyrus.
+
+These statements are easy enough to make, but it is impossible to
+demonstrate whether the common pomological apples are derived from one
+original species or from two or more. Many technical botanical names
+have been given in the group, but we need not pause with them here. It
+is enough for our purpose to know that the natural-history of the
+apple, as of anything else that runs to time immemorial, passes at
+the end into obscurity. We seem never to reach the ultimate origins or
+to find an end to our quests.
+
+There are other apples than the common pomological orchard types.
+There are the crabs. In general usage, the word "crab" designates an
+apple that is small, sour and crabbed. Such apples are wildings or
+seedlings. They are merely depreciated forms of _Pyrus Malus_, and
+probably much like the first apples known to man. What are known to
+horticulturists as crab-apples, however, are other species of Pyrus,
+of different character and origin. We need not pause with the
+discussion of them, except to say that the commonest kinds are the
+little long-stemmed fruits of _Pyrus baccata_ (berry Pyrus), native in
+eastern Europe and Siberia. These are the "Siberian crabs." The leaves
+and twigs are smooth, and the calyx falls away from the fruit, leaving
+a bare blossom end. These little hard handsome fruits are used in the
+making of conserves. Certain larger crab-apples, in which the blossom
+end is not clean or bare, as the Transcendent and Hyslop, are probably
+hybrids between the true crabs and the common apple; this class
+provides the main crab-apples of the markets.
+
+When the settlers came to the country west and south of New England,
+they found another kind of crab-apples in the woods, truly native. The
+fruits were hard and sour, but they could be buried to ripen. The
+trees are much like a thorn-apple,--low, spreading, twiggy, thorny;
+but the pink-white large fragrant flowers are very different. The wild
+crab-apple was called _Pyrus coronaria_ by Linnaeus, the "garland
+Pyrus." On the prairies is another species, _Pyrus ioensis_; it yields
+a charming double-flowered form, "Bechtel's crab." In the South are
+other species. In fact, _P. coronaria_ itself may not be a single
+species. These wild crabs run into many forms. In the northern
+Mississippi and prairie country are native apples good enough to be
+introduced into cultivation under varietal names. These are _Pyrus
+Soulardii_, a species bearing the name of J. G. Soulard, Illinois
+horticulturist. These crab-apples are probably natural hybrids between
+_Pyrus Malus_ and the prairie crab, _P. ioensis_. Had there been no
+European apple to be introduced by colonists, it is probable that
+improved forms would have been evolved from the native species. In
+that event, North American pomology would have had a very different
+character.
+
+There remains a very different class of apple-trees, grown only for
+ornament and usually known as "flowering apples." They are mostly
+native in China and Japan. They are small trees, or even almost
+bushes, with profuse handsome flowers and some of them with very
+ornamental little fruits. They have come to this country largely from
+Japan where they are grown for decoration, as the cherries of Japan
+are grown not for fruit but for their flowers, being of very different
+species from the cherries of Europe and America. The common apple
+itself yields varieties grown only for ornament, as one with
+variegated leaves, one with double flowers, and one with drooping
+branches. These are known mostly in Europe; but these forms do not
+compare in interest with the handsome species of the Far East.
+
+All these differing species of the apple-tree multiply the interest
+and hold the attention in many countries. They make the apple-tree
+group one of the most widespread and adaptable of temperate-region
+trees. It will be seen that there are three families of them,--the
+Eurasian family, from which come the pomological apples; the North
+American family, which has yielded little cultivated material; the
+East-Asian family, abundant in highly ornamental kinds. There are no
+apple-trees native in the southern hemisphere.
+
+The apple-tree, taken in its general sense, has a broad meaning. What
+may be accomplished by breeding and hybridizing is beyond
+imagination.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+THE VARIETIES OF APPLE
+
+
+Every seedling of the pomological apples is a new variety. Some of
+these seedlings are so good that they are named and introduced into
+cultivation. They are grafted on other stocks, and become part of the
+great inheritance of desirable apples.
+
+It is to be expected that in the long processes of time in many
+countries the number of varieties will accumulate to high numbers. No
+one knows all the kinds that have been named and propagated, but they
+run into many thousands. No one book contains them all, although some
+of the manuals are voluminous. Varieties drop out of existence, being
+no longer propagated; new varieties come in.
+
+So the lists of varieties gradually change. A list of one hundred
+years ago would contain many names strange to us. Thus, of the sixty
+apples in "A Select List of Fruit-Trees" by Bernard M'Mahon, published
+in "The American Gardener's Calendar," in 1806, not more than six or
+eight would be understandable to a planter of the present day.
+
+With the standardizing of practices in the commercial growing of
+fruits, the tendency is to reduce the number of varieties to small
+proportions; it is these varieties that the nurserymen propagate.
+Here and there over the country are still trees of the extra-quality
+but uncommercial varieties known to a former generation. If the
+amateur now wants to grow these varieties, he must find cions as best
+he can by patient correspondence, and graft them on his own trees.
+When I planted an orchard twenty-five years ago, I found cions of
+Jefferis here, of Dyer there, of Mother, Swaar and Chenango in other
+places.
+
+In the enlarged edition of Downing's "Fruits and Fruit-Trees of
+America," 1872, are descriptions of 1856 varieties, of which 1099 are
+American in origin, 585 foreign, 172 of origin unknown. The lists are
+not only much smaller in these days, but the foreign element tends to
+pass out. With the introduction of the Russian apples for the cold
+North in the latter part of the past century, the importation of
+foreign varieties practically ceased, as it ceased also for the pears
+at an earlier date with the introductions of Manning, Wilder and
+others. The epoch of the "testing" of varieties passed away, and with
+it has gone an appreciative attitude toward fruits and even toward
+life that constitutes a sad lack in our day.
+
+About thirty years ago (1892) I compiled an inventory of all the
+varieties of apple-trees sold in North America, as listed in the
+ninety-five nurserymen's catalogues that came to my hand. The inventory
+contains 878 varieties. In the present year, however, perhaps not more
+than 100 varieties are handled by nurserymen in Eastern United States.
+Probably the dealer and grower would consider even this small number
+much too great. The highly developed standardized business of the
+present day, aiming at quantity-production, naturally reduces the
+variety of products, whether in manufacturing or horticulture, and
+aims at uniformity. Under the influence of this leadership, we are
+losing many of the old products, varieties of apples among the rest.
+
+Why do we need so many kinds of apples? Because there are so many
+folks. A person has a right to gratify his legitimate tastes. If he
+wants twenty or forty kinds of apples for his personal use, running
+from Early Harvest to Roxbury Russet, he should be accorded the
+privilege. Some place should be provided where he may obtain trees or
+cions. There is merit in variety itself. It provides more points of
+contact with life, and leads away from uniformity and monotony.
+
+The leading varieties of apples, that have become dominant over wide
+regions, have been great benefactors to man. The original tree should
+be carefully preserved till the last, by historical or other
+societies; and then a monument should be placed at the spot. Monuments
+have been erected to the Baldwin, Northern Spy, McIntosh and other
+apples. We should never lose our touch with the origins of men,
+events, notable achievements, outstanding products of nature.
+
+I fear it is now a habit with many fruit-growers to minimize the
+interest in varieties, placing the emphasis on tillage, spraying and
+management of plantations. Yet, the only reason why we expend all the
+labor is that we may grow a given kind of apple; the variety is the
+final purpose.
+
+In this little book we cannot discuss varieties at length. There are
+special books on this fascinating subject. But we may have before us a
+compiled list by way of interesting suggestion. The list is sorted
+from the Catalogue of Fruits of the American Pomological Society,
+1901, the last year in which the catalogue was published with quality
+rated on a scale of 10. On such a scale, Ben Davis ranks 4-5; Baldwin,
+5-6; Wealthy and York Imperial, 6-7; Rhode Island Greening, 7-8;
+Northern Spy, 8-9; Yellow Newtown (Albermarle Pippin) 9-10. There is
+no apple in the entire catalogue of 324 kinds (not including
+crab-apples) rated wholly lower than 4 in quality except one alone and
+this is grown for cider only, although several varieties of minor
+importance bear the marks 3-4. Only two varieties are rated
+exclusively 10, the Garden Royal, a Massachusetts summer-fall apple,
+little known to planters, and the familiar Esopus Spitzenberg. Of
+course judgments differ widely in these matters, as there are no
+inflexible criteria for the scoring of quality; yet this extensive
+list is probably our soundest approach to the subject.
+
+The varieties in the catalogue of the American Pomological Society are
+starred if "known to succeed in a given district" and double-starred
+"if highly successful." North America is thrown into nineteen
+districts for the purposes of this catalogue (which comprises other
+fruits besides apples). For our purposes we may combine them into six
+more or less indefinite great regions: n. e., the northeastern part of
+the country, Delaware and Pennsylvania to eastern Canada; s. e., the
+parts south of this area and mostly east of the Mississippi; n. c.,
+north central, from Kansas and Missouri north; s. w., Texas to
+Arizona; mt., the mountain states of the Rockies west to the Sierras,
+including of course much high plains country; pac., the Pacific slope,
+Washington to southern California.
+
+Of the varieties starred and double-starred in these various
+geographical regions there are 107; these are listed herewith. Of
+course the intervening twenty years might change the rating of some of
+these apples, other varieties have come to the front, and certain ones
+of these older worthies are receding still further into the
+background; but the exhibit is suggestive none the less.
+
+Arkansas--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.
+Bailey (Sweet)--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Baker--n.e.
+Baldwin--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., s.w., pac.
+Beach--s.e.
+Belle Bonne--n.e.
+Ben Davis--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt., pac.
+Bietigheimer--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Bledsoe--s.e.
+Blenheim--n.e., n.c.
+Blue Pearmain--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Bough, Sweet--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Bryan--s.e., mt.
+Buckingham--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Canada Reinette--n.e., n.c., mt.
+Clayton--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Clyde--n.e., n.c.
+Cogswell--n.e.
+Cooper--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Cracking--s.e., n.c.
+Doyle--s.e.
+Early Pennock--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Esopus (Spitzenburg)--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., pac.
+Ewalt--n.e., s.e., mt.
+Fallawater--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Fall Harvey--n.e., mt.
+Fall Jenneting--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Fall Orange--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Fall Pippin--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.
+Fanny--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w.
+Farrar--s.e.
+Foundling--n.e.
+Gano--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.
+Gilbert--s.e.
+Golding--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Gravenstein--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., s.w., pac.
+Hagloe--n.e., s.e.
+Hoover--s.e., n.c., mt., pac.
+Hopewell--n.c.
+Horse--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Hubbardston--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w.
+Hunge--s.e.
+Huntsman--s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.
+Isham (Sweet)--n.c.
+Jacobs Sweet--n.e.
+Kent--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Kernodle--s.e.
+Lady Sweet--n.e., mt.
+Lankford--n.e., s.e.
+Lawver--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Lilly (of Kent)--n.e.
+Lowe--s.e.
+Lowell--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+McAfee--n.e., s.e, mt.
+McCuller--s.e.
+McMahon--n.e., n.c., mt.
+Magog--n.e.
+Maverack--s.e.
+Milwaukee--n.c.
+Minister--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Monmouth--s.e., n.c., mt.
+Newell--n.c.
+Nickajack--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Northern Spy--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., pac.
+Northwestern (Greening)--n.e., n.c., mt.
+Oconee--n.e., s.e.
+Ohio Nonpareil--n.e., s.e.
+Ohio Pippin--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Ortley--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Paragon--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Patten (Greening)--n.c.
+Pease--n.e.
+Peck (Pleasant)--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Peter--n.c.
+Pewaukee--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Porter--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Pumpkin Sweet--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Quince--n.e., n.c.
+Ramsdell (Sweet)--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Red Astrachan--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt., pac.
+Rhode Island (Greening)--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt., pac.
+Ridge (Pippin)--n.e.
+Rolfe--n.e.
+Rome--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.
+Stark--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.
+Starkey--n.e., s.e.
+Stayman Winesap--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Sterling--n.e., n.c.
+Summer King--n.e., s.e.
+Swaar--n.e., n.c., mt., pac.
+Taunton--s.e.
+Titovka--n.e., mt.
+Tompkins King--n.e., s.e., mt., pac.
+Twenty Ounce--n.e., s.e., s.w., mt.
+Utter--n.c.
+Vanhoy--n.e., s.e.
+Virginia Greening--s.e., mt.
+Washington (Strawberry)--n.e., s.e., mt.
+Watson--s.e.
+White Pippin--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., pac.
+Wine--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Wistal--s.e., s.w.
+Wolf River--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Yellow Bellflower--n.e., s.e., s.w., mt., pac.
+Yellow Newtown--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt., pac.
+Yopp--s.e.
+York Imperial--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.
+
+There are many odd varieties of apple not found in any list but about
+which questions are likely to arise. One of these is the
+Sweet-and-Sour. There is an old ribbed variety of this name, the ribs
+having an acid flesh and the furrows sweetish; it is little known and
+of no special value. Apples are sometimes found that are sweetish on
+one side and sourish on the other. The reasons for this kind of
+variation are no more understood than are those responsible for
+variance in color or shape or durability. One yet sometimes hears the
+pleasant fable that sweet-and-sour apples are produced by splitting
+the bud when the tree was propagated.
+
+The Surprise is a small whitish apple with light red flesh. It is
+indeed a surprise to bite into such an apple, but it has little merit.
+It is an early winter variety.
+
+One is frequently asked about the Sheepnose apple, particularly by
+older people who remember it from early days and who deplore its
+infrequency in these latter times. The sheepnose shape--long-conical--is
+an infrequent variation, as apples go, and apparently none of these
+forms chances to have sufficient merit to keep it in the lists. The
+name is often applied to the Black Gilliflower, an old apple more than
+three inches long, dark red, of light weight perhaps because of the
+large core, ripening late in autumn to midwinter. It seems to be
+specially prized by children, perhaps in part because of its unusual
+shape and in part by its aromatic fragrance; but it is not a high-class
+apple, and is now little seen. With the Rambo, Vandevere, some of the
+russets, Early Harvest, Jersey Sweet and other old worthies, it
+probably will pass away unless rescued here and there by the amateur.
+To the lover of choice fruit nothing is old; every succeeding crop is
+as choice and new as is the new year itself, and one waits for it
+again and again.
+
+One hears of seedless and no-core apples, as also of pears. The core
+is present but greatly reduced in size, and the seeds may be few and
+small. I have also raised practically seedless tomatoes. All these are
+infrequent variations that may be propagated by asexual parts
+(cuttings, cions), but as yet none of them has any outstanding value.
+
+The reader will now ask me about the water-core apples, so much sought
+and prized by youngsters. The water-core is not characteristic of a
+variety, although occurring in some varieties more frequently than in
+others. It is a physiological condition, supposed to be associated
+with a relatively low transpiration (evaporation) so that excess water
+is held in the fruit. In certain seasons this condition is marked, and
+also in cloudy regions and often on young trees that have an
+over-supply of moisture. Yet such cores occur in old trees and
+sometimes with more or less regularity. What the physiological
+inability may be in such cases to dispose of excess moisture appears
+to be undetermined.
+
+Now and then one finds a double apple, with two fruits grown solidly
+together, two blossom ends and a single stem. A seedling tree I knew
+as a boy bore such apples frequently, sometimes a score of them among
+the crop of the year. This, of course, is a malformation or
+teratological state. Apparently two flowers coalesce to form these
+fruits. On the tree of which I speak, the two fruits were about equal
+in size, making a large, widened, edible apple, but I have known of
+other cases in which a diminutive undeveloped fruit is attached to the
+side of a normal one.
+
+Perhaps the oddest of them all is the "Bloomless apple." It is said to
+have no flowers. In fact, however, the flowers are present but they
+lack showy petals and are therefore not conspicuous. The bloomless
+apple is a monstrous state, the cause of which is unknown. Now and
+then a tree is reported. It was described at least as long ago as
+1768, and in 1770 Muenchhausen called it _Pyrus apetala_ (the
+petalless pyrus). The flowers have no stamens, and apparently they are
+pollinated from any other apples in the vicinity. In 1785, Moench
+described it as _Pyrus dioica_ (the dioecious pyrus, sexes separated
+on different plants). The ovary is also malformed, having six or seven
+and sometimes probably more cells, and bearing ten to fifteen styles.
+The resulting fruit has a core character unknown in other apples but
+approached in certain apple-like fruits, as the medlar. The fruit has
+a hole or opening from the calyx (which is open) into the core; and
+the core is roughly double, one series above the other. The fruit, in
+such specimens as I have seen or read about, has no horticultural
+merit; but it is a curiosity of great botanical interest. It appears
+now and then in widely separated places, the trees probably having
+originated as chance seedlings. The fruits from the different
+originations are not always the same in size and form, but the flowers
+apparently all have the same malformed character.
+
+The apple is preeminently the home fruit. It is not transitory. It
+spans every season. In an indifferent cellar I keep apples till apples
+come again. The apple stands up, keeps well on the table. Children may
+handle it. In color and form it satisfies any taste. Its rondure is
+perfect. The cavity is deep, graceful and well moulded, holding the
+good stem securely. The basin is a natural summit and termination of
+the curvatures, bringing all the lines together, finishing them in
+the ornaments of the remaining calyx. The fruit adapts itself to the
+hand. The fingers close pleasantly over it, fitting its figure. It has
+a solid feel. The flesh of a good apple is crisp, breaking, melting,
+coolly acid or mildly sweet. It has a fracture, as one bites it,
+possessed by no other fruit. One likes to feel the snap and break of
+it. There is a stability about it that satisfies; it holds its shape
+till the last bite. One likes to linger on an apple, to sit by a
+fireside to eat it, to munch it waiting on a log when there is no
+hurry, to have another apple with which to invite a friend.
+
+Now I am not thinking of the Ben Davis apple or any of its kind. I do
+not want to be doomed to one variety of apple, or even to half a dozen
+kinds, and particularly I do not want a poor one. There are enough
+good apples, if we can get them. The days of the amateur fruit-growers
+seem to be passing. At least we do not hear much of them in society or
+in many of the meetings of horticulturists. There may be many reasons,
+but two are evident: we give the public indifferent fruits, and
+thereby neither educate the taste or stimulate the desire for more; we
+do not provide them places from which they can get plants of many of
+the choicest things. Yet on a good amateur interest in fruits depends,
+in the end, the real success of commercial fruit-growing. Just now we
+are trying to increase the consumption of apples, to lead the people
+to eat an apple a day: it cannot be accomplished by customary
+commercial methods. To eat an apple a day is a question of affections
+and emotions.
+
+We have had great riches in our varieties of apples. It has been a
+vast resource to have a small home plantation of many good varieties,
+each perfect in its season. The great commercial apple-growing has
+been carried to high perfection of organization and care. More perfect
+apples are put on the market, in proportion to numbers, than ever
+before,--carefully grown and graded and handled. I have watched this
+American development with growing pride. The quantity-production makes
+for greater perfection of product, but it does not make for variety
+and human interest, nor for high-quality varieties. We shall still
+improve it. Masterful men will perfect organizations. The high
+character and attainment of the commanding fruit-growers, nurserymen
+and dealers are good augury for the future. But all this is not
+sufficient. Quantity-production will be an increasing source of
+wealth, but it cannot satisfy the soul.
+
+The objects and productions of high intrinsic merit are preserved by
+the amateur. It is so in art and letters. It is necessarily so. A body
+of amateurs is an essential background to the development of science.
+The late Professor Pickering, renowned astronomer, encouraged the
+amateur societies of star-observers, and others. The amateurs in the
+background, disinterested and unselfish, support appropriations by
+legislatures for even abstruse public work. The amateur is the
+embodiment of the best in the common life, the conservator of
+aspirations, the fulfillment of democratic freedom. I hope pomology
+will not lag in this respect. In all lines I hope that professionalism
+will not subjugate the man who follows a subject for the love of it
+rather than for the gain of it or for the pride of it. In
+horticulture, when we lose the amateur, who, as the word means, is the
+lover, we lose the ideals.
+
+Naturally, the nurseryman cannot grow trees of all the good apples
+that may be wanted. The experiment stations cannot maintain living
+museums of them, for their function is to investigate rather than to
+preserve. Arboretums are concerned with other activities. Is there not
+some person of means, desiring to do good to his successors, ready now
+to establish a fructicetum _in perpetuum_ for the purpose of
+preserving a single tree of at least one hundred of the choicest
+apples, to the end that a record may be kept and that amateurs may be
+supplied with cions thereof?
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+THE PLEASANT ART OF GRAFTING
+
+
+If I procure cuttings of a good apple, what shall I do with them that
+they may give me of their fruitage?
+
+The cuttings will probably be dormant twigs of the last season's
+growth. They may not be expected to grow when placed in the ground.
+They are therefore planted in another tree, becoming cions. The case
+is in no way different in principle from the propagating of the young
+tree in the nursery, of which we already have learned. The nurseryman
+works with a small stock, a mere slip of a seedling one or two years
+old. The grower would better not attempt the making of nursery trees.
+It is better for him to purchase regular nursery trees and to graft
+the cions on them; or he may put the cions in any older tree that is
+available.
+
+I have spoken of my own collecting of certain dessert apples. I
+"worked" them on young Northern Spy trees, purchased when two or three
+years old; they were grafted after they had stood a year in the
+orchard. These Northern Spy trees, used in this case as stocks, were
+regularly grown by nurserymen. The Northern Spy was chosen because of
+its hardiness and straight, clean, erect growth, making it a vigorous
+and comely stock. Weak-growing varieties are usually rejected for this
+purpose. Some growers use Oldenburg as stock, and there are other
+good kinds.
+
+From the young stock, the old head is to be removed and a new head
+(the new variety) grown in its stead. The tree, therefore, will be
+combined of three kinds of apple,--the root of unknown quality; the
+trunk or body under a varietal name; the top, of the variety desired.
+Any number of different kinds of apple wood may be worked into the
+tree if the tree is large enough. If the operations are well performed
+so that there are no imperfect unions, and if the pruning is
+judicious, the tree may be grafted many times, in whole or in part.
+
+I have said that my father brought apple seeds from New England and
+that the resulting seedlings were top-grafted. One of these trees was
+early top-worked to "Holland Pippin," which seldom bore. It stood in
+the yard near the smoke-house, where it found abundant nourishment. It
+grew to great size. In time I became a grafter of trees for the
+neighborhood, and often as I returned at night would have cions of
+different kinds in my pockets. It became a pastime to graft these
+cions in the old tree. More than thirty varieties were placed there.
+It was with keen anticipation, as the years came, that I looked for
+the annual crop, to see what strange inhabitants would appear in the
+great tree-top. I do not remember how many of these varieties came
+into bearing before the tree was finally gathered to the wood-box, but
+they were a goodly number, probably more than a score. I used often to
+wonder how it was that the nutrients taken in by the roots of the
+Vermont seedling and transported in the tissues of the Holland Pippin,
+combined with the same air, could produce so many diverse apples and
+even pears (for I had pears in that tree) each with the marks and
+flavor proper to its kind. The little cions I grafted into the tree
+were soon lost in the overgrowth, and yet all the branches that came
+from them carried the genius of one single variety and of none other.
+And I often speculated whether there were any reflex action of these
+many varieties on the root, demanding a certain kind of service from
+it.
+
+The cions (sometimes still called "grafts") are cut in winter or early
+spring, when well matured and perfectly dormant. Placed in sand in a
+cool cellar so they will not shrivel, they are kept until grafting
+time, which is early spring, usually before the leaves start on the
+stock. The cions may be placed on the tree by several methods, but
+only two are commonly employed,--the whip-graft and the cleft-graft.
+The former is adapted to small stocks, the size of one's finger or
+smaller; it is the method employed in root-grafting in the nursery,
+and Fig. 16 explains it.
+
+The requirement is to cause the cion and stock to grow together
+solidly, making one piece of wood. The growing plastic region is
+associated with the cambium tissues underneath the bark. It is
+necessary, therefore, to bring the "line betwixt the wood and the
+bark" together in the two parts, and to hold the junction firm and
+also well protected from evaporation until union takes place. The
+method of putting the parts together, the form of whittling, is a
+matter of convenience and practice.
+
+The case was put in this way by old Robert Sharrock, "Fellow of
+New-College," in his "History of the Propagation and Improvement of
+Vegetables by the concurrence of Art and Nature" (I quote from the
+second edition, Oxford, 1672): "Grafting is an Art of so placing the
+Cyon upon a stock, that the Sap may pass from the stock to the Cyon
+without Impediment." Batty Langley, in 1729, gave this direction in
+the "Pomona": "The Stocks being cleft, you must therefore cut the Cion
+in the Form of a Wedge, which must always be cut from a Bud, for the
+Reasons aforesaid; and then with a Grafting-Chizel open the Slit, and
+place the Cion therein, so that their Barks may be exactly even and
+smooth."
+
+Still earlier (1626) did William Lawson, in "A New Orchard and
+Garden," set forth the rationale of the practice in his Chapter X, "On
+Grafting," in this wise: "Now are we come to the most curious point of
+our faculty: curious in conceit, but indeed as plaine and easie as the
+rest, when it is plainly shewne, which we commonly call Graffing, or
+(after some) Grafting. I cannot Etymoligize, nor shew the original of
+the word, except it come of graving and carving. But the thing or
+matter is: The reforming of the Fruit of one Tree with the fruit of
+another, by an artificial transplacing or transposing of a twig, bud
+or leafe, (commonly called a Graft) taken from one tree of the same,
+or some other kind, and placed or put to, or into another tree in due
+time and manner."
+
+If the whip-graft is to be below the ground, it is sufficient to tie
+the parts tightly with string and cover with earth; if above ground,
+wax is applied over the string to prevent drying out. On the small
+shoots of young trees, the whip-graft is often employed, but it is not
+used in large trees.
+
+The cleft-graft is shown in Fig. 18. The trunk or branch is cut off;
+two cions are inserted in a cleft made with a knife. The "stub" is
+covered with grafting-wax (Fig. 19). Cleft-grafting is the usual
+method for the orchardist.
+
+[Illustration: 18. The cleft-graft.]
+
+[Illustration: 19. The cleft-graft after waxing.]
+
+In either kind of grafting, the cion carries about three leaf-buds. If
+"wood" (cion-shoots) is scarce, only one bud may be taken, but this
+reduces the chances of success. One bud may not grow, or the young
+shoot may be injured. The lowest bud is usually most likely to grow;
+it pushes through the wax.
+
+In young trees set for the purpose of top-working, the trunk may be
+cut off at the desired height and two cions inserted. The entire top
+is then removed at once; this is allowable only on young trees.
+Probably the better practice is to graft the main small side limbs and
+the main trunk or leader higher up. Usually it is better to leave some
+of the branches on the tree, not removing them all till the second or
+third year.
+
+In old apple-trees, the main branches are grafted, where they are an
+inch or two in diameter. Care is taken so to choose the branches that
+a well-shaped free-headed tree will result. Only a small part of the
+top is removed the first year, and three or four years may be required
+to change the top all over, the old branches being removed as the new
+ones grow. In about three years, or four, the grafts should begin to
+bear,--about as soon as strong three-year-old trees planted in the
+orchard.
+
+Any variety of the pomological apples will grow on any other variety,
+but apples do not take well on other species, as does the pear. The
+pear may be made to grow on the apple, but the graft is short-lived
+and the practice is not recommended. Boys may graft indiscriminately
+for practice, but grown-ups, having arrived at the unfortunate age of
+discretion, must operate only on those kinds known to succeed when
+joined. I have never known a boy who did not want to graft anything,
+as soon as his attention was called to the operation. The boy does not
+take it for granted: he wants to try.
+
+
+
+
+XIII
+
+THE MENDING OF THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+Many accidents overtake the apple-tree. The hired man skins the tree
+with the harrow; fire runs through the dry grass; hard winters shatter
+the vitality, and parts of the tree die; borers enter; rabbits and
+mice gnaw the bark in winter; loads of fruit and burdens of ice crush
+the tree; wind storms play mischief; bad pruning leaves long stubs,
+and rot develops; cankers produce dead ragged wounds; fire-blight
+destroys the tissue; a poorly formed tree with bad crotches splits
+easily; grafts fail to take, and long dead ends are left; the tree is
+injured by pickers; vandals wreak their havoc. All these accidents
+must be met and the damages repaired. The surgeon must be summoned.
+
+We must first understand how a wound heals on a tree. Note any
+wound,--knot-hole on the trunk, place where wood has been removed. The
+exposed wound itself does not heal; it is covered and inclosed by
+tissue built out from the edges or periphery of the wound. This tissue
+is like a roll. It is the callus. Eventually the tissue meets in the
+center, and the lid is thereby put on the place, and it is sealed. The
+exposed wood has died, if it is the cross-section of a branch or a
+deep wound, and it remains under the callus a dead body. If the wood
+has not started to decay in the meantime, the place is safe, but too
+often invasion has begun before the process is complete, the rot
+disease finally extends to the heart of the tree, causing it to become
+hollow. If the center of the wound falls in, the callus cannot cover
+it, and an open sore remains. In these cavities birds may sometimes
+build.
+
+Therefore there are two points for the surgeon to consider in respect
+to the wound itself--whether it is so placed on the tree that the
+callus forms readily; whether the wound is kept healthy during
+exposure.
+
+All ragged tissue being removed, deep-wound surfaces should be kept
+aseptic. For ordinary cases, white-lead paint with plenty of linseed
+oil is a good protective from the germs of decay. On old wood, no
+longer active, creosote is good, perhaps followed by coal-tar.
+Usually, however, paint is quite sufficient. Small exposures usually
+receive no dressing. When the fresh surface wood is exposed by removal
+of bark, it is necessary to keep the tissue from drying out, and
+antiseptics are usually not applied. Bandaging with cloth is the usual
+practice, after the wound is cleaned and trimmed.
+
+The repairs fall into two classes,--those that require merely removal
+of injured parts and treatment of the wounds, and those that demand
+the ingrafting of new wood.
+
+We have learned, in the discussion of pruning, that long projecting
+ends of severed branches do not heal. The branches to be removed
+should be cut back close to the larger branch or to the juncture with
+another. In repairing injured trees, all projecting parts that do not
+have life in themselves must be removed. All wounds should be left
+smooth, without splinters or hanging bark. Decaying wood is to be
+removed, and the area cleaned out and disinfected.
+
+The nature-lover may find much to interest him in the observation of
+knot-holes as he comes and goes. Every knot-hole has a history; this
+history usually can be traced by one whose eye is keen and who becomes
+practiced in connecting cause with final result. One prides oneself on
+the ability to work out the obscure cases. An old neglected apple
+orchard thereby affords much entertainment.
+
+If a very large branch breaks off, the remaining part is cut back to
+fresh hard wood; antiseptic is applied; the other part of the tree may
+be shortened-in to aid in restoring the proportion or balance.
+
+Deep cavities caused by rot are cleaned out, disinfected with bordeaux
+mixture, gas-tar, or other material, and the place filled completely
+with cement.
+
+In some cases, new wood is added in the form of cions of last year's
+twigs. Such cions may be set around the edge of a stub, thrust between
+the bark and the wood, to start new branches where an important one
+was broken off. The cions are cut wedge-shape (much as those in Fig.
+18) and a bandage is tied around the stub to hold them in place; the
+exposed parts are covered with grafting-wax. The operation is
+performed in spring.
+
+Sometimes cions are used to bridge a girdle. Usually a girdle heals
+itself if the injury does not extend into the wood, and if it is bound
+up to prevent drying out; but when the injury is deep and the exposed
+wood has become dry and hard, the cions may be used. The cions are
+somewhat longer than the width of the girdle. The edges of the girdle
+are trimmed to fresh tight bark; cions are cut wedge-shape at either
+end; the ends are inserted underneath the bark at bottom and top of
+the wound; edges of the wound are securely bandaged; entire work is
+covered with wax. The cions are many, so close that they nearly touch.
+The buds on the cions are not allowed to produce branches. This
+process is known as bridge-grafting.
+
+With some experience, the cultivator soon learns to make many deft
+applications of ingrafting. Sometimes a piece of bark may be used as a
+patch. In the bracing of crotches in young trees, the two trunks may
+be joined by uniting a small branch from either one, twisting them
+together to form a bridge like a bolt; they can be made to grow
+together, forming a solid union. Bolting the parts with iron rods, or
+holding them together by means of chains, is the usual and commonly
+the better method. The iron is not to go around a limb, however, for
+girdling results; the rods or chains should be secured by bolts bored
+through the wood and pulling against large heads or washers.
+
+The usual repairs are easily made. When trees are badly injured, and
+particularly when the tree is low in vitality, it may not be worth
+while to engage in surgery. It may be better to plant a new tree.
+Saving very old trees by the mending processes is not likely to be
+satisfactory. The grower should transfer his affection to a young
+tree. If the tree has had good care throughout its life, it probably
+will not need much surgery in old age. The grower will be willing,
+when the time comes, to take a photograph for memory's sake and to let
+the tree come to a timely and artistic end.
+
+
+
+
+XIV
+
+CITIZENS OF THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+Many years ago, my old friend, the late Dr. J. A. Lintner, State
+Entomologist of New York, compiled a list of 356 insects that feed on
+the apple-tree. Later authorities place the number at nearly five
+hundred species. It must be a good plant that has such a host of
+denizens. The number of fungi is also large; and the tree often
+supports lichens, algæ, and other forms of life.
+
+The apple-tree is not single in its denizens. No plant lives alone. It
+has association with its fellows, perhaps contest for space and
+nourishment. It provides habitat for many organisms, many of which
+live on its bounty. I have never seen a bearing apple-tree that was
+not a colonizing place for other living things. We accept these things
+as matters of course, as being in place, living their part in nature.
+Therefore, one cannot understand the apple-tree unless one knows
+something of its citizenry.
+
+Probably the most prominent citizen of the apple-tree is the
+codlin-moth. Its larva is the apple-worm, the one that makes "wormy
+apples," the burrows going to the core and out again. The insect is
+native in Europe, but has been known in North America nearly two
+hundred years, and is widespread in the apple countries of the world.
+
+If one has screens in the apple cellar, one is likely to find small
+moths on them in the spring, larger than a clothes moth, about
+three-fourths inch in spread of the soft gray watered-silk wings. This
+is the imago or mature form of the insect known as the codlin-moth (it
+lives on codlins or apples). The larvæ or "worms" were brought into
+the cellar in the apples; some of them crawled out, spun themselves in
+a cocoon and pupated; in due season the moth emerged, ready to lay the
+eggs for other larvæ. Ordinarily the fruit-grower does not see the
+moth, for it is a small object amidst the foliage of apple-trees; the
+larva or apple-worm he knows well.
+
+There may be two or more broods of apple-worms, depending on the
+length of the season. In the northern apple regions of North America
+there is usually only one brood, with a partial second brood. The
+first brood is hatched from eggs laid by moths that emerge in spring.
+The moths come from larvæ that have lain in cocoons all winter, hidden
+under bark on the trunks and main branches of the apple-tree, in
+crevices in nearby posts and fences, and sometimes in the ground. The
+pupæ are the transformed larvæ or worms that left the apple of the
+previous year, usually before it fell, and crawled down the tree to
+find a place to spin the silken brown cocoons in which they wrapped
+themselves to undergo the wonderful transformation.
+
+So is the cycle complete: egg laid in early spring, mostly on the
+leaves; larva hatched in about one week, crawling to the young apple
+to feed, where it lives for perhaps a month; larva departed from the
+fruit to form a cocoon and to remain quiescent till it pupates the
+following spring (if there is no second brood) when it transforms into
+a moth; the moth alive for one week or ten days, laying perhaps as
+many as one hundred eggs or even more. If there is a second or third
+brood, the pupa resurrects in ten days or so into the moth; eggs are
+laid; larvæ are hatched; pupæ again are formed; and thus is the
+process continued. But the winter stage is the larva, although perhaps
+in store-houses the moths may emerge earlier and survive till spring.
+
+The eggs of the first brood are commonly laid on the leaves and fruit.
+The young larva or worm eats very little on the foliage. It usually
+crawls into the blossom end of the apple. The young apple stands
+erect, with the calyx open (Fig. 6); later the calyx closes and
+protects the larva that hatched there, forming a good cover for its
+operations (Fig. 7). The worm drives for the core, where it eats the
+young seeds and burrows extensively; then, when nearly grown, it sets
+out for the surface, eating a straight burrow; an opening is made
+through the skin of the apple, but this exit is plugged until the
+animal is ready to leave the place and to crawl down the tree to
+pupate. The larvæ of later broods may enter at the side of the apple,
+where a leaf affords protection or where two fruits come together; but
+the life-history is the same, varying in its rapidity.
+
+This account discloses the vulnerable point in the life-history, if
+one is to destroy the insects and to grow fair fruit; if poison is
+lodged on the erect open-topped little apple, the young larva will get
+it before he injures the fruit. If the application of the poison is
+delayed until the calyx closes (Fig. 7), there will be small chance
+of reaching the worm. The best way to reach the second brood is to
+destroy all the first brood. The standard practice, therefore, is to
+spray the trees soon after the petals fall, with the idea of
+depositing arsenic in the blossom end.
+
+But the season of egg-laying is long, often extending over a period of
+three or four weeks, for the moths do not all emerge from the cocoons
+simultaneously. It is customary, therefore, to spray again about two
+weeks after the first application, with the hope of catching the young
+worms on their way to the fruit.
+
+There is no question about the efficacy of spraying. Its value has
+been demonstrated time and again. The methods and the materials may be
+learned from the experiment station publications in any State, wherein
+the advice is kept up-to-date.
+
+In the days before the perfecting of the spraying processes, the
+codlin-moth was controlled by catching the pupating larvæ. Taking
+advantage of the habit of the worm to find lodgment under the bark on
+the trunk, it was the practice to scrape the loose bark from bole and
+large branches to destroy the hiding-places and then to tie a band of
+cloth around the trunk. Under this band the worms were taken, as they
+spun themselves up in the cocoons. This is a lesson taken from the
+industrious woodpeckers, who, in the winter, search the trees for the
+pupæ and make holes through the flakes of bark to get them. The
+scraping of apple-trees is not much recommended now for the reason
+that this special necessity is passed, and because the better tillage
+and care together with the soaking of the branches and trunk in the
+spraying operation, tend to keep the tree vigorous and the bark
+properly exfoliated.
+
+So the worm in the apple has a delicate and interesting history. From
+egg to imago the transformations proceed with regularity, and they are
+marvelous. Had we not traced the sequence, no man could tell by
+appearances that the larva, the pupa and the moth are one and the same
+animal. They seem to have nothing in common. So is the egg stage as
+different as the other three, but we are measurably prepared for this
+epoch, since we know seeds so well; the egg and the seed are
+analogous. That a moth in the air should come from a crawling worm in
+an apple is indeed one of the miracles of nature. The worm leaves the
+apple ere it falls; how the worm knows the time is again a mystery. By
+some instinct, it is able to cognize a dying apple. The later worms,
+either the lastlings from the early brood or the product of subsequent
+broods, may remain in the apple when it is harvested, particularly in
+an apple picked before it is quite mature and from which the worm has
+not escaped.
+
+The apple-worm ruins the crop by killing many of the fruits and by
+blemishing the remainder. Seldom are there two worms in an apple. They
+seem to respect each other's hunting-ground. From the worm's point of
+view and from man's, one is enough.
+
+If man has dominion and if he needs apples, then is he within his
+rights if he joins issue with the insects. Yet is the insect as
+interesting for all that. I think we should miss many of the
+satisfactions of life, and certainly some of the disciplines, if there
+were no insects. My apple-tree is a great place for a naturalist. Van
+Bruyssel wrote a book on "The Population of an Old Pear-Tree." "When
+certain blue spirits begin to flit about me," he writes, "I depart
+from my study to go and read, in what I am allowed, even by my
+clerical uncle, to call my book of devotions. The devotions I mean are
+not in my book-case. No publisher, if he ever thought of such a thing,
+could bring them out. They are a page of the book of Nature, opened in
+the country, under blue sky, displayed at all season." What a
+marvelous company Van Bruyssel found on his old pear tree; and what
+inexhaustible worlds did Fabre discover in the lives of the spider,
+the fly, the caterpillar, the wasps, the mason-bees and others!
+
+Therefore we need not pause with the other four hundred and more
+insect citizens of the apple-tree. Some of them, as the San José
+scale, are not peculiarly apple-tree insects. My tree has another crew
+of inhabitants, and to this company we may now have introduction.
+
+The spots on the leaves and fruits are not deposits of dirt nor are
+they caused by mysterious conditions in the atmosphere, as once
+supposed, nor is it in the nature of leaves to be spotted and of
+fruits to be scabby; nor are the one-sided dwarfed fruits merely
+accidents. The organism responsible for these blemishes is less
+evident than the codlin-moth; yet what fruit-grower knows the eggs of
+the codlin-moth? But the organisms are as definite as are the insects;
+no longer are the fungi things without form and without positive
+cycles.
+
+On the ground are apple leaves, shed in the autumn. On the leaves are
+spots or lesions,--injured or "diseased"--infected with the apple-scab
+fungus. Under a good microscope the investigator finds immature
+fruiting bodies in these areas. In the early days of Spring, these
+bodies or winter-spores mature. A rain discharges them in astonishing
+numbers. Rising in the air (for they are incredibly light), these
+spores lodge on the unfolding leaves and flowers of the apple, and
+there begin to germinate, invading the tissue. The tissue is
+penetrated and killed so rapidly that the practiced eye soon discovers
+a "spot." The leaf, if badly infected, may not reach full size; it may
+curl; it may die and fall; the tree thereby is injured.
+
+From the fungus in the active diseased areas, another kind of spore
+develops rapidly. It is the summer-spore, which may be produced in
+prodigious numbers, and being discharged carries the disease
+elsewhere.
+
+All summer the process of spore-formation and distribution keeps up.
+If conditions are favorable, the tree is invaded in foliage and fruit.
+The flower-stems in the unfolding buds are attacked by the
+winter-spores and the flower falls. The apples become spotted from the
+invasion of the summer-spores, perhaps misshapen. Late infections may
+not show at picking time, but develop on the fruit in storage. The
+affected leaves are cast in the autumn, the winter-spores begin to
+form, the snows come and hide the processes, in spring the spores
+mature; and so does the round of life go on and on.
+
+There are beautiful forms in these fragile fungus threads that eat
+their way into the tissues of the host. There are fascinating
+phenomena in the growth and reproduction. Even so and for all that,
+man protects his tree by spraying it with poison, and thereby again
+does he have dominion.
+
+The spraying for apple-scab is with lime-sulfur to which may be added
+arsenate of lead. This treatment, properly timed, may suffice also
+for the codlin-moth. As the fungus may attack the flower-stems and
+kill them, so is the first application made when the flower-buds open
+and the stems begin to separate, but before the flowers expand; the
+operator has a period of one to three days in which to spray. A second
+spraying is given just after the blossoms fall, as for codlin-moth; if
+the season is wet, a third application may be made ten to fourteen
+days later; if the fungus seems to spread, a fourth spraying may be
+applied in midsummer. These sprayings, variously modified, control not
+only the codlin-moth and the scab fungus but also scale, blister-mite,
+plant-lice, leaf-roller, case-bearer, bud-moth, red-bug and others.
+
+In the tropics one sees trees bearing great burdens of orchids and
+bromeliads and ferns and mosses, and one wonders at the strange and
+exuberant population. Yet here is my apple-tree supporting epiphytes
+and parasites and insects, protector and nurse of a goodly company;
+and birds nest on the branches thereof.
+
+
+
+
+XV
+
+THE APPLE-TREE REGIONS
+
+
+The northern hemisphere is the home of the apple, particularly Central
+Europe, Canada, the United States. In certain regions in the southern
+hemisphere the temperature and humidity are right for the good growing
+of apples, mostly in elevated areas. In New Zealand and parts of
+Australia, apple-growing is assuming large proportions. Their export
+trade to Europe and parts of South America has come to be important
+and undoubtedly is destined greatly to increase.
+
+In Europe, where land is often limited and high in price, apple-trees
+may be planted closer than in America, even in field conditions, and
+more attention is given to pruning, heading-in, and the development of
+fruit-spurs in the interior of the tree-top. I noticed this practice
+in New Zealand, also. In these directions, the Europeans have much to
+teach us in the careful growing of good apples. In Europe, the
+definite training of the apple-tree begins in the nursery;
+quantity-production, with standardization, is not there the aim.
+
+In North America the general practice is to let the tree take its
+course, reaching its full natural stature. The pruning is mostly
+corrective, to keep the tree in shape and to prevent the top from
+becoming too thick, rather than in the development of fruiting wood.
+The consequence is that our trees become very large, specially in New
+York and New England where they are long-lived. In the western
+country, as we have learned, the apple-tree tends to be shorter-lived
+and does not usually attain such great size. In the New York apple
+country, orchards may be in good bearing at forty to sixty years from
+planting, and individual trees may be productive much longer than
+this. The trees come into good bearing in ten to fifteen years. In the
+irrigated regions of the West, the trees may be expected to bear a
+good crop two to five years earlier; to what age they may attain, in
+large plantations, it is yet too early to state.
+
+The commercial apple regions of North America are in Canada and the
+northern United States, comprising about two or three tiers of States,
+with important extensions southward into the mountains and in special
+parts. The Southern States are not known as apple-growing country,
+except in special restricted elevated areas, although there are
+considerable plantations near the Gulf of Mexico.
+
+The geography of apple-growing on the North American continent cannot
+be better displayed than by copying the table of contents of the
+larger part of Chapters III and II in Folger and Thomson's excellent
+recent book, "The Commercial Apple Industry of North America:"
+
+
+_Commercial Apple Production in Canada_
+
+    Nova Scotia
+    Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick
+    Quebec
+    Ontario
+    British Columbia.
+
+_Leading Apple Regions of the United States_
+
+    Western New York
+    Hudson Valley
+    New England Baldwin belt
+    The Champlain district
+    New Jersey
+    Delaware
+    Shenandoah-Cumberland district
+    Piedmont district of Virginia
+    Minor regions in Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Virginia
+    Mountain region of North Carolina
+    Mountain region of Georgia
+    Ohio
+      Southern Ohio, Rome Beauty district
+      Minor regions in Ohio
+    Kentucky
+    Michigan
+    Illinois
+      Southern Illinois early apple region
+      Mississippi Valley region of Illinois
+    Ozark region
+    Missouri River region
+    Arkansas Valley of Kansas
+      Southeastern Illinois
+    Colorado
+    New Mexico
+    Utah
+    Montana
+    Washington
+      Yakima Valley
+      Wenatchee North Central Washington district
+      Spokane district
+      Walla Walla district
+    Oregon
+      Hood River Valley
+      Rogue River Valley
+      Other apple districts in Oregon
+    Idaho
+      Payette district
+      Boise Valley
+      Twin Falls
+      Lewiston section
+    California
+      Watsonville district
+      Sebastopol apple district
+      Yucaipa section
+    Wisconsin
+    Minnesota
+
+The varieties of the South and the North, and largely also of the West
+and the East, are prevailingly different. Canada has a set of apples
+quite its own. These differences are marked when one visits
+exhibitions in the various regions. Let the visitor who is a good
+judge of apples in Michigan and Ohio attempt to judge them in an
+exhibition in the Annapolis Valley of Nova Scotia, in the Province of
+Quebec, in North Carolina, in Minnesota, in Oregon. He will be
+impressed with the wonderful diversity, as well as the undeveloped
+resources, of the continent.
+
+Southward, apples do not keep well. There are no true winter apples in
+the Southern States, outside mountain regions. A winter apple of the
+North becomes a fall apple in the South. In fact, there are marked
+differences in keeping quality within a single State. On gravelly
+lands or warm slopes in the southern part of New York, the Northern
+Spy may become practically a late autumn apple; in the northern parts
+of the State it is a firm crisp all-winter keeper. In the winter
+apple, the ripening process proceeds in storage. When the season is so
+long that maturity is reached on the tree, the subsequent duration is
+relatively short.
+
+It is not to be inferred, however, that apples are to be grown only in
+regions and soils naturally well adapted. Such adaptations should be
+controlling in commercial plantations; but if man has dominion he
+should be able to accomplish much in untoward or even in hostile
+conditions. Even the city lot may be able to yield a harvest, if the
+occupant of it is minded in fruits rather than in other things. Every
+observant traveler has noted cases in which good results in the
+rearing of plants and animals have been attained in places that no one
+would choose for the purpose: the man has overcome his obstacles. I
+was impressed with this fact in visiting a greenhouse in the Shetland
+Islands. Cultivation has been carried far beyond the optimum regions.
+The merit of the man's performance is measured in the excellence of
+his result rather than in the quantity of it. The application of skill
+is the highest test of ability in plant-growing, and this is often
+expressed in the most difficult places.
+
+Whatever may be the adaptability of any general territory to the
+growing of apples in a large way, the probability is that a man of
+resources and skill will be able to raise good apples for himself,
+unless, of course, the region is prohibitive. The amateur may be a law
+unto himself in many of these matters, delighting in the ingenuity
+that enables him to overcome.
+
+
+
+
+XVI
+
+THE HARVEST OF THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+Finally the apple is ripe, a fair goodly object joyous in the sun,
+inviting to every sense. Hanging amidst its foliage, bending the twig
+with its weight, it is at once a pattern in good shape, perfect in
+configuration, in sheen beyond imitation, in fragrance the very
+affluence of all choice clean growth, its surface spread with a bloom
+often so delicate that the unsympathetic see it not; and yet the rains
+do not spoil it.
+
+The apple must be picked. Do not let it fall. Probably it is over-ripe
+when it falls; the hold is loosened; its time is up. Wormy apples may
+fall before they are ripe; the worm injury, if it begins early, causes
+them to ripen prematurely. A premature apple is not a good apple,
+albeit the small boy relishes it but only because he may get his apple
+earlier; in the apple season, when ripe fruits are abundant, the boy
+does not choose the wormy one.
+
+Pick the apple from the tree. It will do you good. It is ever so much
+better than to pick it from a box on the market or out of a quart-can
+in the ice-chest. You will feel some sense of responsibility when you
+pick it, some reaction of relationship to its origin. We know that we
+understand folks better when we see them at home.
+
+In varieties that mature before winter, the apple is of best quality
+when it ripens on the tree and is picked when fit to eat. In this
+respect it differs from the pear. One reason why store apples are
+usually poor is because they must be picked long before ripe to stand
+shipment. In my experience it is most difficult to find a man who will
+pick apples when ripe; he is usually possessed to pull them green,
+thinking that if the fruit is full grown and has a red cheek it is
+therefore ready to be plucked.
+
+One would expect the best summer and fall apples to come from nearby
+local orchards, but practically this is not the case because the
+grower will not allow them to remain on the tree until they are fit.
+Of course the really ripe apple will not keep long and it does not
+stand rough handling, but this does not affect the fact that, for
+eating, an apple should be naturally ripe. In every city, small or
+large, a good trade can be built up for local ripe hand-picked fruit
+of the first quality, in competition with the best commercial supply.
+
+Winter apples are picked in the Northern States in October, sometimes
+late in September. They are then full grown, but are hard and
+inedible. The red varieties are full colored; the green ones show more
+or less yellow. Light early frost does not injure them on the tree.
+Usually they are placed at first in piles or windrows; and from these
+piles they are barreled or boxed for market. If the choicest grades
+are to be made, they should be taken to a packing-house.
+
+The apple is an easy fruit to pick. The stem parts readily from the
+spur or twig. Yet if the harvester is choice of his trees he will work
+deftly rather than roughly, not to injure the bearing wood. The fruits
+are placed in baskets as they are plucked, sometimes in a bag slung
+over the shoulders but this is not the best way when the apples are
+ripe. In the packing-house, the fruits are sorted into uniform grades
+if they are for market.
+
+The better the trees are tilled, pruned and sprayed, the more uniform
+will be the crop, and particularly if the fruit is thinned on the
+tree; yet the second-class and even cull apples will be many under
+ordinary conditions. The purchaser, noting the price of extra-grade
+apples, may not realize that he buys only the remainder in a long
+process of grading, extending really over the season or even
+throughout the life of the orchard. In all this time, the grower has
+borne the risks of frosts and hail, insect and fungus invasions, lack
+of help, and disastrously low prices. A finished product of high
+quality is always expensive.
+
+The usual apples on the open market are not the kind I have here tried
+to describe. They are the product of indifferent orchards or of
+careless handling. They are purchased for cooking; and the eating of
+apples out of hand because they are attractive and really good is an
+unknown experience with great numbers of our people. The polished
+shiny apples of the fruit-stands are a delusion. The practice of
+burnishing the fruits produces a most inartistic result, destroying
+the natural bloom and violating the appearance of a natural apple. It
+is one thing to clean a fruit if it is soiled (which is seldom the
+case with boxed or barreled apples); it is quite another thing to rub
+and furbish an apple as if it were a billiard ball or glass marble and
+not a living object that grew on a tree,--it sets false standards
+before the children. Yet all this is in line with much of our practice
+whereby, in cookery and manipulation, we disguise our foods and show
+our lack of appreciation of the products themselves.
+
+For home use, winter apples may well be stored in boxes in a cool
+moist cellar if such a place is available. For best results in long
+keeping, the temperature should be maintained below 40 degrees F. In a
+cellar containing a furnace, the fruits shrivel from too much
+evaporation, as also in an attic or other dry room. If the fruit must
+be stored in such places, it is well to keep the box or barrel tightly
+closed, and the individual apples may be wrapped in thin paper.
+
+The apples must be sorted now and then, to remove the decaying ones;
+if the fruit was carefully sprayed, handled and graded in the first
+place and not too ripe, the necessity of frequent sorting will be
+considerably reduced. But in any case, the keeping of apples, except
+under good cold-storage, is at best a process of continually saving
+the most durable fruits. An "outside cellar," if properly ventilated,
+usually is a good place in which to keep apples. With the use of
+furnaces for heating and the cramped quarters of city apartments, the
+keeping of apples for home supply is constantly more difficult.
+
+There is no apple like the one that comes up fresh from the cellar on
+a winter night, cool, crisp, solid yet ready. It is the fruit of the
+home fireside. I often wonder whether one in a hundred of the people
+know what a really good and timely apple is.
+
+The yield of an apple-tree depends on many factors,--age, size,
+thriftiness, care it has received, whether it has escaped frost and
+other injuries; and some varieties are much more prolific than others.
+Some apples are "shy bearers," and for this reason soon are lost to
+propagation unless they have some superlative merit; Yellow
+Bellflower is an example of a shy, or at least an irregular, bearer.
+The great commercial varieties are of course good bearers, as Baldwin,
+Ben Davis, Stayman, York Imperial, Oldenburg, Rome, McIntosh, Wealthy,
+Yellow Transparent, Jonathan.
+
+An apple-tree at full bearing is a wonderful sight at the harvest,
+particularly in such varieties as McIntosh and Baldwin, in which the
+fruit is highly colored and hangs well toward the outside of the
+tree-top. While the first bearing year may yield only a half dozen
+fruits, the crop increases rapidly with the added years,--one peck,
+one bushel, five bushels, ten bushels, thirty bushels, even to sixty
+and seventy bushels on large sturdy old trees of some varieties. The
+amateur, however, first prizes the quality and regularity of his
+product for the sheer joy of it; then every added bushel is so much to
+the good.
+
+
+
+
+XVII
+
+THE APPRAISAL OF THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+Now, therefore, in these sixteen little chapters have I tried to
+explain what I feel about the apple-tree. It is a version to my
+friend, the reader, not a treatise.
+
+As the interpretation is in the realm of the sensibilities, so do I
+aim not directly at concreteness. Yet as it is now the fashion to
+"score" all our products by a scale of "points," I make a reasonable
+concession to it. But I do not like the scoring of the fruit
+independently of the tree on which it grew as if the fruit were only a
+commodity. I know we cannot bring the tree to the exhibition-room, yet
+the perfect measure, nevertheless, is the tree and the fruit together.
+In these later times we have said much against the use of the museum
+specimen to the exclusion of the living object in its natural place:
+let us be cautious, then, that we do not forget apple-trees in our
+studies of apples.
+
+Here I shall not arrange numerical scales of points for the
+apple-tree. Sufficient for this occasion is the naming of the points,
+letting the reader place his own percentage-value on each of them; for
+I am trying to teach, not to instruct.
+
+Yet I must insert, for the reader's benefit, certain good rules and
+scores that have been adopted for the "judging" of the fruit by those
+experienced in these matters. This excellent exercise of judging
+fruits at exhibitions has gained much headway. Students of schools and
+colleges are trained for the "judging teams," and great technical
+perfection has been attained.
+
+To be exact is an exigency of science. I fear that we make exactness
+an end, but that is neither here nor there on this occasion and I
+shall not now pursue the subject further; I hope the judging trains
+the judge to see what he looks at in other things as well as in
+apples, that it leads him into the pleasant paths of causes and
+effects, that it opens the eyes of the blind.
+
+The customary judging of plants and animals and their products
+consists in assessing the attributes against a scale of perfection.
+Thus, if "form" or "conformation" is worth 10 points in the hundred
+(by the estimation of good authorities), the judge must decide whether
+the particular animal before him merits 6 or 7, more or less. So if
+"flavor" in an apple is considered to be worth 20 points of the
+hundred, the judge makes up his mind what rating, within that limit,
+he shall accord to the fruit he is testing. The arrangement in tabular
+form of the features for any product, with the number of points stated
+for each, all summing 100, constitutes a "score-card." Thus there may
+be a score-card for Merino sheep, another for Shropshires, one for
+apples, and for any other objects whatsoever.
+
+At competitive exhibitions, the element of comparison comes in.
+Perhaps it is the only criterion to be considered in a particular
+case,--whether this apple is better than that or than any number of
+others, which of several "plates" or samples of apples merits first
+mention, which of two or more collections of varieties is altogether
+most worthy of a prize. In these cases, the different fruits or
+collections may be scored by the card, and the total footings
+determine where the award shall go. Or, the different entries may be
+judged in general, "by the eye;" this is the usual method, and is
+satisfactory in the hands of persons whose standing and experience
+carry conviction.
+
+If one is to evaluate an apple-tree against a scale or code, these are
+some of the features, in relative order of importance, to be
+considered:
+
+     1. Whether the tree is typical of the variety, in shape,
+     manner of growth, character of foliage and bloom.
+
+     2. Whether it is sound of all injury and disease, and free
+     of blemish.
+
+     3. Whether it is duly vigorous and productive.
+
+     4. Whether its fruit is characteristic of the variety or
+     kind.
+
+     5. Whether the pruning has been good; the thinning; the
+     spraying.
+
+     6. Whether the performance of the tree has fulfilled
+     reasonable expectations.
+
+The judging of fruits is facilitated by such score-cards and
+explanations as the following:
+
+     1. For comparison of different dessert varieties.
+
+Conformation              10
+Size                       5
+Color                     20
+Core                       5
+Uniformity                 5
+Durability (keeping)      10
+Condition                  5
+Freedom from blemish      10
+Quality                   30
+                        ----
+                         100
+
+     2. For comparison of plates or samples of the same variety.
+
+Form                      15
+Size                      15
+Color                     25
+Uniformity                25
+Freedom from blemish      20
+                        ----
+                         100
+
+
+DIRECTIONS FOR JUDGING PLATES OF APPLES IN AN EXHIBITION
+
+Following are directions and explanations issued to judging teams in
+exhibition contests, by an agricultural college:
+
+     (1) _Form_: The shape and conformation of the apples on any
+     one plate should be typical for the variety, the region of
+     growth being somewhat considered. All specimens on a plate
+     should be uniform in shape. When competition is close, a
+     careful comparison of the more minute characteristics of the
+     basin, cavity and stem are made.
+
+     (2) _Size_: The specimens on any one plate should be uniform
+     in size and of the size most acceptable on the market for
+     the variety. A plate may be marked down for being either
+     under or over the accepted commercial size. In many
+     exhibits, the ideal size is given in the premium
+     announcements.
+
+     (3) _Colors_: All specimens in an entry should be uniformly
+     colored in the way that is considered perfect for the
+     variety in the district where grown. In judging color, one
+     should consider (_a_) the depth and attractiveness of the
+     ground color, (_b_) the brightness and attractiveness of the
+     over-color, (_c_) the amount of the over-color. In a yellow
+     or green apple, the yellow or green should be clear and even
+     all over, considering the maturity of the specimen. In
+     varieties that are typically blushed, (e. g., Maiden Blush)
+     the specimens should show a distinct tinge of red on the
+     cheek exposed to the sun. With such apples as Rhode Island
+     Greening, that are only sometimes blushed, the presence or
+     absence of the blush should not detract except that the
+     apples on any one plate should be uniform. With apples
+     typically over-colored, an intense color for the variety is
+     desirable.
+
+     The _bloom_ may be wiped from apples, but in no case should
+     polished specimens be given the preference. Some exhibits
+     have special rules regarding polishing of apples.
+
+     (4) _Conditions_: Refers to the degree of ripeness. An apple
+     to be in perfect condition should be firm for the variety
+     and free from the withering that comes when apples are
+     picked too green or when the fruit is over-ripe or has not
+     been stored properly.
+
+     (5) _Freedom from blemish_: All specimens should be free
+     from blemishes of all kinds. One should look particularly
+     for (_a_) marks of fungous or other disease, including
+     stippin, (_b_) injury from insects of all kinds, (_c_)
+     mechanical injury, including loss of stem. Unmistakable
+     evidence of codlin-moth injury or San José scale should
+     disqualify a plate. Other blemishes are considered important
+     in about the order named: Side worms, scab, stippin,
+     curculio or red-bug, skin punctures, bruises, stem pulled,
+     russet (not typical for variety) and limb rub. The extent of
+     scab spots should be considered. Minute spots are not as
+     serious as some other blemishes, while spots which deform
+     the apple should disqualify the plate.
+
+     _Other information_: Five specimens constitute a plate,
+     except when the rules of the contest or exhibit state
+     otherwise. Any variation from this rule disqualifies the
+     plate.
+
+     When a plate is not labelled with the correct variety name,
+     it should not be judged, but is disqualified and if possible
+     the correct name is applied. If one specimen on a plate is
+     not as labelled, the whole plate is disqualified.
+
+     In some judging contests, the plates are not labelled with
+     the variety name, and the contestant is supposed to make the
+     identification.
+
+     _Precaution_: Avoid pressing the specimens with the thumb
+     and finger so as to bruise the fruit. The degree of firmness
+     can be determined by gentle pressure with the inside of the
+     whole hand.
+
+     Defects, apparent or otherwise, should not be probed with
+     the finger nail, pin, or other hard object.
+
+     Special care should be exercised to replace all specimens on
+     the right plate.
+
+Having in mind these definite criteria, the reader will know what is
+meant by a "good apple" and also a good apple-tree. Measurements of
+perfection aid us to estimate the deficiencies.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+He who knows the apple-tree knows also its region. The landscape is
+his in every blessed year; he sees the chariots of the months come
+down from the distances and pass by him into the twilights. Clouds are
+his and the repeating shadows on the hills. The morning when the
+blossoms are laden with the fragrance of the night, high noon when the
+bees are busy, the gloaming when the birds drop into the boughs, these
+are his by divine right. The smell of new-plowed fields is his, with
+the urgent promise in them. Seed time and harvest, as old as the
+procreant earth and as new as the latest sunrise, are his to conjure.
+The verities are his for the asking, the strong things of cultivated
+fields and of wild places. And mastery is his, that comes of the
+amelioration of the land and the education of the tree. All these are
+everyman's, and yet they are his alone.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+                                 PAGE
+
+Acid phosphate                     45
+
+Age of apple-trees                 98
+
+Alternate bearing                  42
+
+American Pomological Society       66
+
+Apple-scab                         95
+
+Appleseed, Johnny                  61
+
+Arsenate of lead                   95
+
+Australia, Apples in               97
+
+
+Bacteria                           12
+
+Bark of apple-tree                 11
+  of cherry                        11
+  of elm                           11
+  of pear-tree                     11
+
+Bearing year                       42
+
+Black Gilliflower                  73
+
+Bloomless apple                    75
+
+Bolting trees                      88
+
+Bridge-grafting                    88
+
+Brush pile                         27
+
+Budding                        50, 51
+
+Buds                       15, 19, 27
+
+
+Calyx-tube                         26
+
+Canada, apples in                  98
+
+Canker                             12
+
+Cherimoya                           8
+
+Cherry, bark of                    11
+
+Christophine                        8
+
+Cider, treatise on                 62
+
+Cion-grafting                  50, 79
+
+Citrus fruits                       8
+
+Cleft-grafting                     82
+
+Coconut                             8
+
+Codlin-moth                    12, 89
+
+Custard apple                       8
+
+
+Diseases                           46
+
+Distance apart                     43
+
+Double apples                      74
+
+Doucin stocks                      57
+
+Downing, quoted                54, 67
+
+Dwarf apple-trees                  54
+
+
+Elm, bark of                       11
+
+Endicott, Gov.                     61
+
+Enriching the land                 45
+
+Exhibitions                       108
+
+
+Fertilizing                40, 44, 45
+
+Fig                                 8
+
+Flower, structure of               20
+
+Folger and Thomson, quoted         98
+
+Fructicetum                        78
+
+Fruit-spurs and bearing            42
+
+Fungi                              12
+
+
+Girdles                            87
+
+Graftage                       49, 79
+
+Grafts                             81
+
+Guava                               8
+
+
+Harvesting                        102
+
+Hillsides for orchards             44
+
+Hogs in orchards                   45
+
+Hypanthium                         26
+
+
+Insects                        46, 89
+
+
+Judging apples                    108
+
+
+Knots                      11, 85, 87
+
+
+Land for apples                    42
+
+Langley, Batty                     82
+
+Lawson, William                    82
+
+Leaf-arrangement                   29
+
+Lichens                            11
+
+Lime-sulphur                       95
+
+Linnaeus                           62
+
+Lintner, J. A.                     89
+
+
+Malus                              62
+
+Mamone                              8
+
+Mango                               8
+
+Manning, mentioned                 67
+
+M'Mahon, quoted                    66
+
+Medlar                             75
+
+Mending trees                      85
+
+Moench, cited                      75
+
+Mound-layering                     55
+
+Muenchhausen, cited                75
+
+
+Natural trees                      51
+
+New Zealand, apples in             97
+
+Nitrate of soda                    45
+
+
+Origin of apple-tree               60
+
+Ornamental apples                  64
+
+Ovary                              20
+
+
+Paint for wounds                   86
+
+Papaya                              8
+
+Paradise stocks                    57
+
+Parkinson, John                    58
+
+Pasturing                          45
+
+Pear, bark of                      11
+
+Phosphate, acid                    45
+
+Phyllotaxy                         29
+
+Picking apples                    102
+
+Piece-roots                        50
+
+Pistil                         20, 26
+
+Plant-breeder                      51
+
+Planting                       42, 43
+
+Plant-lice                         12
+
+Pollen-tube                        20
+
+Pollination                        40
+
+Pomegranate                         8
+
+Propagation of apple-tree      48, 54
+
+Pruning               36, 40, 86, 104
+
+Pyrus baccata                      63
+  coronaria                        63
+  diocia                           75
+  Ioensis                          63
+  Malus                        62, 63
+  Soulardii                        64
+
+
+Receptacle of flower               26
+
+Regions for apples             97, 99
+
+Repairing trees                    85
+
+Root-grafting                      50
+
+Roots                              43
+
+
+Scale insects                      12
+
+Scale of points                   108
+
+Score-card                        108
+
+Seedless apple                     74
+
+Seedling trees                 48, 51
+
+Seeds, planting                    48
+
+Sharrock, Robert                   81
+
+Sheep in orchards                  45
+
+Sheepnose                          73
+
+Sod in orchards                    44
+
+Soil for apples                    42
+
+Spraying              40, 91, 95, 104
+
+Star-apple                          8
+
+Stigma                             20
+
+Stocks                             49
+
+Storing                           105
+
+Struggle for existence             47
+
+Style                              20
+
+Surgery                            86
+
+Surprise                           73
+
+Sweet-and-Sour                     73
+
+
+Thinning                       38, 39
+
+Thomson and Folger                 98
+
+Tilling               40, 44, 47, 104
+
+Tree surgery                       86
+
+
+Varieties                          66
+  list of                          70
+
+
+Water-core                         74
+
+Whip-graft                         50
+
+Wilder, mentioned                  67
+
+Wormy apples                  89, 102
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Notes
+
+Some illustrations have been moved from their original positions to
+avoid breaking up the text, and to put them in numerical order.
+
+Variations in spelling and punctuation have been retained from the
+original book except for the following changes:
+
+Page 51: Both instances of "varities" changed to "varieties".
+
+Page 74: "occuring" changed to "occurring".
+
+Page 75: "dioecious pyrus" was originally typeset with an oe ligature.
+
+Page 91: "foilage" changed to "foliage".
+
+Page 93: "analagous" changed to "analogous".
+
+Page 94: "or" changed to "nor". "investigatior" changed to
+"investigator".
+
+Page 100: "gravly" changed to "gravelly".
+
+Page 113 (Index): "Appleseed, Johny" changed to "Appleseed, Johnny".
+"Bark of Cheery" changed to "Bark of Cherry".
+
+Page 115 (Index): "Linnæus" changed to "Linnaeus" to match text.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Apple-Tree, by L. H. Bailey
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE APPLE-TREE ***
+
+***** This file should be named 26132-8.txt or 26132-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/2/6/1/3/26132/
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Diane Monico, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images produced by Core Historical
+Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/26132-8.zip b/26132-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c297411
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-8.zip
diff --git a/26132-h.zip b/26132-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b3be40d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-h.zip
diff --git a/26132-h/26132-h.htm b/26132-h/26132-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a24a5ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-h/26132-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,4484 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Apple-Tree, by L. H. Bailey.</title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+/*<![CDATA[  XML blockout */
+<!--
+body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; }
+
+p { margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em; }
+
+h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6
+{
+    text-align: center; /* all headings centered */
+    clear: both;
+}
+
+hr
+{
+    width: 33%;
+    margin-top: 2em;
+    margin-bottom: 2em;
+    margin-left: auto;
+    margin-right: auto;
+    clear: both;
+}
+
+table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;}
+
+.pagenum
+{ /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */
+    /*  visibility: hidden;  */
+    position: absolute;
+    left: 92%;
+    font-size: smaller;
+    text-align: right;
+} /* page numbers */
+
+.blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;}
+
+.center   {text-align: center;}
+.smcap    {font-variant: small-caps;}
+.u        {text-decoration: underline;}
+
+.caption  {font-weight: bold;}
+
+/* Images */
+.figcenter   {margin: auto; text-align: center;}
+
+.figleft
+{
+    float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em;
+    margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;
+}
+
+.figright
+{
+    float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;
+    margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;
+}
+
+// -->
+/* XML end  ]]>*/
+    </style>
+  </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Apple-Tree, by L. H. Bailey
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Apple-Tree
+       The Open Country Books--No. 1
+
+Author: L. H. Bailey
+
+Release Date: July 26, 2008 [EBook #26132]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE APPLE-TREE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Diane Monico, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images produced by Core Historical
+Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a></span></p>
+<h1>THE APPLE-TREE</h1>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="THE_OPEN_COUNTRY_BOOKS" id="THE_OPEN_COUNTRY_BOOKS"></a>THE OPEN COUNTRY BOOKS</h3>
+
+<p class="center">
+A continuing company of genial little books<br />
+about the out-of-doors<br />
+<br />
+Under the editorship of<br />
+L. H. BAILEY<br />
+</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="books">
+<tr><td align='left'>1. The Apple-Tree</td><td align='right'>L. H. Bailey</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2. A Home Vegetable Garden</td><td align='right'>Ella M. Freeman</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3. The Cow</td><td align='right'>Jared Van Wagenen, Jr.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p class="center">Others about weather and the sky, scenery,<br />
+camps, recreation, quadrupeds, fishes, birds,<br />
+insects, reptiles, plants, and the places in the open.<br />
+</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"></a></span></p>
+<h3>The Open Country Books&mdash;No. 1<br />
+<br /></h3>
+<h1>THE APPLE-TREE<br />
+<br /></h1>
+<h3>BY</h3>
+<h2>L. H. BAILEY<br />
+<br /><br /><br /></h2>
+<h4>NEW YORK<br />
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br />
+1922<br /></h4>
+<h6><i>All rights reserved</i><br />
+</h6>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"></a></span></p>
+<p class="center">
+PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1922,<br />
+<span class="smcap">By</span> THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.<br />
+<br />
+Set up and electrotyped. Published January, 1922.<br />
+<br />
+FERRIS PRINTING COMPANY<br />
+NEW YORK<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"></a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="toc">
+<tr><td align='right'>CHAPTER</td><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'> Where There is no Apple-Tree</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'> The Apple-Tree in the Landscape</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'> The Buds on the Twigs</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'> The Weeks Between the Flower and the Fruit</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>V.</td><td align='left'> The Brush Pile</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>VI.</td><td align='left'> The Pruning of the Apple-Tree</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>VII.</td><td align='left'> Maintaining the Health and Energy of the Apple-Tree</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>VIII.</td><td align='left'> How an Apple-Tree is Made</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>IX.</td><td align='left'> The Dwarf Apple-Tree</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>X.</td><td align='left'> Whence Comes the Apple-Tree?</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XI.</td><td align='left'> The Varieties of Apple</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XII.</td><td align='left'> The Pleasant Art of Grafting</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XIII.</td><td align='left'> The Mending of the Apple-Tree</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XIV.</td><td align='left'> Citizens of the Apple-Tree</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XV.</td><td align='left'> The Apple-Tree Regions</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XVI.</td><td align='left'> The Harvest of the Apple-Tree</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XVII.</td><td align='left'> The Appraisal of the Apple-Tree</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a></span></p>
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 442px;">
+<a name="Fig_1" id="Fig_1"></a><img src="images/image001.jpg" width="442" height="580" alt="1. The home apple-tree" title="1. The home apple-tree" />
+<span class="caption">1. The home apple-tree</span>
+</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h1>THE APPLE-TREE</h1>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>I</h2>
+
+<h2>WHERE THERE IS NO APPLE-TREE</h2>
+
+
+<p>The wind is snapping in the bamboos, knocking together
+the resonant canes and weaving the myriad flexile
+wreaths above them. The palm heads rustle with a brisk
+crinkling music. Great ferns stand in the edge of the
+forest, and giant arums cling their arms about the trunks
+of trees and rear their dim jacks-in-the-pulpit far in the
+branches; and in the greater distance I know that green
+parrots are flying in twos from tree to tree. The plant
+forms are strange and various, making mosaic of contrasting
+range of leaf-size and leaf-shape, palm and grass
+and fern, epiphyte and liana and clumpy mistletoe, of
+grace and clumsiness and even misproportion, a tall thick
+landscape all mingled into a symmetry of disorder that
+charms the attention and fascinates the eye.</p>
+
+<p>It is a soft and delicious air wherein I sit. A torrid
+drowse is in the receding landscape. The people move
+leisurely, as befits the world where there is no preparation
+for frost and no urgent need of laborious apparel.
+There are tardy bullock-carts, unconscious donkeys, and
+men pushing vehicles. There are odd products and unaccustomed
+cakes and cookies on little stands by the
+roadside, where the turbaned vendor sits on the ground
+unconcernedly.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There are strange fruits in the carts, on the donkeys
+that move down the hillsides from distant plantations in
+the heart of the jungle, on the trees by winding road and
+thatched cottage, in the great crowded markets in the
+city. I recognize coconuts and mangoes, star-apples and
+custard-apples and cherimoyas, papayas, guavas, mamones,
+pomegranates, figs, christophines, and the varied
+range of citrus fruits. There are also great polished
+apples in the markets, coming from cooler regions, tied
+by their stems, good to look at but impossible to relish;
+and I understand how these people of the tropics think
+the apple an inferior fruit, so successfully do the poor
+varieties stop the desire for more. There are vegetables
+I have never seen before.</p>
+
+<p>I am conscious of a slowly moving landscape with
+people and birds and beasts of burden and windy vegetation,
+of prospects in which there are no broad smooth
+farm fields with fences dividing them, of scenery full of
+herbage, in which every lineament and action incite me
+and stimulate my desire for more, of days that end suddenly
+in the blackness of night.</p>
+
+<p>Yet, somehow, I look forward to the time when I may
+go to a more accustomed place. Either from long association
+with other scenes or because of some inexpressible
+deficiency in this tropic splendor, I am not satisfied
+even though I am exuberantly entertained. Something
+I miss. For weeks I wondered what single element I
+missed most. Out of the numberless associations of
+childhood and youth and eager manhood it is difficult to
+choose one that is missed more than another. Yet one
+day it came over me startlingly that I missed the apple-tree,&mdash;the
+apple-tree, the sheep, and the milch cattle!<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The farm home with its commodious house, its
+greensward, its great barn and soft fields and distant
+woods, and the apple-tree by the wood-shed; the good
+home at the end of the village with its sward and shrubbery,
+and apple roof-tree; the orchard, well kept, trim
+and apple-green, yielding its wagon-loads of fruits; the
+old tree on the hillside, in the pasture where generations
+of men have come and gone and where houses have
+fallen to decay; the odor of the apples in the cellar in
+the cold winter night; the feasts around the fireside,&mdash;I
+think all these pictures conjure themselves in my mind
+to tantalize me of home.</p>
+
+<p>And often in my wanderings I promise myself that
+when I reach home I shall see the apple-tree as I had
+never seen it before. Even its bark and its gnarly trunk
+will hold converse with me, and its first tiny leaves of
+the budding spring will herald me a welcome. Once
+again I shall be a youth with the apple-tree, but feeling
+more than the turbulent affection of transient youth can
+understand. Life does not seem regular and established
+when there is no apple-tree in the yard and about the
+buildings, no orchards blooming in the May and laden
+in the September, no baskets heaped with the crisp
+smooth fruits; without all these I am still a foreigner,
+sojourning in a strange land.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>II</h2>
+
+<h2>THE APPLE-TREE IN THE LANDSCAPE</h2>
+
+
+<p>The April sun is soft on the broad open fenced fields,
+waking them gently from the long deep sleep of winter.
+Little rills are running full. The grass is newly coolly
+green. Fresh sprouts are in the sod. By copse and highway
+the shad-bushes salute with their handkerchiefs.
+Apple-trees show tips of verdure. It is good to see the
+early greens of changing spring. It is good to look
+abroad on an apple-tree landscape.</p>
+
+<p>As to its vegetation, the landscape is low and flat, not
+tall. There is a vast uniformity in plant forms, a subdued
+and constrained humility. A month later the leafage
+will be in glory, but that also will have an aspect of
+sameness and moderation. Perhaps the actual variety
+of species will be greater than in many parts of the
+abounding tropics, and to the careful observer the luxuriance
+will be as great, although not so big; but as I
+look abroad I am impressed with the economy of the
+prospect. It comes nearer to my powers of assimilation,
+quiets me with a deep satisfaction; the contrasts are subdued,
+the processes grade into each other imperceptibly
+in the land of the lingering twilight.</p>
+
+<p>In this prospect are maples and elms and apple-trees.
+The maples and elms are of the fields and roadsides. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+apple-trees are of human habitations and human labor;
+they cluster about the buildings, or stand guard at a
+gate; they are in plantations made by hands. As I see
+them again, I wonder whether any other plant is so characteristically
+a home-tree.</p>
+
+<p>So is the apple-tree, even when full grown, within the
+reach of children. It can be climbed. Little swings are
+hung from the branches. Its shade is low and familiar.
+It bestows its fruit liberally to all alike.</p>
+
+<p>The apple is a sturdy tree. Short of trunk and short
+of continuous limb, it is yet a stout and rugged object,
+the indirectness of its branching branches adding to its
+picturesque quality. It is a tree of good structure. Although
+its limbs eventually arch to the ground, if left
+to themselves, they yet have great strength. The angularity
+of the branching, the frequent forking, the big healing
+or hollow knots with rounding callus-lips, give the
+tree character. Anywhere it would be a marked tree,
+unlike any other.</p>
+
+<p>The bark on the older surface sheds in short oblong
+irregular scales or plates that detach perhaps at both ends
+and often at the sides, clinging by the middle until the
+curl loosens them and they fall to the ground. These
+plates or chips are more or less rowed up and down the
+trunk and on the larger branches, yet the apple bark is
+not ridged and furrowed as on the elm. The bark is not
+checked in squares as on old pear-trees nor peeling as
+on cherries. In dry weather, the loose old bark is dark
+brown-gray, often supporting gray lichens, but in rain
+it is soft and nearly black, yielding pleasantly to the
+touch. In the forks, the bark is not so readily cast and
+there the chips may lie in heaps. On the young limbs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+and small trunks the bark is tight and close, not splitting
+into seams or furrows with the expansion of the cylinder
+but stretching and throwing off detached flakes and chips.
+Under the chips various insects hide or make some of
+their transformations. There the codlin-moth pupates.
+The old remains of scale insects may be found on the exterior.
+In the furrows about the dormant buds the eggs
+of plant-lice pass the winter.</p>
+
+<p>To destroy these breeding and hiding places, many
+careful apple-growers scrape away the loose bark, being
+careful not to expose the quick living tissue; and on the
+younger wood the eggs of aphis and other pests, as well
+as cocoons and nymphs, are destroyed by vigorous winter
+spraying. The regular spraying of apple-trees, in the
+different seasons, more or less sterilizes the bark. Many
+forms of canker, due to fungi and bacteria, invade the
+bark, making sunken areas and scars, often so serious
+as to destroy the tree. All these features are discoverable
+in the apple-tree.</p>
+
+<p>The trunk of the apple-tree is short and stout, usually
+not perfectly cylindrical and not prominently buttressed
+at the base. In old trees it is usually ribbed or ridged,
+sometimes tortuous with spiral-like grooves, often showing
+the bulge where the graft was set. The wood is fine-grained
+and of good color, and lends itself well to certain
+kinds of cabinet work and to the turning-lathe for household
+objects; it should be better known.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 424px;">
+<a name="Fig_2" id="Fig_2"></a><img src="images/image002.jpg" width="424" height="580" alt="2. The apple-tree in the landscape" title="2. The apple-tree in the landscape" />
+<span class="caption">2. The apple-tree in the landscape</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>If left to itself, the tree branches near the ground,
+making many strong secondary scaffold trunks; but the
+plant does not habitually have more than one bole, even
+though it may branch from the very base; it is a real tree,
+even though small, and not a huge shrub. In the natural<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
+condition, the trunk often rises only a foot or two before
+it is lost in the branches; at other times it may be four
+or six feet high. Under cultivation, the lowest branches
+are usually removed when the tree begins to grow, and
+an evident clean trunk is produced. In Europe and the
+Eastern States, it has been the practice to trim the trunk
+clean to the height of four or six feet; but in hotter and
+drier regions the trunk is kept short to insure against
+sun-scald; and with the better tillage implements of the
+present day it may not be necessary to train the heads so
+high.</p>
+
+<p>In old hill pastures, in many parts of the North, one
+sees curious umbrella forms and other shapes of apple-trees,
+due to browsing by cattle. A little tree gets a start
+in the pasture. When cattle are turned in, they browse
+the tender terminal growth. The plant spreads at the
+base, in a horizontal direction. With the repeated browsing
+on top, the tree becomes a dense conical mound.
+Eventually, the leader may get a strong headway, and
+grows beyond the reach of the browsers. As it rises out
+of grasp, it sends off its side shoots, forming a head. The
+cattle browse the under side of this head, as far as they
+are able to reach, causing the tree to assume a grotesque
+hour-glass shape, flat on the under part of the head, with
+a cone of green herbage at the ground. Sometimes pastures
+are full of little hummocks of trees that have not
+yet been able to overtop the grazers.</p>
+
+<p>The winter apple-tree in the free is a reassuring object.
+It has none of the sleekness of many horticultural forms,
+nor the fragility of peaches, sour cherries and plums. It
+stands boldly against the sky, with its elbows at all angles
+and its scaly bark holding the snow. Against evergreens<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+it shows its ruggedness specially well. It presents forms
+to attract the artist. Even when gnarly and broken, it
+does not convey an impression of decrepitude and decay
+but rather of a hardy old character bearing his burdens.
+In every winter landscape I look instinctively for the
+apple-tree.</p>
+
+<p>We are so accustomed to the apple-tree as a part of an
+orchard, where it is trimmed into shape and its bolder
+irregularities controlled, that we do not think it has
+beauty when left to itself to grow as it will. An apple-tree
+that takes its own course, as does a pine-tree or an
+oak, is looked on as unkempt and unprofitable and as a
+sorry object in the landscape, advertizing the neglect of
+the owner. Yet if the apple-tree had never borne good
+fruit, we should plant it for its bloom and its picturesqueness
+as we plant a hawthorn or a locust-tree.</p>
+
+<p>In winter and in summer, and in the months between,
+my apple-tree is a great fact. It is a character in the
+population of my scenery, standing for certain human
+emotions. The tree is a living thing, not merely a something
+that bears apples.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>III</h2>
+
+<h2>THE BUDS ON THE TWIGS</h2>
+
+
+<p>Now the buds begin to break. The firm winter-buds
+swell. Their scales part. Tips of green appear. Tiny
+leaves come forth, neatly rolled inward, growing as they
+expand, the stalks lengthening. Resurrection is astir in
+the tree.</p>
+
+<p>Several leaves issue from every bud. From some buds
+arise only leaves; from others a flower-cluster emerges
+from the leaf-rosette, showing faint color even before it
+expands. Very close together and tight these unopened
+little flowers are packed as they emerge; if we had looked
+at them with a lens as they lay in the bud in the long
+winter we should understand why; now they escape their
+bonds and rapidly grow as they are delivered, yet at first
+pressed together by head and stem in their soft gray
+wool.</p>
+
+<p>Thus are there two kinds of buds on the twig of the
+bearing apple-tree,&mdash;the leaf-buds (sending forth leaves
+only), and the flower-buds (bearing both leaves and
+flowers). And if we wish to analyze more closely, we
+discover two kinds of leaf-buds,&mdash;those that send forth
+a rapidly growing shoot bearing the leaves, and those
+from which the leaf-cluster remains practically sessile
+on the branch. These latter, or the strongest and best of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
+them, will probably give rise to short fruiting spurs and
+the others to elongated leafy branches.</p>
+
+<p>Before me as I write is an apple limb more than three
+feet long. It has been a vigorous grower, for it is only
+three years old. The years can be readily made out;
+there are two sets of "rings" separating them. You may
+see these rings on all young apple limbs. They represent
+the scars of the scales of the past terminal buds.</p>
+
+<p>Three years ago my shoot was sent off from its parent
+branch; that year it grew but four inches, bearing leaves
+on its sides, in the axils of which developed buds for the
+winter and at the end a larger terminal bud. Let us call
+this shoot 1918. Two years ago (1919), whilst I was in
+a distant land, the terminal bud gave rise to a shoot nineteen
+inches long; two buds near the end of the 1918 shoot
+pushed out clusters of leaves and made spurs about one-half
+inch long; all the other buds, five in number, remained
+dormant, and now they are dead and are rapidly
+becoming mere scars. Last year (1920) the terminal bud
+of 1919 gave rise to a shoot fifteen inches long; three
+buds at the base of this two-year (1919) shoot remained
+dormant; fourteen buds produced spurs. It is now the
+spring of 1921; the 1920 shoot has four dormant buds at
+its base, ten rosettes of leaves from the other buds, and
+a pushing terminal shoot.</p>
+
+<p>On my branch this year, therefore, are 5 plus 3 plus 4,
+or 12 dormant buds of all the years; 2 plus 14 plus 10, or
+26 spurs; 1 terminal bud continuing the onward growth.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 417px;">
+<a name="Fig_3" id="Fig_3"></a><img src="images/image003.jpg" width="417" height="580" alt="3. The bloom of the apple-tree" title="3. The bloom of the apple-tree" />
+<span class="caption">3. The bloom of the apple-tree</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that the last two years were good ones
+for my apple limb, for the growths were long (19 and
+15 inches) and most of the buds produced spurs. The
+result is evidenced also in the fact that the limb is this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+year laden with potential bloom. On 1918 the two spurs
+bear flowers, one of them only a single bloom and the
+other five blooms. On 1919 twelve of the fourteen spurs
+are bearing flowers in the following numbers: 5 flowers,
+5, 5, 7, 5, 6, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 = 63 flowers. On 1920 are no
+spurs bearing flowers, but the terminal bud (as is
+frequent on vigorous young trees) bears five flowers.
+Here, therefore, on this yard of three-year-old twig are
+seventy-four blossoms.</p>
+
+<p>But there will not be seventy-four fruits; some of the
+flowers are small and weak; others, as the petals fall,
+show unmistakable signs of failing. A few of them show
+the plump form of an embryo apple: I think there are
+a score of such promises. But I know that others will
+fail later from physiological causes, and others probably
+from onslaught of insects or disease or from accidents.
+If six fair fruits mature on a branch like this, the crop
+will be good; and probably the branch would not have
+vigor enough to set as many fruit-buds the following
+year or to bear as many fruits.</p>
+
+<p>It is good to watch the opening of the apple bloom:
+pink buds swelling and puffing out each day, the woolly
+stems elongating, the five overlapping incurving petals
+spreading and growing big, the stamens, about twenty,
+straightening up and lengthening their filaments that are
+attached on the flower-rim; the big light yellow anthers
+shedding pollen; the five green styles in the center. In
+some flowers the styles do not develop, and we have one
+reason why many flowers are sterile.</p>
+
+<p>The flower-clusters differ much among themselves,
+in size of parts, number of flowers, color; on some trees
+the flowers appear in advance of most of the leafage, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+usually they are coincident with the leaves. Sometimes
+the flower-stems or peduncles are branched, bearing two
+or three flowers, and in that case there may be a small
+green leaf or bract where the fork arises. The placing
+of the petals in the bud at the epoch of expansion may
+differ in two flowers on the same tree. One petal may
+stand guard outside the others and free from them, both
+edges uncovered, while the remaining petals are spiral
+with one edge under and one edge over; or there may
+be two guard petals, one on either side; or sometimes
+all the petals may be spiral, one margin out, one margin
+in; in some cases all the petals stand free as the flower
+is expanding, with no margin interlapping. Sometimes
+one petal is missing, and again the petals may be six.</p>
+
+<p>This infinite variety within the bonds of so great
+regularity lends a subtle charm to natural objects, that
+is wholly absent in man's perfected machine-work. Man
+aims at uniformity, two and two alike; nature aims at
+endless difference, every object or even every member
+of an object having its own character. Much of man's
+energy is expended in trying to overcome the diverseness
+of nature.</p>
+
+<p>Gradually and slowly the flower balloons enlarge and
+puff themselves up, the petals standing together at their
+tips; all the variety is united into a harmony of exuberance,
+color and form; then one day there is a shower
+of genial rain, a warm sun, birds in the air, bees released,
+grasses soft and lush, and behold! the apple-tree is in
+bloom,&mdash;a great heavenly mound of white and pink exhaling
+a faint delicious breath. Then the pulses stir,
+the dogs bark at the edges of the wood, the fields call,
+the scented winds lead on forever.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV</h2>
+
+<h2>THE WEEKS BETWEEN THE FLOWER AND THE FRUIT</h2>
+
+
+<p>The petals expand broadly, usually losing most of
+their pink. The blade is oblong and rounded at the end,
+at first cupped and then nearly flat, three-fourths of an
+inch long, narrowed at the base into a short stem-like
+part and usually hairy there, the edges perhaps wavy
+but entire. The expanse of the flower may be one and
+one-half to two inches. The brush of stamens, erect in
+the center, sheds its pollen and the anthers collapse.</p>
+
+<p>Then the petals fall, like flakes of snow, borne often
+by the wind. There remain the stout woolly flower-stems
+an inch or more long and bearing minute dry
+bracts, with the young fruit at the summit topped by
+the five recurving woolly sepals and the pencil of stamens
+and styles. The bloom being gone, the flowering system
+of the apple is thenceforth little observed. Not until the
+fruit begins to color do we come back to the apple-tree
+to look at it closely; yet in these intervening weeks some
+of the most interesting transformations take place, and
+on the exact observance of them depends to a large
+extent one's success in the rearing and saving of a good
+crop of apples.</p>
+
+<p>Here is the flower of the apple-tree (Fig. <a href="#Fig_3">3</a>). It is a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+comely blossom, fragrant and pinky white, flatly spread
+to the sky, carrying the spirit of the cool of the spring.
+What concerns us now, however, is the cluster of stamens
+and pistils in the center, for these organs are directly
+concerned in the production of the fruit. The petals soon
+fall, but the remains of these interior organs persist,
+even unto the ripening of the fruit.</p>
+
+<p>The anther is attached at the back of its base or
+middle to the top of the filament in the suture separating
+the two large cells. These anther-cells split along the
+outer margins, releasing the pollen-grains.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
+<a name="Fig_4" id="Fig_4"></a><img src="images/image004.png" width="200" height="245" alt="4. Longitudinal
+section of the flower." title="4. Longitudinal
+section of the flower." />
+<span class="caption">4. Longitudinal
+section of the flower.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the center of the ring of stamens are the five style-branches,
+which are united at the base into a short hairy
+column; the column is borne on the ovary, which is
+sunken deep into the receptacle or
+stem (Fig. <a href="#Fig_4">4</a>). It is down these
+style-branches that the pollen-tube
+passes on its way to the ovules or
+embryo seeds. The top of the style
+is expanded into a cupped stigma
+on which are many glutinous points.
+One can observe the browning and
+ripening of the stigma after pollen
+has been deposited by wind, bees
+or other agencies. When the ovules
+are fertilized, the forming fruit enlarges
+regularly unless it meets with misfortune or is
+crowded out for lack of room and nourishment.</p>
+
+<p>If one cuts across the ovary or embryo fruit below
+the recurving sepals, one will see under a lens that it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+neatly five-celled (Fig. <a href="#Fig_5">5</a>). In each cell
+are two ovules; these, if all goes well,
+will ripen into ten seeds. These five
+cells comprise most of the diameter in
+the cross-section: but as the ovary enlarges
+and the young fruit grows, one
+may see that the inner part comprising
+the cells begins to have a character of its own and to be
+differentiated from the surrounding flesh.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<a name="Fig_5" id="Fig_5"></a><img src="images/image005.png" width="200" height="176" alt="5. Cross-section of the ovary." title="5. Cross-section of the ovary." />
+<span class="caption">5. Cross-section of the ovary.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The "blossom" falls. In reality only the petals fall.
+What is left is well shown in Fig. <a href="#Fig_6">6</a>. Here remain the
+upstanding stamens with the empty anthers, and in the
+center one could see the five styles if the specimen were
+in hand. Here also are the calyx-lobes, widely spreading
+and even recurved. The photograph for Fig. 6 was taken
+May 3. On May 17 another cluster was photographed
+from the same tree (Fig. <a href="#Fig_7">7</a>). Three of the flowers have
+produced sturdy young apples. The stems or pedicels
+have become stouter, and they begin to spread. Note
+that the calyx now is closed, the old stamens protruding,
+a circumstance that will have special significance when
+we become acquainted with the codlin-moth. Note also
+that one flower has failed, and remains as it was two
+weeks earlier; it will soon fall. The young apples begin
+to take shape. They show a glow of red on the cheek.
+They are fuzzy all over. One of them is already injured
+on one side, having been stung by a curculio or other
+insect: there are keen senses about the apple-tree.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 590px;">
+<a name="Fig_6" id="Fig_6"></a><img src="images/image006.jpg" width="590" height="394" alt="6. May 3&mdash;When the petals have fallen" title="6. May 3&mdash;When the petals have fallen" />
+<span class="caption">6. May 3&mdash;When the petals have fallen<br /><br /></span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_7" id="Fig_7"></a><img src="images/image007.jpg" width="600" height="368" alt="7. May 17&mdash;When the young fruits begin to show" title="7. May 17&mdash;When the young fruits begin to show" />
+<span class="caption">7. May 17&mdash;When the young fruits begin to show<br /><br /></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>Two weeks later (May 31) still another cluster was
+taken from the same tree (Fig. <a href="#Fig_8">8</a>). Here are three fruits
+erect on their stems; one of them is more than an inch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+in diameter either way, sturdy and unblemished; another
+shows deformity due to insect puncture; the third remains
+small and presently will drop. A scar in the leaf-axil
+marks the failure of another flower. Four blossoms
+were in this cluster, but only one fruit now has a chance
+to come to uninjured maturity, and two have already
+failed. The big apple has now lost most of its fuzziness
+and begins to assume a delicate "bloom" on its surface;
+the smallest one&mdash;the one that soon will perish&mdash;still
+holds some of its fuzz. A section of this smallest fruit
+discloses empty cells; apparently it was not fertilized.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_8" id="Fig_8"></a><img src="images/image008.jpg" width="600" height="365" alt="8. May 31&mdash;The success and failure" title="8. May 31&mdash;The success and failure" />
+<span class="caption">8. May 31&mdash;The success and failure<br /><br /></span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_9" id="Fig_9"></a><img src="images/image009.jpg" width="600" height="403" alt="9. June 14&mdash;The one big apple" title="9. June 14&mdash;The one big apple" />
+<span class="caption">9. June 14&mdash;The one big apple<br /><br /></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>Another two weeks have passed. It is June 14th.
+From the same tree is taken the photograph, Fig. <a href="#Fig_9">9</a>.
+Here is a big apple, 1-1/2 inch in diameter; and there is a
+dead shrivelled fruit that dropped when I touched it. Of
+the several flowers in the cluster, all have failed but one.
+This one fruit has now passed the danger of the blossom-end
+infection by the codlin-moth and it has no blemishes.
+The many whitish spots characteristic of the variety are
+now conspicuous all over the surface. The ribs begin to
+show. There is a faint blush on the upper side. The
+fuzz has disappeared and the bloom is becoming evident.
+The calyx is tightly closed, although the tips of the sepals
+are spread widely. The stem is stout. The weight of
+the apple inclines it nearly to the horizontal. Yet this
+good apple is not symmetrical; one side is larger than
+the other. I cut it crosswise and find two cells on the
+larger side developing two strong seeds each, whilst
+those on the smaller side have a single seed each and
+one of these seeds is small and perhaps would not have
+matured. The fleshy part of the apple, outside the core,
+now occupies about as much of the diameter as the core<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+itself and much more than one-half the bulk of the fruit.
+Already my apple, now half grown, shows many of its
+distinctive characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>Yet another fortnight has come and gone, and it is
+June 28th. It has been good "growing weather." Summer
+is here, full-orbed, regal, bringing the abundance of
+the earth. Here are two stout apples hanging on their
+stems (Fig. <a href="#Fig_10">10</a>), for they are now too heavy to be held
+erect. The larger fruit is a trifle more than two
+inches in diameter. The feature spots are now still more
+prominent on these apples, the ribs more pronounced,
+the blush against the sun more warm. Both these fruits,
+from one spur, will mature; but the smaller one will be
+blemished, for the apple-scab fungus has established itself
+on the crown and about the calyx. Already the
+growth is checked in that area, and the apple looks
+flattened. There is no evidence in either apple of codlin-moth
+invasion. The adjoining spur, not clearly shown in
+the photograph, is barren; it gave no flowers this year,
+and it shows no indication of a blossom-bud for next
+year. The leaves are thick and vigorous, yet they bear
+marks of insect injury and one of them has been extensively
+skeletonized. On the whole, however, the fruits
+have the mastery, and they now make a brave show.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 580px;">
+<a name="Fig_10" id="Fig_10"></a><img src="images/image010.jpg" width="580" height="444" alt="10. June 28, and the apples have taken their form" title="10. June 28, and the apples have taken their form" />
+<span class="caption">10. June 28, and the apples have taken their form<br /><br /></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>July has passed this way. Tomorrow it will be
+August. The odor of apples is now in my tree. There
+are big striped apples on the ground, plucked by the
+wind, the hold loosened by bugs for they too have felt
+the fullness of July. Three apples, one of them three
+inches through and two and one-half inches high, and
+the others nearly as big, hang at the level of my eyes.
+You may see them in Fig. <a href="#Fig_11">11</a>. Here rises again my boyhood<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+spent in an orchard now passed away, as father
+and mother have passed, as playmates have fallen one
+by one, the old place holding only memories. Here is
+my boyhood because the earth is always young and
+repeats her miracles for the children by my side as it did
+for me so many many years ago. Yet the miracles are
+greater now than they were then. They have more
+meaning. Now are they part of some great order. They
+are not separate. Without moving my feet, I lay my
+hands on apples, Virginia creeper, asparagus, marigold,
+sweet sultan, oxalis, plantain, crab-grass, white clover,
+all growing securely in one place, and everyone like unto
+itself alone. Here is the everlasting miracle before my
+eyes, and all miracles are mysteries. Once I thought I
+should understand such things when I was "grown up,"
+but I find myself still a boy.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_11" id="Fig_11"></a><img src="images/image011.jpg" width="600" height="416" alt="11. July 31, and the apples are getting ripe" title="11. July 31, and the apples are getting ripe" />
+<span class="caption">11. July 31, and the apples are getting ripe<br /><br /></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>These three apples on the last of the days of July
+look fair and sound, partly hidden in the leaves, the deep
+red colors covering them in broad splashed stripes and
+relieved by light dots. Yet when I raise the leaves or
+when I lift the apples apart, I find the burrows of insects.
+They know that these apples are good. It is astonishing
+how nature covers up the wounds, how she conceals the
+sore places, and how fair she makes everything look.
+Were it not that she covers the depredations of man, the
+earth would not long remain habitable by him.</p>
+
+<p>Summer is ended. Today the sun is on the equator,
+and we are at the equinox when nights are equal to the
+days, as the word testifies. The harvest is over. The
+apples are no more. Yet the tree still is active and preparing
+for another year (Fig. <a href="#Fig_12">12</a>). The spurs are now
+thick and stout, bearing sturdy hard leaves. The bud in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+the center is a big one, already recognized as a fruit-bud:
+here is the promise of speckled, furrowed, striped apples
+next August. Thereby I learn that it is not enough to
+be good to the tree in the year in which I desire its fruit:
+I must begin the year before, and the year before that,
+and even back at the time when the tree is planted; and
+if the tree at planting-time is not a good tree, it will be
+at a disadvantage perhaps all its life long.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_12" id="Fig_12"></a><img src="images/image012.jpg" width="600" height="344" alt="12. September 22, and the buds are formed for the next year&#39;s crop" title="12. September 22, and the buds are formed for the next year&#39;s crop" />
+<span class="caption">12. September 22, and the buds are formed for the next year&#39;s crop<br /><br /></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>Finally the apple is ripe and ready. At the stem end
+is the "cavity," a depression, deep or shallow, according
+to variety, in which the stem is set. At the blossom end
+is the "basin," also with the characteristics of the variety
+as to depth and width and contour, in which the calyx-lobes
+persist, and inside the calyx are the remains of
+the dead stamens and styles; the calyx may be "closed"
+or "open," the character being a mark of the particular
+variety.</p>
+
+<p>Cut the apple through the center lengthwise (Fig. <a href="#Fig_13">13</a>);
+note the curved outline of the core (the pistil) extending
+half or more across the fruit; if you do not see this outline,
+cut an apple until you do; carefully open the five
+cells or compartments and within the parchment walls
+find the two seeds attached by their points which are
+directed toward the stem end; perhaps one of the seeds
+has failed, but probably a cavity marks its place; perhaps
+both seeds have failed; perhaps the cell has more than
+two seeds.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_13" id="Fig_13"></a><img src="images/image013.jpg" width="600" height="432" alt="13. The apples in section" title="13. The apples in section" />
+<span class="caption">13. The apples in section<br /><br /></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>Cut an apple cross-wise: note the five radiating cells
+of the core, the number and attachment of the seeds;
+note the ten points, imbedded in the flesh, marking the
+outline of the core. Cut an apple cross-wise above the
+core and beneath it; note where these points vanish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+and try to harmonize them with the core-outline as seen
+in the lengthwise section; probably you will discover
+why you may not see the core-outline in all the lengthwise
+sections you make. Before you leave the fruit, note
+whether single seeds in a cell are the same shape as the
+two seeds in a cell.</p>
+
+<p>The flesh outside the core-outline is interpreted to be
+stem structure rather than pistil structure. Sometimes
+an apple bears a scale-like leaf on its exterior, suggesting
+that the outer part of the fruit is stem. The older morphologists
+interpreted the apple flower to comprise a hollowed
+calyx (calyx-tube) inside which is the pistil and
+on the rim of which are the petals and stamens. The
+structure now is regarded as a hollowed receptacle or
+stem (hypanthium), with the pistil inside, the petals and
+stamens on its rim. We noted in the flower that the
+ovary part of the pistil is solidly imbedded in this receptacle,
+but that the five styles are free. The pear and
+quince are of similar structure, but the peach, plum and
+cherry are simple ripened pistils.</p>
+
+<p>Here, in this chapter, we have discovered some of the
+epochs in the life of the apple. Usually we let the imagination
+run only to the mature fruit, thinking of the harvest,
+but in all the weeks before the harvest the apple
+has been growing and taking form. As these weeks
+have not been blank to the apple-tree, so shall they not
+be blank to me.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="V" id="V"></a>V</h2>
+
+<h2>THE BRUSH PILE</h2>
+
+
+<p>Today I visited the brush pile back of the orchard.
+Here the trimmings of the winter are placed, waiting to
+be burned when dry. How many are the archives that
+will be destroyed! Here are histories in every bud and
+twig and scar, of the seasons, of the accidents and deaths,
+the records of the tree as there are records of families.</p>
+
+<p>These records are not written in numbers or in letters,
+nor yet in hieroglyphs; yet are they understandable.
+Alphabet is not needed, and the key is simple.</p>
+
+<p>From the brush pile of records I took one. I must
+describe it in part by a picture (Fig. <a href="#Fig_14">14</a>). On the living
+trees at this writing the petals mostly have fallen and the
+leaves are nearly full grown. This branch was cut in
+winter. It has lain in the snow and rain, putting forth
+no flowers or leaves. Yet we can read it.</p>
+
+<p>It is May, 1921. The terminal shoot is obviously of
+1920; we shall name it No. 1. It is a foot long, smooth
+and glossy, terminating at the base (<i>o</i>) in a "ring" and at
+a short stub or branchlet. If we count the buds on all
+sides of the shoot and at the tip we find them to be 13.
+The largest one is at the tip, and they are mostly successively
+smaller toward the base. Apparently the
+growth-energy was expended in the upper parts of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+twig, making large full buds. In fact, the three or four
+lowermost buds are scarcely developed and would not
+grow unless the limb were broken off above them; they
+are dormant buds.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 526px;">
+<a name="Fig_14" id="Fig_14"></a><img src="images/image014.png" width="526" height="580" alt="14. A three-year record.&mdash;In a leisure hour, trace the history of these parts; it will open your eyes." title="14. A three-year record.&mdash;In a leisure hour, trace the history of these parts; it will open your eyes." />
+<span class="caption">14. A three-year record.&mdash;In a leisure hour, trace the history of these parts; it will open your eyes.<br /><br /></span>
+</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p>
+<p>Looking along the shoot, I find that every six buds
+stand in the same line: the sixth bud is over the first,
+seventh over the second, eighth over the third. If I
+were to fasten a string to bud No. 1 and wind it around
+the stem to my left, passing over every bud until I had
+reached the sixth, I should find that it had made two circuits
+of the stem (passed twice around it) and had passed
+over five spaces between buds. This is the leaf-arrangement
+or phyllotaxy of the apple-tree, expressed by the
+fraction 2/5. The space between two buds is two-fifths
+of a diameter, and two circuits (ten-fifths) must be
+passed before a bud comes over the one from which we
+started. The 2/5 leaf-arrangement obtains on cherry,
+peach, apricot, pear, raspberry and many others; but a
+very different order is that of the linden, grape, currant,
+lilies, elm, maple.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot understand this simple unbranched terminal
+twig (No. 1) until we know what took place last
+year. A year ago, in the spring of 1920, a terminal bud
+that had formed in 1919 expanded and gave rise to this
+rapidly growing shoot. By the end of May or early June
+this shoot had grown to twelve inches long, for the
+growth in length on the twigs of trees is usually completed
+that early. This shoot bore leaves on the 2/5 arrangement;
+in the axil of every leaf was a bud, the
+strongest buds being with the strongest leaves at the
+middle and top of the shoot; in the autumn of 1920 these
+leaves fell, but the buds remained, persisted the winter,
+and were ready to "grow" in the early spring of 1921.
+We see them on No. 1 (Fig. <a href="#Fig_14">14</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 407px;">
+<a name="Fig_15" id="Fig_15"></a><img src="images/image015.png" width="407" height="580" alt="15. The growing shoot, with a bud in each axil, and a spur on last year&#39;s growth." title="15. The growing shoot, with a bud in each axil, and a spur on last year&#39;s growth." />
+<span class="caption">15. The growing shoot, with a bud in each axil, and a spur on last year&#39;s growth.<br /><br /></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>In 1921 these buds on No. 1, then, would have grown.
+New leaves would have come from the bud itself; in fact,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+the winter buds of the apple are packed with miniature
+leaves and sometimes with flowers as well. The shoot coming
+out of the bud may remain very short, constituting a
+"spur," or grow with long internodes, making a slender twig.
+Fig. <a href="#Fig_15">15</a> shows a branch with new elongated growth, <i>b</i> to <i>a</i>,
+and a shoot or spur (<i>c</i>) arising from a bud of the previous
+year. Note the "ring," or division beyond <i>b</i>, marking the
+turn of the year.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noted in Fig. <a href="#Fig_14">14</a> that the buds are of two
+shapes and sizes, such as <i>a, a, a</i>, representing one kind and
+<i>b, b</i>, the other kind. The former, small and pointed, are
+leaf-buds; from them will arise a shoot bearing only leaves.
+The latter, <i>b</i>, large and rounded and usually more fuzzy,
+are flower-buds (fruit-buds): from them will arise a short
+shoot bearing leaves and a cluster of flowers; and we hope
+that at least one of the flowers will set fruit.</p>
+
+<p>We are now ready to resume our lesson with the branch
+before us. We have identified the slender terminal part,
+No. 1, as the growth of 1920. We are now to account for
+all the remaining buds and branchlets.</p>
+
+<p>If No. 1 grew in 1920, then the main shoot of No. 2
+grew in 1919, from the point <i>o o</i>. It is also one foot long.
+Near its base are four small buds that remained dormant in
+1920. There are nine branches (<i>d</i>) of various lengths besides
+the terminal shoot No. 1, all of which grew in 1920,
+for they are naturally a year younger than the main axis
+from which they arise; these branches are the same age as
+No. 1, with buds that would have produced shoots in 1921.
+But the terminal buds of eight of these lateral shoots (all
+but the lowermost) bear blossom-buds at the end; note
+their size and shape. Had not the branch been cut, these
+buds would have bloomed in 1921; the eight of them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+would have produced probably forty to fifty flowers; perhaps
+two or three good fruits would have resulted. Note
+that two of the lateral branches or spurs are short and
+weak: these would soon perish. The No. 2 branch has a
+dead end (<i>e</i>); in some way the terminal bud was destroyed,
+and No. 1 sprang from a lateral bud beneath it, changing
+the direction of growth.</p>
+
+<p>If No. 2 grew in 1919, then No. 3 grew in 1918. It
+also grew about one foot in length, showing that the conditions
+in the three years must have been very uniform. There
+are remains of five dormant buds at its base. There are
+seven side branches. As the main axis is three years old, so
+these lateral shoots are two years old; they are the same
+age as the axis No. 2. The lower one (<i>s</i>) grew less than
+an inch in 1919, and made a fruit-bud; in 1920 it blossomed
+and one fruit set as is shown by the square scar at the end;
+as the scar is small and the twig weak, we are safe in
+assuming that the apple was very small or else did not
+mature. A bud formed at the side of <i>s</i> to continue the
+growth of the spur next year (1921), but it is a leaf-bud;
+apparently there was not sufficient energy to bear flowers
+and to make a fruit-bud; so there would have been no more
+fruit on this spur earlier than 1922: thus do we see that the
+alternate bearing of the apple-tree may have some of its
+origin in the fruit-spur.</p>
+
+<p>The side spur <i>f</i> produced a terminal blossom-bud in 1919.
+In 1920 six flowers opened,&mdash;I could count the scars. One of
+the flowers produced a fruit, as I tell by the square scar at
+the end; the thickened stem also indicates fruit-bearing.
+The side bud in this case is a fruit-bud, but it is small and
+weak and is probably incapable of producing a fruit. There
+are no strong leaf-buds to take up the work, and this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+spur (<i>f</i>) would probably soon have died, as also would
+spur <i>s</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The side shoot <i>g</i> grew to <i>h</i> in 1919 and made a flower-bud.
+In 1920 this bud gave blossoms and one fruit resulted;
+the scar is prominent and there is an enlargement of the
+tissue indicating that the fruit probably attained good size;
+in 1920 also, two side spurs were formed each with weak
+blossom-buds, also a terminal shoot (beyond <i>h</i>) with leaf-bud
+at the end.</p>
+
+<p>The other shoots have similar histories: the long shoot
+<i>i</i> bore a fruit-bud at <i>k</i> in 1919 and a fruit in 1920; in 1920 it
+also made three lateral shoots and a terminal shoot, with
+flower-buds terminating two of them. Shoot <i>l</i> bore flowers
+at its point in 1920 but did not carry the fruit to maturity;
+it also made two side growths and one terminal growth, all
+terminated by flower-buds, to be blown in 1921. The shoot
+<i>m</i> is a short spur that made a flower-bud in 1919 and in 1920
+carried three little fruits for a time and made a flower-bud
+in 1920. Shoot <i>n</i> remained very short in 1919, making a
+terminal leaf-bud; in 1920 it grew two inches and made a
+weak flower-bud.</p>
+
+<p>If shoot No. 3 grew in 1918, then No. 4 grew in 1917;
+but the branch is severed and I cannot trace the record
+farther. We could trace the family history many years if
+we had the unpruned tree before us.</p>
+
+<p>Here, then, in my yard-long manuscript are forty bud-records
+on the main axis, counting the terminals on No. 2
+and No. 3. I can find record of 144 buds on the side shoots.
+This makes a grand total of 184 buds. There is a total
+growth in length of 108 inches, or 9 feet. Each of the buds
+that has already "grown" has produced an average of probably
+ten leaves, or say 340 leaves in total. If there were an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+average of five flowers to the cluster, then about 150 flowers
+would have been carried on my branch, with the potentiality
+of 150 fruits; but in fact not more than three or four
+maturing fruits would have been produced in these years:
+and I should think this a good proportion as blossoms and
+apples go. Certainly the branch has done its part. There
+have been three eventful years.</p>
+
+<p>I would not have my reader to suppose that one may
+always distinguish leaf-buds and fruit-buds at a glance. I
+may be mistaken in some of the above determinations, but
+they are essentially correct for I have the twig before
+me. In some varieties of apples the differences between
+the two kinds of buds are less marked. The certain way
+is to dissect the bud: one may then see what it contains.</p>
+
+<p>It now remains to determine how the branch was placed
+in the tree. It must have been upright or very nearly so,
+for the main axis is essentially straight and the branchlets
+are about equally developed on all sides; moreover, there
+is no indication in the bark that one exposure was the
+"weather side." The big twig <i>i</i> apparently found a light
+and unoccupied space into which to develop, but its extension
+is not greatly out of proportion. I suppose, however,
+that my branch was not topmost in the tree; there is no indication
+in very long growth or strong upward tendency of
+the branchlets to mark the branch as a "leader."</p>
+
+<p>Years ago I became fascinated with the study of knots
+and knot-holes in the timber of wood-piles. They are excellent
+records of the events in the life of trees. In print
+I have tried to show what they mean. I also worked out
+the life-histories of twigs and published them in nature-study
+leaflets and elsewhere. Hundreds of children were
+interested in the twigs and buds, finding them unusual, every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+one of them a different story, and yet not difficult to read.
+These lessons gave meaning to trees and seasons. Such
+observations have always meant much to me, even when
+made in the most casual way in the midst of constraining
+activities. And now in this later day I come back to a bare
+twig with all the joy of youth. The records of the years
+are in these piles of brush.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>VI</h2>
+
+<h2>THE PRUNING OF THE APPLE-TREE</h2>
+
+
+<p>We have found that not all the buds grow. We also
+know that some of the spurs and shoots perish, not alone
+from accident but from defeat in the struggle to live.
+The chances of success are relatively few. The pruning
+process begins early in the life of the tree, and it continues
+ceaselessly until the end.</p>
+
+<p>To the apple-tree in the wild, strict pruning is the
+assurance of success. No tree can reach maturity unless
+more parts perish than are able to live. The young forest
+tree has branchlets and leaves along its side and at the top.
+All these perish as the trunk rises, often leaving marks
+on the bark, curls in the wood, and knot-holes large and
+small. Thousands of perished buds and branches are the
+price of a straight bole and great clear sheets of boards.
+Yet these perished parts bore their burden in their day and
+time, and contributed to the ultimate success: there could
+have been no tree without them.</p>
+
+<p>Any tree-top discloses the pruning in action if one
+looks intently. Part of it is recorded in the buds that
+never put forth a leaf; more of it in little shoots left behind;
+and there are large and small limbs, dead and dying,
+yellowing apparently before their time, hanging on till
+the last hold is broken. Were it not for the benevolent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+processes of decay, the ground would be strewn with the
+fallen parts accumulating through the years.</p>
+
+<p>In nature, the great result is to yield abundant quantity
+of seeds, that the species may propagate itself after
+its kind. Man may desire fruits relatively few, but large
+of size and excellent of quality, without spot or blemish;
+this means greater opportunity and care to the single
+fruit. Pruning is essential, to converge the energy of the
+plant into fewer branches, to give the fruits space and
+light, to increase the efficiency of measures for the control
+of diseases and insects. Part of the pruning consists
+in removing certain branches, and part of it in eliminating
+the fruits themselves by the careful process of
+thinning.</p>
+
+<p>The pruning of nature is fortuitous. The tree has
+the irregularity and abandon of the picturesque. The
+pruning of man is for a different end, and it produces the
+comely well-proportioned tree of the orchards. The tree
+becomes a manipulated subject, comforting to the eye of
+the thrifty pomologist.</p>
+
+<p>Branch-pruning is essentially the removal of superfluous
+branches,&mdash;those that crowd, that cross each other,
+that are so placed as to be profitless, that are in the way,
+that are injured or diseased. For the most part, the
+branches should be removed when they are small; but
+it is not possible to foresee all that may be needed in the
+training of the tree and, therefore, the frequent advice to
+prune only with a hand-knife cannot be followed. One
+needs a sharp pruning-saw and sometimes a chisel on a
+long handle. Usually it is not necessary to remove
+branches more than an inch or one and one-half inch in
+diameter if pruning is carefully practiced every year; but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+sometimes even well-pruned trees must be shaped, corrected
+and improved by the cutting of larger branches.</p>
+
+<p>Pruning is usually best performed in early spring.
+The branch should be cut close to the main limb or
+trunk and parallel with it, leaving no stub; the healing
+process is then likely to proceed more rapidly. The
+wound should be smooth and clean, without breaks,
+splinters or splits; the knot-holes in logs and trunks are
+usually the consequence of long "stubs" and torn injured
+parts. The tree is to be left shapely, with a uniform distribution
+of branches, plenty of fruit-bearing wood, easy
+to spray and from which to pick the fruit, of the form
+characteristic of the variety.</p>
+
+<p>In all the usual customary pruning of the apple-tree,
+dressing of the wounds is not necessary. It is much more
+important to give the added attention to the proper making
+of the wounds and the thoughtful choice of the parts
+to be removed. Wounds two inches and more in diameter
+may be protected with good paint, so that they will not
+check and therefore not hold water, until the callus covers
+them. Good judgment in pruning is more profitable than
+recipes to repair damage.</p>
+
+<p>Fruit-pruning, or thinning, is the removing of so much
+fruit, when it is small, as will allow the remainder to
+mature to its best and constitute a maximum yield; it
+reduces the quantity of inferior fruit, lessens the number
+of culls and the labor at packing time, conserves the
+energy of the tree by preventing the maturity of great
+numbers of seeds, diminishes diseases and pests. The
+overloading of the tree not only imposes a heavy tax on
+its vitality but is likely to break the limbs and to work
+much physical damage.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Thinning may consist in removing part of the fruit
+in the cluster (in the case of varieties that tend to mature
+more than one fruit from each flower-cluster), in picking
+all the fruits from certain clusters or pairs of clusters,
+or in cutting away some of the fruit-spurs before blossoming
+time.</p>
+
+<p>The removal of the fruit itself is usually performed
+after the "June-drop," when the extent of the crop is
+evident. The fruits are pulled off by hand or cut with
+thinning-shears, the latter practice being the better since
+it is not so likely to break the fruit-spurs. The least
+promising fruits are taken away and the remaining apples
+are left at least five or six inches apart in most varieties.
+The extent of thinning must be governed by the variety,
+thrift of the tree, result desired, and other conditions.
+To secure the best results, the apples should be thinned
+when still small.</p>
+
+<p>Thinning by early-spring removal of fruit-spurs is a
+very special practice. It is employed on dwarf trees and
+on those specially trained. It should be undertaken only
+by a careful and experienced man. It is not to be inferred
+that the fruit of the apple is all borne on spurs, for some
+of it may be derived from terminal buds on the new axial
+growths or even from lateral buds; but the spurs are
+conspicuous and readily recognized. Of course the ordinary
+pruning of the tree removes fruit-bearing wood
+and is therefore a thinning process.</p>
+
+<p>Within sensible limits, therefore, pruning is an invigorating
+process in the sense that it deflects the energy
+to remaining parts of the tree. What is called too heavy
+pruning, whereby the tree throws out abundance of
+water-sprouts, is illustration of this fact: the tree is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
+thrown into heavy growth of adventitious shoots. The
+tree may not produce more pounds of substance, or even
+more total feet in length, but new energy is developed in
+certain parts.</p>
+
+<p>In the restoration, or so-called renovation, of old
+neglected trees, the two primary considerations are to
+prune vigorously and to till and fertilize the land. Sometimes
+old trees must be mended as explained in Chapter
+XIII. Of course they must be sprayed for what ails
+them. If the variety is poor, the tree may be top-grafted
+(Chapter XII). In some cases, it is hardly possible to
+make neglected trees bear satisfactorily, for they were
+never of value: there is nothing to restore. It may be a
+question of soil and location, of lack of pollination, of
+trees so weak or so misshapen that effort on them is
+wasted. But tillage, pruning, spraying, should produce
+worth-while results in most cases.</p>
+
+<p>In the care of the fruit-tree there is no practice which
+brings the grower into such intimate knowledge of the
+plant as that of pruning and thinning. The operator sees
+the tree as a whole, taking it all in; then he sees it in
+small detail in all its parts, even to the spurs and buds.
+With simple good tools, sharp and keen, and with a
+practiced eye, he applies a deft and swift handicraft, cutting
+true, making a fair clean wound, leaving the tree
+comely and ready for its highest effort. The pride of
+good workmanship may find expression. The operator
+feels also the sense of mastery that is in him, whereby
+he corrects the tree, removes the wayward parts, keeps
+and encourages all that is best. To engage in this kind of
+education requires that one approaches the work with due
+preparation of mind and I think also with consecration
+of heart.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="VII" id="VII"></a>VII</h2>
+
+<h2>MAINTAINING THE HEALTH AND ENERGY OF THE APPLE-TREE</h2>
+
+
+<p>The apple-tree starts life fresh and vigorous. It
+grows rapidly. The shoots are long and straight. The
+wood is smooth and fair and supple. The leaves are
+usually large. It is good to see the young trees acquire
+size and take shape.</p>
+
+<p>Room in the ground and in the air is ample with the
+young apple-tree. It is free to grow. Probably the
+ground was newly prepared and tilled when the tree was
+planted; at least, a hole was dug and fine good earth
+was placed about the roots. Probably insects had not
+found permanent encampment on the tree. It had been
+well pruned, so that it carried the minimum of superfluous
+and competing parts.</p>
+
+<p>But in time the difficulties come. The tree probably
+slows down. It becomes too thick of branches. The land
+is not tilled. It is not manured. Insects and fungi
+make headway. The tree overbears. As the years go
+on, the tree is thrown into alternate bearing, one year a
+crop too heavy, one year a crop too light. The tree becomes
+broken, diseased, gnarly, unshapely.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that the fruit-spur in bearing is likely
+to make a leaf-bud for the next year's activities rather
+than a flower-bud. It is assumed that the making of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+flower-bud requires more energy than the making of a
+plain leaf-bud; if this is true, there may not be energy
+enough to carry a flower-cluster and to make a new
+flower-bud at the same time. But if the tree is in proper
+vigor, is well fed, protected from noxious organisms, not
+allowed to overbear, it should have sufficient energy to
+make a crop every year, frosts and accidents excepted.
+It is assumed, of course, that self-sterile varieties have
+good pollinizing varieties near them; it is always well
+to plant two or more kinds near together. Whether the
+continuity of bearing is exhibited on the same fruit-spurs
+or whether there may be an alternation in the spurs on
+the same tree, is of no moment in this discussion. It is
+enough to say that there is no reason in the nature of the
+case why an apple-tree should bear only every other
+year; it is probably a question of nutrition.</p>
+
+<p>The first essential to continued health and vigor is to
+start with a strong unblemished tree. It is to be planted
+before its vitality is lessened by exposure and hard usage.
+The more direct the transfer from nursery to orchard, the
+better. It is to be placed in good ground, well drained
+and deeply spaded or plowed. The apple-tree thrives on
+many kinds of land, but light sand, hard clay, and muck
+are equally to be avoided. "Good corn land" is commonly
+considered to be good apple land. Certain soils
+and regions are particularly adaptable to commercial
+apple-growing, but the amateur may plant quite independently
+of this fact. The observant man notes the
+many conditions under which the apple-tree may be
+grown with satisfaction.</p>
+
+<p>If the land is not uniformly prepared, then the hole
+dug for the tree should be larger than demanded by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+spread of roots, and the earth fined in the bottom of it.
+Trees should be planted when perfectly dormant, preferably
+in spring, at least in the northern parts.</p>
+
+<p>The roots should be cut back to sound unsplintered
+wood, and very long roots may well be shortened. The
+reader is aware that roots have no regular order or
+arrangement as do the buds from which branches arise.
+It is not necessary to try to shape the root-system to
+any formal regularity.</p>
+
+<p>As a good part of the root-system is destroyed when
+the tree is dug, so is the top reduced to insure something
+like a balance. Half or more of the top, on a three-year-old
+tree, is cut away, the long growths being shortened
+to perhaps three or four good buds. If limbs are left to
+form the framework of the future top, they should be
+alternate with each other at some distance apart so that
+weak crotches do not form.</p>
+
+<p>The tree is planted snugly, the earth being filled
+among the roots so that no air-holes remain. The tree
+is shaken up and down to settle the earth densely. Once
+or twice in filling, the earth is packed with the feet. The
+purpose is to keep the tree firm and stiff against winds,
+and to give all its roots close contact with the earth.
+Properly planted, so that it will not whip or dry out, the
+tree gets a hold quickly and begins to grow strongly.
+The first start-off of the tree is important.</p>
+
+<p>Apple-trees are held in vigor by plenty of room. For
+the standard varieties in regular orchards, the recommended
+distance either way is 40 feet, or 35 x 40 feet.
+Some varieties may go as close as 30 feet; and in regions
+(as parts of central and western North America) in which
+the trees are not expected to attain such great size as in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
+the eastern country, the planting may be even less than
+this of the upright-growing kinds. The spaces between
+the trees may be utilized for a few years with other crops,
+even with other fruits, as peaches or berries. Orchardists
+sometimes plant smaller-growing and early-bearing varieties
+of apples between the regular trees as "fillers," taking
+them out as the room is needed. Of course all kinds
+of double cropping require that extra attention be given
+to the tilling and fertilizing of the plantation.</p>
+
+<p>The general advice for the growing of strong apple-trees
+is to give the land good tillage from the first and
+to withhold other cropping after the trees come into
+profitable bearing. Clean tillage for the first part of the
+season and the raising of a cover-crop in the latter part,
+to be plowed under, is a standard and dependable procedure.
+Trees live long in continuous sod and they may
+thrive, but they may be expected to show gains under
+tillage. Vast areas of apple plantings are in sod, but this
+of itself does not demonstrate the desirability of the sod
+practice. Allowing trees to remain in sod usually leads
+to neglect.</p>
+
+<p>There is a modification of sod-practice in some parts
+of the country that gives excellent results, under certain
+conditions. The grass is cut and allowed to lie, not being
+removed for hay. Manure and fertilizer are added as top-dressing,
+as needed. This method is known as the "sod
+mulch system." It is not a practice of partial neglect,
+like the prevailing sod orchards, but a regular designed
+method of producing results. Its application can hardly
+be as widespread as clean tillage, on level lands.</p>
+
+<p>It is a common opinion that hillsides and more or
+less inaccessible slopes should be planted to apples. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+may be true in the sense that apples will grow on such
+areas and that such plantations are better than fallow
+land. In fact, many such lands are profitable in orchards.
+When they do not allow of tillage, easy spraying, and
+economy in harvesting, however, they cannot compete
+with level orchards.</p>
+
+<p>To maintain the health and energy of the apple-tree,
+the land should be enriched. This may be accomplished
+by the application of animal manures, chemical fertilizers,
+or cover-crops, or preferably by a combination of these
+means. Not many persons possess sufficient farm manures
+to supply the general crops and the apple-orchard;
+but every application the orchard receives is all to the
+good. Five to ten tons of good stable manure to the
+acre annually is a good addition for an orchard in bearing.
+This may be supplemented by cover-crops and bag
+fertilizers in years in which the manure is not available.
+Experiments are yet inconclusive on the fertilizing of
+apple-trees, but it is fair to assume that on most lands,
+particularly on old lands, the addition of chemical fertilizer
+is advantageous. A bearing apple-tree may receive
+two to eight pounds of nitrate of soda (depending on its
+size and on soil) applied to the full feeding area of the
+roots, five to nine pounds of acid phosphate, two or three
+pounds of muriate of potash; always ask advice.</p>
+
+<p>The pasturing of orchards is often defensible and
+sometimes even desirable. If the trees are growing too
+rapidly, they may be "slowed down" by seeding to grass
+for a time; and pasturing with hogs, and possibly with
+sheep, may afford a way of keeping the area in condition
+and of adding fertilizer. Sheep that do not have access
+to drinking-water and salt gnaw the trees. Hogs root up<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>
+the ground and thereby provide a rude kind of tillage. If
+animals are fed other food in the orchard, the fertilizer
+increment will be considerable.</p>
+
+<p>In house-lot conditions, the apple-tree usually receives
+sufficient food if the land is well enriched for garden purposes;
+but trees in sod should have liberal top-dressings
+of fertilizer every year and of stable manure every other
+year.</p>
+
+<p>The apple-tree should have a good supply of moisture.
+Planted on banks and in hard places about buildings, it
+may suffer in this respect. The land should be so graded
+that the rainfall will not run off. In orchard conditions,
+the moisture is conserved by the addition of humus to
+the land, and by thorough judicious tillage; and in dry
+regions it is supplied by irrigation.</p>
+
+<p>The energy of the apple-tree, and its ability to produce,
+is conserved by holding all diseases and noxious
+insects in check. The means at the command of the
+apple-grower are now many. No longer is the man helpless,
+nor does he need to appeal to the moon or to "atmospheric
+influences" for reasons. The natural histories
+of fungi and insects, that do so much damage, are now
+a part of common understandable knowledge. To acquire
+at least a working understanding of the commonest of
+these subjects is in itself a great satisfaction and gives
+one a sense of dominion. The good books and bulletins
+are sufficient to keep one well informed. All these organisms
+are tenants of the apple-tree, and from the
+naturist's point of view alone they are not to be overlooked.</p>
+
+<p>It is not to be inferred that all apple-trees will yield
+equally well with equally good treatment. There is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
+difference in trees as there is in cows. We may not know
+why. But even so, it is our part to do the best we can:
+this is our privilege.</p>
+
+<p>The tillage and care of plants lessen the struggle for
+existence. So is the apple-tree protected from the crowds,
+from contest for moisture and food, from insects, and
+from the competition within itself. Thereby is it able
+to express all its possibilities. Even the dormant potentialities
+may be wakened, and the plant makes a wide
+departure from its native state. This is not an original
+state of sin, but a state of repression in which it is held
+in a world that is full of so many things beside apple-trees.
+I may till my orchard ever so well, manipulate the
+trees ever so promptly, yet if the plantation then is allowed
+to run to neglect the processes of depreciation gain
+the mastery; the struggle for existence is restored.</p>
+
+<p>To keep one's apple-tree in the pink of perfection is
+as joyful an enterprise as to do anything else well. It is
+only the well-conditioned tree that yields its glorious
+harvest year by year.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a>VIII</h2>
+
+<h2>HOW AN APPLE-TREE IS MADE</h2>
+
+
+<p>If the seeds of a Baldwin or Winesap apple are
+planted, we do not expect to get a Baldwin or Winesap;
+we shall probably raise a very inferior fruit. The apple
+has not been bred "true to seed" as has the cabbage and
+sweet pea. To get the tree "true to name," of the desired
+variety and with no chance of failure (barring accident),
+is one of the niceties of horticulture. This is accomplished
+with great precision and despatch.</p>
+
+<p>The apple-tree is started from the seed. It cannot be
+grown freely by means of cuttings, as can the grape and
+currant. In commercial practice the seeds are collected
+mostly from cider mills or from pomace. The seeds may
+be washed from the pomace, allowed to dry, and then
+mixed in sand, charcoal, sawdust or other material to
+prevent dessication and kept until spring, when they are
+sown. Or, if the land is not so wet in winter that the
+seed will drown or be washed out, the seed in the pomace
+(not separated) may be sown in autumn. The seeds are
+sown in drills, after the manner of onions or turnips, one
+to two or even three inches deep. They germinate readily
+in the cool of spring, and the plants should reach a height
+of twelve inches and more the first year.</p>
+
+<p>If these plants were grown directly into bearing trees,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+it is probable that no two trees would produce the same
+kind of fruit. Some of the fruit might be summer apples,
+some of it winter apples, some red, yellow or striped,
+some of it flat, oblong or spherical, most of it sour but
+perhaps some of it sweet. Probably every kind would
+be inferior to the parent stock or to standard varieties,
+although there is a fair chance that a superior kind might
+originate from a field of such plants.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, it is not the variety (that is, the top) that
+is wanted in the raising of these numerous plants, but
+merely the roots, on which desired varieties may be grown
+by the clever art of graftage. Yet not even all the roots
+may be wanted, for the growing plants may differ or
+vary in their stature and vigor as well as in their fruit.
+The discriminating grower, therefore, discards the weak
+and puny treelings at the digging time; or if the weak
+plants seem still to have promise, they may be allowed
+to grow another year before they are dug for the grafting.</p>
+
+<p>This digging time is the autumn of the first year, when
+the plants have grown one season. They are then to be
+used as "stocks" on which to graft Baldwin, Winesap or
+other varieties. The growing of these apple stocks is a
+business by itself. Formerly, most of the stocks used in
+North America were imported from France, where special
+skill has been developed in the growing of them and
+where the requisite labor is available. But now the stocks
+are grown also in deep rich bottom lands of the Middle
+West, as in Kansas, where, in the long seasons, a large
+growth may be attained.</p>
+
+<p>The methods of graftage of the commercial apple-tree
+are two&mdash;by cion-grafting whereby a bit of wood with two
+or three buds is inserted on the stock, by bud-grafting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+(budding) whereby a single bud with a bit of bark attached
+is inserted under the bark of the stock.</p>
+
+<p>Cion-grafting is practiced in winter under
+cover. The stock is cut off at the crown
+and the cion spliced on it, or the root may
+be cut in two or more pieces and each piece
+receive a cion. The union is made by the
+whip-graft method (Fig. <a href="#Fig_16">16</a>). The cion is
+tied securely, to keep it in place. The piece-root
+method is allowable only when the root
+is long and strong, so that a well-rooted
+plant results the first year. The cion is a
+cutting of the last year's growth (as of No.
+1, in Fig. <a href="#Fig_14">14</a>). However accomplished, the
+process is to supply the cion with roots; it
+is planted in another plant instead of in the
+ground.</p>
+
+<p class="figleft" style="width: 116px;">
+<a name="Fig_16" id="Fig_16"></a><img src="images/image016.png" width="116" height="300" alt="16. The whip-graft before tying." title="16. The whip-graft before tying." />
+<span class="caption">16. The whip-graft before tying.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>The cion-grafts are now planted in the
+nursery row in spring. The cion starts
+growth rapidly, only one shoot being allowed
+to remain; this shoot forms the trunk or
+bole of the future tree. At the end of the
+first season, the little tree is said to be one
+year old, although the root is at least two years old; at
+the end of the second year it is two years old; the tree
+is sometimes sold as a two-year-old, but usually a year
+later as a three-year-old having a four-year-old root. In
+fact, however, the root and top may be considered, in a
+way, to be of the same age, particularly if only a piece of
+the root is employed, for the cion grew on its parent tree
+the same year the root was growing in the nursery.</p>
+
+<p>The tree grew from the seed but it is no longer a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+"seedling" or a "natural;" it is now a grafted tree, destined
+to produce a named recognized variety of apple,
+maybe York Imperial, maybe Jonathan. We find seedling
+trees in old fields, in fence-rows, and in woods.
+These have grown from scattered seeds and have come
+to fruit without the arts of the propagator. They bear
+their own tops or heads, rather than the heads that a
+thrifty horticulturist would have put on them. Now and
+then such a tree produces superior fruit; then a discriminating
+pomologist discovers it, names it a new variety,
+and propagates it as other varieties are propagated. Thus
+have most of the prized varieties originated, without
+knowledge on the part of man of the ultimate processes.
+But now with the accumulating knowledge of the plant-breeder
+we hope to be able to foresee and probably to
+produce varieties of given qualities.</p>
+
+<p class="figright" style="width: 171px;">
+<a name="Fig_17" id="Fig_17"></a><img src="images/image017.png" width="171" height="300" alt="17. A &quot;bud&quot; before tying." title="17. A &quot;bud&quot; before tying." />
+<span class="caption">17. A &quot;bud&quot; before tying.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>Bud-grafting is practiced in summer.
+The young trees, obtained from the
+grower of apple stocks, are planted regularly
+in nursery rows in spring, the top
+having been cut back to the crown so that
+a strong vigorous shoot will arise. In
+July and August or September, when this
+shoot is the size of a lead pencil and
+larger and the bark will peel (or separate
+from the wood), a single bud is inserted
+near the ground (Fig. <a href="#Fig_17">17</a>). This bud is
+deftly cut from the current year's growth
+of the desired variety; it grows in the axil
+of a leaf (Fig. <a href="#Fig_15">15</a>). The leaf is removed
+but a small part of the stalk or petiole is
+retained with the bud to serve as a handle.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
+A boat-shaped or shield-shaped piece of bark is removed
+with the bud. This piece, known technically as a "bud,"
+is inserted in an incision on the stock, so that it slips
+underneath the bark and next the wood, with only the
+bud itself showing in the slit; it is then tied in place.</p>
+
+<p>The stock on which the bud is inserted has a two-year
+root, and the root is entire. For this reason, budded
+trees are usually very large and strong for their age when
+compared with piece-root trees grown under similar conditions
+of climate, tillage and soil.</p>
+
+<p>The bud does not grow the year it is inserted in the
+stock; it is dormant until the following spring, as it
+would have been had it remained on its parent branch;
+but soon after it is inserted it attaches itself fast to the
+stock: it is a bud implanted from one twig to another.
+The following spring, if the operation is successful, the
+bud "grows," sending up a strong shoot that makes the
+trunk of the future tree. The top of the stock is cut
+away; in the merchantable tree, the bend or place may
+be seen where the stock and cion meet.</p>
+
+<p>As in the case of cion-grafting, we now have a top of a
+known variety growing on the root of an unknown kind.
+The tree is sold at two or three years, counting the age
+of the top; and of course the tree is no longer called a
+seedling, and it produces its implanted variety as accurately
+as does the cion-grafted tree. Equally good trees
+are produced by both cion-grafting and bud-grafting.</p>
+
+<p>The apple-tree is now "propagated," and is ready for
+the planting. Great hopes will be built on it, and the
+tree will probably do its part to justify them. Nobody
+knows how a bud from a Baldwin tree holds the memory
+of a Baldwin or from a Winesap tree the memory of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+Winesap. Neither does anyone know why of two seeds
+that look alike one will unerringly produce a cabbage
+and the other a cauliflower. So accustomed are we to
+these results that we never challenge a twig of apple or
+a seed of cabbage: we assume that the twig or the seed
+"knows." Nor have we yet approached this question in
+our elaborate studies of plant-breeding. Here is one of
+the mysteries that baffles the skill of the physiologist and
+chemist, yet it is a mystery so very common that we
+know it not, albeit the life on the planet would otherwise
+be utter confusion.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="IX" id="IX"></a>IX</h2>
+
+<h2>THE DWARF APPLE-TREE</h2>
+
+
+<p>We have learned that many kinds of apples and apple-trees
+may come from a batch of seeds. Differences are
+expressed in the tree as well as in the fruit. In fact,
+stature is usually one of the characteristics of the variety.
+Here I open Downing's great book, "The Fruits and
+Fruit-Trees of America," and find the description of a
+certain variety beginning: "Tree while young very slow
+in its growth, but makes a compact well-formed head in
+the orchard," and another: "Tree vigorous, upright
+spreading, and productive." We know the small stature
+and early bearing of the Wagener (wherefore it is often
+planted in the orchard as a filler), and the great wide-spreading
+head of the Tompkins King with the apples
+scattered through the tree.</p>
+
+<p>Now it so happens that in the course of time certain
+great races of the apple-tree have arisen, we do not know
+just why or how. There is the race or family of the
+russets and of the Fameuse. So are there several races
+very small in stature, remaining perhaps no larger than
+bushes. If we were to propagate any of the ordinary
+apples on such diminutive stocks, we should have a
+"dwarf apple-tree."</p>
+
+<p>The dwarf apple, then, is not a question of variety<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
+but of stock. Any variety may be grown as a dwarf by
+grafting it on a plant that naturally remains small, although
+some varieties are more adaptable than others to
+the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>If seeds of the natural diminutive apple-tree are sown,
+a variety of trees and apples may be expected. The fruits
+would probably be inferior. Probably the stature would
+vary between different seedlings. If we are to get the effect
+of dwarfness, we must be sure that the stock is itself
+really dwarf. Therefore, to eliminate variation and
+also because seeds of natural dwarf apples may not be
+had in sufficient quantity, the stocks are propagated by
+layers rather than by seeds.</p>
+
+<p>The diminutive tree, when well established, is cut
+off near the ground. Sprouts arise. Some kinds sucker
+very freely. If earth is mounded up around the sprouts,
+roots form on them and the sprouts may be removed and
+treated as if they were seedling stocks. Usually the
+mounding is not performed until the shoots have made
+one season's growth. Gooseberries and some other plants
+are often propagated by mound-layers. In the case of the
+gooseberry, however, it is desired that the layer reproduce
+the parent&mdash;it may be Downing or Whitesmith&mdash;and
+therefore it is planted without further manipulation.
+But in the case of the apple, we do not want the layer
+to reproduce the parent, for the parent would probably
+bear an inferior fruit since it does not represent an "improved"
+or recognized variety; therefore the layer is
+grafted or budded with the particular variety we desire
+to grow as a dwarf tree.</p>
+
+<p>Dwarf trees are grown in America, if at all, only in
+gardens, where extra attention may be given them. Only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+high-class kinds should be attempted on dwarfs, for the
+quantity-production of commercial apples must be obtained
+by less intensive methods on cheaper lands.</p>
+
+<p>Better fruits often are grown on dwarf than on standards,
+for two reasons: It is usual to propagate only the
+best varieties on dwarf stock; the little tree must receive
+extra care in pruning and in every other way. Its bushel
+of apples must be choice, every one, to make the effort
+of growing the tree worth the while. Under European
+conditions where land is high-priced and labor has been
+relatively cheap, it is possible (and common) to raise
+apples on dwarfs for market, as it is profitable to terrace
+the hillsides with human labor; but in North America
+the conditions are practically the reverse and the dwarf
+tree cannot compete with the standard orchard tree.</p>
+
+<p>The growing of a dwarf tree is essentially a gardening
+practice. It requires great skill. The spurs are produced
+and protected to a nicety. Every fruit may be the
+separate product of handwork. The fertilizing, mulching,
+watering, are carefully regulated for every tree. Often
+the trees are trained on cordons, espaliers, trellises or
+walls. The individual fruits may be tied up or bagged.
+All this is very different from the raising of apples by
+means of tractors and other machinery, gangs of pruners
+and pickers, broadside extensive methods, with highly
+organized systems of handling and marketing, in all of
+which the money-measure is the chief consideration. It
+is for all these reasons that the growing of a few dwarf
+apple-trees may afford such intimate satisfaction to a
+careful man who prizes the result of his skill.</p>
+
+<p>The dwarfs are grown as little trees branching near
+the ground, headed in at top and side and kept within<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+shape and bounds. If they are of the dwarfest dwarfs
+and not trained on trellis or wall (as they usually are
+not in America), the fruit may be gathered by a man
+standing on the ground, even from old trees. The dwarfs
+are planted eight to ten feet apart when grown in regular
+plantation.</p>
+
+<p>Be it said that certain kinds of stocks produce trees
+only semi-dwarf; and in all cases if the tree is planted
+so deep that roots strike from the cion, the top will
+probably outgrow the stock, being supplied in part or
+even entirely by its own roots.</p>
+
+<p>This brings us to a consideration of some of the kinds
+of dwarf stocks, or dwarf races of the apple-tree. Be it
+said, in understanding of the subject, that there are naturally
+dwarf forms of many plants, and probably all
+ordinary plants are capable of producing them. Thus
+there are very compact condensed forms of arbor-vitae,
+Norway spruce, peach-tree. These have originated as
+seed sports and are multiplied by cuttings. So are there
+dwarf tomatoes, dwarf China asters, dwarf sweet peas,
+all coming more or less true from seeds, for these species
+(of short generations) have been bred to reproduce their
+variations. The inquirer must not suppose, therefore,
+that the races of dwarf apple-trees are an anomally in
+the vegetable kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>It is customary to speak of two classes or races of
+dwarf apple-trees, the Paradise and the Doucin. The
+former kinds are the smaller, the trees on their own
+roots sometimes reaching not more than four feet in
+height at full bearing maturity. On the Paradise stocks,
+the grafted apple-tree is very small; it is a true dwarf.
+The Doucin trees are by nature larger, and apples<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+grafted on them make semi-dwarf trees, midway in
+stature between the real dwarfs and the common standard
+or "free" apple-trees.</p>
+
+<p>The case is not so simple, however, as this brief statement
+would make it appear. There are many kinds of
+Paradise stock, as also of Doucin. If one were to bring
+together living plants of all the kinds of natural dwarfs
+and semi-dwarfs that could be found in nurseries and
+growing collections, one would undoubtedly find a nearly
+complete series, so far as stature of tree is concerned,
+from the very dwarf to the full-sized standard tree. To
+say that a person is growing grafted dwarf apple-trees
+does not signify how large the trees may be expected to
+grow, for one may not know the particular kind of stocks
+on which the variety is grafted. In fact, it is considered
+even in Europe, where dwarf apples are chiefly grown,
+that the proper identification of dwarf stocks is still a
+subject for careful investigation.</p>
+
+<p>When the Paradise dwarfs first came into existence
+is undetermined. They appear to have been known in
+the Middle Ages. The many races, as the Dutch, French,
+Metz, Nonsuch, Broad-leaved, indicate an ancient origin.
+We cannot be too certain what apple-trees were meant
+in the early references to the Paradise apple. The fruits
+of the present natural Paradise apple-trees are not sufficiently
+attractive to justify us in considering them the
+"Tree of Paradise" or apple of the Garden of Eden, which
+circumstance is supposed by some to account for the
+name. "Paradise" was originally a park or pleasure
+ground, applied also to the Garden of Eden, and later to
+horticultural gardens. John Parkinson wrote his great
+treatise on horticulture, 1629, under the title, "Paradisi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
+in Sole Paradisus terrestris; or, a Choice Garden of all
+Sorts of Rarest Flowers, etc." Now we use the word for
+gardens of bliss.</p>
+
+<p>The word Doucin, from the Italian, is supposed originally
+to have designated apples of sweet flavor, but it
+now applies technically to a class or race of semi-dwarf
+apple-trees.</p>
+
+<p>For the purpose of this little book, however, the interest
+in the dwarf apple centers not so much in the origin
+of the stock as in the natural-history of the tree itself
+and the good skill of hand and heart that one may expend
+in the growing of it. If one would come close to a
+plant, knowing it intimately in every season, causing it
+to respond to sympathetic treatment through a series of
+years, then a garden collection of dwarf apples may
+satisfy the desire. It is too bad that we do not have
+time to cultivate the dwarfs often in the yards and gardens
+of North America. We are more familiar with the
+raising of dwarf pears (which are grafted on quince
+stocks since there is no similar race of natural dwarf pear-tree),
+but we do not give them the thumb-and-finger care
+that is demanded for the choicest results. The abundance
+of apples in the market should only stimulate the desire
+of the connoisseur to have trees and fruits that are wholly
+personal. The market produce can never gratify the affections.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="X" id="X"></a>X</h2>
+
+<h2>WHENCE COMES THE APPLE-TREE?</h2>
+
+
+<p>If the dwarf apple-tree goes back to the Middle Ages
+and perhaps farther, then whence comes the apple originally?
+No one can surely answer. Carbonized apples
+are found in the remains of the prehistoric lake dwellings
+of Switzerland. When recorded history begins, apples
+were well known and widely distributed. The apple-tree
+is wild in many parts of Europe, but it is difficult
+to determine whether, in a given region, it is indigenous
+or has run wild from cultivation. Wild apple-trees are
+common in North America, but no one supposes that the
+orchard apple is native here.</p>
+
+<p>Expert opinion generally considers that the apple is
+native in the region of the Caspian Sea and probably in
+southeastern Europe. Perhaps it had spread westward
+before the Aryan migrations. It had also probably spread
+eastward, but it is not a cultivated fruit in China and
+Japan except apparently as introduced in recent time.
+The apple is essentially a fruit of central and northern
+Europe, and of European migration and settlement.</p>
+
+<p>It is a fertile retrospect to conceive of the apple as an
+attendant of the course of Western civilization. Without
+voice and leaving no record, it has nevertheless
+followed man in his wanderings, encouraged his attainment<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+of permanent habitations, succored him in his emergencies.
+What the apple has contributed to sustenance
+can never be known, but we are aware that it yields its
+fruit abundantly, that it thrives in widely unlike regions
+and conditions, that the tree has the ruggedness to endure
+severe climates and to provide food that can be stored and
+transported. In the ages it must have stood guard at
+many a rude camp and fireside. It would be fascinating
+to know what the apple-tree has witnessed.</p>
+
+<p>These early apples must have been very crude fruits
+measured by the produce of the present day. But other
+food was crude and man was crude. The North American
+Indians found the apple to be worth their effort;
+remains of some of the so-called Indian orchards of the
+Five Nations in New York persisted until the present
+generation. These were seedling apple-trees, grown from
+the stocks introduced by the white man. The French
+missionaries are said to have carried the apple far into
+the interior, and early settlers took seeds with them. The
+legends and records of Johnny Appleseed, sowing the
+seeds as he went, are still familiar. My father, like other
+pioneers, took seeds from the old New England trees into
+the wilderness of the West; the resulting trees were top-grafted,
+some of them as late as my time; I can remember
+the apples some of these seedling trees bore, the like of
+which I have never seen again, probably poor apples if
+we had them in this day but to a boy at the edge of the
+forest the very essence of goodness. As early as 1639,
+apples had been picked from trees planted on Governor's
+Island in Boston harbor. Governor John Endicott of
+Massachusetts Colony had an apple-tree nursery in the
+early day; in 1644 he says that five hundred of his trees<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+were destroyed by fire. So the apple came early to be a
+standby on the new continent.</p>
+
+<p>The apples of the colonists were not all for eating,
+but for drinking. The butts and barrels of cider put in
+cellars in the early times seem to us most surprising.
+Herein are suggestions of old social customs that might
+lead us into interesting historical excursions. The oldest
+book I possess on the apple is "Vinetum Britannicum: or,
+a Treatise of Cider," published in London in 1676; it
+treats also of other beverages made from fruits and of
+"the newly-invented ingenio or mill, for the more expeditious
+and better making of cider." The gradual change
+in customs, whereby the eating of the apple (rather than
+the drinking of it) has come to be paramount, is a significant
+development; the use of apple-juice may now proceed
+on another basis, on the principle of preservation
+and pasteurization rather than of fermentation.</p>
+
+<p>It is the custom to call the apple <i>Pyrus Malus</i>. This is
+the name given by the great Linnaeus, with whom the
+modern accurate naming of plants and animals begins. The
+nomenclature of plants starts with his "Species Plantarum,"
+1753. Pyrus is the genus or group comprising the pears
+and apples, and Linnaeus included the quince; Malus
+is Latin for the apple-tree. Together the names represent
+genus and species,&mdash;the malus Pyrus.</p>
+
+<p>These statements are easy enough to make, but it is
+impossible to demonstrate whether the common pomological
+apples are derived from one original species or from
+two or more. Many technical botanical names have been
+given in the group, but we need not pause with them here.
+It is enough for our purpose to know that the natural-history
+of the apple, as of anything else that runs to time<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
+immemorial, passes at the end into obscurity. We seem
+never to reach the ultimate origins or to find an end to our
+quests.</p>
+
+<p>There are other apples than the common pomological
+orchard types. There are the crabs. In general usage, the
+word "crab" designates an apple that is small, sour and
+crabbed. Such apples are wildings or seedlings. They are
+merely depreciated forms of <i>Pyrus Malus</i>, and probably
+much like the first apples known to man. What are known
+to horticulturists as crab-apples, however, are other species
+of Pyrus, of different character and origin. We need not
+pause with the discussion of them, except to say that the
+commonest kinds are the little long-stemmed fruits of
+<i>Pyrus baccata</i> (berry Pyrus), native in eastern Europe and
+Siberia. These are the "Siberian crabs." The leaves and
+twigs are smooth, and the calyx falls away from the fruit,
+leaving a bare blossom end. These little hard handsome
+fruits are used in the making of conserves. Certain larger
+crab-apples, in which the blossom end is not clean or bare,
+as the Transcendent and Hyslop, are probably hybrids between
+the true crabs and the common apple; this class provides
+the main crab-apples of the markets.</p>
+
+<p>When the settlers came to the country west and south
+of New England, they found another kind of crab-apples
+in the woods, truly native. The fruits were hard and sour,
+but they could be buried to ripen. The trees are much like
+a thorn-apple,&mdash;low, spreading, twiggy, thorny; but the
+pink-white large fragrant flowers are very different. The
+wild crab-apple was called <i>Pyrus coronaria</i> by Linnaeus,
+the "garland Pyrus." On the prairies is another species,
+<i>Pyrus ioensis</i>; it yields a charming double-flowered form,
+"Bechtel's crab." In the South are other species. In fact,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+<i>P. coronaria</i> itself may not be a single species. These wild
+crabs run into many forms. In the northern Mississippi and
+prairie country are native apples good enough to be introduced
+into cultivation under varietal names. These are
+<i>Pyrus Soulardii</i>, a species bearing the name of J. G. Soulard,
+Illinois horticulturist. These crab-apples are probably natural
+hybrids between <i>Pyrus Malus</i> and the prairie crab, <i>P.
+ioensis</i>. Had there been no European apple to be introduced
+by colonists, it is probable that improved forms would
+have been evolved from the native species. In that event,
+North American pomology would have had a very different
+character.</p>
+
+<p>There remains a very different class of apple-trees,
+grown only for ornament and usually known as "flowering
+apples." They are mostly native in China and Japan. They
+are small trees, or even almost bushes, with profuse handsome
+flowers and some of them with very ornamental little
+fruits. They have come to this country largely from Japan
+where they are grown for decoration, as the cherries of
+Japan are grown not for fruit but for their flowers, being
+of very different species from the cherries of Europe and
+America. The common apple itself yields varieties grown
+only for ornament, as one with variegated leaves, one with
+double flowers, and one with drooping branches. These are
+known mostly in Europe; but these forms do not compare
+in interest with the handsome species of the Far East.</p>
+
+<p>All these differing species of the apple-tree multiply
+the interest and hold the attention in many countries. They
+make the apple-tree group one of the most widespread and
+adaptable of temperate-region trees. It will be seen that
+there are three families of them,&mdash;the Eurasian family,
+from which come the pomological apples; the North American<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+family, which has yielded little cultivated material; the
+East-Asian family, abundant in highly ornamental kinds.
+There are no apple-trees native in the southern hemisphere.</p>
+
+<p>The apple-tree, taken in its general sense, has a broad
+meaning. What may be accomplished by breeding and
+hybridizing is beyond imagination.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="XI" id="XI"></a>XI</h2>
+
+<h2>THE VARIETIES OF APPLE</h2>
+
+
+<p>Every seedling of the pomological apples is a new
+variety. Some of these seedlings are so good that they
+are named and introduced into cultivation. They are
+grafted on other stocks, and become part of the great
+inheritance of desirable apples.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be expected that in the long processes of time
+in many countries the number of varieties will accumulate
+to high numbers. No one knows all the kinds that
+have been named and propagated, but they run into many
+thousands. No one book contains them all, although
+some of the manuals are voluminous. Varieties drop out
+of existence, being no longer propagated; new varieties
+come in.</p>
+
+<p>So the lists of varieties gradually change. A list of
+one hundred years ago would contain many names
+strange to us. Thus, of the sixty apples in "A Select List
+of Fruit-Trees" by Bernard M'Mahon, published in "The
+American Gardener's Calendar," in 1806, not more than
+six or eight would be understandable to a planter of the
+present day.</p>
+
+<p>With the standardizing of practices in the commercial
+growing of fruits, the tendency is to reduce the number
+of varieties to small proportions; it is these varieties that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+the nurserymen propagate. Here and there over the
+country are still trees of the extra-quality but uncommercial
+varieties known to a former generation. If the
+amateur now wants to grow these varieties, he must find
+cions as best he can by patient correspondence, and graft
+them on his own trees. When I planted an orchard
+twenty-five years ago, I found cions of Jefferis here, of
+Dyer there, of Mother, Swaar and Chenango in other
+places.</p>
+
+<p>In the enlarged edition of Downing's "Fruits and
+Fruit-Trees of America," 1872, are descriptions of 1856
+varieties, of which 1099 are American in origin, 585 foreign,
+172 of origin unknown. The lists are not only
+much smaller in these days, but the foreign element tends
+to pass out. With the introduction of the Russian apples
+for the cold North in the latter part of the past century,
+the importation of foreign varieties practically ceased,
+as it ceased also for the pears at an earlier date with the
+introductions of Manning, Wilder and others. The epoch
+of the "testing" of varieties passed away, and with it
+has gone an appreciative attitude toward fruits and even
+toward life that constitutes a sad lack in our day.</p>
+
+<p>About thirty years ago (1892) I compiled an inventory
+of all the varieties of apple-trees sold in North
+America, as listed in the ninety-five nurserymen's
+catalogues that came to my hand. The inventory contains
+878 varieties. In the present year, however, perhaps
+not more than 100 varieties are handled by nurserymen
+in Eastern United States. Probably the dealer and
+grower would consider even this small number much too
+great. The highly developed standardized business of the
+present day, aiming at quantity-production, naturally reduces<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
+the variety of products, whether in manufacturing
+or horticulture, and aims at uniformity. Under the influence
+of this leadership, we are losing many of the old
+products, varieties of apples among the rest.</p>
+
+<p>Why do we need so many kinds of apples? Because
+there are so many folks. A person has a right to gratify
+his legitimate tastes. If he wants twenty or forty kinds
+of apples for his personal use, running from Early Harvest
+to Roxbury Russet, he should be accorded the privilege.
+Some place should be provided where he may
+obtain trees or cions. There is merit in variety itself.
+It provides more points of contact with life, and leads
+away from uniformity and monotony.</p>
+
+<p>The leading varieties of apples, that have become
+dominant over wide regions, have been great benefactors
+to man. The original tree should be carefully preserved
+till the last, by historical or other societies; and then a
+monument should be placed at the spot. Monuments
+have been erected to the Baldwin, Northern Spy, McIntosh
+and other apples. We should never lose our
+touch with the origins of men, events, notable achievements,
+outstanding products of nature.</p>
+
+<p>I fear it is now a habit with many fruit-growers to
+minimize the interest in varieties, placing the emphasis
+on tillage, spraying and management of plantations. Yet,
+the only reason why we expend all the labor is that
+we may grow a given kind of apple; the variety is the
+final purpose.</p>
+
+<p>In this little book we cannot discuss varieties at
+length. There are special books on this fascinating subject.
+But we may have before us a compiled list by way
+of interesting suggestion. The list is sorted from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+Catalogue of Fruits of the American Pomological Society,
+1901, the last year in which the catalogue was published
+with quality rated on a scale of 10. On such a scale,
+Ben Davis ranks 4-5; Baldwin, 5-6; Wealthy and York
+Imperial, 6-7; Rhode Island Greening, 7-8; Northern
+Spy, 8-9; Yellow Newtown (Albermarle Pippin) 9-10.
+There is no apple in the entire catalogue of 324 kinds
+(not including crab-apples) rated wholly lower than 4
+in quality except one alone and this is grown for cider
+only, although several varieties of minor importance bear
+the marks 3-4. Only two varieties are rated exclusively
+10, the Garden Royal, a Massachusetts summer-fall apple,
+little known to planters, and the familiar Esopus Spitzenberg.
+Of course judgments differ widely in these matters,
+as there are no inflexible criteria for the scoring of
+quality; yet this extensive list is probably our soundest
+approach to the subject.</p>
+
+<p>The varieties in the catalogue of the American Pomological
+Society are starred if "known to succeed in
+a given district" and double-starred "if highly successful."
+North America is thrown into nineteen districts
+for the purposes of this catalogue (which comprises
+other fruits besides apples). For our purposes we may
+combine them into six more or less indefinite great regions:
+n. e., the northeastern part of the country, Delaware
+and Pennsylvania to eastern Canada; s. e., the parts
+south of this area and mostly east of the Mississippi;
+n. c., north central, from Kansas and Missouri north;
+s. w., Texas to Arizona; mt., the mountain states of the
+Rockies west to the Sierras, including of course much
+high plains country; pac., the Pacific slope, Washington
+to southern California.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Of the varieties starred and double-starred in these
+various geographical regions there are 107; these are
+listed herewith. Of course the intervening twenty years
+might change the rating of some of these apples, other
+varieties have come to the front, and certain ones of
+these older worthies are receding still further into the
+background; but the exhibit is suggestive none the less.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arkansas&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bailey (Sweet)&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Baker&mdash;n.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Baldwin&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., s.w., pac.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Beach&mdash;s.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Belle Bonne&mdash;n.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ben Davis&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt., pac.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bietigheimer&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bledsoe&mdash;s.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Blenheim&mdash;n.e., n.c.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Blue Pearmain&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bough, Sweet&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bryan&mdash;s.e., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Buckingham&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Canada Reinette&mdash;n.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Clayton&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Clyde&mdash;n.e., n.c.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cogswell&mdash;n.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cooper&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cracking&mdash;s.e., n.c.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Doyle&mdash;s.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Early Pennock&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Esopus (Spitzenburg)&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., pac.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ewalt&mdash;n.e., s.e., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fallawater&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fall Harvey&mdash;n.e., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fall Jenneting&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fall Orange&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c.</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fall Pippin&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fanny&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Farrar&mdash;s.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Foundling&mdash;n.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gano&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gilbert&mdash;s.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Golding&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gravenstein&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., s.w., pac.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hagloe&mdash;n.e., s.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hoover&mdash;s.e., n.c., mt., pac.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hopewell&mdash;n.c.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Horse&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hubbardston&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hunge&mdash;s.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Huntsman&mdash;s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Isham (Sweet)&mdash;n.c.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Jacobs Sweet&mdash;n.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kent&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kernodle&mdash;s.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lady Sweet&mdash;n.e., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lankford&mdash;n.e., s.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lawver&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lilly (of Kent)&mdash;n.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lowe&mdash;s.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lowell&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">McAfee&mdash;n.e., s.e, mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">McCuller&mdash;s.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">McMahon&mdash;n.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Magog&mdash;n.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Maverack&mdash;s.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Milwaukee&mdash;n.c.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Minister&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Monmouth&mdash;s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Newell&mdash;n.c.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Nickajack&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Northern Spy&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., pac.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Northwestern (Greening)&mdash;n.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Oconee&mdash;n.e., s.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ohio Nonpareil&mdash;n.e., s.e.</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ohio Pippin&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ortley&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Paragon&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Patten (Greening)&mdash;n.c.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pease&mdash;n.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Peck (Pleasant)&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Peter&mdash;n.c.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pewaukee&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Porter&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pumpkin Sweet&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Quince&mdash;n.e., n.c.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ramsdell (Sweet)&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Red Astrachan&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt., pac.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rhode Island (Greening)&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt., pac.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ridge (Pippin)&mdash;n.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rolfe&mdash;n.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rome&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Stark&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Starkey&mdash;n.e., s.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Stayman Winesap&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sterling&mdash;n.e., n.c.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Summer King&mdash;n.e., s.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Swaar&mdash;n.e., n.c., mt., pac.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Taunton&mdash;s.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Titovka&mdash;n.e., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tompkins King&mdash;n.e., s.e., mt., pac.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Twenty Ounce&mdash;n.e., s.e., s.w., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Utter&mdash;n.c.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vanhoy&mdash;n.e., s.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Virginia Greening&mdash;s.e., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Washington (Strawberry)&mdash;n.e., s.e., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Watson&mdash;s.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">White Pippin&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., pac.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Wine&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Wistal&mdash;s.e., s.w.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Wolf River&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Yellow Bellflower&mdash;n.e., s.e., s.w., mt., pac.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Yellow Newtown&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt., pac.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Yopp&mdash;s.e.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">York Imperial&mdash;n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There are many odd varieties of apple not found in
+any list but about which questions are likely to arise.
+One of these is the Sweet-and-Sour. There is an old
+ribbed variety of this name, the ribs having an acid flesh
+and the furrows sweetish; it is little known and of no
+special value. Apples are sometimes found that are
+sweetish on one side and sourish on the other. The
+reasons for this kind of variation are no more understood
+than are those responsible for variance in color or shape
+or durability. One yet sometimes hears the pleasant
+fable that sweet-and-sour apples are produced by splitting
+the bud when the tree was propagated.</p>
+
+<p>The Surprise is a small whitish apple with light
+red flesh. It is indeed a surprise to bite into such
+an apple, but it has little merit. It is an early winter
+variety.</p>
+
+<p>One is frequently asked about the Sheepnose apple,
+particularly by older people who remember it from early
+days and who deplore its infrequency in these latter
+times. The sheepnose shape&mdash;long-conical&mdash;is an infrequent
+variation, as apples go, and apparently none of
+these forms chances to have sufficient merit to keep it in
+the lists. The name is often applied to the Black Gilliflower,
+an old apple more than three inches long, dark
+red, of light weight perhaps because of the large core,
+ripening late in autumn to midwinter. It seems to be
+specially prized by children, perhaps in part because of
+its unusual shape and in part by its aromatic fragrance;
+but it is not a high-class apple, and is now little seen.
+With the Rambo, Vandevere, some of the russets, Early
+Harvest, Jersey Sweet and other old worthies, it probably
+will pass away unless rescued here and there by the amateur.
+To the lover of choice fruit nothing is old; every succeeding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+crop is as choice and new as is the new year itself,
+and one waits for it again and again.</p>
+
+<p>One hears of seedless and no-core apples, as also of
+pears. The core is present but greatly reduced in size,
+and the seeds may be few and small. I have also raised
+practically seedless tomatoes. All these are infrequent
+variations that may be propagated by asexual parts (cuttings,
+cions), but as yet none of them has any outstanding
+value.</p>
+
+<p>The reader will now ask me about the water-core
+apples, so much sought and prized by youngsters. The
+water-core is not characteristic of a variety, although
+occurring in some varieties more frequently than in others.
+It is a physiological condition, supposed to be associated
+with a relatively low transpiration (evaporation) so that
+excess water is held in the fruit. In certain seasons this
+condition is marked, and also in cloudy regions and often
+on young trees that have an over-supply of moisture. Yet
+such cores occur in old trees and sometimes with more
+or less regularity. What the physiological inability may
+be in such cases to dispose of excess moisture appears to
+be undetermined.</p>
+
+<p>Now and then one finds a double apple, with two fruits
+grown solidly together, two blossom ends and a single
+stem. A seedling tree I knew as a boy bore such apples
+frequently, sometimes a score of them among the crop of
+the year. This, of course, is a malformation or teratological
+state. Apparently two flowers coalesce to form
+these fruits. On the tree of which I speak, the two fruits
+were about equal in size, making a large, widened, edible
+apple, but I have known of other cases in which a diminutive
+undeveloped fruit is attached to the side of a
+normal one.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the oddest of them all is the "Bloomless
+apple." It is said to have no flowers. In fact, however,
+the flowers are present but they lack showy petals and
+are therefore not conspicuous. The bloomless apple is
+a monstrous state, the cause of which is unknown. Now
+and then a tree is reported. It was described at least as
+long ago as 1768, and in 1770 Muenchhausen called it
+<i>Pyrus apetala</i> (the petalless pyrus). The flowers have no
+stamens, and apparently they are pollinated from any other
+apples in the vicinity. In 1785, Moench described it as
+<i>Pyrus dioica</i> (the di&#339;cious pyrus, sexes separated on
+different plants). The ovary is also malformed, having six
+or seven and sometimes probably more cells, and bearing
+ten to fifteen styles. The resulting fruit has a core character
+unknown in other apples but approached in certain
+apple-like fruits, as the medlar. The fruit has a hole or
+opening from the calyx (which is open) into the core; and
+the core is roughly double, one series above the other. The
+fruit, in such specimens as I have seen or read about, has
+no horticultural merit; but it is a curiosity of great botanical
+interest. It appears now and then in widely separated places,
+the trees probably having originated as chance seedlings.
+The fruits from the different originations are not always
+the same in size and form, but the flowers apparently all
+have the same malformed character.</p>
+
+<p>The apple is preeminently the home fruit. It is not
+transitory. It spans every season. In an indifferent cellar
+I keep apples till apples come again. The apple stands up,
+keeps well on the table. Children may handle it. In color
+and form it satisfies any taste. Its rondure is perfect. The
+cavity is deep, graceful and well moulded, holding the good
+stem securely. The basin is a natural summit and termination
+of the curvatures, bringing all the lines together,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>
+finishing them in the ornaments of the remaining calyx. The
+fruit adapts itself to the hand. The fingers close pleasantly
+over it, fitting its figure. It has a solid feel. The flesh of a
+good apple is crisp, breaking, melting, coolly acid or mildly
+sweet. It has a fracture, as one bites it, possessed by no
+other fruit. One likes to feel the snap and break of it.
+There is a stability about it that satisfies; it holds its shape
+till the last bite. One likes to linger on an apple, to sit
+by a fireside to eat it, to munch it waiting on a log when
+there is no hurry, to have another apple with which to invite
+a friend.</p>
+
+<p>Now I am not thinking of the Ben Davis apple or any of
+its kind. I do not want to be doomed to one variety of
+apple, or even to half a dozen kinds, and particularly I do
+not want a poor one. There are enough good apples, if
+we can get them. The days of the amateur fruit-growers
+seem to be passing. At least we do not hear much of them
+in society or in many of the meetings of horticulturists.
+There may be many reasons, but two are evident: we give
+the public indifferent fruits, and thereby neither educate the
+taste or stimulate the desire for more; we do not provide
+them places from which they can get plants of many of the
+choicest things. Yet on a good amateur interest in fruits
+depends, in the end, the real success of commercial fruit-growing.
+Just now we are trying to increase the consumption
+of apples, to lead the people to eat an apple a day: it
+cannot be accomplished by customary commercial methods.
+To eat an apple a day is a question of affections and
+emotions.</p>
+
+<p>We have had great riches in our varieties of apples. It
+has been a vast resource to have a small home plantation
+of many good varieties, each perfect in its season. The great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+commercial apple-growing has been carried to high perfection
+of organization and care. More perfect apples are
+put on the market, in proportion to numbers, than ever before,&mdash;carefully
+grown and graded and handled. I have
+watched this American development with growing pride.
+The quantity-production makes for greater perfection of
+product, but it does not make for variety and human interest,
+nor for high-quality varieties. We shall still improve
+it. Masterful men will perfect organizations. The high character
+and attainment of the commanding fruit-growers,
+nurserymen and dealers are good augury for the future.
+But all this is not sufficient. Quantity-production will be
+an increasing source of wealth, but it cannot satisfy the
+soul.</p>
+
+<p>The objects and productions of high intrinsic merit are
+preserved by the amateur. It is so in art and letters. It
+is necessarily so. A body of amateurs is an essential background
+to the development of science. The late Professor
+Pickering, renowned astronomer, encouraged the amateur
+societies of star-observers, and others. The amateurs in
+the background, disinterested and unselfish, support appropriations
+by legislatures for even abstruse public work.
+The amateur is the embodiment of the best in the common
+life, the conservator of aspirations, the fulfillment of democratic
+freedom. I hope pomology will not lag in this
+respect. In all lines I hope that professionalism will not
+subjugate the man who follows a subject for the love of it
+rather than for the gain of it or for the pride of it. In
+horticulture, when we lose the amateur, who, as the word
+means, is the lover, we lose the ideals.</p>
+
+<p>Naturally, the nurseryman cannot grow trees of all the
+good apples that may be wanted. The experiment stations<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+cannot maintain living museums of them, for their function
+is to investigate rather than to preserve. Arboretums
+are concerned with other activities. Is there not some person
+of means, desiring to do good to his successors, ready
+now to establish a fructicetum <i>in perpetuum</i> for the purpose
+of preserving a single tree of at least one hundred of
+the choicest apples, to the end that a record may be kept
+and that amateurs may be supplied with cions thereof?</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="XII" id="XII"></a>XII</h2>
+
+<h2>THE PLEASANT ART OF GRAFTING</h2>
+
+
+<p>If I procure cuttings of a good apple, what shall I
+do with them that they may give me of their fruitage?</p>
+
+<p>The cuttings will probably be dormant twigs of the
+last season's growth. They may not be expected to grow
+when placed in the ground. They are therefore planted
+in another tree, becoming cions. The case is in no way
+different in principle from the propagating of the young
+tree in the nursery, of which we already have learned.
+The nurseryman works with a small stock, a mere slip of
+a seedling one or two years old. The grower would
+better not attempt the making of nursery trees. It is
+better for him to purchase regular nursery trees and to
+graft the cions on them; or he may put the cions in any
+older tree that is available.</p>
+
+<p>I have spoken of my own collecting of certain dessert
+apples. I "worked" them on young Northern Spy trees,
+purchased when two or three years old; they were grafted
+after they had stood a year in the orchard. These
+Northern Spy trees, used in this case as stocks, were
+regularly grown by nurserymen. The Northern Spy was
+chosen because of its hardiness and straight, clean, erect
+growth, making it a vigorous and comely stock. Weak-growing
+varieties are usually rejected for this purpose.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
+Some growers use Oldenburg as stock, and there are
+other good kinds.</p>
+
+<p>From the young stock, the old head is to be removed
+and a new head (the new variety) grown in its stead.
+The tree, therefore, will be combined of three kinds of
+apple,&mdash;the root of unknown quality; the trunk or body
+under a varietal name; the top, of the variety desired.
+Any number of different kinds of apple wood may be
+worked into the tree if the tree is large enough. If the
+operations are well performed so that there are no imperfect
+unions, and if the pruning is judicious, the tree
+may be grafted many times, in whole or in part.</p>
+
+<p>I have said that my father brought apple seeds from
+New England and that the resulting seedlings were top-grafted.
+One of these trees was early top-worked to
+"Holland Pippin," which seldom bore. It stood in the
+yard near the smoke-house, where it found abundant
+nourishment. It grew to great size. In time I became
+a grafter of trees for the neighborhood, and often as I
+returned at night would have cions of different kinds in
+my pockets. It became a pastime to graft these cions in
+the old tree. More than thirty varieties were placed
+there. It was with keen anticipation, as the years came,
+that I looked for the annual crop, to see what strange
+inhabitants would appear in the great tree-top. I do not
+remember how many of these varieties came into bearing
+before the tree was finally gathered to the wood-box,
+but they were a goodly number, probably more than a
+score. I used often to wonder how it was that the nutrients
+taken in by the roots of the Vermont seedling and
+transported in the tissues of the Holland Pippin, combined
+with the same air, could produce so many diverse<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
+apples and even pears (for I had pears in that tree) each
+with the marks and flavor proper to its kind. The little
+cions I grafted into the tree were soon lost in the overgrowth,
+and yet all the branches that came from them
+carried the genius of one single variety and of none
+other. And I often speculated whether there were any
+reflex action of these many varieties on the root, demanding
+a certain kind of service from it.</p>
+
+<p>The cions (sometimes still called "grafts") are cut
+in winter or early spring, when well matured and perfectly
+dormant. Placed in sand in a cool cellar so they
+will not shrivel, they are kept until grafting time, which
+is early spring, usually before the leaves start on the
+stock. The cions may be placed on the tree by several
+methods, but only two are commonly employed,&mdash;the
+whip-graft and the cleft-graft. The former is adapted
+to small stocks, the size of one's finger or smaller; it is
+the method employed in root-grafting in the nursery,
+and Fig. <a href="#Fig_16">16</a> explains it.</p>
+
+<p>The requirement is to cause the cion and stock to
+grow together solidly, making one piece of wood. The
+growing plastic region is associated with the cambium
+tissues underneath the bark. It is necessary, therefore,
+to bring the "line betwixt the wood and the bark" together
+in the two parts, and to hold the junction firm
+and also well protected from evaporation until union
+takes place. The method of putting the parts together,
+the form of whittling, is a matter of convenience and
+practice.</p>
+
+<p>The case was put in this way by old Robert Sharrock,
+"Fellow of New-College," in his "History of the
+Propagation and Improvement of Vegetables by the concurrence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
+of Art and Nature" (I quote from the second
+edition, Oxford, 1672): "Grafting is an Art of so placing
+the Cyon upon a stock, that the Sap may pass from the
+stock to the Cyon without Impediment." Batty Langley,
+in 1729, gave this direction in the "Pomona": "The
+Stocks being cleft, you must therefore cut the Cion in
+the Form of a Wedge, which must always be cut from a
+Bud, for the Reasons aforesaid; and then with a Grafting-Chizel
+open the Slit, and place the Cion therein, so
+that their Barks may be exactly even and smooth."</p>
+
+<p>Still earlier (1626) did William Lawson, in "A New
+Orchard and Garden," set forth the rationale of the practice
+in his Chapter X, "On Grafting," in this wise:
+"Now are we come to the most curious point of our
+faculty: curious in conceit, but indeed as plaine and
+easie as the rest, when it is plainly shewne, which we
+commonly call Graffing, or (after some) Grafting. I cannot
+Etymoligize, nor shew the original of the word,
+except it come of graving and carving. But the thing or
+matter is: The reforming of the Fruit of one Tree with
+the fruit of another, by an artificial transplacing or transposing
+of a twig, bud or leafe, (commonly called a Graft)
+taken from one tree of the same, or some other kind, and
+placed or put to, or into another tree in due time and
+manner."</p>
+
+<p>If the whip-graft is to be below the ground, it is sufficient
+to tie the parts tightly with string and cover with
+earth; if above ground, wax is applied over the string to
+prevent drying out. On the small shoots of young trees,
+the whip-graft is often employed, but it is not used in
+large trees.</p>
+
+<p>The cleft-graft is shown in Fig. <a href="#Fig_18">18</a>. The trunk or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+branch is cut off; two cions are inserted in a cleft made
+with a knife. The "stub" is covered with grafting-wax
+(Fig. <a href="#Fig_19">19</a>). Cleft-grafting is the usual method for the
+orchardist.</p>
+
+<p class="figleft" style="width: 290px;">
+<a name="Fig_18" id="Fig_18"></a><img src="images/image018.png" width="290" height="405" alt="18. The cleft-graft." title="18. The cleft-graft." />
+<span class="caption">18. The cleft-graft.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="figright" style="width: 290px;">
+<a name="Fig_19" id="Fig_19"></a><img src="images/image019.png" width="290" height="404" alt="19. The cleft-graft after waxing." title="19. The cleft-graft after waxing." />
+<span class="caption">19. The cleft-graft after waxing.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>In either kind of grafting, the cion carries about three
+leaf-buds. If "wood" (cion-shoots) is scarce, only one
+bud may be taken, but this reduces the chances of success.
+One bud may not grow, or the young shoot may
+be injured. The lowest bud is usually most likely to
+grow; it pushes through the wax.</p>
+
+<p>In young trees set for the purpose of top-working,
+the trunk may be cut off at the desired height and two
+cions inserted. The entire top is then removed at once;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+this is allowable only on young trees. Probably the better
+practice is to graft the main small side limbs and the
+main trunk or leader higher up. Usually it is better to
+leave some of the branches on the tree, not removing
+them all till the second or third year.</p>
+
+<p>In old apple-trees, the main branches are grafted,
+where they are an inch or two in diameter. Care is taken
+so to choose the branches that a well-shaped free-headed
+tree will result. Only a small part of the top is removed
+the first year, and three or four years may be required to
+change the top all over, the old branches being removed
+as the new ones grow. In about three years, or four, the
+grafts should begin to bear,&mdash;about as soon as strong
+three-year-old trees planted in the orchard.</p>
+
+<p>Any variety of the pomological apples will grow on
+any other variety, but apples do not take well on other
+species, as does the pear. The pear may be made to grow
+on the apple, but the graft is short-lived and the practice
+is not recommended. Boys may graft indiscriminately
+for practice, but grown-ups, having arrived at the unfortunate
+age of discretion, must operate only on those
+kinds known to succeed when joined. I have never
+known a boy who did not want to graft anything, as soon
+as his attention was called to the operation. The boy
+does not take it for granted: he wants to try.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="XIII" id="XIII"></a>XIII</h2>
+
+<h2>THE MENDING OF THE APPLE-TREE</h2>
+
+
+<p>Many accidents overtake the apple-tree. The hired
+man skins the tree with the harrow; fire runs through
+the dry grass; hard winters shatter the vitality, and parts
+of the tree die; borers enter; rabbits and mice gnaw the
+bark in winter; loads of fruit and burdens of ice crush
+the tree; wind storms play mischief; bad pruning leaves
+long stubs, and rot develops; cankers produce dead
+ragged wounds; fire-blight destroys the tissue; a poorly
+formed tree with bad crotches splits easily; grafts fail
+to take, and long dead ends are left; the tree is injured
+by pickers; vandals wreak their havoc. All these accidents
+must be met and the damages repaired. The surgeon
+must be summoned.</p>
+
+<p>We must first understand how a wound heals on a
+tree. Note any wound,&mdash;knot-hole on the trunk, place
+where wood has been removed. The exposed wound itself
+does not heal; it is covered and inclosed by tissue
+built out from the edges or periphery of the wound. This
+tissue is like a roll. It is the callus. Eventually the tissue
+meets in the center, and the lid is thereby put on the
+place, and it is sealed. The exposed wood has died, if
+it is the cross-section of a branch or a deep wound, and it
+remains under the callus a dead body. If the wood has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
+not started to decay in the meantime, the place is safe,
+but too often invasion has begun before the process is
+complete, the rot disease finally extends to the heart of
+the tree, causing it to become hollow. If the center of
+the wound falls in, the callus cannot cover it, and an open
+sore remains. In these cavities birds may sometimes
+build.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore there are two points for the surgeon to
+consider in respect to the wound itself&mdash;whether it is
+so placed on the tree that the callus forms readily;
+whether the wound is kept healthy during exposure.</p>
+
+<p>All ragged tissue being removed, deep-wound surfaces
+should be kept aseptic. For ordinary cases,
+white-lead paint with plenty of linseed oil is a good protective
+from the germs of decay. On old wood, no longer
+active, creosote is good, perhaps followed by coal-tar.
+Usually, however, paint is quite sufficient. Small exposures
+usually receive no dressing. When the fresh
+surface wood is exposed by removal of bark, it is necessary
+to keep the tissue from drying out, and antiseptics
+are usually not applied. Bandaging with cloth is the
+usual practice, after the wound is cleaned and trimmed.</p>
+
+<p>The repairs fall into two classes,&mdash;those that require
+merely removal of injured parts and treatment of the
+wounds, and those that demand the ingrafting of new
+wood.</p>
+
+<p>We have learned, in the discussion of pruning, that
+long projecting ends of severed branches do not heal.
+The branches to be removed should be cut back close
+to the larger branch or to the juncture with another. In
+repairing injured trees, all projecting parts that do not
+have life in themselves must be removed. All wounds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+should be left smooth, without splinters or hanging bark.
+Decaying wood is to be removed, and the area cleaned
+out and disinfected.</p>
+
+<p>The nature-lover may find much to interest him in the
+observation of knot-holes as he comes and goes. Every
+knot-hole has a history; this history usually can be traced
+by one whose eye is keen and who becomes practiced
+in connecting cause with final result. One prides oneself
+on the ability to work out the obscure cases. An old
+neglected apple orchard thereby affords much entertainment.</p>
+
+<p>If a very large branch breaks off, the remaining part
+is cut back to fresh hard wood; antiseptic is applied; the
+other part of the tree may be shortened-in to aid in restoring
+the proportion or balance.</p>
+
+<p>Deep cavities caused by rot are cleaned out, disinfected
+with bordeaux mixture, gas-tar, or other material,
+and the place filled completely with cement.</p>
+
+<p>In some cases, new wood is added in the form of cions
+of last year's twigs. Such cions may be set around the edge
+of a stub, thrust between the bark and the wood, to start
+new branches where an important one was broken off.
+The cions are cut wedge-shape (much as those in Fig. <a href="#Fig_18">18</a>)
+and a bandage is tied around the stub to hold them in
+place; the exposed parts are covered with grafting-wax.
+The operation is performed in spring.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes cions are used to bridge a girdle. Usually
+a girdle heals itself if the injury does not extend into the
+wood, and if it is bound up to prevent drying out; but
+when the injury is deep and the exposed wood has become
+dry and hard, the cions may be used. The cions are
+somewhat longer than the width of the girdle. The edges<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+of the girdle are trimmed to fresh tight bark; cions are
+cut wedge-shape at either end; the ends are inserted
+underneath the bark at bottom and top of the wound;
+edges of the wound are securely bandaged; entire work
+is covered with wax. The cions are many, so close that
+they nearly touch. The buds on the cions are not allowed
+to produce branches. This process is known as
+bridge-grafting.</p>
+
+<p>With some experience, the cultivator soon learns to
+make many deft applications of ingrafting. Sometimes
+a piece of bark may be used as a patch. In the bracing
+of crotches in young trees, the two trunks may be joined
+by uniting a small branch from either one, twisting them
+together to form a bridge like a bolt; they can be made
+to grow together, forming a solid union. Bolting the
+parts with iron rods, or holding them together by means
+of chains, is the usual and commonly the better method.
+The iron is not to go around a limb, however, for girdling
+results; the rods or chains should be secured by
+bolts bored through the wood and pulling against large
+heads or washers.</p>
+
+<p>The usual repairs are easily made. When trees are
+badly injured, and particularly when the tree is low in
+vitality, it may not be worth while to engage in surgery.
+It may be better to plant a new tree. Saving very old
+trees by the mending processes is not likely to be satisfactory.
+The grower should transfer his affection to a
+young tree. If the tree has had good care throughout its
+life, it probably will not need much surgery in old age.
+The grower will be willing, when the time comes, to
+take a photograph for memory's sake and to let the tree
+come to a timely and artistic end.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="XIV" id="XIV"></a>XIV</h2>
+
+<h2>CITIZENS OF THE APPLE-TREE</h2>
+
+
+<p>Many years ago, my old friend, the late Dr. J. A.
+Lintner, State Entomologist of New York, compiled a
+list of 356 insects that feed on the apple-tree. Later
+authorities place the number at nearly five hundred species.
+It must be a good plant that has such a host of
+denizens. The number of fungi is also large; and
+the tree often supports lichens, alg&aelig;, and other forms
+of life.</p>
+
+<p>The apple-tree is not single in its denizens. No plant
+lives alone. It has association with its fellows, perhaps
+contest for space and nourishment. It provides habitat
+for many organisms, many of which live on its bounty.
+I have never seen a bearing apple-tree that was not a
+colonizing place for other living things. We accept
+these things as matters of course, as being in place, living
+their part in nature. Therefore, one cannot understand
+the apple-tree unless one knows something of its
+citizenry.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the most prominent citizen of the apple-tree
+is the codlin-moth. Its larva is the apple-worm,
+the one that makes "wormy apples," the burrows going
+to the core and out again. The insect is native in Europe,
+but has been known in North America nearly two hundred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+years, and is widespread in the apple countries of
+the world.</p>
+
+<p>If one has screens in the apple cellar, one is likely to
+find small moths on them in the spring, larger than a
+clothes moth, about three-fourths inch in spread of the
+soft gray watered-silk wings. This is the imago or mature
+form of the insect known as the codlin-moth (it
+lives on codlins or apples). The larv&aelig; or "worms" were
+brought into the cellar in the apples; some of them
+crawled out, spun themselves in a cocoon and pupated;
+in due season the moth emerged, ready to lay the eggs
+for other larv&aelig;. Ordinarily the fruit-grower does
+not see the moth, for it is a small object amidst the
+foliage of apple-trees; the larva or apple-worm he knows
+well.</p>
+
+<p>There may be two or more broods of apple-worms,
+depending on the length of the season. In the northern
+apple regions of North America there is usually only one
+brood, with a partial second brood. The first brood is
+hatched from eggs laid by moths that emerge in spring.
+The moths come from larv&aelig; that have lain in cocoons all
+winter, hidden under bark on the trunks and main
+branches of the apple-tree, in crevices in nearby posts
+and fences, and sometimes in the ground. The pup&aelig;
+are the transformed larv&aelig; or worms that left the apple
+of the previous year, usually before it fell, and crawled
+down the tree to find a place to spin the silken brown
+cocoons in which they wrapped themselves to undergo
+the wonderful transformation.</p>
+
+<p>So is the cycle complete: egg laid in early spring,
+mostly on the leaves; larva hatched in about one week,
+crawling to the young apple to feed, where it lives for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+perhaps a month; larva departed from the fruit to form
+a cocoon and to remain quiescent till it pupates the following
+spring (if there is no second brood) when it transforms
+into a moth; the moth alive for one week or ten
+days, laying perhaps as many as one hundred eggs or
+even more. If there is a second or third brood, the pupa
+resurrects in ten days or so into the moth; eggs are laid;
+larv&aelig; are hatched; pup&aelig; again are formed; and thus is
+the process continued. But the winter stage is the larva,
+although perhaps in store-houses the moths may emerge
+earlier and survive till spring.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs of the first brood are commonly laid on the
+leaves and fruit. The young larva or worm eats very
+little on the foliage. It usually crawls into the blossom
+end of the apple. The young apple stands erect, with the
+calyx open (Fig. <a href="#Fig_6">6</a>); later the calyx closes and protects
+the larva that hatched there, forming a good cover for
+its operations (Fig. <a href="#Fig_7">7</a>). The worm drives for the core,
+where it eats the young seeds and burrows extensively;
+then, when nearly grown, it sets out for the surface, eating
+a straight burrow; an opening is made through the
+skin of the apple, but this exit is plugged until the animal
+is ready to leave the place and to crawl down the tree to
+pupate. The larv&aelig; of later broods may enter at the side
+of the apple, where a leaf affords protection or where
+two fruits come together; but the life-history is the same,
+varying in its rapidity.</p>
+
+<p>This account discloses the vulnerable point in the
+life-history, if one is to destroy the insects and to grow
+fair fruit; if poison is lodged on the erect open-topped
+little apple, the young larva will get it before he injures
+the fruit. If the application of the poison is delayed until<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+the calyx closes (Fig. <a href="#Fig_7">7</a>), there will be small chance of
+reaching the worm. The best way to reach the second
+brood is to destroy all the first brood. The standard
+practice, therefore, is to spray the trees soon after the
+petals fall, with the idea of depositing arsenic in the
+blossom end.</p>
+
+<p>But the season of egg-laying is long, often extending
+over a period of three or four weeks, for the moths do
+not all emerge from the cocoons simultaneously. It is
+customary, therefore, to spray again about two weeks
+after the first application, with the hope of catching the
+young worms on their way to the fruit.</p>
+
+<p>There is no question about the efficacy of spraying.
+Its value has been demonstrated time and again. The
+methods and the materials may be learned from the experiment
+station publications in any State, wherein the
+advice is kept up-to-date.</p>
+
+<p>In the days before the perfecting of the spraying processes,
+the codlin-moth was controlled by catching the
+pupating larv&aelig;. Taking advantage of the habit of the
+worm to find lodgment under the bark on the trunk, it was
+the practice to scrape the loose bark from bole and large
+branches to destroy the hiding-places and then to tie a
+band of cloth around the trunk. Under this band the
+worms were taken, as they spun themselves up in the
+cocoons. This is a lesson taken from the industrious
+woodpeckers, who, in the winter, search the trees for
+the pup&aelig; and make holes through the flakes of bark to
+get them. The scraping of apple-trees is not much recommended
+now for the reason that this special necessity
+is passed, and because the better tillage and care together
+with the soaking of the branches and trunk in the spraying<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+operation, tend to keep the tree vigorous and the
+bark properly exfoliated.</p>
+
+<p>So the worm in the apple has a delicate and interesting
+history. From egg to imago the transformations proceed
+with regularity, and they are marvelous. Had we
+not traced the sequence, no man could tell by appearances
+that the larva, the pupa and the moth are one and
+the same animal. They seem to have nothing in common.
+So is the egg stage as different as the other three, but
+we are measurably prepared for this epoch, since we
+know seeds so well; the egg and the seed are analogous.
+That a moth in the air should come from a crawling
+worm in an apple is indeed one of the miracles of nature.
+The worm leaves the apple ere it falls; how the worm
+knows the time is again a mystery. By some instinct,
+it is able to cognize a dying apple. The later worms,
+either the lastlings from the early brood or the product
+of subsequent broods, may remain in the apple when it
+is harvested, particularly in an apple picked before it is
+quite mature and from which the worm has not escaped.</p>
+
+<p>The apple-worm ruins the crop by killing many of the
+fruits and by blemishing the remainder. Seldom are
+there two worms in an apple. They seem to respect each
+other's hunting-ground. From the worm's point of view
+and from man's, one is enough.</p>
+
+<p>If man has dominion and if he needs apples, then
+is he within his rights if he joins issue with the insects.
+Yet is the insect as interesting for all that. I think we
+should miss many of the satisfactions of life, and certainly
+some of the disciplines, if there were no insects.
+My apple-tree is a great place for a naturalist. Van
+Bruyssel wrote a book on "The Population of an Old<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+Pear-Tree." "When certain blue spirits begin to flit
+about me," he writes, "I depart from my study to go and
+read, in what I am allowed, even by my clerical uncle,
+to call my book of devotions. The devotions I mean are
+not in my book-case. No publisher, if he ever thought
+of such a thing, could bring them out. They are a page
+of the book of Nature, opened in the country, under blue
+sky, displayed at all season." What a marvelous company
+Van Bruyssel found on his old pear tree; and what
+inexhaustible worlds did Fabre discover in the lives of
+the spider, the fly, the caterpillar, the wasps, the mason-bees
+and others!</p>
+
+<p>Therefore we need not pause with the other four
+hundred and more insect citizens of the apple-tree. Some
+of them, as the San Jos&eacute; scale, are not peculiarly apple-tree
+insects. My tree has another crew of inhabitants,
+and to this company we may now have introduction.</p>
+
+<p>The spots on the leaves and fruits are not deposits
+of dirt nor are they caused by mysterious conditions in
+the atmosphere, as once supposed, nor is it in the nature
+of leaves to be spotted and of fruits to be scabby; nor
+are the one-sided dwarfed fruits merely accidents. The
+organism responsible for these blemishes is less evident
+than the codlin-moth; yet what fruit-grower knows the
+eggs of the codlin-moth? But the organisms are as
+definite as are the insects; no longer are the fungi things
+without form and without positive cycles.</p>
+
+<p>On the ground are apple leaves, shed in the autumn.
+On the leaves are spots or lesions,&mdash;injured or "diseased"&mdash;infected
+with the apple-scab fungus. Under a good
+microscope the investigator finds immature fruiting
+bodies in these areas. In the early days of Spring, these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+bodies or winter-spores mature. A rain discharges them
+in astonishing numbers. Rising in the air (for they are
+incredibly light), these spores lodge on the unfolding
+leaves and flowers of the apple, and there begin to germinate,
+invading the tissue. The tissue is penetrated
+and killed so rapidly that the practiced eye soon discovers
+a "spot." The leaf, if badly infected, may not reach
+full size; it may curl; it may die and fall; the tree thereby
+is injured.</p>
+
+<p>From the fungus in the active diseased areas, another
+kind of spore develops rapidly. It is the summer-spore,
+which may be produced in prodigious numbers,
+and being discharged carries the disease elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>All summer the process of spore-formation and distribution
+keeps up. If conditions are favorable, the tree
+is invaded in foliage and fruit. The flower-stems in the
+unfolding buds are attacked by the winter-spores and the
+flower falls. The apples become spotted from the invasion
+of the summer-spores, perhaps misshapen. Late
+infections may not show at picking time, but develop on
+the fruit in storage. The affected leaves are cast in the
+autumn, the winter-spores begin to form, the snows come
+and hide the processes, in spring the spores mature; and
+so does the round of life go on and on.</p>
+
+<p>There are beautiful forms in these fragile fungus
+threads that eat their way into the tissues of the host.
+There are fascinating phenomena in the growth and reproduction.
+Even so and for all that, man protects his
+tree by spraying it with poison, and thereby again does
+he have dominion.</p>
+
+<p>The spraying for apple-scab is with lime-sulfur to
+which may be added arsenate of lead. This treatment,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+properly timed, may suffice also for the codlin-moth.
+As the fungus may attack the flower-stems and kill them,
+so is the first application made when the flower-buds
+open and the stems begin to separate, but before the
+flowers expand; the operator has a period of one to three
+days in which to spray. A second spraying is given just
+after the blossoms fall, as for codlin-moth; if the season
+is wet, a third application may be made ten to fourteen
+days later; if the fungus seems to spread, a fourth spraying
+may be applied in midsummer. These sprayings,
+variously modified, control not only the codlin-moth and
+the scab fungus but also scale, blister-mite, plant-lice,
+leaf-roller, case-bearer, bud-moth, red-bug and others.</p>
+
+<p>In the tropics one sees trees bearing great burdens
+of orchids and bromeliads and ferns and mosses, and one
+wonders at the strange and exuberant population. Yet
+here is my apple-tree supporting epiphytes and parasites
+and insects, protector and nurse of a goodly company;
+and birds nest on the branches thereof.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="XV" id="XV"></a>XV</h2>
+
+<h2>THE APPLE-TREE REGIONS</h2>
+
+
+<p>The northern hemisphere is the home of the apple,
+particularly Central Europe, Canada, the United States.
+In certain regions in the southern hemisphere the temperature
+and humidity are right for the good growing of
+apples, mostly in elevated areas. In New Zealand
+and parts of Australia, apple-growing is assuming large
+proportions. Their export trade to Europe and parts of
+South America has come to be important and undoubtedly
+is destined greatly to increase.</p>
+
+<p>In Europe, where land is often limited and high in
+price, apple-trees may be planted closer than in America,
+even in field conditions, and more attention is given
+to pruning, heading-in, and the development of fruit-spurs
+in the interior of the tree-top. I noticed this practice
+in New Zealand, also. In these directions, the Europeans
+have much to teach us in the careful growing of
+good apples. In Europe, the definite training of the
+apple-tree begins in the nursery; quantity-production,
+with standardization, is not there the aim.</p>
+
+<p>In North America the general practice is to let the
+tree take its course, reaching its full natural stature. The
+pruning is mostly corrective, to keep the tree in shape
+and to prevent the top from becoming too thick, rather<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+than in the development of fruiting wood. The consequence
+is that our trees become very large, specially in
+New York and New England where they are long-lived.
+In the western country, as we have learned, the apple-tree
+tends to be shorter-lived and does not usually attain
+such great size. In the New York apple country, orchards
+may be in good bearing at forty to sixty years
+from planting, and individual trees may be productive
+much longer than this. The trees come into good bearing
+in ten to fifteen years. In the irrigated regions of
+the West, the trees may be expected to bear a good crop
+two to five years earlier; to what age they may attain,
+in large plantations, it is yet too early to state.</p>
+
+<p>The commercial apple regions of North America are
+in Canada and the northern United States, comprising
+about two or three tiers of States, with important extensions
+southward into the mountains and in special parts.
+The Southern States are not known as apple-growing
+country, except in special restricted elevated areas, although
+there are considerable plantations near the Gulf
+of Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>The geography of apple-growing on the North American
+continent cannot be better displayed than by copying
+the table of contents of the larger part of Chapters
+III and II in Folger and Thomson's excellent recent book,
+"The Commercial Apple Industry of North America:"</p>
+
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Commercial Apple Production in Canada</i></span></p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Nova Scotia</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Quebec</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ontario</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">British Columbia.</span><br />
+</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p>
+<p><span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Leading Apple Regions of the United States</i></span></p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Western New York</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hudson Valley</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">New England Baldwin belt</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">The Champlain district</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">New Jersey</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Delaware</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Shenandoah-Cumberland district</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Piedmont district of Virginia</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Minor regions in Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Virginia</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mountain region of North Carolina</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mountain region of Georgia</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ohio</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Southern Ohio, Rome Beauty district</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Minor regions in Ohio</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kentucky</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Michigan</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Illinois</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Southern Illinois early apple region</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Mississippi Valley region of Illinois</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ozark region</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Missouri River region</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arkansas Valley of Kansas</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Southeastern Illinois</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Colorado</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">New Mexico</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Utah</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Montana</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Washington</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Yakima Valley</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Wenatchee North Central Washington district</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Spokane district</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Walla Walla district</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Oregon</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Hood River Valley</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Rogue River Valley</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Other apple districts in Oregon</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Idaho</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Payette district</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Boise Valley</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Twin Falls</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Lewiston section</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">California</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Watsonville district</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Sebastopol apple district</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Yucaipa section</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Wisconsin</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Minnesota</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The varieties of the South and the North, and largely
+also of the West and the East, are prevailingly different.
+Canada has a set of apples quite its own. These differences
+are marked when one visits exhibitions in the
+various regions. Let the visitor who is a good judge of
+apples in Michigan and Ohio attempt to judge them in
+an exhibition in the Annapolis Valley of Nova Scotia, in
+the Province of Quebec, in North Carolina, in Minnesota,
+in Oregon. He will be impressed with the wonderful
+diversity, as well as the undeveloped resources, of the
+continent.</p>
+
+<p>Southward, apples do not keep well. There are no
+true winter apples in the Southern States, outside mountain
+regions. A winter apple of the North becomes a
+fall apple in the South. In fact, there are marked differences
+in keeping quality within a single State. On gravelly
+lands or warm slopes in the southern part of New York,
+the Northern Spy may become practically a late autumn
+apple; in the northern parts of the State it is a firm crisp
+all-winter keeper. In the winter apple, the ripening process
+proceeds in storage. When the season is so long<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+that maturity is reached on the tree, the subsequent
+duration is relatively short.</p>
+
+<p>It is not to be inferred, however, that apples are to
+be grown only in regions and soils naturally well adapted.
+Such adaptations should be controlling in commercial
+plantations; but if man has dominion he should be able
+to accomplish much in untoward or even in hostile conditions.
+Even the city lot may be able to yield a harvest,
+if the occupant of it is minded in fruits rather than in
+other things. Every observant traveler has noted cases
+in which good results in the rearing of plants and animals
+have been attained in places that no one would choose
+for the purpose: the man has overcome his obstacles.
+I was impressed with this fact in visiting a greenhouse
+in the Shetland Islands. Cultivation has been carried
+far beyond the optimum regions. The merit of the man's
+performance is measured in the excellence of his result
+rather than in the quantity of it. The application of
+skill is the highest test of ability in plant-growing, and
+this is often expressed in the most difficult places.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may be the adaptability of any general
+territory to the growing of apples in a large way, the
+probability is that a man of resources and skill will be
+able to raise good apples for himself, unless, of course,
+the region is prohibitive. The amateur may be a law unto
+himself in many of these matters, delighting in the ingenuity
+that enables him to overcome.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="XVI" id="XVI"></a>XVI</h2>
+
+<h2>THE HARVEST OF THE APPLE-TREE</h2>
+
+
+<p>Finally the apple is ripe, a fair goodly object joyous
+in the sun, inviting to every sense. Hanging amidst its
+foliage, bending the twig with its weight, it is at once a
+pattern in good shape, perfect in configuration, in sheen
+beyond imitation, in fragrance the very affluence of all
+choice clean growth, its surface spread with a bloom
+often so delicate that the unsympathetic see it not; and
+yet the rains do not spoil it.</p>
+
+<p>The apple must be picked. Do not let it fall. Probably
+it is over-ripe when it falls; the hold is loosened; its time
+is up. Wormy apples may fall before they are ripe; the
+worm injury, if it begins early, causes them to ripen prematurely.
+A premature apple is not a good apple, albeit
+the small boy relishes it but only because he may get
+his apple earlier; in the apple season, when ripe fruits are
+abundant, the boy does not choose the wormy one.</p>
+
+<p>Pick the apple from the tree. It will do you good.
+It is ever so much better than to pick it from a box on the
+market or out of a quart-can in the ice-chest. You will
+feel some sense of responsibility when you pick it, some
+reaction of relationship to its origin. We know that we
+understand folks better when we see them at home.</p>
+
+<p>In varieties that mature before winter, the apple is of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+best quality when it ripens on the tree and is picked when
+fit to eat. In this respect it differs from the pear. One
+reason why store apples are usually poor is because they
+must be picked long before ripe to stand shipment. In
+my experience it is most difficult to find a man who will
+pick apples when ripe; he is usually possessed to pull
+them green, thinking that if the fruit is full grown and
+has a red cheek it is therefore ready to be plucked.</p>
+
+<p>One would expect the best summer and fall apples to
+come from nearby local orchards, but practically this is
+not the case because the grower will not allow them to
+remain on the tree until they are fit. Of course the really
+ripe apple will not keep long and it does not stand rough
+handling, but this does not affect the fact that, for eating,
+an apple should be naturally ripe. In every city, small or
+large, a good trade can be built up for local ripe hand-picked
+fruit of the first quality, in competition with the
+best commercial supply.</p>
+
+<p>Winter apples are picked in the Northern States in
+October, sometimes late in September. They are then
+full grown, but are hard and inedible. The red varieties
+are full colored; the green ones show more or less yellow.
+Light early frost does not injure them on the tree. Usually
+they are placed at first in piles or windrows; and
+from these piles they are barreled or boxed for market.
+If the choicest grades are to be made, they should be
+taken to a packing-house.</p>
+
+<p>The apple is an easy fruit to pick. The stem parts
+readily from the spur or twig. Yet if the harvester is
+choice of his trees he will work deftly rather than
+roughly, not to injure the bearing wood. The fruits are
+placed in baskets as they are plucked, sometimes in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
+bag slung over the shoulders but this is not the best way
+when the apples are ripe. In the packing-house, the
+fruits are sorted into uniform grades if they are for
+market.</p>
+
+<p>The better the trees are tilled, pruned and sprayed,
+the more uniform will be the crop, and particularly if
+the fruit is thinned on the tree; yet the second-class and
+even cull apples will be many under ordinary conditions.
+The purchaser, noting the price of extra-grade apples, may
+not realize that he buys only the remainder in a long
+process of grading, extending really over the season or
+even throughout the life of the orchard. In all this time,
+the grower has borne the risks of frosts and hail, insect
+and fungus invasions, lack of help, and disastrously low
+prices. A finished product of high quality is always
+expensive.</p>
+
+<p>The usual apples on the open market are not the kind
+I have here tried to describe. They are the product of
+indifferent orchards or of careless handling. They are
+purchased for cooking; and the eating of apples out of
+hand because they are attractive and really good is an
+unknown experience with great numbers of our people.
+The polished shiny apples of the fruit-stands are a delusion.
+The practice of burnishing the fruits produces
+a most inartistic result, destroying the natural bloom and
+violating the appearance of a natural apple. It is one
+thing to clean a fruit if it is soiled (which is seldom the
+case with boxed or barreled apples); it is quite another
+thing to rub and furbish an apple as if it were a billiard
+ball or glass marble and not a living object that grew on
+a tree,&mdash;it sets false standards before the children. Yet
+all this is in line with much of our practice whereby, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
+cookery and manipulation, we disguise our foods and
+show our lack of appreciation of the products themselves.</p>
+
+<p>For home use, winter apples may well be stored in
+boxes in a cool moist cellar if such a place is available.
+For best results in long keeping, the temperature should
+be maintained below 40 degrees F. In a cellar containing
+a furnace, the fruits shrivel from too much evaporation,
+as also in an attic or other dry room. If the fruit must
+be stored in such places, it is well to keep the box or
+barrel tightly closed, and the individual apples may be
+wrapped in thin paper.</p>
+
+<p>The apples must be sorted now and then, to remove
+the decaying ones; if the fruit was carefully sprayed,
+handled and graded in the first place and not too ripe,
+the necessity of frequent sorting will be considerably reduced.
+But in any case, the keeping of apples, except
+under good cold-storage, is at best a process of continually
+saving the most durable fruits. An "outside cellar,"
+if properly ventilated, usually is a good place in which
+to keep apples. With the use of furnaces for heating
+and the cramped quarters of city apartments, the keeping
+of apples for home supply is constantly more difficult.</p>
+
+<p>There is no apple like the one that comes up fresh
+from the cellar on a winter night, cool, crisp, solid yet
+ready. It is the fruit of the home fireside. I often wonder
+whether one in a hundred of the people know what a
+really good and timely apple is.</p>
+
+<p>The yield of an apple-tree depends on many factors,&mdash;age,
+size, thriftiness, care it has received, whether it has
+escaped frost and other injuries; and some varieties are
+much more prolific than others. Some apples are "shy
+bearers," and for this reason soon are lost to propagation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
+unless they have some superlative merit; Yellow Bellflower
+is an example of a shy, or at least an irregular,
+bearer. The great commercial varieties are of course
+good bearers, as Baldwin, Ben Davis, Stayman, York
+Imperial, Oldenburg, Rome, McIntosh, Wealthy, Yellow
+Transparent, Jonathan.</p>
+
+<p>An apple-tree at full bearing is a wonderful sight at
+the harvest, particularly in such varieties as McIntosh
+and Baldwin, in which the fruit is highly colored and
+hangs well toward the outside of the tree-top. While
+the first bearing year may yield only a half dozen fruits,
+the crop increases rapidly with the added years,&mdash;one
+peck, one bushel, five bushels, ten bushels, thirty bushels,
+even to sixty and seventy bushels on large sturdy old
+trees of some varieties. The amateur, however, first
+prizes the quality and regularity of his product for the
+sheer joy of it; then every added bushel is so much to
+the good.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="XVII" id="XVII"></a>XVII</h2>
+
+<h2>THE APPRAISAL OF THE APPLE-TREE</h2>
+
+
+<p>Now, therefore, in these sixteen little chapters have
+I tried to explain what I feel about the apple-tree. It is
+a version to my friend, the reader, not a treatise.</p>
+
+<p>As the interpretation is in the realm of the sensibilities,
+so do I aim not directly at concreteness. Yet as
+it is now the fashion to "score" all our products by a
+scale of "points," I make a reasonable concession to it.
+But I do not like the scoring of the fruit independently
+of the tree on which it grew as if the fruit were only a
+commodity. I know we cannot bring the tree to the
+exhibition-room, yet the perfect measure, nevertheless, is
+the tree and the fruit together. In these later times we
+have said much against the use of the museum specimen
+to the exclusion of the living object in its natural place:
+let us be cautious, then, that we do not forget apple-trees
+in our studies of apples.</p>
+
+<p>Here I shall not arrange numerical scales of points
+for the apple-tree. Sufficient for this occasion is the
+naming of the points, letting the reader place his own
+percentage-value on each of them; for I am trying to
+teach, not to instruct.</p>
+
+<p>Yet I must insert, for the reader's benefit, certain good
+rules and scores that have been adopted for the "judging"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
+of the fruit by those experienced in these matters.
+This excellent exercise of judging fruits at exhibitions has
+gained much headway. Students of schools and colleges
+are trained for the "judging teams," and great technical
+perfection has been attained.</p>
+
+<p>To be exact is an exigency of science. I fear that we
+make exactness an end, but that is neither here nor there
+on this occasion and I shall not now pursue the subject
+further; I hope the judging trains the judge to see what
+he looks at in other things as well as in apples, that it
+leads him into the pleasant paths of causes and effects,
+that it opens the eyes of the blind.</p>
+
+<p>The customary judging of plants and animals and
+their products consists in assessing the attributes against
+a scale of perfection. Thus, if "form" or "conformation"
+is worth 10 points in the hundred (by the estimation of
+good authorities), the judge must decide whether the
+particular animal before him merits 6 or 7, more or less.
+So if "flavor" in an apple is considered to be worth 20
+points of the hundred, the judge makes up his mind what
+rating, within that limit, he shall accord to the fruit he
+is testing. The arrangement in tabular form of the features
+for any product, with the number of points stated
+for each, all summing 100, constitutes a "score-card."
+Thus there may be a score-card for Merino sheep, another
+for Shropshires, one for apples, and for any other objects
+whatsoever.</p>
+
+<p>At competitive exhibitions, the element of comparison
+comes in. Perhaps it is the only criterion to be considered
+in a particular case,&mdash;whether this apple is better than
+that or than any number of others, which of several
+"plates" or samples of apples merits first mention, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
+of two or more collections of varieties is altogether most
+worthy of a prize. In these cases, the different fruits or
+collections may be scored by the card, and the total footings
+determine where the award shall go. Or, the different
+entries may be judged in general, "by the eye;"
+this is the usual method, and is satisfactory in the hands
+of persons whose standing and experience carry conviction.</p>
+
+<p>If one is to evaluate an apple-tree against a scale or
+code, these are some of the features, in relative order of
+importance, to be considered:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Whether the tree is typical of the variety, in shape,
+manner of growth, character of foliage and bloom.</p>
+
+<p>2. Whether it is sound of all injury and disease, and
+free of blemish.</p>
+
+<p>3. Whether it is duly vigorous and productive.</p>
+
+<p>4. Whether its fruit is characteristic of the variety or
+kind.</p>
+
+<p>5. Whether the pruning has been good; the thinning;
+the spraying.</p>
+
+<p>6. Whether the performance of the tree has fulfilled
+reasonable expectations.</p></div>
+
+<p>The judging of fruits is facilitated by such score-cards
+and explanations as the following:</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+1. For comparison of different dessert varieties.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="dessert">
+<tr><td align='left'>Conformation</td><td align='right'>10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Size</td><td align='right'>5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Color</td><td align='right'>20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Core</td><td align='right'>5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Uniformity</td><td align='right'>5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Durability (keeping)</td><td align='right'>10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Condition</td><td align='right'>5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Freedom from blemish</td><td align='right'>10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Quality</td><td align='right'>30</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>100</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center">2. For comparison of plates or samples of the same
+variety.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="plates">
+<tr><td align='left'>Form</td><td align='right'>15</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Size</td><td align='right'>15</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Color</td><td align='right'>25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Uniformity</td><td align='right'>25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Freedom from blemish</td><td align='right'>20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>100</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<h3>DIRECTIONS FOR JUDGING PLATES OF APPLES IN AN EXHIBITION</h3>
+
+<p>Following are directions and explanations issued to
+judging teams in exhibition contests, by an agricultural
+college:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(1) <i>Form</i>: The shape and conformation of the apples on any one
+plate should be typical for the variety, the region of growth
+being somewhat considered. All specimens on a plate should
+be uniform in shape. When competition is close, a careful
+comparison of the more minute characteristics of the basin,
+cavity and stem are made.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>Size</i>: The specimens on any one plate should be uniform in
+size and of the size most acceptable on the market for the
+variety. A plate may be marked down for being either under
+or over the accepted commercial size. In many exhibits, the
+ideal size is given in the premium announcements.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <i>Colors</i>: All specimens in an entry should be uniformly colored
+in the way that is considered perfect for the variety in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
+district where grown. In judging color, one should consider
+(<i>a</i>) the depth and attractiveness of the ground color, (<i>b</i>) the
+brightness and attractiveness of the over-color, (<i>c</i>) the amount
+of the over-color. In a yellow or green apple, the yellow or
+green should be clear and even all over, considering the
+maturity of the specimen. In varieties that are typically blushed,
+(e. g., Maiden Blush) the specimens should show a distinct
+tinge of red on the cheek exposed to the sun. With such apples
+as Rhode Island Greening, that are only sometimes blushed,
+the presence or absence of the blush should not detract except
+that the apples on any one plate should be uniform. With
+apples typically over-colored, an intense color for the variety
+is desirable.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>bloom</i> may be wiped from apples, but in no case should
+polished specimens be given the preference. Some exhibits
+have special rules regarding polishing of apples.</p>
+
+<p>(4) <i>Conditions</i>: Refers to the degree of ripeness. An apple to be
+in perfect condition should be firm for the variety and free
+from the withering that comes when apples are picked too green
+or when the fruit is over-ripe or has not been stored properly.</p>
+
+<p>(5) <i>Freedom from blemish</i>: All specimens should be free from
+blemishes of all kinds. One should look particularly for (<i>a</i>)
+marks of fungous or other disease, including stippin, (<i>b</i>) injury
+from insects of all kinds, (<i>c</i>) mechanical injury, including loss
+of stem. Unmistakable evidence of codlin-moth injury or San
+Jos&eacute; scale should disqualify a plate. Other blemishes are considered
+important in about the order named: Side worms,
+scab, stippin, curculio or red-bug, skin punctures, bruises, stem
+pulled, russet (not typical for variety) and limb rub. The
+extent of scab spots should be considered. Minute spots are
+not as serious as some other blemishes, while spots which deform
+the apple should disqualify the plate.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other information</i>: Five specimens constitute a plate, except when
+the rules of the contest or exhibit state otherwise. Any
+variation from this rule disqualifies the plate.</p>
+
+<p>When a plate is not labelled with the correct variety name, it
+should not be judged, but is disqualified and if possible the correct
+name is applied. If one specimen on a plate is not as labelled, the
+whole plate is disqualified.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In some judging contests, the plates are not labelled with the
+variety name, and the contestant is supposed to make the identification.</p>
+
+<p><i>Precaution</i>: Avoid pressing the specimens with the thumb and
+finger so as to bruise the fruit. The degree of firmness can
+be determined by gentle pressure with the inside of the
+whole hand.</p>
+
+<p>Defects, apparent or otherwise, should not be probed with the
+finger nail, pin, or other hard object.</p>
+
+<p>Special care should be exercised to replace all specimens on the
+right plate.</p></div>
+
+<p>Having in mind these definite criteria, the reader will
+know what is meant by a "good apple" and also a good
+apple-tree. Measurements of perfection aid us to estimate
+the deficiencies.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>He who knows the apple-tree knows also its region.
+The landscape is his in every blessed year; he sees
+the chariots of the months come down from the distances
+and pass by him into the twilights. Clouds are his and
+the repeating shadows on the hills. The morning when
+the blossoms are laden with the fragrance of the night,
+high noon when the bees are busy, the gloaming when
+the birds drop into the boughs, these are his by divine
+right. The smell of new-plowed fields is his, with the
+urgent promise in them. Seed time and harvest, as old
+as the procreant earth and as new as the latest sunrise,
+are his to conjure. The verities are his for the asking, the
+strong things of cultivated fields and of wild places. And
+mastery is his, that comes of the amelioration of the land
+and the education of the tree. All these are everyman's,
+and yet they are his alone.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+<p>
+&nbsp;<span style="margin-left: 7em;">          PAGE</span><br />
+<br />
+Acid phosphate                     <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+Age of apple-trees                 <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+Alternate bearing                  <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+American Pomological Society       <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Apple-scab                         <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Appleseed, Johnny                  <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br />
+<br />
+Arsenate of lead                   <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Australia, Apples in               <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Bacteria                           <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+Bark of apple-tree                 <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of cherry           <a href="#Page_11">11</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of elm              <a href="#Page_11">11</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of pear-tree        <a href="#Page_11">11</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Bearing year                       <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Black Gilliflower                  <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<br />
+Bloomless apple                    <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br />
+<br />
+Bolting trees                      <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+<br />
+Bridge-grafting                    <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+<br />
+Brush pile                         <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<br />
+Budding                        <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Buds                       <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Calyx-tube                         <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
+<br />
+Canada, apples in                  <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+Canker                             <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+Cherimoya                           <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Cherry, bark of                    <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br />
+<br />
+Christophine                        <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Cider, treatise on                 <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+<br />
+Cion-grafting                  <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span><br />
+Citrus fruits                       <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Cleft-grafting                     <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+Coconut                             <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Codlin-moth                    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br />
+<br />
+Custard apple                       <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Diseases                           <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+<br />
+Distance apart                     <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Double apples                      <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+<br />
+Doucin stocks                      <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+<br />
+Downing, quoted                <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<br />
+Dwarf apple-trees                  <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Elm, bark of                       <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br />
+<br />
+Endicott, Gov.                     <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br />
+<br />
+Enriching the land                 <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+Exhibitions                       <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Fertilizing                <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+Fig                                 <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Flower, structure of               <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Folger and Thomson, quoted         <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+Fructicetum                        <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+<br />
+Fruit-spurs and bearing            <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Fungi                              <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Girdles                            <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br />
+<br />
+Graftage                       <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br />
+<br />
+Grafts                             <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br />
+<br />
+Guava                               <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Harvesting                        <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br />
+<br />
+Hillsides for orchards             <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<br />
+Hogs in orchards                   <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+Hypanthium                         <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Insects                        <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Judging apples                    <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Knots                      <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Land for apples                    <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Langley, Batty                     <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+Lawson, William                    <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+Leaf-arrangement                   <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span><br />
+Lichens                            <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br />
+<br />
+Lime-sulphur                       <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Linnaeus                           <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+<br />
+Lintner, J. A.                     <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Malus                              <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+<br />
+Mamone                              <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Mango                               <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Manning, mentioned                 <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<br />
+M'Mahon, quoted                    <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Medlar                             <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br />
+<br />
+Mending trees                      <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br />
+<br />
+Moench, cited                      <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br />
+<br />
+Mound-layering                     <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Muenchhausen, cited                <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Natural trees                      <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+New Zealand, apples in             <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Nitrate of soda                    <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Origin of apple-tree               <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Ornamental apples                  <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br />
+<br />
+Ovary                              <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Paint for wounds                   <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br />
+<br />
+Papaya                              <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Paradise stocks                    <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+<br />
+Parkinson, John                    <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+Pasturing                          <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+Pear, bark of                      <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br />
+<br />
+Phosphate, acid                    <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+Phyllotaxy                         <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br />
+<br />
+Picking apples                    <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br />
+<br />
+Piece-roots                        <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Pistil                         <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
+<br />
+Plant-breeder                      <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Planting                       <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Plant-lice                         <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+Pollen-tube                        <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Pollination                        <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
+<br />
+Pomegranate                         <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span><br />
+Propagation of apple-tree      <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+Pruning               <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br />
+<br />
+Pyrus baccata                      <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coronaria           <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">diocia            <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ioensis           <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Malus             <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Soulardii          <a href="#Page_64">64</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Receptacle of flower               <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
+<br />
+Regions for apples             <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Repairing trees                    <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br />
+<br />
+Root-grafting                      <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Roots                              <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Scale insects                      <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+Scale of points                   <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br />
+<br />
+Score-card                        <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br />
+<br />
+Seedless apple                     <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+<br />
+Seedling trees                 <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Seeds, planting                    <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Sharrock, Robert                   <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br />
+<br />
+Sheep in orchards                  <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+Sheepnose                          <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<br />
+Sod in orchards                    <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<br />
+Soil for apples                    <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Spraying              <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br />
+<br />
+Star-apple                          <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Stigma                             <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Stocks                             <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+Storing                           <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br />
+<br />
+Struggle for existence             <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+Style                              <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Surgery                            <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br />
+<br />
+Surprise                           <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<br />
+Sweet-and-Sour                     <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Thinning                       <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br />
+<br />
+Thomson and Folger                 <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+Tilling               <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span><br />
+Tree surgery                       <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Varieties                          <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">list of <a href="#Page_70">70</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Water-core                         <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+<br />
+Whip-graft                         <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Wilder, mentioned                  <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<br />
+Wormy apples                  <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h3>Transcriber's Notes</h3>
+
+<p>Some illustrations have been moved from their original positions to
+avoid breaking up the text, and to put them in numerical order.</p>
+
+<p>Variations in spelling and punctuation have been retained from the
+original book except for the following changes:</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_51">51</a>: Both instances of "varities" changed to "varieties".</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_74">74</a>: "occuring" changed to "occurring".</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_91">91</a>: "foilage" changed to "foliage".</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_93">93</a>: "analagous" changed to "analogous".</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_94">94</a>: "or" changed to "nor".<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">"investigatior" changed to "investigator".</span><br /></p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_100">100</a>: "gravly" changed to "gravelly".</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_113">113</a> (Index): "Appleseed, Johny" changed to "Appleseed, Johnny".<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 7em;">"Bark of Cheery" changed to "Bark of Cherry".</span><br /></p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_115">115</a> (Index): "Linn&aelig;us" changed to "Linnaeus" to match text.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Apple-Tree, by L. H. Bailey
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE APPLE-TREE ***
+
+***** This file should be named 26132-h.htm or 26132-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/2/6/1/3/26132/
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Diane Monico, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images produced by Core Historical
+Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/26132-h/images/image001.jpg b/26132-h/images/image001.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f3daf97
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-h/images/image001.jpg
diff --git a/26132-h/images/image002.jpg b/26132-h/images/image002.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b5c5192
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-h/images/image002.jpg
diff --git a/26132-h/images/image003.jpg b/26132-h/images/image003.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..14b2bdd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-h/images/image003.jpg
diff --git a/26132-h/images/image004.png b/26132-h/images/image004.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..368bcb9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-h/images/image004.png
diff --git a/26132-h/images/image005.png b/26132-h/images/image005.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1e19418
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-h/images/image005.png
diff --git a/26132-h/images/image006.jpg b/26132-h/images/image006.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e3fcbb4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-h/images/image006.jpg
diff --git a/26132-h/images/image007.jpg b/26132-h/images/image007.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..16e39f6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-h/images/image007.jpg
diff --git a/26132-h/images/image008.jpg b/26132-h/images/image008.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7d12bbe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-h/images/image008.jpg
diff --git a/26132-h/images/image009.jpg b/26132-h/images/image009.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5249dcc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-h/images/image009.jpg
diff --git a/26132-h/images/image010.jpg b/26132-h/images/image010.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c547dd8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-h/images/image010.jpg
diff --git a/26132-h/images/image011.jpg b/26132-h/images/image011.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1c9de15
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-h/images/image011.jpg
diff --git a/26132-h/images/image012.jpg b/26132-h/images/image012.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3bab94c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-h/images/image012.jpg
diff --git a/26132-h/images/image013.jpg b/26132-h/images/image013.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..89032c2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-h/images/image013.jpg
diff --git a/26132-h/images/image014.png b/26132-h/images/image014.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e5b927e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-h/images/image014.png
diff --git a/26132-h/images/image015.png b/26132-h/images/image015.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..22ddd75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-h/images/image015.png
diff --git a/26132-h/images/image016.png b/26132-h/images/image016.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..57c5e13
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-h/images/image016.png
diff --git a/26132-h/images/image017.png b/26132-h/images/image017.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aa4b35f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-h/images/image017.png
diff --git a/26132-h/images/image018.png b/26132-h/images/image018.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2779b6e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-h/images/image018.png
diff --git a/26132-h/images/image019.png b/26132-h/images/image019.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..825299a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-h/images/image019.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/f0001.png b/26132-page-images/f0001.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c7354ce
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/f0001.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/f0002.png b/26132-page-images/f0002.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..064af60
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/f0002.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/f0003.png b/26132-page-images/f0003.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..51209d2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/f0003.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/f0004.png b/26132-page-images/f0004.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aa403db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/f0004.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/f0005.png b/26132-page-images/f0005.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ac66664
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/f0005.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/f0006-image1.png b/26132-page-images/f0006-image1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0dbfcb2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/f0006-image1.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0007.png b/26132-page-images/p0007.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..64fad5c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0007.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0008.png b/26132-page-images/p0008.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b1d190a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0008.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0009.png b/26132-page-images/p0009.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4643ff7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0009.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0010.png b/26132-page-images/p0010.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..33a75f5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0010.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0011.png b/26132-page-images/p0011.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d0bc80c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0011.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0012-insert1.png b/26132-page-images/p0012-insert1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ae34fc9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0012-insert1.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0012.png b/26132-page-images/p0012.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4639fea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0012.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0013.png b/26132-page-images/p0013.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5785dcb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0013.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0014.png b/26132-page-images/p0014.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d2ed6dc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0014.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0015.png b/26132-page-images/p0015.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c540c02
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0015.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0016-insert1.png b/26132-page-images/p0016-insert1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b1bf120
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0016-insert1.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0016.png b/26132-page-images/p0016.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5dca937
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0016.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0017.png b/26132-page-images/p0017.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..72f17fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0017.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0018.png b/26132-page-images/p0018.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4511ddb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0018.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0019.png b/26132-page-images/p0019.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..733dc4f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0019.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0020-image1.png b/26132-page-images/p0020-image1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..29824dc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0020-image1.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0021-image1.png b/26132-page-images/p0021-image1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4643a4b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0021-image1.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0022.png b/26132-page-images/p0022.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..18f4208
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0022.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0023.png b/26132-page-images/p0023.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c3c0345
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0023.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0024.png b/26132-page-images/p0024.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7fa1a03
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0024.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0025.png b/26132-page-images/p0025.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1a92095
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0025.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0026.png b/26132-page-images/p0026.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5f2c98f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0026.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0027.png b/26132-page-images/p0027.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bd2153f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0027.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0028-image1.png b/26132-page-images/p0028-image1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e685f1c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0028-image1.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0029.png b/26132-page-images/p0029.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a901514
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0029.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0030-image1.png b/26132-page-images/p0030-image1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..013487d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0030-image1.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0031.png b/26132-page-images/p0031.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..63dd4c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0031.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0032.png b/26132-page-images/p0032.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..38763d5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0032.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0033.png b/26132-page-images/p0033.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..84d3031
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0033.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0034.png b/26132-page-images/p0034.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ee29c94
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0034.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0035.png b/26132-page-images/p0035.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1d561a9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0035.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0036.png b/26132-page-images/p0036.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..51444cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0036.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0037.png b/26132-page-images/p0037.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..08f2c25
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0037.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0038-insert1.png b/26132-page-images/p0038-insert1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b1d7b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0038-insert1.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0038.png b/26132-page-images/p0038.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b5c3662
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0038.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0039.png b/26132-page-images/p0039.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f285b69
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0039.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0040.png b/26132-page-images/p0040.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..06fc141
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0040.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0041.png b/26132-page-images/p0041.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9a20654
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0041.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0042.png b/26132-page-images/p0042.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e101e3b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0042.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0043.png b/26132-page-images/p0043.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f2e7f19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0043.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0044.png b/26132-page-images/p0044.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4f689ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0044.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0045.png b/26132-page-images/p0045.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f9252dd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0045.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0046.png b/26132-page-images/p0046.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f5ee6d4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0046.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0047.png b/26132-page-images/p0047.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c8b65ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0047.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0048.png b/26132-page-images/p0048.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e3d677c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0048.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0049.png b/26132-page-images/p0049.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a553314
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0049.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0050-image1.png b/26132-page-images/p0050-image1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a8e8e5b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0050-image1.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0051-image1.png b/26132-page-images/p0051-image1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6cc039c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0051-image1.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0052.png b/26132-page-images/p0052.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e8f1171
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0052.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0053.png b/26132-page-images/p0053.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bfdb1e6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0053.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0054.png b/26132-page-images/p0054.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..953cf3e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0054.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0055.png b/26132-page-images/p0055.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d52acbc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0055.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0056-insert1.png b/26132-page-images/p0056-insert1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d816615
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0056-insert1.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0056.png b/26132-page-images/p0056.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e9204b0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0056.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0057.png b/26132-page-images/p0057.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2977763
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0057.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0058.png b/26132-page-images/p0058.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..655d4fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0058.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0059.png b/26132-page-images/p0059.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..49f7ac2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0059.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0060.png b/26132-page-images/p0060.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cb6fc20
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0060.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0061.png b/26132-page-images/p0061.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..49886aa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0061.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0062.png b/26132-page-images/p0062.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8679d57
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0062.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0063.png b/26132-page-images/p0063.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fbe4a19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0063.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0064.png b/26132-page-images/p0064.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..db29fd8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0064.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0065.png b/26132-page-images/p0065.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e835b21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0065.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0066.png b/26132-page-images/p0066.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b2e5ac1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0066.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0067.png b/26132-page-images/p0067.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b56cf29
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0067.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0068-insert1.png b/26132-page-images/p0068-insert1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c360e54
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0068-insert1.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0068.png b/26132-page-images/p0068.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e5a8ff7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0068.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0069.png b/26132-page-images/p0069.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..33e28cc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0069.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0070.png b/26132-page-images/p0070.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4248d6a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0070.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0071.png b/26132-page-images/p0071.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1f4d02e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0071.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0072.png b/26132-page-images/p0072.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1a5beba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0072.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0073.png b/26132-page-images/p0073.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8311398
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0073.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0074.png b/26132-page-images/p0074.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..011e964
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0074.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0075.png b/26132-page-images/p0075.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6bd1fd5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0075.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0076.png b/26132-page-images/p0076.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4a87fe0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0076.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0077.png b/26132-page-images/p0077.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a95c5c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0077.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0078.png b/26132-page-images/p0078.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4fb68bb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0078.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0079.png b/26132-page-images/p0079.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b6ebb49
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0079.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0080.png b/26132-page-images/p0080.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e275943
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0080.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0081.png b/26132-page-images/p0081.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d0cd3a7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0081.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0082.png b/26132-page-images/p0082.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..06131ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0082.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0083-image1.png b/26132-page-images/p0083-image1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9abc198
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0083-image1.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0084.png b/26132-page-images/p0084.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..55fe780
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0084.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0085.png b/26132-page-images/p0085.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..77fa199
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0085.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0086.png b/26132-page-images/p0086.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..07cd5bf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0086.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0087.png b/26132-page-images/p0087.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5ec0fa3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0087.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0088.png b/26132-page-images/p0088.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..16041f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0088.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0089.png b/26132-page-images/p0089.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f6d5f5c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0089.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0090.png b/26132-page-images/p0090.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bb8ef74
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0090.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0091.png b/26132-page-images/p0091.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..08d237e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0091.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0092-insert1.png b/26132-page-images/p0092-insert1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..53c92f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0092-insert1.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0092.png b/26132-page-images/p0092.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4b12c8d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0092.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0093.png b/26132-page-images/p0093.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1732feb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0093.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0094.png b/26132-page-images/p0094.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..251da3f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0094.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0095.png b/26132-page-images/p0095.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..307ba3b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0095.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0096.png b/26132-page-images/p0096.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0a9bd75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0096.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0097.png b/26132-page-images/p0097.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8e6e1f6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0097.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0098.png b/26132-page-images/p0098.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5f77277
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0098.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0099.png b/26132-page-images/p0099.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4b7e4bd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0099.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0100.png b/26132-page-images/p0100.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..787207f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0100.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0101.png b/26132-page-images/p0101.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9039e64
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0101.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0102.png b/26132-page-images/p0102.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9afcaa2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0102.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0103.png b/26132-page-images/p0103.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a485666
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0103.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0104-insert1.png b/26132-page-images/p0104-insert1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..37c8163
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0104-insert1.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0104.png b/26132-page-images/p0104.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f41aa92
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0104.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0105.png b/26132-page-images/p0105.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..311f367
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0105.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0106.png b/26132-page-images/p0106.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..85698ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0106.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0107.png b/26132-page-images/p0107.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6bb5a68
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0107.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0108.png b/26132-page-images/p0108.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..315f76c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0108.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0109.png b/26132-page-images/p0109.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f269452
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0109.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0110.png b/26132-page-images/p0110.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b925a75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0110.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0111.png b/26132-page-images/p0111.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4cd4e20
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0111.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0112.png b/26132-page-images/p0112.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0cd575c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0112.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0113.png b/26132-page-images/p0113.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b6b16c7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0113.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0114.png b/26132-page-images/p0114.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d4b1011
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0114.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0115.png b/26132-page-images/p0115.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7daa477
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0115.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0116.png b/26132-page-images/p0116.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6cba92e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0116.png
diff --git a/26132-page-images/p0117.png b/26132-page-images/p0117.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..76bbd91
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132-page-images/p0117.png
diff --git a/26132.txt b/26132.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f97a36f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,3836 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Apple-Tree, by L. H. Bailey
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Apple-Tree
+       The Open Country Books--No. 1
+
+Author: L. H. Bailey
+
+Release Date: July 26, 2008 [EBook #26132]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE APPLE-TREE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Diane Monico, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images produced by Core Historical
+Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+
+
+THE OPEN COUNTRY BOOKS
+
+A continuing company of genial little books
+about the out-of-doors
+
+Under the editorship of
+L. H. BAILEY
+
+1. The Apple-Tree               L. H. Bailey
+2. A Home Vegetable Garden      Ella M. Freeman
+3. The Cow                      Jared Van Wagenen, Jr.
+
+Others about weather and the sky, scenery,
+camps, recreation, quadrupeds, fishes, birds,
+insects, reptiles, plants, and the places in the
+open.
+
+
+
+
+The Open Country Books--No. 1
+
+THE APPLE-TREE
+
+BY
+L. H. BAILEY
+
+NEW YORK
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+1922
+_All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1922,
+BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+
+Set up and electrotyped. Published January, 1922.
+
+FERRIS PRINTING COMPANY
+NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER                                                     PAGE
+
+I. Where There is no Apple-Tree                                7
+
+II. The Apple-Tree in the Landscape                           10
+
+III. The Buds on the Twigs                                    15
+
+IV. The Weeks Between the Flower and the Fruit                19
+
+V. The Brush Pile                                             27
+
+VI. The Pruning of the Apple-Tree                             36
+
+VII. Maintaining the Health and Energy of the Apple-Tree      41
+
+VIII. How an Apple-Tree is Made                               48
+
+IX. The Dwarf Apple-Tree                                      54
+
+X. Whence Comes the Apple-Tree?                               60
+
+XI. The Varieties of Apple                                    66
+
+XII. The Pleasant Art of Grafting                             79
+
+XIII. The Mending of the Apple-Tree                           85
+
+XIV. Citizens of the Apple-Tree                               89
+
+XV. The Apple-Tree Regions                                    97
+
+XVI. The Harvest of the Apple-Tree                           102
+
+XVII. The Appraisal of the Apple-Tree                        107
+
+
+[Illustration: 1. The home apple-tree]
+
+
+
+
+THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+WHERE THERE IS NO APPLE-TREE
+
+
+The wind is snapping in the bamboos, knocking together the resonant
+canes and weaving the myriad flexile wreaths above them. The palm
+heads rustle with a brisk crinkling music. Great ferns stand in the
+edge of the forest, and giant arums cling their arms about the trunks
+of trees and rear their dim jacks-in-the-pulpit far in the branches;
+and in the greater distance I know that green parrots are flying in
+twos from tree to tree. The plant forms are strange and various,
+making mosaic of contrasting range of leaf-size and leaf-shape, palm
+and grass and fern, epiphyte and liana and clumpy mistletoe, of grace
+and clumsiness and even misproportion, a tall thick landscape all
+mingled into a symmetry of disorder that charms the attention and
+fascinates the eye.
+
+It is a soft and delicious air wherein I sit. A torrid drowse is in
+the receding landscape. The people move leisurely, as befits the world
+where there is no preparation for frost and no urgent need of
+laborious apparel. There are tardy bullock-carts, unconscious donkeys,
+and men pushing vehicles. There are odd products and unaccustomed
+cakes and cookies on little stands by the roadside, where the turbaned
+vendor sits on the ground unconcernedly.
+
+There are strange fruits in the carts, on the donkeys that move down
+the hillsides from distant plantations in the heart of the jungle, on
+the trees by winding road and thatched cottage, in the great crowded
+markets in the city. I recognize coconuts and mangoes, star-apples and
+custard-apples and cherimoyas, papayas, guavas, mamones, pomegranates,
+figs, christophines, and the varied range of citrus fruits. There are
+also great polished apples in the markets, coming from cooler regions,
+tied by their stems, good to look at but impossible to relish; and I
+understand how these people of the tropics think the apple an inferior
+fruit, so successfully do the poor varieties stop the desire for more.
+There are vegetables I have never seen before.
+
+I am conscious of a slowly moving landscape with people and birds and
+beasts of burden and windy vegetation, of prospects in which there are
+no broad smooth farm fields with fences dividing them, of scenery full
+of herbage, in which every lineament and action incite me and
+stimulate my desire for more, of days that end suddenly in the
+blackness of night.
+
+Yet, somehow, I look forward to the time when I may go to a more
+accustomed place. Either from long association with other scenes or
+because of some inexpressible deficiency in this tropic splendor, I am
+not satisfied even though I am exuberantly entertained. Something I
+miss. For weeks I wondered what single element I missed most. Out of
+the numberless associations of childhood and youth and eager manhood
+it is difficult to choose one that is missed more than another. Yet
+one day it came over me startlingly that I missed the apple-tree,--the
+apple-tree, the sheep, and the milch cattle!
+
+The farm home with its commodious house, its greensward, its great
+barn and soft fields and distant woods, and the apple-tree by the
+wood-shed; the good home at the end of the village with its sward and
+shrubbery, and apple roof-tree; the orchard, well kept, trim and
+apple-green, yielding its wagon-loads of fruits; the old tree on the
+hillside, in the pasture where generations of men have come and gone
+and where houses have fallen to decay; the odor of the apples in the
+cellar in the cold winter night; the feasts around the fireside,--I
+think all these pictures conjure themselves in my mind to tantalize me
+of home.
+
+And often in my wanderings I promise myself that when I reach home I
+shall see the apple-tree as I had never seen it before. Even its bark
+and its gnarly trunk will hold converse with me, and its first tiny
+leaves of the budding spring will herald me a welcome. Once again I
+shall be a youth with the apple-tree, but feeling more than the
+turbulent affection of transient youth can understand. Life does not
+seem regular and established when there is no apple-tree in the yard
+and about the buildings, no orchards blooming in the May and laden in
+the September, no baskets heaped with the crisp smooth fruits; without
+all these I am still a foreigner, sojourning in a strange land.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE APPLE-TREE IN THE LANDSCAPE
+
+
+The April sun is soft on the broad open fenced fields, waking them
+gently from the long deep sleep of winter. Little rills are running
+full. The grass is newly coolly green. Fresh sprouts are in the sod.
+By copse and highway the shad-bushes salute with their handkerchiefs.
+Apple-trees show tips of verdure. It is good to see the early greens
+of changing spring. It is good to look abroad on an apple-tree
+landscape.
+
+As to its vegetation, the landscape is low and flat, not tall. There
+is a vast uniformity in plant forms, a subdued and constrained
+humility. A month later the leafage will be in glory, but that also
+will have an aspect of sameness and moderation. Perhaps the actual
+variety of species will be greater than in many parts of the abounding
+tropics, and to the careful observer the luxuriance will be as great,
+although not so big; but as I look abroad I am impressed with the
+economy of the prospect. It comes nearer to my powers of assimilation,
+quiets me with a deep satisfaction; the contrasts are subdued, the
+processes grade into each other imperceptibly in the land of the
+lingering twilight.
+
+In this prospect are maples and elms and apple-trees. The maples and
+elms are of the fields and roadsides. The apple-trees are of human
+habitations and human labor; they cluster about the buildings, or
+stand guard at a gate; they are in plantations made by hands. As I see
+them again, I wonder whether any other plant is so characteristically
+a home-tree.
+
+So is the apple-tree, even when full grown, within the reach of
+children. It can be climbed. Little swings are hung from the branches.
+Its shade is low and familiar. It bestows its fruit liberally to all
+alike.
+
+The apple is a sturdy tree. Short of trunk and short of continuous
+limb, it is yet a stout and rugged object, the indirectness of its
+branching branches adding to its picturesque quality. It is a tree of
+good structure. Although its limbs eventually arch to the ground, if
+left to themselves, they yet have great strength. The angularity of
+the branching, the frequent forking, the big healing or hollow knots
+with rounding callus-lips, give the tree character. Anywhere it would
+be a marked tree, unlike any other.
+
+The bark on the older surface sheds in short oblong irregular scales
+or plates that detach perhaps at both ends and often at the sides,
+clinging by the middle until the curl loosens them and they fall to
+the ground. These plates or chips are more or less rowed up and down
+the trunk and on the larger branches, yet the apple bark is not ridged
+and furrowed as on the elm. The bark is not checked in squares as on
+old pear-trees nor peeling as on cherries. In dry weather, the loose
+old bark is dark brown-gray, often supporting gray lichens, but in
+rain it is soft and nearly black, yielding pleasantly to the touch. In
+the forks, the bark is not so readily cast and there the chips may lie
+in heaps. On the young limbs and small trunks the bark is tight and
+close, not splitting into seams or furrows with the expansion of the
+cylinder but stretching and throwing off detached flakes and chips.
+Under the chips various insects hide or make some of their
+transformations. There the codlin-moth pupates. The old remains of
+scale insects may be found on the exterior. In the furrows about the
+dormant buds the eggs of plant-lice pass the winter.
+
+To destroy these breeding and hiding places, many careful
+apple-growers scrape away the loose bark, being careful not to expose
+the quick living tissue; and on the younger wood the eggs of aphis and
+other pests, as well as cocoons and nymphs, are destroyed by vigorous
+winter spraying. The regular spraying of apple-trees, in the different
+seasons, more or less sterilizes the bark. Many forms of canker, due
+to fungi and bacteria, invade the bark, making sunken areas and scars,
+often so serious as to destroy the tree. All these features are
+discoverable in the apple-tree.
+
+The trunk of the apple-tree is short and stout, usually not perfectly
+cylindrical and not prominently buttressed at the base. In old trees
+it is usually ribbed or ridged, sometimes tortuous with spiral-like
+grooves, often showing the bulge where the graft was set. The wood is
+fine-grained and of good color, and lends itself well to certain kinds
+of cabinet work and to the turning-lathe for household objects; it
+should be better known.
+
+[Illustration: 2. The apple-tree in the landscape]
+
+If left to itself, the tree branches near the ground, making many
+strong secondary scaffold trunks; but the plant does not habitually
+have more than one bole, even though it may branch from the very base;
+it is a real tree, even though small, and not a huge shrub. In the
+natural condition, the trunk often rises only a foot or two before
+it is lost in the branches; at other times it may be four or six feet
+high. Under cultivation, the lowest branches are usually removed when
+the tree begins to grow, and an evident clean trunk is produced. In
+Europe and the Eastern States, it has been the practice to trim the
+trunk clean to the height of four or six feet; but in hotter and drier
+regions the trunk is kept short to insure against sun-scald; and with
+the better tillage implements of the present day it may not be
+necessary to train the heads so high.
+
+In old hill pastures, in many parts of the North, one sees curious
+umbrella forms and other shapes of apple-trees, due to browsing by
+cattle. A little tree gets a start in the pasture. When cattle are
+turned in, they browse the tender terminal growth. The plant spreads
+at the base, in a horizontal direction. With the repeated browsing on
+top, the tree becomes a dense conical mound. Eventually, the leader
+may get a strong headway, and grows beyond the reach of the browsers.
+As it rises out of grasp, it sends off its side shoots, forming a
+head. The cattle browse the under side of this head, as far as they
+are able to reach, causing the tree to assume a grotesque hour-glass
+shape, flat on the under part of the head, with a cone of green
+herbage at the ground. Sometimes pastures are full of little hummocks
+of trees that have not yet been able to overtop the grazers.
+
+The winter apple-tree in the free is a reassuring object. It has none
+of the sleekness of many horticultural forms, nor the fragility of
+peaches, sour cherries and plums. It stands boldly against the sky,
+with its elbows at all angles and its scaly bark holding the snow.
+Against evergreens it shows its ruggedness specially well. It
+presents forms to attract the artist. Even when gnarly and broken, it
+does not convey an impression of decrepitude and decay but rather of a
+hardy old character bearing his burdens. In every winter landscape I
+look instinctively for the apple-tree.
+
+We are so accustomed to the apple-tree as a part of an orchard, where
+it is trimmed into shape and its bolder irregularities controlled,
+that we do not think it has beauty when left to itself to grow as it
+will. An apple-tree that takes its own course, as does a pine-tree or
+an oak, is looked on as unkempt and unprofitable and as a sorry object
+in the landscape, advertizing the neglect of the owner. Yet if the
+apple-tree had never borne good fruit, we should plant it for its
+bloom and its picturesqueness as we plant a hawthorn or a locust-tree.
+
+In winter and in summer, and in the months between, my apple-tree is a
+great fact. It is a character in the population of my scenery,
+standing for certain human emotions. The tree is a living thing, not
+merely a something that bears apples.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+THE BUDS ON THE TWIGS
+
+
+Now the buds begin to break. The firm winter-buds swell. Their scales
+part. Tips of green appear. Tiny leaves come forth, neatly rolled
+inward, growing as they expand, the stalks lengthening. Resurrection
+is astir in the tree.
+
+Several leaves issue from every bud. From some buds arise only leaves;
+from others a flower-cluster emerges from the leaf-rosette, showing
+faint color even before it expands. Very close together and tight
+these unopened little flowers are packed as they emerge; if we had
+looked at them with a lens as they lay in the bud in the long winter
+we should understand why; now they escape their bonds and rapidly grow
+as they are delivered, yet at first pressed together by head and stem
+in their soft gray wool.
+
+Thus are there two kinds of buds on the twig of the bearing
+apple-tree,--the leaf-buds (sending forth leaves only), and the
+flower-buds (bearing both leaves and flowers). And if we wish to
+analyze more closely, we discover two kinds of leaf-buds,--those that
+send forth a rapidly growing shoot bearing the leaves, and those from
+which the leaf-cluster remains practically sessile on the branch.
+These latter, or the strongest and best of them, will probably give
+rise to short fruiting spurs and the others to elongated leafy
+branches.
+
+Before me as I write is an apple limb more than three feet long. It
+has been a vigorous grower, for it is only three years old. The years
+can be readily made out; there are two sets of "rings" separating
+them. You may see these rings on all young apple limbs. They represent
+the scars of the scales of the past terminal buds.
+
+Three years ago my shoot was sent off from its parent branch; that
+year it grew but four inches, bearing leaves on its sides, in the
+axils of which developed buds for the winter and at the end a larger
+terminal bud. Let us call this shoot 1918. Two years ago (1919),
+whilst I was in a distant land, the terminal bud gave rise to a shoot
+nineteen inches long; two buds near the end of the 1918 shoot pushed
+out clusters of leaves and made spurs about one-half inch long; all
+the other buds, five in number, remained dormant, and now they are
+dead and are rapidly becoming mere scars. Last year (1920) the
+terminal bud of 1919 gave rise to a shoot fifteen inches long; three
+buds at the base of this two-year (1919) shoot remained dormant;
+fourteen buds produced spurs. It is now the spring of 1921; the 1920
+shoot has four dormant buds at its base, ten rosettes of leaves from
+the other buds, and a pushing terminal shoot.
+
+On my branch this year, therefore, are 5 plus 3 plus 4, or 12 dormant
+buds of all the years; 2 plus 14 plus 10, or 26 spurs; 1 terminal bud
+continuing the onward growth.
+
+[Illustration: 3. The bloom of the apple-tree]
+
+It is evident that the last two years were good ones for my apple
+limb, for the growths were long (19 and 15 inches) and most of the
+buds produced spurs. The result is evidenced also in the fact that the
+limb is this year laden with potential bloom. On 1918 the two spurs
+bear flowers, one of them only a single bloom and the other five
+blooms. On 1919 twelve of the fourteen spurs are bearing flowers in
+the following numbers: 5 flowers, 5, 5, 7, 5, 6, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 = 63
+flowers. On 1920 are no spurs bearing flowers, but the terminal bud
+(as is frequent on vigorous young trees) bears five flowers. Here,
+therefore, on this yard of three-year-old twig are seventy-four
+blossoms.
+
+But there will not be seventy-four fruits; some of the flowers are
+small and weak; others, as the petals fall, show unmistakable signs of
+failing. A few of them show the plump form of an embryo apple: I think
+there are a score of such promises. But I know that others will fail
+later from physiological causes, and others probably from onslaught of
+insects or disease or from accidents. If six fair fruits mature on a
+branch like this, the crop will be good; and probably the branch would
+not have vigor enough to set as many fruit-buds the following year or
+to bear as many fruits.
+
+It is good to watch the opening of the apple bloom: pink buds swelling
+and puffing out each day, the woolly stems elongating, the five
+overlapping incurving petals spreading and growing big, the stamens,
+about twenty, straightening up and lengthening their filaments that
+are attached on the flower-rim; the big light yellow anthers shedding
+pollen; the five green styles in the center. In some flowers the
+styles do not develop, and we have one reason why many flowers are
+sterile.
+
+The flower-clusters differ much among themselves, in size of parts,
+number of flowers, color; on some trees the flowers appear in advance
+of most of the leafage, but usually they are coincident with the
+leaves. Sometimes the flower-stems or peduncles are branched, bearing
+two or three flowers, and in that case there may be a small green leaf
+or bract where the fork arises. The placing of the petals in the bud
+at the epoch of expansion may differ in two flowers on the same tree.
+One petal may stand guard outside the others and free from them, both
+edges uncovered, while the remaining petals are spiral with one edge
+under and one edge over; or there may be two guard petals, one on
+either side; or sometimes all the petals may be spiral, one margin
+out, one margin in; in some cases all the petals stand free as the
+flower is expanding, with no margin interlapping. Sometimes one petal
+is missing, and again the petals may be six.
+
+This infinite variety within the bonds of so great regularity lends a
+subtle charm to natural objects, that is wholly absent in man's
+perfected machine-work. Man aims at uniformity, two and two alike;
+nature aims at endless difference, every object or even every member
+of an object having its own character. Much of man's energy is
+expended in trying to overcome the diverseness of nature.
+
+Gradually and slowly the flower balloons enlarge and puff themselves
+up, the petals standing together at their tips; all the variety is
+united into a harmony of exuberance, color and form; then one day
+there is a shower of genial rain, a warm sun, birds in the air, bees
+released, grasses soft and lush, and behold! the apple-tree is in
+bloom,--a great heavenly mound of white and pink exhaling a faint
+delicious breath. Then the pulses stir, the dogs bark at the edges of
+the wood, the fields call, the scented winds lead on forever.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+THE WEEKS BETWEEN THE FLOWER AND THE FRUIT
+
+
+The petals expand broadly, usually losing most of their pink. The
+blade is oblong and rounded at the end, at first cupped and then
+nearly flat, three-fourths of an inch long, narrowed at the base into
+a short stem-like part and usually hairy there, the edges perhaps wavy
+but entire. The expanse of the flower may be one and one-half to two
+inches. The brush of stamens, erect in the center, sheds its pollen
+and the anthers collapse.
+
+Then the petals fall, like flakes of snow, borne often by the wind.
+There remain the stout woolly flower-stems an inch or more long and
+bearing minute dry bracts, with the young fruit at the summit topped
+by the five recurving woolly sepals and the pencil of stamens and
+styles. The bloom being gone, the flowering system of the apple is
+thenceforth little observed. Not until the fruit begins to color do we
+come back to the apple-tree to look at it closely; yet in these
+intervening weeks some of the most interesting transformations take
+place, and on the exact observance of them depends to a large extent
+one's success in the rearing and saving of a good crop of apples.
+
+Here is the flower of the apple-tree (Fig. 3). It is a comely
+blossom, fragrant and pinky white, flatly spread to the sky, carrying
+the spirit of the cool of the spring. What concerns us now, however,
+is the cluster of stamens and pistils in the center, for these organs
+are directly concerned in the production of the fruit. The petals soon
+fall, but the remains of these interior organs persist, even unto the
+ripening of the fruit.
+
+The anther is attached at the back of its base or middle to the top of
+the filament in the suture separating the two large cells. These
+anther-cells split along the outer margins, releasing the
+pollen-grains.
+
+[Illustration: 4. Longitudinal section of the flower.]
+
+In the center of the ring of stamens are the five style-branches,
+which are united at the base into a short hairy column; the column is
+borne on the ovary, which is sunken deep into the receptacle or stem
+(Fig. 4). It is down these style-branches that the pollen-tube passes
+on its way to the ovules or embryo seeds. The top of the style is
+expanded into a cupped stigma on which are many glutinous points. One
+can observe the browning and ripening of the stigma after pollen has
+been deposited by wind, bees or other agencies. When the ovules are
+fertilized, the forming fruit enlarges regularly unless it meets with
+misfortune or is crowded out for lack of room and nourishment.
+
+If one cuts across the ovary or embryo fruit below the recurving
+sepals, one will see under a lens that it is neatly five-celled (Fig.
+5). In each cell are two ovules; these, if all goes well, will ripen
+into ten seeds. These five cells comprise most of the diameter in the
+cross-section: but as the ovary enlarges and the young fruit grows,
+one may see that the inner part comprising the cells begins to have a
+character of its own and to be differentiated from the surrounding
+flesh.
+
+[Illustration: 5. Cross-section of the ovary.]
+
+The "blossom" falls. In reality only the petals fall. What is left is
+well shown in Fig. 6. Here remain the upstanding stamens with the
+empty anthers, and in the center one could see the five styles if the
+specimen were in hand. Here also are the calyx-lobes, widely spreading
+and even recurved. The photograph for Fig. 6 was taken May 3. On May
+17 another cluster was photographed from the same tree (Fig. 7). Three
+of the flowers have produced sturdy young apples. The stems or
+pedicels have become stouter, and they begin to spread. Note that the
+calyx now is closed, the old stamens protruding, a circumstance that
+will have special significance when we become acquainted with the
+codlin-moth. Note also that one flower has failed, and remains as it
+was two weeks earlier; it will soon fall. The young apples begin to
+take shape. They show a glow of red on the cheek. They are fuzzy all
+over. One of them is already injured on one side, having been stung by
+a curculio or other insect: there are keen senses about the
+apple-tree.
+
+[Illustration: 6. May 3--When the petals have fallen]
+
+[Illustration: 7. May 17--When the young fruits begin to show]
+
+Two weeks later (May 31) still another cluster was taken from the same
+tree (Fig. 8). Here are three fruits erect on their stems; one of them
+is more than an inch in diameter either way, sturdy and unblemished;
+another shows deformity due to insect puncture; the third remains
+small and presently will drop. A scar in the leaf-axil marks the
+failure of another flower. Four blossoms were in this cluster, but
+only one fruit now has a chance to come to uninjured maturity, and two
+have already failed. The big apple has now lost most of its fuzziness
+and begins to assume a delicate "bloom" on its surface; the smallest
+one--the one that soon will perish--still holds some of its fuzz. A
+section of this smallest fruit discloses empty cells; apparently it
+was not fertilized.
+
+[Illustration: 8. May 31--The success and failure]
+
+[Illustration: 9. June 14--The one big apple]
+
+Another two weeks have passed. It is June 14th. From the same tree is
+taken the photograph, Fig. 9. Here is a big apple, 1-1/2 inch in
+diameter; and there is a dead shrivelled fruit that dropped when I
+touched it. Of the several flowers in the cluster, all have failed but
+one. This one fruit has now passed the danger of the blossom-end
+infection by the codlin-moth and it has no blemishes. The many whitish
+spots characteristic of the variety are now conspicuous all over the
+surface. The ribs begin to show. There is a faint blush on the upper
+side. The fuzz has disappeared and the bloom is becoming evident. The
+calyx is tightly closed, although the tips of the sepals are spread
+widely. The stem is stout. The weight of the apple inclines it nearly
+to the horizontal. Yet this good apple is not symmetrical; one side is
+larger than the other. I cut it crosswise and find two cells on the
+larger side developing two strong seeds each, whilst those on the
+smaller side have a single seed each and one of these seeds is small
+and perhaps would not have matured. The fleshy part of the apple,
+outside the core, now occupies about as much of the diameter as the
+core itself and much more than one-half the bulk of the fruit.
+Already my apple, now half grown, shows many of its distinctive
+characteristics.
+
+Yet another fortnight has come and gone, and it is June 28th. It has
+been good "growing weather." Summer is here, full-orbed, regal,
+bringing the abundance of the earth. Here are two stout apples hanging
+on their stems (Fig. 10), for they are now too heavy to be held erect.
+The larger fruit is a trifle more than two inches in diameter. The
+feature spots are now still more prominent on these apples, the ribs
+more pronounced, the blush against the sun more warm. Both these
+fruits, from one spur, will mature; but the smaller one will be
+blemished, for the apple-scab fungus has established itself on the
+crown and about the calyx. Already the growth is checked in that area,
+and the apple looks flattened. There is no evidence in either apple of
+codlin-moth invasion. The adjoining spur, not clearly shown in the
+photograph, is barren; it gave no flowers this year, and it shows no
+indication of a blossom-bud for next year. The leaves are thick and
+vigorous, yet they bear marks of insect injury and one of them has
+been extensively skeletonized. On the whole, however, the fruits have
+the mastery, and they now make a brave show.
+
+[Illustration: 10. June 28, and the apples have taken their form]
+
+July has passed this way. Tomorrow it will be August. The odor of
+apples is now in my tree. There are big striped apples on the ground,
+plucked by the wind, the hold loosened by bugs for they too have felt
+the fullness of July. Three apples, one of them three inches through
+and two and one-half inches high, and the others nearly as big, hang
+at the level of my eyes. You may see them in Fig. 11. Here rises again
+my boyhood spent in an orchard now passed away, as father and mother
+have passed, as playmates have fallen one by one, the old place
+holding only memories. Here is my boyhood because the earth is always
+young and repeats her miracles for the children by my side as it did
+for me so many many years ago. Yet the miracles are greater now than
+they were then. They have more meaning. Now are they part of some
+great order. They are not separate. Without moving my feet, I lay my
+hands on apples, Virginia creeper, asparagus, marigold, sweet sultan,
+oxalis, plantain, crab-grass, white clover, all growing securely in
+one place, and everyone like unto itself alone. Here is the
+everlasting miracle before my eyes, and all miracles are mysteries.
+Once I thought I should understand such things when I was "grown up,"
+but I find myself still a boy.
+
+[Illustration: 11. July 31, and the apples are getting ripe]
+
+These three apples on the last of the days of July look fair and
+sound, partly hidden in the leaves, the deep red colors covering them
+in broad splashed stripes and relieved by light dots. Yet when I raise
+the leaves or when I lift the apples apart, I find the burrows of
+insects. They know that these apples are good. It is astonishing how
+nature covers up the wounds, how she conceals the sore places, and how
+fair she makes everything look. Were it not that she covers the
+depredations of man, the earth would not long remain habitable by him.
+
+Summer is ended. Today the sun is on the equator, and we are at the
+equinox when nights are equal to the days, as the word testifies. The
+harvest is over. The apples are no more. Yet the tree still is active
+and preparing for another year (Fig. 12). The spurs are now thick and
+stout, bearing sturdy hard leaves. The bud in the center is a big
+one, already recognized as a fruit-bud: here is the promise of
+speckled, furrowed, striped apples next August. Thereby I learn that
+it is not enough to be good to the tree in the year in which I desire
+its fruit: I must begin the year before, and the year before that, and
+even back at the time when the tree is planted; and if the tree at
+planting-time is not a good tree, it will be at a disadvantage perhaps
+all its life long.
+
+[Illustration: 12. September 22, and the buds are formed for the next
+year's crop]
+
+Finally the apple is ripe and ready. At the stem end is the "cavity,"
+a depression, deep or shallow, according to variety, in which the stem
+is set. At the blossom end is the "basin," also with the
+characteristics of the variety as to depth and width and contour, in
+which the calyx-lobes persist, and inside the calyx are the remains of
+the dead stamens and styles; the calyx may be "closed" or "open," the
+character being a mark of the particular variety.
+
+Cut the apple through the center lengthwise (Fig. 13); note the curved
+outline of the core (the pistil) extending half or more across the
+fruit; if you do not see this outline, cut an apple until you do;
+carefully open the five cells or compartments and within the parchment
+walls find the two seeds attached by their points which are directed
+toward the stem end; perhaps one of the seeds has failed, but probably
+a cavity marks its place; perhaps both seeds have failed; perhaps the
+cell has more than two seeds.
+
+[Illustration: 13. The apples in section]
+
+Cut an apple cross-wise: note the five radiating cells of the core,
+the number and attachment of the seeds; note the ten points, imbedded
+in the flesh, marking the outline of the core. Cut an apple cross-wise
+above the core and beneath it; note where these points vanish and try
+to harmonize them with the core-outline as seen in the lengthwise
+section; probably you will discover why you may not see the
+core-outline in all the lengthwise sections you make. Before you leave
+the fruit, note whether single seeds in a cell are the same shape as
+the two seeds in a cell.
+
+The flesh outside the core-outline is interpreted to be stem structure
+rather than pistil structure. Sometimes an apple bears a scale-like
+leaf on its exterior, suggesting that the outer part of the fruit is
+stem. The older morphologists interpreted the apple flower to comprise
+a hollowed calyx (calyx-tube) inside which is the pistil and on the
+rim of which are the petals and stamens. The structure now is regarded
+as a hollowed receptacle or stem (hypanthium), with the pistil inside,
+the petals and stamens on its rim. We noted in the flower that the
+ovary part of the pistil is solidly imbedded in this receptacle, but
+that the five styles are free. The pear and quince are of similar
+structure, but the peach, plum and cherry are simple ripened pistils.
+
+Here, in this chapter, we have discovered some of the epochs in the
+life of the apple. Usually we let the imagination run only to the
+mature fruit, thinking of the harvest, but in all the weeks before the
+harvest the apple has been growing and taking form. As these weeks
+have not been blank to the apple-tree, so shall they not be blank to
+me.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+THE BRUSH PILE
+
+
+Today I visited the brush pile back of the orchard. Here the trimmings
+of the winter are placed, waiting to be burned when dry. How many are
+the archives that will be destroyed! Here are histories in every bud
+and twig and scar, of the seasons, of the accidents and deaths, the
+records of the tree as there are records of families.
+
+These records are not written in numbers or in letters, nor yet in
+hieroglyphs; yet are they understandable. Alphabet is not needed, and
+the key is simple.
+
+From the brush pile of records I took one. I must describe it in part
+by a picture (Fig. 14). On the living trees at this writing the petals
+mostly have fallen and the leaves are nearly full grown. This branch
+was cut in winter. It has lain in the snow and rain, putting forth no
+flowers or leaves. Yet we can read it.
+
+It is May, 1921. The terminal shoot is obviously of 1920; we shall
+name it No. 1. It is a foot long, smooth and glossy, terminating at
+the base (_o_) in a "ring" and at a short stub or branchlet. If we
+count the buds on all sides of the shoot and at the tip we find them
+to be 13. The largest one is at the tip, and they are mostly
+successively smaller toward the base. Apparently the growth-energy was
+expended in the upper parts of the twig, making large full buds. In
+fact, the three or four lowermost buds are scarcely developed and
+would not grow unless the limb were broken off above them; they are
+dormant buds.
+
+[Illustration: 14. A three-year record.--In a leisure hour, trace the
+history of these parts; it will open your eyes.]
+
+Looking along the shoot, I find that every six buds stand in the same
+line: the sixth bud is over the first, seventh over the second, eighth
+over the third. If I were to fasten a string to bud No. 1 and wind it
+around the stem to my left, passing over every bud until I had reached
+the sixth, I should find that it had made two circuits of the stem
+(passed twice around it) and had passed over five spaces between buds.
+This is the leaf-arrangement or phyllotaxy of the apple-tree,
+expressed by the fraction 2/5. The space between two buds is
+two-fifths of a diameter, and two circuits (ten-fifths) must be passed
+before a bud comes over the one from which we started. The 2/5
+leaf-arrangement obtains on cherry, peach, apricot, pear, raspberry
+and many others; but a very different order is that of the linden,
+grape, currant, lilies, elm, maple.
+
+We cannot understand this simple unbranched terminal twig (No. 1)
+until we know what took place last year. A year ago, in the spring of
+1920, a terminal bud that had formed in 1919 expanded and gave rise to
+this rapidly growing shoot. By the end of May or early June this shoot
+had grown to twelve inches long, for the growth in length on the twigs
+of trees is usually completed that early. This shoot bore leaves on
+the 2/5 arrangement; in the axil of every leaf was a bud, the
+strongest buds being with the strongest leaves at the middle and top
+of the shoot; in the autumn of 1920 these leaves fell, but the buds
+remained, persisted the winter, and were ready to "grow" in the early
+spring of 1921. We see them on No. 1 (Fig. 14).
+
+[Illustration: 15. The growing shoot, with a bud in each axil, and a
+spur on last year's growth.]
+
+In 1921 these buds on No. 1, then, would have grown. New leaves would
+have come from the bud itself; in fact, the winter buds of the apple
+are packed with miniature leaves and sometimes with flowers as well.
+The shoot coming out of the bud may remain very short, constituting a
+"spur," or grow with long internodes, making a slender twig. Fig. 15
+shows a branch with new elongated growth, _b_ to _a_, and a shoot or
+spur (_c_) arising from a bud of the previous year. Note the "ring,"
+or division beyond _b_, marking the turn of the year.
+
+It will be noted in Fig. 14 that the buds are of two shapes and sizes,
+such as _a, a, a_, representing one kind and _b, b_, the other kind.
+The former, small and pointed, are leaf-buds; from them will arise a
+shoot bearing only leaves. The latter, _b_, large and rounded and
+usually more fuzzy, are flower-buds (fruit-buds): from them will arise
+a short shoot bearing leaves and a cluster of flowers; and we hope
+that at least one of the flowers will set fruit.
+
+We are now ready to resume our lesson with the branch before us. We
+have identified the slender terminal part, No. 1, as the growth of
+1920. We are now to account for all the remaining buds and branchlets.
+
+If No. 1 grew in 1920, then the main shoot of No. 2 grew in 1919, from
+the point _o o_. It is also one foot long. Near its base are four
+small buds that remained dormant in 1920. There are nine branches
+(_d_) of various lengths besides the terminal shoot No. 1, all of
+which grew in 1920, for they are naturally a year younger than the
+main axis from which they arise; these branches are the same age as
+No. 1, with buds that would have produced shoots in 1921. But the
+terminal buds of eight of these lateral shoots (all but the lowermost)
+bear blossom-buds at the end; note their size and shape. Had not the
+branch been cut, these buds would have bloomed in 1921; the eight of
+them would have produced probably forty to fifty flowers; perhaps two
+or three good fruits would have resulted. Note that two of the lateral
+branches or spurs are short and weak: these would soon perish. The No.
+2 branch has a dead end (_e_); in some way the terminal bud was
+destroyed, and No. 1 sprang from a lateral bud beneath it, changing
+the direction of growth.
+
+If No. 2 grew in 1919, then No. 3 grew in 1918. It also grew about one
+foot in length, showing that the conditions in the three years must
+have been very uniform. There are remains of five dormant buds at its
+base. There are seven side branches. As the main axis is three years
+old, so these lateral shoots are two years old; they are the same age
+as the axis No. 2. The lower one (_s_) grew less than an inch in 1919,
+and made a fruit-bud; in 1920 it blossomed and one fruit set as is
+shown by the square scar at the end; as the scar is small and the twig
+weak, we are safe in assuming that the apple was very small or else
+did not mature. A bud formed at the side of _s_ to continue the growth
+of the spur next year (1921), but it is a leaf-bud; apparently there
+was not sufficient energy to bear flowers and to make a fruit-bud; so
+there would have been no more fruit on this spur earlier than 1922:
+thus do we see that the alternate bearing of the apple-tree may have
+some of its origin in the fruit-spur.
+
+The side spur _f_ produced a terminal blossom-bud in 1919. In 1920 six
+flowers opened,--I could count the scars. One of the flowers produced
+a fruit, as I tell by the square scar at the end; the thickened stem
+also indicates fruit-bearing. The side bud in this case is a
+fruit-bud, but it is small and weak and is probably incapable of
+producing a fruit. There are no strong leaf-buds to take up the work,
+and this spur (_f_) would probably soon have died, as also would spur
+_s_.
+
+The side shoot _g_ grew to _h_ in 1919 and made a flower-bud. In 1920
+this bud gave blossoms and one fruit resulted; the scar is prominent
+and there is an enlargement of the tissue indicating that the fruit
+probably attained good size; in 1920 also, two side spurs were formed
+each with weak blossom-buds, also a terminal shoot (beyond _h_) with
+leaf-bud at the end.
+
+The other shoots have similar histories: the long shoot _i_ bore a
+fruit-bud at _k_ in 1919 and a fruit in 1920; in 1920 it also made
+three lateral shoots and a terminal shoot, with flower-buds
+terminating two of them. Shoot _l_ bore flowers at its point in 1920
+but did not carry the fruit to maturity; it also made two side growths
+and one terminal growth, all terminated by flower-buds, to be blown in
+1921. The shoot _m_ is a short spur that made a flower-bud in 1919 and
+in 1920 carried three little fruits for a time and made a flower-bud
+in 1920. Shoot _n_ remained very short in 1919, making a terminal
+leaf-bud; in 1920 it grew two inches and made a weak flower-bud.
+
+If shoot No. 3 grew in 1918, then No. 4 grew in 1917; but the branch
+is severed and I cannot trace the record farther. We could trace the
+family history many years if we had the unpruned tree before us.
+
+Here, then, in my yard-long manuscript are forty bud-records on the
+main axis, counting the terminals on No. 2 and No. 3. I can find
+record of 144 buds on the side shoots. This makes a grand total of 184
+buds. There is a total growth in length of 108 inches, or 9 feet. Each
+of the buds that has already "grown" has produced an average of
+probably ten leaves, or say 340 leaves in total. If there were an
+average of five flowers to the cluster, then about 150 flowers would
+have been carried on my branch, with the potentiality of 150 fruits;
+but in fact not more than three or four maturing fruits would have
+been produced in these years: and I should think this a good
+proportion as blossoms and apples go. Certainly the branch has done
+its part. There have been three eventful years.
+
+I would not have my reader to suppose that one may always distinguish
+leaf-buds and fruit-buds at a glance. I may be mistaken in some of the
+above determinations, but they are essentially correct for I have the
+twig before me. In some varieties of apples the differences between
+the two kinds of buds are less marked. The certain way is to dissect
+the bud: one may then see what it contains.
+
+It now remains to determine how the branch was placed in the tree. It
+must have been upright or very nearly so, for the main axis is
+essentially straight and the branchlets are about equally developed on
+all sides; moreover, there is no indication in the bark that one
+exposure was the "weather side." The big twig _i_ apparently found a
+light and unoccupied space into which to develop, but its extension is
+not greatly out of proportion. I suppose, however, that my branch was
+not topmost in the tree; there is no indication in very long growth or
+strong upward tendency of the branchlets to mark the branch as a
+"leader."
+
+Years ago I became fascinated with the study of knots and knot-holes
+in the timber of wood-piles. They are excellent records of the events
+in the life of trees. In print I have tried to show what they mean. I
+also worked out the life-histories of twigs and published them in
+nature-study leaflets and elsewhere. Hundreds of children were
+interested in the twigs and buds, finding them unusual, every one of
+them a different story, and yet not difficult to read. These lessons
+gave meaning to trees and seasons. Such observations have always meant
+much to me, even when made in the most casual way in the midst of
+constraining activities. And now in this later day I come back to a
+bare twig with all the joy of youth. The records of the years are in
+these piles of brush.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+THE PRUNING OF THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+We have found that not all the buds grow. We also know that some of
+the spurs and shoots perish, not alone from accident but from defeat
+in the struggle to live. The chances of success are relatively few.
+The pruning process begins early in the life of the tree, and it
+continues ceaselessly until the end.
+
+To the apple-tree in the wild, strict pruning is the assurance of
+success. No tree can reach maturity unless more parts perish than are
+able to live. The young forest tree has branchlets and leaves along
+its side and at the top. All these perish as the trunk rises, often
+leaving marks on the bark, curls in the wood, and knot-holes large and
+small. Thousands of perished buds and branches are the price of a
+straight bole and great clear sheets of boards. Yet these perished
+parts bore their burden in their day and time, and contributed to the
+ultimate success: there could have been no tree without them.
+
+Any tree-top discloses the pruning in action if one looks intently.
+Part of it is recorded in the buds that never put forth a leaf; more
+of it in little shoots left behind; and there are large and small
+limbs, dead and dying, yellowing apparently before their time, hanging
+on till the last hold is broken. Were it not for the benevolent
+processes of decay, the ground would be strewn with the fallen parts
+accumulating through the years.
+
+In nature, the great result is to yield abundant quantity of seeds,
+that the species may propagate itself after its kind. Man may desire
+fruits relatively few, but large of size and excellent of quality,
+without spot or blemish; this means greater opportunity and care to
+the single fruit. Pruning is essential, to converge the energy of the
+plant into fewer branches, to give the fruits space and light, to
+increase the efficiency of measures for the control of diseases and
+insects. Part of the pruning consists in removing certain branches,
+and part of it in eliminating the fruits themselves by the careful
+process of thinning.
+
+The pruning of nature is fortuitous. The tree has the irregularity and
+abandon of the picturesque. The pruning of man is for a different end,
+and it produces the comely well-proportioned tree of the orchards. The
+tree becomes a manipulated subject, comforting to the eye of the
+thrifty pomologist.
+
+Branch-pruning is essentially the removal of superfluous
+branches,--those that crowd, that cross each other, that are so placed
+as to be profitless, that are in the way, that are injured or
+diseased. For the most part, the branches should be removed when they
+are small; but it is not possible to foresee all that may be needed in
+the training of the tree and, therefore, the frequent advice to prune
+only with a hand-knife cannot be followed. One needs a sharp
+pruning-saw and sometimes a chisel on a long handle. Usually it is not
+necessary to remove branches more than an inch or one and one-half
+inch in diameter if pruning is carefully practiced every year; but
+sometimes even well-pruned trees must be shaped, corrected and
+improved by the cutting of larger branches.
+
+Pruning is usually best performed in early spring. The branch should
+be cut close to the main limb or trunk and parallel with it, leaving
+no stub; the healing process is then likely to proceed more rapidly.
+The wound should be smooth and clean, without breaks, splinters or
+splits; the knot-holes in logs and trunks are usually the consequence
+of long "stubs" and torn injured parts. The tree is to be left
+shapely, with a uniform distribution of branches, plenty of
+fruit-bearing wood, easy to spray and from which to pick the fruit, of
+the form characteristic of the variety.
+
+In all the usual customary pruning of the apple-tree, dressing of the
+wounds is not necessary. It is much more important to give the added
+attention to the proper making of the wounds and the thoughtful choice
+of the parts to be removed. Wounds two inches and more in diameter may
+be protected with good paint, so that they will not check and
+therefore not hold water, until the callus covers them. Good judgment
+in pruning is more profitable than recipes to repair damage.
+
+Fruit-pruning, or thinning, is the removing of so much fruit, when it
+is small, as will allow the remainder to mature to its best and
+constitute a maximum yield; it reduces the quantity of inferior fruit,
+lessens the number of culls and the labor at packing time, conserves
+the energy of the tree by preventing the maturity of great numbers of
+seeds, diminishes diseases and pests. The overloading of the tree not
+only imposes a heavy tax on its vitality but is likely to break the
+limbs and to work much physical damage.
+
+Thinning may consist in removing part of the fruit in the cluster (in
+the case of varieties that tend to mature more than one fruit from
+each flower-cluster), in picking all the fruits from certain clusters
+or pairs of clusters, or in cutting away some of the fruit-spurs
+before blossoming time.
+
+The removal of the fruit itself is usually performed after the
+"June-drop," when the extent of the crop is evident. The fruits are
+pulled off by hand or cut with thinning-shears, the latter practice
+being the better since it is not so likely to break the fruit-spurs.
+The least promising fruits are taken away and the remaining apples are
+left at least five or six inches apart in most varieties. The extent
+of thinning must be governed by the variety, thrift of the tree,
+result desired, and other conditions. To secure the best results, the
+apples should be thinned when still small.
+
+Thinning by early-spring removal of fruit-spurs is a very special
+practice. It is employed on dwarf trees and on those specially
+trained. It should be undertaken only by a careful and experienced
+man. It is not to be inferred that the fruit of the apple is all borne
+on spurs, for some of it may be derived from terminal buds on the new
+axial growths or even from lateral buds; but the spurs are conspicuous
+and readily recognized. Of course the ordinary pruning of the tree
+removes fruit-bearing wood and is therefore a thinning process.
+
+Within sensible limits, therefore, pruning is an invigorating process
+in the sense that it deflects the energy to remaining parts of the
+tree. What is called too heavy pruning, whereby the tree throws out
+abundance of water-sprouts, is illustration of this fact: the tree is
+thrown into heavy growth of adventitious shoots. The tree may not
+produce more pounds of substance, or even more total feet in length,
+but new energy is developed in certain parts.
+
+In the restoration, or so-called renovation, of old neglected trees,
+the two primary considerations are to prune vigorously and to till and
+fertilize the land. Sometimes old trees must be mended as explained in
+Chapter XIII. Of course they must be sprayed for what ails them. If
+the variety is poor, the tree may be top-grafted (Chapter XII). In
+some cases, it is hardly possible to make neglected trees bear
+satisfactorily, for they were never of value: there is nothing to
+restore. It may be a question of soil and location, of lack of
+pollination, of trees so weak or so misshapen that effort on them is
+wasted. But tillage, pruning, spraying, should produce worth-while
+results in most cases.
+
+In the care of the fruit-tree there is no practice which brings the
+grower into such intimate knowledge of the plant as that of pruning
+and thinning. The operator sees the tree as a whole, taking it all in;
+then he sees it in small detail in all its parts, even to the spurs
+and buds. With simple good tools, sharp and keen, and with a practiced
+eye, he applies a deft and swift handicraft, cutting true, making a
+fair clean wound, leaving the tree comely and ready for its highest
+effort. The pride of good workmanship may find expression. The
+operator feels also the sense of mastery that is in him, whereby he
+corrects the tree, removes the wayward parts, keeps and encourages all
+that is best. To engage in this kind of education requires that one
+approaches the work with due preparation of mind and I think also with
+consecration of heart.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+MAINTAINING THE HEALTH AND ENERGY OF THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+The apple-tree starts life fresh and vigorous. It grows rapidly. The
+shoots are long and straight. The wood is smooth and fair and supple.
+The leaves are usually large. It is good to see the young trees
+acquire size and take shape.
+
+Room in the ground and in the air is ample with the young apple-tree.
+It is free to grow. Probably the ground was newly prepared and tilled
+when the tree was planted; at least, a hole was dug and fine good
+earth was placed about the roots. Probably insects had not found
+permanent encampment on the tree. It had been well pruned, so that it
+carried the minimum of superfluous and competing parts.
+
+But in time the difficulties come. The tree probably slows down. It
+becomes too thick of branches. The land is not tilled. It is not
+manured. Insects and fungi make headway. The tree overbears. As the
+years go on, the tree is thrown into alternate bearing, one year a
+crop too heavy, one year a crop too light. The tree becomes broken,
+diseased, gnarly, unshapely.
+
+We have seen that the fruit-spur in bearing is likely to make a
+leaf-bud for the next year's activities rather than a flower-bud. It
+is assumed that the making of a flower-bud requires more energy than
+the making of a plain leaf-bud; if this is true, there may not be
+energy enough to carry a flower-cluster and to make a new flower-bud
+at the same time. But if the tree is in proper vigor, is well fed,
+protected from noxious organisms, not allowed to overbear, it should
+have sufficient energy to make a crop every year, frosts and accidents
+excepted. It is assumed, of course, that self-sterile varieties have
+good pollinizing varieties near them; it is always well to plant two
+or more kinds near together. Whether the continuity of bearing is
+exhibited on the same fruit-spurs or whether there may be an
+alternation in the spurs on the same tree, is of no moment in this
+discussion. It is enough to say that there is no reason in the nature
+of the case why an apple-tree should bear only every other year; it is
+probably a question of nutrition.
+
+The first essential to continued health and vigor is to start with a
+strong unblemished tree. It is to be planted before its vitality is
+lessened by exposure and hard usage. The more direct the transfer from
+nursery to orchard, the better. It is to be placed in good ground,
+well drained and deeply spaded or plowed. The apple-tree thrives on
+many kinds of land, but light sand, hard clay, and muck are equally to
+be avoided. "Good corn land" is commonly considered to be good apple
+land. Certain soils and regions are particularly adaptable to
+commercial apple-growing, but the amateur may plant quite
+independently of this fact. The observant man notes the many
+conditions under which the apple-tree may be grown with satisfaction.
+
+If the land is not uniformly prepared, then the hole dug for the tree
+should be larger than demanded by spread of roots, and the earth
+fined in the bottom of it. Trees should be planted when perfectly
+dormant, preferably in spring, at least in the northern parts.
+
+The roots should be cut back to sound unsplintered wood, and very long
+roots may well be shortened. The reader is aware that roots have no
+regular order or arrangement as do the buds from which branches arise.
+It is not necessary to try to shape the root-system to any formal
+regularity.
+
+As a good part of the root-system is destroyed when the tree is dug,
+so is the top reduced to insure something like a balance. Half or more
+of the top, on a three-year-old tree, is cut away, the long growths
+being shortened to perhaps three or four good buds. If limbs are left
+to form the framework of the future top, they should be alternate with
+each other at some distance apart so that weak crotches do not form.
+
+The tree is planted snugly, the earth being filled among the roots so
+that no air-holes remain. The tree is shaken up and down to settle the
+earth densely. Once or twice in filling, the earth is packed with the
+feet. The purpose is to keep the tree firm and stiff against winds,
+and to give all its roots close contact with the earth. Properly
+planted, so that it will not whip or dry out, the tree gets a hold
+quickly and begins to grow strongly. The first start-off of the tree
+is important.
+
+Apple-trees are held in vigor by plenty of room. For the standard
+varieties in regular orchards, the recommended distance either way is
+40 feet, or 35 x 40 feet. Some varieties may go as close as 30 feet;
+and in regions (as parts of central and western North America) in
+which the trees are not expected to attain such great size as in the
+eastern country, the planting may be even less than this of the
+upright-growing kinds. The spaces between the trees may be utilized
+for a few years with other crops, even with other fruits, as peaches
+or berries. Orchardists sometimes plant smaller-growing and
+early-bearing varieties of apples between the regular trees as
+"fillers," taking them out as the room is needed. Of course all kinds
+of double cropping require that extra attention be given to the
+tilling and fertilizing of the plantation.
+
+The general advice for the growing of strong apple-trees is to give
+the land good tillage from the first and to withhold other cropping
+after the trees come into profitable bearing. Clean tillage for the
+first part of the season and the raising of a cover-crop in the latter
+part, to be plowed under, is a standard and dependable procedure.
+Trees live long in continuous sod and they may thrive, but they may be
+expected to show gains under tillage. Vast areas of apple plantings
+are in sod, but this of itself does not demonstrate the desirability
+of the sod practice. Allowing trees to remain in sod usually leads to
+neglect.
+
+There is a modification of sod-practice in some parts of the country
+that gives excellent results, under certain conditions. The grass is
+cut and allowed to lie, not being removed for hay. Manure and
+fertilizer are added as top-dressing, as needed. This method is known
+as the "sod mulch system." It is not a practice of partial neglect,
+like the prevailing sod orchards, but a regular designed method of
+producing results. Its application can hardly be as widespread as
+clean tillage, on level lands.
+
+It is a common opinion that hillsides and more or less inaccessible
+slopes should be planted to apples. This may be true in the sense
+that apples will grow on such areas and that such plantations are
+better than fallow land. In fact, many such lands are profitable in
+orchards. When they do not allow of tillage, easy spraying, and
+economy in harvesting, however, they cannot compete with level
+orchards.
+
+To maintain the health and energy of the apple-tree, the land should
+be enriched. This may be accomplished by the application of animal
+manures, chemical fertilizers, or cover-crops, or preferably by a
+combination of these means. Not many persons possess sufficient farm
+manures to supply the general crops and the apple-orchard; but every
+application the orchard receives is all to the good. Five to ten tons
+of good stable manure to the acre annually is a good addition for an
+orchard in bearing. This may be supplemented by cover-crops and bag
+fertilizers in years in which the manure is not available. Experiments
+are yet inconclusive on the fertilizing of apple-trees, but it is fair
+to assume that on most lands, particularly on old lands, the addition
+of chemical fertilizer is advantageous. A bearing apple-tree may
+receive two to eight pounds of nitrate of soda (depending on its size
+and on soil) applied to the full feeding area of the roots, five to
+nine pounds of acid phosphate, two or three pounds of muriate of
+potash; always ask advice.
+
+The pasturing of orchards is often defensible and sometimes even
+desirable. If the trees are growing too rapidly, they may be "slowed
+down" by seeding to grass for a time; and pasturing with hogs, and
+possibly with sheep, may afford a way of keeping the area in condition
+and of adding fertilizer. Sheep that do not have access to
+drinking-water and salt gnaw the trees. Hogs root up the ground and
+thereby provide a rude kind of tillage. If animals are fed other food
+in the orchard, the fertilizer increment will be considerable.
+
+In house-lot conditions, the apple-tree usually receives sufficient
+food if the land is well enriched for garden purposes; but trees in
+sod should have liberal top-dressings of fertilizer every year and of
+stable manure every other year.
+
+The apple-tree should have a good supply of moisture. Planted on banks
+and in hard places about buildings, it may suffer in this respect. The
+land should be so graded that the rainfall will not run off. In
+orchard conditions, the moisture is conserved by the addition of humus
+to the land, and by thorough judicious tillage; and in dry regions it
+is supplied by irrigation.
+
+The energy of the apple-tree, and its ability to produce, is conserved
+by holding all diseases and noxious insects in check. The means at the
+command of the apple-grower are now many. No longer is the man
+helpless, nor does he need to appeal to the moon or to "atmospheric
+influences" for reasons. The natural histories of fungi and insects,
+that do so much damage, are now a part of common understandable
+knowledge. To acquire at least a working understanding of the
+commonest of these subjects is in itself a great satisfaction and
+gives one a sense of dominion. The good books and bulletins are
+sufficient to keep one well informed. All these organisms are tenants
+of the apple-tree, and from the naturist's point of view alone they
+are not to be overlooked.
+
+It is not to be inferred that all apple-trees will yield equally well
+with equally good treatment. There is difference in trees as there is
+in cows. We may not know why. But even so, it is our part to do the
+best we can: this is our privilege.
+
+The tillage and care of plants lessen the struggle for existence. So
+is the apple-tree protected from the crowds, from contest for moisture
+and food, from insects, and from the competition within itself.
+Thereby is it able to express all its possibilities. Even the dormant
+potentialities may be wakened, and the plant makes a wide departure
+from its native state. This is not an original state of sin, but a
+state of repression in which it is held in a world that is full of so
+many things beside apple-trees. I may till my orchard ever so well,
+manipulate the trees ever so promptly, yet if the plantation then is
+allowed to run to neglect the processes of depreciation gain the
+mastery; the struggle for existence is restored.
+
+To keep one's apple-tree in the pink of perfection is as joyful an
+enterprise as to do anything else well. It is only the well-conditioned
+tree that yields its glorious harvest year by year.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+HOW AN APPLE-TREE IS MADE
+
+
+If the seeds of a Baldwin or Winesap apple are planted, we do not
+expect to get a Baldwin or Winesap; we shall probably raise a very
+inferior fruit. The apple has not been bred "true to seed" as has the
+cabbage and sweet pea. To get the tree "true to name," of the desired
+variety and with no chance of failure (barring accident), is one of
+the niceties of horticulture. This is accomplished with great
+precision and despatch.
+
+The apple-tree is started from the seed. It cannot be grown freely by
+means of cuttings, as can the grape and currant. In commercial
+practice the seeds are collected mostly from cider mills or from
+pomace. The seeds may be washed from the pomace, allowed to dry, and
+then mixed in sand, charcoal, sawdust or other material to prevent
+dessication and kept until spring, when they are sown. Or, if the land
+is not so wet in winter that the seed will drown or be washed out, the
+seed in the pomace (not separated) may be sown in autumn. The seeds
+are sown in drills, after the manner of onions or turnips, one to two
+or even three inches deep. They germinate readily in the cool of
+spring, and the plants should reach a height of twelve inches and more
+the first year.
+
+If these plants were grown directly into bearing trees, it is
+probable that no two trees would produce the same kind of fruit. Some
+of the fruit might be summer apples, some of it winter apples, some
+red, yellow or striped, some of it flat, oblong or spherical, most of
+it sour but perhaps some of it sweet. Probably every kind would be
+inferior to the parent stock or to standard varieties, although there
+is a fair chance that a superior kind might originate from a field of
+such plants.
+
+Therefore, it is not the variety (that is, the top) that is wanted in
+the raising of these numerous plants, but merely the roots, on which
+desired varieties may be grown by the clever art of graftage. Yet not
+even all the roots may be wanted, for the growing plants may differ or
+vary in their stature and vigor as well as in their fruit. The
+discriminating grower, therefore, discards the weak and puny treelings
+at the digging time; or if the weak plants seem still to have promise,
+they may be allowed to grow another year before they are dug for the
+grafting.
+
+This digging time is the autumn of the first year, when the plants
+have grown one season. They are then to be used as "stocks" on which
+to graft Baldwin, Winesap or other varieties. The growing of these
+apple stocks is a business by itself. Formerly, most of the stocks
+used in North America were imported from France, where special skill
+has been developed in the growing of them and where the requisite
+labor is available. But now the stocks are grown also in deep rich
+bottom lands of the Middle West, as in Kansas, where, in the long
+seasons, a large growth may be attained.
+
+The methods of graftage of the commercial apple-tree are two--by
+cion-grafting whereby a bit of wood with two or three buds is inserted
+on the stock, by bud-grafting (budding) whereby a single bud with a
+bit of bark attached is inserted under the bark of the stock.
+
+Cion-grafting is practiced in winter under cover. The stock is cut off
+at the crown and the cion spliced on it, or the root may be cut in two
+or more pieces and each piece receive a cion. The union is made by the
+whip-graft method (Fig. 16). The cion is tied securely, to keep it in
+place. The piece-root method is allowable only when the root is long
+and strong, so that a well-rooted plant results the first year. The
+cion is a cutting of the last year's growth (as of No. 1, in Fig. 14).
+However accomplished, the process is to supply the cion with roots; it
+is planted in another plant instead of in the ground.
+
+[Illustration: 16. The whip-graft before tying.]
+
+The cion-grafts are now planted in the nursery row in spring. The cion
+starts growth rapidly, only one shoot being allowed to remain; this
+shoot forms the trunk or bole of the future tree. At the end of the
+first season, the little tree is said to be one year old, although the
+root is at least two years old; at the end of the second year it is
+two years old; the tree is sometimes sold as a two-year-old, but
+usually a year later as a three-year-old having a four-year-old root.
+In fact, however, the root and top may be considered, in a way, to be
+of the same age, particularly if only a piece of the root is employed,
+for the cion grew on its parent tree the same year the root was
+growing in the nursery.
+
+The tree grew from the seed but it is no longer a "seedling" or a
+"natural;" it is now a grafted tree, destined to produce a named
+recognized variety of apple, maybe York Imperial, maybe Jonathan. We
+find seedling trees in old fields, in fence-rows, and in woods. These
+have grown from scattered seeds and have come to fruit without the
+arts of the propagator. They bear their own tops or heads, rather than
+the heads that a thrifty horticulturist would have put on them. Now
+and then such a tree produces superior fruit; then a discriminating
+pomologist discovers it, names it a new variety, and propagates it as
+other varieties are propagated. Thus have most of the prized varieties
+originated, without knowledge on the part of man of the ultimate
+processes. But now with the accumulating knowledge of the
+plant-breeder we hope to be able to foresee and probably to produce
+varieties of given qualities.
+
+[Illustration: 17. A "bud" before tying.]
+
+Bud-grafting is practiced in summer. The young trees, obtained from
+the grower of apple stocks, are planted regularly in nursery rows in
+spring, the top having been cut back to the crown so that a strong
+vigorous shoot will arise. In July and August or September, when this
+shoot is the size of a lead pencil and larger and the bark will peel
+(or separate from the wood), a single bud is inserted near the ground
+(Fig. 17). This bud is deftly cut from the current year's growth of
+the desired variety; it grows in the axil of a leaf (Fig. 15). The
+leaf is removed but a small part of the stalk or petiole is retained
+with the bud to serve as a handle. A boat-shaped or shield-shaped
+piece of bark is removed with the bud. This piece, known technically
+as a "bud," is inserted in an incision on the stock, so that it slips
+underneath the bark and next the wood, with only the bud itself
+showing in the slit; it is then tied in place.
+
+The stock on which the bud is inserted has a two-year root, and the
+root is entire. For this reason, budded trees are usually very large
+and strong for their age when compared with piece-root trees grown
+under similar conditions of climate, tillage and soil.
+
+The bud does not grow the year it is inserted in the stock; it is
+dormant until the following spring, as it would have been had it
+remained on its parent branch; but soon after it is inserted it
+attaches itself fast to the stock: it is a bud implanted from one twig
+to another. The following spring, if the operation is successful, the
+bud "grows," sending up a strong shoot that makes the trunk of the
+future tree. The top of the stock is cut away; in the merchantable
+tree, the bend or place may be seen where the stock and cion meet.
+
+As in the case of cion-grafting, we now have a top of a known variety
+growing on the root of an unknown kind. The tree is sold at two or
+three years, counting the age of the top; and of course the tree is no
+longer called a seedling, and it produces its implanted variety as
+accurately as does the cion-grafted tree. Equally good trees are
+produced by both cion-grafting and bud-grafting.
+
+The apple-tree is now "propagated," and is ready for the planting.
+Great hopes will be built on it, and the tree will probably do its
+part to justify them. Nobody knows how a bud from a Baldwin tree holds
+the memory of a Baldwin or from a Winesap tree the memory of a
+Winesap. Neither does anyone know why of two seeds that look alike one
+will unerringly produce a cabbage and the other a cauliflower. So
+accustomed are we to these results that we never challenge a twig of
+apple or a seed of cabbage: we assume that the twig or the seed
+"knows." Nor have we yet approached this question in our elaborate
+studies of plant-breeding. Here is one of the mysteries that baffles
+the skill of the physiologist and chemist, yet it is a mystery so very
+common that we know it not, albeit the life on the planet would
+otherwise be utter confusion.
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+THE DWARF APPLE-TREE
+
+
+We have learned that many kinds of apples and apple-trees may come
+from a batch of seeds. Differences are expressed in the tree as well
+as in the fruit. In fact, stature is usually one of the
+characteristics of the variety. Here I open Downing's great book, "The
+Fruits and Fruit-Trees of America," and find the description of a
+certain variety beginning: "Tree while young very slow in its growth,
+but makes a compact well-formed head in the orchard," and another:
+"Tree vigorous, upright spreading, and productive." We know the small
+stature and early bearing of the Wagener (wherefore it is often
+planted in the orchard as a filler), and the great wide-spreading head
+of the Tompkins King with the apples scattered through the tree.
+
+Now it so happens that in the course of time certain great races of
+the apple-tree have arisen, we do not know just why or how. There is
+the race or family of the russets and of the Fameuse. So are there
+several races very small in stature, remaining perhaps no larger than
+bushes. If we were to propagate any of the ordinary apples on such
+diminutive stocks, we should have a "dwarf apple-tree."
+
+The dwarf apple, then, is not a question of variety but of stock. Any
+variety may be grown as a dwarf by grafting it on a plant that
+naturally remains small, although some varieties are more adaptable
+than others to the purpose.
+
+If seeds of the natural diminutive apple-tree are sown, a variety of
+trees and apples may be expected. The fruits would probably be
+inferior. Probably the stature would vary between different seedlings.
+If we are to get the effect of dwarfness, we must be sure that the
+stock is itself really dwarf. Therefore, to eliminate variation and
+also because seeds of natural dwarf apples may not be had in
+sufficient quantity, the stocks are propagated by layers rather than
+by seeds.
+
+The diminutive tree, when well established, is cut off near the
+ground. Sprouts arise. Some kinds sucker very freely. If earth is
+mounded up around the sprouts, roots form on them and the sprouts may
+be removed and treated as if they were seedling stocks. Usually the
+mounding is not performed until the shoots have made one season's
+growth. Gooseberries and some other plants are often propagated by
+mound-layers. In the case of the gooseberry, however, it is desired
+that the layer reproduce the parent--it may be Downing or
+Whitesmith--and therefore it is planted without further manipulation.
+But in the case of the apple, we do not want the layer to reproduce
+the parent, for the parent would probably bear an inferior fruit since
+it does not represent an "improved" or recognized variety; therefore
+the layer is grafted or budded with the particular variety we desire
+to grow as a dwarf tree.
+
+Dwarf trees are grown in America, if at all, only in gardens, where
+extra attention may be given them. Only high-class kinds should be
+attempted on dwarfs, for the quantity-production of commercial apples
+must be obtained by less intensive methods on cheaper lands.
+
+Better fruits often are grown on dwarf than on standards, for two
+reasons: It is usual to propagate only the best varieties on dwarf
+stock; the little tree must receive extra care in pruning and in every
+other way. Its bushel of apples must be choice, every one, to make the
+effort of growing the tree worth the while. Under European conditions
+where land is high-priced and labor has been relatively cheap, it is
+possible (and common) to raise apples on dwarfs for market, as it is
+profitable to terrace the hillsides with human labor; but in North
+America the conditions are practically the reverse and the dwarf tree
+cannot compete with the standard orchard tree.
+
+The growing of a dwarf tree is essentially a gardening practice. It
+requires great skill. The spurs are produced and protected to a
+nicety. Every fruit may be the separate product of handwork. The
+fertilizing, mulching, watering, are carefully regulated for every
+tree. Often the trees are trained on cordons, espaliers, trellises or
+walls. The individual fruits may be tied up or bagged. All this is
+very different from the raising of apples by means of tractors and
+other machinery, gangs of pruners and pickers, broadside extensive
+methods, with highly organized systems of handling and marketing, in
+all of which the money-measure is the chief consideration. It is for
+all these reasons that the growing of a few dwarf apple-trees may
+afford such intimate satisfaction to a careful man who prizes the
+result of his skill.
+
+The dwarfs are grown as little trees branching near the ground, headed
+in at top and side and kept within shape and bounds. If they are of
+the dwarfest dwarfs and not trained on trellis or wall (as they
+usually are not in America), the fruit may be gathered by a man
+standing on the ground, even from old trees. The dwarfs are planted
+eight to ten feet apart when grown in regular plantation.
+
+Be it said that certain kinds of stocks produce trees only semi-dwarf;
+and in all cases if the tree is planted so deep that roots strike from
+the cion, the top will probably outgrow the stock, being supplied in
+part or even entirely by its own roots.
+
+This brings us to a consideration of some of the kinds of dwarf
+stocks, or dwarf races of the apple-tree. Be it said, in understanding
+of the subject, that there are naturally dwarf forms of many plants,
+and probably all ordinary plants are capable of producing them. Thus
+there are very compact condensed forms of arbor-vitae, Norway spruce,
+peach-tree. These have originated as seed sports and are multiplied by
+cuttings. So are there dwarf tomatoes, dwarf China asters, dwarf sweet
+peas, all coming more or less true from seeds, for these species (of
+short generations) have been bred to reproduce their variations. The
+inquirer must not suppose, therefore, that the races of dwarf
+apple-trees are an anomally in the vegetable kingdom.
+
+It is customary to speak of two classes or races of dwarf apple-trees,
+the Paradise and the Doucin. The former kinds are the smaller, the
+trees on their own roots sometimes reaching not more than four feet in
+height at full bearing maturity. On the Paradise stocks, the grafted
+apple-tree is very small; it is a true dwarf. The Doucin trees are by
+nature larger, and apples grafted on them make semi-dwarf trees,
+midway in stature between the real dwarfs and the common standard or
+"free" apple-trees.
+
+The case is not so simple, however, as this brief statement would make
+it appear. There are many kinds of Paradise stock, as also of Doucin.
+If one were to bring together living plants of all the kinds of
+natural dwarfs and semi-dwarfs that could be found in nurseries and
+growing collections, one would undoubtedly find a nearly complete
+series, so far as stature of tree is concerned, from the very dwarf to
+the full-sized standard tree. To say that a person is growing grafted
+dwarf apple-trees does not signify how large the trees may be expected
+to grow, for one may not know the particular kind of stocks on which
+the variety is grafted. In fact, it is considered even in Europe,
+where dwarf apples are chiefly grown, that the proper identification
+of dwarf stocks is still a subject for careful investigation.
+
+When the Paradise dwarfs first came into existence is undetermined.
+They appear to have been known in the Middle Ages. The many races, as
+the Dutch, French, Metz, Nonsuch, Broad-leaved, indicate an ancient
+origin. We cannot be too certain what apple-trees were meant in the
+early references to the Paradise apple. The fruits of the present
+natural Paradise apple-trees are not sufficiently attractive to
+justify us in considering them the "Tree of Paradise" or apple of the
+Garden of Eden, which circumstance is supposed by some to account for
+the name. "Paradise" was originally a park or pleasure ground, applied
+also to the Garden of Eden, and later to horticultural gardens. John
+Parkinson wrote his great treatise on horticulture, 1629, under the
+title, "Paradisi in Sole Paradisus terrestris; or, a Choice Garden of
+all Sorts of Rarest Flowers, etc." Now we use the word for gardens of
+bliss.
+
+The word Doucin, from the Italian, is supposed originally to have
+designated apples of sweet flavor, but it now applies technically to a
+class or race of semi-dwarf apple-trees.
+
+For the purpose of this little book, however, the interest in the
+dwarf apple centers not so much in the origin of the stock as in the
+natural-history of the tree itself and the good skill of hand and
+heart that one may expend in the growing of it. If one would come
+close to a plant, knowing it intimately in every season, causing it to
+respond to sympathetic treatment through a series of years, then a
+garden collection of dwarf apples may satisfy the desire. It is too
+bad that we do not have time to cultivate the dwarfs often in the
+yards and gardens of North America. We are more familiar with the
+raising of dwarf pears (which are grafted on quince stocks since there
+is no similar race of natural dwarf pear-tree), but we do not give
+them the thumb-and-finger care that is demanded for the choicest
+results. The abundance of apples in the market should only stimulate
+the desire of the connoisseur to have trees and fruits that are wholly
+personal. The market produce can never gratify the affections.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+WHENCE COMES THE APPLE-TREE?
+
+
+If the dwarf apple-tree goes back to the Middle Ages and perhaps
+farther, then whence comes the apple originally? No one can surely
+answer. Carbonized apples are found in the remains of the prehistoric
+lake dwellings of Switzerland. When recorded history begins, apples
+were well known and widely distributed. The apple-tree is wild in many
+parts of Europe, but it is difficult to determine whether, in a given
+region, it is indigenous or has run wild from cultivation. Wild
+apple-trees are common in North America, but no one supposes that the
+orchard apple is native here.
+
+Expert opinion generally considers that the apple is native in the
+region of the Caspian Sea and probably in southeastern Europe. Perhaps
+it had spread westward before the Aryan migrations. It had also
+probably spread eastward, but it is not a cultivated fruit in China
+and Japan except apparently as introduced in recent time. The apple is
+essentially a fruit of central and northern Europe, and of European
+migration and settlement.
+
+It is a fertile retrospect to conceive of the apple as an attendant of
+the course of Western civilization. Without voice and leaving no
+record, it has nevertheless followed man in his wanderings, encouraged
+his attainment of permanent habitations, succored him in his
+emergencies. What the apple has contributed to sustenance can never be
+known, but we are aware that it yields its fruit abundantly, that it
+thrives in widely unlike regions and conditions, that the tree has the
+ruggedness to endure severe climates and to provide food that can be
+stored and transported. In the ages it must have stood guard at many a
+rude camp and fireside. It would be fascinating to know what the
+apple-tree has witnessed.
+
+These early apples must have been very crude fruits measured by the
+produce of the present day. But other food was crude and man was
+crude. The North American Indians found the apple to be worth their
+effort; remains of some of the so-called Indian orchards of the Five
+Nations in New York persisted until the present generation. These were
+seedling apple-trees, grown from the stocks introduced by the white
+man. The French missionaries are said to have carried the apple far
+into the interior, and early settlers took seeds with them. The
+legends and records of Johnny Appleseed, sowing the seeds as he went,
+are still familiar. My father, like other pioneers, took seeds from
+the old New England trees into the wilderness of the West; the
+resulting trees were top-grafted, some of them as late as my time; I
+can remember the apples some of these seedling trees bore, the like of
+which I have never seen again, probably poor apples if we had them in
+this day but to a boy at the edge of the forest the very essence of
+goodness. As early as 1639, apples had been picked from trees planted
+on Governor's Island in Boston harbor. Governor John Endicott of
+Massachusetts Colony had an apple-tree nursery in the early day; in
+1644 he says that five hundred of his trees were destroyed by fire.
+So the apple came early to be a standby on the new continent.
+
+The apples of the colonists were not all for eating, but for drinking.
+The butts and barrels of cider put in cellars in the early times seem
+to us most surprising. Herein are suggestions of old social customs
+that might lead us into interesting historical excursions. The oldest
+book I possess on the apple is "Vinetum Britannicum: or, a Treatise of
+Cider," published in London in 1676; it treats also of other beverages
+made from fruits and of "the newly-invented ingenio or mill, for the
+more expeditious and better making of cider." The gradual change in
+customs, whereby the eating of the apple (rather than the drinking of
+it) has come to be paramount, is a significant development; the use of
+apple-juice may now proceed on another basis, on the principle of
+preservation and pasteurization rather than of fermentation.
+
+It is the custom to call the apple _Pyrus Malus_. This is the name
+given by the great Linnaeus, with whom the modern accurate naming of
+plants and animals begins. The nomenclature of plants starts with his
+"Species Plantarum," 1753. Pyrus is the genus or group comprising the
+pears and apples, and Linnaeus included the quince; Malus is Latin for
+the apple-tree. Together the names represent genus and species,--the
+malus Pyrus.
+
+These statements are easy enough to make, but it is impossible to
+demonstrate whether the common pomological apples are derived from one
+original species or from two or more. Many technical botanical names
+have been given in the group, but we need not pause with them here. It
+is enough for our purpose to know that the natural-history of the
+apple, as of anything else that runs to time immemorial, passes at
+the end into obscurity. We seem never to reach the ultimate origins or
+to find an end to our quests.
+
+There are other apples than the common pomological orchard types.
+There are the crabs. In general usage, the word "crab" designates an
+apple that is small, sour and crabbed. Such apples are wildings or
+seedlings. They are merely depreciated forms of _Pyrus Malus_, and
+probably much like the first apples known to man. What are known to
+horticulturists as crab-apples, however, are other species of Pyrus,
+of different character and origin. We need not pause with the
+discussion of them, except to say that the commonest kinds are the
+little long-stemmed fruits of _Pyrus baccata_ (berry Pyrus), native in
+eastern Europe and Siberia. These are the "Siberian crabs." The leaves
+and twigs are smooth, and the calyx falls away from the fruit, leaving
+a bare blossom end. These little hard handsome fruits are used in the
+making of conserves. Certain larger crab-apples, in which the blossom
+end is not clean or bare, as the Transcendent and Hyslop, are probably
+hybrids between the true crabs and the common apple; this class
+provides the main crab-apples of the markets.
+
+When the settlers came to the country west and south of New England,
+they found another kind of crab-apples in the woods, truly native. The
+fruits were hard and sour, but they could be buried to ripen. The
+trees are much like a thorn-apple,--low, spreading, twiggy, thorny;
+but the pink-white large fragrant flowers are very different. The wild
+crab-apple was called _Pyrus coronaria_ by Linnaeus, the "garland
+Pyrus." On the prairies is another species, _Pyrus ioensis_; it yields
+a charming double-flowered form, "Bechtel's crab." In the South are
+other species. In fact, _P. coronaria_ itself may not be a single
+species. These wild crabs run into many forms. In the northern
+Mississippi and prairie country are native apples good enough to be
+introduced into cultivation under varietal names. These are _Pyrus
+Soulardii_, a species bearing the name of J. G. Soulard, Illinois
+horticulturist. These crab-apples are probably natural hybrids between
+_Pyrus Malus_ and the prairie crab, _P. ioensis_. Had there been no
+European apple to be introduced by colonists, it is probable that
+improved forms would have been evolved from the native species. In
+that event, North American pomology would have had a very different
+character.
+
+There remains a very different class of apple-trees, grown only for
+ornament and usually known as "flowering apples." They are mostly
+native in China and Japan. They are small trees, or even almost
+bushes, with profuse handsome flowers and some of them with very
+ornamental little fruits. They have come to this country largely from
+Japan where they are grown for decoration, as the cherries of Japan
+are grown not for fruit but for their flowers, being of very different
+species from the cherries of Europe and America. The common apple
+itself yields varieties grown only for ornament, as one with
+variegated leaves, one with double flowers, and one with drooping
+branches. These are known mostly in Europe; but these forms do not
+compare in interest with the handsome species of the Far East.
+
+All these differing species of the apple-tree multiply the interest
+and hold the attention in many countries. They make the apple-tree
+group one of the most widespread and adaptable of temperate-region
+trees. It will be seen that there are three families of them,--the
+Eurasian family, from which come the pomological apples; the North
+American family, which has yielded little cultivated material; the
+East-Asian family, abundant in highly ornamental kinds. There are no
+apple-trees native in the southern hemisphere.
+
+The apple-tree, taken in its general sense, has a broad meaning. What
+may be accomplished by breeding and hybridizing is beyond
+imagination.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+THE VARIETIES OF APPLE
+
+
+Every seedling of the pomological apples is a new variety. Some of
+these seedlings are so good that they are named and introduced into
+cultivation. They are grafted on other stocks, and become part of the
+great inheritance of desirable apples.
+
+It is to be expected that in the long processes of time in many
+countries the number of varieties will accumulate to high numbers. No
+one knows all the kinds that have been named and propagated, but they
+run into many thousands. No one book contains them all, although some
+of the manuals are voluminous. Varieties drop out of existence, being
+no longer propagated; new varieties come in.
+
+So the lists of varieties gradually change. A list of one hundred
+years ago would contain many names strange to us. Thus, of the sixty
+apples in "A Select List of Fruit-Trees" by Bernard M'Mahon, published
+in "The American Gardener's Calendar," in 1806, not more than six or
+eight would be understandable to a planter of the present day.
+
+With the standardizing of practices in the commercial growing of
+fruits, the tendency is to reduce the number of varieties to small
+proportions; it is these varieties that the nurserymen propagate.
+Here and there over the country are still trees of the extra-quality
+but uncommercial varieties known to a former generation. If the
+amateur now wants to grow these varieties, he must find cions as best
+he can by patient correspondence, and graft them on his own trees.
+When I planted an orchard twenty-five years ago, I found cions of
+Jefferis here, of Dyer there, of Mother, Swaar and Chenango in other
+places.
+
+In the enlarged edition of Downing's "Fruits and Fruit-Trees of
+America," 1872, are descriptions of 1856 varieties, of which 1099 are
+American in origin, 585 foreign, 172 of origin unknown. The lists are
+not only much smaller in these days, but the foreign element tends to
+pass out. With the introduction of the Russian apples for the cold
+North in the latter part of the past century, the importation of
+foreign varieties practically ceased, as it ceased also for the pears
+at an earlier date with the introductions of Manning, Wilder and
+others. The epoch of the "testing" of varieties passed away, and with
+it has gone an appreciative attitude toward fruits and even toward
+life that constitutes a sad lack in our day.
+
+About thirty years ago (1892) I compiled an inventory of all the
+varieties of apple-trees sold in North America, as listed in the
+ninety-five nurserymen's catalogues that came to my hand. The inventory
+contains 878 varieties. In the present year, however, perhaps not more
+than 100 varieties are handled by nurserymen in Eastern United States.
+Probably the dealer and grower would consider even this small number
+much too great. The highly developed standardized business of the
+present day, aiming at quantity-production, naturally reduces the
+variety of products, whether in manufacturing or horticulture, and
+aims at uniformity. Under the influence of this leadership, we are
+losing many of the old products, varieties of apples among the rest.
+
+Why do we need so many kinds of apples? Because there are so many
+folks. A person has a right to gratify his legitimate tastes. If he
+wants twenty or forty kinds of apples for his personal use, running
+from Early Harvest to Roxbury Russet, he should be accorded the
+privilege. Some place should be provided where he may obtain trees or
+cions. There is merit in variety itself. It provides more points of
+contact with life, and leads away from uniformity and monotony.
+
+The leading varieties of apples, that have become dominant over wide
+regions, have been great benefactors to man. The original tree should
+be carefully preserved till the last, by historical or other
+societies; and then a monument should be placed at the spot. Monuments
+have been erected to the Baldwin, Northern Spy, McIntosh and other
+apples. We should never lose our touch with the origins of men,
+events, notable achievements, outstanding products of nature.
+
+I fear it is now a habit with many fruit-growers to minimize the
+interest in varieties, placing the emphasis on tillage, spraying and
+management of plantations. Yet, the only reason why we expend all the
+labor is that we may grow a given kind of apple; the variety is the
+final purpose.
+
+In this little book we cannot discuss varieties at length. There are
+special books on this fascinating subject. But we may have before us a
+compiled list by way of interesting suggestion. The list is sorted
+from the Catalogue of Fruits of the American Pomological Society,
+1901, the last year in which the catalogue was published with quality
+rated on a scale of 10. On such a scale, Ben Davis ranks 4-5; Baldwin,
+5-6; Wealthy and York Imperial, 6-7; Rhode Island Greening, 7-8;
+Northern Spy, 8-9; Yellow Newtown (Albermarle Pippin) 9-10. There is
+no apple in the entire catalogue of 324 kinds (not including
+crab-apples) rated wholly lower than 4 in quality except one alone and
+this is grown for cider only, although several varieties of minor
+importance bear the marks 3-4. Only two varieties are rated
+exclusively 10, the Garden Royal, a Massachusetts summer-fall apple,
+little known to planters, and the familiar Esopus Spitzenberg. Of
+course judgments differ widely in these matters, as there are no
+inflexible criteria for the scoring of quality; yet this extensive
+list is probably our soundest approach to the subject.
+
+The varieties in the catalogue of the American Pomological Society are
+starred if "known to succeed in a given district" and double-starred
+"if highly successful." North America is thrown into nineteen
+districts for the purposes of this catalogue (which comprises other
+fruits besides apples). For our purposes we may combine them into six
+more or less indefinite great regions: n. e., the northeastern part of
+the country, Delaware and Pennsylvania to eastern Canada; s. e., the
+parts south of this area and mostly east of the Mississippi; n. c.,
+north central, from Kansas and Missouri north; s. w., Texas to
+Arizona; mt., the mountain states of the Rockies west to the Sierras,
+including of course much high plains country; pac., the Pacific slope,
+Washington to southern California.
+
+Of the varieties starred and double-starred in these various
+geographical regions there are 107; these are listed herewith. Of
+course the intervening twenty years might change the rating of some of
+these apples, other varieties have come to the front, and certain ones
+of these older worthies are receding still further into the
+background; but the exhibit is suggestive none the less.
+
+Arkansas--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.
+Bailey (Sweet)--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Baker--n.e.
+Baldwin--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., s.w., pac.
+Beach--s.e.
+Belle Bonne--n.e.
+Ben Davis--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt., pac.
+Bietigheimer--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Bledsoe--s.e.
+Blenheim--n.e., n.c.
+Blue Pearmain--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Bough, Sweet--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Bryan--s.e., mt.
+Buckingham--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Canada Reinette--n.e., n.c., mt.
+Clayton--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Clyde--n.e., n.c.
+Cogswell--n.e.
+Cooper--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Cracking--s.e., n.c.
+Doyle--s.e.
+Early Pennock--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Esopus (Spitzenburg)--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., pac.
+Ewalt--n.e., s.e., mt.
+Fallawater--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Fall Harvey--n.e., mt.
+Fall Jenneting--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Fall Orange--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Fall Pippin--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.
+Fanny--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w.
+Farrar--s.e.
+Foundling--n.e.
+Gano--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.
+Gilbert--s.e.
+Golding--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Gravenstein--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., s.w., pac.
+Hagloe--n.e., s.e.
+Hoover--s.e., n.c., mt., pac.
+Hopewell--n.c.
+Horse--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Hubbardston--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w.
+Hunge--s.e.
+Huntsman--s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.
+Isham (Sweet)--n.c.
+Jacobs Sweet--n.e.
+Kent--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Kernodle--s.e.
+Lady Sweet--n.e., mt.
+Lankford--n.e., s.e.
+Lawver--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Lilly (of Kent)--n.e.
+Lowe--s.e.
+Lowell--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+McAfee--n.e., s.e, mt.
+McCuller--s.e.
+McMahon--n.e., n.c., mt.
+Magog--n.e.
+Maverack--s.e.
+Milwaukee--n.c.
+Minister--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Monmouth--s.e., n.c., mt.
+Newell--n.c.
+Nickajack--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Northern Spy--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., pac.
+Northwestern (Greening)--n.e., n.c., mt.
+Oconee--n.e., s.e.
+Ohio Nonpareil--n.e., s.e.
+Ohio Pippin--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Ortley--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Paragon--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Patten (Greening)--n.c.
+Pease--n.e.
+Peck (Pleasant)--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Peter--n.c.
+Pewaukee--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Porter--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Pumpkin Sweet--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Quince--n.e., n.c.
+Ramsdell (Sweet)--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Red Astrachan--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt., pac.
+Rhode Island (Greening)--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt., pac.
+Ridge (Pippin)--n.e.
+Rolfe--n.e.
+Rome--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.
+Stark--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.
+Starkey--n.e., s.e.
+Stayman Winesap--n.e., s.e., n.c.
+Sterling--n.e., n.c.
+Summer King--n.e., s.e.
+Swaar--n.e., n.c., mt., pac.
+Taunton--s.e.
+Titovka--n.e., mt.
+Tompkins King--n.e., s.e., mt., pac.
+Twenty Ounce--n.e., s.e., s.w., mt.
+Utter--n.c.
+Vanhoy--n.e., s.e.
+Virginia Greening--s.e., mt.
+Washington (Strawberry)--n.e., s.e., mt.
+Watson--s.e.
+White Pippin--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., pac.
+Wine--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Wistal--s.e., s.w.
+Wolf River--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt.
+Yellow Bellflower--n.e., s.e., s.w., mt., pac.
+Yellow Newtown--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt., pac.
+Yopp--s.e.
+York Imperial--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt.
+
+There are many odd varieties of apple not found in any list but about
+which questions are likely to arise. One of these is the
+Sweet-and-Sour. There is an old ribbed variety of this name, the ribs
+having an acid flesh and the furrows sweetish; it is little known and
+of no special value. Apples are sometimes found that are sweetish on
+one side and sourish on the other. The reasons for this kind of
+variation are no more understood than are those responsible for
+variance in color or shape or durability. One yet sometimes hears the
+pleasant fable that sweet-and-sour apples are produced by splitting
+the bud when the tree was propagated.
+
+The Surprise is a small whitish apple with light red flesh. It is
+indeed a surprise to bite into such an apple, but it has little merit.
+It is an early winter variety.
+
+One is frequently asked about the Sheepnose apple, particularly by
+older people who remember it from early days and who deplore its
+infrequency in these latter times. The sheepnose shape--long-conical--is
+an infrequent variation, as apples go, and apparently none of these
+forms chances to have sufficient merit to keep it in the lists. The
+name is often applied to the Black Gilliflower, an old apple more than
+three inches long, dark red, of light weight perhaps because of the
+large core, ripening late in autumn to midwinter. It seems to be
+specially prized by children, perhaps in part because of its unusual
+shape and in part by its aromatic fragrance; but it is not a high-class
+apple, and is now little seen. With the Rambo, Vandevere, some of the
+russets, Early Harvest, Jersey Sweet and other old worthies, it
+probably will pass away unless rescued here and there by the amateur.
+To the lover of choice fruit nothing is old; every succeeding crop is
+as choice and new as is the new year itself, and one waits for it
+again and again.
+
+One hears of seedless and no-core apples, as also of pears. The core
+is present but greatly reduced in size, and the seeds may be few and
+small. I have also raised practically seedless tomatoes. All these are
+infrequent variations that may be propagated by asexual parts
+(cuttings, cions), but as yet none of them has any outstanding value.
+
+The reader will now ask me about the water-core apples, so much sought
+and prized by youngsters. The water-core is not characteristic of a
+variety, although occurring in some varieties more frequently than in
+others. It is a physiological condition, supposed to be associated
+with a relatively low transpiration (evaporation) so that excess water
+is held in the fruit. In certain seasons this condition is marked, and
+also in cloudy regions and often on young trees that have an
+over-supply of moisture. Yet such cores occur in old trees and
+sometimes with more or less regularity. What the physiological
+inability may be in such cases to dispose of excess moisture appears
+to be undetermined.
+
+Now and then one finds a double apple, with two fruits grown solidly
+together, two blossom ends and a single stem. A seedling tree I knew
+as a boy bore such apples frequently, sometimes a score of them among
+the crop of the year. This, of course, is a malformation or
+teratological state. Apparently two flowers coalesce to form these
+fruits. On the tree of which I speak, the two fruits were about equal
+in size, making a large, widened, edible apple, but I have known of
+other cases in which a diminutive undeveloped fruit is attached to the
+side of a normal one.
+
+Perhaps the oddest of them all is the "Bloomless apple." It is said to
+have no flowers. In fact, however, the flowers are present but they
+lack showy petals and are therefore not conspicuous. The bloomless
+apple is a monstrous state, the cause of which is unknown. Now and
+then a tree is reported. It was described at least as long ago as
+1768, and in 1770 Muenchhausen called it _Pyrus apetala_ (the
+petalless pyrus). The flowers have no stamens, and apparently they are
+pollinated from any other apples in the vicinity. In 1785, Moench
+described it as _Pyrus dioica_ (the dioecious pyrus, sexes separated
+on different plants). The ovary is also malformed, having six or seven
+and sometimes probably more cells, and bearing ten to fifteen styles.
+The resulting fruit has a core character unknown in other apples but
+approached in certain apple-like fruits, as the medlar. The fruit has
+a hole or opening from the calyx (which is open) into the core; and
+the core is roughly double, one series above the other. The fruit, in
+such specimens as I have seen or read about, has no horticultural
+merit; but it is a curiosity of great botanical interest. It appears
+now and then in widely separated places, the trees probably having
+originated as chance seedlings. The fruits from the different
+originations are not always the same in size and form, but the flowers
+apparently all have the same malformed character.
+
+The apple is preeminently the home fruit. It is not transitory. It
+spans every season. In an indifferent cellar I keep apples till apples
+come again. The apple stands up, keeps well on the table. Children may
+handle it. In color and form it satisfies any taste. Its rondure is
+perfect. The cavity is deep, graceful and well moulded, holding the
+good stem securely. The basin is a natural summit and termination of
+the curvatures, bringing all the lines together, finishing them in
+the ornaments of the remaining calyx. The fruit adapts itself to the
+hand. The fingers close pleasantly over it, fitting its figure. It has
+a solid feel. The flesh of a good apple is crisp, breaking, melting,
+coolly acid or mildly sweet. It has a fracture, as one bites it,
+possessed by no other fruit. One likes to feel the snap and break of
+it. There is a stability about it that satisfies; it holds its shape
+till the last bite. One likes to linger on an apple, to sit by a
+fireside to eat it, to munch it waiting on a log when there is no
+hurry, to have another apple with which to invite a friend.
+
+Now I am not thinking of the Ben Davis apple or any of its kind. I do
+not want to be doomed to one variety of apple, or even to half a dozen
+kinds, and particularly I do not want a poor one. There are enough
+good apples, if we can get them. The days of the amateur fruit-growers
+seem to be passing. At least we do not hear much of them in society or
+in many of the meetings of horticulturists. There may be many reasons,
+but two are evident: we give the public indifferent fruits, and
+thereby neither educate the taste or stimulate the desire for more; we
+do not provide them places from which they can get plants of many of
+the choicest things. Yet on a good amateur interest in fruits depends,
+in the end, the real success of commercial fruit-growing. Just now we
+are trying to increase the consumption of apples, to lead the people
+to eat an apple a day: it cannot be accomplished by customary
+commercial methods. To eat an apple a day is a question of affections
+and emotions.
+
+We have had great riches in our varieties of apples. It has been a
+vast resource to have a small home plantation of many good varieties,
+each perfect in its season. The great commercial apple-growing has
+been carried to high perfection of organization and care. More perfect
+apples are put on the market, in proportion to numbers, than ever
+before,--carefully grown and graded and handled. I have watched this
+American development with growing pride. The quantity-production makes
+for greater perfection of product, but it does not make for variety
+and human interest, nor for high-quality varieties. We shall still
+improve it. Masterful men will perfect organizations. The high
+character and attainment of the commanding fruit-growers, nurserymen
+and dealers are good augury for the future. But all this is not
+sufficient. Quantity-production will be an increasing source of
+wealth, but it cannot satisfy the soul.
+
+The objects and productions of high intrinsic merit are preserved by
+the amateur. It is so in art and letters. It is necessarily so. A body
+of amateurs is an essential background to the development of science.
+The late Professor Pickering, renowned astronomer, encouraged the
+amateur societies of star-observers, and others. The amateurs in the
+background, disinterested and unselfish, support appropriations by
+legislatures for even abstruse public work. The amateur is the
+embodiment of the best in the common life, the conservator of
+aspirations, the fulfillment of democratic freedom. I hope pomology
+will not lag in this respect. In all lines I hope that professionalism
+will not subjugate the man who follows a subject for the love of it
+rather than for the gain of it or for the pride of it. In
+horticulture, when we lose the amateur, who, as the word means, is the
+lover, we lose the ideals.
+
+Naturally, the nurseryman cannot grow trees of all the good apples
+that may be wanted. The experiment stations cannot maintain living
+museums of them, for their function is to investigate rather than to
+preserve. Arboretums are concerned with other activities. Is there not
+some person of means, desiring to do good to his successors, ready now
+to establish a fructicetum _in perpetuum_ for the purpose of
+preserving a single tree of at least one hundred of the choicest
+apples, to the end that a record may be kept and that amateurs may be
+supplied with cions thereof?
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+THE PLEASANT ART OF GRAFTING
+
+
+If I procure cuttings of a good apple, what shall I do with them that
+they may give me of their fruitage?
+
+The cuttings will probably be dormant twigs of the last season's
+growth. They may not be expected to grow when placed in the ground.
+They are therefore planted in another tree, becoming cions. The case
+is in no way different in principle from the propagating of the young
+tree in the nursery, of which we already have learned. The nurseryman
+works with a small stock, a mere slip of a seedling one or two years
+old. The grower would better not attempt the making of nursery trees.
+It is better for him to purchase regular nursery trees and to graft
+the cions on them; or he may put the cions in any older tree that is
+available.
+
+I have spoken of my own collecting of certain dessert apples. I
+"worked" them on young Northern Spy trees, purchased when two or three
+years old; they were grafted after they had stood a year in the
+orchard. These Northern Spy trees, used in this case as stocks, were
+regularly grown by nurserymen. The Northern Spy was chosen because of
+its hardiness and straight, clean, erect growth, making it a vigorous
+and comely stock. Weak-growing varieties are usually rejected for this
+purpose. Some growers use Oldenburg as stock, and there are other
+good kinds.
+
+From the young stock, the old head is to be removed and a new head
+(the new variety) grown in its stead. The tree, therefore, will be
+combined of three kinds of apple,--the root of unknown quality; the
+trunk or body under a varietal name; the top, of the variety desired.
+Any number of different kinds of apple wood may be worked into the
+tree if the tree is large enough. If the operations are well performed
+so that there are no imperfect unions, and if the pruning is
+judicious, the tree may be grafted many times, in whole or in part.
+
+I have said that my father brought apple seeds from New England and
+that the resulting seedlings were top-grafted. One of these trees was
+early top-worked to "Holland Pippin," which seldom bore. It stood in
+the yard near the smoke-house, where it found abundant nourishment. It
+grew to great size. In time I became a grafter of trees for the
+neighborhood, and often as I returned at night would have cions of
+different kinds in my pockets. It became a pastime to graft these
+cions in the old tree. More than thirty varieties were placed there.
+It was with keen anticipation, as the years came, that I looked for
+the annual crop, to see what strange inhabitants would appear in the
+great tree-top. I do not remember how many of these varieties came
+into bearing before the tree was finally gathered to the wood-box, but
+they were a goodly number, probably more than a score. I used often to
+wonder how it was that the nutrients taken in by the roots of the
+Vermont seedling and transported in the tissues of the Holland Pippin,
+combined with the same air, could produce so many diverse apples and
+even pears (for I had pears in that tree) each with the marks and
+flavor proper to its kind. The little cions I grafted into the tree
+were soon lost in the overgrowth, and yet all the branches that came
+from them carried the genius of one single variety and of none other.
+And I often speculated whether there were any reflex action of these
+many varieties on the root, demanding a certain kind of service from
+it.
+
+The cions (sometimes still called "grafts") are cut in winter or early
+spring, when well matured and perfectly dormant. Placed in sand in a
+cool cellar so they will not shrivel, they are kept until grafting
+time, which is early spring, usually before the leaves start on the
+stock. The cions may be placed on the tree by several methods, but
+only two are commonly employed,--the whip-graft and the cleft-graft.
+The former is adapted to small stocks, the size of one's finger or
+smaller; it is the method employed in root-grafting in the nursery,
+and Fig. 16 explains it.
+
+The requirement is to cause the cion and stock to grow together
+solidly, making one piece of wood. The growing plastic region is
+associated with the cambium tissues underneath the bark. It is
+necessary, therefore, to bring the "line betwixt the wood and the
+bark" together in the two parts, and to hold the junction firm and
+also well protected from evaporation until union takes place. The
+method of putting the parts together, the form of whittling, is a
+matter of convenience and practice.
+
+The case was put in this way by old Robert Sharrock, "Fellow of
+New-College," in his "History of the Propagation and Improvement of
+Vegetables by the concurrence of Art and Nature" (I quote from the
+second edition, Oxford, 1672): "Grafting is an Art of so placing the
+Cyon upon a stock, that the Sap may pass from the stock to the Cyon
+without Impediment." Batty Langley, in 1729, gave this direction in
+the "Pomona": "The Stocks being cleft, you must therefore cut the Cion
+in the Form of a Wedge, which must always be cut from a Bud, for the
+Reasons aforesaid; and then with a Grafting-Chizel open the Slit, and
+place the Cion therein, so that their Barks may be exactly even and
+smooth."
+
+Still earlier (1626) did William Lawson, in "A New Orchard and
+Garden," set forth the rationale of the practice in his Chapter X, "On
+Grafting," in this wise: "Now are we come to the most curious point of
+our faculty: curious in conceit, but indeed as plaine and easie as the
+rest, when it is plainly shewne, which we commonly call Graffing, or
+(after some) Grafting. I cannot Etymoligize, nor shew the original of
+the word, except it come of graving and carving. But the thing or
+matter is: The reforming of the Fruit of one Tree with the fruit of
+another, by an artificial transplacing or transposing of a twig, bud
+or leafe, (commonly called a Graft) taken from one tree of the same,
+or some other kind, and placed or put to, or into another tree in due
+time and manner."
+
+If the whip-graft is to be below the ground, it is sufficient to tie
+the parts tightly with string and cover with earth; if above ground,
+wax is applied over the string to prevent drying out. On the small
+shoots of young trees, the whip-graft is often employed, but it is not
+used in large trees.
+
+The cleft-graft is shown in Fig. 18. The trunk or branch is cut off;
+two cions are inserted in a cleft made with a knife. The "stub" is
+covered with grafting-wax (Fig. 19). Cleft-grafting is the usual
+method for the orchardist.
+
+[Illustration: 18. The cleft-graft.]
+
+[Illustration: 19. The cleft-graft after waxing.]
+
+In either kind of grafting, the cion carries about three leaf-buds. If
+"wood" (cion-shoots) is scarce, only one bud may be taken, but this
+reduces the chances of success. One bud may not grow, or the young
+shoot may be injured. The lowest bud is usually most likely to grow;
+it pushes through the wax.
+
+In young trees set for the purpose of top-working, the trunk may be
+cut off at the desired height and two cions inserted. The entire top
+is then removed at once; this is allowable only on young trees.
+Probably the better practice is to graft the main small side limbs and
+the main trunk or leader higher up. Usually it is better to leave some
+of the branches on the tree, not removing them all till the second or
+third year.
+
+In old apple-trees, the main branches are grafted, where they are an
+inch or two in diameter. Care is taken so to choose the branches that
+a well-shaped free-headed tree will result. Only a small part of the
+top is removed the first year, and three or four years may be required
+to change the top all over, the old branches being removed as the new
+ones grow. In about three years, or four, the grafts should begin to
+bear,--about as soon as strong three-year-old trees planted in the
+orchard.
+
+Any variety of the pomological apples will grow on any other variety,
+but apples do not take well on other species, as does the pear. The
+pear may be made to grow on the apple, but the graft is short-lived
+and the practice is not recommended. Boys may graft indiscriminately
+for practice, but grown-ups, having arrived at the unfortunate age of
+discretion, must operate only on those kinds known to succeed when
+joined. I have never known a boy who did not want to graft anything,
+as soon as his attention was called to the operation. The boy does not
+take it for granted: he wants to try.
+
+
+
+
+XIII
+
+THE MENDING OF THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+Many accidents overtake the apple-tree. The hired man skins the tree
+with the harrow; fire runs through the dry grass; hard winters shatter
+the vitality, and parts of the tree die; borers enter; rabbits and
+mice gnaw the bark in winter; loads of fruit and burdens of ice crush
+the tree; wind storms play mischief; bad pruning leaves long stubs,
+and rot develops; cankers produce dead ragged wounds; fire-blight
+destroys the tissue; a poorly formed tree with bad crotches splits
+easily; grafts fail to take, and long dead ends are left; the tree is
+injured by pickers; vandals wreak their havoc. All these accidents
+must be met and the damages repaired. The surgeon must be summoned.
+
+We must first understand how a wound heals on a tree. Note any
+wound,--knot-hole on the trunk, place where wood has been removed. The
+exposed wound itself does not heal; it is covered and inclosed by
+tissue built out from the edges or periphery of the wound. This tissue
+is like a roll. It is the callus. Eventually the tissue meets in the
+center, and the lid is thereby put on the place, and it is sealed. The
+exposed wood has died, if it is the cross-section of a branch or a
+deep wound, and it remains under the callus a dead body. If the wood
+has not started to decay in the meantime, the place is safe, but too
+often invasion has begun before the process is complete, the rot
+disease finally extends to the heart of the tree, causing it to become
+hollow. If the center of the wound falls in, the callus cannot cover
+it, and an open sore remains. In these cavities birds may sometimes
+build.
+
+Therefore there are two points for the surgeon to consider in respect
+to the wound itself--whether it is so placed on the tree that the
+callus forms readily; whether the wound is kept healthy during
+exposure.
+
+All ragged tissue being removed, deep-wound surfaces should be kept
+aseptic. For ordinary cases, white-lead paint with plenty of linseed
+oil is a good protective from the germs of decay. On old wood, no
+longer active, creosote is good, perhaps followed by coal-tar.
+Usually, however, paint is quite sufficient. Small exposures usually
+receive no dressing. When the fresh surface wood is exposed by removal
+of bark, it is necessary to keep the tissue from drying out, and
+antiseptics are usually not applied. Bandaging with cloth is the usual
+practice, after the wound is cleaned and trimmed.
+
+The repairs fall into two classes,--those that require merely removal
+of injured parts and treatment of the wounds, and those that demand
+the ingrafting of new wood.
+
+We have learned, in the discussion of pruning, that long projecting
+ends of severed branches do not heal. The branches to be removed
+should be cut back close to the larger branch or to the juncture with
+another. In repairing injured trees, all projecting parts that do not
+have life in themselves must be removed. All wounds should be left
+smooth, without splinters or hanging bark. Decaying wood is to be
+removed, and the area cleaned out and disinfected.
+
+The nature-lover may find much to interest him in the observation of
+knot-holes as he comes and goes. Every knot-hole has a history; this
+history usually can be traced by one whose eye is keen and who becomes
+practiced in connecting cause with final result. One prides oneself on
+the ability to work out the obscure cases. An old neglected apple
+orchard thereby affords much entertainment.
+
+If a very large branch breaks off, the remaining part is cut back to
+fresh hard wood; antiseptic is applied; the other part of the tree may
+be shortened-in to aid in restoring the proportion or balance.
+
+Deep cavities caused by rot are cleaned out, disinfected with bordeaux
+mixture, gas-tar, or other material, and the place filled completely
+with cement.
+
+In some cases, new wood is added in the form of cions of last year's
+twigs. Such cions may be set around the edge of a stub, thrust between
+the bark and the wood, to start new branches where an important one
+was broken off. The cions are cut wedge-shape (much as those in Fig.
+18) and a bandage is tied around the stub to hold them in place; the
+exposed parts are covered with grafting-wax. The operation is
+performed in spring.
+
+Sometimes cions are used to bridge a girdle. Usually a girdle heals
+itself if the injury does not extend into the wood, and if it is bound
+up to prevent drying out; but when the injury is deep and the exposed
+wood has become dry and hard, the cions may be used. The cions are
+somewhat longer than the width of the girdle. The edges of the girdle
+are trimmed to fresh tight bark; cions are cut wedge-shape at either
+end; the ends are inserted underneath the bark at bottom and top of
+the wound; edges of the wound are securely bandaged; entire work is
+covered with wax. The cions are many, so close that they nearly touch.
+The buds on the cions are not allowed to produce branches. This
+process is known as bridge-grafting.
+
+With some experience, the cultivator soon learns to make many deft
+applications of ingrafting. Sometimes a piece of bark may be used as a
+patch. In the bracing of crotches in young trees, the two trunks may
+be joined by uniting a small branch from either one, twisting them
+together to form a bridge like a bolt; they can be made to grow
+together, forming a solid union. Bolting the parts with iron rods, or
+holding them together by means of chains, is the usual and commonly
+the better method. The iron is not to go around a limb, however, for
+girdling results; the rods or chains should be secured by bolts bored
+through the wood and pulling against large heads or washers.
+
+The usual repairs are easily made. When trees are badly injured, and
+particularly when the tree is low in vitality, it may not be worth
+while to engage in surgery. It may be better to plant a new tree.
+Saving very old trees by the mending processes is not likely to be
+satisfactory. The grower should transfer his affection to a young
+tree. If the tree has had good care throughout its life, it probably
+will not need much surgery in old age. The grower will be willing,
+when the time comes, to take a photograph for memory's sake and to let
+the tree come to a timely and artistic end.
+
+
+
+
+XIV
+
+CITIZENS OF THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+Many years ago, my old friend, the late Dr. J. A. Lintner, State
+Entomologist of New York, compiled a list of 356 insects that feed on
+the apple-tree. Later authorities place the number at nearly five
+hundred species. It must be a good plant that has such a host of
+denizens. The number of fungi is also large; and the tree often
+supports lichens, algae, and other forms of life.
+
+The apple-tree is not single in its denizens. No plant lives alone. It
+has association with its fellows, perhaps contest for space and
+nourishment. It provides habitat for many organisms, many of which
+live on its bounty. I have never seen a bearing apple-tree that was
+not a colonizing place for other living things. We accept these things
+as matters of course, as being in place, living their part in nature.
+Therefore, one cannot understand the apple-tree unless one knows
+something of its citizenry.
+
+Probably the most prominent citizen of the apple-tree is the
+codlin-moth. Its larva is the apple-worm, the one that makes "wormy
+apples," the burrows going to the core and out again. The insect is
+native in Europe, but has been known in North America nearly two
+hundred years, and is widespread in the apple countries of the world.
+
+If one has screens in the apple cellar, one is likely to find small
+moths on them in the spring, larger than a clothes moth, about
+three-fourths inch in spread of the soft gray watered-silk wings. This
+is the imago or mature form of the insect known as the codlin-moth (it
+lives on codlins or apples). The larvae or "worms" were brought into
+the cellar in the apples; some of them crawled out, spun themselves in
+a cocoon and pupated; in due season the moth emerged, ready to lay the
+eggs for other larvae. Ordinarily the fruit-grower does not see the
+moth, for it is a small object amidst the foliage of apple-trees; the
+larva or apple-worm he knows well.
+
+There may be two or more broods of apple-worms, depending on the
+length of the season. In the northern apple regions of North America
+there is usually only one brood, with a partial second brood. The
+first brood is hatched from eggs laid by moths that emerge in spring.
+The moths come from larvae that have lain in cocoons all winter, hidden
+under bark on the trunks and main branches of the apple-tree, in
+crevices in nearby posts and fences, and sometimes in the ground. The
+pupae are the transformed larvae or worms that left the apple of the
+previous year, usually before it fell, and crawled down the tree to
+find a place to spin the silken brown cocoons in which they wrapped
+themselves to undergo the wonderful transformation.
+
+So is the cycle complete: egg laid in early spring, mostly on the
+leaves; larva hatched in about one week, crawling to the young apple
+to feed, where it lives for perhaps a month; larva departed from the
+fruit to form a cocoon and to remain quiescent till it pupates the
+following spring (if there is no second brood) when it transforms into
+a moth; the moth alive for one week or ten days, laying perhaps as
+many as one hundred eggs or even more. If there is a second or third
+brood, the pupa resurrects in ten days or so into the moth; eggs are
+laid; larvae are hatched; pupae again are formed; and thus is the
+process continued. But the winter stage is the larva, although perhaps
+in store-houses the moths may emerge earlier and survive till spring.
+
+The eggs of the first brood are commonly laid on the leaves and fruit.
+The young larva or worm eats very little on the foliage. It usually
+crawls into the blossom end of the apple. The young apple stands
+erect, with the calyx open (Fig. 6); later the calyx closes and
+protects the larva that hatched there, forming a good cover for its
+operations (Fig. 7). The worm drives for the core, where it eats the
+young seeds and burrows extensively; then, when nearly grown, it sets
+out for the surface, eating a straight burrow; an opening is made
+through the skin of the apple, but this exit is plugged until the
+animal is ready to leave the place and to crawl down the tree to
+pupate. The larvae of later broods may enter at the side of the apple,
+where a leaf affords protection or where two fruits come together; but
+the life-history is the same, varying in its rapidity.
+
+This account discloses the vulnerable point in the life-history, if
+one is to destroy the insects and to grow fair fruit; if poison is
+lodged on the erect open-topped little apple, the young larva will get
+it before he injures the fruit. If the application of the poison is
+delayed until the calyx closes (Fig. 7), there will be small chance
+of reaching the worm. The best way to reach the second brood is to
+destroy all the first brood. The standard practice, therefore, is to
+spray the trees soon after the petals fall, with the idea of
+depositing arsenic in the blossom end.
+
+But the season of egg-laying is long, often extending over a period of
+three or four weeks, for the moths do not all emerge from the cocoons
+simultaneously. It is customary, therefore, to spray again about two
+weeks after the first application, with the hope of catching the young
+worms on their way to the fruit.
+
+There is no question about the efficacy of spraying. Its value has
+been demonstrated time and again. The methods and the materials may be
+learned from the experiment station publications in any State, wherein
+the advice is kept up-to-date.
+
+In the days before the perfecting of the spraying processes, the
+codlin-moth was controlled by catching the pupating larvae. Taking
+advantage of the habit of the worm to find lodgment under the bark on
+the trunk, it was the practice to scrape the loose bark from bole and
+large branches to destroy the hiding-places and then to tie a band of
+cloth around the trunk. Under this band the worms were taken, as they
+spun themselves up in the cocoons. This is a lesson taken from the
+industrious woodpeckers, who, in the winter, search the trees for the
+pupae and make holes through the flakes of bark to get them. The
+scraping of apple-trees is not much recommended now for the reason
+that this special necessity is passed, and because the better tillage
+and care together with the soaking of the branches and trunk in the
+spraying operation, tend to keep the tree vigorous and the bark
+properly exfoliated.
+
+So the worm in the apple has a delicate and interesting history. From
+egg to imago the transformations proceed with regularity, and they are
+marvelous. Had we not traced the sequence, no man could tell by
+appearances that the larva, the pupa and the moth are one and the same
+animal. They seem to have nothing in common. So is the egg stage as
+different as the other three, but we are measurably prepared for this
+epoch, since we know seeds so well; the egg and the seed are
+analogous. That a moth in the air should come from a crawling worm in
+an apple is indeed one of the miracles of nature. The worm leaves the
+apple ere it falls; how the worm knows the time is again a mystery. By
+some instinct, it is able to cognize a dying apple. The later worms,
+either the lastlings from the early brood or the product of subsequent
+broods, may remain in the apple when it is harvested, particularly in
+an apple picked before it is quite mature and from which the worm has
+not escaped.
+
+The apple-worm ruins the crop by killing many of the fruits and by
+blemishing the remainder. Seldom are there two worms in an apple. They
+seem to respect each other's hunting-ground. From the worm's point of
+view and from man's, one is enough.
+
+If man has dominion and if he needs apples, then is he within his
+rights if he joins issue with the insects. Yet is the insect as
+interesting for all that. I think we should miss many of the
+satisfactions of life, and certainly some of the disciplines, if there
+were no insects. My apple-tree is a great place for a naturalist. Van
+Bruyssel wrote a book on "The Population of an Old Pear-Tree." "When
+certain blue spirits begin to flit about me," he writes, "I depart
+from my study to go and read, in what I am allowed, even by my
+clerical uncle, to call my book of devotions. The devotions I mean are
+not in my book-case. No publisher, if he ever thought of such a thing,
+could bring them out. They are a page of the book of Nature, opened in
+the country, under blue sky, displayed at all season." What a
+marvelous company Van Bruyssel found on his old pear tree; and what
+inexhaustible worlds did Fabre discover in the lives of the spider,
+the fly, the caterpillar, the wasps, the mason-bees and others!
+
+Therefore we need not pause with the other four hundred and more
+insect citizens of the apple-tree. Some of them, as the San Jose
+scale, are not peculiarly apple-tree insects. My tree has another crew
+of inhabitants, and to this company we may now have introduction.
+
+The spots on the leaves and fruits are not deposits of dirt nor are
+they caused by mysterious conditions in the atmosphere, as once
+supposed, nor is it in the nature of leaves to be spotted and of
+fruits to be scabby; nor are the one-sided dwarfed fruits merely
+accidents. The organism responsible for these blemishes is less
+evident than the codlin-moth; yet what fruit-grower knows the eggs of
+the codlin-moth? But the organisms are as definite as are the insects;
+no longer are the fungi things without form and without positive
+cycles.
+
+On the ground are apple leaves, shed in the autumn. On the leaves are
+spots or lesions,--injured or "diseased"--infected with the apple-scab
+fungus. Under a good microscope the investigator finds immature
+fruiting bodies in these areas. In the early days of Spring, these
+bodies or winter-spores mature. A rain discharges them in astonishing
+numbers. Rising in the air (for they are incredibly light), these
+spores lodge on the unfolding leaves and flowers of the apple, and
+there begin to germinate, invading the tissue. The tissue is
+penetrated and killed so rapidly that the practiced eye soon discovers
+a "spot." The leaf, if badly infected, may not reach full size; it may
+curl; it may die and fall; the tree thereby is injured.
+
+From the fungus in the active diseased areas, another kind of spore
+develops rapidly. It is the summer-spore, which may be produced in
+prodigious numbers, and being discharged carries the disease
+elsewhere.
+
+All summer the process of spore-formation and distribution keeps up.
+If conditions are favorable, the tree is invaded in foliage and fruit.
+The flower-stems in the unfolding buds are attacked by the
+winter-spores and the flower falls. The apples become spotted from the
+invasion of the summer-spores, perhaps misshapen. Late infections may
+not show at picking time, but develop on the fruit in storage. The
+affected leaves are cast in the autumn, the winter-spores begin to
+form, the snows come and hide the processes, in spring the spores
+mature; and so does the round of life go on and on.
+
+There are beautiful forms in these fragile fungus threads that eat
+their way into the tissues of the host. There are fascinating
+phenomena in the growth and reproduction. Even so and for all that,
+man protects his tree by spraying it with poison, and thereby again
+does he have dominion.
+
+The spraying for apple-scab is with lime-sulfur to which may be added
+arsenate of lead. This treatment, properly timed, may suffice also
+for the codlin-moth. As the fungus may attack the flower-stems and
+kill them, so is the first application made when the flower-buds open
+and the stems begin to separate, but before the flowers expand; the
+operator has a period of one to three days in which to spray. A second
+spraying is given just after the blossoms fall, as for codlin-moth; if
+the season is wet, a third application may be made ten to fourteen
+days later; if the fungus seems to spread, a fourth spraying may be
+applied in midsummer. These sprayings, variously modified, control not
+only the codlin-moth and the scab fungus but also scale, blister-mite,
+plant-lice, leaf-roller, case-bearer, bud-moth, red-bug and others.
+
+In the tropics one sees trees bearing great burdens of orchids and
+bromeliads and ferns and mosses, and one wonders at the strange and
+exuberant population. Yet here is my apple-tree supporting epiphytes
+and parasites and insects, protector and nurse of a goodly company;
+and birds nest on the branches thereof.
+
+
+
+
+XV
+
+THE APPLE-TREE REGIONS
+
+
+The northern hemisphere is the home of the apple, particularly Central
+Europe, Canada, the United States. In certain regions in the southern
+hemisphere the temperature and humidity are right for the good growing
+of apples, mostly in elevated areas. In New Zealand and parts of
+Australia, apple-growing is assuming large proportions. Their export
+trade to Europe and parts of South America has come to be important
+and undoubtedly is destined greatly to increase.
+
+In Europe, where land is often limited and high in price, apple-trees
+may be planted closer than in America, even in field conditions, and
+more attention is given to pruning, heading-in, and the development of
+fruit-spurs in the interior of the tree-top. I noticed this practice
+in New Zealand, also. In these directions, the Europeans have much to
+teach us in the careful growing of good apples. In Europe, the
+definite training of the apple-tree begins in the nursery;
+quantity-production, with standardization, is not there the aim.
+
+In North America the general practice is to let the tree take its
+course, reaching its full natural stature. The pruning is mostly
+corrective, to keep the tree in shape and to prevent the top from
+becoming too thick, rather than in the development of fruiting wood.
+The consequence is that our trees become very large, specially in New
+York and New England where they are long-lived. In the western
+country, as we have learned, the apple-tree tends to be shorter-lived
+and does not usually attain such great size. In the New York apple
+country, orchards may be in good bearing at forty to sixty years from
+planting, and individual trees may be productive much longer than
+this. The trees come into good bearing in ten to fifteen years. In the
+irrigated regions of the West, the trees may be expected to bear a
+good crop two to five years earlier; to what age they may attain, in
+large plantations, it is yet too early to state.
+
+The commercial apple regions of North America are in Canada and the
+northern United States, comprising about two or three tiers of States,
+with important extensions southward into the mountains and in special
+parts. The Southern States are not known as apple-growing country,
+except in special restricted elevated areas, although there are
+considerable plantations near the Gulf of Mexico.
+
+The geography of apple-growing on the North American continent cannot
+be better displayed than by copying the table of contents of the
+larger part of Chapters III and II in Folger and Thomson's excellent
+recent book, "The Commercial Apple Industry of North America:"
+
+
+_Commercial Apple Production in Canada_
+
+    Nova Scotia
+    Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick
+    Quebec
+    Ontario
+    British Columbia.
+
+_Leading Apple Regions of the United States_
+
+    Western New York
+    Hudson Valley
+    New England Baldwin belt
+    The Champlain district
+    New Jersey
+    Delaware
+    Shenandoah-Cumberland district
+    Piedmont district of Virginia
+    Minor regions in Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Virginia
+    Mountain region of North Carolina
+    Mountain region of Georgia
+    Ohio
+      Southern Ohio, Rome Beauty district
+      Minor regions in Ohio
+    Kentucky
+    Michigan
+    Illinois
+      Southern Illinois early apple region
+      Mississippi Valley region of Illinois
+    Ozark region
+    Missouri River region
+    Arkansas Valley of Kansas
+      Southeastern Illinois
+    Colorado
+    New Mexico
+    Utah
+    Montana
+    Washington
+      Yakima Valley
+      Wenatchee North Central Washington district
+      Spokane district
+      Walla Walla district
+    Oregon
+      Hood River Valley
+      Rogue River Valley
+      Other apple districts in Oregon
+    Idaho
+      Payette district
+      Boise Valley
+      Twin Falls
+      Lewiston section
+    California
+      Watsonville district
+      Sebastopol apple district
+      Yucaipa section
+    Wisconsin
+    Minnesota
+
+The varieties of the South and the North, and largely also of the West
+and the East, are prevailingly different. Canada has a set of apples
+quite its own. These differences are marked when one visits
+exhibitions in the various regions. Let the visitor who is a good
+judge of apples in Michigan and Ohio attempt to judge them in an
+exhibition in the Annapolis Valley of Nova Scotia, in the Province of
+Quebec, in North Carolina, in Minnesota, in Oregon. He will be
+impressed with the wonderful diversity, as well as the undeveloped
+resources, of the continent.
+
+Southward, apples do not keep well. There are no true winter apples in
+the Southern States, outside mountain regions. A winter apple of the
+North becomes a fall apple in the South. In fact, there are marked
+differences in keeping quality within a single State. On gravelly
+lands or warm slopes in the southern part of New York, the Northern
+Spy may become practically a late autumn apple; in the northern parts
+of the State it is a firm crisp all-winter keeper. In the winter
+apple, the ripening process proceeds in storage. When the season is so
+long that maturity is reached on the tree, the subsequent duration is
+relatively short.
+
+It is not to be inferred, however, that apples are to be grown only in
+regions and soils naturally well adapted. Such adaptations should be
+controlling in commercial plantations; but if man has dominion he
+should be able to accomplish much in untoward or even in hostile
+conditions. Even the city lot may be able to yield a harvest, if the
+occupant of it is minded in fruits rather than in other things. Every
+observant traveler has noted cases in which good results in the
+rearing of plants and animals have been attained in places that no one
+would choose for the purpose: the man has overcome his obstacles. I
+was impressed with this fact in visiting a greenhouse in the Shetland
+Islands. Cultivation has been carried far beyond the optimum regions.
+The merit of the man's performance is measured in the excellence of
+his result rather than in the quantity of it. The application of skill
+is the highest test of ability in plant-growing, and this is often
+expressed in the most difficult places.
+
+Whatever may be the adaptability of any general territory to the
+growing of apples in a large way, the probability is that a man of
+resources and skill will be able to raise good apples for himself,
+unless, of course, the region is prohibitive. The amateur may be a law
+unto himself in many of these matters, delighting in the ingenuity
+that enables him to overcome.
+
+
+
+
+XVI
+
+THE HARVEST OF THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+Finally the apple is ripe, a fair goodly object joyous in the sun,
+inviting to every sense. Hanging amidst its foliage, bending the twig
+with its weight, it is at once a pattern in good shape, perfect in
+configuration, in sheen beyond imitation, in fragrance the very
+affluence of all choice clean growth, its surface spread with a bloom
+often so delicate that the unsympathetic see it not; and yet the rains
+do not spoil it.
+
+The apple must be picked. Do not let it fall. Probably it is over-ripe
+when it falls; the hold is loosened; its time is up. Wormy apples may
+fall before they are ripe; the worm injury, if it begins early, causes
+them to ripen prematurely. A premature apple is not a good apple,
+albeit the small boy relishes it but only because he may get his apple
+earlier; in the apple season, when ripe fruits are abundant, the boy
+does not choose the wormy one.
+
+Pick the apple from the tree. It will do you good. It is ever so much
+better than to pick it from a box on the market or out of a quart-can
+in the ice-chest. You will feel some sense of responsibility when you
+pick it, some reaction of relationship to its origin. We know that we
+understand folks better when we see them at home.
+
+In varieties that mature before winter, the apple is of best quality
+when it ripens on the tree and is picked when fit to eat. In this
+respect it differs from the pear. One reason why store apples are
+usually poor is because they must be picked long before ripe to stand
+shipment. In my experience it is most difficult to find a man who will
+pick apples when ripe; he is usually possessed to pull them green,
+thinking that if the fruit is full grown and has a red cheek it is
+therefore ready to be plucked.
+
+One would expect the best summer and fall apples to come from nearby
+local orchards, but practically this is not the case because the
+grower will not allow them to remain on the tree until they are fit.
+Of course the really ripe apple will not keep long and it does not
+stand rough handling, but this does not affect the fact that, for
+eating, an apple should be naturally ripe. In every city, small or
+large, a good trade can be built up for local ripe hand-picked fruit
+of the first quality, in competition with the best commercial supply.
+
+Winter apples are picked in the Northern States in October, sometimes
+late in September. They are then full grown, but are hard and
+inedible. The red varieties are full colored; the green ones show more
+or less yellow. Light early frost does not injure them on the tree.
+Usually they are placed at first in piles or windrows; and from these
+piles they are barreled or boxed for market. If the choicest grades
+are to be made, they should be taken to a packing-house.
+
+The apple is an easy fruit to pick. The stem parts readily from the
+spur or twig. Yet if the harvester is choice of his trees he will work
+deftly rather than roughly, not to injure the bearing wood. The fruits
+are placed in baskets as they are plucked, sometimes in a bag slung
+over the shoulders but this is not the best way when the apples are
+ripe. In the packing-house, the fruits are sorted into uniform grades
+if they are for market.
+
+The better the trees are tilled, pruned and sprayed, the more uniform
+will be the crop, and particularly if the fruit is thinned on the
+tree; yet the second-class and even cull apples will be many under
+ordinary conditions. The purchaser, noting the price of extra-grade
+apples, may not realize that he buys only the remainder in a long
+process of grading, extending really over the season or even
+throughout the life of the orchard. In all this time, the grower has
+borne the risks of frosts and hail, insect and fungus invasions, lack
+of help, and disastrously low prices. A finished product of high
+quality is always expensive.
+
+The usual apples on the open market are not the kind I have here tried
+to describe. They are the product of indifferent orchards or of
+careless handling. They are purchased for cooking; and the eating of
+apples out of hand because they are attractive and really good is an
+unknown experience with great numbers of our people. The polished
+shiny apples of the fruit-stands are a delusion. The practice of
+burnishing the fruits produces a most inartistic result, destroying
+the natural bloom and violating the appearance of a natural apple. It
+is one thing to clean a fruit if it is soiled (which is seldom the
+case with boxed or barreled apples); it is quite another thing to rub
+and furbish an apple as if it were a billiard ball or glass marble and
+not a living object that grew on a tree,--it sets false standards
+before the children. Yet all this is in line with much of our practice
+whereby, in cookery and manipulation, we disguise our foods and show
+our lack of appreciation of the products themselves.
+
+For home use, winter apples may well be stored in boxes in a cool
+moist cellar if such a place is available. For best results in long
+keeping, the temperature should be maintained below 40 degrees F. In a
+cellar containing a furnace, the fruits shrivel from too much
+evaporation, as also in an attic or other dry room. If the fruit must
+be stored in such places, it is well to keep the box or barrel tightly
+closed, and the individual apples may be wrapped in thin paper.
+
+The apples must be sorted now and then, to remove the decaying ones;
+if the fruit was carefully sprayed, handled and graded in the first
+place and not too ripe, the necessity of frequent sorting will be
+considerably reduced. But in any case, the keeping of apples, except
+under good cold-storage, is at best a process of continually saving
+the most durable fruits. An "outside cellar," if properly ventilated,
+usually is a good place in which to keep apples. With the use of
+furnaces for heating and the cramped quarters of city apartments, the
+keeping of apples for home supply is constantly more difficult.
+
+There is no apple like the one that comes up fresh from the cellar on
+a winter night, cool, crisp, solid yet ready. It is the fruit of the
+home fireside. I often wonder whether one in a hundred of the people
+know what a really good and timely apple is.
+
+The yield of an apple-tree depends on many factors,--age, size,
+thriftiness, care it has received, whether it has escaped frost and
+other injuries; and some varieties are much more prolific than others.
+Some apples are "shy bearers," and for this reason soon are lost to
+propagation unless they have some superlative merit; Yellow
+Bellflower is an example of a shy, or at least an irregular, bearer.
+The great commercial varieties are of course good bearers, as Baldwin,
+Ben Davis, Stayman, York Imperial, Oldenburg, Rome, McIntosh, Wealthy,
+Yellow Transparent, Jonathan.
+
+An apple-tree at full bearing is a wonderful sight at the harvest,
+particularly in such varieties as McIntosh and Baldwin, in which the
+fruit is highly colored and hangs well toward the outside of the
+tree-top. While the first bearing year may yield only a half dozen
+fruits, the crop increases rapidly with the added years,--one peck,
+one bushel, five bushels, ten bushels, thirty bushels, even to sixty
+and seventy bushels on large sturdy old trees of some varieties. The
+amateur, however, first prizes the quality and regularity of his
+product for the sheer joy of it; then every added bushel is so much to
+the good.
+
+
+
+
+XVII
+
+THE APPRAISAL OF THE APPLE-TREE
+
+
+Now, therefore, in these sixteen little chapters have I tried to
+explain what I feel about the apple-tree. It is a version to my
+friend, the reader, not a treatise.
+
+As the interpretation is in the realm of the sensibilities, so do I
+aim not directly at concreteness. Yet as it is now the fashion to
+"score" all our products by a scale of "points," I make a reasonable
+concession to it. But I do not like the scoring of the fruit
+independently of the tree on which it grew as if the fruit were only a
+commodity. I know we cannot bring the tree to the exhibition-room, yet
+the perfect measure, nevertheless, is the tree and the fruit together.
+In these later times we have said much against the use of the museum
+specimen to the exclusion of the living object in its natural place:
+let us be cautious, then, that we do not forget apple-trees in our
+studies of apples.
+
+Here I shall not arrange numerical scales of points for the
+apple-tree. Sufficient for this occasion is the naming of the points,
+letting the reader place his own percentage-value on each of them; for
+I am trying to teach, not to instruct.
+
+Yet I must insert, for the reader's benefit, certain good rules and
+scores that have been adopted for the "judging" of the fruit by those
+experienced in these matters. This excellent exercise of judging
+fruits at exhibitions has gained much headway. Students of schools and
+colleges are trained for the "judging teams," and great technical
+perfection has been attained.
+
+To be exact is an exigency of science. I fear that we make exactness
+an end, but that is neither here nor there on this occasion and I
+shall not now pursue the subject further; I hope the judging trains
+the judge to see what he looks at in other things as well as in
+apples, that it leads him into the pleasant paths of causes and
+effects, that it opens the eyes of the blind.
+
+The customary judging of plants and animals and their products
+consists in assessing the attributes against a scale of perfection.
+Thus, if "form" or "conformation" is worth 10 points in the hundred
+(by the estimation of good authorities), the judge must decide whether
+the particular animal before him merits 6 or 7, more or less. So if
+"flavor" in an apple is considered to be worth 20 points of the
+hundred, the judge makes up his mind what rating, within that limit,
+he shall accord to the fruit he is testing. The arrangement in tabular
+form of the features for any product, with the number of points stated
+for each, all summing 100, constitutes a "score-card." Thus there may
+be a score-card for Merino sheep, another for Shropshires, one for
+apples, and for any other objects whatsoever.
+
+At competitive exhibitions, the element of comparison comes in.
+Perhaps it is the only criterion to be considered in a particular
+case,--whether this apple is better than that or than any number of
+others, which of several "plates" or samples of apples merits first
+mention, which of two or more collections of varieties is altogether
+most worthy of a prize. In these cases, the different fruits or
+collections may be scored by the card, and the total footings
+determine where the award shall go. Or, the different entries may be
+judged in general, "by the eye;" this is the usual method, and is
+satisfactory in the hands of persons whose standing and experience
+carry conviction.
+
+If one is to evaluate an apple-tree against a scale or code, these are
+some of the features, in relative order of importance, to be
+considered:
+
+     1. Whether the tree is typical of the variety, in shape,
+     manner of growth, character of foliage and bloom.
+
+     2. Whether it is sound of all injury and disease, and free
+     of blemish.
+
+     3. Whether it is duly vigorous and productive.
+
+     4. Whether its fruit is characteristic of the variety or
+     kind.
+
+     5. Whether the pruning has been good; the thinning; the
+     spraying.
+
+     6. Whether the performance of the tree has fulfilled
+     reasonable expectations.
+
+The judging of fruits is facilitated by such score-cards and
+explanations as the following:
+
+     1. For comparison of different dessert varieties.
+
+Conformation              10
+Size                       5
+Color                     20
+Core                       5
+Uniformity                 5
+Durability (keeping)      10
+Condition                  5
+Freedom from blemish      10
+Quality                   30
+                        ----
+                         100
+
+     2. For comparison of plates or samples of the same variety.
+
+Form                      15
+Size                      15
+Color                     25
+Uniformity                25
+Freedom from blemish      20
+                        ----
+                         100
+
+
+DIRECTIONS FOR JUDGING PLATES OF APPLES IN AN EXHIBITION
+
+Following are directions and explanations issued to judging teams in
+exhibition contests, by an agricultural college:
+
+     (1) _Form_: The shape and conformation of the apples on any
+     one plate should be typical for the variety, the region of
+     growth being somewhat considered. All specimens on a plate
+     should be uniform in shape. When competition is close, a
+     careful comparison of the more minute characteristics of the
+     basin, cavity and stem are made.
+
+     (2) _Size_: The specimens on any one plate should be uniform
+     in size and of the size most acceptable on the market for
+     the variety. A plate may be marked down for being either
+     under or over the accepted commercial size. In many
+     exhibits, the ideal size is given in the premium
+     announcements.
+
+     (3) _Colors_: All specimens in an entry should be uniformly
+     colored in the way that is considered perfect for the
+     variety in the district where grown. In judging color, one
+     should consider (_a_) the depth and attractiveness of the
+     ground color, (_b_) the brightness and attractiveness of the
+     over-color, (_c_) the amount of the over-color. In a yellow
+     or green apple, the yellow or green should be clear and even
+     all over, considering the maturity of the specimen. In
+     varieties that are typically blushed, (e. g., Maiden Blush)
+     the specimens should show a distinct tinge of red on the
+     cheek exposed to the sun. With such apples as Rhode Island
+     Greening, that are only sometimes blushed, the presence or
+     absence of the blush should not detract except that the
+     apples on any one plate should be uniform. With apples
+     typically over-colored, an intense color for the variety is
+     desirable.
+
+     The _bloom_ may be wiped from apples, but in no case should
+     polished specimens be given the preference. Some exhibits
+     have special rules regarding polishing of apples.
+
+     (4) _Conditions_: Refers to the degree of ripeness. An apple
+     to be in perfect condition should be firm for the variety
+     and free from the withering that comes when apples are
+     picked too green or when the fruit is over-ripe or has not
+     been stored properly.
+
+     (5) _Freedom from blemish_: All specimens should be free
+     from blemishes of all kinds. One should look particularly
+     for (_a_) marks of fungous or other disease, including
+     stippin, (_b_) injury from insects of all kinds, (_c_)
+     mechanical injury, including loss of stem. Unmistakable
+     evidence of codlin-moth injury or San Jose scale should
+     disqualify a plate. Other blemishes are considered important
+     in about the order named: Side worms, scab, stippin,
+     curculio or red-bug, skin punctures, bruises, stem pulled,
+     russet (not typical for variety) and limb rub. The extent of
+     scab spots should be considered. Minute spots are not as
+     serious as some other blemishes, while spots which deform
+     the apple should disqualify the plate.
+
+     _Other information_: Five specimens constitute a plate,
+     except when the rules of the contest or exhibit state
+     otherwise. Any variation from this rule disqualifies the
+     plate.
+
+     When a plate is not labelled with the correct variety name,
+     it should not be judged, but is disqualified and if possible
+     the correct name is applied. If one specimen on a plate is
+     not as labelled, the whole plate is disqualified.
+
+     In some judging contests, the plates are not labelled with
+     the variety name, and the contestant is supposed to make the
+     identification.
+
+     _Precaution_: Avoid pressing the specimens with the thumb
+     and finger so as to bruise the fruit. The degree of firmness
+     can be determined by gentle pressure with the inside of the
+     whole hand.
+
+     Defects, apparent or otherwise, should not be probed with
+     the finger nail, pin, or other hard object.
+
+     Special care should be exercised to replace all specimens on
+     the right plate.
+
+Having in mind these definite criteria, the reader will know what is
+meant by a "good apple" and also a good apple-tree. Measurements of
+perfection aid us to estimate the deficiencies.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+He who knows the apple-tree knows also its region. The landscape is
+his in every blessed year; he sees the chariots of the months come
+down from the distances and pass by him into the twilights. Clouds are
+his and the repeating shadows on the hills. The morning when the
+blossoms are laden with the fragrance of the night, high noon when the
+bees are busy, the gloaming when the birds drop into the boughs, these
+are his by divine right. The smell of new-plowed fields is his, with
+the urgent promise in them. Seed time and harvest, as old as the
+procreant earth and as new as the latest sunrise, are his to conjure.
+The verities are his for the asking, the strong things of cultivated
+fields and of wild places. And mastery is his, that comes of the
+amelioration of the land and the education of the tree. All these are
+everyman's, and yet they are his alone.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+                                 PAGE
+
+Acid phosphate                     45
+
+Age of apple-trees                 98
+
+Alternate bearing                  42
+
+American Pomological Society       66
+
+Apple-scab                         95
+
+Appleseed, Johnny                  61
+
+Arsenate of lead                   95
+
+Australia, Apples in               97
+
+
+Bacteria                           12
+
+Bark of apple-tree                 11
+  of cherry                        11
+  of elm                           11
+  of pear-tree                     11
+
+Bearing year                       42
+
+Black Gilliflower                  73
+
+Bloomless apple                    75
+
+Bolting trees                      88
+
+Bridge-grafting                    88
+
+Brush pile                         27
+
+Budding                        50, 51
+
+Buds                       15, 19, 27
+
+
+Calyx-tube                         26
+
+Canada, apples in                  98
+
+Canker                             12
+
+Cherimoya                           8
+
+Cherry, bark of                    11
+
+Christophine                        8
+
+Cider, treatise on                 62
+
+Cion-grafting                  50, 79
+
+Citrus fruits                       8
+
+Cleft-grafting                     82
+
+Coconut                             8
+
+Codlin-moth                    12, 89
+
+Custard apple                       8
+
+
+Diseases                           46
+
+Distance apart                     43
+
+Double apples                      74
+
+Doucin stocks                      57
+
+Downing, quoted                54, 67
+
+Dwarf apple-trees                  54
+
+
+Elm, bark of                       11
+
+Endicott, Gov.                     61
+
+Enriching the land                 45
+
+Exhibitions                       108
+
+
+Fertilizing                40, 44, 45
+
+Fig                                 8
+
+Flower, structure of               20
+
+Folger and Thomson, quoted         98
+
+Fructicetum                        78
+
+Fruit-spurs and bearing            42
+
+Fungi                              12
+
+
+Girdles                            87
+
+Graftage                       49, 79
+
+Grafts                             81
+
+Guava                               8
+
+
+Harvesting                        102
+
+Hillsides for orchards             44
+
+Hogs in orchards                   45
+
+Hypanthium                         26
+
+
+Insects                        46, 89
+
+
+Judging apples                    108
+
+
+Knots                      11, 85, 87
+
+
+Land for apples                    42
+
+Langley, Batty                     82
+
+Lawson, William                    82
+
+Leaf-arrangement                   29
+
+Lichens                            11
+
+Lime-sulphur                       95
+
+Linnaeus                           62
+
+Lintner, J. A.                     89
+
+
+Malus                              62
+
+Mamone                              8
+
+Mango                               8
+
+Manning, mentioned                 67
+
+M'Mahon, quoted                    66
+
+Medlar                             75
+
+Mending trees                      85
+
+Moench, cited                      75
+
+Mound-layering                     55
+
+Muenchhausen, cited                75
+
+
+Natural trees                      51
+
+New Zealand, apples in             97
+
+Nitrate of soda                    45
+
+
+Origin of apple-tree               60
+
+Ornamental apples                  64
+
+Ovary                              20
+
+
+Paint for wounds                   86
+
+Papaya                              8
+
+Paradise stocks                    57
+
+Parkinson, John                    58
+
+Pasturing                          45
+
+Pear, bark of                      11
+
+Phosphate, acid                    45
+
+Phyllotaxy                         29
+
+Picking apples                    102
+
+Piece-roots                        50
+
+Pistil                         20, 26
+
+Plant-breeder                      51
+
+Planting                       42, 43
+
+Plant-lice                         12
+
+Pollen-tube                        20
+
+Pollination                        40
+
+Pomegranate                         8
+
+Propagation of apple-tree      48, 54
+
+Pruning               36, 40, 86, 104
+
+Pyrus baccata                      63
+  coronaria                        63
+  diocia                           75
+  Ioensis                          63
+  Malus                        62, 63
+  Soulardii                        64
+
+
+Receptacle of flower               26
+
+Regions for apples             97, 99
+
+Repairing trees                    85
+
+Root-grafting                      50
+
+Roots                              43
+
+
+Scale insects                      12
+
+Scale of points                   108
+
+Score-card                        108
+
+Seedless apple                     74
+
+Seedling trees                 48, 51
+
+Seeds, planting                    48
+
+Sharrock, Robert                   81
+
+Sheep in orchards                  45
+
+Sheepnose                          73
+
+Sod in orchards                    44
+
+Soil for apples                    42
+
+Spraying              40, 91, 95, 104
+
+Star-apple                          8
+
+Stigma                             20
+
+Stocks                             49
+
+Storing                           105
+
+Struggle for existence             47
+
+Style                              20
+
+Surgery                            86
+
+Surprise                           73
+
+Sweet-and-Sour                     73
+
+
+Thinning                       38, 39
+
+Thomson and Folger                 98
+
+Tilling               40, 44, 47, 104
+
+Tree surgery                       86
+
+
+Varieties                          66
+  list of                          70
+
+
+Water-core                         74
+
+Whip-graft                         50
+
+Wilder, mentioned                  67
+
+Wormy apples                  89, 102
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Notes
+
+Some illustrations have been moved from their original positions to
+avoid breaking up the text, and to put them in numerical order.
+
+Variations in spelling and punctuation have been retained from the
+original book except for the following changes:
+
+Page 51: Both instances of "varities" changed to "varieties".
+
+Page 74: "occuring" changed to "occurring".
+
+Page 75: "dioecious pyrus" was originally typeset with an oe ligature.
+
+Page 91: "foilage" changed to "foliage".
+
+Page 93: "analagous" changed to "analogous".
+
+Page 94: "or" changed to "nor". "investigatior" changed to
+"investigator".
+
+Page 100: "gravly" changed to "gravelly".
+
+Page 113 (Index): "Appleseed, Johny" changed to "Appleseed, Johnny".
+"Bark of Cheery" changed to "Bark of Cherry".
+
+Page 115 (Index): "Linnaeus" changed to "Linnaeus" to match text.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Apple-Tree, by L. H. Bailey
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE APPLE-TREE ***
+
+***** This file should be named 26132.txt or 26132.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/2/6/1/3/26132/
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Diane Monico, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images produced by Core Historical
+Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/26132.zip b/26132.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e4e6f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26132.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2bf4e18
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #26132 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26132)