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+Project Gutenberg's Ancient Egyptian and Greek Looms, by H. Ling Roth
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ancient Egyptian and Greek Looms
+
+Author: H. Ling Roth
+
+Release Date: June 8, 2008 [EBook #25731]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANCIENT EGYPTIAN AND GREEK LOOMS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julie Barkley, Sam W. and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+There is a small amount of Greek in this book; you may need
+to adjust your font to display it properly.
+
+
+
+
+                Ancient Egyptian and
+                     Greek Looms
+
+
+                         BY
+                    H. LING ROTH
+                      (Keeper).
+
+ WITH 38 LINE BLOCK AND ONE COLLOTYPE ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+              BANKFIELD MUSEUM, HALIFAX
+                     APRIL 1913
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+Halifax, which is situated in the heart of the great textile trade of
+Lancashire and Yorkshire, has been a home of the woollen manufacture
+since the earliest time, and it is only meet, therefore, that its
+museum should possess specimens of the tools used in the early days of
+spinning, weaving, and cloth making generally. In spite of the
+considerable progress made towards that end, many typical specimens
+are still wanting, and, while we have plenty of material for the study
+of weaving in various parts of the world, we are lacking in everything
+relating to the industry in Ancient Egypt and Greece. Failing
+specimens I have had recourse to illustrations, but the Egyptian ones
+published by Cailliaud, Rosellini, Sir J. G. Wilkinson and Lepsius,
+contradict each other in many important points, so that those who
+study them find them practically useless for an understanding of the
+art as carried on in the Nile lands. Fortunately, last year, Mr. N. de
+G. Davies, the well-known Egyptologist, hearing of my difficulty, very
+generously placed some of his copies of tomb drawings at my disposal,
+and with this invaluable help I have been enabled to complete the
+present paper, and to lay before Halifax students some new details of
+manufacture bearing upon their staple industry.
+
+                                                  H. Ling Roth.
+
+  Bankfield Museum, Halifax.
+  April 1913.
+
+
+
+
+I. EGYPTIAN LOOMS.
+
+
+HORIZONTAL LOOMS.[A]
+
+In the tomb of Chnem-hotep, at Beni Hasan, there is a wall painting of
+a horizontal loom with two weavers, women, squatting on either side,
+and at the right in the background is drawn the figure of the
+taskmaster. There are also figures represented in the act of spinning,
+etc. For the present we are concerned with the weaving only.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from the
+illustration in Cailliaud's _Recherches_, etc. Same size as
+published.]
+
+Of this illustration, there appear to be six reproductions. We have
+first of all, Fig. 1, that of Fred. Cailliaud (_Recherches sur les
+Arts et Métiers_, etc., Paris, 1831) with illustrations of drawings
+made by himself in the years 1819 to 1822. His publication was
+followed by Fig. 2, that of Sir J. G. Wilkinson (_Manners and
+Customs_, etc., London, 1837). Mr. John Murray, whose house has
+published Wilkinson's work from the first edition to the last, informs
+me that a few of the drawings were made by George Scharf, afterwards
+Sir George Scharf, Keeper of the National Portrait Gallery, but that
+most of them seem to have been made by Joseph Bonomi, the well known
+Egyptologist. Wilkinson's woodcut, although clearly and neatly done,
+is on a very small scale; nevertheless it admits of a fair comparison
+with those reproduced on a larger scale.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+    Figs. 1 & 3. Weaving.
+
+    Fig. 2. Loom.
+
+     "   3. Putting in the woof, but not
+            by a shuttle thrown with
+            the hand.
+
+     "   4. Male Overseer.
+
+     "   5. Hackling.
+
+     "   6. Twisting the double threads
+            for the warp.
+
+    _a_ Weaving.
+    _b_ Chief of Loom.
+    _c_ Facing.
+    _d_ Pulling out.
+
+Fig. 2.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from Sir J. G.
+Wilkinson's _Manners and Customs_, London, John Murray, 1878, Vol. I.,
+p. 317. Same size as published.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from the
+illustration in Rosellini's _Monumenti_ (Monumenti Civili), Plate XLI.
+Reduced one-fifth lineal of size published.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from
+Lepsius' _Denkmäler_. Same size as published.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from
+Prof. Percy Newberry's _Beni Hasan_, I. Plate 29. Same size as
+published.]
+
+After him, Fig. 3, N. F. J. B. Rosellini began the publication of his
+great work (_I Monumenti dell' Egitto_, Pisa, 1832-1844). The
+similarity between the comparatively few drawings published by
+Cailliaud and the very large number published by Rosellini is very
+great. It is of course quite possible Rosellini may have made use of
+some of Cailliaud's drawings. Five years after Rosellini's publication
+came that of C. R. Lepsius (_Denkmäler_, Leipzig, 1849), Fig. 4, his
+drawings having been made in the years 1842 to 1845. Since the time of
+Lepsius until quite recent years I can trace no further copying until
+we get the illustration, Fig. 5, in Prof. Percy Newberry's _Beni
+Hasan_, London, 1910. In this work the reproduction is about one
+twentieth of the original, or about three fifths of the size of that
+of Wilkinson, and unfortunately so crude as not to be available for
+our present purpose.[B] Lastly we have the reproduction, Fig. 6, from
+Mr. N. de Garis Davies' drawing made in 1903, and now first published
+by kind permission of Mr. F. Ll. Griffith.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep. Size of
+original: Height of the figures 9-1/4" = 24·4 cm. Drawn by Mr. N. de
+G. Davies, and now published for the first time by permission of Mr.
+F. Ll. Griffith.]
+
+In the various reproductions by the above explorers, the only three
+which agree very closely are those of Cailliaud, Rosellini and Davies.
+The others vary considerably and in essentials do not agree with the
+above nor with one another. The differences may in the first instance
+be due to difficulties in copying the original in the tomb. Others may
+be due to ignorance of detail on the part of the secondary
+copyist--the man who prepared them for publication--so that he was
+unable to follow up the clues on the drawings laid before him. The
+differences may also be due to careless copying and to "touching up"
+of the copies when made; they may be slightly due to deterioration and
+obliteration of the original in the course of time.
+
+The _Encyclopædia Biblica_ gives a variant from all six illustrations,
+but approaching nearest to that of Cailliaud, Rosellini and Davies. It
+is misleading in so far that the drawing has been made to suit
+Professor Kennedy's idea as to what it should be.
+
+Some of the differences are of minor importance, but a comparison will
+help materially to our understanding of the method of weaving adopted
+by the Egyptians from the XIIth to the XIXth Dynasties, or about B.C.
+2000 to 1200. To go into details, and taking Mr. N. de G. Davies'
+illustration as our basis, we find slight differences in the shape of
+the pegs B, B1, which are immaterial. A more pronounced difference is
+seen in the way in which the threads are attached to the warp beam A.
+Neither Wilkinson nor Lepsius carry these threads over the beam, the
+former carrying them only as far as the laze threads C, while the
+latter carries them up to a line drawn parallel to and below the beam;
+Cailliaud and Rosellini carry them over the beam while Mr. Davies
+carries them half way only. The object of this half carrying over is
+not clear. The threads in chain-form at C are probably laze threads,
+apparently placed there so that in case of any disarrangement of the
+warp threads the weaver can from that point run her fingers along them
+and get them disentangled. It has been suggested to me that this
+chain-form might be a tension chain for taking up slack warp, but the
+former explanation seems the more likely.
+
+All the drawings but Wilkinson's show the warp threads converging
+towards the breast beam; Wilkinson shows them parallel and in Lepsius
+their convergence is excessive. There should be a slight convergence
+shown, as in the course of weaving the threads get drawn in, and in
+later forms of looms in semi-civilised countries we find an endeavour
+to counteract this tendency by the use of a tool known as a "temple."
+
+The cross sticks D1, D2, look like laze rods. It may not be out of
+place here to point out that in primitive weaving laze rods serve two
+purposes, or one more than in the later somewhat more advanced looms.
+They serve throughout to keep the warp threads in place, and they
+serve to separate the odd threads from the even (1, 3, 5, 7 from 2, 4,
+6, 8, &c.), and in so doing take the place of the fingers in making
+the "shed," _i.e._, the opening through which the "weft (or woof)" is
+passed, a function which in turn is usurped by the "heald (or
+heddle)." The heddle therefore becomes a very important factor, and
+Dr. H. G. Harrison by no means overstates the case when he says that
+the development of the heddle is the most important step in the
+evolution of the loom (Horniman Museum Handbooks, No. 10, pp. 47-49).
+We may now return to the drawing. Wilkinson shows the rod D1
+indistinctly and the left hand end only of D2. Lepsius' artist seems
+to have taken a liberty with D1 but in the right direction, by making
+it more definitely into an early form of heddle--the loop and rod--but
+he shows D2 the same as Cailliaud and Rosellini. Prof. Kennedy argues
+that these rods are in the wrong position and that D1 which is a
+heddle should be in the place of D2. Mr. Davies' drawing as well as
+those of Cailliaud and Rosellini show that D1 is a heddle while D2 is
+shown to be a laze rod. Asiatic primitive looms, like those from
+Borneo and Bhutan, have two laze rods but no heddle; on the other hand
+many primitive African looms have one laze rod and one heddle as is
+the case with this Egyptian loom. More threads are shown on the left
+hand end of D2 than on the right hand end. Mr. Davies informs me that
+the same quantity should be shown from end to end across the warp, but
+on the right hand side they are so indistinct that he was just able to
+detect but not to trace them and so he omitted them.
+
+We now come to the rod E. Cailliaud and Rosellini show an undulation
+at the one end _a_, but do not make the other end clear. Wilkinson
+shows a small hook at the end _a_, which appears to me to be a
+transcriber's development of the curved end of his two predecessors;
+in the text Wilkinson says there is a hook at each end of this stick,
+but he does not show any at the end opposite to _a_; he refers to
+these hooks more than once (1st ed., III., p. 126 footnote). Lepsius
+has altered the shape of the curve and transferred it from the end _a_
+to the opposite end. In Mr. de G. Davies' drawing, it has been
+inserted in dotted lines, as the original is in such a state that
+tracing is almost impossible. Wilkinson, Erman, v. Cohausen (_Das
+Spinnen u. Weben bei den Alten_, in _Ann. Ver. Nassau. Altherthumsk._,
+Wiesbaden, 1879, p. 29), and others call it a shuttle, but I am more
+inclined to consider it a slashing stick ("sword" or "beater-in") for
+pushing the weft into position. A tool which appears to be a beater-in
+and of similar end shape is seen held in the hand of a woman on a
+wall painting at El Bersheh--see Fig. 11, top right-hand corner. We
+have in another illustration, Fig. 7, an article which appears to be a
+spool, which I think confirms the view that E is not the shuttle but
+the beater-in. In all the illustrations, too, the pose of the hands of
+the women bearing on this stick is indicative of a downward pressure
+and not of a grasp.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Tomb of the Vizier Daga. Date about end XI.
+Dynasty, B.C. 2000. Mr. N. de G. Davies' _Five Theban Tombs_, Plate
+XXXVII.
+
+The upper illustration indicates a woman warping or beaming, probably
+warping.
+
+In the lower illustration note the left hand figure holding the spool
+in her hand. At first sight this small black line looks like a
+continuation of the "beater-in" in the hands of the other weaver, but
+Mr. Davies informs me that it is quite a distinct article, and that
+there can be no doubt about it. Just above the breast beam there are 8
+or 9 threads of weft but they are too faint to be included.]
+
+The selvedge F on the one side of the cloth and not on both sides is
+also interesting from the fact that selvedges do not appear on the
+Egyptian cloths until the XVIII. Dynasty _circa_ B.C. 1600.
+
+The breast beam:--It appears to me that the three portions marked G1,
+G2 and G3 joined up are intended to represent the breast beam and its
+holding pegs, similar to the warp beam A and its pegs B1, B2, but the
+portion K is not clearly drawn in any of the reproductions. Wilkinson
+omits this altogether, but in its place has two black pieces which
+also are still less clear. Lepsius has omitted G2 altogether and
+appears to have made G1 and K and G3 into treadles, by raising G1
+above the level of G3, and to support the view that these are
+treadles, he makes use of the overseer's foot by placing it on the
+supposed treadle, and the casual observer thinks it is the foot of the
+woman weaver. However, Mr. Davies' copy seems to offer a solution. He
+agrees with Cailliaud and Rosellini in so far as G1, G2 and G3 are
+concerned. With him K takes quite a different form, in fact it looks
+very similar to an article which an attendant woman in another panel
+has close by her, see Fig. 8. It might perhaps be a rest to prevent
+the beater-in being driven home too forcibly--this, however, is still
+only a surmise--as the length of the beater-in makes it heavy at the
+far end.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Weaver with the support K, Fig. 6; the woman
+appears to hold a beater-in in the right hand and a ball of thread in
+the left hand. Rosellini.]
+
+In Cailliaud the warp threads are coloured in pale blue and red on top
+of the black lines of the drawing; he has painted the selvedge and
+finished cloth a pale blue, as well as that portion of G2 which is
+covered by the cloth indicating that this is the breast beam, G3 and
+G1 are painted a dark red. Rosellini colours A, B1, B2, D1, D2, G3
+orange; G1 and K dark red, but E from end to end light ochre. This
+shows that K is distinct from E.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.
+
+Upright or Vertical Looms from the Tomb of Thot-nefer at Thebes, XVIII
+Dynasty, _circa_ B.C. 1425. From a drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies. Size
+of original: Height from Base Line to top of frame at A, 11-1/2" = 29
+cm.]
+
+In consequence of this loom being represented as upright it is often
+spoken of as an upright or vertical loom. But it is drawn upright
+because the Egyptian artist did not understand perspective, and it was
+only by making the loom upright that he was enabled to show the
+details we have just been examining. For the same reason mat making is
+illustrated edgeways. If the loom were an upright one the two women
+weavers would have had their backs turned towards the onlooker as can
+be seen in Fig. 9. Any doubt on the matter has however been set aside
+by Prof. John Garstang's extremely interesting discovery of a wooden
+model depicting a group of women spinning and weaving which he
+illustrates in his work, _The Burial Customs of Ancient Egypt_,
+London, 1907. After referring to the woman spinning, he continues:
+"The other seated figures apparently represent women at work upon a
+horizontal loom; the frame and the woof [_sic_, should be _warp_]
+threads are faintly represented upon the board. It is possible that
+they are making mats or, perhaps, weaving (p. 132)." He gives an
+illustration of the group taken from a photograph, but as it does not
+show the lines which indicate the loom lying horizontally on the
+ground nor the warp threads, I have asked him to let me have a drawing
+made of it and, with his kind permission, it is now reproduced here,
+Fig. 10. The threads of the warp and the finished piece of cloth at
+the breast beam end are clearly indicated. The whole model supports
+conclusively the well founded supposition that the loom we have been
+considering is a _horizontal_ one. Curiously enough, Prof. Garstang
+does not appear to appreciate the important bearing of his discovery,
+for on a later page (p. 134) in speaking of Lepsius' illustration,
+discussed above, he says: "the weavers are seen at work at an upright
+loom."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Horizontal Loom. Outline sketch by Miss Davey
+of the original model of a group of one woman spinning and two women
+weaving, found by Dr. John Garstang at Beni Hasan. The model is in the
+Museum of the Liverpool Institute of Archæology.]
+
+It must not be thought that the Beni Hasan representation is the only
+one which illustrates a horizontal loom. A second one is reproduced by
+Prof. Percy Newberry from the tomb of Tehuti-hetep _circa_ 1938-1849
+B.C., see Fig. 11. In the upper portion the women are seen spinning
+and preparing the thread generally, while in the lower portion two
+women on the left are warping, and in the centre three apparently are
+"beaming," _i.e._ putting the warp on to the beams preparatory to
+commencing to weave, the warp threads being apparently drawn over pegs
+to ensure the proper tension. This illustration shows the warp flat
+against the wall like the mat making shown at Beni Hasan.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Tomb of Tehuti-hetep. Date about 1939-1849
+B.C. From Professor Percy Newberry's _El Bersheh_ I. Pl. 26.
+
+Note the woman on the top right hand corner holding a "beater-in."]
+
+A third representation of a horizontal loom is reproduced from the
+forthcoming volume of the Egypt Exploration Fund by kind permission of
+Mr. N. de G. Davies, who made the copy. In this, Fig. 7, already
+referred to, the lower portion is all that has come down to us. The
+cloth is not shown contracted as in the Beni Hasan representation, the
+two laze rods are drawn close to each other and here also an attempt
+appears to have been made to show the over and under lapping warp
+threads; the laze rods appear each with a hook, the hook on the upper
+rod turned upwards and the hook (if it be one) on the lower rod turned
+downwards. It is possible these hooks may be pegs to prevent the
+shifting of the laze rods. It may be that one of the two rods is a
+heddle rod the indication being the fine double lines, but this may
+not be compatible with the hook at the end of the rod. The weaver on
+the left holds a spool in her hand, evidently a piece of stick with
+the weft thread wound round it, which she is pushing through with her
+fingers. The weaver on the right holds a beater-in as shown in the
+Beni Hasan drawing. The breast beam is held in position by two pegs
+near the right one of which there is a curved article of indeterminate
+use.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Study of a Bedawin Arab weaving, from a
+sketch taken in the Forties of last Century, by Frank Goodall, R.A.
+The original sketch is in Bankfield Museum. The weaver appears to be
+provided with one heddle and a beater-in.]
+
+There is no very clear evidence as to how the finished cloth was
+"taken up" unless we accept it that the bulging out of the part G2
+means that it was wound round the breast beam as is done on hand and
+power looms of the present day. Some very long pieces of cloth have
+come down to us and unless they were "taken up" in this way a long
+stretch of ground would have been necessary. A modified form of this
+horizontal loom has been met with in recent years among the Bedawin
+Arabs, as shown in the illustration of a study sketch, Fig. 12, made
+by Frank Goodall, R.A., in the forties of last century. The loom was
+provided with pegs like the old Egyptian loom but it was supplied with
+a primitive heddle resting on a stone at each side of the warp and it
+would appear that the weaver, to a certain extent, did not take up the
+woven cloth by winding it round the breast beam and by that means
+retaining his position, but, as the weaving progressed and the line of
+finished cloth got beyond his reach, he crept up to it and so got
+farther and farther away from the breast beam until in the end he
+arrived at the warp beam. Similar looms are still used for mat making
+by the Egyptian fellah.
+
+
+VERTICAL LOOMS.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Upright or vertical loom. Wilkinson's
+_Ancient Egyptians_, London, John Murray. 1st ed., Vol. III., p. 135.]
+
+Apart from the horizontal loom Wilkinson and Robert Hay[C] also
+recorded the existence of an illustration of an upright loom, said in
+error to be at Eileithyias (El Kab). Wilkinson's copy, Fig. 13, is
+more elaborate than that of Hay. Mr. Davies informs me that the
+original is not at Eileithyias, but in the tomb of Nefer-hotep at
+Thebes. Wilkinson in regard to this illustration quotes the
+oft-repeated statement of Herodotus (_circa_ 460-455 B.C.) in
+reference to looms in general:--"Other nations make cloth by pushing
+the woof upwards, the Egyptians on the contrary, press it down." On
+this statement Wilkinson remarks: "This is confirmed by the paintings
+which represent the process of making cloth; but at Thebes, a man who
+is engaged in making a piece of cloth with a coloured border or
+selvedge, appears to push the woof upwards, the cloth being fixed
+above him, to the upper part of the frame" [Fig. 13]. But I am unable
+to follow Wilkinson in this, for I can find no indication in his
+illustration which shows how the beating-in of the weft is
+accomplished. From the illustration all one can say is that it might
+have been done either way. Wilkinson's illustration is lettered from
+_a_ to _p_ but this lettering is not explained by him at all,
+excepting in the case of the letter _k_, of which he says: "_k_ is a
+shuttle, not thrown, but put in with the hand. It had a hook at the
+end ..." and he proceeds to refer to the drawing elsewhere of the
+horizontal loom. He does not show the hooks in his illustration. In
+Fig. 14, I give the sketch made by Mr. N. de G. Davies of the remains
+of the original from which Wilkinson made his illustration.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies, Jan. 1913, of
+an Upright Loom in Tomb 49 at Thebes, belonging to Nefer-hotep, at end
+of XVIII. Dynasty, B.C. 1330. Drawn when in a better state by
+Wilkinson, Fig. 13, and Hay.]
+
+A more satisfactory drawing of upright looms is that which Mr. N. de
+G. Davies has placed at my disposal for reproduction here. I append
+his description, Fig. 9. "The picture of men working at two looms is
+taken from the tomb of Thot-nefer at Thebes, who was a royal scribe
+in the middle of the 18th Dynasty, _circa_ 1425 B.C. In his tomb his
+house is shown. He himself sits in the hall, while inside some
+servants spin and weave, make bread, store the grain, etc. The roof of
+the chambers is supported on pillars, and between two of these the
+looms are set up which are here depicted. They are not attached
+however, either to the roof or the pillars. Faint sketching lines are
+mixed up with the darker reds in which the picture was re-drawn, and
+the whole very simply and carelessly executed. I have found it
+difficult to make it clear. In my sketch the first faint sketching
+outlines appear as lines. The more solid red lines which replaced
+these I have 'hatched,' and certain portions including the men's flesh
+colour, the stools, the discs I have put in solid black, partly
+because they are for the most part more solid and dark red in the
+original, and partly to distinguish the portions more clearly from one
+another. The horizontal lines which cross the web are very faintly
+drawn and almost as good as obliterated by the white paint which had
+been put on the web. I have put them in just to show that the bars
+were _conceived_ of as passing behind or under the web and concealed
+by it.
+
+"The larger loom is worked by two men, the smaller by one man only.
+The looms consist of an oblong frame A set up on two stones B. The
+warp is attached to the warp beam C on top and the breast beam D at
+the bottom. The threads of the warp are not shown, no difference being
+made between any woven part and the warp threads; to all is given one
+smear of white paint. Two discs E are seen hanging against the frame
+posts, one on each side, the earlier sketch showing a larger disc than
+the final drawing in dark red.
+
+"Two slender laze rods F are shown on the large loom and heavy bars G,
+H, lower down; a somewhat similar laze rod and beams are also shown on
+the smaller loom.
+
+"The weavers sit on benches with their backs to the spectator. The
+artist has not dared to draw a back view of their heads, but has
+turned each man's head to the right to show a profile. They are
+holding a heavy looking rod which looks like a 'beater-in.' One would
+expect to see a shuttle but perhaps this was too small an object for
+so rough a picture--perhaps the man at the smaller loom holds an
+exaggerated shuttle L in his right hand.
+
+"The lines M seen alongside the framework are the faint red sketch
+lines _not_ cords. The diagonal line N on the left I do not
+understand, it does not seem an accidental one.
+
+"On the left hand of the two looms the original shows a man spinning
+coarse thread into finer(?) using two spindles at once; the threads
+pass through rings fixed in the ceiling as in a picture at Beni Hasan.
+Behind him two girls are breaking up the flax and two others are
+making coarse threads of the fibres, almost exactly like those in the
+tomb of Daga (No. 103) a couple of hundred yards away."
+
+To this description of Mr. Davies I would like to add a word about
+the discs E. Wilkinson indicates these as rings apparently joining the
+horizontal beam to the post of the frame, the form of the ring being
+arrived at as explained by Mr. Davies by the original outline of the
+sketch having been made larger than the final drawing of the circle,
+or disc, and not obliterated. In Mr. Davies' drawing these discs hang
+on or are fixed on to the uprights only, and I am inclined to think
+they represent balls of weft thread hanging up in the same way as we
+see whole rows of coloured balls hanging on the looms of Persian
+rugmakers, and as can be seen on an Indian rug loom in Bankfield
+Museum.
+
+It is also very clear that these Egyptian vertical looms are very
+different from the Greek looms in so far as we know anything about
+them. The Greek looms had an upper beam only and the warp threads were
+bunched at the lower end and weighted with metal or clay balls to keep
+them taut, Fig. 15. The _individual_ warp threads were not weighted;
+they were bunched and then weighted. The pyramidal shaped clay warp
+weights found in Egypt are I understand considered by Egyptologists to
+belong to the Roman period, but in the Manchester University Museum
+there is a mud article which Miss M. A. Murray describes as a warp
+weight, Fig. 17, so that it is possible vertical looms with warp
+weights may yet be forthcoming as an Egyptian and not a foreign
+industrial tool. But Dr. H. R. Hall informs me this weight was
+probably found in the ruins of houses where Ægean pottery was found
+and hence it is probably a temporary warp weight of those people and
+not an Egyptian article.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Greek loom with spool and warp weights.
+Illustration on a skyphos (van Branteghem vase in the Ashmolean
+Museum, Oxford). From H. B. Walters' paper on _Odysseus & Kirke_ on a
+Boeotian vase, Jour. Hellenic Studies, 1892-3 XIII. p. 81.]
+
+Since writing the above Mr. N. de G. Davies has very kindly sent me on
+a new set of illustrations, Fig. 16, of which he says; "My attention
+was called to the scene by Dr. Alan Gardiner. The scenes which
+represent the preparation of the flax and the stretching of the warp
+are almost replicas of those in the tomb of Daga of the Middle
+Kingdom, so far as we can judge, while the pictures of the looms
+resemble closely those in the tombs of Thot-nefer and Nefer-hotep. The
+work is done by both men and women. Men prepare the flax while women
+stretch the warp. Men mostly work the loom, either singly or with a
+companion. But in one case a woman is seen at work at one of the
+upright looms. She is shewn sitting sideways on the low bench and is
+not pictured in a back view with widely spread legs like the men.
+Unfortunately the work is so slovenly and so much injured that few
+exact outlines can be secured, and hence all detail is insecure.
+There are also superfluous lines in red colour which confuse the
+picture. The tomb is Ramesside in date (_circa_ 1200 B.C.) The
+inscription over the seated man is too broken to be read."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16a.--Weavers at work as represented in the Tomb
+of Nefer-ronpet, Superintendent of Weavers at Thebes. Date about 1200
+B.C. From a drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16b.--Weavers at work as represented in the Tomb
+of Nefer-ronpet, Superintendent of Weavers at Thebes. Date about 1200
+B.C. From a drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies.]
+
+The drawings appear to confirm generally what we have gathered from
+Mr. Davies' previous illustration, Fig. 9.
+
+
+PORTIONS OF LOOMS WHICH HAVE COME DOWN TO US.
+
+In so far as I know, not many loom parts have yet been discovered, and
+those which I have had an opportunity of studying do not assist us to
+much knowledge beyond that which we have gained by a study of the wall
+paintings. We have the article from Kahun already mentioned, which may
+possibly be a warp weight, as it somewhat resembles the later warp
+weights found elsewhere. It is of hardened mud with a perforation at
+the thin end through which a piece of string has been passed and
+knotted (Fig. 17), but so far no illustration of a loom with weights
+has been found, either for the period to which this article belongs or
+to any other period. On the other hand the material is not suitable
+for a net-sinker, nor is it intended to be made to stand up. As
+mentioned above it is probably Ægean.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Piece of perforated hardened mud. Possibly a
+warp weight, 10 cm. × 8·7 × 4·2 (3-15/16 in. × 2-7/16 in. × 1-5/8 in.)
+Weight 470 gramms (1 lb. 1/2 oz.) Probably of Ægean origin. _Kahun._
+Manchester Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Burnt-clay warp weight. Height 11·4 cm. (4-1/4
+in.) Weight 260 gramms (9-1/4 oz.) Probably Roman. Bankfield Museum.
+(Received from Prof. Flinders Petrie).]
+
+Another form of warp weight, of burnt clay, is somewhat frequently met
+with, Fig. 18, but it is described as appertaining to Roman times, and
+may therefore be either a Greek or Roman article. Similar weights from
+Cyprus and North Africa, &c., can be seen in the British Museum.
+
+Wooden pegs have been found at Gurob, which may possibly have been
+used for holding the warp and breast beams in position, Fig. 19. These
+pegs may appear to be rather short for the purpose, but in very
+primitive looms the warp is not kept so taut as might and should be,
+and hence there is not the same heavy strain on the pegs as we should
+deem necessary. The way to settle their use would be to fix them in
+solid ground and test them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Wooden Peg, possibly used for holding the
+warp and breast beams. Length 13·5 to 10·2 cm. (5-13/16 in. to 4 in.)
+_Gurob_ XVIII.-XIX. Dyn. (about 1580-1205 B.C.) Manchester Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Long straight lath with notches at each end,
+probably a laze rod. Length 1 m. 24 (4 ft. 13/16 in.) Breadth 5·2 cm. (2
+in.) Thickness 2·2 cm. (7/8 in.) _Kahun._ Manchester Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: 1/2 size section of Fig. 20.]
+
+[Illustration: 1/2 size section of Fig. 21.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Long curved lath. Probably a "beater-in."
+Length 1 m. 20 (3 ft. 11-1/4 in.) Breadth 6·5 cm. (1-11/32 in.).
+Thickness 1 cm. (3/8 in.) _Kahun._ XII. Dynasty about 2000-1788 B.C.
+Manchester Museum.]
+
+At Kahun a long straight lath, Fig. 20, was found which is probably a
+laze rod, the notches being apparently for a nooze to slip into and so
+prevent the rod working towards the weaver which it has a tendency to
+do.
+
+Another long but curved lath, Fig. 21, also found at Kahun is probably
+a beater-in.
+
+Most large Egyptian collections contain one or more specimens of
+wooden combs, which are generally called weavers combs, and ascribed
+to Roman times. But one at least, Fig. 22, has been found with XVIIIth
+to XIXth Dynasty articles at Gurob, that is belonging to the period
+1580-1150 B.C., which is long before Rome existed. None of these
+so-called combs, for they are really embryo reeds, are shown on the
+wall illustrations so that they no doubt belong to a later date than
+that of the XIIth Dynasty. If, as I take it, these "combs" are the
+forerunners of the reed and were used to drive the weft threads home,
+and if also the Romans had upright looms provided with warp weights
+instead of the breast beam, then I think the "comb" may not be Roman
+but may be a late Egyptian invention. For, on trying to use such a
+comb on a _replica_ of a Scandinavian upright loom provided with warp
+weights (instead of with the breast beam) I can get no good result, in
+fact rather the opposite, but tried on a primitive horizontal loom
+provided with a breast beam the comb is found to be of some
+assistance, especially if the warp is not very taut as is generally
+the case with primitive looms. At Bankfield we have an Indian rug
+loom, already referred to, with warp and breast beam on which a
+somewhat similar instrument, but of iron, was used.[D]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Weaver's Comb--a Beater-in. 19·5 cm. × 9·8 ×
+4·2 (7-3/4 in. × 3-7/8 in. × 1-5/8 in.) _Gurob._ Manchester Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Possibly a warp spacer, somewhat similar in
+object to the raddle of modern hand loom weaving. Height 2·8 cm. Width
+2·5 cm. (1-1/8 in. × 1 in.) The slots are 6 mm. (1/4 in.) apart, 3 mm.
+(1/16 in.) wide, and about 10 mm. (3/8 in.) deep. From _Gurob_ but
+probably Roman. Bankfield Museum. (Received from Prof. Flinders
+Petrie).]
+
+An article which Prof. Flinders Petrie describes as a "warp spacer" is
+shown in Fig. 23. From fragments in the Egyptian Collection,
+University College, London, it would appear to have been originally
+more than a meter (three feet) long. It may have been used as a sort
+of a "raddle," a tool used for assisting to keep the warp threads in
+position when being beamed, _i.e._ put on to the loom. At Bankfield we
+have an old local hand loom the warp beam of which is provided with a
+series of holes in which pegs were once inserted to keep the coloured
+warp threads in position.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.
+
+1/2 size of end of Fig. 24.
+
+1/2 size section of Fig. 24.
+
+A long piece of perforated wood described by Prof. Flinders Petrie,
+_Kahun_, p. 29, as a Weaver's Beam for making rush mats. Length 96·8
+cm. × 8·0 × 3·0 (3 ft. 1-1/4 in. × 3-1/4 in. × 1-3/16 in.) From
+Manchester Museum.]
+
+A piece of frame, Fig. 24, has been described as a "weaver's beam" for
+making rush mats like the modern _hasira_. It is provided with 28
+holes which are arranged about 27 to 40 mm. apart. The holes may have
+been more or less circular originally, and worn into present shape by
+threads, etc., and look more irregular inside than they really are, as
+the inside surface of the holes is fairly smooth; the holes are
+slightly larger, on an average about 4 mm., on the face shown than on
+the other face. Prof. Flinders Petrie seems to think it resembles the
+frame on which the modern Egyptian mat is made.
+
+We now come to the two reeds in the Museum of the Liverpool Institute
+of Archæology, which Dr. John Garstang discovered near Abu Kirkas,
+tomb No. 693, of which he tells us: "They are 27 and 29 inches (68·6
+and 73·7 cm.) in length respectively, and are precisely similar in
+general form. They are constructed on a system of nineteen or twenty
+reeds to the inch, and they may be seen to be exactly similar to the
+modern reed taken from a loom in the village of Abu Kirkas. It is not
+possible, unfortunately, to assign a precise date to these objects.
+They were found in a tomb which contained no other remains; this tomb
+was surrounded by others, all of them likewise very much disturbed,
+but equally characteristic of the general nature of the Middle Empire
+tombs, and containing nothing but Middle Empire objects. Since, in
+general, few tombs of this site show signs of intrusive burial of a
+later age, there is no reason to suppose that these objects are of any
+date later than the XII. Dynasty (_The Burial Customs of Ancient
+Egypt_, London, 1907, pp. 134-136)."
+
+The horizontal looms we have been describing belong to this period,
+and the artists have not shown any reeds with them. My studies of
+primitive looms lead me to think that these Egyptian looms are of a
+date far anterior to the invention or the application of a reed. It
+has also, I believe, been remarked by those who have examined cloths
+of this date, that the irregular array of the warp threads is good
+proof that reeds could not have been in use. I have already pointed
+out that in the evolution of the loom the reed puts in a late
+appearance, but apart from this fact, I do not think the artist would
+have omitted such an important tool had it been in use in his time.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Reed in Cairo Museum. Length 66 cm. (26 in.)
+It consists of two wooden frames fitted with flat iron wires. String
+is wound round the frames binding them together. Then a kind of
+canvas(?) cover in placed over the frames to cover up the projecting
+ends of the wires, but this has disappeared in places.]
+
+Dr. Garstang points out that although the surrounding tombs contained
+Middle Empire objects, the reeds were found in a tomb _without_ any
+other remains. This can hardly be considered evidence tending to prove
+that they belonged to the period named, and it is certainly weakened
+by the accompanying statement that the reeds are _exactly_ similar to
+the modern reed, for that is almost sufficient to prove that they are
+_not_ 3900-3700 years old. To me they seem comparatively modern and
+very similar to one in the Cairo Museum which MM. Brugsch and Quibell
+are inclined to think is Coptic with this difference, that in Dr.
+Garstang's reeds the divisions appear to be of cane or wood, while in
+the Cairo reed they are of iron (?steel). The sketch of this Coptic
+reed, Fig. 25, has been drawn specially for me, and Miss W. M.
+Crompton, Assistant Keeper in Egyptology in the Manchester University
+Museum, has kindly examined the sketch with the article and pronounced
+it correct. We may, I think, safely conclude that the reed found by
+Dr. Garstang is Coptic and not Ancient Egyptian.
+
+As regards the actual work of weaving, balls of thread have been found
+and so have very flat bobbins and pieces of stick with thread wound
+round which may have been spools as indicated in the drawing, Fig. 7.
+There is no reason why balls of thread should not have been used as
+they are in uncivilised countries at the present day, as, for
+instance, in Tibet, as reported by W. W. Rockhill in _Diary of a
+Journey through Mongolia and Thibet_, Washington, 1894, p. 41.
+
+
+"DIAGONAL WEAVING."
+
+I am unable to agree with a recently made statement published in _The
+Labyrinth, Gerzeh and Marghuneh_, by Prof. Flinders Petrie, E. A.
+Wainwright and E. Mackey, p. 6, which runs: "The fact of the weft not
+being at right angles to the warp, if one may conclude by the fabrics,
+does not, I think, imply that such weaving is of inferior quality.
+When I noticed the peculiarity first, I thought it might have arisen
+through distortion by stretching over the body, but repeated examples
+of the same fact have led me to consider other causes. We know how
+closely analogous to 'darning' was the early weaving; and in our days
+it is not unusual to find stockings not darned at right angles, and it
+may be the women weavers of old sometimes put in the weft more or less
+out of true right angle. In the childhood of weaving we should expect
+different methods, and it may be, seeing that we have no selvedged
+cloth until very long after this time, that they experimented with a
+diagonal weft to see if it would not reduce the tendency to fray out
+at the sides." The amount the warp and weft are out of the right angle
+is stated to be about 20°. The specimen shown me under the microscope
+indicated clearly that the warp and weft were not at right angles and
+that the interstices were not square but diamond shaped.
+
+It is possible to arrange the warp threads diagonally from beam to
+beam, but with continuous weft (that is in weaving so as to get
+selvedges) the weft has the tendency to slip up on one side and down
+on the other, hence the weaving is made laborious. With a separate
+weft for each pick, _i.e._, for every once the shed is opened, there
+is naturally not this tendency, but this alleged diagonally woven
+cloth frays just as easily as any other piece of cloth without
+selvedge, so in either case there is not only no advantage but
+distinct disadvantage taking the diagonal "beaming" into
+consideration. We must give the Egyptians credit for using the least
+laborious of two methods, that is _if_ the second one were known to
+them.
+
+Apparent diagonal weaving can be produced by anyone taking an ordinary
+piece of linen or cotton cloth, cutting off the selvedge and
+stretching the cloth in a direction diagonally to the direction of the
+warp and weft, and a piece of diagonally woven cloth is the result!
+
+The probability is that the specimen of cloth, without a selvedge,
+having been stretched over the body for a long period of time, has, in
+the course of that time lost its nature and when removed it has
+retained its altered form and gives us the impression of having been
+woven diagonally.
+
+
+"THE LINEN GIRDLE OF RAMESES III."
+
+In the foregoing I have shown how extremely simple was the whole
+apparatus for weaving in use by the Ancient Egyptians, and one is
+rather surprised to be told that about B.C. 1200, in the time of
+Rameses III., the Egyptians "built and used looms very much more
+complicated than has hitherto been believed to be the case," or to be
+referred to "the really complicated form of loom used." Yet this is
+what Mr. Thorold D. Lee tells us (pp. 84 and 86) in his paper on _The
+Linen Girdle of Rameses III._ (_Ann. of Archæology and Anthropology of
+the Liverpool Institute of Archæology_, July, 1912, V.)
+
+The characteristics of this girdle are its great length, 17 feet (5 m.
+2), its even taper diminishing from 5 in. (12·7 cm.) in width to 1-7/8
+in. (4·8 cm.) in width, its elaborate design and excellent
+workmanship. Perhaps the chief of these characteristics is the taper.
+It is most probable, as Mr. Lee points out, that in the weaving the
+warp threads have been gradually dropped out to make the taper, rather
+than that additional warp threads have been added. As it is easy to
+drop a warp thread, and almost impossible to add one while weaving is
+in progress, Mr. Lee's view is confirmed by this. It would also be
+almost impossible to keep the warp taut if the number of warp threads
+were increased as the work went on. This means that the girdle was
+commenced at the wide end and finished at the narrow end.
+
+It is common knowledge that when a warp thread drops out, its place is
+indicated by a thinness or fine opening for the whole length of the
+missing warp, and this is so because the reed, besides pushing the
+weft into position, also acts as a warp spacer, that is to say it
+keeps the warp threads properly apart, every one being properly
+aligned. When no reed is used the warp threads are not so evenly
+placed--they are not so parallel to one another for there is nothing
+but their tautness to keep them in position. Hence there is every
+reason to conclude that when, on a loom provided with a reed, warp
+threads have been removed their position must be indicated, and _vice
+versa_ if no reed has been used the position of the removed threads
+will not be so clearly indicated, but there will be a more marked
+shrinkage in the width of the cloth as well as in the pattern, and
+this is what has taken place in the girdle giving us the diminishing
+taper.
+
+[Illustration: "THE LINEN GIRDLE OF RAMESES III."
+
+_Reproduced by kind permission of Dr. Clubb, Director, The Museums,
+Liverpool._]
+
+If this diminishing taper were indicated by a decrease in the width of
+the pattern commencing at the selvedges, then it might be presumed
+that a reed had been used for the central portion only--a very clumsy
+even if feasible arrangement, but the pattern begins to decrease along
+the middle and hence no reed could have been used.
+
+It does not follow that because a loom was not provided with a reed it
+was without heddles. Anyone who will examine the large series of
+primitive looms at Bankfield Museum, will observe that heddles
+preceded reeds; this must necessarily be so as the making of the shed
+is the first step in weaving, while the reed's work is more that of a
+finisher. But the heddles are all extremely primitive, and in my
+experience do not exceed four in number where there is no reed. Such a
+quantity of heddles with its complicated harness as Mr. Lee considers
+necessary is quite out of the question with a loom so undeveloped as
+not to be provided with a reed. Hence the indication is that the
+girdle was woven on a loom of a primitive character.
+
+In carrying out the work the weaver has made many mistakes. On the
+left hand side of the right hand row of red crosses (they come out
+black in the photograph) there is an "end down" for a considerable
+distance--that is a thread has been missed.
+
+On the same row of crosses three white threads show above and below,
+while on the left hand row of crosses there are five white threads
+above and below. The crosses are neither the same size nor shape in
+the two columns and curiously their white hafts in both columns point
+to the left instead of one row pointing to the left and the other to
+the right. Then again the white point at the right apex of the zigzag
+on the left corresponds to a red point at the left apex of the right
+hand zigzag, but if the girdle had been woven on an advanced loom with
+dobby and harness these points would have been red in both places.
+
+As regards the large number of warp threads to the inch which Mr. Lee
+puts down as 272-340 (107-134 per cm.), this does not by any means
+indicate a complicated piece of machinery for the weaving of this belt
+or any other fabric. The greater the number of threads to the inch the
+finer must the threads be in order to get them into the allotted
+space, and in the weaving there will be so many more threads to raise
+and lower in order to make the shed opening. It means multiplying the
+work but does not necessarily mean that a more complicated loom must
+be used in the weaving.
+
+It is not possible without opening the fabric to be quite positive on
+the many points which are raised, but there seems nothing about it
+which should prevent its having been made on a simple loom. Although
+superior to most, but not all, of the well known Coptic cloths in
+Bankfield and in many other museums, it very closely resembles some of
+them in many respects excepting in the taper.
+
+I should add that in making my examination of this girdle I was kindly
+assisted by Mr. C. A. Trigg, a well known Halifax mill manager and
+designer. We made the examination independently and on comparing notes
+afterwards found that we agreed in all essential points.
+
+
+AN EXAMINATION OF FIFTEEN SPECIMENS OF MUMMY WRAPPINGS.
+
+By W. W. MIDGLEY, Curator, retired, The Museums, Bolton.
+
+"So far back as 1834, Mummy cloths occupied the attention of James
+Thompson, F.R.S., who, after researches into their characteristics and
+structure wrote a paper on the subject, which appears in the London
+and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, Vol. V., page 355. From that
+time until quite recently, little additional knowledge on the subject
+has appeared. In the early part of 1910, Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie,
+F.R.S., expressed a desire that the writer should undertake
+microscopic investigation of the body-wrappings of cloths of the III.
+and early IV. Dynasties (_circa_ 2980-2750 B.C.) which he had brought
+home from excavations made at a cemetery near Meydum, Upper Egypt. The
+report upon them forms part of the "_Historical Studies_," Vol. II.,
+of the _British School of Archæology in Egypt_.
+
+When Mr. Ling Roth suggested that some of the examples of Egyptian
+Mummy cloths in Bankfield Museum should be examined on similar lines,
+describing the construction of the fabrics and yarns, together with
+the characteristics of the fibres used, I undertook to carry out the
+work and forward to him the results for permanent reference.
+
+Each of the fifteen cloths submitted was first examined by mounting
+about 3/4" × 5/8" (20 mm. × 16 mm.) of the cloth on 3" × 1" (76 mm. ×
+25 mm.) glass slips, and covering with thin glass, so as to find out
+its plan of composition and the number of warp and weft threads per
+linear inch. Afterwards, a little of the warp threads as well as of
+the weft, was untwisted and the fibres separated, and these mounted
+apart on another 3" × 1" slip (76 × 25 mm.), so that the kind of
+textile fibre used and the diameter of the fibres could be measured.
+These microscopical preparations will be kept in Bankfield Museum, as
+they may be of interest to microscopists in the locality.
+
+The cloths are from three sources:--Nos. 1 and 2 being from the
+private collection of Dr. Wallis-Budge, who has given the specimens to
+Bankfield Museum; Nos. 3 to 8 are from the old Meyer collection in the
+Liverpool Museum (unfortunately the origin of them is unknown); and
+those marked 9 to 15 were taken from a mummy of the XXVI. Dynasty,
+brought to this country by Lord Denbigh, and now also in the Liverpool
+Museum.
+
+A.--Specimens of Mummy cloths from Theban Tombs date about B.C. 1400,
+presented by Dr. Wallis-Budge.
+
+    1. A plain "one-up-and-one-down" linen cloth. The yarns
+    in this example are more irregular in diameter than
+    usual--the warp strands varying from 1/25"th to 1/71"st
+    (1 mm. to ·2/8 mm.) The warp has about half its strands
+    doubled (that is twined together), whereas the weft has
+    only about one in twenty doubled. See Fig. 26.
+
+    2. This is a coarser fabric, has been dyed with
+    saffron, and is somewhat brittle to tease out the
+    fibres. Both these cloths had evidently absorbed some of
+    the gums or balsams used in the process of embalming,
+    and hence the difficulty of separating the fibres for
+    identification is increased. The structure of the fabric
+    is peculiar, and, indeed, the only instance I have seen
+    in Egyptian cloths. A portion, near the middle of the
+    piece sent, has the warp strands in pairs parallel to
+    each other, a few of them being double yarns, while all
+    the remainder are doubled. Of the weft, nearly half are
+    double yarns. See Fig. 27.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Magnified 10 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Magnified 10 diameters, showing the warp yarn
+in pairs.]
+
+B.--Specimens from the Meyer Collection, marked No. 11088. (Date of
+acquisition about 1856; date and place of origin unknown).
+
+    3. This is a beautifully soft, fine _Wool_ fabric,
+    containing no size or balsam. From the fineness of the
+    yarn and of the individual fibres I have no doubt that
+    the wool has been imported from India, or, more likely,
+    that the cloth was made in Cashmere. The texture is a
+    plain weave, has a selvedge edge, the warp yarns are
+    doubled, while the weft is single yarn. It is much to be
+    regretted that the particulars of locality, of burial,
+    and the period of time to which this interesting fabric
+    belongs has been lost. I assume from the general
+    characteristics that it is of a late period--probably
+    not earlier than the Ptolemaic.
+
+    4. This linen cloth has a plain selvedge, regular weave,
+    and contains no size. About 25% of both warp and weft
+    yarns are doubled, and all are very even in diameter.
+
+    5. A coarse linen cloth with plain selvedge. All the
+    yarns are single and even in diameter.
+
+    6. This is a coarse, highly-sized linen cloth. The yarns
+    are agglutinated, are brittle, and it is difficult to
+    separate the fibres. The sample submitted has been cut
+    from the end of the piece and shows the warp ends.
+
+    7. A coarse linen cloth, sized and brittle. No selvedge
+    on the piece sent. Both warp and weft yarns are single,
+    and even in diameter.
+
+    8. This is a very coarse linen fabric heavily sized and
+    brittle. Both warp and weft yarns are single and very
+    irregular in diameter.
+
+C.--Lord Denbigh's: XXVI. Dynasty.
+
+    9. A soft-spun linen cloth containing no size. Specimen
+    has been cut from the body of the fabric, showing no
+    selvedge. About half of the warp is composed of doubled
+    yarns of irregular diameter; the weft is of doubled
+    yarns and more regular in diameter.
+
+    10. The selvedge of this linen fabric is peculiar and
+    somewhat elaborate. The outer margin is composed of four
+    sets of ten yarns parallel to each other, forming one
+    strand of warp; then comes a space of 1-9/10" (48 mm.)
+    where the warp yarns are dyed red; then occurs three
+    more sets of ten parallel yarns (the object being to
+    strengthen the selvedge), followed by the general body
+    of the fabric. The entire selvedge is 2-1/4" (57 mm.)
+    wide. About half the warp yarns are doubled, while all
+    the weft are composed of doubled yarns, both being
+    fairly even in diameter, and not sized.
+
+    11. A fine, soft, linen cloth, with selvedge 1-1/8" (29
+    mm.) wide; the three outer and the two inner strands of
+    the warp are made up of many parallel yarns, as in No.
+    10, with an interspace of 3/8" (10 mm.) All the warp
+    yarns are dyed red, about 25% of them being doubled; the
+    weft is peculiar in having five or six strands of single
+    yarns alternating with six or seven double yarns, giving
+    a faint stripe in the fabric.
+
+    12. A linen cloth, with no selvedge edge. It has been
+    dyed red, probably _ferum_, a dye which I find uniformly
+    associated with friable or decomposing fibres.
+
+    13. A peculiarly coloured fine linen cloth; the pattern
+    is caused by some of the warp yarns being dyed, and
+    occurring sometimes of four, two, or one red strands,
+    with grey ones intermixed. A few of the warp yarns are
+    doubled. The weft is composed of single yarns and are
+    all in the grey.
+
+    14. A coarse soft-woven linen fabric, containing no
+    size. Lines are indicated at irregular distances along
+    the cloth, varying from 5/16" to 9/16" (8 to 14 mm.);
+    these are caused by the introduction of three strands of
+    doubled yarn in the warp while the remainder are single
+    yarns. The weft is all of doubled yarns; both warp and
+    weft are very regular in diameter.
+
+    15. This is a variegated linen fabric with warps
+    coloured something like No. 13, but the red strands of
+    warp are more irregular in distribution. Like it, a few
+    of the warp yarns are doubled, both the red and the
+    grey; while the weft is all of single yarns and in the
+    grey."
+
+[A considerable quantity of specimens of the cloths which were woven
+by the Ancient Egyptians has been examined both in this country and
+abroad. I may, however, call special attention to the results of
+examination published in Miss M. A. Murray's excellent little work
+_The Tomb of Two Brothers_, Manchester Museum Publications, No. 68,
+1910.--H.L.R.]
+
+
+DETAILS OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE BODY WRAPPINGS.
+
+ --------+-------+-----+-----++-----------------------------------------
+ Specimen|Nature |Warp |Weft ||   Micro Measurements of Ten Fibres.
+    No.  |  of   |Ends |Picks|+-------------+-------------+-------------
+         |Textile|per  |per  ||    Weft.    |    Warp.    |  Mean of.
+         | Fibre.|inch.|inch.|+======+======+======+======+======+======
+         |       |     |     || Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | Weft.| Warp.
+ ========+=======+=====+=====++======+======+======+======+======+======
+         |       |     |     ||  in. |  in. |  in. |  in. |  in. |  in.
+ A.   { 1| Linen |  44 | 32  ||1/1400|1/3333|1/1424|1/3330|1/1768|1/1786
+      { 2|   "   |  10 | 17  ||1/1786|1/3330|1/1780|1/2860|1/2020|1/1905
+         |       |     |     ||      |      |      |      |      |
+      { 3| Wool  | 224 | 40  ||1/833 |1/2500|1/833 |1/2000|1/1351|1/1429
+      { 4| Linen |  64 | 32  ||1/1429|1/2500|1/1250|1/5000|1/1818|1/1754
+      { 5|   "   |  56 | 20  ||1/1250|1/3333|1/1250|1/2500|1/1754|1/1724
+ B.   { 6|   "   |  48 | 24  ||1/1250|1/2500|1/1000|1/2500|1/1640|1/1594
+      { 7|   "   |  48 | 20  ||1/1111|1/2500|1/1000|1/2500|1/1408|1/1428
+      { 8|   "   |  36 | 16  ||1/833 |1/3333|1/1111|1/2500|1/1456|1/1613
+         |       |     |     ||      |      |      |      |      |
+      { 9|   "   |  48 | 24  ||1/1666|1/3333|1/1666|1/3333|1/2222|1/1860
+      {10|   "   |  32 | 60  ||1/833 |1/3333|1/908 |1/3333|1/1724|1/1613
+      {11|   "   |  80 | 36  ||1/1429|1/3333|1/1000|1/3333|1/1887|1/1784
+ C.   {12|   "   |  96 | 40  ||1/1111|1/2500|1/1250|1/2500|1/1724|1/1695
+      {13|   "   |  80 | 36  ||1/1111|1/2500|1/1429|1/2500|1/1640|1/2040
+      {14|   "   |  56 | 24  ||1/909 |1/3333|1/1250|1/2500|1/1594|1/1695
+      {15|   "   |  64 | 36  ||1/1250|1/2000|1/1429|1/2500|1/1724|1/1818
+ --------+-------+-----+-----++------+------+------+------+------+------
+
+
+THE ABOVE CONVERTED INTO METRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
+
+ --------+-------+--------+--------++-----------------------------------
+         |       |        |        || Micro Measurements of Ten Fibres
+ Specimen|Nature | Warp   | Weft   ||          in Millimetres.
+    No.  |  of   | Ends   | Picks  |+-----------+-----------+-----------
+         |Textile| per    | per    ||   Weft.   |   Warp.   | Mean of
+         | Fibre.| Centim.| Centim.|+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====
+         |       |        |        ||Max. |Min. |Max. |Min. |Weft.|Warp.
+ ========+=======+========+========++=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====
+     1   | Linen |  17    |  12·6  ||·0181|·0076|·0178|·0076|·0144|·0142
+     2   |   "   |   4    |   6·7  ||·0142|·0076|·0143|·0089|·0126|·0133
+     3   | Wool  |  88    |  15·6  ||·0305|·0101|·0305|·0127|·0188|·0178
+     4   | Linen |  25    |  12·6  ||·0178|·0101|·0203|·0050|·0140|·0145
+     5   |   "   |  22    |   7·8  ||·0203|·0076|·0203|·0101|·0145|·0147
+     6   |   "   |  19    |   9·5  ||·0203|·0101|·0254|·0101|·0155|·0159
+     7   |   "   |  19    |   7·8  ||·0229|·0101|·0254|·0101|·0180|·0178
+     8   |   "   |  14·1  |   6·3  ||·0305|·0076|·0229|·0101|·0174|·0157
+     9   |   "   |  19    |   9·5  ||·0152|·0076|·0152|·0076|·0208|·0130
+    10   |   "   |  12·6  |  23·6  ||·0305|·0076|·0278|·0076|·0147|·0157
+    11   |   "   |  31·5  |  14·1  ||·0178|·0076|·0254|·0076|·0135|·0142
+    12   |   "   |  37·4  |  15·6  ||·0229|·0101|·0203|·0101|·0147|·0149
+    13   |   "   |  19    |  14·1  ||·0229|·0101|·0178|·0101|·0155|·0124
+    14   |   "   |  22    |   9·5  ||·0278|·0076|·0203|·0101|·0159|·0149
+    15   |   "   |  25    |  14·1  ||·0203|·0127|·0178|·0101|·0147|·0140
+ --------+-------+--------+--------++-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----
+
+It is very obvious they had no scale to work to.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[A] To the uninitiated I may explain that in a horizontal loom the
+plane of the warp is more or less parallel with that of the floor,
+while in an upright or vertical loom the plane of the warp is at right
+angles to that of the floor.
+
+[B] To avoid indistinctness through over reduction, I have endeavoured
+to keep all reproductions in this paper as large as possible, and
+think I have succeeded in not losing any detail in the necessary
+reduction.
+
+[C] Hay's drawings are not published but can be seen in the Brit.
+Mus., Add. MSS. No. 29823, Fol. 32.
+
+[D] Olafsson, to be referred to later on, remarks that while in Ovid's
+time the _spathe_ was used for beating-in the weft, in Seneca's time
+the weft was beaten in by a toothed instrument. In other words a
+weaver's comb--the embryo reed--had been introduced.
+
+
+
+
+II. THE GREEK LOOM.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.--A Bushongo weaver at work. From Torday and
+Joyce, _Notes Ethnographiques_, _Ann. du Congo_, p. 182.]
+
+We have now to say a few words about an upright loom which differs
+very materially from the Egyptian loom already described. Whether the
+horizontal loom is a later product than the vertical loom, or was
+evolved from it, or whether both were independent inventions cannot be
+discussed here, but I may point out that there is an intermediate form
+between the two. It is doubtful as to whether this is a transition
+form. It was first brought to my notice by Mr. T. A. Joyce, as in use
+amongst some negro peoples in Central Africa possessing an old, high
+and possibly introduced civilisation, and is figured in Messrs. Torday
+and Joyce's Notes _Ethnographiques ... Bakuba ... et Bushongo_
+(_Annales du Congo_) pp. 24 and 182. In this loom the warp is
+stretched between an upper beam and a lower beam at an angle of about
+90 degrees, and the weaver sits underneath at his work, Fig. 28. It is
+not at all uncommon to meet with illustrations showing the warp
+stretched at an incline, and apart from the fact that in many the
+weavers are posing for illustration, and therefore, are most probably
+not exactly in their natural positions, the tilted arrangement has
+this advantage, namely, that the work of beating-in is improved by
+the fall given to the "sword" which, with less exertion by the
+weaver, drives the weft home more effectively. In all these cases,
+however, the weaver sits or stands in front of the loom, but in the
+case of the Bushongo the loom is tilted to such an extent that the
+weaver finds it more convenient to sit underneath the warp.
+
+The discovery by Messrs. Alan Gardiner and N. de G. Davies of
+illustrations of Egyptian upright looms, confirms Wilkinson in his
+statement and illustration that the Egyptians had this class of loom
+as well as the horizontal one. The vertical loom is found in Europe,
+Asia, Africa and America, and is, probably, ethnically as old if not
+older than the horizontal loom.[E] But this Egyptian upright loom
+differs from another, the Greek, or Central European, or Scandinavian
+form of the upright loom, in having an upper and a lower beam so that
+the warp is made taut between two beams, while in the Greek loom there
+is only _one_ beam. The warp hangs from this beam, the warp threads
+being made taut by means of weights attached at the lower ends.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29a.--Illustration on a small lekythos of an
+Athenian girl at work on a tapestry loom, together with a full size
+tracing of the tapestry loom. British Museum. B.C. 500.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29b.--Illustration of a Greek woman with a
+tapestry loom. From Stackelberg's _Graeber der Hellenen_, pl. xxxiii.]
+
+The Greeks were, however, acquainted with the tapestry loom, for there
+exists in the British Museum a small lekythos with an illustration,
+Fig. 29a, of such an article resting on the knees of a lady weaver.[F]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Greek woman at work on a loom. From C. Robert
+Ἐφ ἀρχ 1892, pl. xiii., p. 247. It is not possible to say from
+this illustration whether this is a warp weighted loom or not.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Penelope at her loom. Illustration on an
+Athenian skyphos found in an Etruscan tomb at Chiusi, and at present
+in the museum there. The illustration is taken from _Monumenti d.
+Inst. Archeologico_, IX., pl. xlii.]
+
+It has been described by Mr. H. B. Walters in _Jour. Hellenic
+Studies_, XXXI., 1911, p. 15, who says: "In front of her, Fig. 29a, is
+a white wool basket (_Kalathos_) and on her lap is a frame somewhat in
+the form of a lyre, being formed by two upright pieces with knobs at
+the top, diverging slightly towards the top, across between which are
+stretched two threads at the top and two at the bottom, seven vertical
+threads being also visible. Her hands are placed on the threads, which
+she is engaged in manipulating. This object can only be intended for a
+hand loom, though there is apparently no evidence for the use of such
+objects in ancient times or among Oriental races either in the past or
+the present day. The only other parallel to the representation on this
+vase is one published by Stackelberg, Fig. 29b, where a woman holds a
+similar frame and is similarly occupied with her hands. The writers of
+the articles _Sticken_ in Baumeister and _Phrygium Opus_ in Daremberg
+and Saglio, misled by the likeness of the object to the modern
+crewel-frame, interpret the process as embroidery. But this kind of
+work implies cloth or other textile substance already woven, on which
+patterns are worked in, whereas in both vase paintings the textile is
+obviously in course of construction." He is right in so far as he
+goes, but both representations are those of _tapestry_ looms which
+fact is indicated by the warp threads in both cases, and by the design
+marked on the warp threads of Fig. 29b--a method of preparing their
+work in use to this day by tapestry weavers. Some authorities consider
+that tapestry weaving is more closely related to mat making than to
+true weaving. In other words, I take it tapestry is an early stage in
+the development of weaving. From this we get some idea as to how far
+the Greeks had progressed in the textile arts.
+
+As pointed out by MM. Daremberg and Saglio, _Dic. des Antiquités
+Grecques et Romaines_ pt. 46, p. 164, "illustrations of Greek or Roman
+methods of weaving are very rare, they are much reduced and in so far
+as the art is concerned purely diagrammatic." On the other hand if
+there are numerous references in the texts of classic authors, these
+references seem rather to obscure than elucidate the method of
+working. However, there are three illustrations--the Penelope loom,
+Fig. 31, and two Boeotian looms, one of which is illustrated in Fig.
+15--quite sufficient to explain the principle of the upright loom as
+used with warp weights by the Greeks, and the discovery of numerous
+articles, considered to be the warp weights, confirm the illustration.
+
+The principle is the same throughout, viz.: the looms are vertical,
+there is a warp beam on top, there are two cross rods one of which is
+a laze rod and _possibly_ the other is a heddle; and the warp threads
+are all kept taut by means of attached weights. On one of the Boeotian
+looms a bobbin or spool is shown. Along the top of Penelope's loom
+there are indications of nine pegs, on six of which balls of coloured
+thread have been placed, evidently for working out the designs, very
+much the same as shown on the rug loom in Bankfield Museum already
+referred to. The warp weights on this Athenian illustration are
+triangular in shape, and perhaps resemble the pyramidic weights found
+in Egypt and attributed to Roman times. Assuming these pyramids are
+Roman warp weights it would appear that both Greeks and Romans had
+vertical looms on which the warp threads were kept taut by means of
+weights. In one of the few clearly expressed technical classical
+references, Seneca speaks of the warp threads stretched by hanging
+weights.
+
+In the above classical illustrations which are after all only rough
+diagrams, the warp weights appear to hang from a _single_ thread only,
+but this can not have been correct. The warp threads must have been
+bunched, because a single suspended thread with a tension weight
+immediately begins to unravel, and so loses the advantage of its
+having been spun, as any one can ascertain for oneself. As regards the
+same point on the Lake Dwellers looms, Cohausen was the first to
+surmise that the warp threads were bunched to receive the weight, and
+Messikommer proved it by practical experiment.[G]
+
+As can be surmised with this class of loom the weaving begins at the
+_top_, working _down_wards, and the beating-in of the weft is
+_up_wards--the exact opposite to the method adopted with other
+looms--for the pendant warp ends, although weighted to keep them taut,
+do not appear to have been further fixed in position, so that to
+commence weaving at the lower end made the operation so extremely
+difficult as to be almost impossible.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Illustration of a Scandinavian warp weighted
+loom in the Copenhagen Museum. The illustration is taken from
+Montelius' _Civilisation of Sweden in Heathen Times_, translated by
+the Rev. F. H. Woods, London, Macmillan & Co., 1888, p. 160.
+
+[In the illustration of this loom published by the Trustees of the
+British Museum, in their _Guide to the Antiquities of the Early Iron
+Age_, London, 1905, p. 139, the shape of the warp weights has been
+altered to suit the shape of such weights in the British Museum
+collections.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Icelandic Loom after Olafsson.
+
+_a a_ Beam on which the warp is fixed. _b b_ Weights to make the warp
+taut. _c c_ Brackets which support the beam and on which it can be
+revolved by means of the spoke _e_ when the warp has to be lengthened,
+on account of the weft _f_ working downwards and so shortening the
+finished portion of the woven cloth. _g_ A sharp bone or tough piece
+of wood to beat the weft into proper position. _h_ The wound up weft
+which is pushed through the warp with the fingers. _i i_ The unbeamed
+warp. _k k_ The heddles or shed openers. _l l_ The supports on which
+the heddles rest when the "pick" is made [_i.e._, the pushing the weft
+through]. _m_ The beater-in. _n_ and _o_ Laze rods. _q_ The template
+for regulating the width of the cloth. _r r_ and _s s_ Beam on to
+which the loom is fixed.
+
+Some of the descriptions are not as clear as could be wished. It is
+probable that _g_ is a preliminary to _m_. N. Annandale mentions that
+he obtained in the Faroes a beater-in made of a whale's jaw or rib;
+while in Iceland he saw some of the perforated stones to which the
+warp threads were attached (_The Faroes and Iceland_, Oxford, 1905,
+pp. 195-6).]
+
+The Scandinavian form of the "Greek" loom from the Faroes Fig. 32, is
+made known to us through the article itself in the Copenhagen Museum,
+illustrated by Montelius, _Civilisation of Sweden in Heathen Times_,
+Lond. 1888, p. 160, and through the very clear illustration and
+description given us by Olafsson in his _Oeconomische Reise durch
+Island_, 1787, translated from the Danish edition of 1780. The loom
+figured by Olafsson, Fig. 33, shows an advance on that of Montelius,
+in being provided with heddles.[H] Upright looms with a lower beam
+instead of with warp weights and furnished with heddles, are not
+uncommon. There are the well known Indian and Persian rug looms, and
+Du Chaillu figures one in his _Journey to Ashango Land_, London, 1867,
+plate facing p. 291. Randall-Maciver and Wilkin illustrate a vertical
+loom in use among the Kabyles, _Libyan Notes_, London, 1901, Pl. IX.,
+and although the details of the illustration are not clear the text
+indicates the existence of one heddle: "The warp is decussated by
+means of a horizontal rod and leashes." Dr. Washington Mathews figures
+several Navajo looms with heddles, _Third Ann. Rep. Bureau of
+Ethnology_, p. 291; Ancient Peruvians also used them, as shown by Dr.
+Max Schmidt, _Baessler Archiv, I. pt. 1_, and so on practically _ad.
+lib._ But to work an upright warp-weighted loom with heddles is
+attended with great practical inconvenience, and this difficulty has,
+no doubt, been one of the chief causes of the complete discardance of
+this class of loom.
+
+In spite of the evidence in favour of the existence of warp weighted
+looms, the Director of the Hermannstadt Museum, Dr. v.
+Kimakovicz-Winnicki, sees fit to deny their existence. He found that
+in some parts of Transylvania the peasants use wooden pyramids (see
+Fig. 18) similar to the Roman warp weights for winding the thread
+from the spindle on to the shuttle. For this purpose sockets are
+bored into the thin or top end of two pyramids, which are placed
+just so far apart that a spindle can rest horizontally with one end
+in the socket of one pyramid, and the other end of the spindle in
+the socket of the other pyramid, and the thread in being wound off
+on to the shuttle causes the spindle to revolve in the sockets. From
+this he argues that what we have hitherto taken to be warp weights
+are not warp weights at all (_Spinn-u. Webewerkzeuge_, Wuerzburg,
+1911), and having denied these articles to be warp weights he gets
+over the difficulty presented by the illustration of Penelope at her
+loom, by attempting to prove that what we take to be a loom is no
+loom at all but a _flechtrahm_, _i.e._ plaiting frame! He then
+attempts to pull to pieces the idea that the Scandinavian loom in
+the Copenhagen Museum is a loom and condemns it as unworkable. There
+can be no doubt about his meaning as he defines his terms. The
+principle of weaving (_Weben_) he describes "as the absorption of
+two groups of parallel material elements (warp and weft) at right
+angles to each other, and the principle of plaiting (_Flechten_) as
+the absorption by itself in one plane of one group only of material
+element, (warp)" and he gives diagrammatic illustrations showing
+clearly what he means (_op. cit._ p. 31).[I] Judging from his
+remarks one must conclude he has not seen a primitive loom of any
+sort, and were it not for the official position he holds, his
+remarks would not need answering.
+
+It has, I believe, been suggested more than once that some of the
+perforated stones, pieces of burnt clay, pieces of chalk and like
+objects may be and are net-sinkers, and there is some justification
+for Dr. Kimakovicz-Winnicki's statement that the pyramidic forms are
+not warp weights; but it does not follow that all the perforated
+articles are either spindle-holders or net-sinkers, yet that is what
+his subsequent statements lead one to infer. It is, however, difficult
+to prove that these perforated articles are warp weights.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Side view and section of chalk warp weight
+found at Great Driffield. Of three of the weights the following
+dimensions were taken:
+
+    7-3/4" (19·7 cm.) long,   2 lbs. 3 oz. (1·0 k)
+    6"     (15·2  " )   "     1 lb.  8 oz. (0·7 k)
+    6-3/8" (16·2  " )   "     1 lb.  3 oz. (0·6 k)
+
+Hull Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.--"Chalk weight, 6" × 4" × 2" (15·2 cm. × 10·2
+× 5·1), similar to those found in pits, at Mount Caburn and Cissbury
+near Worthing, Sussex. Found with eighteen more in the _filling_ of
+pit 7, Winkelbury Hill." _Excavations in Winkelbury Camp_, by
+Lieut.-Gen. Pitt-Rivers (_Excavations in Cranbourne Chase_, Vol. II.,
+1888). As Pitt-Rivers also found at Winkelbury the fragment of a comb
+and a chalk spindle whorl, which are textile tools, we may safely
+presume these fashioned pieces of chalk are warp weights.]
+
+In 1875 several flat irregular oblong perforated pieces of soft chalk
+were found in enlarging the cattle market in Great Driffield,
+Yorkshire; they were found in a hole about three feet deep with
+Anglo-Saxon potsherds, animal remains, and bits of iron. They can now
+be seen in the Mortimer Collection in the Hull Museum. They consist of
+pieces of chalk, similar to those which drop annually in thousands
+upon thousands down the cliffs from the boulder clay between
+Bridlington and Flamborough. On some a shoulder has been cut, Fig. 34,
+most have one perforation, but in a few specimens, where the thin
+portion above the hole has been broken off, a second hole has been
+made. None of them can stand unsupported. Owing to the soluble nature
+of the chalk they could not have been used as net-sinkers in the sea
+(about nine miles off) for they would quickly dissolve in salt water,
+and the same holds good in regard to fresh water, although in a lesser
+degree. But I do not think they were used even in fresh water as
+net-sinkers, for it was a characteristic of primitive peoples, with
+whom time was of no account, to do their work thoroughly--what they
+made was intended to last, and chalk net-sinkers would not have
+lasted. That these were found in a limited quantity, I believe about
+seventeen in number, tends to show that they are warp weights, for
+only a few are required for every loom, in spite of the considerable
+number shown in the non-technical illustration of Penelope's loom. Not
+being able to find any other use for these pieces of chalk, and
+judging that they are suitable for the purpose, I should say they are
+warp weights. In this case the weaver has made the most of what nature
+has given him; in other parts of England he has had to fashion the
+weight out of the rough chalk, Fig. 35.
+
+In the Museum at Devizes there are several hard pieces of perforated
+and fashioned chalk which offer more conclusive evidence. Of these
+Mrs. M. E. Cunnington, the Curator, writes me: "All the weights here
+have holes bored right through. Two large ones stand easily on the
+floor. Others are more irregular in form and will not stand upright.
+This latter type is, as far as I am aware, the more usual in this part
+of the country. They are commonly cut out of the hard chalk, and weigh
+about 3 or 4 lbs. (1·5-2 Kilos). We think these weights are loom
+weights because we find them with Romano-British remains, as at
+Westbury, and late Celtic remains on our chalk uplands, far from water
+where fishing could have been carried on. With the same remains we
+find weaving combs, numerous spindle whorls and other tools of bone
+that were also probably used in weaving operations." The Westbury, in
+Wiltshire, referred to, is some thirty miles in a straight line from
+the mouth of the Severn, and about forty miles from the English
+Channel. These pieces of chalk cannot therefore have been used as
+net-sinkers, leaving out of consideration their composition; they were
+found with weaving tools and they fit the position. So far the
+ingenuity of our ablest archæologists at home and abroad has not
+succeeded in ascribing the use of these objects to anything else than
+net-sinking or warp tension. The adaptability of the articles for use
+as warp weights, the small groups in which they are found, the
+discovery of weaving implements in the closest proximity, our
+knowledge of the Greek representations of warp-weighted looms, the
+Olafsson illustration, and the loom in the Copenhagen Museum all tend
+to prove that these articles are really warp weights.
+
+As regards the practical possibility or impossibility of working a
+"Greek" loom, I had a simple frame made in the Museum and showed Mr.
+J. Smith, a mill "Overlooker" at Messrs. Wayman and Sons, Ld.,
+Halifax, the illustration in Montelius' book already referred to, and
+asked him to weave me a small piece of cloth on it. In the course of a
+few hours he did the warping, beaming and weaving, making the pick
+with his fingers and using a ball of weft thread instead of a spool or
+shuttle. The result is shown in the accompanying illustration, Fig.
+36, conclusively proving that weaving on such a frame is quite
+feasible, and practically proving that Olafsson's and the Copenhagen
+warp weighted looms are properly constructed workable looms.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.--A warp weighted loom made at Bankfield
+Museum, to show the possibility of weaving by this method. There is no
+heddle nor shuttle used. The weaver made the "shed" and pushed the
+weft through with his fingers. He naturally worked _down_wards.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.--Diagram to show how the warp is kept taut on
+a Syrian loom.]
+
+Finally, it may not be out of place here to point out that there are
+other looms, besides the Greek and Scandinavian, on which the warp is
+made taut by means of warp weights. The Rev. Dr. Harvey Porter, of the
+American College, Beyrout, Syria, writing about the year 1901, thus
+describes the common loom of the country. He says: "Two upright posts
+are fixed in the ground, which hold the roller to which the threads of
+the warp are fastened, and upon which the cloth is wound as it is
+woven. The threads of the warp are carried upward towards the ceiling
+at the other end of the room, and pass over rollers, and are gathered
+in hanks and weighted to keep them taut (_Dic. of the Bible_,
+Edinburgh, 1902, IV., p. 901)." He has kindly sent me an illustration
+of this loom, but unfortunately the weights are not clearly shown, and
+the same is the case with an illustration of a loom from Cyprus.[J]
+The diagram, Fig. 37, shows the principle. In a Shan loom illustrated
+by Mrs. Leslie Milne, in _The Shans at Home_, London, 1910, p. 120,
+the warp makes a somewhat similar detour over the head of the weaver,
+it is, however, not weighted but tied to a beam. The point to be
+observed is that these warp-weighted looms are horizontal and not
+perpendicular, and also that the weaving is the reverse of that on the
+Greek loom but similar to that on our horizontal looms, so that the
+present Syrian and Cyprian looms have nothing in common with the old
+Greek loom.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Hand of Penelope clutching her shuttle. From
+a corner of a piece of sculpture discovered by O. Kern and described
+by C. Robert, (_The Feet Washing of Odysseus_, fifth Century B.C.,
+_Mitt. Kais. Deutsch. Arch. Inst._, Athens, XXV., 1900, pp. 332-3).
+The author considers Penelope to be in the act of unravelling what she
+has woven: "We see her holding the spool with her right hand, while
+the left hand, half closed, is raised to about shoulder high, and the
+fingers, if I read the traces correctly, are posed as though she held
+a thread."]
+
+The Greeks evidently used a spool in weaving, that is a piece of stick
+round which was wound the thread that became the weft, as is shown in
+the hand of Penelope, Fig. 38, and in Kirke's loom, Fig. 15.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[E] I find frequent references, by various writers, to an upright loom
+mentioned by E. H. Palmer as used by a Bedawin woman near Jebel Musa,
+but on looking up his description (_The Desert of the Exodus_, I. p.
+125), I find it to be so indifferent as to be quite useless for
+purposes of comparison.
+
+[F] My attention to this was kindly drawn by Mr. F. N. Pryce,
+Assistant in the Dept. of Greek and Roman Antiquities.
+
+[G] The existence of warp weighted looms amongst the prehistoric Lake
+Dwellers of Switzerland was first surmised by Pauer (_Keller's Lake
+Dwellings_) from the discovery of the weights, and was made
+practically certain by Messikommer and Jentsch.
+
+[H] Comparing the loom Olafsson saw with the description in the Nial
+Saga, he concludes this sort of loom was in use A.D. 1014, in the
+North of Scotland.
+
+[I] He criticises the detail of the illustration of Penelope's loom.
+It must be remembered this illustration is not a technical drawing,
+but an artist's representation where correctness of detail cannot be
+expected. In his own drawing of the Egyptian horizontal loom many of
+the warp threads are shown over instead of under the laze rods, and
+yet this is supposed to be a correct technical drawing!
+
+[J] Since writing Dr. Porter has sent me photograph of another sort of
+loom in which weights are used as counter balances to keep the heddles
+raised. The subject requires further elucidation.
+
+
+
+
+III. CONCLUSION.
+
+
+From the foregoing we gather that the Ancient Egyptians had two forms
+of looms. The earlier or horizontal form, date about B.C. 2000, has in
+a modified way survived to the present day in desert Egypt and is also
+found in Seistan. It required a large area of ground for working and
+probably in earlier times when there was plenty of space this did not
+much matter. But as the population in the towns increased and with
+the increase of civilisation and its concomitant increased demand for
+cloth, probably out of proportion to the increase of population, space
+would be begrudged and this may have caused the invention or the
+introduction of the vertical form of loom which we find in use some
+500 years later. In Egypt therefore the horizontal loom preceded the
+vertical loom but it does not necessarily follow that such was the
+case elsewhere. In so far as we can gather from the small amount of
+information at our disposal, in the earlier days the women were the
+weavers, and later on with the introduction of the upright loom the
+men were the weavers with an occasional female weaver. In the Egyptian
+Desert and in Seistan in the present day with horizontal looms the
+weavers appear to be males, but among the nomads of Persia who
+likewise use horizontal looms the weavers are females. In the use of
+either form of loom the Egyptian weavers beat the weft downwards or
+towards themselves and _not_ upwards or away from themselves. They had
+the heddle in one of its earliest forms and had consequently made the
+first great step in the evolution of the loom as we now know it. In
+the beginning they made no selvedges so that for every pick a separate
+length of weft thread was used. The adoption of the selvedge was
+another improvement and until it was introduced the weft would no
+doubt have been put through with the fingers, later on a spool being
+used. It is possible also that in very late times the weavers' comb
+was introduced. It is safe to say that the Egyptians had no knowledge
+of the reed. Both forms of looms were simple, without harness or other
+complicated pieces of mechanism. The Egyptians accomplished fairly
+good work and judging these people from their looms alone we must
+conclude they were a progressive race.
+
+The Greek form of loom was an upright one on which the warp threads
+were kept taut by means of weights and similar to the form which
+existed in Central and Northern Europe (in the latter until recent
+times) but of which so far there is no trace to the east, or south, or
+west. The Greek loom may have been furnished with a heddle but the
+drawings are not clear on this point. A spool was used. The weavers
+were women and the weft was beaten upwards or away from the weaver. It
+was not a form of loom so capable of improvement as the Egyptian forms
+and there appears to be no connection between the forms used on either
+side of the Mediterranean. The Greek tapestry loom could hardly have
+been more primitive. In respect to the forms of looms used by the two
+peoples the Egyptians were considerably in advance of the Greeks.
+
+
+FINIS.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Punctuation errors have been repaired.
+
+The author uses some archaic and alternative spelling, for example,
+nooze for noose, gramms for grammes. These have been retained as
+printed.
+
+The original text contained an erratum, as follows:
+
+    Erratum:--Page 39, Line 5, for Dr. Henry Porter, _read_
+    Dr. Harvey Porter.
+
+The error has been fixed in this e-text.
+
+The following amendments have been made:
+
+    Page 8--Calliaud amended to Cailliaud--"... as well as
+    those of Cailliaud and Rosellini show that ..."
+
+    Page 11--Tehuti-hotep amended to Tehuti-hetep--"... from
+    the tomb of Tehuti-hetep _circa_ 1938-1849 B.C., ..."
+
+    Page 18--netsinker amended to net-sinker--"... the
+    material is not suitable for a net-sinker, ..."
+
+    Page 19, Fig. 21 caption--cm. amended to in.--"...
+    Breadth 6·5 cm. (1-11/32 in.)."
+
+    Page 23--pecularity amended to peculiarity--"When I
+    noticed the peculiarity first, ..."
+
+    Page 23--analagous amended to analogous--"We know how
+    closely analogous to 'darning' was ..."
+
+    Page 27--safron amended to saffron--"2. This is a
+    coarser fabric, has been dyed with saffron, ..."
+
+    Page 29--Millemetres amended to Millimetres--"Micro
+    Measurements of Ten Fibres in Millimetres."
+
+    Page 32, Fig. 31 caption--Etrusian amended to
+    Etruscan--"... an Athenian skyphos found in an Etruscan
+    tomb ..."
+
+    Page 32--repeated instance of use deleted--"... there is
+    apparently no evidence for the use of such objects ..."
+
+    Page 35, Fig. 33 caption--templete amended to
+    template--"The template for regulating the width of the
+    cloth."
+
+    Page 37, Fig. 35 caption--whorle amended to whorl--"...
+    the fragment of a comb and a chalk spindle whorl, ..."
+
+    Page 38--commonally amended to commonly--"They are
+    commonly cut out of the hard chalk, ..."
+
+    Page 38--archaeologists amended to archæologists--"...
+    the ingenuity of our ablest archæologists at home and
+    abroad ..."
+
+    Page 38--impossibilty amended to impossibility--"As
+    regards the practical possibility or impossibility ..."
+
+The Figures have been moved, where necessary, so that they are not in
+the middle of a paragraph.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Ancient Egyptian and Greek Looms, by H. Ling Roth
+
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+Project Gutenberg's Ancient Egyptian and Greek Looms, by H. Ling Roth
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ancient Egyptian and Greek Looms
+
+Author: H. Ling Roth
+
+Release Date: June 8, 2008 [EBook #25731]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANCIENT EGYPTIAN AND GREEK LOOMS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julie Barkley, Sam W. and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+There is a small amount of Greek in this book, which has been
+transliterated, and is surrounded by + signs, +like this+.
+
+
+
+
+                Ancient Egyptian and
+                     Greek Looms
+
+
+                         BY
+                    H. LING ROTH
+                      (Keeper).
+
+ WITH 38 LINE BLOCK AND ONE COLLOTYPE ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+              BANKFIELD MUSEUM, HALIFAX
+                     APRIL 1913
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+Halifax, which is situated in the heart of the great textile trade of
+Lancashire and Yorkshire, has been a home of the woollen manufacture
+since the earliest time, and it is only meet, therefore, that its
+museum should possess specimens of the tools used in the early days of
+spinning, weaving, and cloth making generally. In spite of the
+considerable progress made towards that end, many typical specimens
+are still wanting, and, while we have plenty of material for the study
+of weaving in various parts of the world, we are lacking in everything
+relating to the industry in Ancient Egypt and Greece. Failing
+specimens I have had recourse to illustrations, but the Egyptian ones
+published by Cailliaud, Rosellini, Sir J. G. Wilkinson and Lepsius,
+contradict each other in many important points, so that those who
+study them find them practically useless for an understanding of the
+art as carried on in the Nile lands. Fortunately, last year, Mr. N. de
+G. Davies, the well-known Egyptologist, hearing of my difficulty, very
+generously placed some of his copies of tomb drawings at my disposal,
+and with this invaluable help I have been enabled to complete the
+present paper, and to lay before Halifax students some new details of
+manufacture bearing upon their staple industry.
+
+                                                  H. Ling Roth.
+
+  Bankfield Museum, Halifax.
+  April 1913.
+
+
+
+
+I. EGYPTIAN LOOMS.
+
+
+HORIZONTAL LOOMS.[A]
+
+In the tomb of Chnem-hotep, at Beni Hasan, there is a wall painting of
+a horizontal loom with two weavers, women, squatting on either side,
+and at the right in the background is drawn the figure of the
+taskmaster. There are also figures represented in the act of spinning,
+etc. For the present we are concerned with the weaving only.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from the
+illustration in Cailliaud's _Recherches_, etc. Same size as
+published.]
+
+Of this illustration, there appear to be six reproductions. We have
+first of all, Fig. 1, that of Fred. Cailliaud (_Recherches sur les
+Arts et M�tiers_, etc., Paris, 1831) with illustrations of drawings
+made by himself in the years 1819 to 1822. His publication was
+followed by Fig. 2, that of Sir J. G. Wilkinson (_Manners and
+Customs_, etc., London, 1837). Mr. John Murray, whose house has
+published Wilkinson's work from the first edition to the last, informs
+me that a few of the drawings were made by George Scharf, afterwards
+Sir George Scharf, Keeper of the National Portrait Gallery, but that
+most of them seem to have been made by Joseph Bonomi, the well known
+Egyptologist. Wilkinson's woodcut, although clearly and neatly done,
+is on a very small scale; nevertheless it admits of a fair comparison
+with those reproduced on a larger scale.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+    Figs. 1 & 3. Weaving.
+
+    Fig. 2. Loom.
+
+     "   3. Putting in the woof, but not
+            by a shuttle thrown with
+            the hand.
+
+     "   4. Male Overseer.
+
+     "   5. Hackling.
+
+     "   6. Twisting the double threads
+            for the warp.
+
+    _a_ Weaving.
+    _b_ Chief of Loom.
+    _c_ Facing.
+    _d_ Pulling out.
+
+Fig. 2.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from Sir J. G.
+Wilkinson's _Manners and Customs_, London, John Murray, 1878, Vol. I.,
+p. 317. Same size as published.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from the
+illustration in Rosellini's _Monumenti_ (Monumenti Civili), Plate XLI.
+Reduced one-fifth lineal of size published.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from
+Lepsius' _Denkm�ler_. Same size as published.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from
+Prof. Percy Newberry's _Beni Hasan_, I. Plate 29. Same size as
+published.]
+
+After him, Fig. 3, N. F. J. B. Rosellini began the publication of his
+great work (_I Monumenti dell' Egitto_, Pisa, 1832-1844). The
+similarity between the comparatively few drawings published by
+Cailliaud and the very large number published by Rosellini is very
+great. It is of course quite possible Rosellini may have made use of
+some of Cailliaud's drawings. Five years after Rosellini's publication
+came that of C. R. Lepsius (_Denkm�ler_, Leipzig, 1849), Fig. 4, his
+drawings having been made in the years 1842 to 1845. Since the time of
+Lepsius until quite recent years I can trace no further copying until
+we get the illustration, Fig. 5, in Prof. Percy Newberry's _Beni
+Hasan_, London, 1910. In this work the reproduction is about one
+twentieth of the original, or about three fifths of the size of that
+of Wilkinson, and unfortunately so crude as not to be available for
+our present purpose.[B] Lastly we have the reproduction, Fig. 6, from
+Mr. N. de Garis Davies' drawing made in 1903, and now first published
+by kind permission of Mr. F. Ll. Griffith.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep. Size of
+original: Height of the figures 9-1/4" = 24�4 cm. Drawn by Mr. N. de
+G. Davies, and now published for the first time by permission of Mr.
+F. Ll. Griffith.]
+
+In the various reproductions by the above explorers, the only three
+which agree very closely are those of Cailliaud, Rosellini and Davies.
+The others vary considerably and in essentials do not agree with the
+above nor with one another. The differences may in the first instance
+be due to difficulties in copying the original in the tomb. Others may
+be due to ignorance of detail on the part of the secondary
+copyist--the man who prepared them for publication--so that he was
+unable to follow up the clues on the drawings laid before him. The
+differences may also be due to careless copying and to "touching up"
+of the copies when made; they may be slightly due to deterioration and
+obliteration of the original in the course of time.
+
+The _Encyclop�dia Biblica_ gives a variant from all six illustrations,
+but approaching nearest to that of Cailliaud, Rosellini and Davies. It
+is misleading in so far that the drawing has been made to suit
+Professor Kennedy's idea as to what it should be.
+
+Some of the differences are of minor importance, but a comparison will
+help materially to our understanding of the method of weaving adopted
+by the Egyptians from the XIIth to the XIXth Dynasties, or about B.C.
+2000 to 1200. To go into details, and taking Mr. N. de G. Davies'
+illustration as our basis, we find slight differences in the shape of
+the pegs B, B1, which are immaterial. A more pronounced difference is
+seen in the way in which the threads are attached to the warp beam A.
+Neither Wilkinson nor Lepsius carry these threads over the beam, the
+former carrying them only as far as the laze threads C, while the
+latter carries them up to a line drawn parallel to and below the beam;
+Cailliaud and Rosellini carry them over the beam while Mr. Davies
+carries them half way only. The object of this half carrying over is
+not clear. The threads in chain-form at C are probably laze threads,
+apparently placed there so that in case of any disarrangement of the
+warp threads the weaver can from that point run her fingers along them
+and get them disentangled. It has been suggested to me that this
+chain-form might be a tension chain for taking up slack warp, but the
+former explanation seems the more likely.
+
+All the drawings but Wilkinson's show the warp threads converging
+towards the breast beam; Wilkinson shows them parallel and in Lepsius
+their convergence is excessive. There should be a slight convergence
+shown, as in the course of weaving the threads get drawn in, and in
+later forms of looms in semi-civilised countries we find an endeavour
+to counteract this tendency by the use of a tool known as a "temple."
+
+The cross sticks D1, D2, look like laze rods. It may not be out of
+place here to point out that in primitive weaving laze rods serve two
+purposes, or one more than in the later somewhat more advanced looms.
+They serve throughout to keep the warp threads in place, and they
+serve to separate the odd threads from the even (1, 3, 5, 7 from 2, 4,
+6, 8, &c.), and in so doing take the place of the fingers in making
+the "shed," _i.e._, the opening through which the "weft (or woof)" is
+passed, a function which in turn is usurped by the "heald (or
+heddle)." The heddle therefore becomes a very important factor, and
+Dr. H. G. Harrison by no means overstates the case when he says that
+the development of the heddle is the most important step in the
+evolution of the loom (Horniman Museum Handbooks, No. 10, pp. 47-49).
+We may now return to the drawing. Wilkinson shows the rod D1
+indistinctly and the left hand end only of D2. Lepsius' artist seems
+to have taken a liberty with D1 but in the right direction, by making
+it more definitely into an early form of heddle--the loop and rod--but
+he shows D2 the same as Cailliaud and Rosellini. Prof. Kennedy argues
+that these rods are in the wrong position and that D1 which is a
+heddle should be in the place of D2. Mr. Davies' drawing as well as
+those of Cailliaud and Rosellini show that D1 is a heddle while D2 is
+shown to be a laze rod. Asiatic primitive looms, like those from
+Borneo and Bhutan, have two laze rods but no heddle; on the other hand
+many primitive African looms have one laze rod and one heddle as is
+the case with this Egyptian loom. More threads are shown on the left
+hand end of D2 than on the right hand end. Mr. Davies informs me that
+the same quantity should be shown from end to end across the warp, but
+on the right hand side they are so indistinct that he was just able to
+detect but not to trace them and so he omitted them.
+
+We now come to the rod E. Cailliaud and Rosellini show an undulation
+at the one end _a_, but do not make the other end clear. Wilkinson
+shows a small hook at the end _a_, which appears to me to be a
+transcriber's development of the curved end of his two predecessors;
+in the text Wilkinson says there is a hook at each end of this stick,
+but he does not show any at the end opposite to _a_; he refers to
+these hooks more than once (1st ed., III., p. 126 footnote). Lepsius
+has altered the shape of the curve and transferred it from the end _a_
+to the opposite end. In Mr. de G. Davies' drawing, it has been
+inserted in dotted lines, as the original is in such a state that
+tracing is almost impossible. Wilkinson, Erman, v. Cohausen (_Das
+Spinnen u. Weben bei den Alten_, in _Ann. Ver. Nassau. Altherthumsk._,
+Wiesbaden, 1879, p. 29), and others call it a shuttle, but I am more
+inclined to consider it a slashing stick ("sword" or "beater-in") for
+pushing the weft into position. A tool which appears to be a beater-in
+and of similar end shape is seen held in the hand of a woman on a
+wall painting at El Bersheh--see Fig. 11, top right-hand corner. We
+have in another illustration, Fig. 7, an article which appears to be a
+spool, which I think confirms the view that E is not the shuttle but
+the beater-in. In all the illustrations, too, the pose of the hands of
+the women bearing on this stick is indicative of a downward pressure
+and not of a grasp.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Tomb of the Vizier Daga. Date about end XI.
+Dynasty, B.C. 2000. Mr. N. de G. Davies' _Five Theban Tombs_, Plate
+XXXVII.
+
+The upper illustration indicates a woman warping or beaming, probably
+warping.
+
+In the lower illustration note the left hand figure holding the spool
+in her hand. At first sight this small black line looks like a
+continuation of the "beater-in" in the hands of the other weaver, but
+Mr. Davies informs me that it is quite a distinct article, and that
+there can be no doubt about it. Just above the breast beam there are 8
+or 9 threads of weft but they are too faint to be included.]
+
+The selvedge F on the one side of the cloth and not on both sides is
+also interesting from the fact that selvedges do not appear on the
+Egyptian cloths until the XVIII. Dynasty _circa_ B.C. 1600.
+
+The breast beam:--It appears to me that the three portions marked G1,
+G2 and G3 joined up are intended to represent the breast beam and its
+holding pegs, similar to the warp beam A and its pegs B1, B2, but the
+portion K is not clearly drawn in any of the reproductions. Wilkinson
+omits this altogether, but in its place has two black pieces which
+also are still less clear. Lepsius has omitted G2 altogether and
+appears to have made G1 and K and G3 into treadles, by raising G1
+above the level of G3, and to support the view that these are
+treadles, he makes use of the overseer's foot by placing it on the
+supposed treadle, and the casual observer thinks it is the foot of the
+woman weaver. However, Mr. Davies' copy seems to offer a solution. He
+agrees with Cailliaud and Rosellini in so far as G1, G2 and G3 are
+concerned. With him K takes quite a different form, in fact it looks
+very similar to an article which an attendant woman in another panel
+has close by her, see Fig. 8. It might perhaps be a rest to prevent
+the beater-in being driven home too forcibly--this, however, is still
+only a surmise--as the length of the beater-in makes it heavy at the
+far end.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Weaver with the support K, Fig. 6; the woman
+appears to hold a beater-in in the right hand and a ball of thread in
+the left hand. Rosellini.]
+
+In Cailliaud the warp threads are coloured in pale blue and red on top
+of the black lines of the drawing; he has painted the selvedge and
+finished cloth a pale blue, as well as that portion of G2 which is
+covered by the cloth indicating that this is the breast beam, G3 and
+G1 are painted a dark red. Rosellini colours A, B1, B2, D1, D2, G3
+orange; G1 and K dark red, but E from end to end light ochre. This
+shows that K is distinct from E.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.
+
+Upright or Vertical Looms from the Tomb of Thot-nefer at Thebes, XVIII
+Dynasty, _circa_ B.C. 1425. From a drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies. Size
+of original: Height from Base Line to top of frame at A, 11-1/2" = 29
+cm.]
+
+In consequence of this loom being represented as upright it is often
+spoken of as an upright or vertical loom. But it is drawn upright
+because the Egyptian artist did not understand perspective, and it was
+only by making the loom upright that he was enabled to show the
+details we have just been examining. For the same reason mat making is
+illustrated edgeways. If the loom were an upright one the two women
+weavers would have had their backs turned towards the onlooker as can
+be seen in Fig. 9. Any doubt on the matter has however been set aside
+by Prof. John Garstang's extremely interesting discovery of a wooden
+model depicting a group of women spinning and weaving which he
+illustrates in his work, _The Burial Customs of Ancient Egypt_,
+London, 1907. After referring to the woman spinning, he continues:
+"The other seated figures apparently represent women at work upon a
+horizontal loom; the frame and the woof [_sic_, should be _warp_]
+threads are faintly represented upon the board. It is possible that
+they are making mats or, perhaps, weaving (p. 132)." He gives an
+illustration of the group taken from a photograph, but as it does not
+show the lines which indicate the loom lying horizontally on the
+ground nor the warp threads, I have asked him to let me have a drawing
+made of it and, with his kind permission, it is now reproduced here,
+Fig. 10. The threads of the warp and the finished piece of cloth at
+the breast beam end are clearly indicated. The whole model supports
+conclusively the well founded supposition that the loom we have been
+considering is a _horizontal_ one. Curiously enough, Prof. Garstang
+does not appear to appreciate the important bearing of his discovery,
+for on a later page (p. 134) in speaking of Lepsius' illustration,
+discussed above, he says: "the weavers are seen at work at an upright
+loom."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Horizontal Loom. Outline sketch by Miss Davey
+of the original model of a group of one woman spinning and two women
+weaving, found by Dr. John Garstang at Beni Hasan. The model is in the
+Museum of the Liverpool Institute of Arch�ology.]
+
+It must not be thought that the Beni Hasan representation is the only
+one which illustrates a horizontal loom. A second one is reproduced by
+Prof. Percy Newberry from the tomb of Tehuti-hetep _circa_ 1938-1849
+B.C., see Fig. 11. In the upper portion the women are seen spinning
+and preparing the thread generally, while in the lower portion two
+women on the left are warping, and in the centre three apparently are
+"beaming," _i.e._ putting the warp on to the beams preparatory to
+commencing to weave, the warp threads being apparently drawn over pegs
+to ensure the proper tension. This illustration shows the warp flat
+against the wall like the mat making shown at Beni Hasan.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Tomb of Tehuti-hetep. Date about 1939-1849
+B.C. From Professor Percy Newberry's _El Bersheh_ I. Pl. 26.
+
+Note the woman on the top right hand corner holding a "beater-in."]
+
+A third representation of a horizontal loom is reproduced from the
+forthcoming volume of the Egypt Exploration Fund by kind permission of
+Mr. N. de G. Davies, who made the copy. In this, Fig. 7, already
+referred to, the lower portion is all that has come down to us. The
+cloth is not shown contracted as in the Beni Hasan representation, the
+two laze rods are drawn close to each other and here also an attempt
+appears to have been made to show the over and under lapping warp
+threads; the laze rods appear each with a hook, the hook on the upper
+rod turned upwards and the hook (if it be one) on the lower rod turned
+downwards. It is possible these hooks may be pegs to prevent the
+shifting of the laze rods. It may be that one of the two rods is a
+heddle rod the indication being the fine double lines, but this may
+not be compatible with the hook at the end of the rod. The weaver on
+the left holds a spool in her hand, evidently a piece of stick with
+the weft thread wound round it, which she is pushing through with her
+fingers. The weaver on the right holds a beater-in as shown in the
+Beni Hasan drawing. The breast beam is held in position by two pegs
+near the right one of which there is a curved article of indeterminate
+use.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Study of a Bedawin Arab weaving, from a
+sketch taken in the Forties of last Century, by Frank Goodall, R.A.
+The original sketch is in Bankfield Museum. The weaver appears to be
+provided with one heddle and a beater-in.]
+
+There is no very clear evidence as to how the finished cloth was
+"taken up" unless we accept it that the bulging out of the part G2
+means that it was wound round the breast beam as is done on hand and
+power looms of the present day. Some very long pieces of cloth have
+come down to us and unless they were "taken up" in this way a long
+stretch of ground would have been necessary. A modified form of this
+horizontal loom has been met with in recent years among the Bedawin
+Arabs, as shown in the illustration of a study sketch, Fig. 12, made
+by Frank Goodall, R.A., in the forties of last century. The loom was
+provided with pegs like the old Egyptian loom but it was supplied with
+a primitive heddle resting on a stone at each side of the warp and it
+would appear that the weaver, to a certain extent, did not take up the
+woven cloth by winding it round the breast beam and by that means
+retaining his position, but, as the weaving progressed and the line of
+finished cloth got beyond his reach, he crept up to it and so got
+farther and farther away from the breast beam until in the end he
+arrived at the warp beam. Similar looms are still used for mat making
+by the Egyptian fellah.
+
+
+VERTICAL LOOMS.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Upright or vertical loom. Wilkinson's
+_Ancient Egyptians_, London, John Murray. 1st ed., Vol. III., p. 135.]
+
+Apart from the horizontal loom Wilkinson and Robert Hay[C] also
+recorded the existence of an illustration of an upright loom, said in
+error to be at Eileithyias (El Kab). Wilkinson's copy, Fig. 13, is
+more elaborate than that of Hay. Mr. Davies informs me that the
+original is not at Eileithyias, but in the tomb of Nefer-hotep at
+Thebes. Wilkinson in regard to this illustration quotes the
+oft-repeated statement of Herodotus (_circa_ 460-455 B.C.) in
+reference to looms in general:--"Other nations make cloth by pushing
+the woof upwards, the Egyptians on the contrary, press it down." On
+this statement Wilkinson remarks: "This is confirmed by the paintings
+which represent the process of making cloth; but at Thebes, a man who
+is engaged in making a piece of cloth with a coloured border or
+selvedge, appears to push the woof upwards, the cloth being fixed
+above him, to the upper part of the frame" [Fig. 13]. But I am unable
+to follow Wilkinson in this, for I can find no indication in his
+illustration which shows how the beating-in of the weft is
+accomplished. From the illustration all one can say is that it might
+have been done either way. Wilkinson's illustration is lettered from
+_a_ to _p_ but this lettering is not explained by him at all,
+excepting in the case of the letter _k_, of which he says: "_k_ is a
+shuttle, not thrown, but put in with the hand. It had a hook at the
+end ..." and he proceeds to refer to the drawing elsewhere of the
+horizontal loom. He does not show the hooks in his illustration. In
+Fig. 14, I give the sketch made by Mr. N. de G. Davies of the remains
+of the original from which Wilkinson made his illustration.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies, Jan. 1913, of
+an Upright Loom in Tomb 49 at Thebes, belonging to Nefer-hotep, at end
+of XVIII. Dynasty, B.C. 1330. Drawn when in a better state by
+Wilkinson, Fig. 13, and Hay.]
+
+A more satisfactory drawing of upright looms is that which Mr. N. de
+G. Davies has placed at my disposal for reproduction here. I append
+his description, Fig. 9. "The picture of men working at two looms is
+taken from the tomb of Thot-nefer at Thebes, who was a royal scribe
+in the middle of the 18th Dynasty, _circa_ 1425 B.C. In his tomb his
+house is shown. He himself sits in the hall, while inside some
+servants spin and weave, make bread, store the grain, etc. The roof of
+the chambers is supported on pillars, and between two of these the
+looms are set up which are here depicted. They are not attached
+however, either to the roof or the pillars. Faint sketching lines are
+mixed up with the darker reds in which the picture was re-drawn, and
+the whole very simply and carelessly executed. I have found it
+difficult to make it clear. In my sketch the first faint sketching
+outlines appear as lines. The more solid red lines which replaced
+these I have 'hatched,' and certain portions including the men's flesh
+colour, the stools, the discs I have put in solid black, partly
+because they are for the most part more solid and dark red in the
+original, and partly to distinguish the portions more clearly from one
+another. The horizontal lines which cross the web are very faintly
+drawn and almost as good as obliterated by the white paint which had
+been put on the web. I have put them in just to show that the bars
+were _conceived_ of as passing behind or under the web and concealed
+by it.
+
+"The larger loom is worked by two men, the smaller by one man only.
+The looms consist of an oblong frame A set up on two stones B. The
+warp is attached to the warp beam C on top and the breast beam D at
+the bottom. The threads of the warp are not shown, no difference being
+made between any woven part and the warp threads; to all is given one
+smear of white paint. Two discs E are seen hanging against the frame
+posts, one on each side, the earlier sketch showing a larger disc than
+the final drawing in dark red.
+
+"Two slender laze rods F are shown on the large loom and heavy bars G,
+H, lower down; a somewhat similar laze rod and beams are also shown on
+the smaller loom.
+
+"The weavers sit on benches with their backs to the spectator. The
+artist has not dared to draw a back view of their heads, but has
+turned each man's head to the right to show a profile. They are
+holding a heavy looking rod which looks like a 'beater-in.' One would
+expect to see a shuttle but perhaps this was too small an object for
+so rough a picture--perhaps the man at the smaller loom holds an
+exaggerated shuttle L in his right hand.
+
+"The lines M seen alongside the framework are the faint red sketch
+lines _not_ cords. The diagonal line N on the left I do not
+understand, it does not seem an accidental one.
+
+"On the left hand of the two looms the original shows a man spinning
+coarse thread into finer(?) using two spindles at once; the threads
+pass through rings fixed in the ceiling as in a picture at Beni Hasan.
+Behind him two girls are breaking up the flax and two others are
+making coarse threads of the fibres, almost exactly like those in the
+tomb of Daga (No. 103) a couple of hundred yards away."
+
+To this description of Mr. Davies I would like to add a word about
+the discs E. Wilkinson indicates these as rings apparently joining the
+horizontal beam to the post of the frame, the form of the ring being
+arrived at as explained by Mr. Davies by the original outline of the
+sketch having been made larger than the final drawing of the circle,
+or disc, and not obliterated. In Mr. Davies' drawing these discs hang
+on or are fixed on to the uprights only, and I am inclined to think
+they represent balls of weft thread hanging up in the same way as we
+see whole rows of coloured balls hanging on the looms of Persian
+rugmakers, and as can be seen on an Indian rug loom in Bankfield
+Museum.
+
+It is also very clear that these Egyptian vertical looms are very
+different from the Greek looms in so far as we know anything about
+them. The Greek looms had an upper beam only and the warp threads were
+bunched at the lower end and weighted with metal or clay balls to keep
+them taut, Fig. 15. The _individual_ warp threads were not weighted;
+they were bunched and then weighted. The pyramidal shaped clay warp
+weights found in Egypt are I understand considered by Egyptologists to
+belong to the Roman period, but in the Manchester University Museum
+there is a mud article which Miss M. A. Murray describes as a warp
+weight, Fig. 17, so that it is possible vertical looms with warp
+weights may yet be forthcoming as an Egyptian and not a foreign
+industrial tool. But Dr. H. R. Hall informs me this weight was
+probably found in the ruins of houses where �gean pottery was found
+and hence it is probably a temporary warp weight of those people and
+not an Egyptian article.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Greek loom with spool and warp weights.
+Illustration on a skyphos (van Branteghem vase in the Ashmolean
+Museum, Oxford). From H. B. Walters' paper on _Odysseus & Kirke_ on a
+Boeotian vase, Jour. Hellenic Studies, 1892-3 XIII. p. 81.]
+
+Since writing the above Mr. N. de G. Davies has very kindly sent me on
+a new set of illustrations, Fig. 16, of which he says; "My attention
+was called to the scene by Dr. Alan Gardiner. The scenes which
+represent the preparation of the flax and the stretching of the warp
+are almost replicas of those in the tomb of Daga of the Middle
+Kingdom, so far as we can judge, while the pictures of the looms
+resemble closely those in the tombs of Thot-nefer and Nefer-hotep. The
+work is done by both men and women. Men prepare the flax while women
+stretch the warp. Men mostly work the loom, either singly or with a
+companion. But in one case a woman is seen at work at one of the
+upright looms. She is shewn sitting sideways on the low bench and is
+not pictured in a back view with widely spread legs like the men.
+Unfortunately the work is so slovenly and so much injured that few
+exact outlines can be secured, and hence all detail is insecure.
+There are also superfluous lines in red colour which confuse the
+picture. The tomb is Ramesside in date (_circa_ 1200 B.C.) The
+inscription over the seated man is too broken to be read."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16a.--Weavers at work as represented in the Tomb
+of Nefer-ronpet, Superintendent of Weavers at Thebes. Date about 1200
+B.C. From a drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16b.--Weavers at work as represented in the Tomb
+of Nefer-ronpet, Superintendent of Weavers at Thebes. Date about 1200
+B.C. From a drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies.]
+
+The drawings appear to confirm generally what we have gathered from
+Mr. Davies' previous illustration, Fig. 9.
+
+
+PORTIONS OF LOOMS WHICH HAVE COME DOWN TO US.
+
+In so far as I know, not many loom parts have yet been discovered, and
+those which I have had an opportunity of studying do not assist us to
+much knowledge beyond that which we have gained by a study of the wall
+paintings. We have the article from Kahun already mentioned, which may
+possibly be a warp weight, as it somewhat resembles the later warp
+weights found elsewhere. It is of hardened mud with a perforation at
+the thin end through which a piece of string has been passed and
+knotted (Fig. 17), but so far no illustration of a loom with weights
+has been found, either for the period to which this article belongs or
+to any other period. On the other hand the material is not suitable
+for a net-sinker, nor is it intended to be made to stand up. As
+mentioned above it is probably �gean.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Piece of perforated hardened mud. Possibly a
+warp weight, 10 cm. � 8�7 � 4�2 (3-15/16 in. � 2-7/16 in. � 1-5/8 in.)
+Weight 470 gramms (1 lb. 1/2 oz.) Probably of �gean origin. _Kahun._
+Manchester Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Burnt-clay warp weight. Height 11�4 cm. (4-1/4
+in.) Weight 260 gramms (9-1/4 oz.) Probably Roman. Bankfield Museum.
+(Received from Prof. Flinders Petrie).]
+
+Another form of warp weight, of burnt clay, is somewhat frequently met
+with, Fig. 18, but it is described as appertaining to Roman times, and
+may therefore be either a Greek or Roman article. Similar weights from
+Cyprus and North Africa, &c., can be seen in the British Museum.
+
+Wooden pegs have been found at Gurob, which may possibly have been
+used for holding the warp and breast beams in position, Fig. 19. These
+pegs may appear to be rather short for the purpose, but in very
+primitive looms the warp is not kept so taut as might and should be,
+and hence there is not the same heavy strain on the pegs as we should
+deem necessary. The way to settle their use would be to fix them in
+solid ground and test them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Wooden Peg, possibly used for holding the
+warp and breast beams. Length 13�5 to 10�2 cm. (5-13/16 in. to 4 in.)
+_Gurob_ XVIII.-XIX. Dyn. (about 1580-1205 B.C.) Manchester Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Long straight lath with notches at each end,
+probably a laze rod. Length 1 m. 24 (4 ft. 13/16 in.) Breadth 5�2 cm. (2
+in.) Thickness 2�2 cm. (7/8 in.) _Kahun._ Manchester Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: 1/2 size section of Fig. 20.]
+
+[Illustration: 1/2 size section of Fig. 21.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Long curved lath. Probably a "beater-in."
+Length 1 m. 20 (3 ft. 11-1/4 in.) Breadth 6�5 cm. (1-11/32 in.).
+Thickness 1 cm. (3/8 in.) _Kahun._ XII. Dynasty about 2000-1788 B.C.
+Manchester Museum.]
+
+At Kahun a long straight lath, Fig. 20, was found which is probably a
+laze rod, the notches being apparently for a nooze to slip into and so
+prevent the rod working towards the weaver which it has a tendency to
+do.
+
+Another long but curved lath, Fig. 21, also found at Kahun is probably
+a beater-in.
+
+Most large Egyptian collections contain one or more specimens of
+wooden combs, which are generally called weavers combs, and ascribed
+to Roman times. But one at least, Fig. 22, has been found with XVIIIth
+to XIXth Dynasty articles at Gurob, that is belonging to the period
+1580-1150 B.C., which is long before Rome existed. None of these
+so-called combs, for they are really embryo reeds, are shown on the
+wall illustrations so that they no doubt belong to a later date than
+that of the XIIth Dynasty. If, as I take it, these "combs" are the
+forerunners of the reed and were used to drive the weft threads home,
+and if also the Romans had upright looms provided with warp weights
+instead of the breast beam, then I think the "comb" may not be Roman
+but may be a late Egyptian invention. For, on trying to use such a
+comb on a _replica_ of a Scandinavian upright loom provided with warp
+weights (instead of with the breast beam) I can get no good result, in
+fact rather the opposite, but tried on a primitive horizontal loom
+provided with a breast beam the comb is found to be of some
+assistance, especially if the warp is not very taut as is generally
+the case with primitive looms. At Bankfield we have an Indian rug
+loom, already referred to, with warp and breast beam on which a
+somewhat similar instrument, but of iron, was used.[D]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Weaver's Comb--a Beater-in. 19�5 cm. � 9�8 �
+4�2 (7-3/4 in. � 3-7/8 in. � 1-5/8 in.) _Gurob._ Manchester Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Possibly a warp spacer, somewhat similar in
+object to the raddle of modern hand loom weaving. Height 2�8 cm. Width
+2�5 cm. (1-1/8 in. � 1 in.) The slots are 6 mm. (1/4 in.) apart, 3 mm.
+(1/16 in.) wide, and about 10 mm. (3/8 in.) deep. From _Gurob_ but
+probably Roman. Bankfield Museum. (Received from Prof. Flinders
+Petrie).]
+
+An article which Prof. Flinders Petrie describes as a "warp spacer" is
+shown in Fig. 23. From fragments in the Egyptian Collection,
+University College, London, it would appear to have been originally
+more than a meter (three feet) long. It may have been used as a sort
+of a "raddle," a tool used for assisting to keep the warp threads in
+position when being beamed, _i.e._ put on to the loom. At Bankfield we
+have an old local hand loom the warp beam of which is provided with a
+series of holes in which pegs were once inserted to keep the coloured
+warp threads in position.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.
+
+1/2 size of end of Fig. 24.
+
+1/2 size section of Fig. 24.
+
+A long piece of perforated wood described by Prof. Flinders Petrie,
+_Kahun_, p. 29, as a Weaver's Beam for making rush mats. Length 96�8
+cm. � 8�0 � 3�0 (3 ft. 1-1/4 in. � 3-1/4 in. � 1-3/16 in.) From
+Manchester Museum.]
+
+A piece of frame, Fig. 24, has been described as a "weaver's beam" for
+making rush mats like the modern _hasira_. It is provided with 28
+holes which are arranged about 27 to 40 mm. apart. The holes may have
+been more or less circular originally, and worn into present shape by
+threads, etc., and look more irregular inside than they really are, as
+the inside surface of the holes is fairly smooth; the holes are
+slightly larger, on an average about 4 mm., on the face shown than on
+the other face. Prof. Flinders Petrie seems to think it resembles the
+frame on which the modern Egyptian mat is made.
+
+We now come to the two reeds in the Museum of the Liverpool Institute
+of Arch�ology, which Dr. John Garstang discovered near Abu Kirkas,
+tomb No. 693, of which he tells us: "They are 27 and 29 inches (68�6
+and 73�7 cm.) in length respectively, and are precisely similar in
+general form. They are constructed on a system of nineteen or twenty
+reeds to the inch, and they may be seen to be exactly similar to the
+modern reed taken from a loom in the village of Abu Kirkas. It is not
+possible, unfortunately, to assign a precise date to these objects.
+They were found in a tomb which contained no other remains; this tomb
+was surrounded by others, all of them likewise very much disturbed,
+but equally characteristic of the general nature of the Middle Empire
+tombs, and containing nothing but Middle Empire objects. Since, in
+general, few tombs of this site show signs of intrusive burial of a
+later age, there is no reason to suppose that these objects are of any
+date later than the XII. Dynasty (_The Burial Customs of Ancient
+Egypt_, London, 1907, pp. 134-136)."
+
+The horizontal looms we have been describing belong to this period,
+and the artists have not shown any reeds with them. My studies of
+primitive looms lead me to think that these Egyptian looms are of a
+date far anterior to the invention or the application of a reed. It
+has also, I believe, been remarked by those who have examined cloths
+of this date, that the irregular array of the warp threads is good
+proof that reeds could not have been in use. I have already pointed
+out that in the evolution of the loom the reed puts in a late
+appearance, but apart from this fact, I do not think the artist would
+have omitted such an important tool had it been in use in his time.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Reed in Cairo Museum. Length 66 cm. (26 in.)
+It consists of two wooden frames fitted with flat iron wires. String
+is wound round the frames binding them together. Then a kind of
+canvas(?) cover in placed over the frames to cover up the projecting
+ends of the wires, but this has disappeared in places.]
+
+Dr. Garstang points out that although the surrounding tombs contained
+Middle Empire objects, the reeds were found in a tomb _without_ any
+other remains. This can hardly be considered evidence tending to prove
+that they belonged to the period named, and it is certainly weakened
+by the accompanying statement that the reeds are _exactly_ similar to
+the modern reed, for that is almost sufficient to prove that they are
+_not_ 3900-3700 years old. To me they seem comparatively modern and
+very similar to one in the Cairo Museum which MM. Brugsch and Quibell
+are inclined to think is Coptic with this difference, that in Dr.
+Garstang's reeds the divisions appear to be of cane or wood, while in
+the Cairo reed they are of iron (?steel). The sketch of this Coptic
+reed, Fig. 25, has been drawn specially for me, and Miss W. M.
+Crompton, Assistant Keeper in Egyptology in the Manchester University
+Museum, has kindly examined the sketch with the article and pronounced
+it correct. We may, I think, safely conclude that the reed found by
+Dr. Garstang is Coptic and not Ancient Egyptian.
+
+As regards the actual work of weaving, balls of thread have been found
+and so have very flat bobbins and pieces of stick with thread wound
+round which may have been spools as indicated in the drawing, Fig. 7.
+There is no reason why balls of thread should not have been used as
+they are in uncivilised countries at the present day, as, for
+instance, in Tibet, as reported by W. W. Rockhill in _Diary of a
+Journey through Mongolia and Thibet_, Washington, 1894, p. 41.
+
+
+"DIAGONAL WEAVING."
+
+I am unable to agree with a recently made statement published in _The
+Labyrinth, Gerzeh and Marghuneh_, by Prof. Flinders Petrie, E. A.
+Wainwright and E. Mackey, p. 6, which runs: "The fact of the weft not
+being at right angles to the warp, if one may conclude by the fabrics,
+does not, I think, imply that such weaving is of inferior quality.
+When I noticed the peculiarity first, I thought it might have arisen
+through distortion by stretching over the body, but repeated examples
+of the same fact have led me to consider other causes. We know how
+closely analogous to 'darning' was the early weaving; and in our days
+it is not unusual to find stockings not darned at right angles, and it
+may be the women weavers of old sometimes put in the weft more or less
+out of true right angle. In the childhood of weaving we should expect
+different methods, and it may be, seeing that we have no selvedged
+cloth until very long after this time, that they experimented with a
+diagonal weft to see if it would not reduce the tendency to fray out
+at the sides." The amount the warp and weft are out of the right angle
+is stated to be about 20�. The specimen shown me under the microscope
+indicated clearly that the warp and weft were not at right angles and
+that the interstices were not square but diamond shaped.
+
+It is possible to arrange the warp threads diagonally from beam to
+beam, but with continuous weft (that is in weaving so as to get
+selvedges) the weft has the tendency to slip up on one side and down
+on the other, hence the weaving is made laborious. With a separate
+weft for each pick, _i.e._, for every once the shed is opened, there
+is naturally not this tendency, but this alleged diagonally woven
+cloth frays just as easily as any other piece of cloth without
+selvedge, so in either case there is not only no advantage but
+distinct disadvantage taking the diagonal "beaming" into
+consideration. We must give the Egyptians credit for using the least
+laborious of two methods, that is _if_ the second one were known to
+them.
+
+Apparent diagonal weaving can be produced by anyone taking an ordinary
+piece of linen or cotton cloth, cutting off the selvedge and
+stretching the cloth in a direction diagonally to the direction of the
+warp and weft, and a piece of diagonally woven cloth is the result!
+
+The probability is that the specimen of cloth, without a selvedge,
+having been stretched over the body for a long period of time, has, in
+the course of that time lost its nature and when removed it has
+retained its altered form and gives us the impression of having been
+woven diagonally.
+
+
+"THE LINEN GIRDLE OF RAMESES III."
+
+In the foregoing I have shown how extremely simple was the whole
+apparatus for weaving in use by the Ancient Egyptians, and one is
+rather surprised to be told that about B.C. 1200, in the time of
+Rameses III., the Egyptians "built and used looms very much more
+complicated than has hitherto been believed to be the case," or to be
+referred to "the really complicated form of loom used." Yet this is
+what Mr. Thorold D. Lee tells us (pp. 84 and 86) in his paper on _The
+Linen Girdle of Rameses III._ (_Ann. of Arch�ology and Anthropology of
+the Liverpool Institute of Arch�ology_, July, 1912, V.)
+
+The characteristics of this girdle are its great length, 17 feet (5 m.
+2), its even taper diminishing from 5 in. (12�7 cm.) in width to 1-7/8
+in. (4�8 cm.) in width, its elaborate design and excellent
+workmanship. Perhaps the chief of these characteristics is the taper.
+It is most probable, as Mr. Lee points out, that in the weaving the
+warp threads have been gradually dropped out to make the taper, rather
+than that additional warp threads have been added. As it is easy to
+drop a warp thread, and almost impossible to add one while weaving is
+in progress, Mr. Lee's view is confirmed by this. It would also be
+almost impossible to keep the warp taut if the number of warp threads
+were increased as the work went on. This means that the girdle was
+commenced at the wide end and finished at the narrow end.
+
+It is common knowledge that when a warp thread drops out, its place is
+indicated by a thinness or fine opening for the whole length of the
+missing warp, and this is so because the reed, besides pushing the
+weft into position, also acts as a warp spacer, that is to say it
+keeps the warp threads properly apart, every one being properly
+aligned. When no reed is used the warp threads are not so evenly
+placed--they are not so parallel to one another for there is nothing
+but their tautness to keep them in position. Hence there is every
+reason to conclude that when, on a loom provided with a reed, warp
+threads have been removed their position must be indicated, and _vice
+versa_ if no reed has been used the position of the removed threads
+will not be so clearly indicated, but there will be a more marked
+shrinkage in the width of the cloth as well as in the pattern, and
+this is what has taken place in the girdle giving us the diminishing
+taper.
+
+[Illustration: "THE LINEN GIRDLE OF RAMESES III."
+
+_Reproduced by kind permission of Dr. Clubb, Director, The Museums,
+Liverpool._]
+
+If this diminishing taper were indicated by a decrease in the width of
+the pattern commencing at the selvedges, then it might be presumed
+that a reed had been used for the central portion only--a very clumsy
+even if feasible arrangement, but the pattern begins to decrease along
+the middle and hence no reed could have been used.
+
+It does not follow that because a loom was not provided with a reed it
+was without heddles. Anyone who will examine the large series of
+primitive looms at Bankfield Museum, will observe that heddles
+preceded reeds; this must necessarily be so as the making of the shed
+is the first step in weaving, while the reed's work is more that of a
+finisher. But the heddles are all extremely primitive, and in my
+experience do not exceed four in number where there is no reed. Such a
+quantity of heddles with its complicated harness as Mr. Lee considers
+necessary is quite out of the question with a loom so undeveloped as
+not to be provided with a reed. Hence the indication is that the
+girdle was woven on a loom of a primitive character.
+
+In carrying out the work the weaver has made many mistakes. On the
+left hand side of the right hand row of red crosses (they come out
+black in the photograph) there is an "end down" for a considerable
+distance--that is a thread has been missed.
+
+On the same row of crosses three white threads show above and below,
+while on the left hand row of crosses there are five white threads
+above and below. The crosses are neither the same size nor shape in
+the two columns and curiously their white hafts in both columns point
+to the left instead of one row pointing to the left and the other to
+the right. Then again the white point at the right apex of the zigzag
+on the left corresponds to a red point at the left apex of the right
+hand zigzag, but if the girdle had been woven on an advanced loom with
+dobby and harness these points would have been red in both places.
+
+As regards the large number of warp threads to the inch which Mr. Lee
+puts down as 272-340 (107-134 per cm.), this does not by any means
+indicate a complicated piece of machinery for the weaving of this belt
+or any other fabric. The greater the number of threads to the inch the
+finer must the threads be in order to get them into the allotted
+space, and in the weaving there will be so many more threads to raise
+and lower in order to make the shed opening. It means multiplying the
+work but does not necessarily mean that a more complicated loom must
+be used in the weaving.
+
+It is not possible without opening the fabric to be quite positive on
+the many points which are raised, but there seems nothing about it
+which should prevent its having been made on a simple loom. Although
+superior to most, but not all, of the well known Coptic cloths in
+Bankfield and in many other museums, it very closely resembles some of
+them in many respects excepting in the taper.
+
+I should add that in making my examination of this girdle I was kindly
+assisted by Mr. C. A. Trigg, a well known Halifax mill manager and
+designer. We made the examination independently and on comparing notes
+afterwards found that we agreed in all essential points.
+
+
+AN EXAMINATION OF FIFTEEN SPECIMENS OF MUMMY WRAPPINGS.
+
+By W. W. MIDGLEY, Curator, retired, The Museums, Bolton.
+
+"So far back as 1834, Mummy cloths occupied the attention of James
+Thompson, F.R.S., who, after researches into their characteristics and
+structure wrote a paper on the subject, which appears in the London
+and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, Vol. V., page 355. From that
+time until quite recently, little additional knowledge on the subject
+has appeared. In the early part of 1910, Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie,
+F.R.S., expressed a desire that the writer should undertake
+microscopic investigation of the body-wrappings of cloths of the III.
+and early IV. Dynasties (_circa_ 2980-2750 B.C.) which he had brought
+home from excavations made at a cemetery near Meydum, Upper Egypt. The
+report upon them forms part of the "_Historical Studies_," Vol. II.,
+of the _British School of Arch�ology in Egypt_.
+
+When Mr. Ling Roth suggested that some of the examples of Egyptian
+Mummy cloths in Bankfield Museum should be examined on similar lines,
+describing the construction of the fabrics and yarns, together with
+the characteristics of the fibres used, I undertook to carry out the
+work and forward to him the results for permanent reference.
+
+Each of the fifteen cloths submitted was first examined by mounting
+about 3/4" � 5/8" (20 mm. � 16 mm.) of the cloth on 3" � 1" (76 mm. �
+25 mm.) glass slips, and covering with thin glass, so as to find out
+its plan of composition and the number of warp and weft threads per
+linear inch. Afterwards, a little of the warp threads as well as of
+the weft, was untwisted and the fibres separated, and these mounted
+apart on another 3" � 1" slip (76 � 25 mm.), so that the kind of
+textile fibre used and the diameter of the fibres could be measured.
+These microscopical preparations will be kept in Bankfield Museum, as
+they may be of interest to microscopists in the locality.
+
+The cloths are from three sources:--Nos. 1 and 2 being from the
+private collection of Dr. Wallis-Budge, who has given the specimens to
+Bankfield Museum; Nos. 3 to 8 are from the old Meyer collection in the
+Liverpool Museum (unfortunately the origin of them is unknown); and
+those marked 9 to 15 were taken from a mummy of the XXVI. Dynasty,
+brought to this country by Lord Denbigh, and now also in the Liverpool
+Museum.
+
+A.--Specimens of Mummy cloths from Theban Tombs date about B.C. 1400,
+presented by Dr. Wallis-Budge.
+
+    1. A plain "one-up-and-one-down" linen cloth. The yarns
+    in this example are more irregular in diameter than
+    usual--the warp strands varying from 1/25"th to 1/71"st
+    (1 mm. to �2/8 mm.) The warp has about half its strands
+    doubled (that is twined together), whereas the weft has
+    only about one in twenty doubled. See Fig. 26.
+
+    2. This is a coarser fabric, has been dyed with
+    saffron, and is somewhat brittle to tease out the
+    fibres. Both these cloths had evidently absorbed some of
+    the gums or balsams used in the process of embalming,
+    and hence the difficulty of separating the fibres for
+    identification is increased. The structure of the fabric
+    is peculiar, and, indeed, the only instance I have seen
+    in Egyptian cloths. A portion, near the middle of the
+    piece sent, has the warp strands in pairs parallel to
+    each other, a few of them being double yarns, while all
+    the remainder are doubled. Of the weft, nearly half are
+    double yarns. See Fig. 27.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Magnified 10 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Magnified 10 diameters, showing the warp yarn
+in pairs.]
+
+B.--Specimens from the Meyer Collection, marked No. 11088. (Date of
+acquisition about 1856; date and place of origin unknown).
+
+    3. This is a beautifully soft, fine _Wool_ fabric,
+    containing no size or balsam. From the fineness of the
+    yarn and of the individual fibres I have no doubt that
+    the wool has been imported from India, or, more likely,
+    that the cloth was made in Cashmere. The texture is a
+    plain weave, has a selvedge edge, the warp yarns are
+    doubled, while the weft is single yarn. It is much to be
+    regretted that the particulars of locality, of burial,
+    and the period of time to which this interesting fabric
+    belongs has been lost. I assume from the general
+    characteristics that it is of a late period--probably
+    not earlier than the Ptolemaic.
+
+    4. This linen cloth has a plain selvedge, regular weave,
+    and contains no size. About 25% of both warp and weft
+    yarns are doubled, and all are very even in diameter.
+
+    5. A coarse linen cloth with plain selvedge. All the
+    yarns are single and even in diameter.
+
+    6. This is a coarse, highly-sized linen cloth. The yarns
+    are agglutinated, are brittle, and it is difficult to
+    separate the fibres. The sample submitted has been cut
+    from the end of the piece and shows the warp ends.
+
+    7. A coarse linen cloth, sized and brittle. No selvedge
+    on the piece sent. Both warp and weft yarns are single,
+    and even in diameter.
+
+    8. This is a very coarse linen fabric heavily sized and
+    brittle. Both warp and weft yarns are single and very
+    irregular in diameter.
+
+C.--Lord Denbigh's: XXVI. Dynasty.
+
+    9. A soft-spun linen cloth containing no size. Specimen
+    has been cut from the body of the fabric, showing no
+    selvedge. About half of the warp is composed of doubled
+    yarns of irregular diameter; the weft is of doubled
+    yarns and more regular in diameter.
+
+    10. The selvedge of this linen fabric is peculiar and
+    somewhat elaborate. The outer margin is composed of four
+    sets of ten yarns parallel to each other, forming one
+    strand of warp; then comes a space of 1-9/10" (48 mm.)
+    where the warp yarns are dyed red; then occurs three
+    more sets of ten parallel yarns (the object being to
+    strengthen the selvedge), followed by the general body
+    of the fabric. The entire selvedge is 2-1/4" (57 mm.)
+    wide. About half the warp yarns are doubled, while all
+    the weft are composed of doubled yarns, both being
+    fairly even in diameter, and not sized.
+
+    11. A fine, soft, linen cloth, with selvedge 1-1/8" (29
+    mm.) wide; the three outer and the two inner strands of
+    the warp are made up of many parallel yarns, as in No.
+    10, with an interspace of 3/8" (10 mm.) All the warp
+    yarns are dyed red, about 25% of them being doubled; the
+    weft is peculiar in having five or six strands of single
+    yarns alternating with six or seven double yarns, giving
+    a faint stripe in the fabric.
+
+    12. A linen cloth, with no selvedge edge. It has been
+    dyed red, probably _ferum_, a dye which I find uniformly
+    associated with friable or decomposing fibres.
+
+    13. A peculiarly coloured fine linen cloth; the pattern
+    is caused by some of the warp yarns being dyed, and
+    occurring sometimes of four, two, or one red strands,
+    with grey ones intermixed. A few of the warp yarns are
+    doubled. The weft is composed of single yarns and are
+    all in the grey.
+
+    14. A coarse soft-woven linen fabric, containing no
+    size. Lines are indicated at irregular distances along
+    the cloth, varying from 5/16" to 9/16" (8 to 14 mm.);
+    these are caused by the introduction of three strands of
+    doubled yarn in the warp while the remainder are single
+    yarns. The weft is all of doubled yarns; both warp and
+    weft are very regular in diameter.
+
+    15. This is a variegated linen fabric with warps
+    coloured something like No. 13, but the red strands of
+    warp are more irregular in distribution. Like it, a few
+    of the warp yarns are doubled, both the red and the
+    grey; while the weft is all of single yarns and in the
+    grey."
+
+[A considerable quantity of specimens of the cloths which were woven
+by the Ancient Egyptians has been examined both in this country and
+abroad. I may, however, call special attention to the results of
+examination published in Miss M. A. Murray's excellent little work
+_The Tomb of Two Brothers_, Manchester Museum Publications, No. 68,
+1910.--H.L.R.]
+
+
+DETAILS OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE BODY WRAPPINGS.
+
+ --------+-------+-----+-----++-----------------------------------------
+ Specimen|Nature |Warp |Weft ||   Micro Measurements of Ten Fibres.
+    No.  |  of   |Ends |Picks|+-------------+-------------+-------------
+         |Textile|per  |per  ||    Weft.    |    Warp.    |  Mean of.
+         | Fibre.|inch.|inch.|+======+======+======+======+======+======
+         |       |     |     || Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | Weft.| Warp.
+ ========+=======+=====+=====++======+======+======+======+======+======
+         |       |     |     ||  in. |  in. |  in. |  in. |  in. |  in.
+ A.   { 1| Linen |  44 | 32  ||1/1400|1/3333|1/1424|1/3330|1/1768|1/1786
+      { 2|   "   |  10 | 17  ||1/1786|1/3330|1/1780|1/2860|1/2020|1/1905
+         |       |     |     ||      |      |      |      |      |
+      { 3| Wool  | 224 | 40  ||1/833 |1/2500|1/833 |1/2000|1/1351|1/1429
+      { 4| Linen |  64 | 32  ||1/1429|1/2500|1/1250|1/5000|1/1818|1/1754
+      { 5|   "   |  56 | 20  ||1/1250|1/3333|1/1250|1/2500|1/1754|1/1724
+ B.   { 6|   "   |  48 | 24  ||1/1250|1/2500|1/1000|1/2500|1/1640|1/1594
+      { 7|   "   |  48 | 20  ||1/1111|1/2500|1/1000|1/2500|1/1408|1/1428
+      { 8|   "   |  36 | 16  ||1/833 |1/3333|1/1111|1/2500|1/1456|1/1613
+         |       |     |     ||      |      |      |      |      |
+      { 9|   "   |  48 | 24  ||1/1666|1/3333|1/1666|1/3333|1/2222|1/1860
+      {10|   "   |  32 | 60  ||1/833 |1/3333|1/908 |1/3333|1/1724|1/1613
+      {11|   "   |  80 | 36  ||1/1429|1/3333|1/1000|1/3333|1/1887|1/1784
+ C.   {12|   "   |  96 | 40  ||1/1111|1/2500|1/1250|1/2500|1/1724|1/1695
+      {13|   "   |  80 | 36  ||1/1111|1/2500|1/1429|1/2500|1/1640|1/2040
+      {14|   "   |  56 | 24  ||1/909 |1/3333|1/1250|1/2500|1/1594|1/1695
+      {15|   "   |  64 | 36  ||1/1250|1/2000|1/1429|1/2500|1/1724|1/1818
+ --------+-------+-----+-----++------+------+------+------+------+------
+
+
+THE ABOVE CONVERTED INTO METRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
+
+ --------+-------+--------+--------++-----------------------------------
+         |       |        |        || Micro Measurements of Ten Fibres
+ Specimen|Nature | Warp   | Weft   ||          in Millimetres.
+    No.  |  of   | Ends   | Picks  |+-----------+-----------+-----------
+         |Textile| per    | per    ||   Weft.   |   Warp.   | Mean of
+         | Fibre.| Centim.| Centim.|+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====
+         |       |        |        ||Max. |Min. |Max. |Min. |Weft.|Warp.
+ ========+=======+========+========++=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====
+     1   | Linen |  17    |  12�6  ||�0181|�0076|�0178|�0076|�0144|�0142
+     2   |   "   |   4    |   6�7  ||�0142|�0076|�0143|�0089|�0126|�0133
+     3   | Wool  |  88    |  15�6  ||�0305|�0101|�0305|�0127|�0188|�0178
+     4   | Linen |  25    |  12�6  ||�0178|�0101|�0203|�0050|�0140|�0145
+     5   |   "   |  22    |   7�8  ||�0203|�0076|�0203|�0101|�0145|�0147
+     6   |   "   |  19    |   9�5  ||�0203|�0101|�0254|�0101|�0155|�0159
+     7   |   "   |  19    |   7�8  ||�0229|�0101|�0254|�0101|�0180|�0178
+     8   |   "   |  14�1  |   6�3  ||�0305|�0076|�0229|�0101|�0174|�0157
+     9   |   "   |  19    |   9�5  ||�0152|�0076|�0152|�0076|�0208|�0130
+    10   |   "   |  12�6  |  23�6  ||�0305|�0076|�0278|�0076|�0147|�0157
+    11   |   "   |  31�5  |  14�1  ||�0178|�0076|�0254|�0076|�0135|�0142
+    12   |   "   |  37�4  |  15�6  ||�0229|�0101|�0203|�0101|�0147|�0149
+    13   |   "   |  19    |  14�1  ||�0229|�0101|�0178|�0101|�0155|�0124
+    14   |   "   |  22    |   9�5  ||�0278|�0076|�0203|�0101|�0159|�0149
+    15   |   "   |  25    |  14�1  ||�0203|�0127|�0178|�0101|�0147|�0140
+ --------+-------+--------+--------++-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----
+
+It is very obvious they had no scale to work to.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[A] To the uninitiated I may explain that in a horizontal loom the
+plane of the warp is more or less parallel with that of the floor,
+while in an upright or vertical loom the plane of the warp is at right
+angles to that of the floor.
+
+[B] To avoid indistinctness through over reduction, I have endeavoured
+to keep all reproductions in this paper as large as possible, and
+think I have succeeded in not losing any detail in the necessary
+reduction.
+
+[C] Hay's drawings are not published but can be seen in the Brit.
+Mus., Add. MSS. No. 29823, Fol. 32.
+
+[D] Olafsson, to be referred to later on, remarks that while in Ovid's
+time the _spathe_ was used for beating-in the weft, in Seneca's time
+the weft was beaten in by a toothed instrument. In other words a
+weaver's comb--the embryo reed--had been introduced.
+
+
+
+
+II. THE GREEK LOOM.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.--A Bushongo weaver at work. From Torday and
+Joyce, _Notes Ethnographiques_, _Ann. du Congo_, p. 182.]
+
+We have now to say a few words about an upright loom which differs
+very materially from the Egyptian loom already described. Whether the
+horizontal loom is a later product than the vertical loom, or was
+evolved from it, or whether both were independent inventions cannot be
+discussed here, but I may point out that there is an intermediate form
+between the two. It is doubtful as to whether this is a transition
+form. It was first brought to my notice by Mr. T. A. Joyce, as in use
+amongst some negro peoples in Central Africa possessing an old, high
+and possibly introduced civilisation, and is figured in Messrs. Torday
+and Joyce's Notes _Ethnographiques ... Bakuba ... et Bushongo_
+(_Annales du Congo_) pp. 24 and 182. In this loom the warp is
+stretched between an upper beam and a lower beam at an angle of about
+90 degrees, and the weaver sits underneath at his work, Fig. 28. It is
+not at all uncommon to meet with illustrations showing the warp
+stretched at an incline, and apart from the fact that in many the
+weavers are posing for illustration, and therefore, are most probably
+not exactly in their natural positions, the tilted arrangement has
+this advantage, namely, that the work of beating-in is improved by
+the fall given to the "sword" which, with less exertion by the
+weaver, drives the weft home more effectively. In all these cases,
+however, the weaver sits or stands in front of the loom, but in the
+case of the Bushongo the loom is tilted to such an extent that the
+weaver finds it more convenient to sit underneath the warp.
+
+The discovery by Messrs. Alan Gardiner and N. de G. Davies of
+illustrations of Egyptian upright looms, confirms Wilkinson in his
+statement and illustration that the Egyptians had this class of loom
+as well as the horizontal one. The vertical loom is found in Europe,
+Asia, Africa and America, and is, probably, ethnically as old if not
+older than the horizontal loom.[E] But this Egyptian upright loom
+differs from another, the Greek, or Central European, or Scandinavian
+form of the upright loom, in having an upper and a lower beam so that
+the warp is made taut between two beams, while in the Greek loom there
+is only _one_ beam. The warp hangs from this beam, the warp threads
+being made taut by means of weights attached at the lower ends.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29a.--Illustration on a small lekythos of an
+Athenian girl at work on a tapestry loom, together with a full size
+tracing of the tapestry loom. British Museum. B.C. 500.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29b.--Illustration of a Greek woman with a
+tapestry loom. From Stackelberg's _Graeber der Hellenen_, pl. xxxiii.]
+
+The Greeks were, however, acquainted with the tapestry loom, for there
+exists in the British Museum a small lekythos with an illustration,
+Fig. 29a, of such an article resting on the knees of a lady weaver.[F]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Greek woman at work on a loom. From C. Robert
++Eph arch+ 1892, pl. xiii., p. 247. It is not possible to say from
+this illustration whether this is a warp weighted loom or not.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Penelope at her loom. Illustration on an
+Athenian skyphos found in an Etruscan tomb at Chiusi, and at present
+in the museum there. The illustration is taken from _Monumenti d.
+Inst. Archeologico_, IX., pl. xlii.]
+
+It has been described by Mr. H. B. Walters in _Jour. Hellenic
+Studies_, XXXI., 1911, p. 15, who says: "In front of her, Fig. 29a, is
+a white wool basket (_Kalathos_) and on her lap is a frame somewhat in
+the form of a lyre, being formed by two upright pieces with knobs at
+the top, diverging slightly towards the top, across between which are
+stretched two threads at the top and two at the bottom, seven vertical
+threads being also visible. Her hands are placed on the threads, which
+she is engaged in manipulating. This object can only be intended for a
+hand loom, though there is apparently no evidence for the use of such
+objects in ancient times or among Oriental races either in the past or
+the present day. The only other parallel to the representation on this
+vase is one published by Stackelberg, Fig. 29b, where a woman holds a
+similar frame and is similarly occupied with her hands. The writers of
+the articles _Sticken_ in Baumeister and _Phrygium Opus_ in Daremberg
+and Saglio, misled by the likeness of the object to the modern
+crewel-frame, interpret the process as embroidery. But this kind of
+work implies cloth or other textile substance already woven, on which
+patterns are worked in, whereas in both vase paintings the textile is
+obviously in course of construction." He is right in so far as he
+goes, but both representations are those of _tapestry_ looms which
+fact is indicated by the warp threads in both cases, and by the design
+marked on the warp threads of Fig. 29b--a method of preparing their
+work in use to this day by tapestry weavers. Some authorities consider
+that tapestry weaving is more closely related to mat making than to
+true weaving. In other words, I take it tapestry is an early stage in
+the development of weaving. From this we get some idea as to how far
+the Greeks had progressed in the textile arts.
+
+As pointed out by MM. Daremberg and Saglio, _Dic. des Antiquit�s
+Grecques et Romaines_ pt. 46, p. 164, "illustrations of Greek or Roman
+methods of weaving are very rare, they are much reduced and in so far
+as the art is concerned purely diagrammatic." On the other hand if
+there are numerous references in the texts of classic authors, these
+references seem rather to obscure than elucidate the method of
+working. However, there are three illustrations--the Penelope loom,
+Fig. 31, and two Boeotian looms, one of which is illustrated in Fig.
+15--quite sufficient to explain the principle of the upright loom as
+used with warp weights by the Greeks, and the discovery of numerous
+articles, considered to be the warp weights, confirm the illustration.
+
+The principle is the same throughout, viz.: the looms are vertical,
+there is a warp beam on top, there are two cross rods one of which is
+a laze rod and _possibly_ the other is a heddle; and the warp threads
+are all kept taut by means of attached weights. On one of the Boeotian
+looms a bobbin or spool is shown. Along the top of Penelope's loom
+there are indications of nine pegs, on six of which balls of coloured
+thread have been placed, evidently for working out the designs, very
+much the same as shown on the rug loom in Bankfield Museum already
+referred to. The warp weights on this Athenian illustration are
+triangular in shape, and perhaps resemble the pyramidic weights found
+in Egypt and attributed to Roman times. Assuming these pyramids are
+Roman warp weights it would appear that both Greeks and Romans had
+vertical looms on which the warp threads were kept taut by means of
+weights. In one of the few clearly expressed technical classical
+references, Seneca speaks of the warp threads stretched by hanging
+weights.
+
+In the above classical illustrations which are after all only rough
+diagrams, the warp weights appear to hang from a _single_ thread only,
+but this can not have been correct. The warp threads must have been
+bunched, because a single suspended thread with a tension weight
+immediately begins to unravel, and so loses the advantage of its
+having been spun, as any one can ascertain for oneself. As regards the
+same point on the Lake Dwellers looms, Cohausen was the first to
+surmise that the warp threads were bunched to receive the weight, and
+Messikommer proved it by practical experiment.[G]
+
+As can be surmised with this class of loom the weaving begins at the
+_top_, working _down_wards, and the beating-in of the weft is
+_up_wards--the exact opposite to the method adopted with other
+looms--for the pendant warp ends, although weighted to keep them taut,
+do not appear to have been further fixed in position, so that to
+commence weaving at the lower end made the operation so extremely
+difficult as to be almost impossible.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Illustration of a Scandinavian warp weighted
+loom in the Copenhagen Museum. The illustration is taken from
+Montelius' _Civilisation of Sweden in Heathen Times_, translated by
+the Rev. F. H. Woods, London, Macmillan & Co., 1888, p. 160.
+
+[In the illustration of this loom published by the Trustees of the
+British Museum, in their _Guide to the Antiquities of the Early Iron
+Age_, London, 1905, p. 139, the shape of the warp weights has been
+altered to suit the shape of such weights in the British Museum
+collections.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Icelandic Loom after Olafsson.
+
+_a a_ Beam on which the warp is fixed. _b b_ Weights to make the warp
+taut. _c c_ Brackets which support the beam and on which it can be
+revolved by means of the spoke _e_ when the warp has to be lengthened,
+on account of the weft _f_ working downwards and so shortening the
+finished portion of the woven cloth. _g_ A sharp bone or tough piece
+of wood to beat the weft into proper position. _h_ The wound up weft
+which is pushed through the warp with the fingers. _i i_ The unbeamed
+warp. _k k_ The heddles or shed openers. _l l_ The supports on which
+the heddles rest when the "pick" is made [_i.e._, the pushing the weft
+through]. _m_ The beater-in. _n_ and _o_ Laze rods. _q_ The template
+for regulating the width of the cloth. _r r_ and _s s_ Beam on to
+which the loom is fixed.
+
+Some of the descriptions are not as clear as could be wished. It is
+probable that _g_ is a preliminary to _m_. N. Annandale mentions that
+he obtained in the Faroes a beater-in made of a whale's jaw or rib;
+while in Iceland he saw some of the perforated stones to which the
+warp threads were attached (_The Faroes and Iceland_, Oxford, 1905,
+pp. 195-6).]
+
+The Scandinavian form of the "Greek" loom from the Faroes Fig. 32, is
+made known to us through the article itself in the Copenhagen Museum,
+illustrated by Montelius, _Civilisation of Sweden in Heathen Times_,
+Lond. 1888, p. 160, and through the very clear illustration and
+description given us by Olafsson in his _Oeconomische Reise durch
+Island_, 1787, translated from the Danish edition of 1780. The loom
+figured by Olafsson, Fig. 33, shows an advance on that of Montelius,
+in being provided with heddles.[H] Upright looms with a lower beam
+instead of with warp weights and furnished with heddles, are not
+uncommon. There are the well known Indian and Persian rug looms, and
+Du Chaillu figures one in his _Journey to Ashango Land_, London, 1867,
+plate facing p. 291. Randall-Maciver and Wilkin illustrate a vertical
+loom in use among the Kabyles, _Libyan Notes_, London, 1901, Pl. IX.,
+and although the details of the illustration are not clear the text
+indicates the existence of one heddle: "The warp is decussated by
+means of a horizontal rod and leashes." Dr. Washington Mathews figures
+several Navajo looms with heddles, _Third Ann. Rep. Bureau of
+Ethnology_, p. 291; Ancient Peruvians also used them, as shown by Dr.
+Max Schmidt, _Baessler Archiv, I. pt. 1_, and so on practically _ad.
+lib._ But to work an upright warp-weighted loom with heddles is
+attended with great practical inconvenience, and this difficulty has,
+no doubt, been one of the chief causes of the complete discardance of
+this class of loom.
+
+In spite of the evidence in favour of the existence of warp weighted
+looms, the Director of the Hermannstadt Museum, Dr. v.
+Kimakovicz-Winnicki, sees fit to deny their existence. He found that
+in some parts of Transylvania the peasants use wooden pyramids (see
+Fig. 18) similar to the Roman warp weights for winding the thread
+from the spindle on to the shuttle. For this purpose sockets are
+bored into the thin or top end of two pyramids, which are placed
+just so far apart that a spindle can rest horizontally with one end
+in the socket of one pyramid, and the other end of the spindle in
+the socket of the other pyramid, and the thread in being wound off
+on to the shuttle causes the spindle to revolve in the sockets. From
+this he argues that what we have hitherto taken to be warp weights
+are not warp weights at all (_Spinn-u. Webewerkzeuge_, Wuerzburg,
+1911), and having denied these articles to be warp weights he gets
+over the difficulty presented by the illustration of Penelope at her
+loom, by attempting to prove that what we take to be a loom is no
+loom at all but a _flechtrahm_, _i.e._ plaiting frame! He then
+attempts to pull to pieces the idea that the Scandinavian loom in
+the Copenhagen Museum is a loom and condemns it as unworkable. There
+can be no doubt about his meaning as he defines his terms. The
+principle of weaving (_Weben_) he describes "as the absorption of
+two groups of parallel material elements (warp and weft) at right
+angles to each other, and the principle of plaiting (_Flechten_) as
+the absorption by itself in one plane of one group only of material
+element, (warp)" and he gives diagrammatic illustrations showing
+clearly what he means (_op. cit._ p. 31).[I] Judging from his
+remarks one must conclude he has not seen a primitive loom of any
+sort, and were it not for the official position he holds, his
+remarks would not need answering.
+
+It has, I believe, been suggested more than once that some of the
+perforated stones, pieces of burnt clay, pieces of chalk and like
+objects may be and are net-sinkers, and there is some justification
+for Dr. Kimakovicz-Winnicki's statement that the pyramidic forms are
+not warp weights; but it does not follow that all the perforated
+articles are either spindle-holders or net-sinkers, yet that is what
+his subsequent statements lead one to infer. It is, however, difficult
+to prove that these perforated articles are warp weights.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Side view and section of chalk warp weight
+found at Great Driffield. Of three of the weights the following
+dimensions were taken:
+
+    7-3/4" (19�7 cm.) long,   2 lbs. 3 oz. (1�0 k)
+    6"     (15�2  " )   "     1 lb.  8 oz. (0�7 k)
+    6-3/8" (16�2  " )   "     1 lb.  3 oz. (0�6 k)
+
+Hull Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.--"Chalk weight, 6" � 4" � 2" (15�2 cm. � 10�2
+� 5�1), similar to those found in pits, at Mount Caburn and Cissbury
+near Worthing, Sussex. Found with eighteen more in the _filling_ of
+pit 7, Winkelbury Hill." _Excavations in Winkelbury Camp_, by
+Lieut.-Gen. Pitt-Rivers (_Excavations in Cranbourne Chase_, Vol. II.,
+1888). As Pitt-Rivers also found at Winkelbury the fragment of a comb
+and a chalk spindle whorl, which are textile tools, we may safely
+presume these fashioned pieces of chalk are warp weights.]
+
+In 1875 several flat irregular oblong perforated pieces of soft chalk
+were found in enlarging the cattle market in Great Driffield,
+Yorkshire; they were found in a hole about three feet deep with
+Anglo-Saxon potsherds, animal remains, and bits of iron. They can now
+be seen in the Mortimer Collection in the Hull Museum. They consist of
+pieces of chalk, similar to those which drop annually in thousands
+upon thousands down the cliffs from the boulder clay between
+Bridlington and Flamborough. On some a shoulder has been cut, Fig. 34,
+most have one perforation, but in a few specimens, where the thin
+portion above the hole has been broken off, a second hole has been
+made. None of them can stand unsupported. Owing to the soluble nature
+of the chalk they could not have been used as net-sinkers in the sea
+(about nine miles off) for they would quickly dissolve in salt water,
+and the same holds good in regard to fresh water, although in a lesser
+degree. But I do not think they were used even in fresh water as
+net-sinkers, for it was a characteristic of primitive peoples, with
+whom time was of no account, to do their work thoroughly--what they
+made was intended to last, and chalk net-sinkers would not have
+lasted. That these were found in a limited quantity, I believe about
+seventeen in number, tends to show that they are warp weights, for
+only a few are required for every loom, in spite of the considerable
+number shown in the non-technical illustration of Penelope's loom. Not
+being able to find any other use for these pieces of chalk, and
+judging that they are suitable for the purpose, I should say they are
+warp weights. In this case the weaver has made the most of what nature
+has given him; in other parts of England he has had to fashion the
+weight out of the rough chalk, Fig. 35.
+
+In the Museum at Devizes there are several hard pieces of perforated
+and fashioned chalk which offer more conclusive evidence. Of these
+Mrs. M. E. Cunnington, the Curator, writes me: "All the weights here
+have holes bored right through. Two large ones stand easily on the
+floor. Others are more irregular in form and will not stand upright.
+This latter type is, as far as I am aware, the more usual in this part
+of the country. They are commonly cut out of the hard chalk, and weigh
+about 3 or 4 lbs. (1�5-2 Kilos). We think these weights are loom
+weights because we find them with Romano-British remains, as at
+Westbury, and late Celtic remains on our chalk uplands, far from water
+where fishing could have been carried on. With the same remains we
+find weaving combs, numerous spindle whorls and other tools of bone
+that were also probably used in weaving operations." The Westbury, in
+Wiltshire, referred to, is some thirty miles in a straight line from
+the mouth of the Severn, and about forty miles from the English
+Channel. These pieces of chalk cannot therefore have been used as
+net-sinkers, leaving out of consideration their composition; they were
+found with weaving tools and they fit the position. So far the
+ingenuity of our ablest arch�ologists at home and abroad has not
+succeeded in ascribing the use of these objects to anything else than
+net-sinking or warp tension. The adaptability of the articles for use
+as warp weights, the small groups in which they are found, the
+discovery of weaving implements in the closest proximity, our
+knowledge of the Greek representations of warp-weighted looms, the
+Olafsson illustration, and the loom in the Copenhagen Museum all tend
+to prove that these articles are really warp weights.
+
+As regards the practical possibility or impossibility of working a
+"Greek" loom, I had a simple frame made in the Museum and showed Mr.
+J. Smith, a mill "Overlooker" at Messrs. Wayman and Sons, Ld.,
+Halifax, the illustration in Montelius' book already referred to, and
+asked him to weave me a small piece of cloth on it. In the course of a
+few hours he did the warping, beaming and weaving, making the pick
+with his fingers and using a ball of weft thread instead of a spool or
+shuttle. The result is shown in the accompanying illustration, Fig.
+36, conclusively proving that weaving on such a frame is quite
+feasible, and practically proving that Olafsson's and the Copenhagen
+warp weighted looms are properly constructed workable looms.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.--A warp weighted loom made at Bankfield
+Museum, to show the possibility of weaving by this method. There is no
+heddle nor shuttle used. The weaver made the "shed" and pushed the
+weft through with his fingers. He naturally worked _down_wards.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.--Diagram to show how the warp is kept taut on
+a Syrian loom.]
+
+Finally, it may not be out of place here to point out that there are
+other looms, besides the Greek and Scandinavian, on which the warp is
+made taut by means of warp weights. The Rev. Dr. Harvey Porter, of the
+American College, Beyrout, Syria, writing about the year 1901, thus
+describes the common loom of the country. He says: "Two upright posts
+are fixed in the ground, which hold the roller to which the threads of
+the warp are fastened, and upon which the cloth is wound as it is
+woven. The threads of the warp are carried upward towards the ceiling
+at the other end of the room, and pass over rollers, and are gathered
+in hanks and weighted to keep them taut (_Dic. of the Bible_,
+Edinburgh, 1902, IV., p. 901)." He has kindly sent me an illustration
+of this loom, but unfortunately the weights are not clearly shown, and
+the same is the case with an illustration of a loom from Cyprus.[J]
+The diagram, Fig. 37, shows the principle. In a Shan loom illustrated
+by Mrs. Leslie Milne, in _The Shans at Home_, London, 1910, p. 120,
+the warp makes a somewhat similar detour over the head of the weaver,
+it is, however, not weighted but tied to a beam. The point to be
+observed is that these warp-weighted looms are horizontal and not
+perpendicular, and also that the weaving is the reverse of that on the
+Greek loom but similar to that on our horizontal looms, so that the
+present Syrian and Cyprian looms have nothing in common with the old
+Greek loom.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Hand of Penelope clutching her shuttle. From
+a corner of a piece of sculpture discovered by O. Kern and described
+by C. Robert, (_The Feet Washing of Odysseus_, fifth Century B.C.,
+_Mitt. Kais. Deutsch. Arch. Inst._, Athens, XXV., 1900, pp. 332-3).
+The author considers Penelope to be in the act of unravelling what she
+has woven: "We see her holding the spool with her right hand, while
+the left hand, half closed, is raised to about shoulder high, and the
+fingers, if I read the traces correctly, are posed as though she held
+a thread."]
+
+The Greeks evidently used a spool in weaving, that is a piece of stick
+round which was wound the thread that became the weft, as is shown in
+the hand of Penelope, Fig. 38, and in Kirke's loom, Fig. 15.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[E] I find frequent references, by various writers, to an upright loom
+mentioned by E. H. Palmer as used by a Bedawin woman near Jebel Musa,
+but on looking up his description (_The Desert of the Exodus_, I. p.
+125), I find it to be so indifferent as to be quite useless for
+purposes of comparison.
+
+[F] My attention to this was kindly drawn by Mr. F. N. Pryce,
+Assistant in the Dept. of Greek and Roman Antiquities.
+
+[G] The existence of warp weighted looms amongst the prehistoric Lake
+Dwellers of Switzerland was first surmised by Pauer (_Keller's Lake
+Dwellings_) from the discovery of the weights, and was made
+practically certain by Messikommer and Jentsch.
+
+[H] Comparing the loom Olafsson saw with the description in the Nial
+Saga, he concludes this sort of loom was in use A.D. 1014, in the
+North of Scotland.
+
+[I] He criticises the detail of the illustration of Penelope's loom.
+It must be remembered this illustration is not a technical drawing,
+but an artist's representation where correctness of detail cannot be
+expected. In his own drawing of the Egyptian horizontal loom many of
+the warp threads are shown over instead of under the laze rods, and
+yet this is supposed to be a correct technical drawing!
+
+[J] Since writing Dr. Porter has sent me photograph of another sort of
+loom in which weights are used as counter balances to keep the heddles
+raised. The subject requires further elucidation.
+
+
+
+
+III. CONCLUSION.
+
+
+From the foregoing we gather that the Ancient Egyptians had two forms
+of looms. The earlier or horizontal form, date about B.C. 2000, has in
+a modified way survived to the present day in desert Egypt and is also
+found in Seistan. It required a large area of ground for working and
+probably in earlier times when there was plenty of space this did not
+much matter. But as the population in the towns increased and with
+the increase of civilisation and its concomitant increased demand for
+cloth, probably out of proportion to the increase of population, space
+would be begrudged and this may have caused the invention or the
+introduction of the vertical form of loom which we find in use some
+500 years later. In Egypt therefore the horizontal loom preceded the
+vertical loom but it does not necessarily follow that such was the
+case elsewhere. In so far as we can gather from the small amount of
+information at our disposal, in the earlier days the women were the
+weavers, and later on with the introduction of the upright loom the
+men were the weavers with an occasional female weaver. In the Egyptian
+Desert and in Seistan in the present day with horizontal looms the
+weavers appear to be males, but among the nomads of Persia who
+likewise use horizontal looms the weavers are females. In the use of
+either form of loom the Egyptian weavers beat the weft downwards or
+towards themselves and _not_ upwards or away from themselves. They had
+the heddle in one of its earliest forms and had consequently made the
+first great step in the evolution of the loom as we now know it. In
+the beginning they made no selvedges so that for every pick a separate
+length of weft thread was used. The adoption of the selvedge was
+another improvement and until it was introduced the weft would no
+doubt have been put through with the fingers, later on a spool being
+used. It is possible also that in very late times the weavers' comb
+was introduced. It is safe to say that the Egyptians had no knowledge
+of the reed. Both forms of looms were simple, without harness or other
+complicated pieces of mechanism. The Egyptians accomplished fairly
+good work and judging these people from their looms alone we must
+conclude they were a progressive race.
+
+The Greek form of loom was an upright one on which the warp threads
+were kept taut by means of weights and similar to the form which
+existed in Central and Northern Europe (in the latter until recent
+times) but of which so far there is no trace to the east, or south, or
+west. The Greek loom may have been furnished with a heddle but the
+drawings are not clear on this point. A spool was used. The weavers
+were women and the weft was beaten upwards or away from the weaver. It
+was not a form of loom so capable of improvement as the Egyptian forms
+and there appears to be no connection between the forms used on either
+side of the Mediterranean. The Greek tapestry loom could hardly have
+been more primitive. In respect to the forms of looms used by the two
+peoples the Egyptians were considerably in advance of the Greeks.
+
+
+FINIS.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Punctuation errors have been repaired.
+
+The author uses some archaic and alternative spelling, for example,
+nooze for noose, gramms for grammes. These have been retained as
+printed.
+
+The original text contained an erratum, as follows:
+
+    Erratum:--Page 39, Line 5, for Dr. Henry Porter, _read_
+    Dr. Harvey Porter.
+
+The error has been fixed in this e-text.
+
+The following amendments have been made:
+
+    Page 8--Calliaud amended to Cailliaud--"... as well as
+    those of Cailliaud and Rosellini show that ..."
+
+    Page 11--Tehuti-hotep amended to Tehuti-hetep--"... from
+    the tomb of Tehuti-hetep _circa_ 1938-1849 B.C., ..."
+
+    Page 18--netsinker amended to net-sinker--"... the
+    material is not suitable for a net-sinker, ..."
+
+    Page 19, Fig. 21 caption--cm. amended to in.--"...
+    Breadth 6�5 cm. (1-11/32 in.)."
+
+    Page 23--pecularity amended to peculiarity--"When I
+    noticed the peculiarity first, ..."
+
+    Page 23--analagous amended to analogous--"We know how
+    closely analogous to 'darning' was ..."
+
+    Page 27--safron amended to saffron--"2. This is a
+    coarser fabric, has been dyed with saffron, ..."
+
+    Page 29--Millemetres amended to Millimetres--"Micro
+    Measurements of Ten Fibres in Millimetres."
+
+    Page 32, Fig. 31 caption--Etrusian amended to
+    Etruscan--"... an Athenian skyphos found in an Etruscan
+    tomb ..."
+
+    Page 32--repeated instance of use deleted--"... there is
+    apparently no evidence for the use of such objects ..."
+
+    Page 35, Fig. 33 caption--templete amended to
+    template--"The template for regulating the width of the
+    cloth."
+
+    Page 37, Fig. 35 caption--whorle amended to whorl--"...
+    the fragment of a comb and a chalk spindle whorl, ..."
+
+    Page 38--commonally amended to commonly--"They are
+    commonly cut out of the hard chalk, ..."
+
+    Page 38--archaeologists amended to arch�ologists--"...
+    the ingenuity of our ablest arch�ologists at home and
+    abroad ..."
+
+    Page 38--impossibilty amended to impossibility--"As
+    regards the practical possibility or impossibility ..."
+
+The Figures have been moved, where necessary, so that they are not in
+the middle of a paragraph.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Ancient Egyptian and Greek Looms, by H. Ling Roth
+
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+
+Project Gutenberg's Ancient Egyptian and Greek Looms, by H. Ling Roth
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ancient Egyptian and Greek Looms
+
+Author: H. Ling Roth
+
+Release Date: June 8, 2008 [EBook #25731]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANCIENT EGYPTIAN AND GREEK LOOMS ***
+
+
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+
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+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
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+</pre>
+
+
+
+<div class="bbox">
+<p><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p>
+
+<p>There is a small amount of Greek in this text, which may require adjustment
+of your browser settings to display correctly. A transliteration of
+each word is included. Hover your mouse over words underlined with a
+<ins class="greek" title="like this">faint red dotted line</ins> to see
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Text underlined with a <ins class="correction" title="like this">faint grey dotted line</ins>
+has been amended; a list is also provided at the end of the text.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h1 class="centerpad">Ancient Egyptian and<br />
+Greek Looms</h1>
+
+
+<p class="centerpad">BY</p>
+
+<h2>H. LING ROTH</h2>
+<p class="center">(<span class="smcap">Keeper</span>).</p>
+
+
+<p class="centerpad">WITH 38 LINE BLOCK AND ONE COLLOTYPE ILLUSTRATIONS.</p>
+
+
+<p class="centerpad">BANKFIELD MUSEUM, HALIFAX<br />
+APRIL 1913</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<p class="center">
+<a href="#PREFACE"><b>Preface.</b></a><br />
+<a href="#I_Egyptian_Looms"><b>I. Egyptian Looms.</b></a><br />
+<a href="#II_The_Greek_Loom"><b>II. The Greek Loom.</b></a><br />
+<a href="#III_Conclusion"><b>III. Conclusion.</b></a><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Halifax, which is situated in the heart of the great textile trade
+of Lancashire and Yorkshire, has been a home of the woollen manufacture
+since the earliest time, and it is only meet, therefore, that its
+museum should possess specimens of the tools used in the early days
+of spinning, weaving, and cloth making generally. In spite of the
+considerable progress made towards that end, many typical specimens
+are still wanting, and, while we have plenty of material for the
+study of weaving in various parts of the world, we are lacking in
+everything relating to the industry in Ancient Egypt and Greece.
+Failing specimens I have had recourse to illustrations, but the
+Egyptian ones published by Cailliaud, Rosellini, Sir J. G. Wilkinson
+and Lepsius, contradict each other in many important points, so that
+those who study them find them practically useless for an understanding
+of the art as carried on in the Nile lands. Fortunately, last
+year, Mr. N. de G. Davies, the well-known Egyptologist, hearing of
+my difficulty, very generously placed some of his copies of tomb
+drawings at my disposal, and with this invaluable help I have been
+enabled to complete the present paper, and to lay before Halifax
+students some new details of manufacture bearing upon their staple
+industry.</p>
+
+<p class="sig"><span class="smcap">H. Ling Roth.</span></p>
+
+<p class="address">Bankfield Museum, Halifax.<br />
+April 1913.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg&nbsp;3]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="I_Egyptian_Looms" id="I_Egyptian_Looms"></a><span class="smcap">I. Egyptian Looms.</span></h2>
+
+<h3>HORIZONTAL LOOMS.<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">I</span>N the tomb of Chnem-hotep, at Beni Hasan, there is a wall painting
+of a horizontal loom with two weavers, women, squatting on
+either side, and at the right in the background is drawn the figure of
+the taskmaster. There are also figures represented in the act of
+spinning, etc. For the present we are concerned with the weaving
+only.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_1" id="Fig_1"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl01.png" width="600" height="437" alt=""/>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 1.&mdash;Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from the illustration in Cailliaud&rsquo;s
+<i>Recherches</i>, etc. Same size as published.</p>
+
+<p>Of this illustration, there appear to be six reproductions. We
+have first of all, <a href="#Fig_1"><b>Fig. 1</b></a>, that of Fred. Cailliaud (<i>Recherches sur les
+Arts et M&eacute;tiers</i>, etc., Paris, 1831) with illustrations of drawings made
+by himself in the years 1819 to 1822. His publication was followed
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"><!-- Figures 2 and 3 in original --></a></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg&nbsp;5]</a></span>
+by <a href="#Fig_2"><b>Fig. 2</b></a>, that of Sir J. G. Wilkinson (<i>Manners and Customs</i>, etc., London,
+1837). Mr. John Murray, whose house has published Wilkinson&rsquo;s
+work from the first edition to the last, informs me that a few of the
+drawings were made by George Scharf, afterwards Sir George Scharf,
+Keeper of the National Portrait Gallery, but that most of them seem
+to have been made by Joseph Bonomi, the well known Egyptologist.
+Wilkinson&rsquo;s woodcut, although clearly and neatly done, is on a very
+small scale; nevertheless it admits of a fair comparison with those
+reproduced on a larger scale.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_2" id="Fig_2"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl02.png" width="600" height="243" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Key to image">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Figs. 1 &amp; 3. Weaving.</td>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Fig. 4. Male Overseer.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Fig. 2. Loom.</td>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="spacer">&rdquo;</span> 5. Hackling.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="spacer">&rdquo;</span> 3. Putting in the woof, but not by a shuttle thrown with the hand.</td>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="spacer">&rdquo;</span> 6. Twisting the double threads for the warp.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><i>a</i> Weaving.</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><i>b</i> Chief of Loom.</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><i>c</i> Facing.</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><i>d</i> Pulling out.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 2.&mdash;Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from Sir J. G. Wilkinson&rsquo;s <i>Manners and
+Customs</i>, London, John Murray, 1878, Vol. I., p. 317. Same size as published.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_3" id="Fig_3"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl03.png" width="600" height="428" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 3.&mdash;Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from the illustration in Rosellini&rsquo;s
+<i>Monumenti</i> (Monumenti Civili), Plate XLI. Reduced one-fifth lineal of size published.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_4" id="Fig_4"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl04.png" width="600" height="362" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 4.&mdash;Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from Lepsius&rsquo; <i>Denkm&auml;ler</i>. Same size as
+published.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="Fig_5" id="Fig_5"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl05.png" width="400" height="256" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 5.&mdash;Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep,
+from Prof. Percy Newberry&rsquo;s <i>Beni Hasan</i>, I. Plate
+29. Same size as published.</p>
+
+<p>After him, <a href="#Fig_3"><b>Fig. 3</b></a>, N. F. J. B. Rosellini began the publication of
+his great work (<i>I Monumenti dell&rsquo; Egitto</i>, Pisa, 1832-1844). The
+similarity between the comparatively few drawings published by
+Cailliaud and the very large number published by Rosellini is very
+great. It is of course quite possible Rosellini may have made use of
+some of Cailliaud&rsquo;s drawings. Five years after Rosellini&rsquo;s publication
+came that of C. R. Lepsius (<i>Denkm&auml;ler</i>, Leipzig, 1849), <a href="#Fig_4"><b>Fig.
+4</b></a>, his drawings having been made in the years 1842 to 1845.
+Since the time of Lepsius until quite recent years I can trace
+no further copying until we get the illustration, <a href="#Fig_5"><b>Fig. 5</b></a>, in Prof.
+Percy Newberry&rsquo;s <i>Beni Hasan</i>, London, 1910. In this work
+the reproduction is about one twentieth of the original, or
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"><!-- Figure 6 in original --></a></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg&nbsp;7]</a></span>
+about three fifths of the size of that of Wilkinson, and unfortunately
+so crude as not to be available for our present purpose.<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a> Lastly we
+have the reproduction, <a href="#Fig_6"><b>Fig. 6</b></a>, from Mr. N. de Garis Davies&rsquo; drawing
+made in 1903, and now first published by kind permission of Mr.
+F. Ll. Griffith.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_6" id="Fig_6"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl06.png" width="600" height="437" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 6.&mdash;Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep. Size of original: Height of the figures
+9&frac14;" = 24&middot;4 cm. Drawn by Mr. N. de G. Davies, and now published for the first time by
+permission of Mr. F. Ll. Griffith.</p>
+
+<p>In the various reproductions by the above explorers, the only three
+which agree very closely are those of Cailliaud, Rosellini and Davies.
+The others vary considerably and in essentials do not agree with the
+above nor with one another. The differences may in the first instance
+be due to difficulties in copying the original in the tomb. Others may
+be due to ignorance of detail on the part of the secondary copyist&mdash;the
+man who prepared them for publication&mdash;so that he was unable to
+follow up the clues on the drawings laid before him. The differences
+may also be due to careless copying and to &ldquo;touching up&rdquo; of the
+copies when made; they may be slightly due to deterioration and
+obliteration of the original in the course of time.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Encyclop&aelig;dia Biblica</i> gives a variant from all six illustrations,
+but approaching nearest to that of Cailliaud, Rosellini and Davies. It
+is misleading in so far that the drawing has been made to suit
+Professor Kennedy&rsquo;s idea as to what it should be.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the differences are of minor importance, but a comparison
+will help materially to our understanding of the method of weaving
+adopted by the Egyptians from the XIIth to the XIXth Dynasties, or
+about B.C. 2000 to 1200. To go into details, and taking Mr. N. de G.
+Davies&rsquo; illustration as our basis, we find slight differences in the shape
+of the pegs B, B1, which are immaterial. A more pronounced difference
+is seen in the way in which the threads are attached to the warp beam A.
+Neither Wilkinson nor Lepsius carry these threads over the beam, the
+former carrying them only as far as the laze threads C, while the latter
+carries them up to a line drawn parallel to and below the beam; Cailliaud
+and Rosellini carry them over the beam while Mr. Davies carries them
+half way only. The object of this half carrying over is not clear. The
+threads in chain-form at C are probably laze threads, apparently placed
+there so that in case of any disarrangement of the warp threads the
+weaver can from that point run her fingers along them and get them
+disentangled. It has been suggested to me that this chain-form might
+be a tension chain for taking up slack warp, but the former explanation
+seems the more likely.</p>
+
+<p>All the drawings but Wilkinson&rsquo;s show the warp threads converging
+towards the breast beam; Wilkinson shows them parallel and
+in Lepsius their convergence is excessive. There should be a slight
+convergence shown, as in the course of weaving the threads get drawn
+in, and in later forms of looms in semi-civilised countries we find an
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg&nbsp;8]</a></span>
+endeavour to counteract this tendency by the use of a tool known as a
+&ldquo;temple.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The cross sticks D1, D2, look like laze rods. It may not be out
+of place here to point out that in primitive weaving laze rods serve
+two purposes, or one more than in the later somewhat more advanced
+looms. They serve throughout to keep the warp threads in place, and
+they serve to separate the odd threads from the even (1, 3, 5, 7 from
+2, 4, 6, 8, &amp;c.), and in so doing take the place of the fingers in making
+the &ldquo;shed,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i>, the opening through which the &ldquo;weft (or woof)&rdquo;
+is passed, a function which in turn is usurped by the &ldquo;heald (or
+heddle).&rdquo; The heddle therefore becomes a very important factor, and
+Dr. H. G. Harrison by no means overstates the case when he says that
+the development of the heddle is the most important step in the
+evolution of the loom (Horniman Museum Handbooks, No. 10, pp.
+47-49). We may now return to the drawing. Wilkinson shows the rod
+D1 indistinctly and the left hand end only of D2. Lepsius&rsquo; artist
+seems to have taken a liberty with D1 but in the right direction, by
+making it more definitely into an early form of heddle&mdash;the loop and
+rod&mdash;but he shows D2 the same as Cailliaud and Rosellini. Prof.
+Kennedy argues that these rods are in the wrong position and that
+D1 which is a heddle should be in the place of D2. Mr. Davies&rsquo;
+drawing as well as those of <ins class="correction" title="Calliaud in original">Cailliaud</ins> and Rosellini show that D1 is a
+heddle while D2 is shown to be a laze rod. Asiatic primitive looms,
+like those from Borneo and Bhutan, have two laze rods but no heddle;
+on the other hand many primitive African looms have one laze rod
+and one heddle as is the case with this Egyptian loom. More threads
+are shown on the left hand end of D2 than on the right hand end.
+Mr. Davies informs me that the same quantity should be shown from
+end to end across the warp, but on the right hand side they are so
+indistinct that he was just able to detect but not to trace them and
+so he omitted them.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to the rod E. Cailliaud and Rosellini show an
+undulation at the one end <i>a</i>, but do not make the other end clear.
+Wilkinson shows a small hook at the end <i>a</i>, which appears to me to be
+a transcriber&rsquo;s development of the curved end of his two predecessors;
+in the text Wilkinson says there is a hook at each end of this stick,
+but he does not show any at the end opposite to <i>a</i>; he refers to these
+hooks more than once (1st ed., III., p. 126 footnote). Lepsius has
+altered the shape of the curve and transferred it from the end <i>a</i> to the
+opposite end. In Mr. de G. Davies&rsquo; drawing, it has been inserted in
+dotted lines, as the original is in such a state that tracing is almost
+impossible. Wilkinson, Erman, v. Cohausen (<i>Das Spinnen u. Weben
+bei den Alten</i>, in <i>Ann. Ver. Nassau. Altherthumsk.</i>, Wiesbaden, 1879,
+p. 29), and others call it a shuttle, but I am more inclined to consider
+it a slashing stick (&ldquo;sword&rdquo; or &ldquo;beater-in&rdquo;) for pushing the
+weft into position. A tool which appears to be a beater-in and of
+similar end shape is seen held in the hand of a woman on a wall
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"><!--Figure 7 in original --></a></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg&nbsp;10]</a></span>
+painting at El Bersheh&mdash;see <a href="#Fig_11"><b>Fig. 11</b></a>, top right-hand corner. We have
+in another illustration, <a href="#Fig_7"><b>Fig. 7</b></a>, an article which appears to be a spool,
+which I think confirms the view that E is not the shuttle but the
+beater-in. In all the illustrations, too, the pose of the hands of the
+women bearing on this stick is indicative of a downward pressure and
+not of a grasp.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 437px;">
+<a name="Fig_7" id="Fig_7"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl07.png" width="437" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="captionpara">Fig. 7.&mdash;Tomb of the Vizier Daga. Date about end XI. Dynasty, B.C. 2000. Mr. N. de G.
+Davies&rsquo; <i>Five Theban Tombs</i>, Plate XXXVII.</p>
+
+<p class="captionpara">The upper illustration indicates a woman warping or beaming, probably warping.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">In the lower illustration note the left hand figure holding the spool in her hand. At first
+sight this small black line looks like a continuation of the &ldquo;beater-in&rdquo; in the hands of the
+other weaver, but Mr. Davies informs me that it is quite a distinct article, and that there can
+be no doubt about it. Just above the breast beam there are 8 or 9 threads of weft but they
+are too faint to be included.</p>
+
+<p>The selvedge F on the one side of the cloth and not on both sides
+is also interesting from the fact that selvedges do not appear on the
+Egyptian cloths until the XVIII. Dynasty <i>circa</i> B.C. 1600.</p>
+
+<p>The breast beam:&mdash;It appears to me that the three portions
+marked G1, G2 and G3 joined up are intended to represent the breast
+beam and its holding pegs, similar to the warp beam A and its pegs
+B1, B2, but the portion K is not clearly drawn in any of the reproductions.
+Wilkinson omits this altogether, but in its place has two
+black pieces which also are still less clear. Lepsius has omitted G2
+altogether and appears to have made G1 and K and G3 into treadles,
+by raising G1 above the level of G3, and to support the view that
+these are treadles, he makes use of the overseer&rsquo;s foot by placing it on
+the supposed treadle, and the casual observer thinks it is the foot of
+the woman weaver. However, Mr. Davies&rsquo; copy seems to offer a solution.
+He agrees with Cailliaud and Rosellini in so far as G1, G2 and G3 are
+concerned. With him K takes quite a different form, in fact it looks very
+similar to an article which an attendant woman in another panel has close
+by her, see <a href="#Fig_8"><b>Fig. 8</b></a>. It might perhaps be a rest to prevent the
+beater-in being driven home too forcibly&mdash;this, however, is still
+only a surmise&mdash;as the length of the beater-in makes it heavy at the
+far end.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_8" id="Fig_8"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl08.png" width="300" height="157" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 8.&mdash;Weaver with the support K,
+<a href="#Fig_6"><b>Fig. 6</b></a>; the woman appears to hold a
+beater-in in the right hand and a ball of
+thread in the left hand. Rosellini.</p>
+
+<p>In Cailliaud the warp threads are coloured in pale blue and red
+on top of the black lines of the drawing; he has painted the selvedge
+and finished cloth a pale blue, as well as that portion of G2 which is
+covered by the cloth indicating that this is the breast beam, G3 and
+G1 are painted a dark red. Rosellini colours A, B1, B2, D1, D2, G3
+orange; G1 and K dark red, but E from end to end light ochre. This
+shows that K is distinct from E.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_9" id="Fig_9"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl09.png" width="600" height="551" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">Fig. 9.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Upright or Vertical Looms from the
+Tomb of Thot-nefer at Thebes, XVIII.
+Dynasty, <i>circa</i> B.C. 1425. From a
+drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies. Size
+of original: Height from Base Line to
+top of frame at A, 11&frac12;"&nbsp;=&nbsp;29 cm.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of this loom being represented as upright it is
+often spoken of as an upright or vertical loom. But it is drawn upright
+because the Egyptian artist did not understand perspective, and
+it was only by making the loom upright that he was enabled to show
+the details we have just been examining. For the same reason mat
+making is illustrated edgeways. If the loom were an upright one the
+two women weavers would have had their backs turned towards the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg&nbsp;11]</a></span>
+onlooker as can be seen in <a href="#Fig_9"><b>Fig. 9</b></a>. Any doubt on the matter has however
+been set aside by Prof. John Garstang&rsquo;s extremely interesting
+discovery of a wooden model depicting a group of women spinning
+and weaving which he illustrates in his work, <i>The Burial Customs
+of Ancient Egypt</i>, London, 1907. After referring to the woman
+spinning, he continues: &ldquo;The other seated figures apparently
+represent women at work upon a horizontal loom; the frame
+and the woof [<i>sic</i>, should be <em>warp</em>] threads are faintly represented
+upon the board. It is possible that they are making mats or,
+perhaps, weaving (p. 132).&rdquo; He gives an illustration of the group
+taken from a photograph, but as it does not show the lines
+which indicate the loom lying horizontally on the ground nor
+the warp threads, I have asked him to let me have a drawing
+made of it and, with his kind permission, it is now reproduced
+here, <a href="#Fig_10"><b>Fig. 10</b></a>. The threads of the warp and the
+finished piece of cloth at the breast beam end are clearly
+indicated. The whole model supports conclusively the well
+founded supposition that the loom we have been considering
+is a <em>horizontal</em> one. Curiously enough, Prof. Garstang does
+not appear to appreciate the important bearing of his discovery,
+for on a later page (p. 134) in speaking of Lepsius&rsquo; illustration,
+discussed above, he says: &ldquo;the weavers are seen at work at an upright
+loom.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="Fig_10" id="Fig_10"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl10.png" width="400" height="362" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 10.&mdash;Horizontal Loom. Outline sketch by
+Miss Davey of the original model of a group of one
+woman spinning and two women weaving, found by
+Dr. John Garstang at Beni Hasan. The model is in
+the Museum of the Liverpool Institute of Arch&aelig;ology.</p>
+
+<p>It must not be thought that the Beni Hasan representation is the
+only one which illustrates a horizontal loom. A second one is
+reproduced by Prof. Percy Newberry from the tomb of <ins class="correction" title="Tehuti-hotep in original">Tehuti-hetep</ins>
+<i>circa</i> 1938-1849 B.C., see <a href="#Fig_11"><b>Fig. 11</b></a>. In the upper portion the women
+are seen spinning and preparing the thread generally, while in the
+lower portion two women on the left are warping, and in the centre
+three apparently are &ldquo;beaming,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> putting the warp on to the
+beams preparatory to commencing to weave, the warp threads being
+apparently drawn over pegs to ensure the proper tension. This
+illustration shows the warp flat against the wall like the mat making
+shown at Beni Hasan.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_11" id="Fig_11"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl11.png" width="600" height="288" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="captionpara">Fig. 11.&mdash;Tomb of Tehuti-hetep. Date about 1939-1849 B.C. From Professor Percy
+Newberry&rsquo;s <i>El Bersheh</i> I. Pl. 26.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Note the woman on the top right hand corner holding a &ldquo;beater-in.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A third representation of a horizontal loom is reproduced from
+the forthcoming volume of the Egypt Exploration Fund by kind
+permission of Mr. N. de G. Davies, who made the copy. In this,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"><!-- Figure 11 in original --></a></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg&nbsp;13]</a></span>
+<a href="#Fig_7"><b>Fig. 7</b></a>, already referred to, the lower portion is all that has come
+down to us. The cloth is not shown contracted as in the Beni
+Hasan representation, the two laze rods are drawn close to each other
+and here also an attempt appears to have been made to show the over
+and under lapping warp threads; the laze rods appear each with a
+hook, the hook on the upper rod turned upwards and the hook (if it
+be one) on the lower rod turned downwards. It is possible these
+hooks may be pegs to prevent the shifting of the laze rods. It
+may be that one of the two rods is a heddle rod the indication being
+the fine double lines, but this may not be compatible with the hook
+at the end of the rod. The weaver on the left holds a spool
+in her hand, evidently a piece of stick with the weft thread wound
+round it, which she is pushing through with her fingers. The weaver
+on the right holds a beater-in as shown in the Beni Hasan drawing.
+The breast beam is held in position by two pegs near the right one
+of which there is a curved article of indeterminate use.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_12" id="Fig_12"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl12.png" width="600" height="275" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 12.&mdash;Study of a Bedawin Arab weaving, from a sketch taken in the Forties of last
+Century, by Frank Goodall, R.A. The original sketch is in Bankfield Museum. The weaver
+appears to be provided with one heddle and a beater-in.</p>
+
+<p>There is no very clear evidence as to how the finished cloth was
+&ldquo;taken up&rdquo; unless we accept it that the bulging out of the part G2
+means that it was wound round the breast beam as is done on hand
+and power looms of the present day. Some very long pieces of cloth
+have come down to us and unless they were &ldquo;taken up&rdquo; in this way
+a long stretch of ground would have been necessary. A modified form
+of this horizontal loom has been met with in recent years among the
+Bedawin Arabs, as shown in the illustration of a study sketch, <a href="#Fig_12"><b>Fig.
+12</b></a>, made by Frank Goodall, R.A., in the forties of last century. The
+loom was provided with pegs like the old Egyptian loom but it was
+supplied with a primitive heddle resting on a stone at each side of the
+warp and it would appear that the weaver, to a certain extent, did not
+take up the woven cloth by winding it round the breast beam and by
+that means retaining his position, but, as the weaving progressed and
+the line of finished cloth got beyond his reach, he crept up to it
+and so got farther and farther away from the breast beam until
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg&nbsp;14]</a></span>
+in the end he arrived at the warp beam. Similar looms are still used
+for mat making by the Egyptian fellah.</p>
+
+
+<h3>VERTICAL LOOMS.</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="Fig_13" id="Fig_13"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl13.png" width="400" height="303" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 13.&mdash;Upright or vertical loom. Wilkinson&rsquo;s
+<i>Ancient Egyptians</i>, London, John Murray. 1st ed., Vol.
+III., p. 135.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the horizontal loom Wilkinson and Robert Hay<a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a> also
+recorded the existence of an illustration of an upright loom, said in
+error to be at Eileithyias (El Kab). Wilkinson&rsquo;s copy, <a href="#Fig_13"><b>Fig. 13</b></a>, is
+more elaborate than that of Hay. Mr. Davies informs me that the
+original is not at Eileithyias, but in the tomb of Nefer-hotep at
+Thebes. Wilkinson in regard to this illustration quotes the oft-repeated
+statement of Herodotus (<i>circa</i> 460-455 B.C.) in reference
+to looms in general:&mdash;&ldquo;Other nations make cloth by pushing the
+woof upwards, the Egyptians on the contrary, press it down.&rdquo; On
+this statement Wilkinson remarks: &ldquo;This is confirmed by the
+paintings which represent the process of making cloth; but at Thebes,
+a man who is engaged in making a piece of cloth with a coloured
+border or selvedge, appears to push the woof upwards, the cloth being
+fixed above him, to the upper part of the frame&rdquo; [<a href="#Fig_13"><b>Fig. 13</b></a>]. But I
+am unable to follow Wilkinson in this, for I can find no indication
+in his illustration which shows how the beating-in of the weft is
+accomplished. From the illustration all one can say is that it
+might have been done either way. Wilkinson&rsquo;s illustration is lettered
+from <i>a</i> to <i>p</i> but this lettering is not explained by him at all,
+excepting in the case of the letter <i>k</i>, of which he says: &ldquo;<i>k</i> is a
+shuttle, not thrown, but put in with the hand. It had a hook at the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg&nbsp;15]</a></span>
+end ...&rdquo; and he proceeds to refer to the drawing elsewhere of the
+horizontal loom. He does not show the hooks in his illustration. In
+<a href="#Fig_14"><b>Fig. 14</b></a>, I give the sketch made by Mr. N. de G. Davies of the remains
+of the original from which Wilkinson made his illustration.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 432px;">
+<a name="Fig_14" id="Fig_14"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl14.png" width="432" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 14.&mdash;Drawing by Mr. N. de G.
+Davies, Jan. 1913, of an Upright Loom
+in Tomb 49 at Thebes, belonging to Nefer-hotep,
+at end of XVIII. Dynasty, B.C.
+1330. Drawn when in a better state by
+Wilkinson, <a href="#Fig_13"><b>Fig. 13</b></a>, and Hay.</p>
+
+<p>A more satisfactory drawing of upright looms is that which Mr.
+N. de G. Davies has placed at my disposal for reproduction here. I
+append his description, <a href="#Fig_9"><b>Fig. 9</b></a>. &ldquo;The picture of men working at
+two looms is taken from the tomb of Thot-nefer at Thebes, who was a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg&nbsp;16]</a></span>
+royal scribe in the middle of the 18th Dynasty, <i>circa</i> 1425 B.C. In
+his tomb his house is shown. He himself sits in the hall, while inside
+some servants spin and weave, make bread, store the grain, etc. The
+roof of the chambers is supported on pillars, and between two of these
+the looms are set up which are here depicted. They are not attached
+however, either to the roof or the pillars. Faint sketching lines are
+mixed up with the darker reds in which the picture was re-drawn, and
+the whole very simply and carelessly executed. I have found it difficult
+to make it clear. In my sketch the first faint sketching outlines appear
+as lines. The more solid red lines which replaced these I have &lsquo;hatched,&rsquo;
+and certain portions including the men&rsquo;s flesh colour, the stools, the
+discs I have put in solid black, partly because they are for the most
+part more solid and dark red in the original, and partly to distinguish
+the portions more clearly from one another. The horizontal lines
+which cross the web are very faintly drawn and almost as good as
+obliterated by the white paint which had been put on the web. I
+have put them in just to show that the bars were <em>conceived</em> of as passing
+behind or under the web and concealed by it.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The larger loom is worked by two men, the smaller by one man
+only. The looms consist of an oblong frame A set up on two stones B.
+The warp is attached to the warp beam C on top and the breast beam
+D at the bottom. The threads of the warp are not shown, no difference
+being made between any woven part and the warp threads; to
+all is given one smear of white paint. Two discs E are seen hanging
+against the frame posts, one on each side, the earlier sketch showing
+a larger disc than the final drawing in dark red.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Two slender laze rods F are shown on the large loom and heavy
+bars G, H, lower down; a somewhat similar laze rod and beams are
+also shown on the smaller loom.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The weavers sit on benches with their backs to the spectator.
+The artist has not dared to draw a back view of their heads, but has
+turned each man&rsquo;s head to the right to show a profile. They are
+holding a heavy looking rod which looks like a &lsquo;beater-in.&rsquo; One would
+expect to see a shuttle but perhaps this was too small an object for so
+rough a picture&mdash;perhaps the man at the smaller loom holds an
+exaggerated shuttle L in his right hand.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The lines M seen alongside the framework are the faint red
+sketch lines <em>not</em> cords. The diagonal line N on the left I do not
+understand, it does not seem an accidental one.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;On the left hand of the two looms the original shows a man
+spinning coarse thread into finer(?) using two spindles at once; the
+threads pass through rings fixed in the ceiling as in a picture at Beni
+Hasan. Behind him two girls are breaking up the flax and two others
+are making coarse threads of the fibres, almost exactly like those in
+the tomb of Daga (No. 103) a couple of hundred yards away.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg&nbsp;17]</a></span>
+To this description of Mr. Davies I would like to add a word about
+the discs E. Wilkinson indicates these as rings apparently joining
+the horizontal beam to the post of the frame, the form of the ring
+being arrived at as explained by Mr. Davies by the original outline
+of the sketch having been made larger than the final drawing of
+the circle, or disc, and not obliterated. In Mr. Davies&rsquo; drawing these
+discs hang on or are fixed on to the uprights only, and I am inclined to
+think they represent balls of weft thread hanging up in the same way
+as we see whole rows of coloured balls hanging on the looms of Persian
+rugmakers, and as can be seen on an Indian rug loom in Bankfield
+Museum.</p>
+
+<p>It is also very clear that these Egyptian vertical looms are very
+different from the Greek looms in so far as we know anything about
+them. The Greek looms had an upper beam only and the warp
+threads were bunched at the lower end and weighted with metal or clay balls to
+keep them taut, <a href="#Fig_15"><b>Fig. 15</b></a>. The <em>individual</em> warp threads were not weighted; they
+were bunched and then weighted. The pyramidal shaped clay warp weights
+found in Egypt are I understand considered by Egyptologists to belong to
+the Roman period, but in the Manchester University Museum there is a
+mud article which Miss M. A. Murray describes as a warp weight, <a href="#Fig_17"><b>Fig. 17</b></a>, so
+that it is possible vertical looms with warp weights may yet be forthcoming
+as an Egyptian and not a foreign industrial tool. But Dr. H. R. Hall
+informs me this weight was probably found in the ruins of houses where
+&AElig;gean pottery was found and hence it is probably a temporary warp
+weight of those people and not an Egyptian article.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 256px;">
+<a name="Fig_15" id="Fig_15"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl15.png" width="256" height="300" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 15.&mdash;Greek loom with spool
+and warp weights. Illustration on a
+skyphos (van Branteghem vase in the
+Ashmolean Museum, Oxford). From
+H. B. Walters&rsquo; paper on <i>Odysseus &amp;
+Kirke</i> on a Boeotian vase, Jour. Hellenic
+Studies, 1892-3 XIII. p. 81.</p>
+
+<p>Since writing the above Mr. N. de G. Davies has very kindly sent me
+on a new set of illustrations, <a href="#Fig_16a"><b>Fig. 16</b></a>, of which he says; &ldquo;My attention
+was called to the scene by Dr. Alan Gardiner. The scenes which represent
+the preparation of the flax and the stretching of the warp are almost
+replicas of those in the tomb of Daga of the Middle Kingdom, so far
+as we can judge, while the pictures of the looms resemble closely those
+in the tombs of Thot-nefer and Nefer-hotep. The work is done by
+both men and women. Men prepare the flax while women stretch the
+warp. Men mostly work the loom, either singly or with a companion.
+But in one case a woman is seen at work at one of the upright looms.
+She is shewn sitting sideways on the low bench and is not pictured
+in a back view with widely spread legs like the men. Unfortunately
+the work is so slovenly and so much injured that few exact outlines
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg&nbsp;18]</a></span>
+can be secured, and hence all detail is insecure. There are also superfluous
+lines in red colour which confuse the picture. The tomb is
+Ramesside in date (<i>circa</i> 1200 B.C.) The inscription over the seated
+man is too broken to be read.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_16a" id="Fig_16a"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl16.png" width="600" height="345" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 16<small>A</small>.&mdash;Weavers at work as represented in the Tomb of Nefer-ronpet, Superintendent of
+Weavers at Thebes. Date about 1200 B.C. From a drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_16b" id="Fig_16b"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl17.png" width="600" height="298" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 16<small>B</small>.&mdash;Weavers at work as represented in the Tomb of Nefer-ronpet, Superintendent of
+Weavers at Thebes. Date about 1200 B.C. From a drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies.</p>
+
+<p>The drawings appear to confirm generally what we have gathered
+from Mr. Davies&rsquo; previous illustration, <a href="#Fig_9"><b>Fig. 9</b></a>.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PORTIONS OF LOOMS WHICH HAVE COME DOWN TO US.</h3>
+
+<p>In so far as I know, not many loom parts have yet been discovered,
+and those which I have had an opportunity of studying do not assist
+us to much knowledge beyond that which we have gained by a study
+of the wall paintings. We have the article from Kahun already
+mentioned, which may possibly be a warp weight, as it somewhat
+resembles the later warp weights found elsewhere. It is of hardened
+mud with a perforation at the thin end through which a piece of
+string has been passed and knotted (<a href="#Fig_17"><b>Fig. 17</b></a>), but so far no illustration
+of a loom with weights has been found, either for the period to which
+this article belongs or to any other period. On the other hand the
+material is not suitable for a <ins class="correction" title="netsinker in original">net-sinker</ins>, nor is it intended to be made
+to stand up. As mentioned above it is probably &AElig;gean.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="Fig_17" id="Fig_17"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl18.png" width="400" height="284" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 17.&mdash;Piece of perforated hardened mud.
+Possibly a warp weight, 10 cm. &times; 8&middot;7 &times; 4&middot;2
+(3<span class="tfrac">15</span>/<span class="bfrac">16</span> in. &times;
+2<span class="tfrac">7</span>/<span class="bfrac">16</span> in. &times;
+1<span class="tfrac">5</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span> in.) Weight 470 gramms (1 lb. &frac12; oz.) Probably
+of &AElig;gean origin. <i>Kahun.</i> Manchester Museum.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 175px;">
+<a name="Fig_18" id="Fig_18"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl19.png" width="175" height="300" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 18.&mdash;Burnt-clay warp
+weight. Height 11&middot;4 cm. (4&frac14; in.)
+Weight 260 gramms (9&frac14; oz.)
+Probably Roman. Bankfield
+Museum. (Received from Prof.
+Flinders Petrie).</p>
+
+<p>Another form of warp weight, of burnt clay, is somewhat frequently
+met with, <a href="#Fig_18"><b>Fig. 18</b></a>, but it is described as appertaining to Roman times,
+and may therefore be either a Greek or Roman article. Similar
+weights from Cyprus and North Africa, &amp;c., can be seen in the
+British Museum.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg&nbsp;19]</a></span>
+Wooden pegs have been found at Gurob, which may possibly have
+been used for holding the warp and breast beams in position, <a href="#Fig_19"><b>Fig. 19</b></a>.
+These pegs may appear to be rather short for the purpose, but in very
+primitive looms the warp is not kept so taut as might and should be,
+and hence there is not the same heavy strain on the pegs as we should
+deem necessary. The way to settle their use would be to fix them in
+solid ground and test them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 83px;">
+<a name="Fig_19" id="Fig_19"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl20.png" width="83" height="300" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 19.&mdash;Wooden Peg, possibly
+used for holding the warp and
+breast beams. Length 13&middot;5 to
+10&middot;2 cm. (5<span class="tfrac">13</span>/<span class="bfrac">16</span> in. to 4 in.) <i>Gurob</i>
+XVIII.-XIX. Dyn. (about 1580-1205
+B.C.) Manchester Museum.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_20" id="Fig_20"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl21.png" width="600" height="44" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 20.&mdash;Long straight lath with notches at each end, probably a laze
+rod. Length 1 m. 24 (4 ft. <span class="tfrac">13</span>/<span class="bfrac">16</span> in.)
+Breadth 5&middot;2 cm. (2 in.) Thickness 2&middot;2 cm.
+(<span class="tfrac">7</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span> in.) <i>Kahun.</i> Manchester Museum.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Sections of Figs. 20 and 21">
+  <tr>
+    <td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 93px;">
+<img src="images/aegl22.png" width="93" height="200" alt="" />
+</div></td>
+    <td class="spacer">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 43px;">
+<img src="images/aegl23.png" width="43" height="200" alt="" />
+</div></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="caption">&frac12; size section of <a href="#Fig_20"><b>Fig. 20</b></a>.</td>
+    <td class="spacer">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="caption">&frac12; size section of <a href="#Fig_21"><b>Fig. 21</b></a>.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_21" id="Fig_21"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl24.png" width="600" height="51" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 21.&mdash;Long curved lath. Probably a &ldquo;beater-in.&rdquo; Length 1 m. 20
+(3 ft. 11&frac14; in.) Breadth 6&middot;5 cm. (1<span class="tfrac">11</span>/<span class="bfrac">32</span>
+<ins class="correction" title="cm. in original">in.</ins>). Thickness 1 cm. (<span class="tfrac">3</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span> in.) <i>Kahun.</i>
+XII. Dynasty about 2000-1788 B.C. Manchester Museum.</p>
+
+<p>At Kahun a long straight lath, <a href="#Fig_20"><b>Fig. 20</b></a>, was found which is probably
+a laze rod, the notches being apparently for a nooze to slip into
+and so prevent the rod working towards the weaver which it has a
+tendency to do.</p>
+
+<p>Another long but curved lath, <a href="#Fig_21"><b>Fig. 21</b></a>, also found at Kahun is
+probably a beater-in.</p>
+
+<p>Most large Egyptian collections contain one or more specimens of
+wooden combs, which are generally called weavers combs, and ascribed
+to Roman times. But one at least, <a href="#Fig_22"><b>Fig. 22</b></a>, has been found with
+XVIIIth to XIXth Dynasty articles at Gurob, that is belonging to
+the period 1580-1150 B.C., which is long before Rome existed. None
+of these so-called combs, for they are really embryo reeds, are shown
+on the wall illustrations so that they no doubt belong to a later date
+than that of the XIIth Dynasty. If, as I take it, these &ldquo;combs&rdquo; are
+the forerunners of the reed and were used to drive the weft threads
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg&nbsp;20]</a></span>
+home, and if also the Romans had upright looms provided with warp
+weights instead of the breast beam, then I think the &ldquo;comb&rdquo; may not
+be Roman but may be a late Egyptian invention. For, on trying to
+use such a comb on a <em>replica</em> of a Scandinavian upright loom provided
+with warp weights (instead of with the breast beam) I can get no good
+result, in fact rather the opposite, but tried on a primitive horizontal
+loom provided with a breast beam the comb is found to be of some
+assistance, especially if the warp is not very taut as is generally the
+case with primitive looms. At Bankfield we have an Indian rug loom,
+already referred to, with warp and breast beam on which a somewhat
+similar instrument, but of iron, was used.<a name="FNanchor_D_4" id="FNanchor_D_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_D_4" class="fnanchor">[D]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 204px;">
+<a name="Fig_22" id="Fig_22"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl25.png" width="204" height="400" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 22.&mdash;Weaver&rsquo;s Comb&mdash;a Beater-in.
+19&middot;5 cm. &times; 9&middot;8 &times; 4&middot;2 (7&frac34; in. &times;
+3<span class="tfrac">7</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span> in. &times;
+1<span class="tfrac">5</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span> in.)
+<i>Gurob.</i> Manchester Museum.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="Fig_23" id="Fig_23"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl26.png" width="400" height="122" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 23.&mdash;Possibly a warp spacer, somewhat
+similar in object to the raddle of
+modern hand loom weaving. Height 2&middot;8 cm.
+Width 2&middot;5 cm. (1<span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span>
+in. &times; 1 in.) The slots are
+6 mm. (&frac14; in.) apart, 3 mm. (<span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">16</span>
+in.) wide, and about 10 mm. (<span class="tfrac">3</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span> in.)
+deep. From <i>Gurob</i> but probably Roman. Bankfield Museum.
+(Received from Prof. Flinders Petrie).</p>
+
+<p>An article which Prof. Flinders Petrie describes as a &ldquo;warp spacer&rdquo;
+is shown in <a href="#Fig_23"><b>Fig. 23</b></a>. From fragments in the Egyptian Collection,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg&nbsp;21]</a></span>
+University College, London, it would appear to have been originally
+more than a meter (three feet) long. It may have been used as a sort
+of a &ldquo;raddle,&rdquo; a tool used for assisting to keep the warp threads in
+position when being beamed, <i>i.e.</i> put on to the loom. At Bankfield we
+have an old local hand loom the warp beam of which is provided with
+a series of holes in which pegs were once inserted to keep the coloured
+warp threads in position.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_24" id="Fig_24"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl27.png" width="600" height="62" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">Fig. 24.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/aegl28.png" width="400" height="253" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">&frac12; size of end of <a href="#Fig_24"><b>Fig. 24</b></a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 88px;">
+<img src="images/aegl29.png" width="88" height="250" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">&frac12; size section of <a href="#Fig_24"><b>Fig. 24</b></a>.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">A long piece of perforated wood described by Prof. Flinders Petrie, <i>Kahun</i>, p. 29, as a
+Weaver&rsquo;s Beam for making rush mats. Length 96&middot;8 cm. &times; 8&middot;0 &times; 3&middot;0 (3 ft. 1&frac14; in. &times; 3&frac14; in.
+&times; 1<span class="tfrac">3</span>/<span class="bfrac">16</span> in.) From Manchester Museum.</p>
+
+<p>A piece of frame, <a href="#Fig_24"><b>Fig. 24</b></a>, has been described as a &ldquo;weaver&rsquo;s beam&rdquo;
+for making rush mats like the modern <i>hasira</i>. It is provided with 28
+holes which are arranged about 27 to 40 mm. apart. The holes may
+have been more or less circular originally, and worn into present shape
+by threads, etc., and look more irregular inside than they really are,
+as the inside surface of the holes is fairly smooth; the holes are slightly
+larger, on an average about 4 mm., on the face shown than on the other
+face. Prof. Flinders Petrie seems to think it resembles the frame on
+which the modern Egyptian mat is made.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to the two reeds in the Museum of the Liverpool
+Institute of Arch&aelig;ology, which Dr. John Garstang discovered near
+Abu Kirkas, tomb No. 693, of which he tells us: &ldquo;They are 27
+and 29 inches (68&middot;6 and 73&middot;7 cm.) in length respectively, and are
+precisely similar in general form. They are constructed on a system
+of nineteen or twenty reeds to the inch, and they may be seen to be
+exactly similar to the modern reed taken from a loom in the village of
+Abu Kirkas. It is not possible, unfortunately, to assign a precise date
+to these objects. They were found in a tomb which contained no
+other remains; this tomb was surrounded by others, all of them likewise
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg&nbsp;22]</a></span>
+very much disturbed, but equally characteristic of the general
+nature of the Middle Empire tombs, and containing nothing but
+Middle Empire objects. Since, in general, few tombs of this site show
+signs of intrusive burial of a later age, there is no reason to suppose
+that these objects are of any date later than the XII. Dynasty (<i>The
+Burial Customs of Ancient Egypt</i>, London, 1907, pp. 134-136).&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The horizontal looms we have been describing belong to this
+period, and the artists have not shown any reeds with them. My
+studies of primitive looms lead me to think that these Egyptian looms
+are of a date far anterior to the invention or the application of a reed.
+It has also, I believe, been remarked by those who have examined
+cloths of this date, that the irregular array of the warp threads is
+good proof that reeds could not have been in use. I have already
+pointed out that in the evolution of the loom the reed puts in a late
+appearance, but apart from this fact, I do not think the artist would
+have omitted such an important tool had it been in use in his time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_25" id="Fig_25"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl30.png" width="600" height="301" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 25.&mdash;Reed in Cairo Museum. Length 66 cm. (26 in.) It consists of two wooden
+frames fitted with flat iron wires. String is wound round the frames binding them
+together. Then a kind of canvas(?) cover in placed over the frames to cover up the
+projecting ends of the wires, but this has disappeared in places.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Garstang points out that although the surrounding tombs
+contained Middle Empire objects, the reeds were found in a tomb <em>without</em>
+any other remains. This can hardly be considered evidence tending
+to prove that they belonged to the period named, and it is certainly
+weakened by the accompanying statement that the reeds are <em>exactly</em>
+similar to the modern reed, for that is almost sufficient to prove that
+they are <em>not</em> 3900-3700 years old. To me they seem comparatively
+modern and very similar to one in the Cairo Museum which MM.
+Brugsch and Quibell are inclined to think is Coptic with this difference,
+that in Dr. Garstang&rsquo;s reeds the divisions appear to be of cane or
+wood, while in the Cairo reed they are of iron (?steel). The sketch of
+this Coptic reed, <a href="#Fig_25"><b>Fig. 25</b></a>, has been drawn specially for me, and Miss
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg&nbsp;23]</a></span>
+W. M. Crompton, Assistant Keeper in Egyptology in the Manchester
+University Museum, has kindly examined the sketch with the article
+and pronounced it correct. We may, I think, safely conclude that the
+reed found by Dr. Garstang is Coptic and not Ancient Egyptian.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the actual work of weaving, balls of thread have been
+found and so have very flat bobbins and pieces of stick with thread
+wound round which may have been spools as indicated in the drawing,
+<a href="#Fig_7"><b>Fig. 7</b></a>. There is no reason why balls of thread should not have been
+used as they are in uncivilised countries at the present day, as, for
+instance, in Tibet, as reported by W. W. Rockhill in <i>Diary of a
+Journey through Mongolia and Thibet</i>, Washington, 1894, p. 41.</p>
+
+
+<h3>&ldquo;DIAGONAL WEAVING.&rdquo;</h3>
+
+<p>I am unable to agree with a recently made statement published
+in <i>The Labyrinth, Gerzeh and Marghuneh</i>, by Prof. Flinders Petrie,
+E. A. Wainwright and E. Mackey, p. 6, which runs: &ldquo;The fact of
+the weft not being at right angles to the warp, if one may conclude
+by the fabrics, does not, I think, imply that such weaving is of
+inferior quality. When I noticed the <ins class="correction" title="pecularity in original">peculiarity</ins> first, I thought it
+might have arisen through distortion by stretching over the body,
+but repeated examples of the same fact have led me to consider
+other causes. We know how closely <ins class="correction" title="analagous in original">analogous</ins> to &lsquo;darning&rsquo; was
+the early weaving; and in our days it is not unusual to find
+stockings not darned at right angles, and it may be the women
+weavers of old sometimes put in the weft more or less out of true
+right angle. In the childhood of weaving we should expect different
+methods, and it may be, seeing that we have no selvedged cloth until
+very long after this time, that they experimented with a diagonal
+weft to see if it would not reduce the tendency to fray out at the
+sides.&rdquo; The amount the warp and weft are out of the right angle
+is stated to be about 20&deg;. The specimen shown me under the
+microscope indicated clearly that the warp and weft were not at right
+angles and that the interstices were not square but diamond shaped.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible to arrange the warp threads diagonally from beam
+to beam, but with continuous weft (that is in weaving so as to get
+selvedges) the weft has the tendency to slip up on one side and down
+on the other, hence the weaving is made laborious. With a separate
+weft for each pick, <i>i.e.</i>, for every once the shed is opened, there is
+naturally not this tendency, but this alleged diagonally woven cloth
+frays just as easily as any other piece of cloth without selvedge, so in
+either case there is not only no advantage but distinct disadvantage
+taking the diagonal &ldquo;beaming&rdquo; into consideration. We must give
+the Egyptians credit for using the least laborious of two methods, that
+is <em>if</em> the second one were known to them.</p>
+
+<p>Apparent diagonal weaving can be produced by anyone taking an
+ordinary piece of linen or cotton cloth, cutting off the selvedge and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg&nbsp;24]</a></span>
+stretching the cloth in a direction diagonally to the direction of the
+warp and weft, and a piece of diagonally woven cloth is the result!</p>
+
+<p>The probability is that the specimen of cloth, without a selvedge,
+having been stretched over the body for a long period of time, has, in
+the course of that time lost its nature and when removed it has
+retained its altered form and gives us the impression of having been
+woven diagonally.</p>
+
+
+<h3>&ldquo;THE LINEN GIRDLE OF RAMESES III.&rdquo;</h3>
+
+<p>In the foregoing I have shown how extremely simple was the
+whole apparatus for weaving in use by the Ancient Egyptians, and one
+is rather surprised to be told that about B.C. 1200, in the time of
+Rameses III., the Egyptians &ldquo;built and used looms very much more
+complicated than has hitherto been believed to be the case,&rdquo; or to be
+referred to &ldquo;the really complicated form of loom used.&rdquo; Yet this is
+what Mr. Thorold D. Lee tells us (pp. 84 and 86) in his paper on <i>The
+Linen Girdle of Rameses III.</i> (<i>Ann. of Arch&aelig;ology and Anthropology of
+the Liverpool Institute of Arch&aelig;ology</i>, July, 1912, V.)</p>
+
+<p>The characteristics of this girdle are its great length, 17 feet
+(5 m. 2), its even taper diminishing from 5 in. (12&middot;7 cm.) in width to
+1<span class="tfrac">7</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span> in. (4&middot;8 cm.) in width, its elaborate design and excellent workmanship.
+Perhaps the chief of these characteristics is the taper. It is
+most probable, as Mr. Lee points out, that in the weaving the warp
+threads have been gradually dropped out to make the taper, rather
+than that additional warp threads have been added. As it is easy to
+drop a warp thread, and almost impossible to add one while weaving is
+in progress, Mr. Lee&rsquo;s view is confirmed by this. It would also be
+almost impossible to keep the warp taut if the number of warp threads
+were increased as the work went on. This means that the girdle was
+commenced at the wide end and finished at the narrow end.</p>
+
+<p>It is common knowledge that when a warp thread drops out, its
+place is indicated by a thinness or fine opening for the whole length
+of the missing warp, and this is so because the reed, besides pushing
+the weft into position, also acts as a warp spacer, that is to say it keeps
+the warp threads properly apart, every one being properly aligned.
+When no reed is used the warp threads are not so evenly placed&mdash;they
+are not so parallel to one another for there is nothing but their
+tautness to keep them in position. Hence there is every reason to
+conclude that when, on a loom provided with a reed, warp threads have
+been removed their position must be indicated, and <i>vice versa</i> if no
+reed has been used the position of the removed threads will not be so
+clearly indicated, but there will be a more marked shrinkage in the
+width of the cloth as well as in the pattern, and this is what has taken
+place in the girdle giving us the diminishing taper.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 422px;">
+<img src="images/aegl31.jpg" width="422" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">&ldquo;THE LINEN GIRDLE OF RAMESES III.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="captionpad"><i>Reproduced by kind permission of Dr. Clubb, Director, The Museums, Liverpool.</i></p>
+
+<p>If this diminishing taper were indicated by a decrease in the width
+of the pattern commencing at the selvedges, then it might be presumed
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg&nbsp;25]</a></span>
+that a reed had been used for the central portion only&mdash;a very clumsy
+even if feasible arrangement, but the pattern begins to decrease along
+the middle and hence no reed could have been used.</p>
+
+<p>It does not follow that because a loom was not provided with a reed
+it was without heddles. Anyone who will examine the large series of
+primitive looms at Bankfield Museum, will observe that heddles preceded
+reeds; this must necessarily be so as the making of the shed is the
+first step in weaving, while the reed&rsquo;s work is more that of a finisher.
+But the heddles are all extremely primitive, and in my experience do
+not exceed four in number where there is no reed. Such a quantity
+of heddles with its complicated harness as Mr. Lee considers necessary
+is quite out of the question with a loom so undeveloped as not to be
+provided with a reed. Hence the indication is that the girdle was
+woven on a loom of a primitive character.</p>
+
+<p>In carrying out the work the weaver has made many mistakes.
+On the left hand side of the right hand row of red crosses (they come
+out black in the photograph) there is an &ldquo;end down&rdquo; for a considerable
+distance&mdash;that is a thread has been missed.</p>
+
+<p>On the same row of crosses three white threads show above and
+below, while on the left hand row of crosses there are five white threads
+above and below. The crosses are neither the same size nor shape in
+the two columns and curiously their white hafts in both columns point
+to the left instead of one row pointing to the left and the other to the
+right. Then again the white point at the right apex of the zigzag on
+the left corresponds to a red point at the left apex of the right hand
+zigzag, but if the girdle had been woven on an advanced loom with
+dobby and harness these points would have been red in both places.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the large number of warp threads to the inch which
+Mr. Lee puts down as 272-340 (107-134 per cm.), this does not by any
+means indicate a complicated piece of machinery for the weaving of
+this belt or any other fabric. The greater the number of threads to
+the inch the finer must the threads be in order to get them into the
+allotted space, and in the weaving there will be so many more threads
+to raise and lower in order to make the shed opening. It means
+multiplying the work but does not necessarily mean that a more complicated
+loom must be used in the weaving.</p>
+
+<p>It is not possible without opening the fabric to be quite positive
+on the many points which are raised, but there seems nothing about it
+which should prevent its having been made on a simple loom. Although
+superior to most, but not all, of the well known Coptic cloths in Bankfield
+and in many other museums, it very closely resembles some of
+them in many respects excepting in the taper.</p>
+
+<p>I should add that in making my examination of this girdle I was
+kindly assisted by Mr. C. A. Trigg, a well known Halifax mill
+manager and designer. We made the examination independently
+and on comparing notes afterwards found that we agreed in all
+essential points.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg&nbsp;26]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>AN EXAMINATION OF FIFTEEN SPECIMENS OF MUMMY
+WRAPPINGS.</h3>
+
+<p class="center">By <span class="smcap">W. W. Midgley</span>, Curator, retired, The Museums, Bolton.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;So far back as 1834, Mummy cloths occupied the attention of
+James Thompson, F.R.S., who, after researches into their characteristics
+and structure wrote a paper on the subject, which appears in the
+London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, Vol. V., page 355.
+From that time until quite recently, little additional knowledge on the
+subject has appeared. In the early part of 1910, Prof. W. M. Flinders
+Petrie, F.R.S., expressed a desire that the writer should undertake
+microscopic investigation of the body-wrappings of cloths of the III.
+and early IV. Dynasties (<i>circa</i> 2980-2750 B.C.) which he had brought
+home from excavations made at a cemetery near Meydum, Upper
+Egypt. The report upon them forms part of the &ldquo;<i>Historical Studies</i>,&rdquo;
+Vol. II., of the <i>British School of Arch&aelig;ology in Egypt</i>.</p>
+
+<p>When Mr. Ling Roth suggested that some of the examples of
+Egyptian Mummy cloths in Bankfield Museum should be examined on
+similar lines, describing the construction of the fabrics and yarns,
+together with the characteristics of the fibres used, I undertook to
+carry out the work and forward to him the results for permanent
+reference.</p>
+
+<p>Each of the fifteen cloths submitted was first examined by mounting
+about &frac34;" &times; <span class="tfrac">5</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span>" (20 mm. &times; 16 mm.) of the cloth on 3" &times; 1" (76 mm.
+&times; 25 mm.) glass slips, and covering with thin glass, so as to find out
+its plan of composition and the number of warp and weft threads per
+linear inch. Afterwards, a little of the warp threads as well as of the
+weft, was untwisted and the fibres separated, and these mounted apart
+on another 3" &times; 1" slip (76 &times; 25 mm.), so that the kind of textile fibre
+used and the diameter of the fibres could be measured. These microscopical
+preparations will be kept in Bankfield Museum, as they may
+be of interest to microscopists in the locality.</p>
+
+<p>The cloths are from three sources:&mdash;Nos. 1 and 2 being from the
+private collection of Dr. Wallis-Budge, who has given the specimens to
+Bankfield Museum; Nos. 3 to 8 are from the old Meyer collection in
+the Liverpool Museum (unfortunately the origin of them is unknown);
+and those marked 9 to 15 were taken from a mummy of the XXVI.
+Dynasty, brought to this country by Lord Denbigh, and now also in
+the Liverpool Museum.</p>
+
+<p>A.&mdash;Specimens of Mummy cloths from Theban Tombs date about
+B.C. 1400, presented by Dr. Wallis-Budge.</p>
+
+<div class="listblock">
+<p>1. A plain &ldquo;one-up-and-one-down&rdquo; linen cloth. The yarns in
+this example are more irregular in diameter than usual&mdash;the warp
+strands varying from <span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">25</span>"th
+to <span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">71</span>"st (1 mm. to
+&middot;<span class="tfrac">2</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span> mm.) The warp
+has about half its strands doubled (that is twined together), whereas
+the weft has only about one in twenty doubled. See <a href="#Fig_26"><b>Fig. 26</b></a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg&nbsp;27]</a></span>
+2. This is a coarser fabric, has been dyed with <ins class="correction" title="safron in original">saffron</ins>, and is somewhat
+brittle to tease out the fibres. Both these cloths had evidently
+absorbed some of the gums or balsams used in the process of embalming,
+and hence the difficulty of separating the fibres for identification
+is increased. The structure of the fabric is peculiar, and, indeed, the
+only instance I have seen in Egyptian cloths. A portion, near the
+middle of the piece sent, has the warp strands in pairs parallel to each
+other, a few of them being double yarns, while all the remainder are
+doubled. Of the weft, nearly half are double yarns. See <a href="#Fig_27"><b>Fig. 27</b></a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_26" id="Fig_26"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl32.png" width="300" height="301" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="captionpad">Fig. 26.&mdash;Magnified 10 diameters.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_27" id="Fig_27"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl33.png" width="300" height="294" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="captionpad">Fig. 27.&mdash;Magnified 10 diameters,
+showing the warp yarn in pairs.</p>
+
+<p>B.&mdash;Specimens from the Meyer Collection, marked No. 11088.
+(Date of acquisition about 1856; date and place of origin unknown).</p>
+
+<div class="listblock">
+<p>3. This is a beautifully soft, fine <em>Wool</em> fabric, containing no size
+or balsam. From the fineness of the yarn and of the individual fibres
+I have no doubt that the wool has been imported from India, or, more
+likely, that the cloth was made in Cashmere. The texture is a plain
+weave, has a selvedge edge, the warp yarns are doubled, while the weft
+is single yarn. It is much to be regretted that the particulars of
+locality, of burial, and the period of time to which this interesting
+fabric belongs has been lost. I assume from the general characteristics
+that it is of a late period&mdash;probably not earlier than the Ptolemaic.</p>
+
+<p>4. This linen cloth has a plain selvedge, regular weave, and contains
+no size. About 25% of both warp and weft yarns are doubled,
+and all are very even in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>5. A coarse linen cloth with plain selvedge. All the yarns are
+single and even in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>6. This is a coarse, highly-sized linen cloth. The yarns are
+agglutinated, are brittle, and it is difficult to separate the fibres. The
+sample submitted has been cut from the end of the piece and shows
+the warp ends.</p>
+
+<p>7. A coarse linen cloth, sized and brittle. No selvedge on the
+piece sent. Both warp and weft yarns are single, and even in diameter.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg&nbsp;28]</a></span>
+8. This is a very coarse linen fabric heavily sized and brittle.
+Both warp and weft yarns are single and very irregular in diameter.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>C.&mdash;Lord Denbigh&rsquo;s: XXVI. Dynasty.</p>
+
+<div class="listblock">
+<p>9. A soft-spun linen cloth containing no size. Specimen has
+been cut from the body of the fabric, showing no selvedge. About
+half of the warp is composed of doubled yarns of irregular diameter;
+the weft is of doubled yarns and more regular in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>10. The selvedge of this linen fabric is peculiar and somewhat
+elaborate. The outer margin is composed of four sets of ten yarns
+parallel to each other, forming one strand of warp; then comes a space
+of 1<span class="tfrac">9</span>/<span class="bfrac">10</span>" (48 mm.) where the warp yarns are dyed red; then occurs
+three more sets of ten parallel yarns (the object being to strengthen
+the selvedge), followed by the general body of the fabric. The entire
+selvedge is 2&frac14;" (57 mm.) wide. About half the warp yarns are
+doubled, while all the weft are composed of doubled yarns, both being
+fairly even in diameter, and not sized.</p>
+
+<p>11. A fine, soft, linen cloth, with selvedge 1<span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span>" (29 mm.) wide;
+the three outer and the two inner strands of the warp are made up of
+many parallel yarns, as in No. 10, with an interspace of <span class="tfrac">3</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span>" (10 mm.)
+All the warp yarns are dyed red, about 25% of them being doubled;
+the weft is peculiar in having five or six strands of single yarns
+alternating with six or seven double yarns, giving a faint stripe in the
+fabric.</p>
+
+<p>12. A linen cloth, with no selvedge edge. It has been dyed red,
+probably <i>ferum</i>, a dye which I find uniformly associated with friable
+or decomposing fibres.</p>
+
+<p>13. A peculiarly coloured fine linen cloth; the pattern is caused
+by some of the warp yarns being dyed, and occurring sometimes of
+four, two, or one red strands, with grey ones intermixed. A few of the
+warp yarns are doubled. The weft is composed of single yarns and
+are all in the grey.</p>
+
+<p>14. A coarse soft-woven linen fabric, containing no size. Lines
+are indicated at irregular distances along the cloth, varying from
+<span class="tfrac">5</span>/<span class="bfrac">16</span>" to
+<span class="tfrac">9</span>/<span class="bfrac">16</span>" (8 to 14 mm.); these are caused by the introduction of
+three strands of doubled yarn in the warp while the remainder are
+single yarns. The weft is all of doubled yarns; both warp and weft
+are very regular in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>15. This is a variegated linen fabric with warps coloured something
+like No. 13, but the red strands of warp are more irregular in
+distribution. Like it, a few of the warp yarns are doubled, both the
+red and the grey; while the weft is all of single yarns and in the grey.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>[A considerable quantity of specimens of the cloths which were
+woven by the Ancient Egyptians has been examined both in this
+country and abroad. I may, however, call special attention to the
+results of examination published in Miss M. A. Murray&rsquo;s excellent
+little work <i>The Tomb of Two Brothers</i>, Manchester Museum Publications,
+No. 68, 1910.&mdash;H.L.R.]</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg&nbsp;29]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Details of the Composition of the Body Wrappings.</span></h4>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Composition of the body wrappings">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdctbtbr" rowspan="3" colspan="4">Specimen No.</td>
+    <td class="tdctbtbr" rowspan="3">Nature of Textile Fibre.</td>
+    <td class="tdctbtbr" rowspan="3">Warp Ends per inch.</td>
+    <td class="tdctbtdbr" rowspan="3">Weft Picks per inch.</td>
+    <td class="tdctbt" colspan="6">Micro Measurements of Ten Fibres.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcbtdbr" colspan="2">Weft.</td>
+    <td class="tdcbtdbr" colspan="2">Warp.</td>
+    <td class="tdcbt" colspan="2">Mean of</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcbtbr">Max.</td>
+    <td class="tdcbtdbr">Min.</td>
+    <td class="tdcbtbr">Max.</td>
+    <td class="tdcbtdbr">Min.</td>
+    <td class="tdcbtbr">Weft.</td>
+    <td class="tdcbt">Warp.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrdbtbr" colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbtbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbtbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbtdbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbtbr">in.</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbtdbr">in.</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbtbr">in.</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbtdbr">in.</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbtbr">in.</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbt">in.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">A.</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrbr">1</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">Linen</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">44</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">32</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1400</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3333</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1424</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3330</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1768</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1786</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbb">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrbr">2</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">10</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">17</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1786</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3330</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1780</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2860</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2020</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1905</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" rowspan="6">B.</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrbr">3</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">Wool</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">224&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">40</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">833</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">833</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2000</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1351</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1429</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrbr">4</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">Linen</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">64</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">32</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1429</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1250</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">5000</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1818</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1754</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrbr">5</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">56</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">20</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1250</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3333</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1250</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1754</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1724</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrbr">6</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">48</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">24</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1250</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1000</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1640</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1594</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrbr">7</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">48</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">20</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1111</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1000</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1408</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1428</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbb">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrbr">8</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">36</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">16</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">833</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3333</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1111</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1456</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1613</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" rowspan="7">C.</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrbr">9</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">48</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">24</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1666</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3333</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1666</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3333</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2222</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1860</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrbr">10</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">32</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">60</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">833</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3333</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">908</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3333</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1724</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1613</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrbr">11</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">80</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">36</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1429</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3333</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1000</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3333</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1887</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1784</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrbr">12</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">96</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">40</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1111</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1250</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1724</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1695</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrbr">13</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">80</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">36</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1111</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1429</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1640</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2040</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrbr">14</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">56</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">24</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">909</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">3333</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1250</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1594</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1695</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbb">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrbr">15</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">64</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">36</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1250</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2000</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1429</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">2500</span></td>
+    <td class="tdcbr"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1724</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc"><span class="tfrac">1</span>/<span class="bfrac">1818</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdltbb">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdctbb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrtbbbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdctbbbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdctbbbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdctbbdbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdctbbbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdctbbdbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdctbbbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdctbbdbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdctbbbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdctbb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">The above converted into Metrical Measurements.</span></h4>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Metrical measurement of body wrappings">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdctbtbr" rowspan="3">Specimen No.</td>
+    <td class="tdctbtbr" rowspan="3">Nature of Textile Fibre.</td>
+    <td class="tdctbtbr" rowspan="3">Warp Ends per Centim.</td>
+    <td class="tdctbtdbr" rowspan="3">Weft Picks per Centim.</td>
+    <td class="tdctbt" colspan="6">Micro Measurements of Ten Fibres in <ins class="correction" title="Millemetres in original">Millimetres</ins>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcbtdbr" colspan="2">Weft.</td>
+    <td class="tdcbtdbr" colspan="2">Warp.</td>
+    <td class="tdcbt" colspan="2">Mean of</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcbtbr">Max.</td>
+    <td class="tdcbtdbr">Min.</td>
+    <td class="tdcbtbr">Max.</td>
+    <td class="tdcbtdbr">Min.</td>
+    <td class="tdcbtbr">Weft.</td>
+    <td class="tdcbt">Warp.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrdbtbr">1</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbtbr">Linen</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbtbr">17</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbtdbr">12&middot;6</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbtbr">&middot;0181</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbtdbr">&middot;0076</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbtbr">&middot;0178</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbtdbr">&middot;0076</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbtbr">&middot;0144</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbt">&middot;0142</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrbr">2</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&nbsp;&nbsp;6&middot;7</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0142</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0076</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0143</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0089</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0126</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&middot;0133</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrbr">3</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">Wool</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">88</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">15&middot;6</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0305</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0101</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0305</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0127</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0188</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&middot;0178</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrbr">4</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">Linen</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">25</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">12&middot;6</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0178</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0101</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0203</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0050</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0140</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&middot;0145</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrbr">5</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">22</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&nbsp;&nbsp;7&middot;8&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0203</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0076</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0203</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0101</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0145</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&middot;0147</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrbr">6</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">19</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&nbsp;&nbsp;9&middot;5</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0203</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0101</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0254</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0101</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0155</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&middot;0159</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrbr">7</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">19</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&nbsp;&nbsp;7&middot;8</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0229</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0101</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0254</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0101</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0180</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&middot;0178</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrbr">8</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;14&middot;1</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&nbsp;&nbsp;6&middot;3</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0305</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0076</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0229</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0101</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0174</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&middot;0157</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrbr">9</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">19</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&nbsp;&nbsp;9&middot;5</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0152</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0076</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0152</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0076</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0208</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&middot;0130</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrbr">10</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;12&middot;6</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">23&middot;6</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0305</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0076</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0278</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0076</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0147</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&middot;0157</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrbr">11</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;31&middot;5</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">14&middot;1</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0178</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0076</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0254</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0076</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0135</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&middot;0142</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrbr">12</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;37&middot;4</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">15&middot;6</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0229</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0101</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0203</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0101</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0147</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&middot;0149</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrbr">13</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">19</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">14&middot;1</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0229</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0101</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0178</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0101</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0155</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&middot;0124</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrbr">14</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">22</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&nbsp;&nbsp;9&middot;5</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0278</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0076</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0203</td>
+    <td class="tdcdbr">&middot;0101</td>
+    <td class="tdcbr">&middot;0159</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&middot;0149</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrtbbbr">15</td>
+    <td class="tdctbbbr">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdctbbbr">25</td>
+    <td class="tdctbbdbr">14&middot;1</td>
+    <td class="tdctbbbr">&middot;0203</td>
+    <td class="tdctbbdbr">&middot;0127</td>
+    <td class="tdctbbbr">&middot;0178</td>
+    <td class="tdctbbdbr">&middot;0101</td>
+    <td class="tdctbbbr">&middot;0147</td>
+    <td class="tdctbb">&middot;0140</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It is very obvious they had no scale to work to.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> To the uninitiated I may explain that in a horizontal loom the plane of the warp is more
+or less parallel with that of the floor, while in an upright or vertical loom the plane of the warp
+is at right angles to that of the floor.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> To avoid indistinctness through over reduction, I have endeavoured to keep all reproductions
+in this paper as large as possible, and think I have succeeded in not losing any detail in the
+necessary reduction.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> Hay&rsquo;s drawings are not published but can be seen in the Brit. Mus., Add. MSS. No.
+29823, Fol. 32.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_D_4" id="Footnote_D_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_D_4"><span class="label">[D]</span></a> Olafsson, to be referred to later on, remarks that while in Ovid&rsquo;s time the <i>spathe</i> was used
+for beating-in the weft, in Seneca&rsquo;s time the weft was beaten in by a toothed instrument. In
+other words a weaver&rsquo;s comb&mdash;the embryo reed&mdash;had been introduced.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg&nbsp;30]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="II_The_Greek_Loom" id="II_The_Greek_Loom"></a><span class="smcap">II. The Greek Loom.</span></h2>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_28" id="Fig_28"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl34.png" width="600" height="403" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 28.&mdash;A Bushongo weaver at work. From Torday and Joyce, <i>Notes Ethnographiques</i>,
+<i>Ann. du Congo</i>, p. 182.</p>
+
+<p>We have now to say a few words about an upright loom which
+differs very materially from the Egyptian loom already described.
+Whether the horizontal loom is a later product than the vertical loom,
+or was evolved from it, or whether both were independent inventions cannot
+be discussed here, but I may point out that there is an intermediate
+form between the two. It is doubtful as to whether this is a transition
+form. It was first brought to my notice by Mr. T. A. Joyce, as in use
+amongst some negro peoples in Central Africa possessing an old, high
+and possibly introduced civilisation, and is figured in Messrs. Torday
+and Joyce&rsquo;s Notes <i>Ethnographiques ... Bakuba ... et Bushongo</i>
+(<i>Annales du Congo</i>) pp. 24 and 182. In this loom the warp is stretched
+between an upper beam and a lower beam at an angle of about 90
+degrees, and the weaver sits underneath at his work, <a href="#Fig_28"><b>Fig. 28</b></a>. It is
+not at all uncommon to meet with illustrations showing the warp
+stretched at an incline, and apart from the fact that in many the
+weavers are posing for illustration, and therefore, are most probably not
+exactly in their natural positions, the tilted arrangement has this
+advantage, namely, that the work of beating-in is improved by the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg&nbsp;31]</a></span>
+fall given to the &ldquo;sword&rdquo; which, with less exertion by the weaver,
+drives the weft home more effectively. In all these cases, however,
+the weaver sits or stands in front of the loom, but in the case of the
+Bushongo the loom is tilted to such an extent that the weaver finds it
+more convenient to sit underneath the warp.</p>
+
+<p>The discovery by Messrs. Alan Gardiner and N. de G. Davies
+of illustrations of Egyptian upright looms, confirms Wilkinson in his
+statement and illustration that the Egyptians had this class of loom
+as well as the horizontal one. The vertical loom is found in Europe,
+Asia, Africa and America, and is, probably, ethnically as old if not
+older than the horizontal loom.<a name="FNanchor_E_5" id="FNanchor_E_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_E_5" class="fnanchor">[E]</a> But this Egyptian upright loom
+differs from another, the Greek, or Central European, or Scandinavian
+form of the upright loom, in having an upper and a lower beam so that
+the warp is made taut between two beams, while in the Greek loom there
+is only <em>one</em> beam. The warp hangs from this beam, the warp threads
+being made taut by means of weights attached at the lower ends.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 332px;">
+<a name="Fig_29a" id="Fig_29a"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl35.png" width="332" height="400" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 29a.&mdash;Illustration on a small lekythos of an
+Athenian girl at work on a tapestry loom, together
+with a full size tracing of the tapestry loom.
+British Museum. B.C. 500.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 246px;">
+<a name="Fig_29b" id="Fig_29b"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl36.png" width="246" height="400" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 29b.&mdash;Illustration of a Greek
+woman with a tapestry loom. From
+Stackelberg&rsquo;s <i>Graeber der Hellenen</i>,
+pl. xxxiii.</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks were, however, acquainted with the tapestry loom,
+for there exists in the British Museum a small lekythos with an
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg&nbsp;32]</a></span>
+illustration, <a href="#Fig_29a"><b>Fig. 29a</b></a>, of such an article resting on the knees of a lady
+weaver.<a name="FNanchor_F_6" id="FNanchor_F_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_F_6" class="fnanchor">[F]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 233px;">
+<a name="Fig_30" id="Fig_30"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl37.png" width="233" height="400" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 30.&mdash;Greek woman at
+work on a loom. From C. Robert
+<ins class="greek" title="Eph arch">&#7960;&#966; &#7936;&#961;&#967;</ins> 1892, pl. xiii., p. 247.
+It is not possible to say from this
+illustration whether this is a
+warp weighted loom or not.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="Fig_31" id="Fig_31"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl38.png" width="400" height="317" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 31.&mdash;Penelope at her loom. Illustration on an
+Athenian skyphos found in an <ins class="correction" title="Etrusian in original">Etruscan</ins> tomb at Chiusi,
+and at present in the museum there. The illustration
+is taken from <i>Monumenti d. Inst. Archeologico</i>, IX.,
+pl. xlii.</p>
+
+<p>It has been described by Mr. H. B. Walters in <i>Jour. Hellenic
+Studies</i>, XXXI., 1911, p. 15, who says: &ldquo;In front of her, <a href="#Fig_29a"><b>Fig. 29a</b></a>, is
+a white wool basket (<i>Kalathos</i>) and on her lap is a frame somewhat in
+the form of a lyre, being formed by two upright pieces with knobs at
+the top, diverging slightly towards the top, across between which are
+stretched two threads at the top and two at the bottom, seven vertical
+threads being also visible. Her hands are placed on the threads,
+which she is engaged in manipulating. This object can only be
+intended for a hand loom, though there is apparently no evidence for
+the <ins class="correction" title="use use in original">use</ins> of such objects in ancient times or among Oriental races
+either in the past or the present day. The only other parallel to the
+representation on this vase is one published by Stackelberg, <a href="#Fig_29b"><b>Fig. 29b</b></a>,
+where a woman holds a similar frame and is similarly occupied with
+her hands. The writers of the articles <i>Sticken</i> in Baumeister and
+<i>Phrygium Opus</i> in Daremberg and Saglio, misled by the likeness of the
+object to the modern crewel-frame, interpret the process as embroidery.
+But this kind of work implies cloth or other textile substance already
+woven, on which patterns are worked in, whereas in both vase
+paintings the textile is obviously in course of construction.&rdquo; He is
+right in so far as he goes, but both representations are those of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg&nbsp;33]</a></span>
+<em>tapestry</em> looms which fact is indicated by the warp threads in both
+cases, and by the design marked on the warp threads of <a href="#Fig_29b"><b>Fig. 29b</b></a>&mdash;a
+method of preparing their work in use to this day by tapestry weavers.
+Some authorities consider that tapestry weaving is more closely related
+to mat making than to true weaving. In other words, I take it
+tapestry is an early stage in the development of weaving. From this
+we get some idea as to how far the Greeks had progressed in the
+textile arts.</p>
+
+<p>As pointed out by MM. Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dic. des Antiquit&eacute;s
+Grecques et Romaines</i> pt. 46, p. 164, &ldquo;illustrations of Greek or Roman
+methods of weaving are very rare, they are much reduced and in so
+far as the art is concerned purely diagrammatic.&rdquo; On the other hand
+if there are numerous references in the texts of classic authors, these
+references seem rather to obscure than elucidate the method of working.
+However, there are three illustrations&mdash;the Penelope loom,
+<a href="#Fig_31"><b>Fig. 31</b></a>, and two Boeotian looms, one of which is illustrated in <a href="#Fig_15"><b>Fig. 15</b></a>&mdash;quite
+sufficient to explain the principle of the upright loom as used
+with warp weights by the Greeks, and the discovery of numerous
+articles, considered to be the warp weights, confirm the illustration.</p>
+
+<p>The principle is the same throughout, viz.: the looms are vertical,
+there is a warp beam on top, there are two cross rods one of which is a
+laze rod and <em>possibly</em> the other is a heddle; and the warp threads are all
+kept taut by means of attached weights. On one of the Boeotian looms
+a bobbin or spool is shown. Along the top of Penelope&rsquo;s loom there are
+indications of nine pegs, on six of which balls of coloured thread have
+been placed, evidently for working out the designs, very much the
+same as shown on the rug loom in Bankfield Museum already referred
+to. The warp weights on this Athenian illustration are triangular in
+shape, and perhaps resemble the pyramidic weights found in Egypt
+and attributed to Roman times. Assuming these pyramids are
+Roman warp weights it would appear that both Greeks and Romans
+had vertical looms on which the warp threads were kept taut by
+means of weights. In one of the few clearly expressed technical
+classical references, Seneca speaks of the warp threads stretched by
+hanging weights.</p>
+
+<p>In the above classical illustrations which are after all only rough
+diagrams, the warp weights appear to hang from a <em>single</em> thread only,
+but this can not have been correct. The warp threads must have been
+bunched, because a single suspended thread with a tension weight
+immediately begins to unravel, and so loses the advantage of its
+having been spun, as any one can ascertain for oneself. As regards
+the same point on the Lake Dwellers looms, Cohausen was the first to
+surmise that the warp threads were bunched to receive the weight,
+and Messikommer proved it by practical experiment.<a name="FNanchor_G_7" id="FNanchor_G_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_G_7" class="fnanchor">[G]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg&nbsp;34]</a></span>
+As can be surmised with this class of loom the weaving begins at
+the <em>top</em>, working <em>down</em>wards, and the beating-in of the weft is <em>up</em>wards&mdash;the
+exact opposite to the method adopted with other looms&mdash;for the
+pendant warp ends, although weighted to keep them taut, do not
+appear to have been further fixed in position, so that to commence
+weaving at the lower end made the operation so extremely difficult
+as to be almost impossible.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Fig_32" id="Fig_32"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl39.png" width="600" height="576" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="captionpara">Fig. 32.&mdash;Illustration of a Scandinavian warp weighted loom in the Copenhagen Museum.
+The illustration is taken from Montelius&rsquo; <i>Civilisation of Sweden in Heathen Times</i>, translated by
+the Rev. F. H. Woods, London, Macmillan &amp; Co., 1888, p. 160.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">[In the illustration of this loom published by the Trustees of the British Museum, in their
+<i>Guide to the Antiquities of the Early Iron Age</i>, London, 1905, p. 139, the shape of the warp
+weights has been altered to suit the shape of such weights in the British Museum collections.]</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 455px;">
+<a name="Fig_33" id="Fig_33"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl40.png" width="455" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">Fig. 33.&mdash;Icelandic Loom after Olafsson.</p>
+
+<p class="captionpara"><i>a a</i> Beam on which the warp is fixed. <i>b b</i> Weights to make the warp taut. <i>c c</i> Brackets
+which support the beam and on which it can be revolved by means of the spoke <i>e</i> when the warp
+has to be lengthened, on account of the weft <i>f</i> working downwards and so shortening the finished
+portion of the woven cloth. <i>g</i> A sharp bone or tough piece of wood to beat the weft into proper
+position. <i>h</i> The wound up weft which is pushed through the warp with the fingers. <i>i i</i> The
+unbeamed warp. <i>k k</i> The heddles or shed openers. <i>l l</i> The supports on which the heddles rest
+when the &ldquo;pick&rdquo; is made [<i>i.e.</i>, the pushing the weft through]. <i>m</i> The beater-in. <i>n</i> and <i>o</i> Laze
+rods. <i>q</i> The <ins class="correction" title="templete in original">template</ins> for regulating the width of the cloth. <i>r r</i> and <i>s s</i> Beam on to which the
+loom is fixed.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Some of the descriptions are not as clear as could be wished. It is probable that <i>g</i> is a preliminary
+to <i>m</i>. N. Annandale mentions that he obtained in the Faroes a beater-in made of a
+whale&rsquo;s jaw or rib; while in Iceland he saw some of the perforated stones to which the warp
+threads were attached (<i>The Faroes and Iceland</i>, Oxford, 1905, pp. 195-6).</p>
+
+<p>The Scandinavian form of the &ldquo;Greek&rdquo; loom from the Faroes
+<a href="#Fig_32"><b>Fig. 32</b></a>, is made known to us through the article itself in the
+Copenhagen Museum, illustrated by Montelius, <i>Civilisation of Sweden
+in Heathen Times</i>, Lond. 1888, p. 160, and through the very clear
+illustration and description given us by Olafsson in his <i>Oeconomische
+Reise durch Island</i>, 1787, translated from the Danish edition of
+1780. The loom figured by Olafsson, <a href="#Fig_33"><b>Fig. 33</b></a>, shows an advance
+on that of Montelius, in being provided with heddles.<a name="FNanchor_H_8" id="FNanchor_H_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_H_8" class="fnanchor">[H]</a> Upright
+looms with a lower beam instead of with warp weights and furnished
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"><!-- Figure 33 in original --></a></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg&nbsp;36]</a></span>
+with heddles, are not uncommon. There are the well known Indian
+and Persian rug looms, and Du Chaillu figures one in his <i>Journey
+to Ashango Land</i>, London, 1867, plate facing p. 291. Randall-Maciver
+and Wilkin illustrate a vertical loom in use among the
+Kabyles, <i>Libyan Notes</i>, London, 1901, Pl. IX., and although the
+details of the illustration are not clear the text indicates the
+existence of one heddle: &ldquo;The warp is decussated by means of a
+horizontal rod and leashes.&rdquo; Dr. Washington Mathews figures several
+Navajo looms with heddles, <i>Third Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology</i>,
+p. 291; Ancient Peruvians also used them, as shown by Dr. Max
+Schmidt, <i>Baessler Archiv, I. pt. 1</i>, and so on practically <i>ad. lib.</i> But
+to work an upright warp-weighted loom with heddles is attended with
+great practical inconvenience, and this difficulty has, no doubt, been
+one of the chief causes of the complete discardance of this class of
+loom.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the evidence in favour of the existence of warp
+weighted looms, the Director of the Hermannstadt Museum, Dr. v.
+Kimakovicz-Winnicki, sees fit to deny their existence. He found that
+in some parts of Transylvania the peasants use wooden pyramids (see
+<a href="#Fig_18"><b>Fig. 18</b></a>) similar to the Roman warp weights for winding the thread from
+the spindle on to the shuttle. For this purpose sockets are bored
+into the thin or top end of two pyramids, which are placed just
+so far apart that a spindle can rest horizontally with one end in the
+socket of one pyramid, and the other end of the spindle in the socket
+of the other pyramid, and the thread in being wound off on to the
+shuttle causes the spindle to revolve in the sockets. From this he
+argues that what we have hitherto taken to be warp weights are not
+warp weights at all (<i>Spinn-&nbsp;u. Webewerkzeuge</i>, Wuerzburg, 1911), and
+having denied these articles to be warp weights he gets over the
+difficulty presented by the illustration of Penelope at her loom, by
+attempting to prove that what we take to be a loom is no loom at all
+but a <i>flechtrahm</i>, <i>i.e.</i> plaiting frame! He then attempts to pull to
+pieces the idea that the Scandinavian loom in the Copenhagen Museum
+is a loom and condemns it as unworkable. There can be no doubt
+about his meaning as he defines his terms. The principle of weaving
+(<i>Weben</i>) he describes &ldquo;as the absorption of two groups of parallel
+material elements (warp and weft) at right angles to each other, and the
+principle of plaiting (<i>Flechten</i>) as the absorption by itself in one plane
+of one group only of material element, (warp)&rdquo; and he gives diagrammatic
+illustrations showing clearly what he means (<i>op. cit.</i> p. 31).<a name="FNanchor_I_9" id="FNanchor_I_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_I_9" class="fnanchor">[I]</a> Judging
+from his remarks one must conclude he has not seen a primitive loom
+of any sort, and were it not for the official position he holds, his
+remarks would not need answering.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg&nbsp;37]</a></span>
+It has, I believe, been suggested more than once that some of the
+perforated stones, pieces of burnt clay, pieces of chalk and like objects
+may be and are net-sinkers, and there is some justification for Dr.
+Kimakovicz-Winnicki&rsquo;s statement that the pyramidic forms are not
+warp weights; but it does not follow that all the perforated articles
+are either spindle-holders or net-sinkers, yet that is what his subsequent
+statements lead one to infer. It is, however, difficult to prove
+that these perforated articles are warp weights.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 313px;">
+<a name="Fig_34" id="Fig_34"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl41.png" width="313" height="400" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="captionpara">Fig. 34.&mdash;Side view and section of chalk
+warp weight found at Great Driffield. Of
+three of the weights the following dimensions
+were taken:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Dimensions of weights">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">7&frac34;"</td>
+    <td class="tdl">(19&middot;7 cm.)</td>
+    <td class="tdl">long,</td>
+    <td class="tdl">2 lbs. 3 oz.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">(1&middot;0 k)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">6"</td>
+    <td class="tdl">(15&middot;2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&rdquo;&nbsp;&nbsp;)</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">1 lb.&nbsp;&nbsp;8 oz.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">(0&middot;7 k)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">6<span class="tfrac">3</span>/<span class="bfrac">8</span>"</td>
+    <td class="tdl">(16&middot;2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&rdquo;&nbsp;&nbsp;)</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">1 lb.&nbsp;&nbsp;3 oz.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">(0&middot;6 k)</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="caption">Hull Museum.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 191px;">
+<a name="Fig_35" id="Fig_35"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl42.png" width="191" height="300" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 35.&mdash;&ldquo;Chalk weight, 6" &times; 4" &times; 2"
+(15&middot;2 cm. &times; 10&middot;2 &times; 5&middot;1), similar to those
+found in pits, at Mount Caburn and Cissbury
+near Worthing, Sussex. Found with eighteen
+more in the <em>filling</em> of pit 7, Winkelbury Hill.&rdquo;
+<i>Excavations in Winkelbury Camp</i>, by Lieut.-Gen.
+Pitt-Rivers (<i>Excavations in Cranbourne
+Chase</i>, Vol. II., 1888). As Pitt-Rivers also
+found at Winkelbury the fragment of a comb
+and a chalk spindle <ins class="correction" title="whorle in original">whorl</ins>, which are textile
+tools, we may safely presume these fashioned
+pieces of chalk are warp weights.</p>
+
+<p>In 1875 several flat irregular oblong perforated pieces of soft
+chalk were found in enlarging the cattle market in Great Driffield,
+Yorkshire; they were found in a hole about three feet deep with
+Anglo-Saxon potsherds, animal remains, and bits of iron. They can
+now be seen in the Mortimer Collection in the Hull Museum. They
+consist of pieces of chalk, similar to those which drop annually in
+thousands upon thousands down the cliffs from the boulder clay
+between Bridlington and Flamborough. On some a shoulder has been
+cut, <a href="#Fig_34"><b>Fig. 34</b></a>, most have one perforation, but in a few specimens, where
+the thin portion above the hole has been broken off, a second hole has
+been made. None of them can stand unsupported. Owing to the
+soluble nature of the chalk they could not have been used as net-sinkers
+in the sea (about nine miles off) for they would quickly dissolve
+in salt water, and the same holds good in regard to fresh water,
+although in a lesser degree. But I do not think they were used even in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg&nbsp;38]</a></span>
+fresh water as net-sinkers, for it was a characteristic of primitive peoples,
+with whom time was of no account, to do their work thoroughly&mdash;what
+they made was intended to last, and chalk net-sinkers would not have
+lasted. That these were found in a limited quantity, I believe about
+seventeen in number, tends to show that they are warp weights, for
+only a few are required for every loom, in spite of the considerable
+number shown in the non-technical illustration of Penelope&rsquo;s loom.
+Not being able to find any other use for these pieces of chalk, and
+judging that they are suitable for the purpose, I should say they are
+warp weights. In this case the weaver has made the most of what
+nature has given him; in other parts of England he has had to
+fashion the weight out of the rough chalk, <a href="#Fig_35"><b>Fig. 35</b></a>.</p>
+
+<p>In the Museum at Devizes there are several hard pieces of perforated
+and fashioned chalk which offer more conclusive evidence. Of
+these Mrs. M. E. Cunnington, the Curator, writes me: &ldquo;All the
+weights here have holes bored right through. Two large ones stand
+easily on the floor. Others are more irregular in form and will not stand
+upright. This latter type is, as far as I am aware, the more usual in
+this part of the country. They are <ins class="correction" title="commonally in original">commonly</ins> cut out of the hard chalk,
+and weigh about 3 or 4 lbs. (1&middot;5-2 Kilos). We think these weights
+are loom weights because we find them with Romano-British remains,
+as at Westbury, and late Celtic remains on our chalk uplands, far
+from water where fishing could have been carried on. With the same
+remains we find weaving combs, numerous spindle whorls and other
+tools of bone that were also probably used in weaving operations.&rdquo;
+The Westbury, in Wiltshire, referred to, is some thirty miles in a
+straight line from the mouth of the Severn, and about forty miles from
+the English Channel. These pieces of chalk cannot therefore have
+been used as net-sinkers, leaving out of consideration their composition;
+they were found with weaving tools and they fit the position. So far
+the ingenuity of our ablest <ins class="correction" title="archaeologists in original">arch&aelig;ologists</ins> at home and abroad has not
+succeeded in ascribing the use of these objects to anything else than
+net-sinking or warp tension. The adaptability of the articles
+for use as warp weights, the small groups in which they are found,
+the discovery of weaving implements in the closest proximity, our
+knowledge of the Greek representations of warp-weighted looms, the
+Olafsson illustration, and the loom in the Copenhagen Museum
+all tend to prove that these articles are really warp weights.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the practical possibility or <ins class="correction" title="impossibilty in original">impossibility</ins> of working a
+&ldquo;Greek&rdquo; loom, I had a simple frame made in the Museum and showed
+Mr. J. Smith, a mill &ldquo;Overlooker&rdquo; at Messrs. Wayman and Sons, Ld.,
+Halifax, the illustration in Montelius&rsquo; book already referred to, and
+asked him to weave me a small piece of cloth on it. In the course of
+a few hours he did the warping, beaming and weaving, making the
+pick with his fingers and using a ball of weft thread instead of a spool
+or shuttle. The result is shown in the accompanying illustration,
+<a href="#Fig_36"><b>Fig. 36</b></a>, conclusively proving that weaving on such a frame is quite
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg&nbsp;39]</a></span>
+feasible, and practically proving that Olafsson&rsquo;s and the Copenhagen
+warp weighted looms are properly constructed workable looms.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 257px;">
+<a name="Fig_36" id="Fig_36"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl43.png" width="257" height="500" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 36.&mdash;A warp weighted loom made at
+Bankfield Museum, to show the possibility of
+weaving by this method. There is no heddle
+nor shuttle used. The weaver made the
+&ldquo;shed&rdquo; and pushed the weft through with
+his fingers. He naturally worked <em>down</em>wards.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="Fig_37" id="Fig_37"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl44.png" width="400" height="244" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 37.&mdash;Diagram to show how the warp is kept taut on a
+Syrian loom.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, it may not be out of place here to point out that there
+are other looms, besides the Greek and Scandinavian, on which the
+warp is made taut by means of warp weights. The Rev. Dr. <ins class="correction" title="Henry in original, noted as an erratum">Harvey</ins>
+Porter, of the American College, Beyrout, Syria, writing about the
+year 1901, thus describes the common loom of the country. He says:
+&ldquo;Two upright posts are fixed in the ground, which hold the roller to
+which the threads of the warp are fastened, and upon which the cloth
+is wound as it is woven. The threads of the warp are carried upward
+towards the ceiling at the other end of the room, and pass over rollers,
+and are gathered in hanks and weighted to keep them taut (<i>Dic. of
+the Bible</i>, Edinburgh, 1902, IV., p. 901).&rdquo; He has kindly sent me an
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg&nbsp;40]</a></span>
+illustration of this loom, but unfortunately the weights are not clearly
+shown, and the same is the case with an illustration of a loom from
+Cyprus.<a name="FNanchor_J_10" id="FNanchor_J_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_J_10" class="fnanchor">[J]</a>
+The diagram, <a href="#Fig_37"><b>Fig. 37</b></a>, shows the principle. In a Shan loom
+illustrated by Mrs. Leslie Milne, in <i>The Shans at Home</i>, London, 1910,
+p. 120, the warp makes a somewhat similar detour over the head of the
+weaver, it is, however, not weighted but tied to a beam. The
+point to be observed is that these warp-weighted looms are horizontal
+and not perpendicular, and also that the weaving is the reverse of
+that on the Greek loom but similar to that on our horizontal looms,
+so that the present Syrian and Cyprian looms have nothing in
+common with the old Greek loom.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 273px;">
+<a name="Fig_38" id="Fig_38"></a>
+<img src="images/aegl45.png" width="273" height="300" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 38.&mdash;Hand of Penelope clutching her shuttle. From a corner of a piece of sculpture
+discovered by O. Kern and described by C. Robert, (<i>The Feet Washing of Odysseus</i>, fifth Century
+B.C., <i>Mitt. Kais. Deutsch. Arch. Inst.</i>, Athens, XXV., 1900, pp. 332-3). The author considers
+Penelope to be in the act of unravelling what she has woven: &ldquo;We see her holding the spool with
+her right hand, while the left hand, half closed, is raised to about shoulder high, and the fingers,
+if I read the traces correctly, are posed as though she held a thread.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks evidently used a spool in weaving, that is a piece of
+stick round which was wound the thread that became the weft, as is
+shown in the hand of Penelope, <a href="#Fig_38"><b>Fig. 38</b></a>, and in Kirke&rsquo;s loom, <a href="#Fig_15"><b>Fig. 15</b></a>.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_E_5" id="Footnote_E_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_E_5"><span class="label">[E]</span></a> I find frequent references, by various writers, to an upright loom mentioned by E. H.
+Palmer as used by a Bedawin woman near Jebel Musa, but on looking up his description (<i>The
+Desert of the Exodus</i>, I. p. 125), I find it to be so indifferent as to be quite useless for purposes of
+comparison.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_F_6" id="Footnote_F_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_F_6"><span class="label">[F]</span></a> My attention to this was kindly drawn by Mr. F. N. Pryce, Assistant in the Dept. of
+Greek and Roman Antiquities.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_G_7" id="Footnote_G_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_G_7"><span class="label">[G]</span></a> The existence of warp weighted looms amongst the prehistoric Lake Dwellers of Switzerland
+was first surmised by Pauer (<i>Keller&rsquo;s Lake Dwellings</i>) from the discovery of the weights, and was
+made practically certain by Messikommer and Jentsch.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_H_8" id="Footnote_H_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_H_8"><span class="label">[H]</span></a> Comparing the loom Olafsson saw with the description in the Nial Saga, he concludes this
+sort of loom was in use A.D. 1014, in the North of Scotland.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_I_9" id="Footnote_I_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_I_9"><span class="label">[I]</span></a> He criticises the detail of the illustration of Penelope&rsquo;s loom. It must be remembered
+this illustration is not a technical drawing, but an artist&rsquo;s representation where correctness of
+detail cannot be expected. In his own drawing of the Egyptian horizontal loom many of the
+warp threads are shown over instead of under the laze rods, and yet this is supposed to be a
+correct technical drawing!</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_J_10" id="Footnote_J_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_J_10"><span class="label">[J]</span></a> Since writing Dr. Porter has sent me photograph of another sort of loom in which weights
+are used as counter balances to keep the heddles raised. The subject requires further elucidation.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><a name="III_Conclusion" id="III_Conclusion"></a><span class="smcap">III. Conclusion.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>From the foregoing we gather that the Ancient Egyptians had
+two forms of looms. The earlier or horizontal form, date about B.C.
+2000, has in a modified way survived to the present day in desert
+Egypt and is also found in Seistan. It required a large area of
+ground for working and probably in earlier times when there was
+plenty of space this did not much matter. But as the population in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg&nbsp;41]</a></span>
+the towns increased and with the increase of civilisation and its concomitant
+increased demand for cloth, probably out of proportion to the
+increase of population, space would be begrudged and this may have
+caused the invention or the introduction of the vertical form of
+loom which we find in use some 500 years later. In Egypt therefore
+the horizontal loom preceded the vertical loom but it does not
+necessarily follow that such was the case elsewhere. In so far as we
+can gather from the small amount of information at our disposal, in
+the earlier days the women were the weavers, and later on with the
+introduction of the upright loom the men were the weavers with an
+occasional female weaver. In the Egyptian Desert and in Seistan in
+the present day with horizontal looms the weavers appear to be males,
+but among the nomads of Persia who likewise use horizontal looms
+the weavers are females. In the use of either form of loom the
+Egyptian weavers beat the weft downwards or towards themselves
+and <em>not</em> upwards or away from themselves. They had the heddle in
+one of its earliest forms and had consequently made the first great
+step in the evolution of the loom as we now know it. In the beginning
+they made no selvedges so that for every pick a separate length of
+weft thread was used. The adoption of the selvedge was another
+improvement and until it was introduced the weft would no doubt
+have been put through with the fingers, later on a spool being
+used. It is possible also that in very late times the weavers&rsquo; comb was
+introduced. It is safe to say that the Egyptians had no knowledge of
+the reed. Both forms of looms were simple, without harness or other
+complicated pieces of mechanism. The Egyptians accomplished
+fairly good work and judging these people from their looms alone
+we must conclude they were a progressive race.</p>
+
+<p>The Greek form of loom was an upright one on which the warp
+threads were kept taut by means of weights and similar to the form
+which existed in Central and Northern Europe (in the latter until
+recent times) but of which so far there is no trace to the east, or south,
+or west. The Greek loom may have been furnished with a heddle but
+the drawings are not clear on this point. A spool was used. The
+weavers were women and the weft was beaten upwards or away from
+the weaver. It was not a form of loom so capable of improvement as
+the Egyptian forms and there appears to be no connection between
+the forms used on either side of the Mediterranean. The Greek
+tapestry loom could hardly have been more primitive. In respect to
+the forms of looms used by the two peoples the Egyptians were
+considerably in advance of the Greeks.</p>
+
+
+<p class="centerpad" style="padding-bottom: 3em;">FINIS.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="bbox">
+<p><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p>
+
+<p>A brief Table of Contents has been added for ease of navigation.</p>
+
+<p>Punctuation errors have been repaired.</p>
+
+<p>The author uses some archaic and alternative spelling, for example, nooze for noose,
+gramms for grammes. These have been retained as printed.</p>
+
+<p>The original text contained an erratum, as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="amends">
+<p><span class="smcap">Erratum</span>:&mdash;Page <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, Line 5, for Dr. Henry Porter, <i>read</i>
+Dr. Harvey Porter.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The error has been fixed in this e-text.</p>
+
+<p>The following amendments have been made:</p>
+
+<div class="amends">
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_8">8</a>&mdash;Calliaud amended to Cailliaud&mdash;"... as well as those of Cailliaud and
+Rosellini show that ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_11">11</a>&mdash;Tehuti-hotep amended to Tehuti-hetep&mdash;"... from the tomb of Tehuti-hetep
+<i>circa</i> 1938-1849 B.C., ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_18">18</a>&mdash;netsinker amended to net-sinker&mdash;"... the material is not suitable
+for a net-sinker, ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page 19, <a href="#Fig_21"><b>Fig. 21</b></a> caption&mdash;cm. amended to in.&mdash;"... Breadth 6&middot;5 cm.
+(1<span class="tfrac">11</span>/<span class="bfrac">32</span> in.)."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_23">23</a>&mdash;pecularity amended to peculiarity&mdash;"When I noticed the peculiarity
+first, ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_23">23</a>&mdash;analagous amended to analogous&mdash;"We know how closely analogous to
+&lsquo;darning&rsquo; was ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_27">27</a>&mdash;safron amended to saffron&mdash;"2. This is a coarser fabric, has been
+dyed with saffron, ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_29">29</a>&mdash;Millemetres amended to Millimetres&mdash;"Micro Measurements of Ten
+Fibres in Millimetres."</p>
+
+<p>Page 32, <a href="#Fig_31"><b>Fig. 31</b></a> caption&mdash;Etrusian amended to Etruscan&mdash;"... an Athenian
+skyphos found in an Etruscan tomb ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_32">32</a>&mdash;repeated instance of use deleted&mdash;"... there is apparently no
+evidence for the use of such objects ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page 35, <a href="#Fig_33"><b>Fig. 33</b></a> caption&mdash;templete amended to template&mdash;"The template for
+regulating the width of the cloth."</p>
+
+<p>Page 37, <a href="#Fig_35"><b>Fig. 35</b></a> caption&mdash;whorle amended to whorl&mdash;"... the fragment of a
+comb and a chalk spindle whorl, ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_38">38</a>&mdash;commonally amended to commonly&mdash;"They are commonly cut out of the
+hard chalk, ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_38">38</a>&mdash;archaeologists amended to arch&aelig;ologists&mdash;"... the ingenuity of our
+ablest arch&aelig;ologists at home and abroad ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_38">38</a>&mdash;impossibilty amended to impossibility&mdash;"As regards the practical
+possibility or impossibility ..."</p></div>
+
+<p>The Figures have been moved, where necessary, so that they are not in the
+middle of a paragraph. Omitted page numbers occur where Figures have been moved.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Ancient Egyptian and Greek Looms, by H. Ling Roth
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+</body>
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+Project Gutenberg's Ancient Egyptian and Greek Looms, by H. Ling Roth
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ancient Egyptian and Greek Looms
+
+Author: H. Ling Roth
+
+Release Date: June 8, 2008 [EBook #25731]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANCIENT EGYPTIAN AND GREEK LOOMS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julie Barkley, Sam W. and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+There is a small amount of Greek in this book, which has been
+transliterated, and is surrounded by + signs, +like this+.
+
+
+
+
+                Ancient Egyptian and
+                     Greek Looms
+
+
+                         BY
+                    H. LING ROTH
+                      (Keeper).
+
+ WITH 38 LINE BLOCK AND ONE COLLOTYPE ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+              BANKFIELD MUSEUM, HALIFAX
+                     APRIL 1913
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+Halifax, which is situated in the heart of the great textile trade of
+Lancashire and Yorkshire, has been a home of the woollen manufacture
+since the earliest time, and it is only meet, therefore, that its
+museum should possess specimens of the tools used in the early days of
+spinning, weaving, and cloth making generally. In spite of the
+considerable progress made towards that end, many typical specimens
+are still wanting, and, while we have plenty of material for the study
+of weaving in various parts of the world, we are lacking in everything
+relating to the industry in Ancient Egypt and Greece. Failing
+specimens I have had recourse to illustrations, but the Egyptian ones
+published by Cailliaud, Rosellini, Sir J. G. Wilkinson and Lepsius,
+contradict each other in many important points, so that those who
+study them find them practically useless for an understanding of the
+art as carried on in the Nile lands. Fortunately, last year, Mr. N. de
+G. Davies, the well-known Egyptologist, hearing of my difficulty, very
+generously placed some of his copies of tomb drawings at my disposal,
+and with this invaluable help I have been enabled to complete the
+present paper, and to lay before Halifax students some new details of
+manufacture bearing upon their staple industry.
+
+                                                  H. Ling Roth.
+
+  Bankfield Museum, Halifax.
+  April 1913.
+
+
+
+
+I. EGYPTIAN LOOMS.
+
+
+HORIZONTAL LOOMS.[A]
+
+In the tomb of Chnem-hotep, at Beni Hasan, there is a wall painting of
+a horizontal loom with two weavers, women, squatting on either side,
+and at the right in the background is drawn the figure of the
+taskmaster. There are also figures represented in the act of spinning,
+etc. For the present we are concerned with the weaving only.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from the
+illustration in Cailliaud's _Recherches_, etc. Same size as
+published.]
+
+Of this illustration, there appear to be six reproductions. We have
+first of all, Fig. 1, that of Fred. Cailliaud (_Recherches sur les
+Arts et Metiers_, etc., Paris, 1831) with illustrations of drawings
+made by himself in the years 1819 to 1822. His publication was
+followed by Fig. 2, that of Sir J. G. Wilkinson (_Manners and
+Customs_, etc., London, 1837). Mr. John Murray, whose house has
+published Wilkinson's work from the first edition to the last, informs
+me that a few of the drawings were made by George Scharf, afterwards
+Sir George Scharf, Keeper of the National Portrait Gallery, but that
+most of them seem to have been made by Joseph Bonomi, the well known
+Egyptologist. Wilkinson's woodcut, although clearly and neatly done,
+is on a very small scale; nevertheless it admits of a fair comparison
+with those reproduced on a larger scale.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+    Figs. 1 & 3. Weaving.
+
+    Fig. 2. Loom.
+
+     "   3. Putting in the woof, but not
+            by a shuttle thrown with
+            the hand.
+
+     "   4. Male Overseer.
+
+     "   5. Hackling.
+
+     "   6. Twisting the double threads
+            for the warp.
+
+    _a_ Weaving.
+    _b_ Chief of Loom.
+    _c_ Facing.
+    _d_ Pulling out.
+
+Fig. 2.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from Sir J. G.
+Wilkinson's _Manners and Customs_, London, John Murray, 1878, Vol. I.,
+p. 317. Same size as published.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from the
+illustration in Rosellini's _Monumenti_ (Monumenti Civili), Plate XLI.
+Reduced one-fifth lineal of size published.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from
+Lepsius' _Denkmaeler_. Same size as published.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from
+Prof. Percy Newberry's _Beni Hasan_, I. Plate 29. Same size as
+published.]
+
+After him, Fig. 3, N. F. J. B. Rosellini began the publication of his
+great work (_I Monumenti dell' Egitto_, Pisa, 1832-1844). The
+similarity between the comparatively few drawings published by
+Cailliaud and the very large number published by Rosellini is very
+great. It is of course quite possible Rosellini may have made use of
+some of Cailliaud's drawings. Five years after Rosellini's publication
+came that of C. R. Lepsius (_Denkmaeler_, Leipzig, 1849), Fig. 4, his
+drawings having been made in the years 1842 to 1845. Since the time of
+Lepsius until quite recent years I can trace no further copying until
+we get the illustration, Fig. 5, in Prof. Percy Newberry's _Beni
+Hasan_, London, 1910. In this work the reproduction is about one
+twentieth of the original, or about three fifths of the size of that
+of Wilkinson, and unfortunately so crude as not to be available for
+our present purpose.[B] Lastly we have the reproduction, Fig. 6, from
+Mr. N. de Garis Davies' drawing made in 1903, and now first published
+by kind permission of Mr. F. Ll. Griffith.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep. Size of
+original: Height of the figures 9-1/4" = 24.4 cm. Drawn by Mr. N. de
+G. Davies, and now published for the first time by permission of Mr.
+F. Ll. Griffith.]
+
+In the various reproductions by the above explorers, the only three
+which agree very closely are those of Cailliaud, Rosellini and Davies.
+The others vary considerably and in essentials do not agree with the
+above nor with one another. The differences may in the first instance
+be due to difficulties in copying the original in the tomb. Others may
+be due to ignorance of detail on the part of the secondary
+copyist--the man who prepared them for publication--so that he was
+unable to follow up the clues on the drawings laid before him. The
+differences may also be due to careless copying and to "touching up"
+of the copies when made; they may be slightly due to deterioration and
+obliteration of the original in the course of time.
+
+The _Encyclopaedia Biblica_ gives a variant from all six illustrations,
+but approaching nearest to that of Cailliaud, Rosellini and Davies. It
+is misleading in so far that the drawing has been made to suit
+Professor Kennedy's idea as to what it should be.
+
+Some of the differences are of minor importance, but a comparison will
+help materially to our understanding of the method of weaving adopted
+by the Egyptians from the XIIth to the XIXth Dynasties, or about B.C.
+2000 to 1200. To go into details, and taking Mr. N. de G. Davies'
+illustration as our basis, we find slight differences in the shape of
+the pegs B, B1, which are immaterial. A more pronounced difference is
+seen in the way in which the threads are attached to the warp beam A.
+Neither Wilkinson nor Lepsius carry these threads over the beam, the
+former carrying them only as far as the laze threads C, while the
+latter carries them up to a line drawn parallel to and below the beam;
+Cailliaud and Rosellini carry them over the beam while Mr. Davies
+carries them half way only. The object of this half carrying over is
+not clear. The threads in chain-form at C are probably laze threads,
+apparently placed there so that in case of any disarrangement of the
+warp threads the weaver can from that point run her fingers along them
+and get them disentangled. It has been suggested to me that this
+chain-form might be a tension chain for taking up slack warp, but the
+former explanation seems the more likely.
+
+All the drawings but Wilkinson's show the warp threads converging
+towards the breast beam; Wilkinson shows them parallel and in Lepsius
+their convergence is excessive. There should be a slight convergence
+shown, as in the course of weaving the threads get drawn in, and in
+later forms of looms in semi-civilised countries we find an endeavour
+to counteract this tendency by the use of a tool known as a "temple."
+
+The cross sticks D1, D2, look like laze rods. It may not be out of
+place here to point out that in primitive weaving laze rods serve two
+purposes, or one more than in the later somewhat more advanced looms.
+They serve throughout to keep the warp threads in place, and they
+serve to separate the odd threads from the even (1, 3, 5, 7 from 2, 4,
+6, 8, &c.), and in so doing take the place of the fingers in making
+the "shed," _i.e._, the opening through which the "weft (or woof)" is
+passed, a function which in turn is usurped by the "heald (or
+heddle)." The heddle therefore becomes a very important factor, and
+Dr. H. G. Harrison by no means overstates the case when he says that
+the development of the heddle is the most important step in the
+evolution of the loom (Horniman Museum Handbooks, No. 10, pp. 47-49).
+We may now return to the drawing. Wilkinson shows the rod D1
+indistinctly and the left hand end only of D2. Lepsius' artist seems
+to have taken a liberty with D1 but in the right direction, by making
+it more definitely into an early form of heddle--the loop and rod--but
+he shows D2 the same as Cailliaud and Rosellini. Prof. Kennedy argues
+that these rods are in the wrong position and that D1 which is a
+heddle should be in the place of D2. Mr. Davies' drawing as well as
+those of Cailliaud and Rosellini show that D1 is a heddle while D2 is
+shown to be a laze rod. Asiatic primitive looms, like those from
+Borneo and Bhutan, have two laze rods but no heddle; on the other hand
+many primitive African looms have one laze rod and one heddle as is
+the case with this Egyptian loom. More threads are shown on the left
+hand end of D2 than on the right hand end. Mr. Davies informs me that
+the same quantity should be shown from end to end across the warp, but
+on the right hand side they are so indistinct that he was just able to
+detect but not to trace them and so he omitted them.
+
+We now come to the rod E. Cailliaud and Rosellini show an undulation
+at the one end _a_, but do not make the other end clear. Wilkinson
+shows a small hook at the end _a_, which appears to me to be a
+transcriber's development of the curved end of his two predecessors;
+in the text Wilkinson says there is a hook at each end of this stick,
+but he does not show any at the end opposite to _a_; he refers to
+these hooks more than once (1st ed., III., p. 126 footnote). Lepsius
+has altered the shape of the curve and transferred it from the end _a_
+to the opposite end. In Mr. de G. Davies' drawing, it has been
+inserted in dotted lines, as the original is in such a state that
+tracing is almost impossible. Wilkinson, Erman, v. Cohausen (_Das
+Spinnen u. Weben bei den Alten_, in _Ann. Ver. Nassau. Altherthumsk._,
+Wiesbaden, 1879, p. 29), and others call it a shuttle, but I am more
+inclined to consider it a slashing stick ("sword" or "beater-in") for
+pushing the weft into position. A tool which appears to be a beater-in
+and of similar end shape is seen held in the hand of a woman on a
+wall painting at El Bersheh--see Fig. 11, top right-hand corner. We
+have in another illustration, Fig. 7, an article which appears to be a
+spool, which I think confirms the view that E is not the shuttle but
+the beater-in. In all the illustrations, too, the pose of the hands of
+the women bearing on this stick is indicative of a downward pressure
+and not of a grasp.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Tomb of the Vizier Daga. Date about end XI.
+Dynasty, B.C. 2000. Mr. N. de G. Davies' _Five Theban Tombs_, Plate
+XXXVII.
+
+The upper illustration indicates a woman warping or beaming, probably
+warping.
+
+In the lower illustration note the left hand figure holding the spool
+in her hand. At first sight this small black line looks like a
+continuation of the "beater-in" in the hands of the other weaver, but
+Mr. Davies informs me that it is quite a distinct article, and that
+there can be no doubt about it. Just above the breast beam there are 8
+or 9 threads of weft but they are too faint to be included.]
+
+The selvedge F on the one side of the cloth and not on both sides is
+also interesting from the fact that selvedges do not appear on the
+Egyptian cloths until the XVIII. Dynasty _circa_ B.C. 1600.
+
+The breast beam:--It appears to me that the three portions marked G1,
+G2 and G3 joined up are intended to represent the breast beam and its
+holding pegs, similar to the warp beam A and its pegs B1, B2, but the
+portion K is not clearly drawn in any of the reproductions. Wilkinson
+omits this altogether, but in its place has two black pieces which
+also are still less clear. Lepsius has omitted G2 altogether and
+appears to have made G1 and K and G3 into treadles, by raising G1
+above the level of G3, and to support the view that these are
+treadles, he makes use of the overseer's foot by placing it on the
+supposed treadle, and the casual observer thinks it is the foot of the
+woman weaver. However, Mr. Davies' copy seems to offer a solution. He
+agrees with Cailliaud and Rosellini in so far as G1, G2 and G3 are
+concerned. With him K takes quite a different form, in fact it looks
+very similar to an article which an attendant woman in another panel
+has close by her, see Fig. 8. It might perhaps be a rest to prevent
+the beater-in being driven home too forcibly--this, however, is still
+only a surmise--as the length of the beater-in makes it heavy at the
+far end.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Weaver with the support K, Fig. 6; the woman
+appears to hold a beater-in in the right hand and a ball of thread in
+the left hand. Rosellini.]
+
+In Cailliaud the warp threads are coloured in pale blue and red on top
+of the black lines of the drawing; he has painted the selvedge and
+finished cloth a pale blue, as well as that portion of G2 which is
+covered by the cloth indicating that this is the breast beam, G3 and
+G1 are painted a dark red. Rosellini colours A, B1, B2, D1, D2, G3
+orange; G1 and K dark red, but E from end to end light ochre. This
+shows that K is distinct from E.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.
+
+Upright or Vertical Looms from the Tomb of Thot-nefer at Thebes, XVIII
+Dynasty, _circa_ B.C. 1425. From a drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies. Size
+of original: Height from Base Line to top of frame at A, 11-1/2" = 29
+cm.]
+
+In consequence of this loom being represented as upright it is often
+spoken of as an upright or vertical loom. But it is drawn upright
+because the Egyptian artist did not understand perspective, and it was
+only by making the loom upright that he was enabled to show the
+details we have just been examining. For the same reason mat making is
+illustrated edgeways. If the loom were an upright one the two women
+weavers would have had their backs turned towards the onlooker as can
+be seen in Fig. 9. Any doubt on the matter has however been set aside
+by Prof. John Garstang's extremely interesting discovery of a wooden
+model depicting a group of women spinning and weaving which he
+illustrates in his work, _The Burial Customs of Ancient Egypt_,
+London, 1907. After referring to the woman spinning, he continues:
+"The other seated figures apparently represent women at work upon a
+horizontal loom; the frame and the woof [_sic_, should be _warp_]
+threads are faintly represented upon the board. It is possible that
+they are making mats or, perhaps, weaving (p. 132)." He gives an
+illustration of the group taken from a photograph, but as it does not
+show the lines which indicate the loom lying horizontally on the
+ground nor the warp threads, I have asked him to let me have a drawing
+made of it and, with his kind permission, it is now reproduced here,
+Fig. 10. The threads of the warp and the finished piece of cloth at
+the breast beam end are clearly indicated. The whole model supports
+conclusively the well founded supposition that the loom we have been
+considering is a _horizontal_ one. Curiously enough, Prof. Garstang
+does not appear to appreciate the important bearing of his discovery,
+for on a later page (p. 134) in speaking of Lepsius' illustration,
+discussed above, he says: "the weavers are seen at work at an upright
+loom."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Horizontal Loom. Outline sketch by Miss Davey
+of the original model of a group of one woman spinning and two women
+weaving, found by Dr. John Garstang at Beni Hasan. The model is in the
+Museum of the Liverpool Institute of Archaeology.]
+
+It must not be thought that the Beni Hasan representation is the only
+one which illustrates a horizontal loom. A second one is reproduced by
+Prof. Percy Newberry from the tomb of Tehuti-hetep _circa_ 1938-1849
+B.C., see Fig. 11. In the upper portion the women are seen spinning
+and preparing the thread generally, while in the lower portion two
+women on the left are warping, and in the centre three apparently are
+"beaming," _i.e._ putting the warp on to the beams preparatory to
+commencing to weave, the warp threads being apparently drawn over pegs
+to ensure the proper tension. This illustration shows the warp flat
+against the wall like the mat making shown at Beni Hasan.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Tomb of Tehuti-hetep. Date about 1939-1849
+B.C. From Professor Percy Newberry's _El Bersheh_ I. Pl. 26.
+
+Note the woman on the top right hand corner holding a "beater-in."]
+
+A third representation of a horizontal loom is reproduced from the
+forthcoming volume of the Egypt Exploration Fund by kind permission of
+Mr. N. de G. Davies, who made the copy. In this, Fig. 7, already
+referred to, the lower portion is all that has come down to us. The
+cloth is not shown contracted as in the Beni Hasan representation, the
+two laze rods are drawn close to each other and here also an attempt
+appears to have been made to show the over and under lapping warp
+threads; the laze rods appear each with a hook, the hook on the upper
+rod turned upwards and the hook (if it be one) on the lower rod turned
+downwards. It is possible these hooks may be pegs to prevent the
+shifting of the laze rods. It may be that one of the two rods is a
+heddle rod the indication being the fine double lines, but this may
+not be compatible with the hook at the end of the rod. The weaver on
+the left holds a spool in her hand, evidently a piece of stick with
+the weft thread wound round it, which she is pushing through with her
+fingers. The weaver on the right holds a beater-in as shown in the
+Beni Hasan drawing. The breast beam is held in position by two pegs
+near the right one of which there is a curved article of indeterminate
+use.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Study of a Bedawin Arab weaving, from a
+sketch taken in the Forties of last Century, by Frank Goodall, R.A.
+The original sketch is in Bankfield Museum. The weaver appears to be
+provided with one heddle and a beater-in.]
+
+There is no very clear evidence as to how the finished cloth was
+"taken up" unless we accept it that the bulging out of the part G2
+means that it was wound round the breast beam as is done on hand and
+power looms of the present day. Some very long pieces of cloth have
+come down to us and unless they were "taken up" in this way a long
+stretch of ground would have been necessary. A modified form of this
+horizontal loom has been met with in recent years among the Bedawin
+Arabs, as shown in the illustration of a study sketch, Fig. 12, made
+by Frank Goodall, R.A., in the forties of last century. The loom was
+provided with pegs like the old Egyptian loom but it was supplied with
+a primitive heddle resting on a stone at each side of the warp and it
+would appear that the weaver, to a certain extent, did not take up the
+woven cloth by winding it round the breast beam and by that means
+retaining his position, but, as the weaving progressed and the line of
+finished cloth got beyond his reach, he crept up to it and so got
+farther and farther away from the breast beam until in the end he
+arrived at the warp beam. Similar looms are still used for mat making
+by the Egyptian fellah.
+
+
+VERTICAL LOOMS.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Upright or vertical loom. Wilkinson's
+_Ancient Egyptians_, London, John Murray. 1st ed., Vol. III., p. 135.]
+
+Apart from the horizontal loom Wilkinson and Robert Hay[C] also
+recorded the existence of an illustration of an upright loom, said in
+error to be at Eileithyias (El Kab). Wilkinson's copy, Fig. 13, is
+more elaborate than that of Hay. Mr. Davies informs me that the
+original is not at Eileithyias, but in the tomb of Nefer-hotep at
+Thebes. Wilkinson in regard to this illustration quotes the
+oft-repeated statement of Herodotus (_circa_ 460-455 B.C.) in
+reference to looms in general:--"Other nations make cloth by pushing
+the woof upwards, the Egyptians on the contrary, press it down." On
+this statement Wilkinson remarks: "This is confirmed by the paintings
+which represent the process of making cloth; but at Thebes, a man who
+is engaged in making a piece of cloth with a coloured border or
+selvedge, appears to push the woof upwards, the cloth being fixed
+above him, to the upper part of the frame" [Fig. 13]. But I am unable
+to follow Wilkinson in this, for I can find no indication in his
+illustration which shows how the beating-in of the weft is
+accomplished. From the illustration all one can say is that it might
+have been done either way. Wilkinson's illustration is lettered from
+_a_ to _p_ but this lettering is not explained by him at all,
+excepting in the case of the letter _k_, of which he says: "_k_ is a
+shuttle, not thrown, but put in with the hand. It had a hook at the
+end ..." and he proceeds to refer to the drawing elsewhere of the
+horizontal loom. He does not show the hooks in his illustration. In
+Fig. 14, I give the sketch made by Mr. N. de G. Davies of the remains
+of the original from which Wilkinson made his illustration.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies, Jan. 1913, of
+an Upright Loom in Tomb 49 at Thebes, belonging to Nefer-hotep, at end
+of XVIII. Dynasty, B.C. 1330. Drawn when in a better state by
+Wilkinson, Fig. 13, and Hay.]
+
+A more satisfactory drawing of upright looms is that which Mr. N. de
+G. Davies has placed at my disposal for reproduction here. I append
+his description, Fig. 9. "The picture of men working at two looms is
+taken from the tomb of Thot-nefer at Thebes, who was a royal scribe
+in the middle of the 18th Dynasty, _circa_ 1425 B.C. In his tomb his
+house is shown. He himself sits in the hall, while inside some
+servants spin and weave, make bread, store the grain, etc. The roof of
+the chambers is supported on pillars, and between two of these the
+looms are set up which are here depicted. They are not attached
+however, either to the roof or the pillars. Faint sketching lines are
+mixed up with the darker reds in which the picture was re-drawn, and
+the whole very simply and carelessly executed. I have found it
+difficult to make it clear. In my sketch the first faint sketching
+outlines appear as lines. The more solid red lines which replaced
+these I have 'hatched,' and certain portions including the men's flesh
+colour, the stools, the discs I have put in solid black, partly
+because they are for the most part more solid and dark red in the
+original, and partly to distinguish the portions more clearly from one
+another. The horizontal lines which cross the web are very faintly
+drawn and almost as good as obliterated by the white paint which had
+been put on the web. I have put them in just to show that the bars
+were _conceived_ of as passing behind or under the web and concealed
+by it.
+
+"The larger loom is worked by two men, the smaller by one man only.
+The looms consist of an oblong frame A set up on two stones B. The
+warp is attached to the warp beam C on top and the breast beam D at
+the bottom. The threads of the warp are not shown, no difference being
+made between any woven part and the warp threads; to all is given one
+smear of white paint. Two discs E are seen hanging against the frame
+posts, one on each side, the earlier sketch showing a larger disc than
+the final drawing in dark red.
+
+"Two slender laze rods F are shown on the large loom and heavy bars G,
+H, lower down; a somewhat similar laze rod and beams are also shown on
+the smaller loom.
+
+"The weavers sit on benches with their backs to the spectator. The
+artist has not dared to draw a back view of their heads, but has
+turned each man's head to the right to show a profile. They are
+holding a heavy looking rod which looks like a 'beater-in.' One would
+expect to see a shuttle but perhaps this was too small an object for
+so rough a picture--perhaps the man at the smaller loom holds an
+exaggerated shuttle L in his right hand.
+
+"The lines M seen alongside the framework are the faint red sketch
+lines _not_ cords. The diagonal line N on the left I do not
+understand, it does not seem an accidental one.
+
+"On the left hand of the two looms the original shows a man spinning
+coarse thread into finer(?) using two spindles at once; the threads
+pass through rings fixed in the ceiling as in a picture at Beni Hasan.
+Behind him two girls are breaking up the flax and two others are
+making coarse threads of the fibres, almost exactly like those in the
+tomb of Daga (No. 103) a couple of hundred yards away."
+
+To this description of Mr. Davies I would like to add a word about
+the discs E. Wilkinson indicates these as rings apparently joining the
+horizontal beam to the post of the frame, the form of the ring being
+arrived at as explained by Mr. Davies by the original outline of the
+sketch having been made larger than the final drawing of the circle,
+or disc, and not obliterated. In Mr. Davies' drawing these discs hang
+on or are fixed on to the uprights only, and I am inclined to think
+they represent balls of weft thread hanging up in the same way as we
+see whole rows of coloured balls hanging on the looms of Persian
+rugmakers, and as can be seen on an Indian rug loom in Bankfield
+Museum.
+
+It is also very clear that these Egyptian vertical looms are very
+different from the Greek looms in so far as we know anything about
+them. The Greek looms had an upper beam only and the warp threads were
+bunched at the lower end and weighted with metal or clay balls to keep
+them taut, Fig. 15. The _individual_ warp threads were not weighted;
+they were bunched and then weighted. The pyramidal shaped clay warp
+weights found in Egypt are I understand considered by Egyptologists to
+belong to the Roman period, but in the Manchester University Museum
+there is a mud article which Miss M. A. Murray describes as a warp
+weight, Fig. 17, so that it is possible vertical looms with warp
+weights may yet be forthcoming as an Egyptian and not a foreign
+industrial tool. But Dr. H. R. Hall informs me this weight was
+probably found in the ruins of houses where AEgean pottery was found
+and hence it is probably a temporary warp weight of those people and
+not an Egyptian article.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Greek loom with spool and warp weights.
+Illustration on a skyphos (van Branteghem vase in the Ashmolean
+Museum, Oxford). From H. B. Walters' paper on _Odysseus & Kirke_ on a
+Boeotian vase, Jour. Hellenic Studies, 1892-3 XIII. p. 81.]
+
+Since writing the above Mr. N. de G. Davies has very kindly sent me on
+a new set of illustrations, Fig. 16, of which he says; "My attention
+was called to the scene by Dr. Alan Gardiner. The scenes which
+represent the preparation of the flax and the stretching of the warp
+are almost replicas of those in the tomb of Daga of the Middle
+Kingdom, so far as we can judge, while the pictures of the looms
+resemble closely those in the tombs of Thot-nefer and Nefer-hotep. The
+work is done by both men and women. Men prepare the flax while women
+stretch the warp. Men mostly work the loom, either singly or with a
+companion. But in one case a woman is seen at work at one of the
+upright looms. She is shewn sitting sideways on the low bench and is
+not pictured in a back view with widely spread legs like the men.
+Unfortunately the work is so slovenly and so much injured that few
+exact outlines can be secured, and hence all detail is insecure.
+There are also superfluous lines in red colour which confuse the
+picture. The tomb is Ramesside in date (_circa_ 1200 B.C.) The
+inscription over the seated man is too broken to be read."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16a.--Weavers at work as represented in the Tomb
+of Nefer-ronpet, Superintendent of Weavers at Thebes. Date about 1200
+B.C. From a drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16b.--Weavers at work as represented in the Tomb
+of Nefer-ronpet, Superintendent of Weavers at Thebes. Date about 1200
+B.C. From a drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies.]
+
+The drawings appear to confirm generally what we have gathered from
+Mr. Davies' previous illustration, Fig. 9.
+
+
+PORTIONS OF LOOMS WHICH HAVE COME DOWN TO US.
+
+In so far as I know, not many loom parts have yet been discovered, and
+those which I have had an opportunity of studying do not assist us to
+much knowledge beyond that which we have gained by a study of the wall
+paintings. We have the article from Kahun already mentioned, which may
+possibly be a warp weight, as it somewhat resembles the later warp
+weights found elsewhere. It is of hardened mud with a perforation at
+the thin end through which a piece of string has been passed and
+knotted (Fig. 17), but so far no illustration of a loom with weights
+has been found, either for the period to which this article belongs or
+to any other period. On the other hand the material is not suitable
+for a net-sinker, nor is it intended to be made to stand up. As
+mentioned above it is probably AEgean.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Piece of perforated hardened mud. Possibly a
+warp weight, 10 cm. x 8.7 x 4.2 (3-15/16 in. x 2-7/16 in. x 1-5/8 in.)
+Weight 470 gramms (1 lb. 1/2 oz.) Probably of AEgean origin. _Kahun._
+Manchester Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Burnt-clay warp weight. Height 11.4 cm. (4-1/4
+in.) Weight 260 gramms (9-1/4 oz.) Probably Roman. Bankfield Museum.
+(Received from Prof. Flinders Petrie).]
+
+Another form of warp weight, of burnt clay, is somewhat frequently met
+with, Fig. 18, but it is described as appertaining to Roman times, and
+may therefore be either a Greek or Roman article. Similar weights from
+Cyprus and North Africa, &c., can be seen in the British Museum.
+
+Wooden pegs have been found at Gurob, which may possibly have been
+used for holding the warp and breast beams in position, Fig. 19. These
+pegs may appear to be rather short for the purpose, but in very
+primitive looms the warp is not kept so taut as might and should be,
+and hence there is not the same heavy strain on the pegs as we should
+deem necessary. The way to settle their use would be to fix them in
+solid ground and test them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Wooden Peg, possibly used for holding the
+warp and breast beams. Length 13.5 to 10.2 cm. (5-13/16 in. to 4 in.)
+_Gurob_ XVIII.-XIX. Dyn. (about 1580-1205 B.C.) Manchester Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Long straight lath with notches at each end,
+probably a laze rod. Length 1 m. 24 (4 ft. 13/16 in.) Breadth 5.2 cm. (2
+in.) Thickness 2.2 cm. (7/8 in.) _Kahun._ Manchester Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: 1/2 size section of Fig. 20.]
+
+[Illustration: 1/2 size section of Fig. 21.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Long curved lath. Probably a "beater-in."
+Length 1 m. 20 (3 ft. 11-1/4 in.) Breadth 6.5 cm. (1-11/32 in.).
+Thickness 1 cm. (3/8 in.) _Kahun._ XII. Dynasty about 2000-1788 B.C.
+Manchester Museum.]
+
+At Kahun a long straight lath, Fig. 20, was found which is probably a
+laze rod, the notches being apparently for a nooze to slip into and so
+prevent the rod working towards the weaver which it has a tendency to
+do.
+
+Another long but curved lath, Fig. 21, also found at Kahun is probably
+a beater-in.
+
+Most large Egyptian collections contain one or more specimens of
+wooden combs, which are generally called weavers combs, and ascribed
+to Roman times. But one at least, Fig. 22, has been found with XVIIIth
+to XIXth Dynasty articles at Gurob, that is belonging to the period
+1580-1150 B.C., which is long before Rome existed. None of these
+so-called combs, for they are really embryo reeds, are shown on the
+wall illustrations so that they no doubt belong to a later date than
+that of the XIIth Dynasty. If, as I take it, these "combs" are the
+forerunners of the reed and were used to drive the weft threads home,
+and if also the Romans had upright looms provided with warp weights
+instead of the breast beam, then I think the "comb" may not be Roman
+but may be a late Egyptian invention. For, on trying to use such a
+comb on a _replica_ of a Scandinavian upright loom provided with warp
+weights (instead of with the breast beam) I can get no good result, in
+fact rather the opposite, but tried on a primitive horizontal loom
+provided with a breast beam the comb is found to be of some
+assistance, especially if the warp is not very taut as is generally
+the case with primitive looms. At Bankfield we have an Indian rug
+loom, already referred to, with warp and breast beam on which a
+somewhat similar instrument, but of iron, was used.[D]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Weaver's Comb--a Beater-in. 19.5 cm. x 9.8 x
+4.2 (7-3/4 in. x 3-7/8 in. x 1-5/8 in.) _Gurob._ Manchester Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Possibly a warp spacer, somewhat similar in
+object to the raddle of modern hand loom weaving. Height 2.8 cm. Width
+2.5 cm. (1-1/8 in. x 1 in.) The slots are 6 mm. (1/4 in.) apart, 3 mm.
+(1/16 in.) wide, and about 10 mm. (3/8 in.) deep. From _Gurob_ but
+probably Roman. Bankfield Museum. (Received from Prof. Flinders
+Petrie).]
+
+An article which Prof. Flinders Petrie describes as a "warp spacer" is
+shown in Fig. 23. From fragments in the Egyptian Collection,
+University College, London, it would appear to have been originally
+more than a meter (three feet) long. It may have been used as a sort
+of a "raddle," a tool used for assisting to keep the warp threads in
+position when being beamed, _i.e._ put on to the loom. At Bankfield we
+have an old local hand loom the warp beam of which is provided with a
+series of holes in which pegs were once inserted to keep the coloured
+warp threads in position.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.
+
+1/2 size of end of Fig. 24.
+
+1/2 size section of Fig. 24.
+
+A long piece of perforated wood described by Prof. Flinders Petrie,
+_Kahun_, p. 29, as a Weaver's Beam for making rush mats. Length 96.8
+cm. x 8.0 x 3.0 (3 ft. 1-1/4 in. x 3-1/4 in. x 1-3/16 in.) From
+Manchester Museum.]
+
+A piece of frame, Fig. 24, has been described as a "weaver's beam" for
+making rush mats like the modern _hasira_. It is provided with 28
+holes which are arranged about 27 to 40 mm. apart. The holes may have
+been more or less circular originally, and worn into present shape by
+threads, etc., and look more irregular inside than they really are, as
+the inside surface of the holes is fairly smooth; the holes are
+slightly larger, on an average about 4 mm., on the face shown than on
+the other face. Prof. Flinders Petrie seems to think it resembles the
+frame on which the modern Egyptian mat is made.
+
+We now come to the two reeds in the Museum of the Liverpool Institute
+of Archaeology, which Dr. John Garstang discovered near Abu Kirkas,
+tomb No. 693, of which he tells us: "They are 27 and 29 inches (68.6
+and 73.7 cm.) in length respectively, and are precisely similar in
+general form. They are constructed on a system of nineteen or twenty
+reeds to the inch, and they may be seen to be exactly similar to the
+modern reed taken from a loom in the village of Abu Kirkas. It is not
+possible, unfortunately, to assign a precise date to these objects.
+They were found in a tomb which contained no other remains; this tomb
+was surrounded by others, all of them likewise very much disturbed,
+but equally characteristic of the general nature of the Middle Empire
+tombs, and containing nothing but Middle Empire objects. Since, in
+general, few tombs of this site show signs of intrusive burial of a
+later age, there is no reason to suppose that these objects are of any
+date later than the XII. Dynasty (_The Burial Customs of Ancient
+Egypt_, London, 1907, pp. 134-136)."
+
+The horizontal looms we have been describing belong to this period,
+and the artists have not shown any reeds with them. My studies of
+primitive looms lead me to think that these Egyptian looms are of a
+date far anterior to the invention or the application of a reed. It
+has also, I believe, been remarked by those who have examined cloths
+of this date, that the irregular array of the warp threads is good
+proof that reeds could not have been in use. I have already pointed
+out that in the evolution of the loom the reed puts in a late
+appearance, but apart from this fact, I do not think the artist would
+have omitted such an important tool had it been in use in his time.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Reed in Cairo Museum. Length 66 cm. (26 in.)
+It consists of two wooden frames fitted with flat iron wires. String
+is wound round the frames binding them together. Then a kind of
+canvas(?) cover in placed over the frames to cover up the projecting
+ends of the wires, but this has disappeared in places.]
+
+Dr. Garstang points out that although the surrounding tombs contained
+Middle Empire objects, the reeds were found in a tomb _without_ any
+other remains. This can hardly be considered evidence tending to prove
+that they belonged to the period named, and it is certainly weakened
+by the accompanying statement that the reeds are _exactly_ similar to
+the modern reed, for that is almost sufficient to prove that they are
+_not_ 3900-3700 years old. To me they seem comparatively modern and
+very similar to one in the Cairo Museum which MM. Brugsch and Quibell
+are inclined to think is Coptic with this difference, that in Dr.
+Garstang's reeds the divisions appear to be of cane or wood, while in
+the Cairo reed they are of iron (?steel). The sketch of this Coptic
+reed, Fig. 25, has been drawn specially for me, and Miss W. M.
+Crompton, Assistant Keeper in Egyptology in the Manchester University
+Museum, has kindly examined the sketch with the article and pronounced
+it correct. We may, I think, safely conclude that the reed found by
+Dr. Garstang is Coptic and not Ancient Egyptian.
+
+As regards the actual work of weaving, balls of thread have been found
+and so have very flat bobbins and pieces of stick with thread wound
+round which may have been spools as indicated in the drawing, Fig. 7.
+There is no reason why balls of thread should not have been used as
+they are in uncivilised countries at the present day, as, for
+instance, in Tibet, as reported by W. W. Rockhill in _Diary of a
+Journey through Mongolia and Thibet_, Washington, 1894, p. 41.
+
+
+"DIAGONAL WEAVING."
+
+I am unable to agree with a recently made statement published in _The
+Labyrinth, Gerzeh and Marghuneh_, by Prof. Flinders Petrie, E. A.
+Wainwright and E. Mackey, p. 6, which runs: "The fact of the weft not
+being at right angles to the warp, if one may conclude by the fabrics,
+does not, I think, imply that such weaving is of inferior quality.
+When I noticed the peculiarity first, I thought it might have arisen
+through distortion by stretching over the body, but repeated examples
+of the same fact have led me to consider other causes. We know how
+closely analogous to 'darning' was the early weaving; and in our days
+it is not unusual to find stockings not darned at right angles, and it
+may be the women weavers of old sometimes put in the weft more or less
+out of true right angle. In the childhood of weaving we should expect
+different methods, and it may be, seeing that we have no selvedged
+cloth until very long after this time, that they experimented with a
+diagonal weft to see if it would not reduce the tendency to fray out
+at the sides." The amount the warp and weft are out of the right angle
+is stated to be about 20 deg. The specimen shown me under the microscope
+indicated clearly that the warp and weft were not at right angles and
+that the interstices were not square but diamond shaped.
+
+It is possible to arrange the warp threads diagonally from beam to
+beam, but with continuous weft (that is in weaving so as to get
+selvedges) the weft has the tendency to slip up on one side and down
+on the other, hence the weaving is made laborious. With a separate
+weft for each pick, _i.e._, for every once the shed is opened, there
+is naturally not this tendency, but this alleged diagonally woven
+cloth frays just as easily as any other piece of cloth without
+selvedge, so in either case there is not only no advantage but
+distinct disadvantage taking the diagonal "beaming" into
+consideration. We must give the Egyptians credit for using the least
+laborious of two methods, that is _if_ the second one were known to
+them.
+
+Apparent diagonal weaving can be produced by anyone taking an ordinary
+piece of linen or cotton cloth, cutting off the selvedge and
+stretching the cloth in a direction diagonally to the direction of the
+warp and weft, and a piece of diagonally woven cloth is the result!
+
+The probability is that the specimen of cloth, without a selvedge,
+having been stretched over the body for a long period of time, has, in
+the course of that time lost its nature and when removed it has
+retained its altered form and gives us the impression of having been
+woven diagonally.
+
+
+"THE LINEN GIRDLE OF RAMESES III."
+
+In the foregoing I have shown how extremely simple was the whole
+apparatus for weaving in use by the Ancient Egyptians, and one is
+rather surprised to be told that about B.C. 1200, in the time of
+Rameses III., the Egyptians "built and used looms very much more
+complicated than has hitherto been believed to be the case," or to be
+referred to "the really complicated form of loom used." Yet this is
+what Mr. Thorold D. Lee tells us (pp. 84 and 86) in his paper on _The
+Linen Girdle of Rameses III._ (_Ann. of Archaeology and Anthropology of
+the Liverpool Institute of Archaeology_, July, 1912, V.)
+
+The characteristics of this girdle are its great length, 17 feet (5 m.
+2), its even taper diminishing from 5 in. (12.7 cm.) in width to 1-7/8
+in. (4.8 cm.) in width, its elaborate design and excellent
+workmanship. Perhaps the chief of these characteristics is the taper.
+It is most probable, as Mr. Lee points out, that in the weaving the
+warp threads have been gradually dropped out to make the taper, rather
+than that additional warp threads have been added. As it is easy to
+drop a warp thread, and almost impossible to add one while weaving is
+in progress, Mr. Lee's view is confirmed by this. It would also be
+almost impossible to keep the warp taut if the number of warp threads
+were increased as the work went on. This means that the girdle was
+commenced at the wide end and finished at the narrow end.
+
+It is common knowledge that when a warp thread drops out, its place is
+indicated by a thinness or fine opening for the whole length of the
+missing warp, and this is so because the reed, besides pushing the
+weft into position, also acts as a warp spacer, that is to say it
+keeps the warp threads properly apart, every one being properly
+aligned. When no reed is used the warp threads are not so evenly
+placed--they are not so parallel to one another for there is nothing
+but their tautness to keep them in position. Hence there is every
+reason to conclude that when, on a loom provided with a reed, warp
+threads have been removed their position must be indicated, and _vice
+versa_ if no reed has been used the position of the removed threads
+will not be so clearly indicated, but there will be a more marked
+shrinkage in the width of the cloth as well as in the pattern, and
+this is what has taken place in the girdle giving us the diminishing
+taper.
+
+[Illustration: "THE LINEN GIRDLE OF RAMESES III."
+
+_Reproduced by kind permission of Dr. Clubb, Director, The Museums,
+Liverpool._]
+
+If this diminishing taper were indicated by a decrease in the width of
+the pattern commencing at the selvedges, then it might be presumed
+that a reed had been used for the central portion only--a very clumsy
+even if feasible arrangement, but the pattern begins to decrease along
+the middle and hence no reed could have been used.
+
+It does not follow that because a loom was not provided with a reed it
+was without heddles. Anyone who will examine the large series of
+primitive looms at Bankfield Museum, will observe that heddles
+preceded reeds; this must necessarily be so as the making of the shed
+is the first step in weaving, while the reed's work is more that of a
+finisher. But the heddles are all extremely primitive, and in my
+experience do not exceed four in number where there is no reed. Such a
+quantity of heddles with its complicated harness as Mr. Lee considers
+necessary is quite out of the question with a loom so undeveloped as
+not to be provided with a reed. Hence the indication is that the
+girdle was woven on a loom of a primitive character.
+
+In carrying out the work the weaver has made many mistakes. On the
+left hand side of the right hand row of red crosses (they come out
+black in the photograph) there is an "end down" for a considerable
+distance--that is a thread has been missed.
+
+On the same row of crosses three white threads show above and below,
+while on the left hand row of crosses there are five white threads
+above and below. The crosses are neither the same size nor shape in
+the two columns and curiously their white hafts in both columns point
+to the left instead of one row pointing to the left and the other to
+the right. Then again the white point at the right apex of the zigzag
+on the left corresponds to a red point at the left apex of the right
+hand zigzag, but if the girdle had been woven on an advanced loom with
+dobby and harness these points would have been red in both places.
+
+As regards the large number of warp threads to the inch which Mr. Lee
+puts down as 272-340 (107-134 per cm.), this does not by any means
+indicate a complicated piece of machinery for the weaving of this belt
+or any other fabric. The greater the number of threads to the inch the
+finer must the threads be in order to get them into the allotted
+space, and in the weaving there will be so many more threads to raise
+and lower in order to make the shed opening. It means multiplying the
+work but does not necessarily mean that a more complicated loom must
+be used in the weaving.
+
+It is not possible without opening the fabric to be quite positive on
+the many points which are raised, but there seems nothing about it
+which should prevent its having been made on a simple loom. Although
+superior to most, but not all, of the well known Coptic cloths in
+Bankfield and in many other museums, it very closely resembles some of
+them in many respects excepting in the taper.
+
+I should add that in making my examination of this girdle I was kindly
+assisted by Mr. C. A. Trigg, a well known Halifax mill manager and
+designer. We made the examination independently and on comparing notes
+afterwards found that we agreed in all essential points.
+
+
+AN EXAMINATION OF FIFTEEN SPECIMENS OF MUMMY WRAPPINGS.
+
+By W. W. MIDGLEY, Curator, retired, The Museums, Bolton.
+
+"So far back as 1834, Mummy cloths occupied the attention of James
+Thompson, F.R.S., who, after researches into their characteristics and
+structure wrote a paper on the subject, which appears in the London
+and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, Vol. V., page 355. From that
+time until quite recently, little additional knowledge on the subject
+has appeared. In the early part of 1910, Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie,
+F.R.S., expressed a desire that the writer should undertake
+microscopic investigation of the body-wrappings of cloths of the III.
+and early IV. Dynasties (_circa_ 2980-2750 B.C.) which he had brought
+home from excavations made at a cemetery near Meydum, Upper Egypt. The
+report upon them forms part of the "_Historical Studies_," Vol. II.,
+of the _British School of Archaeology in Egypt_.
+
+When Mr. Ling Roth suggested that some of the examples of Egyptian
+Mummy cloths in Bankfield Museum should be examined on similar lines,
+describing the construction of the fabrics and yarns, together with
+the characteristics of the fibres used, I undertook to carry out the
+work and forward to him the results for permanent reference.
+
+Each of the fifteen cloths submitted was first examined by mounting
+about 3/4" x 5/8" (20 mm. x 16 mm.) of the cloth on 3" x 1" (76 mm. x
+25 mm.) glass slips, and covering with thin glass, so as to find out
+its plan of composition and the number of warp and weft threads per
+linear inch. Afterwards, a little of the warp threads as well as of
+the weft, was untwisted and the fibres separated, and these mounted
+apart on another 3" x 1" slip (76 x 25 mm.), so that the kind of
+textile fibre used and the diameter of the fibres could be measured.
+These microscopical preparations will be kept in Bankfield Museum, as
+they may be of interest to microscopists in the locality.
+
+The cloths are from three sources:--Nos. 1 and 2 being from the
+private collection of Dr. Wallis-Budge, who has given the specimens to
+Bankfield Museum; Nos. 3 to 8 are from the old Meyer collection in the
+Liverpool Museum (unfortunately the origin of them is unknown); and
+those marked 9 to 15 were taken from a mummy of the XXVI. Dynasty,
+brought to this country by Lord Denbigh, and now also in the Liverpool
+Museum.
+
+A.--Specimens of Mummy cloths from Theban Tombs date about B.C. 1400,
+presented by Dr. Wallis-Budge.
+
+    1. A plain "one-up-and-one-down" linen cloth. The yarns
+    in this example are more irregular in diameter than
+    usual--the warp strands varying from 1/25"th to 1/71"st
+    (1 mm. to .2/8 mm.) The warp has about half its strands
+    doubled (that is twined together), whereas the weft has
+    only about one in twenty doubled. See Fig. 26.
+
+    2. This is a coarser fabric, has been dyed with
+    saffron, and is somewhat brittle to tease out the
+    fibres. Both these cloths had evidently absorbed some of
+    the gums or balsams used in the process of embalming,
+    and hence the difficulty of separating the fibres for
+    identification is increased. The structure of the fabric
+    is peculiar, and, indeed, the only instance I have seen
+    in Egyptian cloths. A portion, near the middle of the
+    piece sent, has the warp strands in pairs parallel to
+    each other, a few of them being double yarns, while all
+    the remainder are doubled. Of the weft, nearly half are
+    double yarns. See Fig. 27.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Magnified 10 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Magnified 10 diameters, showing the warp yarn
+in pairs.]
+
+B.--Specimens from the Meyer Collection, marked No. 11088. (Date of
+acquisition about 1856; date and place of origin unknown).
+
+    3. This is a beautifully soft, fine _Wool_ fabric,
+    containing no size or balsam. From the fineness of the
+    yarn and of the individual fibres I have no doubt that
+    the wool has been imported from India, or, more likely,
+    that the cloth was made in Cashmere. The texture is a
+    plain weave, has a selvedge edge, the warp yarns are
+    doubled, while the weft is single yarn. It is much to be
+    regretted that the particulars of locality, of burial,
+    and the period of time to which this interesting fabric
+    belongs has been lost. I assume from the general
+    characteristics that it is of a late period--probably
+    not earlier than the Ptolemaic.
+
+    4. This linen cloth has a plain selvedge, regular weave,
+    and contains no size. About 25% of both warp and weft
+    yarns are doubled, and all are very even in diameter.
+
+    5. A coarse linen cloth with plain selvedge. All the
+    yarns are single and even in diameter.
+
+    6. This is a coarse, highly-sized linen cloth. The yarns
+    are agglutinated, are brittle, and it is difficult to
+    separate the fibres. The sample submitted has been cut
+    from the end of the piece and shows the warp ends.
+
+    7. A coarse linen cloth, sized and brittle. No selvedge
+    on the piece sent. Both warp and weft yarns are single,
+    and even in diameter.
+
+    8. This is a very coarse linen fabric heavily sized and
+    brittle. Both warp and weft yarns are single and very
+    irregular in diameter.
+
+C.--Lord Denbigh's: XXVI. Dynasty.
+
+    9. A soft-spun linen cloth containing no size. Specimen
+    has been cut from the body of the fabric, showing no
+    selvedge. About half of the warp is composed of doubled
+    yarns of irregular diameter; the weft is of doubled
+    yarns and more regular in diameter.
+
+    10. The selvedge of this linen fabric is peculiar and
+    somewhat elaborate. The outer margin is composed of four
+    sets of ten yarns parallel to each other, forming one
+    strand of warp; then comes a space of 1-9/10" (48 mm.)
+    where the warp yarns are dyed red; then occurs three
+    more sets of ten parallel yarns (the object being to
+    strengthen the selvedge), followed by the general body
+    of the fabric. The entire selvedge is 2-1/4" (57 mm.)
+    wide. About half the warp yarns are doubled, while all
+    the weft are composed of doubled yarns, both being
+    fairly even in diameter, and not sized.
+
+    11. A fine, soft, linen cloth, with selvedge 1-1/8" (29
+    mm.) wide; the three outer and the two inner strands of
+    the warp are made up of many parallel yarns, as in No.
+    10, with an interspace of 3/8" (10 mm.) All the warp
+    yarns are dyed red, about 25% of them being doubled; the
+    weft is peculiar in having five or six strands of single
+    yarns alternating with six or seven double yarns, giving
+    a faint stripe in the fabric.
+
+    12. A linen cloth, with no selvedge edge. It has been
+    dyed red, probably _ferum_, a dye which I find uniformly
+    associated with friable or decomposing fibres.
+
+    13. A peculiarly coloured fine linen cloth; the pattern
+    is caused by some of the warp yarns being dyed, and
+    occurring sometimes of four, two, or one red strands,
+    with grey ones intermixed. A few of the warp yarns are
+    doubled. The weft is composed of single yarns and are
+    all in the grey.
+
+    14. A coarse soft-woven linen fabric, containing no
+    size. Lines are indicated at irregular distances along
+    the cloth, varying from 5/16" to 9/16" (8 to 14 mm.);
+    these are caused by the introduction of three strands of
+    doubled yarn in the warp while the remainder are single
+    yarns. The weft is all of doubled yarns; both warp and
+    weft are very regular in diameter.
+
+    15. This is a variegated linen fabric with warps
+    coloured something like No. 13, but the red strands of
+    warp are more irregular in distribution. Like it, a few
+    of the warp yarns are doubled, both the red and the
+    grey; while the weft is all of single yarns and in the
+    grey."
+
+[A considerable quantity of specimens of the cloths which were woven
+by the Ancient Egyptians has been examined both in this country and
+abroad. I may, however, call special attention to the results of
+examination published in Miss M. A. Murray's excellent little work
+_The Tomb of Two Brothers_, Manchester Museum Publications, No. 68,
+1910.--H.L.R.]
+
+
+DETAILS OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE BODY WRAPPINGS.
+
+ --------+-------+-----+-----++-----------------------------------------
+ Specimen|Nature |Warp |Weft ||   Micro Measurements of Ten Fibres.
+    No.  |  of   |Ends |Picks|+-------------+-------------+-------------
+         |Textile|per  |per  ||    Weft.    |    Warp.    |  Mean of.
+         | Fibre.|inch.|inch.|+======+======+======+======+======+======
+         |       |     |     || Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | Weft.| Warp.
+ ========+=======+=====+=====++======+======+======+======+======+======
+         |       |     |     ||  in. |  in. |  in. |  in. |  in. |  in.
+ A.   { 1| Linen |  44 | 32  ||1/1400|1/3333|1/1424|1/3330|1/1768|1/1786
+      { 2|   "   |  10 | 17  ||1/1786|1/3330|1/1780|1/2860|1/2020|1/1905
+         |       |     |     ||      |      |      |      |      |
+      { 3| Wool  | 224 | 40  ||1/833 |1/2500|1/833 |1/2000|1/1351|1/1429
+      { 4| Linen |  64 | 32  ||1/1429|1/2500|1/1250|1/5000|1/1818|1/1754
+      { 5|   "   |  56 | 20  ||1/1250|1/3333|1/1250|1/2500|1/1754|1/1724
+ B.   { 6|   "   |  48 | 24  ||1/1250|1/2500|1/1000|1/2500|1/1640|1/1594
+      { 7|   "   |  48 | 20  ||1/1111|1/2500|1/1000|1/2500|1/1408|1/1428
+      { 8|   "   |  36 | 16  ||1/833 |1/3333|1/1111|1/2500|1/1456|1/1613
+         |       |     |     ||      |      |      |      |      |
+      { 9|   "   |  48 | 24  ||1/1666|1/3333|1/1666|1/3333|1/2222|1/1860
+      {10|   "   |  32 | 60  ||1/833 |1/3333|1/908 |1/3333|1/1724|1/1613
+      {11|   "   |  80 | 36  ||1/1429|1/3333|1/1000|1/3333|1/1887|1/1784
+ C.   {12|   "   |  96 | 40  ||1/1111|1/2500|1/1250|1/2500|1/1724|1/1695
+      {13|   "   |  80 | 36  ||1/1111|1/2500|1/1429|1/2500|1/1640|1/2040
+      {14|   "   |  56 | 24  ||1/909 |1/3333|1/1250|1/2500|1/1594|1/1695
+      {15|   "   |  64 | 36  ||1/1250|1/2000|1/1429|1/2500|1/1724|1/1818
+ --------+-------+-----+-----++------+------+------+------+------+------
+
+
+THE ABOVE CONVERTED INTO METRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
+
+ --------+-------+--------+--------++-----------------------------------
+         |       |        |        || Micro Measurements of Ten Fibres
+ Specimen|Nature | Warp   | Weft   ||          in Millimetres.
+    No.  |  of   | Ends   | Picks  |+-----------+-----------+-----------
+         |Textile| per    | per    ||   Weft.   |   Warp.   | Mean of
+         | Fibre.| Centim.| Centim.|+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====
+         |       |        |        ||Max. |Min. |Max. |Min. |Weft.|Warp.
+ ========+=======+========+========++=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====
+     1   | Linen |  17    |  12.6  ||.0181|.0076|.0178|.0076|.0144|.0142
+     2   |   "   |   4    |   6.7  ||.0142|.0076|.0143|.0089|.0126|.0133
+     3   | Wool  |  88    |  15.6  ||.0305|.0101|.0305|.0127|.0188|.0178
+     4   | Linen |  25    |  12.6  ||.0178|.0101|.0203|.0050|.0140|.0145
+     5   |   "   |  22    |   7.8  ||.0203|.0076|.0203|.0101|.0145|.0147
+     6   |   "   |  19    |   9.5  ||.0203|.0101|.0254|.0101|.0155|.0159
+     7   |   "   |  19    |   7.8  ||.0229|.0101|.0254|.0101|.0180|.0178
+     8   |   "   |  14.1  |   6.3  ||.0305|.0076|.0229|.0101|.0174|.0157
+     9   |   "   |  19    |   9.5  ||.0152|.0076|.0152|.0076|.0208|.0130
+    10   |   "   |  12.6  |  23.6  ||.0305|.0076|.0278|.0076|.0147|.0157
+    11   |   "   |  31.5  |  14.1  ||.0178|.0076|.0254|.0076|.0135|.0142
+    12   |   "   |  37.4  |  15.6  ||.0229|.0101|.0203|.0101|.0147|.0149
+    13   |   "   |  19    |  14.1  ||.0229|.0101|.0178|.0101|.0155|.0124
+    14   |   "   |  22    |   9.5  ||.0278|.0076|.0203|.0101|.0159|.0149
+    15   |   "   |  25    |  14.1  ||.0203|.0127|.0178|.0101|.0147|.0140
+ --------+-------+--------+--------++-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----
+
+It is very obvious they had no scale to work to.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[A] To the uninitiated I may explain that in a horizontal loom the
+plane of the warp is more or less parallel with that of the floor,
+while in an upright or vertical loom the plane of the warp is at right
+angles to that of the floor.
+
+[B] To avoid indistinctness through over reduction, I have endeavoured
+to keep all reproductions in this paper as large as possible, and
+think I have succeeded in not losing any detail in the necessary
+reduction.
+
+[C] Hay's drawings are not published but can be seen in the Brit.
+Mus., Add. MSS. No. 29823, Fol. 32.
+
+[D] Olafsson, to be referred to later on, remarks that while in Ovid's
+time the _spathe_ was used for beating-in the weft, in Seneca's time
+the weft was beaten in by a toothed instrument. In other words a
+weaver's comb--the embryo reed--had been introduced.
+
+
+
+
+II. THE GREEK LOOM.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.--A Bushongo weaver at work. From Torday and
+Joyce, _Notes Ethnographiques_, _Ann. du Congo_, p. 182.]
+
+We have now to say a few words about an upright loom which differs
+very materially from the Egyptian loom already described. Whether the
+horizontal loom is a later product than the vertical loom, or was
+evolved from it, or whether both were independent inventions cannot be
+discussed here, but I may point out that there is an intermediate form
+between the two. It is doubtful as to whether this is a transition
+form. It was first brought to my notice by Mr. T. A. Joyce, as in use
+amongst some negro peoples in Central Africa possessing an old, high
+and possibly introduced civilisation, and is figured in Messrs. Torday
+and Joyce's Notes _Ethnographiques ... Bakuba ... et Bushongo_
+(_Annales du Congo_) pp. 24 and 182. In this loom the warp is
+stretched between an upper beam and a lower beam at an angle of about
+90 degrees, and the weaver sits underneath at his work, Fig. 28. It is
+not at all uncommon to meet with illustrations showing the warp
+stretched at an incline, and apart from the fact that in many the
+weavers are posing for illustration, and therefore, are most probably
+not exactly in their natural positions, the tilted arrangement has
+this advantage, namely, that the work of beating-in is improved by
+the fall given to the "sword" which, with less exertion by the
+weaver, drives the weft home more effectively. In all these cases,
+however, the weaver sits or stands in front of the loom, but in the
+case of the Bushongo the loom is tilted to such an extent that the
+weaver finds it more convenient to sit underneath the warp.
+
+The discovery by Messrs. Alan Gardiner and N. de G. Davies of
+illustrations of Egyptian upright looms, confirms Wilkinson in his
+statement and illustration that the Egyptians had this class of loom
+as well as the horizontal one. The vertical loom is found in Europe,
+Asia, Africa and America, and is, probably, ethnically as old if not
+older than the horizontal loom.[E] But this Egyptian upright loom
+differs from another, the Greek, or Central European, or Scandinavian
+form of the upright loom, in having an upper and a lower beam so that
+the warp is made taut between two beams, while in the Greek loom there
+is only _one_ beam. The warp hangs from this beam, the warp threads
+being made taut by means of weights attached at the lower ends.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29a.--Illustration on a small lekythos of an
+Athenian girl at work on a tapestry loom, together with a full size
+tracing of the tapestry loom. British Museum. B.C. 500.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29b.--Illustration of a Greek woman with a
+tapestry loom. From Stackelberg's _Graeber der Hellenen_, pl. xxxiii.]
+
+The Greeks were, however, acquainted with the tapestry loom, for there
+exists in the British Museum a small lekythos with an illustration,
+Fig. 29a, of such an article resting on the knees of a lady weaver.[F]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Greek woman at work on a loom. From C. Robert
++Eph arch+ 1892, pl. xiii., p. 247. It is not possible to say from
+this illustration whether this is a warp weighted loom or not.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Penelope at her loom. Illustration on an
+Athenian skyphos found in an Etruscan tomb at Chiusi, and at present
+in the museum there. The illustration is taken from _Monumenti d.
+Inst. Archeologico_, IX., pl. xlii.]
+
+It has been described by Mr. H. B. Walters in _Jour. Hellenic
+Studies_, XXXI., 1911, p. 15, who says: "In front of her, Fig. 29a, is
+a white wool basket (_Kalathos_) and on her lap is a frame somewhat in
+the form of a lyre, being formed by two upright pieces with knobs at
+the top, diverging slightly towards the top, across between which are
+stretched two threads at the top and two at the bottom, seven vertical
+threads being also visible. Her hands are placed on the threads, which
+she is engaged in manipulating. This object can only be intended for a
+hand loom, though there is apparently no evidence for the use of such
+objects in ancient times or among Oriental races either in the past or
+the present day. The only other parallel to the representation on this
+vase is one published by Stackelberg, Fig. 29b, where a woman holds a
+similar frame and is similarly occupied with her hands. The writers of
+the articles _Sticken_ in Baumeister and _Phrygium Opus_ in Daremberg
+and Saglio, misled by the likeness of the object to the modern
+crewel-frame, interpret the process as embroidery. But this kind of
+work implies cloth or other textile substance already woven, on which
+patterns are worked in, whereas in both vase paintings the textile is
+obviously in course of construction." He is right in so far as he
+goes, but both representations are those of _tapestry_ looms which
+fact is indicated by the warp threads in both cases, and by the design
+marked on the warp threads of Fig. 29b--a method of preparing their
+work in use to this day by tapestry weavers. Some authorities consider
+that tapestry weaving is more closely related to mat making than to
+true weaving. In other words, I take it tapestry is an early stage in
+the development of weaving. From this we get some idea as to how far
+the Greeks had progressed in the textile arts.
+
+As pointed out by MM. Daremberg and Saglio, _Dic. des Antiquites
+Grecques et Romaines_ pt. 46, p. 164, "illustrations of Greek or Roman
+methods of weaving are very rare, they are much reduced and in so far
+as the art is concerned purely diagrammatic." On the other hand if
+there are numerous references in the texts of classic authors, these
+references seem rather to obscure than elucidate the method of
+working. However, there are three illustrations--the Penelope loom,
+Fig. 31, and two Boeotian looms, one of which is illustrated in Fig.
+15--quite sufficient to explain the principle of the upright loom as
+used with warp weights by the Greeks, and the discovery of numerous
+articles, considered to be the warp weights, confirm the illustration.
+
+The principle is the same throughout, viz.: the looms are vertical,
+there is a warp beam on top, there are two cross rods one of which is
+a laze rod and _possibly_ the other is a heddle; and the warp threads
+are all kept taut by means of attached weights. On one of the Boeotian
+looms a bobbin or spool is shown. Along the top of Penelope's loom
+there are indications of nine pegs, on six of which balls of coloured
+thread have been placed, evidently for working out the designs, very
+much the same as shown on the rug loom in Bankfield Museum already
+referred to. The warp weights on this Athenian illustration are
+triangular in shape, and perhaps resemble the pyramidic weights found
+in Egypt and attributed to Roman times. Assuming these pyramids are
+Roman warp weights it would appear that both Greeks and Romans had
+vertical looms on which the warp threads were kept taut by means of
+weights. In one of the few clearly expressed technical classical
+references, Seneca speaks of the warp threads stretched by hanging
+weights.
+
+In the above classical illustrations which are after all only rough
+diagrams, the warp weights appear to hang from a _single_ thread only,
+but this can not have been correct. The warp threads must have been
+bunched, because a single suspended thread with a tension weight
+immediately begins to unravel, and so loses the advantage of its
+having been spun, as any one can ascertain for oneself. As regards the
+same point on the Lake Dwellers looms, Cohausen was the first to
+surmise that the warp threads were bunched to receive the weight, and
+Messikommer proved it by practical experiment.[G]
+
+As can be surmised with this class of loom the weaving begins at the
+_top_, working _down_wards, and the beating-in of the weft is
+_up_wards--the exact opposite to the method adopted with other
+looms--for the pendant warp ends, although weighted to keep them taut,
+do not appear to have been further fixed in position, so that to
+commence weaving at the lower end made the operation so extremely
+difficult as to be almost impossible.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Illustration of a Scandinavian warp weighted
+loom in the Copenhagen Museum. The illustration is taken from
+Montelius' _Civilisation of Sweden in Heathen Times_, translated by
+the Rev. F. H. Woods, London, Macmillan & Co., 1888, p. 160.
+
+[In the illustration of this loom published by the Trustees of the
+British Museum, in their _Guide to the Antiquities of the Early Iron
+Age_, London, 1905, p. 139, the shape of the warp weights has been
+altered to suit the shape of such weights in the British Museum
+collections.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Icelandic Loom after Olafsson.
+
+_a a_ Beam on which the warp is fixed. _b b_ Weights to make the warp
+taut. _c c_ Brackets which support the beam and on which it can be
+revolved by means of the spoke _e_ when the warp has to be lengthened,
+on account of the weft _f_ working downwards and so shortening the
+finished portion of the woven cloth. _g_ A sharp bone or tough piece
+of wood to beat the weft into proper position. _h_ The wound up weft
+which is pushed through the warp with the fingers. _i i_ The unbeamed
+warp. _k k_ The heddles or shed openers. _l l_ The supports on which
+the heddles rest when the "pick" is made [_i.e._, the pushing the weft
+through]. _m_ The beater-in. _n_ and _o_ Laze rods. _q_ The template
+for regulating the width of the cloth. _r r_ and _s s_ Beam on to
+which the loom is fixed.
+
+Some of the descriptions are not as clear as could be wished. It is
+probable that _g_ is a preliminary to _m_. N. Annandale mentions that
+he obtained in the Faroes a beater-in made of a whale's jaw or rib;
+while in Iceland he saw some of the perforated stones to which the
+warp threads were attached (_The Faroes and Iceland_, Oxford, 1905,
+pp. 195-6).]
+
+The Scandinavian form of the "Greek" loom from the Faroes Fig. 32, is
+made known to us through the article itself in the Copenhagen Museum,
+illustrated by Montelius, _Civilisation of Sweden in Heathen Times_,
+Lond. 1888, p. 160, and through the very clear illustration and
+description given us by Olafsson in his _Oeconomische Reise durch
+Island_, 1787, translated from the Danish edition of 1780. The loom
+figured by Olafsson, Fig. 33, shows an advance on that of Montelius,
+in being provided with heddles.[H] Upright looms with a lower beam
+instead of with warp weights and furnished with heddles, are not
+uncommon. There are the well known Indian and Persian rug looms, and
+Du Chaillu figures one in his _Journey to Ashango Land_, London, 1867,
+plate facing p. 291. Randall-Maciver and Wilkin illustrate a vertical
+loom in use among the Kabyles, _Libyan Notes_, London, 1901, Pl. IX.,
+and although the details of the illustration are not clear the text
+indicates the existence of one heddle: "The warp is decussated by
+means of a horizontal rod and leashes." Dr. Washington Mathews figures
+several Navajo looms with heddles, _Third Ann. Rep. Bureau of
+Ethnology_, p. 291; Ancient Peruvians also used them, as shown by Dr.
+Max Schmidt, _Baessler Archiv, I. pt. 1_, and so on practically _ad.
+lib._ But to work an upright warp-weighted loom with heddles is
+attended with great practical inconvenience, and this difficulty has,
+no doubt, been one of the chief causes of the complete discardance of
+this class of loom.
+
+In spite of the evidence in favour of the existence of warp weighted
+looms, the Director of the Hermannstadt Museum, Dr. v.
+Kimakovicz-Winnicki, sees fit to deny their existence. He found that
+in some parts of Transylvania the peasants use wooden pyramids (see
+Fig. 18) similar to the Roman warp weights for winding the thread
+from the spindle on to the shuttle. For this purpose sockets are
+bored into the thin or top end of two pyramids, which are placed
+just so far apart that a spindle can rest horizontally with one end
+in the socket of one pyramid, and the other end of the spindle in
+the socket of the other pyramid, and the thread in being wound off
+on to the shuttle causes the spindle to revolve in the sockets. From
+this he argues that what we have hitherto taken to be warp weights
+are not warp weights at all (_Spinn-u. Webewerkzeuge_, Wuerzburg,
+1911), and having denied these articles to be warp weights he gets
+over the difficulty presented by the illustration of Penelope at her
+loom, by attempting to prove that what we take to be a loom is no
+loom at all but a _flechtrahm_, _i.e._ plaiting frame! He then
+attempts to pull to pieces the idea that the Scandinavian loom in
+the Copenhagen Museum is a loom and condemns it as unworkable. There
+can be no doubt about his meaning as he defines his terms. The
+principle of weaving (_Weben_) he describes "as the absorption of
+two groups of parallel material elements (warp and weft) at right
+angles to each other, and the principle of plaiting (_Flechten_) as
+the absorption by itself in one plane of one group only of material
+element, (warp)" and he gives diagrammatic illustrations showing
+clearly what he means (_op. cit._ p. 31).[I] Judging from his
+remarks one must conclude he has not seen a primitive loom of any
+sort, and were it not for the official position he holds, his
+remarks would not need answering.
+
+It has, I believe, been suggested more than once that some of the
+perforated stones, pieces of burnt clay, pieces of chalk and like
+objects may be and are net-sinkers, and there is some justification
+for Dr. Kimakovicz-Winnicki's statement that the pyramidic forms are
+not warp weights; but it does not follow that all the perforated
+articles are either spindle-holders or net-sinkers, yet that is what
+his subsequent statements lead one to infer. It is, however, difficult
+to prove that these perforated articles are warp weights.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Side view and section of chalk warp weight
+found at Great Driffield. Of three of the weights the following
+dimensions were taken:
+
+    7-3/4" (19.7 cm.) long,   2 lbs. 3 oz. (1.0 k)
+    6"     (15.2  " )   "     1 lb.  8 oz. (0.7 k)
+    6-3/8" (16.2  " )   "     1 lb.  3 oz. (0.6 k)
+
+Hull Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.--"Chalk weight, 6" x 4" x 2" (15.2 cm. x 10.2
+x 5.1), similar to those found in pits, at Mount Caburn and Cissbury
+near Worthing, Sussex. Found with eighteen more in the _filling_ of
+pit 7, Winkelbury Hill." _Excavations in Winkelbury Camp_, by
+Lieut.-Gen. Pitt-Rivers (_Excavations in Cranbourne Chase_, Vol. II.,
+1888). As Pitt-Rivers also found at Winkelbury the fragment of a comb
+and a chalk spindle whorl, which are textile tools, we may safely
+presume these fashioned pieces of chalk are warp weights.]
+
+In 1875 several flat irregular oblong perforated pieces of soft chalk
+were found in enlarging the cattle market in Great Driffield,
+Yorkshire; they were found in a hole about three feet deep with
+Anglo-Saxon potsherds, animal remains, and bits of iron. They can now
+be seen in the Mortimer Collection in the Hull Museum. They consist of
+pieces of chalk, similar to those which drop annually in thousands
+upon thousands down the cliffs from the boulder clay between
+Bridlington and Flamborough. On some a shoulder has been cut, Fig. 34,
+most have one perforation, but in a few specimens, where the thin
+portion above the hole has been broken off, a second hole has been
+made. None of them can stand unsupported. Owing to the soluble nature
+of the chalk they could not have been used as net-sinkers in the sea
+(about nine miles off) for they would quickly dissolve in salt water,
+and the same holds good in regard to fresh water, although in a lesser
+degree. But I do not think they were used even in fresh water as
+net-sinkers, for it was a characteristic of primitive peoples, with
+whom time was of no account, to do their work thoroughly--what they
+made was intended to last, and chalk net-sinkers would not have
+lasted. That these were found in a limited quantity, I believe about
+seventeen in number, tends to show that they are warp weights, for
+only a few are required for every loom, in spite of the considerable
+number shown in the non-technical illustration of Penelope's loom. Not
+being able to find any other use for these pieces of chalk, and
+judging that they are suitable for the purpose, I should say they are
+warp weights. In this case the weaver has made the most of what nature
+has given him; in other parts of England he has had to fashion the
+weight out of the rough chalk, Fig. 35.
+
+In the Museum at Devizes there are several hard pieces of perforated
+and fashioned chalk which offer more conclusive evidence. Of these
+Mrs. M. E. Cunnington, the Curator, writes me: "All the weights here
+have holes bored right through. Two large ones stand easily on the
+floor. Others are more irregular in form and will not stand upright.
+This latter type is, as far as I am aware, the more usual in this part
+of the country. They are commonly cut out of the hard chalk, and weigh
+about 3 or 4 lbs. (1.5-2 Kilos). We think these weights are loom
+weights because we find them with Romano-British remains, as at
+Westbury, and late Celtic remains on our chalk uplands, far from water
+where fishing could have been carried on. With the same remains we
+find weaving combs, numerous spindle whorls and other tools of bone
+that were also probably used in weaving operations." The Westbury, in
+Wiltshire, referred to, is some thirty miles in a straight line from
+the mouth of the Severn, and about forty miles from the English
+Channel. These pieces of chalk cannot therefore have been used as
+net-sinkers, leaving out of consideration their composition; they were
+found with weaving tools and they fit the position. So far the
+ingenuity of our ablest archaeologists at home and abroad has not
+succeeded in ascribing the use of these objects to anything else than
+net-sinking or warp tension. The adaptability of the articles for use
+as warp weights, the small groups in which they are found, the
+discovery of weaving implements in the closest proximity, our
+knowledge of the Greek representations of warp-weighted looms, the
+Olafsson illustration, and the loom in the Copenhagen Museum all tend
+to prove that these articles are really warp weights.
+
+As regards the practical possibility or impossibility of working a
+"Greek" loom, I had a simple frame made in the Museum and showed Mr.
+J. Smith, a mill "Overlooker" at Messrs. Wayman and Sons, Ld.,
+Halifax, the illustration in Montelius' book already referred to, and
+asked him to weave me a small piece of cloth on it. In the course of a
+few hours he did the warping, beaming and weaving, making the pick
+with his fingers and using a ball of weft thread instead of a spool or
+shuttle. The result is shown in the accompanying illustration, Fig.
+36, conclusively proving that weaving on such a frame is quite
+feasible, and practically proving that Olafsson's and the Copenhagen
+warp weighted looms are properly constructed workable looms.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.--A warp weighted loom made at Bankfield
+Museum, to show the possibility of weaving by this method. There is no
+heddle nor shuttle used. The weaver made the "shed" and pushed the
+weft through with his fingers. He naturally worked _down_wards.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.--Diagram to show how the warp is kept taut on
+a Syrian loom.]
+
+Finally, it may not be out of place here to point out that there are
+other looms, besides the Greek and Scandinavian, on which the warp is
+made taut by means of warp weights. The Rev. Dr. Harvey Porter, of the
+American College, Beyrout, Syria, writing about the year 1901, thus
+describes the common loom of the country. He says: "Two upright posts
+are fixed in the ground, which hold the roller to which the threads of
+the warp are fastened, and upon which the cloth is wound as it is
+woven. The threads of the warp are carried upward towards the ceiling
+at the other end of the room, and pass over rollers, and are gathered
+in hanks and weighted to keep them taut (_Dic. of the Bible_,
+Edinburgh, 1902, IV., p. 901)." He has kindly sent me an illustration
+of this loom, but unfortunately the weights are not clearly shown, and
+the same is the case with an illustration of a loom from Cyprus.[J]
+The diagram, Fig. 37, shows the principle. In a Shan loom illustrated
+by Mrs. Leslie Milne, in _The Shans at Home_, London, 1910, p. 120,
+the warp makes a somewhat similar detour over the head of the weaver,
+it is, however, not weighted but tied to a beam. The point to be
+observed is that these warp-weighted looms are horizontal and not
+perpendicular, and also that the weaving is the reverse of that on the
+Greek loom but similar to that on our horizontal looms, so that the
+present Syrian and Cyprian looms have nothing in common with the old
+Greek loom.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Hand of Penelope clutching her shuttle. From
+a corner of a piece of sculpture discovered by O. Kern and described
+by C. Robert, (_The Feet Washing of Odysseus_, fifth Century B.C.,
+_Mitt. Kais. Deutsch. Arch. Inst._, Athens, XXV., 1900, pp. 332-3).
+The author considers Penelope to be in the act of unravelling what she
+has woven: "We see her holding the spool with her right hand, while
+the left hand, half closed, is raised to about shoulder high, and the
+fingers, if I read the traces correctly, are posed as though she held
+a thread."]
+
+The Greeks evidently used a spool in weaving, that is a piece of stick
+round which was wound the thread that became the weft, as is shown in
+the hand of Penelope, Fig. 38, and in Kirke's loom, Fig. 15.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[E] I find frequent references, by various writers, to an upright loom
+mentioned by E. H. Palmer as used by a Bedawin woman near Jebel Musa,
+but on looking up his description (_The Desert of the Exodus_, I. p.
+125), I find it to be so indifferent as to be quite useless for
+purposes of comparison.
+
+[F] My attention to this was kindly drawn by Mr. F. N. Pryce,
+Assistant in the Dept. of Greek and Roman Antiquities.
+
+[G] The existence of warp weighted looms amongst the prehistoric Lake
+Dwellers of Switzerland was first surmised by Pauer (_Keller's Lake
+Dwellings_) from the discovery of the weights, and was made
+practically certain by Messikommer and Jentsch.
+
+[H] Comparing the loom Olafsson saw with the description in the Nial
+Saga, he concludes this sort of loom was in use A.D. 1014, in the
+North of Scotland.
+
+[I] He criticises the detail of the illustration of Penelope's loom.
+It must be remembered this illustration is not a technical drawing,
+but an artist's representation where correctness of detail cannot be
+expected. In his own drawing of the Egyptian horizontal loom many of
+the warp threads are shown over instead of under the laze rods, and
+yet this is supposed to be a correct technical drawing!
+
+[J] Since writing Dr. Porter has sent me photograph of another sort of
+loom in which weights are used as counter balances to keep the heddles
+raised. The subject requires further elucidation.
+
+
+
+
+III. CONCLUSION.
+
+
+From the foregoing we gather that the Ancient Egyptians had two forms
+of looms. The earlier or horizontal form, date about B.C. 2000, has in
+a modified way survived to the present day in desert Egypt and is also
+found in Seistan. It required a large area of ground for working and
+probably in earlier times when there was plenty of space this did not
+much matter. But as the population in the towns increased and with
+the increase of civilisation and its concomitant increased demand for
+cloth, probably out of proportion to the increase of population, space
+would be begrudged and this may have caused the invention or the
+introduction of the vertical form of loom which we find in use some
+500 years later. In Egypt therefore the horizontal loom preceded the
+vertical loom but it does not necessarily follow that such was the
+case elsewhere. In so far as we can gather from the small amount of
+information at our disposal, in the earlier days the women were the
+weavers, and later on with the introduction of the upright loom the
+men were the weavers with an occasional female weaver. In the Egyptian
+Desert and in Seistan in the present day with horizontal looms the
+weavers appear to be males, but among the nomads of Persia who
+likewise use horizontal looms the weavers are females. In the use of
+either form of loom the Egyptian weavers beat the weft downwards or
+towards themselves and _not_ upwards or away from themselves. They had
+the heddle in one of its earliest forms and had consequently made the
+first great step in the evolution of the loom as we now know it. In
+the beginning they made no selvedges so that for every pick a separate
+length of weft thread was used. The adoption of the selvedge was
+another improvement and until it was introduced the weft would no
+doubt have been put through with the fingers, later on a spool being
+used. It is possible also that in very late times the weavers' comb
+was introduced. It is safe to say that the Egyptians had no knowledge
+of the reed. Both forms of looms were simple, without harness or other
+complicated pieces of mechanism. The Egyptians accomplished fairly
+good work and judging these people from their looms alone we must
+conclude they were a progressive race.
+
+The Greek form of loom was an upright one on which the warp threads
+were kept taut by means of weights and similar to the form which
+existed in Central and Northern Europe (in the latter until recent
+times) but of which so far there is no trace to the east, or south, or
+west. The Greek loom may have been furnished with a heddle but the
+drawings are not clear on this point. A spool was used. The weavers
+were women and the weft was beaten upwards or away from the weaver. It
+was not a form of loom so capable of improvement as the Egyptian forms
+and there appears to be no connection between the forms used on either
+side of the Mediterranean. The Greek tapestry loom could hardly have
+been more primitive. In respect to the forms of looms used by the two
+peoples the Egyptians were considerably in advance of the Greeks.
+
+
+FINIS.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Punctuation errors have been repaired.
+
+The author uses some archaic and alternative spelling, for example,
+nooze for noose, gramms for grammes. These have been retained as
+printed.
+
+The original text contained an erratum, as follows:
+
+    Erratum:--Page 39, Line 5, for Dr. Henry Porter, _read_
+    Dr. Harvey Porter.
+
+The error has been fixed in this e-text.
+
+The following amendments have been made:
+
+    Page 8--Calliaud amended to Cailliaud--"... as well as
+    those of Cailliaud and Rosellini show that ..."
+
+    Page 11--Tehuti-hotep amended to Tehuti-hetep--"... from
+    the tomb of Tehuti-hetep _circa_ 1938-1849 B.C., ..."
+
+    Page 18--netsinker amended to net-sinker--"... the
+    material is not suitable for a net-sinker, ..."
+
+    Page 19, Fig. 21 caption--cm. amended to in.--"...
+    Breadth 6.5 cm. (1-11/32 in.)."
+
+    Page 23--pecularity amended to peculiarity--"When I
+    noticed the peculiarity first, ..."
+
+    Page 23--analagous amended to analogous--"We know how
+    closely analogous to 'darning' was ..."
+
+    Page 27--safron amended to saffron--"2. This is a
+    coarser fabric, has been dyed with saffron, ..."
+
+    Page 29--Millemetres amended to Millimetres--"Micro
+    Measurements of Ten Fibres in Millimetres."
+
+    Page 32, Fig. 31 caption--Etrusian amended to
+    Etruscan--"... an Athenian skyphos found in an Etruscan
+    tomb ..."
+
+    Page 32--repeated instance of use deleted--"... there is
+    apparently no evidence for the use of such objects ..."
+
+    Page 35, Fig. 33 caption--templete amended to
+    template--"The template for regulating the width of the
+    cloth."
+
+    Page 37, Fig. 35 caption--whorle amended to whorl--"...
+    the fragment of a comb and a chalk spindle whorl, ..."
+
+    Page 38--commonally amended to commonly--"They are
+    commonly cut out of the hard chalk, ..."
+
+    Page 38--archaeologists amended to archaeologists--"...
+    the ingenuity of our ablest archaeologists at home and
+    abroad ..."
+
+    Page 38--impossibilty amended to impossibility--"As
+    regards the practical possibility or impossibility ..."
+
+The Figures have been moved, where necessary, so that they are not in
+the middle of a paragraph.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Ancient Egyptian and Greek Looms, by H. Ling Roth
+
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