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diff --git a/25731-0.txt b/25731-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3bc0dda --- /dev/null +++ b/25731-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2054 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Ancient Egyptian and Greek Looms, by H. Ling Roth + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Ancient Egyptian and Greek Looms + +Author: H. Ling Roth + +Release Date: June 8, 2008 [EBook #25731] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANCIENT EGYPTIAN AND GREEK LOOMS *** + + + + +Produced by Julie Barkley, Sam W. and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's Note + +There is a small amount of Greek in this book; you may need +to adjust your font to display it properly. + + + + + Ancient Egyptian and + Greek Looms + + + BY + H. LING ROTH + (Keeper). + + WITH 38 LINE BLOCK AND ONE COLLOTYPE ILLUSTRATIONS. + + + BANKFIELD MUSEUM, HALIFAX + APRIL 1913 + + + + +PREFACE. + + +Halifax, which is situated in the heart of the great textile trade of +Lancashire and Yorkshire, has been a home of the woollen manufacture +since the earliest time, and it is only meet, therefore, that its +museum should possess specimens of the tools used in the early days of +spinning, weaving, and cloth making generally. In spite of the +considerable progress made towards that end, many typical specimens +are still wanting, and, while we have plenty of material for the study +of weaving in various parts of the world, we are lacking in everything +relating to the industry in Ancient Egypt and Greece. Failing +specimens I have had recourse to illustrations, but the Egyptian ones +published by Cailliaud, Rosellini, Sir J. G. Wilkinson and Lepsius, +contradict each other in many important points, so that those who +study them find them practically useless for an understanding of the +art as carried on in the Nile lands. Fortunately, last year, Mr. N. de +G. Davies, the well-known Egyptologist, hearing of my difficulty, very +generously placed some of his copies of tomb drawings at my disposal, +and with this invaluable help I have been enabled to complete the +present paper, and to lay before Halifax students some new details of +manufacture bearing upon their staple industry. + + H. Ling Roth. + + Bankfield Museum, Halifax. + April 1913. + + + + +I. EGYPTIAN LOOMS. + + +HORIZONTAL LOOMS.[A] + +In the tomb of Chnem-hotep, at Beni Hasan, there is a wall painting of +a horizontal loom with two weavers, women, squatting on either side, +and at the right in the background is drawn the figure of the +taskmaster. There are also figures represented in the act of spinning, +etc. For the present we are concerned with the weaving only. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from the +illustration in Cailliaud's _Recherches_, etc. Same size as +published.] + +Of this illustration, there appear to be six reproductions. We have +first of all, Fig. 1, that of Fred. Cailliaud (_Recherches sur les +Arts et Métiers_, etc., Paris, 1831) with illustrations of drawings +made by himself in the years 1819 to 1822. His publication was +followed by Fig. 2, that of Sir J. G. Wilkinson (_Manners and +Customs_, etc., London, 1837). Mr. John Murray, whose house has +published Wilkinson's work from the first edition to the last, informs +me that a few of the drawings were made by George Scharf, afterwards +Sir George Scharf, Keeper of the National Portrait Gallery, but that +most of them seem to have been made by Joseph Bonomi, the well known +Egyptologist. Wilkinson's woodcut, although clearly and neatly done, +is on a very small scale; nevertheless it admits of a fair comparison +with those reproduced on a larger scale. + +[Illustration: + + Figs. 1 & 3. Weaving. + + Fig. 2. Loom. + + " 3. Putting in the woof, but not + by a shuttle thrown with + the hand. + + " 4. Male Overseer. + + " 5. Hackling. + + " 6. Twisting the double threads + for the warp. + + _a_ Weaving. + _b_ Chief of Loom. + _c_ Facing. + _d_ Pulling out. + +Fig. 2.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from Sir J. G. +Wilkinson's _Manners and Customs_, London, John Murray, 1878, Vol. I., +p. 317. Same size as published.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from the +illustration in Rosellini's _Monumenti_ (Monumenti Civili), Plate XLI. +Reduced one-fifth lineal of size published.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from +Lepsius' _Denkmäler_. Same size as published.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from +Prof. Percy Newberry's _Beni Hasan_, I. Plate 29. Same size as +published.] + +After him, Fig. 3, N. F. J. B. Rosellini began the publication of his +great work (_I Monumenti dell' Egitto_, Pisa, 1832-1844). The +similarity between the comparatively few drawings published by +Cailliaud and the very large number published by Rosellini is very +great. It is of course quite possible Rosellini may have made use of +some of Cailliaud's drawings. Five years after Rosellini's publication +came that of C. R. Lepsius (_Denkmäler_, Leipzig, 1849), Fig. 4, his +drawings having been made in the years 1842 to 1845. Since the time of +Lepsius until quite recent years I can trace no further copying until +we get the illustration, Fig. 5, in Prof. Percy Newberry's _Beni +Hasan_, London, 1910. In this work the reproduction is about one +twentieth of the original, or about three fifths of the size of that +of Wilkinson, and unfortunately so crude as not to be available for +our present purpose.[B] Lastly we have the reproduction, Fig. 6, from +Mr. N. de Garis Davies' drawing made in 1903, and now first published +by kind permission of Mr. F. Ll. Griffith. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Horizontal Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep. Size of +original: Height of the figures 9-1/4" = 24·4 cm. Drawn by Mr. N. de +G. Davies, and now published for the first time by permission of Mr. +F. Ll. Griffith.] + +In the various reproductions by the above explorers, the only three +which agree very closely are those of Cailliaud, Rosellini and Davies. +The others vary considerably and in essentials do not agree with the +above nor with one another. The differences may in the first instance +be due to difficulties in copying the original in the tomb. Others may +be due to ignorance of detail on the part of the secondary +copyist--the man who prepared them for publication--so that he was +unable to follow up the clues on the drawings laid before him. The +differences may also be due to careless copying and to "touching up" +of the copies when made; they may be slightly due to deterioration and +obliteration of the original in the course of time. + +The _Encyclopædia Biblica_ gives a variant from all six illustrations, +but approaching nearest to that of Cailliaud, Rosellini and Davies. It +is misleading in so far that the drawing has been made to suit +Professor Kennedy's idea as to what it should be. + +Some of the differences are of minor importance, but a comparison will +help materially to our understanding of the method of weaving adopted +by the Egyptians from the XIIth to the XIXth Dynasties, or about B.C. +2000 to 1200. To go into details, and taking Mr. N. de G. Davies' +illustration as our basis, we find slight differences in the shape of +the pegs B, B1, which are immaterial. A more pronounced difference is +seen in the way in which the threads are attached to the warp beam A. +Neither Wilkinson nor Lepsius carry these threads over the beam, the +former carrying them only as far as the laze threads C, while the +latter carries them up to a line drawn parallel to and below the beam; +Cailliaud and Rosellini carry them over the beam while Mr. Davies +carries them half way only. The object of this half carrying over is +not clear. The threads in chain-form at C are probably laze threads, +apparently placed there so that in case of any disarrangement of the +warp threads the weaver can from that point run her fingers along them +and get them disentangled. It has been suggested to me that this +chain-form might be a tension chain for taking up slack warp, but the +former explanation seems the more likely. + +All the drawings but Wilkinson's show the warp threads converging +towards the breast beam; Wilkinson shows them parallel and in Lepsius +their convergence is excessive. There should be a slight convergence +shown, as in the course of weaving the threads get drawn in, and in +later forms of looms in semi-civilised countries we find an endeavour +to counteract this tendency by the use of a tool known as a "temple." + +The cross sticks D1, D2, look like laze rods. It may not be out of +place here to point out that in primitive weaving laze rods serve two +purposes, or one more than in the later somewhat more advanced looms. +They serve throughout to keep the warp threads in place, and they +serve to separate the odd threads from the even (1, 3, 5, 7 from 2, 4, +6, 8, &c.), and in so doing take the place of the fingers in making +the "shed," _i.e._, the opening through which the "weft (or woof)" is +passed, a function which in turn is usurped by the "heald (or +heddle)." The heddle therefore becomes a very important factor, and +Dr. H. G. Harrison by no means overstates the case when he says that +the development of the heddle is the most important step in the +evolution of the loom (Horniman Museum Handbooks, No. 10, pp. 47-49). +We may now return to the drawing. Wilkinson shows the rod D1 +indistinctly and the left hand end only of D2. Lepsius' artist seems +to have taken a liberty with D1 but in the right direction, by making +it more definitely into an early form of heddle--the loop and rod--but +he shows D2 the same as Cailliaud and Rosellini. Prof. Kennedy argues +that these rods are in the wrong position and that D1 which is a +heddle should be in the place of D2. Mr. Davies' drawing as well as +those of Cailliaud and Rosellini show that D1 is a heddle while D2 is +shown to be a laze rod. Asiatic primitive looms, like those from +Borneo and Bhutan, have two laze rods but no heddle; on the other hand +many primitive African looms have one laze rod and one heddle as is +the case with this Egyptian loom. More threads are shown on the left +hand end of D2 than on the right hand end. Mr. Davies informs me that +the same quantity should be shown from end to end across the warp, but +on the right hand side they are so indistinct that he was just able to +detect but not to trace them and so he omitted them. + +We now come to the rod E. Cailliaud and Rosellini show an undulation +at the one end _a_, but do not make the other end clear. Wilkinson +shows a small hook at the end _a_, which appears to me to be a +transcriber's development of the curved end of his two predecessors; +in the text Wilkinson says there is a hook at each end of this stick, +but he does not show any at the end opposite to _a_; he refers to +these hooks more than once (1st ed., III., p. 126 footnote). Lepsius +has altered the shape of the curve and transferred it from the end _a_ +to the opposite end. In Mr. de G. Davies' drawing, it has been +inserted in dotted lines, as the original is in such a state that +tracing is almost impossible. Wilkinson, Erman, v. Cohausen (_Das +Spinnen u. Weben bei den Alten_, in _Ann. Ver. Nassau. Altherthumsk._, +Wiesbaden, 1879, p. 29), and others call it a shuttle, but I am more +inclined to consider it a slashing stick ("sword" or "beater-in") for +pushing the weft into position. A tool which appears to be a beater-in +and of similar end shape is seen held in the hand of a woman on a +wall painting at El Bersheh--see Fig. 11, top right-hand corner. We +have in another illustration, Fig. 7, an article which appears to be a +spool, which I think confirms the view that E is not the shuttle but +the beater-in. In all the illustrations, too, the pose of the hands of +the women bearing on this stick is indicative of a downward pressure +and not of a grasp. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Tomb of the Vizier Daga. Date about end XI. +Dynasty, B.C. 2000. Mr. N. de G. Davies' _Five Theban Tombs_, Plate +XXXVII. + +The upper illustration indicates a woman warping or beaming, probably +warping. + +In the lower illustration note the left hand figure holding the spool +in her hand. At first sight this small black line looks like a +continuation of the "beater-in" in the hands of the other weaver, but +Mr. Davies informs me that it is quite a distinct article, and that +there can be no doubt about it. Just above the breast beam there are 8 +or 9 threads of weft but they are too faint to be included.] + +The selvedge F on the one side of the cloth and not on both sides is +also interesting from the fact that selvedges do not appear on the +Egyptian cloths until the XVIII. Dynasty _circa_ B.C. 1600. + +The breast beam:--It appears to me that the three portions marked G1, +G2 and G3 joined up are intended to represent the breast beam and its +holding pegs, similar to the warp beam A and its pegs B1, B2, but the +portion K is not clearly drawn in any of the reproductions. Wilkinson +omits this altogether, but in its place has two black pieces which +also are still less clear. Lepsius has omitted G2 altogether and +appears to have made G1 and K and G3 into treadles, by raising G1 +above the level of G3, and to support the view that these are +treadles, he makes use of the overseer's foot by placing it on the +supposed treadle, and the casual observer thinks it is the foot of the +woman weaver. However, Mr. Davies' copy seems to offer a solution. He +agrees with Cailliaud and Rosellini in so far as G1, G2 and G3 are +concerned. With him K takes quite a different form, in fact it looks +very similar to an article which an attendant woman in another panel +has close by her, see Fig. 8. It might perhaps be a rest to prevent +the beater-in being driven home too forcibly--this, however, is still +only a surmise--as the length of the beater-in makes it heavy at the +far end. + +[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Weaver with the support K, Fig. 6; the woman +appears to hold a beater-in in the right hand and a ball of thread in +the left hand. Rosellini.] + +In Cailliaud the warp threads are coloured in pale blue and red on top +of the black lines of the drawing; he has painted the selvedge and +finished cloth a pale blue, as well as that portion of G2 which is +covered by the cloth indicating that this is the breast beam, G3 and +G1 are painted a dark red. Rosellini colours A, B1, B2, D1, D2, G3 +orange; G1 and K dark red, but E from end to end light ochre. This +shows that K is distinct from E. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9. + +Upright or Vertical Looms from the Tomb of Thot-nefer at Thebes, XVIII +Dynasty, _circa_ B.C. 1425. From a drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies. Size +of original: Height from Base Line to top of frame at A, 11-1/2" = 29 +cm.] + +In consequence of this loom being represented as upright it is often +spoken of as an upright or vertical loom. But it is drawn upright +because the Egyptian artist did not understand perspective, and it was +only by making the loom upright that he was enabled to show the +details we have just been examining. For the same reason mat making is +illustrated edgeways. If the loom were an upright one the two women +weavers would have had their backs turned towards the onlooker as can +be seen in Fig. 9. Any doubt on the matter has however been set aside +by Prof. John Garstang's extremely interesting discovery of a wooden +model depicting a group of women spinning and weaving which he +illustrates in his work, _The Burial Customs of Ancient Egypt_, +London, 1907. After referring to the woman spinning, he continues: +"The other seated figures apparently represent women at work upon a +horizontal loom; the frame and the woof [_sic_, should be _warp_] +threads are faintly represented upon the board. It is possible that +they are making mats or, perhaps, weaving (p. 132)." He gives an +illustration of the group taken from a photograph, but as it does not +show the lines which indicate the loom lying horizontally on the +ground nor the warp threads, I have asked him to let me have a drawing +made of it and, with his kind permission, it is now reproduced here, +Fig. 10. The threads of the warp and the finished piece of cloth at +the breast beam end are clearly indicated. The whole model supports +conclusively the well founded supposition that the loom we have been +considering is a _horizontal_ one. Curiously enough, Prof. Garstang +does not appear to appreciate the important bearing of his discovery, +for on a later page (p. 134) in speaking of Lepsius' illustration, +discussed above, he says: "the weavers are seen at work at an upright +loom." + +[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Horizontal Loom. Outline sketch by Miss Davey +of the original model of a group of one woman spinning and two women +weaving, found by Dr. John Garstang at Beni Hasan. The model is in the +Museum of the Liverpool Institute of Archæology.] + +It must not be thought that the Beni Hasan representation is the only +one which illustrates a horizontal loom. A second one is reproduced by +Prof. Percy Newberry from the tomb of Tehuti-hetep _circa_ 1938-1849 +B.C., see Fig. 11. In the upper portion the women are seen spinning +and preparing the thread generally, while in the lower portion two +women on the left are warping, and in the centre three apparently are +"beaming," _i.e._ putting the warp on to the beams preparatory to +commencing to weave, the warp threads being apparently drawn over pegs +to ensure the proper tension. This illustration shows the warp flat +against the wall like the mat making shown at Beni Hasan. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Tomb of Tehuti-hetep. Date about 1939-1849 +B.C. From Professor Percy Newberry's _El Bersheh_ I. Pl. 26. + +Note the woman on the top right hand corner holding a "beater-in."] + +A third representation of a horizontal loom is reproduced from the +forthcoming volume of the Egypt Exploration Fund by kind permission of +Mr. N. de G. Davies, who made the copy. In this, Fig. 7, already +referred to, the lower portion is all that has come down to us. The +cloth is not shown contracted as in the Beni Hasan representation, the +two laze rods are drawn close to each other and here also an attempt +appears to have been made to show the over and under lapping warp +threads; the laze rods appear each with a hook, the hook on the upper +rod turned upwards and the hook (if it be one) on the lower rod turned +downwards. It is possible these hooks may be pegs to prevent the +shifting of the laze rods. It may be that one of the two rods is a +heddle rod the indication being the fine double lines, but this may +not be compatible with the hook at the end of the rod. The weaver on +the left holds a spool in her hand, evidently a piece of stick with +the weft thread wound round it, which she is pushing through with her +fingers. The weaver on the right holds a beater-in as shown in the +Beni Hasan drawing. The breast beam is held in position by two pegs +near the right one of which there is a curved article of indeterminate +use. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Study of a Bedawin Arab weaving, from a +sketch taken in the Forties of last Century, by Frank Goodall, R.A. +The original sketch is in Bankfield Museum. The weaver appears to be +provided with one heddle and a beater-in.] + +There is no very clear evidence as to how the finished cloth was +"taken up" unless we accept it that the bulging out of the part G2 +means that it was wound round the breast beam as is done on hand and +power looms of the present day. Some very long pieces of cloth have +come down to us and unless they were "taken up" in this way a long +stretch of ground would have been necessary. A modified form of this +horizontal loom has been met with in recent years among the Bedawin +Arabs, as shown in the illustration of a study sketch, Fig. 12, made +by Frank Goodall, R.A., in the forties of last century. The loom was +provided with pegs like the old Egyptian loom but it was supplied with +a primitive heddle resting on a stone at each side of the warp and it +would appear that the weaver, to a certain extent, did not take up the +woven cloth by winding it round the breast beam and by that means +retaining his position, but, as the weaving progressed and the line of +finished cloth got beyond his reach, he crept up to it and so got +farther and farther away from the breast beam until in the end he +arrived at the warp beam. Similar looms are still used for mat making +by the Egyptian fellah. + + +VERTICAL LOOMS. + +[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Upright or vertical loom. Wilkinson's +_Ancient Egyptians_, London, John Murray. 1st ed., Vol. III., p. 135.] + +Apart from the horizontal loom Wilkinson and Robert Hay[C] also +recorded the existence of an illustration of an upright loom, said in +error to be at Eileithyias (El Kab). Wilkinson's copy, Fig. 13, is +more elaborate than that of Hay. Mr. Davies informs me that the +original is not at Eileithyias, but in the tomb of Nefer-hotep at +Thebes. Wilkinson in regard to this illustration quotes the +oft-repeated statement of Herodotus (_circa_ 460-455 B.C.) in +reference to looms in general:--"Other nations make cloth by pushing +the woof upwards, the Egyptians on the contrary, press it down." On +this statement Wilkinson remarks: "This is confirmed by the paintings +which represent the process of making cloth; but at Thebes, a man who +is engaged in making a piece of cloth with a coloured border or +selvedge, appears to push the woof upwards, the cloth being fixed +above him, to the upper part of the frame" [Fig. 13]. But I am unable +to follow Wilkinson in this, for I can find no indication in his +illustration which shows how the beating-in of the weft is +accomplished. From the illustration all one can say is that it might +have been done either way. Wilkinson's illustration is lettered from +_a_ to _p_ but this lettering is not explained by him at all, +excepting in the case of the letter _k_, of which he says: "_k_ is a +shuttle, not thrown, but put in with the hand. It had a hook at the +end ..." and he proceeds to refer to the drawing elsewhere of the +horizontal loom. He does not show the hooks in his illustration. In +Fig. 14, I give the sketch made by Mr. N. de G. Davies of the remains +of the original from which Wilkinson made his illustration. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies, Jan. 1913, of +an Upright Loom in Tomb 49 at Thebes, belonging to Nefer-hotep, at end +of XVIII. Dynasty, B.C. 1330. Drawn when in a better state by +Wilkinson, Fig. 13, and Hay.] + +A more satisfactory drawing of upright looms is that which Mr. N. de +G. Davies has placed at my disposal for reproduction here. I append +his description, Fig. 9. "The picture of men working at two looms is +taken from the tomb of Thot-nefer at Thebes, who was a royal scribe +in the middle of the 18th Dynasty, _circa_ 1425 B.C. In his tomb his +house is shown. He himself sits in the hall, while inside some +servants spin and weave, make bread, store the grain, etc. The roof of +the chambers is supported on pillars, and between two of these the +looms are set up which are here depicted. They are not attached +however, either to the roof or the pillars. Faint sketching lines are +mixed up with the darker reds in which the picture was re-drawn, and +the whole very simply and carelessly executed. I have found it +difficult to make it clear. In my sketch the first faint sketching +outlines appear as lines. The more solid red lines which replaced +these I have 'hatched,' and certain portions including the men's flesh +colour, the stools, the discs I have put in solid black, partly +because they are for the most part more solid and dark red in the +original, and partly to distinguish the portions more clearly from one +another. The horizontal lines which cross the web are very faintly +drawn and almost as good as obliterated by the white paint which had +been put on the web. I have put them in just to show that the bars +were _conceived_ of as passing behind or under the web and concealed +by it. + +"The larger loom is worked by two men, the smaller by one man only. +The looms consist of an oblong frame A set up on two stones B. The +warp is attached to the warp beam C on top and the breast beam D at +the bottom. The threads of the warp are not shown, no difference being +made between any woven part and the warp threads; to all is given one +smear of white paint. Two discs E are seen hanging against the frame +posts, one on each side, the earlier sketch showing a larger disc than +the final drawing in dark red. + +"Two slender laze rods F are shown on the large loom and heavy bars G, +H, lower down; a somewhat similar laze rod and beams are also shown on +the smaller loom. + +"The weavers sit on benches with their backs to the spectator. The +artist has not dared to draw a back view of their heads, but has +turned each man's head to the right to show a profile. They are +holding a heavy looking rod which looks like a 'beater-in.' One would +expect to see a shuttle but perhaps this was too small an object for +so rough a picture--perhaps the man at the smaller loom holds an +exaggerated shuttle L in his right hand. + +"The lines M seen alongside the framework are the faint red sketch +lines _not_ cords. The diagonal line N on the left I do not +understand, it does not seem an accidental one. + +"On the left hand of the two looms the original shows a man spinning +coarse thread into finer(?) using two spindles at once; the threads +pass through rings fixed in the ceiling as in a picture at Beni Hasan. +Behind him two girls are breaking up the flax and two others are +making coarse threads of the fibres, almost exactly like those in the +tomb of Daga (No. 103) a couple of hundred yards away." + +To this description of Mr. Davies I would like to add a word about +the discs E. Wilkinson indicates these as rings apparently joining the +horizontal beam to the post of the frame, the form of the ring being +arrived at as explained by Mr. Davies by the original outline of the +sketch having been made larger than the final drawing of the circle, +or disc, and not obliterated. In Mr. Davies' drawing these discs hang +on or are fixed on to the uprights only, and I am inclined to think +they represent balls of weft thread hanging up in the same way as we +see whole rows of coloured balls hanging on the looms of Persian +rugmakers, and as can be seen on an Indian rug loom in Bankfield +Museum. + +It is also very clear that these Egyptian vertical looms are very +different from the Greek looms in so far as we know anything about +them. The Greek looms had an upper beam only and the warp threads were +bunched at the lower end and weighted with metal or clay balls to keep +them taut, Fig. 15. The _individual_ warp threads were not weighted; +they were bunched and then weighted. The pyramidal shaped clay warp +weights found in Egypt are I understand considered by Egyptologists to +belong to the Roman period, but in the Manchester University Museum +there is a mud article which Miss M. A. Murray describes as a warp +weight, Fig. 17, so that it is possible vertical looms with warp +weights may yet be forthcoming as an Egyptian and not a foreign +industrial tool. But Dr. H. R. Hall informs me this weight was +probably found in the ruins of houses where Ægean pottery was found +and hence it is probably a temporary warp weight of those people and +not an Egyptian article. + +[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Greek loom with spool and warp weights. +Illustration on a skyphos (van Branteghem vase in the Ashmolean +Museum, Oxford). From H. B. Walters' paper on _Odysseus & Kirke_ on a +Boeotian vase, Jour. Hellenic Studies, 1892-3 XIII. p. 81.] + +Since writing the above Mr. N. de G. Davies has very kindly sent me on +a new set of illustrations, Fig. 16, of which he says; "My attention +was called to the scene by Dr. Alan Gardiner. The scenes which +represent the preparation of the flax and the stretching of the warp +are almost replicas of those in the tomb of Daga of the Middle +Kingdom, so far as we can judge, while the pictures of the looms +resemble closely those in the tombs of Thot-nefer and Nefer-hotep. The +work is done by both men and women. Men prepare the flax while women +stretch the warp. Men mostly work the loom, either singly or with a +companion. But in one case a woman is seen at work at one of the +upright looms. She is shewn sitting sideways on the low bench and is +not pictured in a back view with widely spread legs like the men. +Unfortunately the work is so slovenly and so much injured that few +exact outlines can be secured, and hence all detail is insecure. +There are also superfluous lines in red colour which confuse the +picture. The tomb is Ramesside in date (_circa_ 1200 B.C.) The +inscription over the seated man is too broken to be read." + +[Illustration: Fig. 16a.--Weavers at work as represented in the Tomb +of Nefer-ronpet, Superintendent of Weavers at Thebes. Date about 1200 +B.C. From a drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 16b.--Weavers at work as represented in the Tomb +of Nefer-ronpet, Superintendent of Weavers at Thebes. Date about 1200 +B.C. From a drawing by Mr. N. de G. Davies.] + +The drawings appear to confirm generally what we have gathered from +Mr. Davies' previous illustration, Fig. 9. + + +PORTIONS OF LOOMS WHICH HAVE COME DOWN TO US. + +In so far as I know, not many loom parts have yet been discovered, and +those which I have had an opportunity of studying do not assist us to +much knowledge beyond that which we have gained by a study of the wall +paintings. We have the article from Kahun already mentioned, which may +possibly be a warp weight, as it somewhat resembles the later warp +weights found elsewhere. It is of hardened mud with a perforation at +the thin end through which a piece of string has been passed and +knotted (Fig. 17), but so far no illustration of a loom with weights +has been found, either for the period to which this article belongs or +to any other period. On the other hand the material is not suitable +for a net-sinker, nor is it intended to be made to stand up. As +mentioned above it is probably Ægean. + +[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Piece of perforated hardened mud. Possibly a +warp weight, 10 cm. × 8·7 × 4·2 (3-15/16 in. × 2-7/16 in. × 1-5/8 in.) +Weight 470 gramms (1 lb. 1/2 oz.) Probably of Ægean origin. _Kahun._ +Manchester Museum.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Burnt-clay warp weight. Height 11·4 cm. (4-1/4 +in.) Weight 260 gramms (9-1/4 oz.) Probably Roman. Bankfield Museum. +(Received from Prof. Flinders Petrie).] + +Another form of warp weight, of burnt clay, is somewhat frequently met +with, Fig. 18, but it is described as appertaining to Roman times, and +may therefore be either a Greek or Roman article. Similar weights from +Cyprus and North Africa, &c., can be seen in the British Museum. + +Wooden pegs have been found at Gurob, which may possibly have been +used for holding the warp and breast beams in position, Fig. 19. These +pegs may appear to be rather short for the purpose, but in very +primitive looms the warp is not kept so taut as might and should be, +and hence there is not the same heavy strain on the pegs as we should +deem necessary. The way to settle their use would be to fix them in +solid ground and test them. + +[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Wooden Peg, possibly used for holding the +warp and breast beams. Length 13·5 to 10·2 cm. (5-13/16 in. to 4 in.) +_Gurob_ XVIII.-XIX. Dyn. (about 1580-1205 B.C.) Manchester Museum.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Long straight lath with notches at each end, +probably a laze rod. Length 1 m. 24 (4 ft. 13/16 in.) Breadth 5·2 cm. (2 +in.) Thickness 2·2 cm. (7/8 in.) _Kahun._ Manchester Museum.] + +[Illustration: 1/2 size section of Fig. 20.] + +[Illustration: 1/2 size section of Fig. 21.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Long curved lath. Probably a "beater-in." +Length 1 m. 20 (3 ft. 11-1/4 in.) Breadth 6·5 cm. (1-11/32 in.). +Thickness 1 cm. (3/8 in.) _Kahun._ XII. Dynasty about 2000-1788 B.C. +Manchester Museum.] + +At Kahun a long straight lath, Fig. 20, was found which is probably a +laze rod, the notches being apparently for a nooze to slip into and so +prevent the rod working towards the weaver which it has a tendency to +do. + +Another long but curved lath, Fig. 21, also found at Kahun is probably +a beater-in. + +Most large Egyptian collections contain one or more specimens of +wooden combs, which are generally called weavers combs, and ascribed +to Roman times. But one at least, Fig. 22, has been found with XVIIIth +to XIXth Dynasty articles at Gurob, that is belonging to the period +1580-1150 B.C., which is long before Rome existed. None of these +so-called combs, for they are really embryo reeds, are shown on the +wall illustrations so that they no doubt belong to a later date than +that of the XIIth Dynasty. If, as I take it, these "combs" are the +forerunners of the reed and were used to drive the weft threads home, +and if also the Romans had upright looms provided with warp weights +instead of the breast beam, then I think the "comb" may not be Roman +but may be a late Egyptian invention. For, on trying to use such a +comb on a _replica_ of a Scandinavian upright loom provided with warp +weights (instead of with the breast beam) I can get no good result, in +fact rather the opposite, but tried on a primitive horizontal loom +provided with a breast beam the comb is found to be of some +assistance, especially if the warp is not very taut as is generally +the case with primitive looms. At Bankfield we have an Indian rug +loom, already referred to, with warp and breast beam on which a +somewhat similar instrument, but of iron, was used.[D] + +[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Weaver's Comb--a Beater-in. 19·5 cm. × 9·8 × +4·2 (7-3/4 in. × 3-7/8 in. × 1-5/8 in.) _Gurob._ Manchester Museum.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Possibly a warp spacer, somewhat similar in +object to the raddle of modern hand loom weaving. Height 2·8 cm. Width +2·5 cm. (1-1/8 in. × 1 in.) The slots are 6 mm. (1/4 in.) apart, 3 mm. +(1/16 in.) wide, and about 10 mm. (3/8 in.) deep. From _Gurob_ but +probably Roman. Bankfield Museum. (Received from Prof. Flinders +Petrie).] + +An article which Prof. Flinders Petrie describes as a "warp spacer" is +shown in Fig. 23. From fragments in the Egyptian Collection, +University College, London, it would appear to have been originally +more than a meter (three feet) long. It may have been used as a sort +of a "raddle," a tool used for assisting to keep the warp threads in +position when being beamed, _i.e._ put on to the loom. At Bankfield we +have an old local hand loom the warp beam of which is provided with a +series of holes in which pegs were once inserted to keep the coloured +warp threads in position. + +[Illustration: Fig. 24. + +1/2 size of end of Fig. 24. + +1/2 size section of Fig. 24. + +A long piece of perforated wood described by Prof. Flinders Petrie, +_Kahun_, p. 29, as a Weaver's Beam for making rush mats. Length 96·8 +cm. × 8·0 × 3·0 (3 ft. 1-1/4 in. × 3-1/4 in. × 1-3/16 in.) From +Manchester Museum.] + +A piece of frame, Fig. 24, has been described as a "weaver's beam" for +making rush mats like the modern _hasira_. It is provided with 28 +holes which are arranged about 27 to 40 mm. apart. The holes may have +been more or less circular originally, and worn into present shape by +threads, etc., and look more irregular inside than they really are, as +the inside surface of the holes is fairly smooth; the holes are +slightly larger, on an average about 4 mm., on the face shown than on +the other face. Prof. Flinders Petrie seems to think it resembles the +frame on which the modern Egyptian mat is made. + +We now come to the two reeds in the Museum of the Liverpool Institute +of Archæology, which Dr. John Garstang discovered near Abu Kirkas, +tomb No. 693, of which he tells us: "They are 27 and 29 inches (68·6 +and 73·7 cm.) in length respectively, and are precisely similar in +general form. They are constructed on a system of nineteen or twenty +reeds to the inch, and they may be seen to be exactly similar to the +modern reed taken from a loom in the village of Abu Kirkas. It is not +possible, unfortunately, to assign a precise date to these objects. +They were found in a tomb which contained no other remains; this tomb +was surrounded by others, all of them likewise very much disturbed, +but equally characteristic of the general nature of the Middle Empire +tombs, and containing nothing but Middle Empire objects. Since, in +general, few tombs of this site show signs of intrusive burial of a +later age, there is no reason to suppose that these objects are of any +date later than the XII. Dynasty (_The Burial Customs of Ancient +Egypt_, London, 1907, pp. 134-136)." + +The horizontal looms we have been describing belong to this period, +and the artists have not shown any reeds with them. My studies of +primitive looms lead me to think that these Egyptian looms are of a +date far anterior to the invention or the application of a reed. It +has also, I believe, been remarked by those who have examined cloths +of this date, that the irregular array of the warp threads is good +proof that reeds could not have been in use. I have already pointed +out that in the evolution of the loom the reed puts in a late +appearance, but apart from this fact, I do not think the artist would +have omitted such an important tool had it been in use in his time. + +[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Reed in Cairo Museum. Length 66 cm. (26 in.) +It consists of two wooden frames fitted with flat iron wires. String +is wound round the frames binding them together. Then a kind of +canvas(?) cover in placed over the frames to cover up the projecting +ends of the wires, but this has disappeared in places.] + +Dr. Garstang points out that although the surrounding tombs contained +Middle Empire objects, the reeds were found in a tomb _without_ any +other remains. This can hardly be considered evidence tending to prove +that they belonged to the period named, and it is certainly weakened +by the accompanying statement that the reeds are _exactly_ similar to +the modern reed, for that is almost sufficient to prove that they are +_not_ 3900-3700 years old. To me they seem comparatively modern and +very similar to one in the Cairo Museum which MM. Brugsch and Quibell +are inclined to think is Coptic with this difference, that in Dr. +Garstang's reeds the divisions appear to be of cane or wood, while in +the Cairo reed they are of iron (?steel). The sketch of this Coptic +reed, Fig. 25, has been drawn specially for me, and Miss W. M. +Crompton, Assistant Keeper in Egyptology in the Manchester University +Museum, has kindly examined the sketch with the article and pronounced +it correct. We may, I think, safely conclude that the reed found by +Dr. Garstang is Coptic and not Ancient Egyptian. + +As regards the actual work of weaving, balls of thread have been found +and so have very flat bobbins and pieces of stick with thread wound +round which may have been spools as indicated in the drawing, Fig. 7. +There is no reason why balls of thread should not have been used as +they are in uncivilised countries at the present day, as, for +instance, in Tibet, as reported by W. W. Rockhill in _Diary of a +Journey through Mongolia and Thibet_, Washington, 1894, p. 41. + + +"DIAGONAL WEAVING." + +I am unable to agree with a recently made statement published in _The +Labyrinth, Gerzeh and Marghuneh_, by Prof. Flinders Petrie, E. A. +Wainwright and E. Mackey, p. 6, which runs: "The fact of the weft not +being at right angles to the warp, if one may conclude by the fabrics, +does not, I think, imply that such weaving is of inferior quality. +When I noticed the peculiarity first, I thought it might have arisen +through distortion by stretching over the body, but repeated examples +of the same fact have led me to consider other causes. We know how +closely analogous to 'darning' was the early weaving; and in our days +it is not unusual to find stockings not darned at right angles, and it +may be the women weavers of old sometimes put in the weft more or less +out of true right angle. In the childhood of weaving we should expect +different methods, and it may be, seeing that we have no selvedged +cloth until very long after this time, that they experimented with a +diagonal weft to see if it would not reduce the tendency to fray out +at the sides." The amount the warp and weft are out of the right angle +is stated to be about 20°. The specimen shown me under the microscope +indicated clearly that the warp and weft were not at right angles and +that the interstices were not square but diamond shaped. + +It is possible to arrange the warp threads diagonally from beam to +beam, but with continuous weft (that is in weaving so as to get +selvedges) the weft has the tendency to slip up on one side and down +on the other, hence the weaving is made laborious. With a separate +weft for each pick, _i.e._, for every once the shed is opened, there +is naturally not this tendency, but this alleged diagonally woven +cloth frays just as easily as any other piece of cloth without +selvedge, so in either case there is not only no advantage but +distinct disadvantage taking the diagonal "beaming" into +consideration. We must give the Egyptians credit for using the least +laborious of two methods, that is _if_ the second one were known to +them. + +Apparent diagonal weaving can be produced by anyone taking an ordinary +piece of linen or cotton cloth, cutting off the selvedge and +stretching the cloth in a direction diagonally to the direction of the +warp and weft, and a piece of diagonally woven cloth is the result! + +The probability is that the specimen of cloth, without a selvedge, +having been stretched over the body for a long period of time, has, in +the course of that time lost its nature and when removed it has +retained its altered form and gives us the impression of having been +woven diagonally. + + +"THE LINEN GIRDLE OF RAMESES III." + +In the foregoing I have shown how extremely simple was the whole +apparatus for weaving in use by the Ancient Egyptians, and one is +rather surprised to be told that about B.C. 1200, in the time of +Rameses III., the Egyptians "built and used looms very much more +complicated than has hitherto been believed to be the case," or to be +referred to "the really complicated form of loom used." Yet this is +what Mr. Thorold D. Lee tells us (pp. 84 and 86) in his paper on _The +Linen Girdle of Rameses III._ (_Ann. of Archæology and Anthropology of +the Liverpool Institute of Archæology_, July, 1912, V.) + +The characteristics of this girdle are its great length, 17 feet (5 m. +2), its even taper diminishing from 5 in. (12·7 cm.) in width to 1-7/8 +in. (4·8 cm.) in width, its elaborate design and excellent +workmanship. Perhaps the chief of these characteristics is the taper. +It is most probable, as Mr. Lee points out, that in the weaving the +warp threads have been gradually dropped out to make the taper, rather +than that additional warp threads have been added. As it is easy to +drop a warp thread, and almost impossible to add one while weaving is +in progress, Mr. Lee's view is confirmed by this. It would also be +almost impossible to keep the warp taut if the number of warp threads +were increased as the work went on. This means that the girdle was +commenced at the wide end and finished at the narrow end. + +It is common knowledge that when a warp thread drops out, its place is +indicated by a thinness or fine opening for the whole length of the +missing warp, and this is so because the reed, besides pushing the +weft into position, also acts as a warp spacer, that is to say it +keeps the warp threads properly apart, every one being properly +aligned. When no reed is used the warp threads are not so evenly +placed--they are not so parallel to one another for there is nothing +but their tautness to keep them in position. Hence there is every +reason to conclude that when, on a loom provided with a reed, warp +threads have been removed their position must be indicated, and _vice +versa_ if no reed has been used the position of the removed threads +will not be so clearly indicated, but there will be a more marked +shrinkage in the width of the cloth as well as in the pattern, and +this is what has taken place in the girdle giving us the diminishing +taper. + +[Illustration: "THE LINEN GIRDLE OF RAMESES III." + +_Reproduced by kind permission of Dr. Clubb, Director, The Museums, +Liverpool._] + +If this diminishing taper were indicated by a decrease in the width of +the pattern commencing at the selvedges, then it might be presumed +that a reed had been used for the central portion only--a very clumsy +even if feasible arrangement, but the pattern begins to decrease along +the middle and hence no reed could have been used. + +It does not follow that because a loom was not provided with a reed it +was without heddles. Anyone who will examine the large series of +primitive looms at Bankfield Museum, will observe that heddles +preceded reeds; this must necessarily be so as the making of the shed +is the first step in weaving, while the reed's work is more that of a +finisher. But the heddles are all extremely primitive, and in my +experience do not exceed four in number where there is no reed. Such a +quantity of heddles with its complicated harness as Mr. Lee considers +necessary is quite out of the question with a loom so undeveloped as +not to be provided with a reed. Hence the indication is that the +girdle was woven on a loom of a primitive character. + +In carrying out the work the weaver has made many mistakes. On the +left hand side of the right hand row of red crosses (they come out +black in the photograph) there is an "end down" for a considerable +distance--that is a thread has been missed. + +On the same row of crosses three white threads show above and below, +while on the left hand row of crosses there are five white threads +above and below. The crosses are neither the same size nor shape in +the two columns and curiously their white hafts in both columns point +to the left instead of one row pointing to the left and the other to +the right. Then again the white point at the right apex of the zigzag +on the left corresponds to a red point at the left apex of the right +hand zigzag, but if the girdle had been woven on an advanced loom with +dobby and harness these points would have been red in both places. + +As regards the large number of warp threads to the inch which Mr. Lee +puts down as 272-340 (107-134 per cm.), this does not by any means +indicate a complicated piece of machinery for the weaving of this belt +or any other fabric. The greater the number of threads to the inch the +finer must the threads be in order to get them into the allotted +space, and in the weaving there will be so many more threads to raise +and lower in order to make the shed opening. It means multiplying the +work but does not necessarily mean that a more complicated loom must +be used in the weaving. + +It is not possible without opening the fabric to be quite positive on +the many points which are raised, but there seems nothing about it +which should prevent its having been made on a simple loom. Although +superior to most, but not all, of the well known Coptic cloths in +Bankfield and in many other museums, it very closely resembles some of +them in many respects excepting in the taper. + +I should add that in making my examination of this girdle I was kindly +assisted by Mr. C. A. Trigg, a well known Halifax mill manager and +designer. We made the examination independently and on comparing notes +afterwards found that we agreed in all essential points. + + +AN EXAMINATION OF FIFTEEN SPECIMENS OF MUMMY WRAPPINGS. + +By W. W. MIDGLEY, Curator, retired, The Museums, Bolton. + +"So far back as 1834, Mummy cloths occupied the attention of James +Thompson, F.R.S., who, after researches into their characteristics and +structure wrote a paper on the subject, which appears in the London +and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, Vol. V., page 355. From that +time until quite recently, little additional knowledge on the subject +has appeared. In the early part of 1910, Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie, +F.R.S., expressed a desire that the writer should undertake +microscopic investigation of the body-wrappings of cloths of the III. +and early IV. Dynasties (_circa_ 2980-2750 B.C.) which he had brought +home from excavations made at a cemetery near Meydum, Upper Egypt. The +report upon them forms part of the "_Historical Studies_," Vol. II., +of the _British School of Archæology in Egypt_. + +When Mr. Ling Roth suggested that some of the examples of Egyptian +Mummy cloths in Bankfield Museum should be examined on similar lines, +describing the construction of the fabrics and yarns, together with +the characteristics of the fibres used, I undertook to carry out the +work and forward to him the results for permanent reference. + +Each of the fifteen cloths submitted was first examined by mounting +about 3/4" × 5/8" (20 mm. × 16 mm.) of the cloth on 3" × 1" (76 mm. × +25 mm.) glass slips, and covering with thin glass, so as to find out +its plan of composition and the number of warp and weft threads per +linear inch. Afterwards, a little of the warp threads as well as of +the weft, was untwisted and the fibres separated, and these mounted +apart on another 3" × 1" slip (76 × 25 mm.), so that the kind of +textile fibre used and the diameter of the fibres could be measured. +These microscopical preparations will be kept in Bankfield Museum, as +they may be of interest to microscopists in the locality. + +The cloths are from three sources:--Nos. 1 and 2 being from the +private collection of Dr. Wallis-Budge, who has given the specimens to +Bankfield Museum; Nos. 3 to 8 are from the old Meyer collection in the +Liverpool Museum (unfortunately the origin of them is unknown); and +those marked 9 to 15 were taken from a mummy of the XXVI. Dynasty, +brought to this country by Lord Denbigh, and now also in the Liverpool +Museum. + +A.--Specimens of Mummy cloths from Theban Tombs date about B.C. 1400, +presented by Dr. Wallis-Budge. + + 1. A plain "one-up-and-one-down" linen cloth. The yarns + in this example are more irregular in diameter than + usual--the warp strands varying from 1/25"th to 1/71"st + (1 mm. to ·2/8 mm.) The warp has about half its strands + doubled (that is twined together), whereas the weft has + only about one in twenty doubled. See Fig. 26. + + 2. This is a coarser fabric, has been dyed with + saffron, and is somewhat brittle to tease out the + fibres. Both these cloths had evidently absorbed some of + the gums or balsams used in the process of embalming, + and hence the difficulty of separating the fibres for + identification is increased. The structure of the fabric + is peculiar, and, indeed, the only instance I have seen + in Egyptian cloths. A portion, near the middle of the + piece sent, has the warp strands in pairs parallel to + each other, a few of them being double yarns, while all + the remainder are doubled. Of the weft, nearly half are + double yarns. See Fig. 27. + +[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Magnified 10 diameters.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Magnified 10 diameters, showing the warp yarn +in pairs.] + +B.--Specimens from the Meyer Collection, marked No. 11088. (Date of +acquisition about 1856; date and place of origin unknown). + + 3. This is a beautifully soft, fine _Wool_ fabric, + containing no size or balsam. From the fineness of the + yarn and of the individual fibres I have no doubt that + the wool has been imported from India, or, more likely, + that the cloth was made in Cashmere. The texture is a + plain weave, has a selvedge edge, the warp yarns are + doubled, while the weft is single yarn. It is much to be + regretted that the particulars of locality, of burial, + and the period of time to which this interesting fabric + belongs has been lost. I assume from the general + characteristics that it is of a late period--probably + not earlier than the Ptolemaic. + + 4. This linen cloth has a plain selvedge, regular weave, + and contains no size. About 25% of both warp and weft + yarns are doubled, and all are very even in diameter. + + 5. A coarse linen cloth with plain selvedge. All the + yarns are single and even in diameter. + + 6. This is a coarse, highly-sized linen cloth. The yarns + are agglutinated, are brittle, and it is difficult to + separate the fibres. The sample submitted has been cut + from the end of the piece and shows the warp ends. + + 7. A coarse linen cloth, sized and brittle. No selvedge + on the piece sent. Both warp and weft yarns are single, + and even in diameter. + + 8. This is a very coarse linen fabric heavily sized and + brittle. Both warp and weft yarns are single and very + irregular in diameter. + +C.--Lord Denbigh's: XXVI. Dynasty. + + 9. A soft-spun linen cloth containing no size. Specimen + has been cut from the body of the fabric, showing no + selvedge. About half of the warp is composed of doubled + yarns of irregular diameter; the weft is of doubled + yarns and more regular in diameter. + + 10. The selvedge of this linen fabric is peculiar and + somewhat elaborate. The outer margin is composed of four + sets of ten yarns parallel to each other, forming one + strand of warp; then comes a space of 1-9/10" (48 mm.) + where the warp yarns are dyed red; then occurs three + more sets of ten parallel yarns (the object being to + strengthen the selvedge), followed by the general body + of the fabric. The entire selvedge is 2-1/4" (57 mm.) + wide. About half the warp yarns are doubled, while all + the weft are composed of doubled yarns, both being + fairly even in diameter, and not sized. + + 11. A fine, soft, linen cloth, with selvedge 1-1/8" (29 + mm.) wide; the three outer and the two inner strands of + the warp are made up of many parallel yarns, as in No. + 10, with an interspace of 3/8" (10 mm.) All the warp + yarns are dyed red, about 25% of them being doubled; the + weft is peculiar in having five or six strands of single + yarns alternating with six or seven double yarns, giving + a faint stripe in the fabric. + + 12. A linen cloth, with no selvedge edge. It has been + dyed red, probably _ferum_, a dye which I find uniformly + associated with friable or decomposing fibres. + + 13. A peculiarly coloured fine linen cloth; the pattern + is caused by some of the warp yarns being dyed, and + occurring sometimes of four, two, or one red strands, + with grey ones intermixed. A few of the warp yarns are + doubled. The weft is composed of single yarns and are + all in the grey. + + 14. A coarse soft-woven linen fabric, containing no + size. Lines are indicated at irregular distances along + the cloth, varying from 5/16" to 9/16" (8 to 14 mm.); + these are caused by the introduction of three strands of + doubled yarn in the warp while the remainder are single + yarns. The weft is all of doubled yarns; both warp and + weft are very regular in diameter. + + 15. This is a variegated linen fabric with warps + coloured something like No. 13, but the red strands of + warp are more irregular in distribution. Like it, a few + of the warp yarns are doubled, both the red and the + grey; while the weft is all of single yarns and in the + grey." + +[A considerable quantity of specimens of the cloths which were woven +by the Ancient Egyptians has been examined both in this country and +abroad. I may, however, call special attention to the results of +examination published in Miss M. A. Murray's excellent little work +_The Tomb of Two Brothers_, Manchester Museum Publications, No. 68, +1910.--H.L.R.] + + +DETAILS OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE BODY WRAPPINGS. + + --------+-------+-----+-----++----------------------------------------- + Specimen|Nature |Warp |Weft || Micro Measurements of Ten Fibres. + No. | of |Ends |Picks|+-------------+-------------+------------- + |Textile|per |per || Weft. | Warp. | Mean of. + | Fibre.|inch.|inch.|+======+======+======+======+======+====== + | | | || Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | Weft.| Warp. + ========+=======+=====+=====++======+======+======+======+======+====== + | | | || in. | in. | in. | in. | in. | in. + A. { 1| Linen | 44 | 32 ||1/1400|1/3333|1/1424|1/3330|1/1768|1/1786 + { 2| " | 10 | 17 ||1/1786|1/3330|1/1780|1/2860|1/2020|1/1905 + | | | || | | | | | + { 3| Wool | 224 | 40 ||1/833 |1/2500|1/833 |1/2000|1/1351|1/1429 + { 4| Linen | 64 | 32 ||1/1429|1/2500|1/1250|1/5000|1/1818|1/1754 + { 5| " | 56 | 20 ||1/1250|1/3333|1/1250|1/2500|1/1754|1/1724 + B. { 6| " | 48 | 24 ||1/1250|1/2500|1/1000|1/2500|1/1640|1/1594 + { 7| " | 48 | 20 ||1/1111|1/2500|1/1000|1/2500|1/1408|1/1428 + { 8| " | 36 | 16 ||1/833 |1/3333|1/1111|1/2500|1/1456|1/1613 + | | | || | | | | | + { 9| " | 48 | 24 ||1/1666|1/3333|1/1666|1/3333|1/2222|1/1860 + {10| " | 32 | 60 ||1/833 |1/3333|1/908 |1/3333|1/1724|1/1613 + {11| " | 80 | 36 ||1/1429|1/3333|1/1000|1/3333|1/1887|1/1784 + C. {12| " | 96 | 40 ||1/1111|1/2500|1/1250|1/2500|1/1724|1/1695 + {13| " | 80 | 36 ||1/1111|1/2500|1/1429|1/2500|1/1640|1/2040 + {14| " | 56 | 24 ||1/909 |1/3333|1/1250|1/2500|1/1594|1/1695 + {15| " | 64 | 36 ||1/1250|1/2000|1/1429|1/2500|1/1724|1/1818 + --------+-------+-----+-----++------+------+------+------+------+------ + + +THE ABOVE CONVERTED INTO METRICAL MEASUREMENTS. + + --------+-------+--------+--------++----------------------------------- + | | | || Micro Measurements of Ten Fibres + Specimen|Nature | Warp | Weft || in Millimetres. + No. | of | Ends | Picks |+-----------+-----------+----------- + |Textile| per | per || Weft. | Warp. | Mean of + | Fibre.| Centim.| Centim.|+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+===== + | | | ||Max. |Min. |Max. |Min. |Weft.|Warp. + ========+=======+========+========++=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+===== + 1 | Linen | 17 | 12·6 ||·0181|·0076|·0178|·0076|·0144|·0142 + 2 | " | 4 | 6·7 ||·0142|·0076|·0143|·0089|·0126|·0133 + 3 | Wool | 88 | 15·6 ||·0305|·0101|·0305|·0127|·0188|·0178 + 4 | Linen | 25 | 12·6 ||·0178|·0101|·0203|·0050|·0140|·0145 + 5 | " | 22 | 7·8 ||·0203|·0076|·0203|·0101|·0145|·0147 + 6 | " | 19 | 9·5 ||·0203|·0101|·0254|·0101|·0155|·0159 + 7 | " | 19 | 7·8 ||·0229|·0101|·0254|·0101|·0180|·0178 + 8 | " | 14·1 | 6·3 ||·0305|·0076|·0229|·0101|·0174|·0157 + 9 | " | 19 | 9·5 ||·0152|·0076|·0152|·0076|·0208|·0130 + 10 | " | 12·6 | 23·6 ||·0305|·0076|·0278|·0076|·0147|·0157 + 11 | " | 31·5 | 14·1 ||·0178|·0076|·0254|·0076|·0135|·0142 + 12 | " | 37·4 | 15·6 ||·0229|·0101|·0203|·0101|·0147|·0149 + 13 | " | 19 | 14·1 ||·0229|·0101|·0178|·0101|·0155|·0124 + 14 | " | 22 | 9·5 ||·0278|·0076|·0203|·0101|·0159|·0149 + 15 | " | 25 | 14·1 ||·0203|·0127|·0178|·0101|·0147|·0140 + --------+-------+--------+--------++-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- + +It is very obvious they had no scale to work to. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[A] To the uninitiated I may explain that in a horizontal loom the +plane of the warp is more or less parallel with that of the floor, +while in an upright or vertical loom the plane of the warp is at right +angles to that of the floor. + +[B] To avoid indistinctness through over reduction, I have endeavoured +to keep all reproductions in this paper as large as possible, and +think I have succeeded in not losing any detail in the necessary +reduction. + +[C] Hay's drawings are not published but can be seen in the Brit. +Mus., Add. MSS. No. 29823, Fol. 32. + +[D] Olafsson, to be referred to later on, remarks that while in Ovid's +time the _spathe_ was used for beating-in the weft, in Seneca's time +the weft was beaten in by a toothed instrument. In other words a +weaver's comb--the embryo reed--had been introduced. + + + + +II. THE GREEK LOOM. + + +[Illustration: Fig. 28.--A Bushongo weaver at work. From Torday and +Joyce, _Notes Ethnographiques_, _Ann. du Congo_, p. 182.] + +We have now to say a few words about an upright loom which differs +very materially from the Egyptian loom already described. Whether the +horizontal loom is a later product than the vertical loom, or was +evolved from it, or whether both were independent inventions cannot be +discussed here, but I may point out that there is an intermediate form +between the two. It is doubtful as to whether this is a transition +form. It was first brought to my notice by Mr. T. A. Joyce, as in use +amongst some negro peoples in Central Africa possessing an old, high +and possibly introduced civilisation, and is figured in Messrs. Torday +and Joyce's Notes _Ethnographiques ... Bakuba ... et Bushongo_ +(_Annales du Congo_) pp. 24 and 182. In this loom the warp is +stretched between an upper beam and a lower beam at an angle of about +90 degrees, and the weaver sits underneath at his work, Fig. 28. It is +not at all uncommon to meet with illustrations showing the warp +stretched at an incline, and apart from the fact that in many the +weavers are posing for illustration, and therefore, are most probably +not exactly in their natural positions, the tilted arrangement has +this advantage, namely, that the work of beating-in is improved by +the fall given to the "sword" which, with less exertion by the +weaver, drives the weft home more effectively. In all these cases, +however, the weaver sits or stands in front of the loom, but in the +case of the Bushongo the loom is tilted to such an extent that the +weaver finds it more convenient to sit underneath the warp. + +The discovery by Messrs. Alan Gardiner and N. de G. Davies of +illustrations of Egyptian upright looms, confirms Wilkinson in his +statement and illustration that the Egyptians had this class of loom +as well as the horizontal one. The vertical loom is found in Europe, +Asia, Africa and America, and is, probably, ethnically as old if not +older than the horizontal loom.[E] But this Egyptian upright loom +differs from another, the Greek, or Central European, or Scandinavian +form of the upright loom, in having an upper and a lower beam so that +the warp is made taut between two beams, while in the Greek loom there +is only _one_ beam. The warp hangs from this beam, the warp threads +being made taut by means of weights attached at the lower ends. + +[Illustration: Fig. 29a.--Illustration on a small lekythos of an +Athenian girl at work on a tapestry loom, together with a full size +tracing of the tapestry loom. British Museum. B.C. 500.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 29b.--Illustration of a Greek woman with a +tapestry loom. From Stackelberg's _Graeber der Hellenen_, pl. xxxiii.] + +The Greeks were, however, acquainted with the tapestry loom, for there +exists in the British Museum a small lekythos with an illustration, +Fig. 29a, of such an article resting on the knees of a lady weaver.[F] + +[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Greek woman at work on a loom. From C. Robert +Ἐφ ἀρχ 1892, pl. xiii., p. 247. It is not possible to say from +this illustration whether this is a warp weighted loom or not.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Penelope at her loom. Illustration on an +Athenian skyphos found in an Etruscan tomb at Chiusi, and at present +in the museum there. The illustration is taken from _Monumenti d. +Inst. Archeologico_, IX., pl. xlii.] + +It has been described by Mr. H. B. Walters in _Jour. Hellenic +Studies_, XXXI., 1911, p. 15, who says: "In front of her, Fig. 29a, is +a white wool basket (_Kalathos_) and on her lap is a frame somewhat in +the form of a lyre, being formed by two upright pieces with knobs at +the top, diverging slightly towards the top, across between which are +stretched two threads at the top and two at the bottom, seven vertical +threads being also visible. Her hands are placed on the threads, which +she is engaged in manipulating. This object can only be intended for a +hand loom, though there is apparently no evidence for the use of such +objects in ancient times or among Oriental races either in the past or +the present day. The only other parallel to the representation on this +vase is one published by Stackelberg, Fig. 29b, where a woman holds a +similar frame and is similarly occupied with her hands. The writers of +the articles _Sticken_ in Baumeister and _Phrygium Opus_ in Daremberg +and Saglio, misled by the likeness of the object to the modern +crewel-frame, interpret the process as embroidery. But this kind of +work implies cloth or other textile substance already woven, on which +patterns are worked in, whereas in both vase paintings the textile is +obviously in course of construction." He is right in so far as he +goes, but both representations are those of _tapestry_ looms which +fact is indicated by the warp threads in both cases, and by the design +marked on the warp threads of Fig. 29b--a method of preparing their +work in use to this day by tapestry weavers. Some authorities consider +that tapestry weaving is more closely related to mat making than to +true weaving. In other words, I take it tapestry is an early stage in +the development of weaving. From this we get some idea as to how far +the Greeks had progressed in the textile arts. + +As pointed out by MM. Daremberg and Saglio, _Dic. des Antiquités +Grecques et Romaines_ pt. 46, p. 164, "illustrations of Greek or Roman +methods of weaving are very rare, they are much reduced and in so far +as the art is concerned purely diagrammatic." On the other hand if +there are numerous references in the texts of classic authors, these +references seem rather to obscure than elucidate the method of +working. However, there are three illustrations--the Penelope loom, +Fig. 31, and two Boeotian looms, one of which is illustrated in Fig. +15--quite sufficient to explain the principle of the upright loom as +used with warp weights by the Greeks, and the discovery of numerous +articles, considered to be the warp weights, confirm the illustration. + +The principle is the same throughout, viz.: the looms are vertical, +there is a warp beam on top, there are two cross rods one of which is +a laze rod and _possibly_ the other is a heddle; and the warp threads +are all kept taut by means of attached weights. On one of the Boeotian +looms a bobbin or spool is shown. Along the top of Penelope's loom +there are indications of nine pegs, on six of which balls of coloured +thread have been placed, evidently for working out the designs, very +much the same as shown on the rug loom in Bankfield Museum already +referred to. The warp weights on this Athenian illustration are +triangular in shape, and perhaps resemble the pyramidic weights found +in Egypt and attributed to Roman times. Assuming these pyramids are +Roman warp weights it would appear that both Greeks and Romans had +vertical looms on which the warp threads were kept taut by means of +weights. In one of the few clearly expressed technical classical +references, Seneca speaks of the warp threads stretched by hanging +weights. + +In the above classical illustrations which are after all only rough +diagrams, the warp weights appear to hang from a _single_ thread only, +but this can not have been correct. The warp threads must have been +bunched, because a single suspended thread with a tension weight +immediately begins to unravel, and so loses the advantage of its +having been spun, as any one can ascertain for oneself. As regards the +same point on the Lake Dwellers looms, Cohausen was the first to +surmise that the warp threads were bunched to receive the weight, and +Messikommer proved it by practical experiment.[G] + +As can be surmised with this class of loom the weaving begins at the +_top_, working _down_wards, and the beating-in of the weft is +_up_wards--the exact opposite to the method adopted with other +looms--for the pendant warp ends, although weighted to keep them taut, +do not appear to have been further fixed in position, so that to +commence weaving at the lower end made the operation so extremely +difficult as to be almost impossible. + +[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Illustration of a Scandinavian warp weighted +loom in the Copenhagen Museum. The illustration is taken from +Montelius' _Civilisation of Sweden in Heathen Times_, translated by +the Rev. F. H. Woods, London, Macmillan & Co., 1888, p. 160. + +[In the illustration of this loom published by the Trustees of the +British Museum, in their _Guide to the Antiquities of the Early Iron +Age_, London, 1905, p. 139, the shape of the warp weights has been +altered to suit the shape of such weights in the British Museum +collections.]] + +[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Icelandic Loom after Olafsson. + +_a a_ Beam on which the warp is fixed. _b b_ Weights to make the warp +taut. _c c_ Brackets which support the beam and on which it can be +revolved by means of the spoke _e_ when the warp has to be lengthened, +on account of the weft _f_ working downwards and so shortening the +finished portion of the woven cloth. _g_ A sharp bone or tough piece +of wood to beat the weft into proper position. _h_ The wound up weft +which is pushed through the warp with the fingers. _i i_ The unbeamed +warp. _k k_ The heddles or shed openers. _l l_ The supports on which +the heddles rest when the "pick" is made [_i.e._, the pushing the weft +through]. _m_ The beater-in. _n_ and _o_ Laze rods. _q_ The template +for regulating the width of the cloth. _r r_ and _s s_ Beam on to +which the loom is fixed. + +Some of the descriptions are not as clear as could be wished. It is +probable that _g_ is a preliminary to _m_. N. Annandale mentions that +he obtained in the Faroes a beater-in made of a whale's jaw or rib; +while in Iceland he saw some of the perforated stones to which the +warp threads were attached (_The Faroes and Iceland_, Oxford, 1905, +pp. 195-6).] + +The Scandinavian form of the "Greek" loom from the Faroes Fig. 32, is +made known to us through the article itself in the Copenhagen Museum, +illustrated by Montelius, _Civilisation of Sweden in Heathen Times_, +Lond. 1888, p. 160, and through the very clear illustration and +description given us by Olafsson in his _Oeconomische Reise durch +Island_, 1787, translated from the Danish edition of 1780. The loom +figured by Olafsson, Fig. 33, shows an advance on that of Montelius, +in being provided with heddles.[H] Upright looms with a lower beam +instead of with warp weights and furnished with heddles, are not +uncommon. There are the well known Indian and Persian rug looms, and +Du Chaillu figures one in his _Journey to Ashango Land_, London, 1867, +plate facing p. 291. Randall-Maciver and Wilkin illustrate a vertical +loom in use among the Kabyles, _Libyan Notes_, London, 1901, Pl. IX., +and although the details of the illustration are not clear the text +indicates the existence of one heddle: "The warp is decussated by +means of a horizontal rod and leashes." Dr. Washington Mathews figures +several Navajo looms with heddles, _Third Ann. Rep. Bureau of +Ethnology_, p. 291; Ancient Peruvians also used them, as shown by Dr. +Max Schmidt, _Baessler Archiv, I. pt. 1_, and so on practically _ad. +lib._ But to work an upright warp-weighted loom with heddles is +attended with great practical inconvenience, and this difficulty has, +no doubt, been one of the chief causes of the complete discardance of +this class of loom. + +In spite of the evidence in favour of the existence of warp weighted +looms, the Director of the Hermannstadt Museum, Dr. v. +Kimakovicz-Winnicki, sees fit to deny their existence. He found that +in some parts of Transylvania the peasants use wooden pyramids (see +Fig. 18) similar to the Roman warp weights for winding the thread +from the spindle on to the shuttle. For this purpose sockets are +bored into the thin or top end of two pyramids, which are placed +just so far apart that a spindle can rest horizontally with one end +in the socket of one pyramid, and the other end of the spindle in +the socket of the other pyramid, and the thread in being wound off +on to the shuttle causes the spindle to revolve in the sockets. From +this he argues that what we have hitherto taken to be warp weights +are not warp weights at all (_Spinn-u. Webewerkzeuge_, Wuerzburg, +1911), and having denied these articles to be warp weights he gets +over the difficulty presented by the illustration of Penelope at her +loom, by attempting to prove that what we take to be a loom is no +loom at all but a _flechtrahm_, _i.e._ plaiting frame! He then +attempts to pull to pieces the idea that the Scandinavian loom in +the Copenhagen Museum is a loom and condemns it as unworkable. There +can be no doubt about his meaning as he defines his terms. The +principle of weaving (_Weben_) he describes "as the absorption of +two groups of parallel material elements (warp and weft) at right +angles to each other, and the principle of plaiting (_Flechten_) as +the absorption by itself in one plane of one group only of material +element, (warp)" and he gives diagrammatic illustrations showing +clearly what he means (_op. cit._ p. 31).[I] Judging from his +remarks one must conclude he has not seen a primitive loom of any +sort, and were it not for the official position he holds, his +remarks would not need answering. + +It has, I believe, been suggested more than once that some of the +perforated stones, pieces of burnt clay, pieces of chalk and like +objects may be and are net-sinkers, and there is some justification +for Dr. Kimakovicz-Winnicki's statement that the pyramidic forms are +not warp weights; but it does not follow that all the perforated +articles are either spindle-holders or net-sinkers, yet that is what +his subsequent statements lead one to infer. It is, however, difficult +to prove that these perforated articles are warp weights. + +[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Side view and section of chalk warp weight +found at Great Driffield. Of three of the weights the following +dimensions were taken: + + 7-3/4" (19·7 cm.) long, 2 lbs. 3 oz. (1·0 k) + 6" (15·2 " ) " 1 lb. 8 oz. (0·7 k) + 6-3/8" (16·2 " ) " 1 lb. 3 oz. (0·6 k) + +Hull Museum.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 35.--"Chalk weight, 6" × 4" × 2" (15·2 cm. × 10·2 +× 5·1), similar to those found in pits, at Mount Caburn and Cissbury +near Worthing, Sussex. Found with eighteen more in the _filling_ of +pit 7, Winkelbury Hill." _Excavations in Winkelbury Camp_, by +Lieut.-Gen. Pitt-Rivers (_Excavations in Cranbourne Chase_, Vol. II., +1888). As Pitt-Rivers also found at Winkelbury the fragment of a comb +and a chalk spindle whorl, which are textile tools, we may safely +presume these fashioned pieces of chalk are warp weights.] + +In 1875 several flat irregular oblong perforated pieces of soft chalk +were found in enlarging the cattle market in Great Driffield, +Yorkshire; they were found in a hole about three feet deep with +Anglo-Saxon potsherds, animal remains, and bits of iron. They can now +be seen in the Mortimer Collection in the Hull Museum. They consist of +pieces of chalk, similar to those which drop annually in thousands +upon thousands down the cliffs from the boulder clay between +Bridlington and Flamborough. On some a shoulder has been cut, Fig. 34, +most have one perforation, but in a few specimens, where the thin +portion above the hole has been broken off, a second hole has been +made. None of them can stand unsupported. Owing to the soluble nature +of the chalk they could not have been used as net-sinkers in the sea +(about nine miles off) for they would quickly dissolve in salt water, +and the same holds good in regard to fresh water, although in a lesser +degree. But I do not think they were used even in fresh water as +net-sinkers, for it was a characteristic of primitive peoples, with +whom time was of no account, to do their work thoroughly--what they +made was intended to last, and chalk net-sinkers would not have +lasted. That these were found in a limited quantity, I believe about +seventeen in number, tends to show that they are warp weights, for +only a few are required for every loom, in spite of the considerable +number shown in the non-technical illustration of Penelope's loom. Not +being able to find any other use for these pieces of chalk, and +judging that they are suitable for the purpose, I should say they are +warp weights. In this case the weaver has made the most of what nature +has given him; in other parts of England he has had to fashion the +weight out of the rough chalk, Fig. 35. + +In the Museum at Devizes there are several hard pieces of perforated +and fashioned chalk which offer more conclusive evidence. Of these +Mrs. M. E. Cunnington, the Curator, writes me: "All the weights here +have holes bored right through. Two large ones stand easily on the +floor. Others are more irregular in form and will not stand upright. +This latter type is, as far as I am aware, the more usual in this part +of the country. They are commonly cut out of the hard chalk, and weigh +about 3 or 4 lbs. (1·5-2 Kilos). We think these weights are loom +weights because we find them with Romano-British remains, as at +Westbury, and late Celtic remains on our chalk uplands, far from water +where fishing could have been carried on. With the same remains we +find weaving combs, numerous spindle whorls and other tools of bone +that were also probably used in weaving operations." The Westbury, in +Wiltshire, referred to, is some thirty miles in a straight line from +the mouth of the Severn, and about forty miles from the English +Channel. These pieces of chalk cannot therefore have been used as +net-sinkers, leaving out of consideration their composition; they were +found with weaving tools and they fit the position. So far the +ingenuity of our ablest archæologists at home and abroad has not +succeeded in ascribing the use of these objects to anything else than +net-sinking or warp tension. The adaptability of the articles for use +as warp weights, the small groups in which they are found, the +discovery of weaving implements in the closest proximity, our +knowledge of the Greek representations of warp-weighted looms, the +Olafsson illustration, and the loom in the Copenhagen Museum all tend +to prove that these articles are really warp weights. + +As regards the practical possibility or impossibility of working a +"Greek" loom, I had a simple frame made in the Museum and showed Mr. +J. Smith, a mill "Overlooker" at Messrs. Wayman and Sons, Ld., +Halifax, the illustration in Montelius' book already referred to, and +asked him to weave me a small piece of cloth on it. In the course of a +few hours he did the warping, beaming and weaving, making the pick +with his fingers and using a ball of weft thread instead of a spool or +shuttle. The result is shown in the accompanying illustration, Fig. +36, conclusively proving that weaving on such a frame is quite +feasible, and practically proving that Olafsson's and the Copenhagen +warp weighted looms are properly constructed workable looms. + +[Illustration: Fig. 36.--A warp weighted loom made at Bankfield +Museum, to show the possibility of weaving by this method. There is no +heddle nor shuttle used. The weaver made the "shed" and pushed the +weft through with his fingers. He naturally worked _down_wards.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 37.--Diagram to show how the warp is kept taut on +a Syrian loom.] + +Finally, it may not be out of place here to point out that there are +other looms, besides the Greek and Scandinavian, on which the warp is +made taut by means of warp weights. The Rev. Dr. Harvey Porter, of the +American College, Beyrout, Syria, writing about the year 1901, thus +describes the common loom of the country. He says: "Two upright posts +are fixed in the ground, which hold the roller to which the threads of +the warp are fastened, and upon which the cloth is wound as it is +woven. The threads of the warp are carried upward towards the ceiling +at the other end of the room, and pass over rollers, and are gathered +in hanks and weighted to keep them taut (_Dic. of the Bible_, +Edinburgh, 1902, IV., p. 901)." He has kindly sent me an illustration +of this loom, but unfortunately the weights are not clearly shown, and +the same is the case with an illustration of a loom from Cyprus.[J] +The diagram, Fig. 37, shows the principle. In a Shan loom illustrated +by Mrs. Leslie Milne, in _The Shans at Home_, London, 1910, p. 120, +the warp makes a somewhat similar detour over the head of the weaver, +it is, however, not weighted but tied to a beam. The point to be +observed is that these warp-weighted looms are horizontal and not +perpendicular, and also that the weaving is the reverse of that on the +Greek loom but similar to that on our horizontal looms, so that the +present Syrian and Cyprian looms have nothing in common with the old +Greek loom. + +[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Hand of Penelope clutching her shuttle. From +a corner of a piece of sculpture discovered by O. Kern and described +by C. Robert, (_The Feet Washing of Odysseus_, fifth Century B.C., +_Mitt. Kais. Deutsch. Arch. Inst._, Athens, XXV., 1900, pp. 332-3). +The author considers Penelope to be in the act of unravelling what she +has woven: "We see her holding the spool with her right hand, while +the left hand, half closed, is raised to about shoulder high, and the +fingers, if I read the traces correctly, are posed as though she held +a thread."] + +The Greeks evidently used a spool in weaving, that is a piece of stick +round which was wound the thread that became the weft, as is shown in +the hand of Penelope, Fig. 38, and in Kirke's loom, Fig. 15. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[E] I find frequent references, by various writers, to an upright loom +mentioned by E. H. Palmer as used by a Bedawin woman near Jebel Musa, +but on looking up his description (_The Desert of the Exodus_, I. p. +125), I find it to be so indifferent as to be quite useless for +purposes of comparison. + +[F] My attention to this was kindly drawn by Mr. F. N. Pryce, +Assistant in the Dept. of Greek and Roman Antiquities. + +[G] The existence of warp weighted looms amongst the prehistoric Lake +Dwellers of Switzerland was first surmised by Pauer (_Keller's Lake +Dwellings_) from the discovery of the weights, and was made +practically certain by Messikommer and Jentsch. + +[H] Comparing the loom Olafsson saw with the description in the Nial +Saga, he concludes this sort of loom was in use A.D. 1014, in the +North of Scotland. + +[I] He criticises the detail of the illustration of Penelope's loom. +It must be remembered this illustration is not a technical drawing, +but an artist's representation where correctness of detail cannot be +expected. In his own drawing of the Egyptian horizontal loom many of +the warp threads are shown over instead of under the laze rods, and +yet this is supposed to be a correct technical drawing! + +[J] Since writing Dr. Porter has sent me photograph of another sort of +loom in which weights are used as counter balances to keep the heddles +raised. The subject requires further elucidation. + + + + +III. CONCLUSION. + + +From the foregoing we gather that the Ancient Egyptians had two forms +of looms. The earlier or horizontal form, date about B.C. 2000, has in +a modified way survived to the present day in desert Egypt and is also +found in Seistan. It required a large area of ground for working and +probably in earlier times when there was plenty of space this did not +much matter. But as the population in the towns increased and with +the increase of civilisation and its concomitant increased demand for +cloth, probably out of proportion to the increase of population, space +would be begrudged and this may have caused the invention or the +introduction of the vertical form of loom which we find in use some +500 years later. In Egypt therefore the horizontal loom preceded the +vertical loom but it does not necessarily follow that such was the +case elsewhere. In so far as we can gather from the small amount of +information at our disposal, in the earlier days the women were the +weavers, and later on with the introduction of the upright loom the +men were the weavers with an occasional female weaver. In the Egyptian +Desert and in Seistan in the present day with horizontal looms the +weavers appear to be males, but among the nomads of Persia who +likewise use horizontal looms the weavers are females. In the use of +either form of loom the Egyptian weavers beat the weft downwards or +towards themselves and _not_ upwards or away from themselves. They had +the heddle in one of its earliest forms and had consequently made the +first great step in the evolution of the loom as we now know it. In +the beginning they made no selvedges so that for every pick a separate +length of weft thread was used. The adoption of the selvedge was +another improvement and until it was introduced the weft would no +doubt have been put through with the fingers, later on a spool being +used. It is possible also that in very late times the weavers' comb +was introduced. It is safe to say that the Egyptians had no knowledge +of the reed. Both forms of looms were simple, without harness or other +complicated pieces of mechanism. The Egyptians accomplished fairly +good work and judging these people from their looms alone we must +conclude they were a progressive race. + +The Greek form of loom was an upright one on which the warp threads +were kept taut by means of weights and similar to the form which +existed in Central and Northern Europe (in the latter until recent +times) but of which so far there is no trace to the east, or south, or +west. The Greek loom may have been furnished with a heddle but the +drawings are not clear on this point. A spool was used. The weavers +were women and the weft was beaten upwards or away from the weaver. It +was not a form of loom so capable of improvement as the Egyptian forms +and there appears to be no connection between the forms used on either +side of the Mediterranean. The Greek tapestry loom could hardly have +been more primitive. In respect to the forms of looms used by the two +peoples the Egyptians were considerably in advance of the Greeks. + + +FINIS. + + + + +Transcriber's Note + +Punctuation errors have been repaired. + +The author uses some archaic and alternative spelling, for example, +nooze for noose, gramms for grammes. These have been retained as +printed. + +The original text contained an erratum, as follows: + + Erratum:--Page 39, Line 5, for Dr. Henry Porter, _read_ + Dr. Harvey Porter. + +The error has been fixed in this e-text. + +The following amendments have been made: + + Page 8--Calliaud amended to Cailliaud--"... as well as + those of Cailliaud and Rosellini show that ..." + + Page 11--Tehuti-hotep amended to Tehuti-hetep--"... from + the tomb of Tehuti-hetep _circa_ 1938-1849 B.C., ..." + + Page 18--netsinker amended to net-sinker--"... the + material is not suitable for a net-sinker, ..." + + Page 19, Fig. 21 caption--cm. amended to in.--"... + Breadth 6·5 cm. (1-11/32 in.)." + + Page 23--pecularity amended to peculiarity--"When I + noticed the peculiarity first, ..." + + Page 23--analagous amended to analogous--"We know how + closely analogous to 'darning' was ..." + + Page 27--safron amended to saffron--"2. This is a + coarser fabric, has been dyed with saffron, ..." + + Page 29--Millemetres amended to Millimetres--"Micro + Measurements of Ten Fibres in Millimetres." + + Page 32, Fig. 31 caption--Etrusian amended to + Etruscan--"... an Athenian skyphos found in an Etruscan + tomb ..." + + Page 32--repeated instance of use deleted--"... there is + apparently no evidence for the use of such objects ..." + + Page 35, Fig. 33 caption--templete amended to + template--"The template for regulating the width of the + cloth." + + Page 37, Fig. 35 caption--whorle amended to whorl--"... + the fragment of a comb and a chalk spindle whorl, ..." + + Page 38--commonally amended to commonly--"They are + commonly cut out of the hard chalk, ..." + + Page 38--archaeologists amended to archæologists--"... + the ingenuity of our ablest archæologists at home and + abroad ..." + + Page 38--impossibilty amended to impossibility--"As + regards the practical possibility or impossibility ..." + +The Figures have been moved, where necessary, so that they are not in +the middle of a paragraph. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Ancient Egyptian and Greek Looms, by H. 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