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+Project Gutenberg's A Lecture on the Study of History, by Lord Acton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Lecture on the Study of History
+
+Author: Lord Acton
+
+Release Date: June 7, 2008 [EBook #25720]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Irma Spehar and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+                   A LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF HISTORY
+
+
+                      MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
+                      LONDON . BOMBAY . CALCUTTA
+                               MELBOURNE
+
+                         THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+                      NEW YORK . BOSTON . CHICAGO
+                        ATLANTA . SAN FRANCISCO
+
+                   THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
+                                TORONTO
+
+
+
+
+                               A LECTURE
+                                  ON
+                         THE STUDY OF HISTORY
+
+                       _DELIVERED AT CAMBRIDGE,
+                            JUNE 11, 1895_
+
+                                  BY
+
+                              LORD ACTON
+                             LL.D., D.C.L.
+                  REGIUS PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY
+
+
+                      MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
+                      ST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON
+                                 1911
+
+
+                    RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED,
+               BRUNSWICK STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S. E.,
+                          AND BUNGAY, SUFFOLK
+
+                    _First Edition, October, 1895.
+                    Second Edition, January, 1896.
+                        Reprinted, 1905, 1911._
+
+
+
+
+FELLOW STUDENTS,
+
+I look back to-day to a time before the middle of the century, when I
+was reading at Edinburgh, and fervently wishing to come to this
+University. At three colleges I applied for admission, and, as things
+then were, I was refused by all. Here, from the first, I vainly fixed
+my hopes, and here, in a happier hour, after five-and-forty years,
+they are at last fulfilled.
+
+[Sidenote: UNITY OF MODERN HISTORY]
+
+I desire first to speak to you of that which I may reasonably call the
+Unity of Modern History, as an easy approach to questions necessary
+to be met on the threshold by any one occupying this place, which my
+predecessor has made so formidable to me by the reflected lustre of
+his name.
+
+You have often heard it said that Modern History is a subject to which
+neither beginning nor end can be assigned. No beginning, because the
+dense web of the fortunes of man is woven without a void; because, in
+society as in nature, the structure is continuous, and we can trace
+things back uninterruptedly, until we dimly descry the Declaration of
+Independence in the forests of Germany. No end, because, on the same
+principle, history made and history making are scientifically
+inseparable and separately unmeaning.
+
+[Sidenote: LINK BETWEEN HISTORY AND POLITICS]
+
+"Politics," said Sir John Seeley, "are vulgar when they are not
+liberalised by history, and history fades into mere literature when
+it loses sight of its relation to practical politics." Everybody
+perceives the sense in which this is true. For the science of politics
+is the one science that is deposited by the stream of history, like
+grains of gold in the sand of a river; and the knowledge of the past,
+the record of truths revealed by experience, is eminently practical,
+as an instrument of action, and a power that goes to the making of the
+future.[1] In France, such is the weight attached to the study of our
+own time, that there is an appointed course of contemporary history,
+with appropriate textbooks.[2] That is a chair which, in the
+progressive division of labour by which both science and government
+prosper,[3] may some day be founded in this country. Meantime, we do
+well to acknowledge the points at which the two epochs diverge. For
+the contemporary differs from the modern in this, that many of its
+facts cannot by us be definitely ascertained. The living do not give
+up their secrets with the candour of the dead; one key is always
+excepted, and a generation passes before we can ensure accuracy.
+Common report and outward seeming are bad copies of the reality, as
+the initiated know it. Even of a thing so memorable as the war of
+1870, the true cause is still obscure; much that we believed has been
+scattered to the winds in the last six months, and further revelations
+by important witnesses are about to appear. The use of history turns
+far more on certainty than on abundance of acquired information.
+
+Beyond the question of certainty is the question of detachment. The
+process by which principles are discovered and appropriated is other
+than that by which, in practice, they are applied; and our most sacred
+and disinterested convictions ought to take shape in the tranquil
+regions of the air, above the tumult and the tempest of active
+life.[4] For a man is justly despised who has one opinion in history
+and another in politics, one for abroad and another at home, one for
+opposition and another for office. History compels us to fasten on
+abiding issues, and rescues us from the temporary and transient.
+Politics and history are interwoven, but are not commensurate. Ours is
+a domain that reaches farther than affairs of state, and is not
+subject to the jurisdiction of governments. It is our function to keep
+in view and to command the movement of ideas, which are not the
+effect but the cause of public events;[5] and even to allow some
+priority to ecclesiastical history over civil, since, by reason of the
+graver issues concerned, and the vital consequences of error, it
+opened the way in research, and was the first to be treated by close
+reasoners and scholars of the higher rank.[6]
+
+[Sidenote: NOT GOVERNED BY NATIONAL CAUSES]
+
+In the same manner, there is wisdom and depth in the philosophy which
+always considers the origin and the germ, and glories in history as
+one consistent epic.[7] Yet every student ought to know that mastery
+is acquired by resolved limitation. And confusion ensues from the
+theory of Montesquieu and of his school, who, adapting the same term
+to things unlike, insist that freedom is the primitive condition of
+the race from which we are sprung.[8] If we are to account mind not
+matter, ideas not force, the spiritual property that gives dignity,
+and grace, and intellectual value to history, and its action on the
+ascending life of man, then we shall not be prone to explain the
+universal by the national, and civilisation by custom.[9] A speech of
+Antigone, a single sentence of Socrates, a few lines that were
+inscribed on an Indian rock before the Second Punic War, the footsteps
+of a silent yet prophetic people who dwelt by the Dead Sea, and
+perished in the fall of Jerusalem, come nearer to our lives than the
+ancestral wisdom of barbarians who fed their swine on the Hercynian
+acorns.
+
+[Sidenote: MEDIĆVAL LIMIT OF MODERN HISTORY]
+
+For our present purpose, then, I describe as modern history that which
+begins four hundred years ago, which is marked off by an evident and
+intelligible line from the time immediately preceding, and displays
+in its course specific and distinctive characteristics of its own.[10]
+The modern age did not proceed from the medićval by normal succession,
+with outward tokens of legitimate descent. Unheralded, it founded a
+new order of things, under a law of innovation, sapping the ancient
+reign of continuity. In those days Columbus subverted the notions of
+the world, and reversed the conditions of production, wealth and
+power; in those days, Machiavelli released government from the
+restraint of law; Erasmus diverted the current of ancient learning
+from profane into Christian channels; Luther broke the chain of
+authority and tradition at the strongest link; and Copernicus erected
+an invincible power that set for ever the mark of progress upon the
+time that was to come. There is the same unbound originality and
+disregard for inherited sanctions in the rare philosophers as in the
+discovery of Divine Right, and the intruding Imperialism of Rome. The
+like effects are visible everywhere, and one generation beheld them
+all. It was an awakening of new life; the world revolved in a
+different orbit, determined by influences unknown before. After many
+ages persuaded of the headlong decline and impending dissolution of
+society,[11] and governed by usage and the will of masters who were in
+their graves, the sixteenth century went forth armed for untried
+experience, and ready to watch with hopefulness a prospect of
+incalculable change.
+
+[Sidenote: INFLUENCE OF KNOWLEDGE ON MODERN HISTORY]
+
+That forward movement divides it broadly from the older world; and the
+unity of the new is manifest in the universal spirit of investigation
+and discovery which did not cease to operate, and withstood the
+recurring efforts of reaction, until, by the advent of the reign of
+general ideas which we call the Revolution, it at length
+prevailed.[12] This successive deliverance and gradual passage, for
+good and evil, from subordination to independence is a phenomenon of
+primary import to us, because historical science has been one of its
+instruments.[13] If the Past has been an obstacle and a burden,
+knowledge of the Past is the safest and the surest emancipation. And
+the earnest search for it is one of the signs that distinguish the
+four centuries of which I speak from those that went before. The
+middle ages, which possessed good writers of contemporary narrative,
+were careless and impatient of older fact. They became content to be
+deceived, to live in a twilight of fiction, under clouds of false
+witness, inventing according to convenience, and glad to welcome the
+forger and the cheat.[14] As time went on, the atmosphere of
+accredited mendacity thickened, until, in the Renaissance, the art of
+exposing falsehood dawned upon keen Italian minds. It was then that
+history as we understand it began to be understood, and the
+illustrious dynasty of scholars arose to whom we still look both for
+method and material. Unlike the dreaming prehistoric world, ours knows
+the need and the duty to make itself master of the earlier times, and
+to forfeit nothing of their wisdom or their warnings,[15] and has
+devoted its best energy and treasure to the sovereign purpose of
+detecting error and vindicating entrusted truth.[16]
+
+[Sidenote: INTERNATIONAL IDEAS]
+
+[Sidenote: MEMORABLE MEN]
+
+[Sidenote: INDEPENDENT MINDS]
+
+In this epoch of full-grown history men have not acquiesced in the
+given conditions of their lives. Taking little for granted they have
+sought to know the ground they stand on, and the road they travel, and
+the reason why. Over them, therefore, the historian has obtained an
+increasing ascendancy.[17] The law of stability was overcome by the
+power of ideas, constantly varied and rapidly renewed;[18] ideas that
+give life and motion, that take wing and traverse seas and frontiers,
+making it futile to pursue the consecutive order of events in the
+seclusion of a separate nationality.[19] They compel us to share the
+existence of societies wider than our own, to be familiar with distant
+and exotic types, to hold our march upon the loftier summits, along
+the central range, to live in the company of heroes, and saints, and
+men of genius, that no single country could produce. We cannot afford
+wantonly to lose sight of great men and memorable lives, and are bound
+to store up objects for admiration as far as may be;[20] for the
+effect of implacable research is constantly to reduce their number. No
+intellectual exercise, for instance, can be more invigorating than to
+watch the working of the mind of Napoleon, the most entirely known as
+well as the ablest of historic men. In another sphere, it is the
+vision of a higher world to be intimate with the character of Fénelon,
+the cherished model of politicians, ecclesiastics, and men of letters,
+the witness against one century and precursor of another, the advocate
+of the poor against oppression, of liberty in an age of arbitrary
+power, of tolerance in an age of persecution, of the humane virtues
+among men accustomed to sacrifice them to authority, the man of whom
+one enemy says that his cleverness was enough to strike terror, and
+another, that genius poured in torrents from his eyes. For the minds
+that are greatest and best alone furnish the instructive examples. A
+man of ordinary proportion or inferior metal knows not how to think
+out the rounded circle of his thought, how to divest his will of its
+surroundings and to rise above the pressure of time and race and
+circumstance,[21] to choose the star that guides his course, to
+correct, and test, and assay his convictions by the light within,[22]
+and, with a resolute conscience and ideal courage, to re-model and
+reconstitute the character which birth and education gave him.[23]
+
+[Sidenote: FOREIGN CONSTITUTIONS]
+
+For ourselves, if it were not the quest of the higher level and the
+extended horizon, international history would be imposed by the
+exclusive and insular reason that parliamentary reporting is younger
+than parliaments. The foreigner has no mystic fabric in his
+government, and no _arcanum imperii_. For him, the foundations have
+been laid bare; every motive and function of the mechanism is
+accounted for as distinctly as the works of a watch. But with our
+indigenous constitution, not made with hands or written upon paper,
+but claiming to develope by a law of organic growth; with our
+disbelief in the virtue of definitions and general principles and our
+reliance on relative truths, we can have nothing equivalent to the
+vivid and prolonged debates in which other communities have displayed
+the inmost secrets of political science to every man who can read.
+And the discussions of constituent assemblies, at Philadelphia,
+Versailles and Paris, at Cadiz and Brussels, at Geneva, Frankfort and
+Berlin, above nearly all, those of the most enlightened States in the
+American Union, when they have recast their institutions, are
+paramount in the literature of politics, and proffer treasures which
+at home we have never enjoyed.
+
+[Sidenote: RESOURCES OF MODERN HISTORY]
+
+[Sidenote: BEGINNING OF THE DOCUMENTARY AGE]
+
+To historians the later part of their enormous subject is precious
+because it is inexhaustible. It is the best to know because it is the
+best known and the most explicit. Earlier scenes stand out from a
+background of obscurity. We soon reach the sphere of hopeless
+ignorance and unprofitable doubt. But hundreds and even thousands of
+the moderns have borne testimony against themselves, and may be
+studied in their private correspondence and sentenced on their own
+confession. Their deeds are done in the daylight. Every country opens
+its archives and invites us to penetrate the mysteries of State. When
+Hallam wrote his chapter on James II., France was the only Power whose
+reports were available. Rome followed, and the Hague; and then came
+the stores of the Italian States, and at last the Prussian and the
+Austrian papers, and partly those of Spain. Where Hallam and Lingard
+were dependent on Barillon, their successors consult the diplomacy of
+ten governments. The topics indeed are few on which the resources have
+been so employed that we can be content with the work done for us, and
+never wish it to be done over again. Part of the lives of Luther and
+Frederic, a little of the Thirty Years' War, much of the American
+Revolution and the French Restoration, the early years of Richelieu
+and Mazarin, and a few volumes of Mr. Gardiner, show here and there
+like Pacific islands in the ocean. I should not even venture to claim
+for Ranke, the real originator of the heroic study of records, and the
+most prompt and fortunate of European pathfinders, that there is one
+of his seventy volumes that has not been overtaken and in part
+surpassed. It is through his accelerating influence mainly that our
+branch of study has become progressive, so that the best master is
+quickly distanced by the better pupil.[24] The Vatican archives alone,
+now made accessible to the world, filled 3,239 cases when they were
+sent to France; and they are not the richest. We are still at the
+beginning of the documentary age, which will tend to make history
+independent of historians, to develope learning at the expense of
+writing, and to accomplish a revolution in other sciences as well.[25]
+
+[Sidenote: MODERN HISTORY]
+
+To men in general I would justify the stress I am laying on modern
+history, neither by urging its varied wealth, nor the rupture with
+precedent, nor the perpetuity of change and increase of pace, nor the
+growing predominance of opinion over belief, and of knowledge over
+opinion, but by the argument that it is a narrative told of ourselves,
+the record of a life which is our own, of efforts not yet abandoned to
+repose, of problems that still entangle the feet and vex the hearts of
+men. Every part of it is weighty with inestimable lessons that we
+must learn by experience and at a great price, if we know not how to
+profit by the example and teaching of those who have gone before us,
+in a society largely resembling the one we live in.[26] Its study
+fulfils its purpose even if it only makes us wiser, without producing
+books, and gives us the gift of historical thinking, which is better
+than historical learning.[27] It is a most powerful ingredient in the
+formation of character and the training of talent, and our historical
+judgments have as much to do with hopes of heaven as public or private
+conduct. Convictions that have been strained through the instances and
+the comparisons of modern times differ immeasurably in solidity and
+force from those which every new fact perturbs, and which are often
+little better than illusions or unsifted prejudice.[28]
+
+[Sidenote: A SCHOOL OF OPINION]
+
+[Sidenote: INFLUENCE OF THE RELIGIOUS ELEMENT]
+
+The first of human concerns is religion, and it is the salient feature
+of the modern centuries. They are signalised as the scene of
+Protestant developments. Starting from a time of extreme indifference,
+ignorance, and decline, they were at once occupied with that conflict
+which was to rage so long, and of which no man could imagine the
+infinite consequences. Dogmatic conviction--for I shun to speak of
+faith in connection with many characters of those days--dogmatic
+conviction rose to be the centre of universal interest, and remained
+down to Cromwell the supreme influence and motive of public policy. A
+time came when the intensity of prolonged conflict, when even the
+energy of antagonistic assurance, abated somewhat, and the
+controversial spirit began to make room for the scientific; and as the
+storm subsided, and the area of settled questions emerged, much of
+the dispute was abandoned to the serene and soothing touch of
+historians, invested as they are with the prerogative of redeeming the
+cause of religion from many unjust reproaches, and from the graver
+evil of reproaches that are just. Ranke used to say that Church
+interests prevailed in politics until the Seven Years' War, and marked
+a phase of society that ended when the hosts of Brandenburg went into
+action at Leuthen, chanting their Lutheran hymns.[29] That bold
+proposition would be disputed even if applied to the present age.
+After Sir Robert Peel had broken up his party, the leaders who
+followed him declared that no-popery was the only basis on which it
+could be reconstructed.[30] On the other side may be urged that, in
+July 1870, at the outbreak of the French war, the only government
+that insisted on the abolition of the temporal power was Austria; and
+since then we have witnessed the fall of Castelar, because he
+attempted to reconcile Spain with Rome.
+
+[Sidenote: RELIGION]
+
+Soon after 1850 several of the most intelligent men in France, struck
+by the arrested increase of their own population and by the telling
+statistics from Further Britain, foretold the coming preponderance of
+the English race. They did not foretell, what none could then foresee,
+the still more sudden growth of Prussia, or that the three most
+important countries of the globe would, by the end of the century, be
+those that chiefly belonged to the conquests of the Reformation. So
+that in Religion, as in so many things, the product of these
+centuries has favoured the new elements; and the centre of gravity,
+moving from the Mediterranean nations to the Oceanic, from the Latin
+to the Teuton, has also passed from the Catholic to the
+Protestant.[31]
+
+[Sidenote: THE CAUSE OF LIBERTY]
+
+[Sidenote: REVOLUTION]
+
+Out of these controversies proceeded political as well as historical
+science. It was in the Puritan phase, before the restoration of the
+Stuarts, that theology, blending with politics, effected a fundamental
+change. The essentially English reformation of the seventeenth century
+was less a struggle between churches than between sects, often
+subdivided by questions of discipline and self-regulation rather than
+by dogma. The sectaries cherished no purpose or prospect of prevailing
+over the nations; and they were concerned with the individual more
+than with the congregation, with conventicles, not with
+state-churches. Their view was narrowed, but their sight was
+sharpened. It appeared to them that governments and institutions are
+made to pass away, like things of earth, whilst souls are immortal;
+that there is no more proportion between liberty and power than
+between eternity and time; that, therefore, the sphere of enforced
+command ought to be restricted within fixed limits, and that which had
+been done by authority, and outward discipline, and organised
+violence, should be attempted by division of power, and committed to
+the intellect and the conscience of free men.[32] Thus was exchanged
+the dominion of will over will for the dominion of reason over reason.
+The true apostles of toleration are not those who sought protection
+for their own beliefs, or who had none to protect; but men to whom,
+irrespective of their cause, it was a political, a moral, and a
+theological dogma, a question of conscience, involving both religion
+and policy.[33] Such a man was Socinus; and others arose in the
+smaller sects--the Independent founder of the colony of Rhode Island,
+and the Quaker patriarch of Pennsylvania. Much of the energy and zeal
+which had laboured for authority of doctrine was employed for liberty
+of prophesying. The air was filled with the enthusiasm of a new cry;
+but the cause was still the same. It became a boast that religion was
+the mother of freedom, that freedom was the lawful off spring of
+religion; and this transmutation, this subversion of established forms
+of political life by the development of religious thought, brings us
+to the heart of my subject, to the significant and central feature of
+the historic cycle before us. Beginning with the strongest religious
+movement and the most refined despotism ever known, it has led to the
+superiority of politics over divinity in the life of nations, and
+terminates in the equal claim of every man to be unhindered by man in
+the fulfilment of duty to God[34]--a doctrine laden with storm and
+havoc, which is the secret essence of the Rights of Man, and the
+indestructible soul of Revolution.
+
+[Sidenote: THE MODE OF LIBERTY]
+
+[Sidenote: PROGRESS]
+
+[Sidenote: THE MARK OF PROVIDENCE]
+
+When we consider what the adverse forces were, their sustained
+resistance, their frequent recovery, the critical moments when the
+struggle seemed for ever desperate, in 1685, in 1772, in 1808, it is
+no hyperbole to say that the progress of the world towards
+self-government would have been arrested but for the strength afforded
+by the religious motive in the seventeenth century. And this
+constancy of progress, of progress in the direction of organised and
+assured freedom, is the characteristic fact of modern history, and its
+tribute to the theory, of Providence.[35] Many persons, I am well
+assured, would detect that this is a very old story, and a trivial
+commonplace, and would challenge proof that the world is making
+progress in aught but intellect, that it is gaining in freedom, or
+that increase in freedom is either a progress or a gain. Ranke, who
+was my own master, rejected the view that I have stated;[36] Comte,
+the master of better men, believed that we drag a lengthening chain
+under the gathered weight of the dead hand;[37] and many of our recent
+classics, Carlyle, Newman, Froude, were persuaded that there is no
+progress justifying the ways of God to man, and that the mere
+consolidation of liberty is like the motion of creatures whose advance
+is in the direction of their tails. They deem that anxious precaution
+against bad government is an obstruction to good, and degrades
+morality and mind by placing the capable at the mercy of the
+incapable, dethroning enlightened virtue for the benefit of the
+average man. They hold that great and salutary things are done for
+mankind by power concentrated, not by power balanced and cancelled and
+dispersed, and that the whig theory, sprung from decomposing sects,
+the theory that authority is legitimate only by virtue of its checks,
+and that the sovereign is dependent on the subject, is rebellion
+against the divine will manifested all down the stream of time.
+
+[Sidenote: CERTAINTY]
+
+[Sidenote: DEPENDENT ON RESERVE]
+
+I state the objection not that we may plunge into the crucial
+controversy of a science that is not identical with ours, but in order
+to make my drift clear by the defining aid of express contradiction.
+No political dogma is as serviceable to my purpose here as the
+historian's maxim to do the best he can for the other side, and to
+avoid pertinacity or emphasis on his own. Like the economic precept
+_Laissez-faire_[38] which the eighteenth century derived from Colbert,
+it has been an important, if not a final step in the making of method.
+The strongest and most impressive personalities, it is true, like
+Macaulay, Thiers, and the two greatest of living writers, Mommsen and
+Treitschke, project their own broad shadow upon their pages. This is a
+practice proper to great men, and a great man may be worth several
+immaculate historians. Otherwise there is virtue in the saying that a
+historian is seen at his best when he does not appear.[39] Better for
+us is the example of the Bishop of Oxford, who never lets us know what
+he thinks of anything but the matter before him; and of his
+illustrious French rival, Fustel de Coulanges, who said to an excited
+audience: "Do not imagine you are listening to me; it is history
+itself that speaks."[40] We can found no philosophy on the observation
+of four hundred years, excluding three thousand. It would be an
+imperfect and a fallacious induction. But I hope that even this narrow
+and disedifying section of history will aid you to see that the action
+of Christ who is risen on mankind whom he redeemed fails not, but
+increases;[41] that the wisdom of divine rule appears not in the
+perfection but in the improvement of the world;[42] and that achieved
+liberty is the one ethical result that rests on the converging and
+combined conditions of advancing civilisation.[43] Then you will
+understand what a famous philosopher said, that History is the true
+demonstration of Religion.[44]
+
+[Sidenote: MEANING OF LIBERTY]
+
+But what do people mean who proclaim that liberty is the palm, and the
+prize, and the crown, seeing that it is an idea of which there are two
+hundred definitions, and that this wealth of interpretation has caused
+more bloodshed than anything, except theology? Is it Democracy as in
+France, or Federalism as in America, or the national independence
+which bounds the Italian view, or the reign of the fittest, which is
+the ideal of Germans?[45] I know not whether it will ever fall within
+my sphere of duty to trace the slow progress of that idea through the
+chequered scenes of our history, and to describe how subtle
+speculations touching the nature of conscience promoted a nobler and
+more spiritual conception of the liberty that protects it,[46] until
+the guardian of rights developed into the guardian of duties which are
+the cause of rights,[47] and that which had been prized as the
+material safeguard for treasures of earth became sacred as security
+for things that are divine. All that we require is a workday key to
+history, and our present need can be supplied without pausing to
+satisfy philosophers. Without inquiring how far Sarasa or Butler, Kant
+or Vinet, is right as to the infallible voice of God in man, we may
+easily agree in this, that where absolutism reigned, by irresistible
+arms, concentrated possessions, auxiliary churches, and inhuman laws,
+it reigns no more; that commerce having risen against land, labour
+against wealth, the state against the forces dominant in society,[48]
+the division of power against the state, the thought of individuals
+against the practice of ages, neither authorities, nor minorities, nor
+majorities can command implicit obedience; and, where there has been
+long and arduous experience, a rampart of tried conviction and
+accumulated knowledge,[49] where there is a fair level of general
+morality, education, courage, and self-restraint, there, if there
+only, a society may be found that exhibits the condition of life
+towards which, by elimination of failures, the world has been moving
+through the allotted space.[50] You will know it by outward signs:
+Representation, the extinction of slavery, the reign of opinion, and
+the like; better still by less apparent evidences: the security of the
+weaker groups[51] and the liberty of conscience, which, effectually
+secured, secures the rest.
+
+[Sidenote: THE GROWTH OF REVOLUTION]
+
+[Sidenote: RENOVATION OF HISTORY BY REVOLUTION]
+
+Here we reach a point at which my argument threatens to abut on a
+contradiction. If the supreme conquests of society are won more often
+by violence than by lenient arts, if the trend and drift of things is
+towards convulsions and catastrophes,[52] if the world owes religious
+liberty to the Dutch Revolution, constitutional government to the
+English, federal republicanism to the American, political equality to
+the French and its successors,[53] what is to become of us, docile and
+attentive students of the absorbing Past? The triumph of the
+Revolutionist annuls the historian.[54] By its authentic exponents,
+Jefferson and Sieyčs, the Revolution of the last century repudiates
+history. Their followers renounced acquaintance with it, and were
+ready to destroy its records and to abolish its inoffensive
+professors. But the unexpected truth, stranger than fiction, is that
+this was not the ruin but the renovation of history. Directly and
+indirectly, by process of development and by process of reaction, an
+impulse was given which made it infinitely more effectual as a factor
+of civilisation than ever before, and a movement began in the world of
+minds which was deeper and more serious than the revival of ancient
+learning.[55] The dispensation under which we live and labour consists
+first in the recoil from the negative spirit that rejected the law of
+growth, and partly in the endeavour to classify and adjust the
+revolution, and to account for it by the natural working of historic
+causes. The Conservative line of writers, under the name of the
+Romantic or Historical School, had its seat in Germany, looked upon
+the Revolution as an alien episode, the error of an age, a disease to
+be treated by the investigation of its origin, and strove to unite the
+broken threads and to restore the normal conditions of organic
+evolution. The Liberal School, whose home was France, explained and
+justified the Revolution as a true development, and the ripened fruit
+of all history.[56] These are the two main arguments of the generation
+to which we owe the notion and the scientific methods that make
+history so unlike what it was to the survivors of the last century.
+Severally, the innovators were not superior to the men of old.
+Muratori was as widely read, Tillemont as accurate, Leibniz as able,
+Fréret as acute, Gibbon as masterly in the craft of composite
+construction. Nevertheless, in the second quarter of this century, a
+new era began for historians.
+
+[Sidenote: USE OF UNPUBLISHED SOURCES]
+
+[Sidenote: INSUFFICIENCY OF BOOKS]
+
+I would point to three things in particular, out of many, which
+constitute the amended order. Of the incessant deluge of new and
+unsuspected matter I need say little. For some years, the secret
+archives of the papacy were accessible at Paris; but the time was not
+ripe, and almost the only man whom they availed was the archivist
+himself.[57] Towards 1830 the documentary studies began on a large
+scale, Austria leading the way. Michelet, who claims, towards 1836,
+to have been the pioneer,[58] was preceded by such rivals as
+Mackintosh, Bucholtz, and Mignet. A new and more productive period
+began thirty years later, when the war of 1859 laid open the spoils of
+Italy. Every country in succession has now allowed the exploration of
+its records, and there is more fear of drowning than of drought. The
+result has been that a lifetime spent in the largest collection of
+printed books would not suffice to train a real master of modern
+history. After he had turned from literature to sources, from Burnet
+to Pocock, from Macaulay to Madame Campana, from Thiers to the
+interminable correspondence of the Bonapartes, he would still feel
+instant need of inquiry at Venice or Naples, in the Ossuna library or
+at the Hermitage.[59]
+
+[Sidenote: HISTORY RENEWED BY CRITICISM]
+
+These matters do not now concern us. For our purpose, the main thing
+to learn is not the art of accumulating material, but the sublimer art
+of investigating it, of discerning truth from falsehood, and certainty
+from doubt. It is by solidity of criticism more than by the plenitude
+of erudition, that the study of history strengthens, and straightens,
+and extends the mind.[60] And the accession of the critic in the place
+of the indefatigable compiler, of the artist in coloured narrative,
+the skilled limner of character, the persuasive advocate of good, or
+other, causes, amounts to a transfer of government, to a change of
+dynasty, in the historic realm. For the critic is one who, when he
+lights on an interesting statement, begins by suspecting it. He
+remains in suspense until he has subjected his authority to three
+operations. First, he asks whether he has read the passage as the
+author wrote it. For the transcriber, and the editor, and the official
+or officious censor on the top of the editor, have played strange
+tricks, and have much to answer for. And if they are not to blame, it
+may turn out that the author wrote his book twice over, that you can
+discover the first jet, the progressive variations, things added, and
+things struck out. Next is the question where the writer got his
+information. If from a previous writer, it can be ascertained, and the
+inquiry has to be repeated. If from unpublished papers, they must be
+traced, and when the fountain head is reached, or the track
+disappears, the question of veracity arises. The responsible writer's
+character, his position, antecedents, and probable motives have to be
+examined into; and this is what, in a different and adapted sense of
+the word, may be called the higher criticism, in comparison with the
+servile and often mechanical work of pursuing statements to their
+root. For a historian has to be treated as a witness, and not believed
+unless his sincerity is established.[61] The maxim that a man must be
+presumed to be innocent until his guilt is proved, was not made for
+him.
+
+[Sidenote: CRITICAL STUDY OF EARLIER TIMES]
+
+For us then the estimate of authorities, the weighing of testimony, is
+more meritorious than the potential discovery of new matter.[62] And
+modern history, which is the widest field of application, is not the
+best to learn our business in; for it is too wide, and the harvest has
+not been winnowed as in antiquity, and further on to the Crusades. It
+is better to examine what has been done for questions that are
+compact and circumscribed, such as the sources of Plutarch's
+_Pericles_, the two tracts on Athenian government, the origin of the
+epistle to Diognetus, the date of the life of St. Antony; and to learn
+from Schwegler how this analytical work began. More satisfying because
+more decisive has been the critical treatment of the medićval writers,
+parallel with the new editions, on which incredible labour has been
+lavished, and of which we have no better examples than the prefaces of
+Bishop Stubbs. An important event in this series was the attack on
+Dino Compagni, which, for the sake of Dante, roused the best Italian
+scholars to a not unequal contest. When we are told that England is
+behind the Continent in critical faculty, we must admit that this is
+true as to quantity, not as to quality of work. As they are no longer
+living, I will say of two Cambridge professors, Lightfoot and Hort,
+that they were critical scholars whom neither Frenchman nor German has
+surpassed.
+
+[Sidenote: DEGREES OF IMPARTIALITY]
+
+The third distinctive note of the generation of writers who dug so
+deep a trench between history as known to our grandfathers and as it
+appears to us, is their dogma of impartiality. To an ordinary man the
+word means no more than justice. He considers that he may proclaim the
+merits of his own religion, of his prosperous and enlightened country,
+of his political persuasion, whether democracy, or liberal monarchy,
+or historic conservatism, without transgression or offence, so long as
+he is fair to the relative, though inferior merits of others, and
+never treats men as saints or as rogues for the side they take. There
+is no impartiality, he would say, like that of a hanging judge. The
+men who, with the compass of criticism in their hands, sailed the
+uncharted sea of original research, proposed a different view.
+History, to be above evasion or dispute, must stand on documents, not
+on opinions. They had their own notion of truthfulness, based on the
+exceeding difficulty of finding truth, and the still greater
+difficulty of impressing it when found. They thought it possible to
+write, with so much scruple, and simplicity, and insight, as to carry
+along with them every man of good will, and, whatever his feelings, to
+compel his assent. Ideas which, in religion and in politics, are
+truths, in history are forces. They must be respected; they must not
+be affirmed. By dint of a supreme reserve, by much self-control, by a
+timely and discreet indifference, by secrecy in the matter of the
+black cap, history might be lifted above contention, and made an
+accepted tribunal, and the same for all.[63] If men were truly
+sincere, and delivered judgment by no canons but those of evident
+morality, then Julian would be described in the same terms by
+Christian and pagan, Luther by Catholic and Protestant, Washington by
+Whig and Tory, Napoleon by patriotic Frenchman and patriotic
+German.[64]
+
+[Sidenote: MORALITY THE SOLE RULE OF JUDGMENT]
+
+I speak of this school with reverence, for the good it has done, by
+the assertion of historic truth and of its legitimate authority over
+the minds of men. It provides a discipline which every one of us does
+well to undergo, and perhaps also well to relinquish. For it is not
+the whole truth. Lanfrey's essay on Carnot, Chuquet's wars of the
+Revolution, Ropes's military histories, Roget's Geneva in the time of
+Calvin, will supply you with examples of a more robust impartiality
+than I have described. Renan calls it the luxury of an opulent and
+aristocratic society, doomed to vanish in an age of fierce and sordid
+striving. In our universities it has a magnificent and appointed
+refuge; and to serve its cause, which is sacred, because it is the
+cause of truth and honour, we may import a profitable lesson from the
+highly unscientific region of public life. There a man does not take
+long to find out that he is opposed by some who are abler and better
+than himself. And, in order to understand the cosmic force and the
+true connection of ideas, it is a source of power, and an excellent
+school of principle, not to rest until, by excluding the fallacies,
+the prejudices, the exaggerations which perpetual contention and the
+consequent precautions breed, we have made out for our opponents a
+stronger and more impressive case than they present themselves.[65]
+Excepting one to which we are coming before I release you, there is no
+precept less faithfully observed by historians.
+
+[Sidenote: EXAMPLE OF RANKE]
+
+Ranke is the representative of the age which instituted the modern
+study of history. He taught it to be critical, to be colourless, and
+to be new. We meet him at every step, and he has done more for us than
+any other man. There are stronger books than any one of his, and some
+may have surpassed him in political, religious, philosophic insight,
+in vividness of the creative imagination, in originality, elevation,
+and depth of thought; but by the extent of important work well
+executed, by his influence on able men, and by the amount of knowledge
+which mankind receives and employs with the stamp of his mind upon it,
+he stands without a rival. I saw him last in 1877, when he was feeble,
+sunken, and almost blind, and scarcely able to read or write. He
+uttered his farewell with kindly emotion, and I feared that the next I
+should hear of him would be the news of his death. Two years later he
+began a Universal History which is not without traces of weakness, but
+which, composed after the age of eighty-three, and carried, in
+seventeen volumes, far into the Middle Ages, brings to a close the
+most astonishing career in literature.
+
+[Sidenote: SUPPRESSION OF OPINION]
+
+His course had been determined, in early life, by _Quentin Durward_.
+The shock of the discovery that Scott's Lewis the Eleventh was
+inconsistent with the original in Commynes made him resolve that his
+object thenceforth should be above all things to follow, without
+swerving, and in stern subordination and surrender, the lead of his
+authorities. He decided effectually to repress the poet, the patriot,
+the religious or political partisan, to sustain no cause, to banish
+himself from his books, and to write nothing that would gratify his
+own feelings or disclose his private convictions.[66] When a strenuous
+divine who, like him, had written on the Reformation, hailed him as a
+comrade, Ranke repelled his advances. "You," he said, "are in the
+first place a Christian: I am in the first place a historian. There is
+a gulf between us."[67] He was the first eminent writer who exhibited
+what Michelet calls _le désintéressement des morts_. It was a moral
+triumph for him when he could refrain from judging, show that much
+might be said on both sides, and leave the rest to Providence.[68] He
+would have felt sympathy with the two famous London physicians of our
+day, of whom it is told that they could not make up their minds on a
+case and reported dubiously. The head of the family insisted on a
+positive opinion. They answered that they were unable to give one, but
+he might easily find fifty doctors who could.
+
+[Sidenote: CRITICISM OF MODERN SOURCES]
+
+Niebuhr had pointed out that chroniclers who wrote before the
+invention of printing generally copied one predecessor at a time, and
+knew little about sifting or combining authorities. The suggestion
+became luminous in Ranke's hands, and with his light and dexterous
+touch he scrutinised and dissected the principal historians, from
+Machiavelli to the _Mémoires d'un Homme d'État_, with a rigour never
+before applied to moderns. But whilst Niebuhr dismissed the
+traditional story, replacing it with a construction of his own, it was
+Ranke's mission to preserve, not to undermine, and to set up masters
+whom, in their proper sphere, he could obey. The many excellent
+dissertations in which he displayed this art, though his successors in
+the next generation matched his skill and did still more thorough
+work, are the best introduction from which we can learn the technical
+process by which within living memory the study of modern history has
+been renewed. Ranke's contemporaries, weary of his neutrality and
+suspense, and of the useful but subordinate work that was done by
+beginners who borrowed his wand, thought that too much was made of
+these obscure preliminaries which a man may accomplish for himself, in
+the silence of his chamber, with less demand on the attention of the
+public.[69] That may be reasonable in men who are practised in these
+fundamental technicalities. We who have to learn them, must immerse
+ourselves in the study of the great examples.
+
+[Sidenote: METHOD TO BE LEARNT FROM SCIENCES]
+
+Apart from what is technical, method is only the reduplication of
+common sense, and is best acquired by observing its use by the ablest
+men in every variety of intellectual employment.[70] Bentham
+acknowledged that he learned less from his own profession than from
+writers like Linnćus and Cullen; and Brougham advised the student of
+Law to begin with Dante. Liebig described his _Organic Chemistry_ as
+an application of ideas found in Mill's _Logic_, and a distinguished
+physician, not to be named lest he should overhear me, read three
+books to enlarge his medical mind; and they were Gibbon, Grote, and
+Mill. He goes on to say, "An educated man cannot become so on one
+study alone, but must be brought under the influence of natural,
+civil, and moral modes of thought."[71] I quote my colleague's golden
+words in order to reciprocate them. If men of science owe anything to
+us, we may learn much from them that is essential.[72] For they can
+show how to test proof, how to secure fulness and soundness in
+induction, how to restrain and to employ with safety hypothesis and
+analogy. It is they who hold the secret of the mysterious property of
+the mind by which error ministers to truth, and truth slowly but
+irrevocably prevails.[73] Theirs is the logic of discovery,[74] the
+demonstration of the advance of knowledge and the development of
+ideas, which as the earthly wants and passions of men remain almost
+unchanged, are the charter of progress, and the vital spark in
+history. And they often give us invaluable counsel when they attend to
+their own subjects and address their own people. Remember Darwin,
+taking note only of those passages that raised difficulties in his
+way; the French philosopher complaining that his work stood still,
+because he found no more contradicting facts; Baer, who thinks error
+treated thoroughly, nearly as remunerative as truth, by the discovery
+of new objections; for, as Sir Robert Ball warns us, it is by
+considering objections that we often learn.[75] Faraday declares that
+"in knowledge, that man only is to be condemned and despised who is
+not in a state of transition." And John Hunter spoke for all of us,
+when he said: "Never ask me what I have said or what I have written;
+but if you will ask me what my present opinions are, I will tell you."
+
+[Sidenote: ALL ADOPT THE HISTORIC METHOD]
+
+From the first years of the century we have been quickened and
+enriched by contributors from every quarter. The jurists brought us
+that law of continuous growth which has transformed history from a
+chronicle of casual occurrences into the likeness of something
+organic.[76] Towards 1820 divines began to recast their doctrines on
+the lines of development, of which Newman said, long after, that
+evolution had come to confirm it.[77] Even the Economists, who were
+practical men, dissolved their science into liquid history, affirming
+that it is not an auxiliary, but the actual subject-matter of their
+inquiry.[78] Philosophers claim that, as early as 1804, they began to
+bow the metaphysical neck beneath the historical yoke. They taught
+that philosophy is only the amended sum of all philosophies, that
+systems pass with the age whose impress they bear,[79] that the
+problem is to focus the rays of wandering but extant truth, and that
+history is the source of philosophy, if not quite a substitute for
+it.[80] Comte begins a volume with the words that the preponderance of
+history over philosophy was the characteristic of the time he lived
+in.[81] Since Cuvier first recognised the conjunction between the
+course of inductive discovery and the course of civilization,[82]
+science had its share in saturating the age with historic ways of
+thought, and subjecting all things to that influence for which the
+depressing names historicism and historical-mindedness have been
+devised.
+
+[Sidenote: DANGER OF OBLIVION]
+
+[Sidenote: PROPHECY OF PITT]
+
+There are certain faults which are corrigible mental defects on which
+I ought to say a few denouncing words, because they are common to us
+all. First: the want of an energetic understanding of the sequence and
+real significance of events, which would be fatal to a practical
+politician, is ruin to a student of history who is the politician with
+his face turned backwards.[83] It is playing at study, to see nothing
+but the unmeaning and unsuggestive surface, as we generally do. Then
+we have a curious proclivity to neglect, and by degrees to forget,
+what has been certainly known. An instance or two will explain my
+idea. The most popular English writer relates how it happened in his
+presence that the title of Tory was conferred upon the Conservative
+party. For it was an opprobrious name at the time, applied to men for
+whom the Irish Government offered head-money; so that if I have made
+too sure of progress, I may at least complacently point to this
+instance of our mended manners. One day, Titus Oates lost his temper
+with the men who refused to believe him, and after looking about for a
+scorching imprecation, he began to call them Tories.[84] The name
+remained; but its origin, attested by Defoe, dropped out of common
+memory, as if one party were ashamed of their godfather, and the other
+did not care to be identified with his cause and character. You all
+know, I am sure, the story of the news of Trafalgar, and how, two
+days after it had arrived, Mr. Pitt, drawn by an enthusiastic crowd,
+went to dine in the city. When they drank the health of the minister
+who had saved his country, he declined the praise. "England," he said,
+"has saved herself by her own energy; and I hope that after having
+saved herself by her energy, she will save Europe by her example." In
+1814, when this hope had been realised, the last speech of the great
+orator was remembered, and a medal was struck upon which the whole
+sentence was engraved, in four words of compressed Latin: "_Seipsam
+virtute, Europam exemplo._" Now it was just at the time of his last
+appearance in public that Mr. Pitt heard of the overwhelming success
+of the French in Germany, and of the Austrian surrender at Ulm. His
+friends concluded that the contest on land was hopeless, and that it
+was time to abandon the Continent to the conqueror, and to fall back
+upon our new empire of the sea. Pitt did not agree with them. He said
+that Napoleon would meet with a check whenever he encountered a
+national resistance; and he declared that Spain was the place for it,
+and that then England would intervene.[85] General Wellesley, fresh
+from India, was present. Ten years later, when he had accomplished
+that which Pitt had seen in the lucid prescience of his last days, he
+related at Paris what I scarcely hesitate to call the most astounding
+and profound prediction in all political history, where such things
+have not been rare.
+
+[Sidenote: RULES FOR THE STUDY OF HISTORY]
+
+I shall never again enjoy the opportunity of speaking my thoughts to
+such an audience as this, and on so privileged an occasion a lecturer
+may well be tempted to bethink himself whether he knows of any
+neglected truth, any cardinal proposition, that might serve as his
+selected epigraph, as a last signal, perhaps even as a target. I am
+not thinking of those shining precepts which are the registered
+property of every school; that is to say--Learn as much by writing as
+by reading; be not content with the best book; seek sidelights from
+the others; have no favourites; keep men and things apart; guard
+against the prestige of great names;[86] see that your judgments are
+your own, and do not shrink from disagreement; no trusting without
+testing; be more severe to ideas than to actions;[87] do not overlook
+the strength of the bad cause or the weakness of the good;[88] never
+be surprised by the crumbling of an idol or the disclosure of a
+skeleton; judge talent at its best and character at its worst; suspect
+power more than vice,[89] and study problems in preference to periods;
+for instance: the derivation of Luther, the scientific influence of
+Bacon, the predecessors of Adam Smith, the medićval masters of
+Rousseau, the consistency of Burke, the identity of the first Whig.
+Most of this, I suppose, is undisputed, and calls for no enlargement.
+But the weight of opinion is against me when I exhort you never to
+debase the moral currency or to lower the standard of rectitude, but
+to try others by the final maxim that governs your own lives, and to
+suffer no man and no cause to escape the undying penalty which history
+has the power to inflict on wrong.[90] The plea in extenuation of
+guilt and mitigation of punishment is perpetual. At every step we are
+met by arguments which go to excuse, to palliate, to confound right
+and wrong, and reduce the just man to the level of the reprobate. The
+men who plot to baffle and resist us are, first of all, those who made
+history what it has become. They set up the principle that only a
+foolish Conservative judges the present time with the ideas of the
+Past; that only a foolish Liberal judges the Past with the ideas of
+the Present.[91]
+
+[Sidenote: JUSTIFICATION OF THE PAST]
+
+The mission of that school was to make distant times, and especially
+the middle ages, then most distant of all, intelligible and acceptable
+to a society issuing from the eighteenth century. There were
+difficulties in the way; and among others this, that, in the first
+fervour of the Crusades, the men who took the Cross, after receiving
+communion, heartily devoted the day to the extermination of Jews. To
+judge them by a fixed standard, to call them sacrilegious fanatics or
+furious hypocrites, was to yield a gratuitous victory to Voltaire. It
+became a rule of policy to praise the spirit when you could not defend
+the deed. So that we have no common code; our moral notions are always
+fluid; and you must consider the times, the class from which men
+sprang, the surrounding influences, the masters in their schools, the
+preachers in their pulpits, the movement they obscurely obeyed, and so
+on, until responsibility is merged in numbers, and not a culprit is
+left for execution.[92] A murderer was no criminal if he followed
+local custom, if neighbours approved, if he was encouraged by
+official advisers or prompted by just authority, if he acted for the
+reason of state or the pure love of religion, or if he sheltered
+himself behind the complicity of the Law. The depression of morality
+was flagrant; but the motives were those which have enabled us to
+contemplate with distressing complacency the secret of unhallowed
+lives. The code that is greatly modified by time and place, will vary
+according to the cause. The amnesty is an artifice that enables us to
+make exceptions, to tamper with weights and measures, to deal unequal
+justice to friends and enemies.
+
+[Sidenote: PHILOSOPHIES OF HISTORY]
+
+It is associated with that philosophy which Cato attributes to the
+gods. For we have a theory which justifies Providence by the event,
+and holds nothing so deserving as success, to which there can be no
+victory in a bad cause, prescription and duration legitimate,[93] and
+whatever exists is right and reasonable; and as God manifests His will
+by that which He tolerates, we must conform to the divine decree by
+living to shape the Future after the ratified image of the Past.[94]
+Another theory, less confidently urged, regards History as our guide,
+as much by showing errors to evade as examples to pursue. It is
+suspicious of illusions in success, and, though there may be hope of
+ultimate triumph for what is true, if not by its own attraction, by
+the gradual exhaustion of error, it admits no corresponding promise
+for what is ethically right. It deems the canonisation of the historic
+Past more perilous than ignorance or denial, because it would
+perpetuate the reign of sin and acknowledge the sovereignty of wrong,
+and conceives it the part of real greatness to know how to stand and
+fall alone, stemming, for a lifetime, the contemporary flood.[95]
+
+[Sidenote: DEBASING THE CURRENCY]
+
+Ranke relates, without adornment, that William III. ordered the
+extirpation of a Catholic clan, and scouts the faltering excuse of his
+defenders. But when he comes to the death and character of the
+international deliverer, Glencoe is forgotten, the imputation of
+murder drops, like a thing unworthy of notice.[96] Johannes Mueller, a
+great Swiss celebrity, writes that the British Constitution occurred
+to somebody, perhaps to Halifax. This artless statement might not be
+approved by rigid lawyers as a faithful and felicitous indication of
+the manner of that mysterious growth of ages, from occult beginnings,
+that was never profaned by the invading wit of man;[97] but it is
+less grotesque than it appears. Lord Halifax was the most original
+writer of political tracts in the pamphleteering crowd between
+Harrington and Bolingbroke; and in the Exclusion struggle he produced
+a scheme of limitations which, in substance, if not in form,
+foreshadowed the position of the monarchy in the later Hanoverian
+reigns. Although Halifax did not believe in the Plot,[98] he insisted
+that innocent victims should be sacrificed to content the multitude.
+Sir William Temple writes:--"We only disagreed in one point, which was
+the leaving some priests to the law upon the accusation of being
+priests only, as the House of Commons had desired; which I thought
+wholly unjust. Upon this point Lord Halifax and I had so sharp a
+debate at Lord Sunderland's lodgings, that he told me, if I would not
+concur in points which were so necessary for the people's
+satisfaction, he would tell everybody I was a Papist. And upon his
+affirming that the plot must be handled as if it were true, whether it
+were so or no, in those points that were so generally believed." In
+spite of this accusing passage Macaulay, who prefers Halifax to all
+the statesmen of his age, praises him for his mercy: "His dislike of
+extremes, and a forgiving and compassionate temper which seems to have
+been natural to him, preserved him from all participation in the worst
+crimes of his time."
+
+[Sidenote: SINFULNESS OF HISTORY]
+
+[Sidenote: SOVEREIGNTY OF THE MORAL CODE]
+
+If, in our uncertainty, we must often err, it may be sometimes better
+to risk excess in rigour than in indulgence, for then at least we do
+no injury by loss of principle. As Bayle has said, it is more probable
+that the secret motives of an indifferent action are bad than
+good;[99] and this discouraging conclusion does not depend upon
+theology, for James Mozley supports the sceptic from the other flank,
+with all the artillery of Tractarian Oxford. "A Christian," he says,
+"is bound by his very creed to suspect evil, and cannot release
+himself.... He sees it where others do not; his instinct is divinely
+strengthened; his eye is supernaturally keen; he has a spiritual
+insight, and senses exercised to discern.... He owns the doctrine of
+original sin; that doctrine puts him necessarily on his guard against
+appearances, sustains his apprehension under perplexity, and prepares
+him for recognising anywhere what he knows to be everywhere."[100]
+There is a popular saying of Madame de Staël, that we forgive whatever
+we really understand. The paradox has been judiciously pruned by her
+descendant, the Duke de Broglie, in the words: "Beware of too much
+explaining, lest we end by too much excusing."[101] History, says
+Froude, does teach that right and wrong are real distinctions.
+Opinions alter, manners change, creeds rise and fall, but the moral
+law is written on the tablets of eternity.[102] And if there are
+moments when we may resist the teaching of Froude, we have seldom the
+chance of resisting when he is supported by Mr. Goldwin Smith: "A
+sound historical morality will sanction strong measures in evil times;
+selfish ambition, treachery, murder, perjury, it will never sanction
+in the worst of times, for these are the things that make times
+evil.--Justice has been justice, mercy has been mercy, honour has been
+honour, good faith has been good faith, truthfulness has been
+truthfulness from the beginning." The doctrine that, as Sir Thomas
+Browne says, morality is not ambulatory,[103] is expressed as follows
+by Burke, who, when true to himself, is the most intelligent of our
+instructors: "My principles enable me to form my judgment upon men and
+actions in history, just as they do in common life; and are not formed
+out of events and characters, either present or past. History is a
+preceptor of prudence, not of principles. The principles of true
+politics are those of morality enlarged; and I neither now do, nor
+ever will admit of any other."[104]
+
+[Sidenote: HISTORY AND CHARACTER]
+
+Whatever a man's notions of these later centuries are, such, in the
+main, the man himself will be. Under the name of History, they cover
+the articles of his philosophic, his religious, and his political
+creed.[105] They give his measure; they denote his character: and, as
+praise is the shipwreck of historians, his preferences betray him more
+than his aversions. Modern history touches us so nearly, it is so deep
+a question of life and death, that we are bound to find our own way
+through it, and to owe our insight to ourselves. The historians of
+former ages, unapproachable for us in knowledge and in talent, cannot
+be our limit. We have the power to be more rigidly impersonal,
+disinterested and just than they; and to learn from undisguised and
+genuine records to look with remorse upon the past, and to the future
+with assured hope of better things; bearing this in mind, that if we
+lower our standard in history, we cannot uphold it in Church or
+State.
+
+
+
+
+                                 NOTES
+
+
+[1] No political conclusions of any value for practice can be
+arrived at by direct experience. All true political science is, in one
+sense of the phrase, _a priori_, being deduced from the tendencies of
+things, tendencies known either through our general experience of
+human nature, or as the result of an analysis of the course of
+history, considered as a progressive evolution.--MILL, _Inaugural
+Address_, 51.
+
+[2] Contemporary history is, in Dr. Arnold's opinion, more
+important than either ancient or modern; and in fact superior to it by
+all the superiority of the end to the means.--SEELEY, _Lectures and
+Essays_, 306.
+
+[3] The law of all progress is one and the same, the
+evolution of the simple into the complex by successive
+differentiations.--_Edinburgh Review_, clvii. 428. Die Entwickelung
+der Völker vollzieht sich nach zwei Gesetzen. Das erste Gesetz ist das
+der Differenzierung. Die primitiven Einrichtungen sind einfach und
+einheitlich, die der Civilisation zusammengesetzt und geteilt, und die
+Arbeitsteilung nimmt beständig zu.--SICKEL, _Goettingen Gelehrte
+Anzeigen_, 1890, 563.
+
+[4] Nous risquons toujours d'ętre influencés par les
+préjugés de notre époque; mais nous sommes libres des préjugés
+particuliers aux époques antérieures.--E. NAVILLE, _Christianisme de
+Fénelon_, 9.
+
+[5] La nature n'est qu'un écho de l'esprit. L'idée est la
+mčre du fait, elle façonne graduellement le monde ŕ son
+image.--FEUCHTERSLEBEN, _in_ CARO, _Nouvelles Études Morales_, 132. Il
+n'est pas d'étude morale qui vaille l'histoire d'une idée.--LABOULAYE,
+_Liberté Religieuse_, 25.
+
+[6] Il y a des savants qui raillent le sentiment religieux.
+Ils ne savent pas que c'est ŕ ce sentiment, et par son moyen, que la
+science historique doit d'avoir pu sortir de l'enfance.... Depuis des
+sičcles les âmes indépendantes discutaient les textes et les
+traditions de l'église, quand les lettrés n'avaient pas encore eu
+l'idée de porter un regard critique sur les textes de l'antiquité
+mondaine.--_La France Protestante_, ii. 17.
+
+[7] In our own history, above all, every step in advance has
+been at the same time a step backwards. It has often been shown how
+our latest constitution is, amidst all external differences,
+essentially the same as our earliest, how every struggle for right and
+freedom, from the thirteenth century onwards, has simply been a
+struggle for recovering something old.--FREEMAN, _Historical Essays_,
+iv. 253. Nothing but a thorough knowledge of the social system, based
+upon a regular study of its growth, can give us the power we require
+to affect it.--HARRISON, _Meaning of History_, 19. Eine Sache wird nur
+völlig auf dem Wege verstanden, wie sie selbst entsteht.--In dem
+genetischen Verfahren sind die Gründe der Sache, auch die Gründe des
+Erkennens.--TRENDELENBURG, _Logische Untersuchungen_, ii. 395, 388.
+
+[8] Une telle liberté ... n'a rien de commun avec le savant
+systčme de garanties qui fait libres les peuples modernes.--BOUTMY,
+_Annales des Sciences Politiques_, i. 157. Les trois grandes réformes
+qui ont renouvelé l'Angleterre, la liberté religieuse, la réforme
+parlementaire, et la liberté économique, ont été obtenues sous la
+pression des organisations extra-constitutionnelles.--OSTROGORSKI,
+_Revue Historique_, lii. 272.
+
+[9] The question which is at the bottom of all constitutional
+struggles, the question between the national will and the national
+law.--GARDINER, _Documents_, xviii. Religion, considered simply as the
+principle which balances the power of human opinion, which takes man
+out of the grasp of custom and fashion, and teaches him to refer
+himself to a higher tribunal, is an infinite aid to moral strength and
+elevation.--CHANNING, _Works_, iv. 83. Je tiens que le passé ne suffit
+jamais au présent. Personne n'est plus disposé que moi ŕ profiter de
+ses leçons; mais en męme temps, je le demande, le présent ne
+fournit-il pas toujours les indications qui lui sont propres?--MOLÉ,
+_in_ FALLOUX, _Études et Souvenirs_, 130. Admirons la sagesse de nos
+pčres, et tachons de l'imiter, en faisant ce qui convient ŕ notre
+sičcle.--GALIANI, _Dialogues_, 40.
+
+[10] Ceterum in legendis Historiis malim te ductum animi,
+quam anxias leges sequi. Nullae sunt, quae non magnas habeant
+utilitates; et melius haerent, quae libenter legimus. In universum
+tamen, non incipere ab antiquissimis, sed ab his, quae nostris
+temporibus nostraeque notitiae propius cohaerent, ac paulatim deinde
+in remotiora eniti, magis č re arbitror.--GROTIUS, _Epistolć_, 18.
+
+[11] The older idea of a law of degeneracy, of a "fatal drift
+towards the worse," is as obsolete as astrology or the belief in
+witchcraft. The human race has become hopeful, sanguine.--SEELEY,
+_Rede Lecture_, 1887. _Fortnightly Review_, July, 1887, 124.
+
+[12] Formuler des idées générales, c'est changer le salpętre
+en poudre.--A. DE MUSSET, _Confessions d'un Enfant du Sičcle_, 15. Les
+révolutions c'est l'avčnement des idées libérales. C'est presque
+toujours par les révolutions qu'elles prévalent et se fondent, et
+quand les idées libérales en sont véritablement le principe et le but,
+quand elles leur ont donné naissance, et quand elles les couronnent ŕ
+leur dernier jour, alors ces révolutions sont légitimes.--RÉMUSAT,
+1839, in _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1875, vi. 335. Il y a męme des
+personnes de piété qui prouvent par raison qu'il faut renoncer ŕ la
+raison; que ce n'est point la lumičre, mais la foi seule qui doit nous
+conduire, et que l'obéissance aveugle est la principale vertu des
+chrétiens. La paresse des inférieurs et leur esprit flatteur
+s'accommode souvent de cette vertu prétendue, et l'orgueil de ceux qui
+commandent en est toujours trčs content. De sorte qu'il se trouvera
+peut-ętre des gens qui seront scandalisés que je fasse cet honneur ŕ
+la raison, de l'élever au-dessus de toutes les puissances, et qui
+s'imagineront que je me révolte contre les autorités légitimes ŕ cause
+que je prends son parti et que je soutiens que c'est ŕ elle ŕ décider
+et ŕ regner.--MALEBRANCHE, _Morale_, i. 2, 13. That great statesman
+(Mr. Pitt) distinctly avowed that the application of philosophy to
+politics was at that time an innovation, and that it was an innovation
+worthy to be adopted. He was ready to make the same avowal in the
+present day which Mr. Pitt had made in 1792.--CANNING, June 1, 1827.
+_Parliamentary Review_, 1828, 71. American history knows but one
+avenue of success in American legislation, freedom from ancient
+prejudice. The best lawgivers in our colonies first became as little
+children.--BANCROFT, _History of the United States_, i. 494.--Every
+American, from Jefferson and Gallatin down to the poorest squatter,
+seemed to nourish an idea that he was doing what he could to overthrow
+the tyranny which the past had fastened on the human mind.--ADAMS,
+_History of the United States_, i. 175.
+
+[13] The greatest changes of which we have had experience as
+yet are due to our increasing knowledge of history and nature. They
+have been produced by a few minds appearing in three or four favoured
+nations, in comparatively a short period of time. May we be allowed to
+imagine the minds of men everywhere working together during many ages
+for the completion of our knowledge? May not the increase of knowledge
+transfigure the world?--JOWETT, _Plato_, i. 414. Nothing, I believe,
+is so likely to beget in us a spirit of enlightened liberality, of
+Christian forbearance, of large-hearted moderation, as the careful study
+of the history of doctrine and the history of interpretation.--PEROWNE,
+_Psalms_, i. p. xxxi.
+
+[14] Ce n'est gučre avant la seconde moitié du XVIIe sičcle
+qu'il devint impossible de soutenir l'authenticité des fausses
+décrétales, des Constitutions apostoliques, des Récognitions
+Clémentines, du faux Ignace, du pseudo-Dionys, et de l'immense fatras
+d'oeuvres anonymes ou pseudonymes qui grossissait souvent du tiers
+ou de la moitié l'héritage littéraire des auteurs les plus
+considérables.--DUCHESNE, _Témoins anténicéens de la Trinité_, 1883,
+36.
+
+[15] A man who does not know what has been thought by those
+who have gone before him is sure to set an undue value upon his own
+ideas.--M. PATTISON, _Memoirs_, 78.
+
+[16] Travailler ŕ discerner, dans cette discipline, le solide
+d'avec le frivole, le vrai d'avec le vraisemblable, la science d'avec
+l'opinion, ce qui forme le jugement d'avec ce qui ne fait que charger
+la mémoire.--LAMY, _Connoissance de soi-męme_, v. 459.
+
+[17] All our hopes of the future depend on a sound
+understanding of the past.--HARRISON, _The Meaning of History_, 6.
+
+[18] The real history of mankind is that of the slow advance
+of resolved deed following laboriously just thought; and all the
+greatest men live in their purpose and effort more than it is possible
+for them to live in reality.--The things that actually happened were
+of small consequence--the thoughts that were developed are of infinite
+consequence.--RUSKIN. Facts are the mere dross of history. It is from
+the abstract truth which interpenetrates them, and lies latent among
+them like gold in the ore, that the mass derives its value.--MACAULAY,
+_Works_, v. 131.
+
+[19] Die Gesetze der Geschichte sind eben die Gesetze der
+ganzen Menschheit, gehen nicht in die Geschicke eines Volkes, einer
+Generation oder gar eines Einzelnen auf. Individuen und Geschlechter,
+Staaten und Nationen, können zerstäuben, die Menschheit bleibt.--A.
+SCHMIDT, _Züricher Monatschrift_. i. 45.
+
+[20] Le grand péril des âges démocratiques, soyez-en sűr,
+c'est la destruction ou l'affaiblissement excessif des parties du
+corps social en présence du tout. Tout ce qui relčve de nos jours
+l'idée de l'individu est sain.--TOCQUEVILLE, Jan. 3, 1840,
+_OEuvres_, vii. 97. En France, il n'y a plus d'hommes. On a
+systématiquement tué l'homme au profit du peuple, des masses, comme
+disent nos législateurs écervelés. Puis un beau jour, on s'est aperçu
+que ce peuple n'avait jamais existé qu'en projet, que ces masses
+étaient un troupeau mi-partie de moutons et de tigres. C'est une
+triste histoire. Nous avons ŕ relever l'âme humaine contre l'aveugle
+et brutale tyrannie des multitudes.--LANFREY, March 23, 1855. M. DU
+CAMP, _Souvenirs Littéraires_, ii. 273. C'est le propre de la vertu
+d'ętre invisible, męme dans l'histoire, ŕ tout autre oeil que celui
+de la conscience.--VACHEROT, _Comptes Rendus de l'Institut_, lxix.
+319. Dans l'histoire oů la bonté est la perle rare, qui a été bon
+passe presque avant qui a été grand.--V. HUGO, _Les Misérables_, vii.
+46. Grosser Maenner Leben und Tod der Wahrheit gemaess mit Liebe zu
+schildern, ist zu allen Zeiten herzerhebend; am meisten aber dann,
+wenn im Kreislauf der irdischen Dinge die Sterne wieder aehnlich
+stehen wie damals als sie unter uns lebten.--LASAULX, _Sokrates_, 3.
+Instead of saying that the history of mankind is the history of the
+masses, it would be much more true to say that the history of mankind
+is the history of its great men.--KINGSLEY, _Lectures_, 329.
+
+[21] Le génie n'est que la plus complčte émancipation de
+toutes les influences de temps, de moeurs, et de pays.--NISARD,
+_Souvenirs_, ii. 43.
+
+[22] Meine kritische Richtung zieht mich in der Wissenschaft
+durchaus zur Kritik meiner eigenen Gedanken hin, nicht zu der der
+Gedanken Anderer.--ROTHE, _Ethik_, i., p. xi.
+
+[23] When you are in young years the whole mind is, as it
+were, fluid, and is capable of forming itself into any shape that the
+owner of the mind pleases to order it to form itself into.--CARLYLE,
+_On the Choice of Books_, 131. Nach allem erscheint es somit
+unzweifelhaft als eine der psychologischen Voraussetzungen des
+Strafrechts, ohne welche der Zurechnungsbegriff nicht haltbar wäre,
+dass der Mensch für seinen Charakter verantwortlich ist und ihn muss
+abändern können.--RÜMELIN, _Reden und Aufsätze_, ii., 60. An der
+tiefen und verborgenen Quelle, woraus der Wille entspringt, an diesem
+Punkt, nur hier steht die Freiheit, und führt das Steuer und lenkt den
+Willen. Wer nicht bis zu dieser Tiefe in sich einkehren und seinen
+natürlichen Charakter von hier aus bemeistern kann, der hat nicht den
+Gebrauch seiner Freiheit, der ist nicht frei, sondern unterworfen dem
+Triebwerk seiner Interessen, und dadurch in der Gewalt des Weltlaufs,
+worin jede Begebenheit und jede Handlung eine nothwendige Folge ist
+aller vorhergehenden.--FISCHER, _Problem der Freiheit_, 27.
+
+[24] I must regard the main duty of a Professor to consist,
+not simply in communicating information, but in doing this in such a
+manner, and with such an accompaniment of subsidiary means, that the
+information he conveys may be the occasion of awakening his pupils to
+a vigorous and varied exertion of their faculties.--SIR W. HAMILTON,
+_Lectures_, i. 14. No great man really does his work by imposing his
+maxims on his disciples, he evokes their life. The pupil may become
+much wiser than his instructor, he may not accept his conclusions, but
+he will own, "You awakened me to be myself, for that I thank
+you."--MAURICE, _The Conscience_, 7, 8.
+
+[25] Ich sehe die Zeit kommen, wo wir die neuere Geschichte
+nicht mehr auf die Berichte selbst nicht der gleichzeitigen
+Historiker, ausser in so weit ihnen neue originale Kenntniss
+beiwohnte, geschweige denn auf die weiter abgeleiteten Bearbeitungen
+zu gründen haben, sondern aus den Relationen der Augenzeugen und der
+ächten und unmittelbarsten Urkunden aufbauen werden.--RANKE,
+_Reformation_, _Preface_, 1838. Ce qu'on a trouvé et mis en oeuvre
+est considérable en soi: c'est peu de chose au prix de ce qui reste ŕ
+trouver et ŕ mettre en oeuvre.--AULARD, _Études sur la Révolution_,
+21.
+
+[26] N'attendez donc pas les leçons de l'expérience; elles
+coűtent trop cher aux nations.--O. BARROT, _Mémoires_, ii. 435. Il y a
+des leçons dans tous les temps, pour tous les temps; et celles qu'on
+emprunte ŕ des ennemis ne sont pas les moins précieuses.--LANFREY,
+_Napoléon_, v. p. ii. Old facts may always be fresh, and may give out
+a fresh meaning for each generation.--MAURICE, _Lectures_, 62. The
+object is to lead the student to attend to them; to make him take
+interest in history not as a mere narrative, but as a chain of causes
+and effects still unwinding itself before our eyes, and full of
+momentous consequences to himself and his descendants--an unremitting
+conflict between good and evil powers, of which every act done by any
+one of us, insignificant as we are, forms one of the incidents; a
+conflict in which even the smallest of us cannot escape from taking
+part, in which whoever does not help the right side is helping the
+wrong.--MILL, _Inaugural Address_, 59.
+
+[27] I hold that the degree in which Poets dwell in sympathy
+with the Past, marks exactly the degree of their poetical
+faculty.--WORDSWORTH in C. FOX, _Memoirs_, June, 1842. In all
+political, all social, all human questions whatever, history is the
+main resource of the inquirer.--HARRISON, _Meaning of History_, 15.
+There are no truths which more readily gain the assent of mankind, or
+are more firmly retained by them, than those of an historical nature,
+depending upon the testimony of others.--PRIESTLEY, _Letters to French
+Philosophers_, 9. Improvement consists in bringing our opinions into
+nearer agreement with facts; and we shall not be likely to do this
+while we look at facts only through glasses coloured by those very
+opinions.--MILL, _Inaugural Address_, 25.
+
+[28] He who has learnt to understand the true character and
+tendency of many succeeding ages is not likely to go very far wrong in
+estimating his own.--LECKY, _Value of History_, 21. C'est ŕ l'histoire
+qu'il faut se prendre, c'est le fait que nous devons interroger, quand
+l'idée vacille et fuit ŕ nos yeux.--MICHELET, _Disc. d'Ouverture_,
+263. C'est la loi des faits telle qu'elle se manifeste dans leur
+succession. C'est la rčgle de conduite donnée par la nature humaine et
+indiquée par l'histoire. C'est la logique, mais cette logique qui ne
+fait qu'un avec l'enchaînement des choses. C'est l'enseignement de
+l'expérience.--SCHERER, _Mélanges_, 558. Wer seine Vergangenheit nicht
+als seine Geschichte hat und weiss wird und ist characterlos Wem ein
+Ereigniss sein Sonst plötzlich abreisst von seinem Jetzt wird leicht
+wurzellos.--KLIEFOTH, _Rheinwalds Repertorium_, xliv. 20. La politique
+est une des meilleures écoles pour l'esprit. Elle force ŕ chercher la
+raison de toutes choses, et ne permet pas cependant de la chercher
+hors des faits.--RÉMUSAT, _Le Temps Passé_, i. 31. It is an unsafe
+partition that divides opinions without principle from unprincipled
+opinions.--COLERIDGE, _Lay Sermon_, 373.
+
+    Wer nicht von drei tausend Jahren sich weiss Rechenschaft zu geben,
+    Bleib' im Dunkeln unerfahren, mag von Tag zu Tage leben!
+
+                                                          GOETHE.
+
+What can be rationally required of the student of philosophy is not a
+preliminary and absolute, but a gradual and progressive, abrogation of
+prejudices.--SIR W. HAMILTON, _Lectures_, iv. 92.
+
+[29] Die Schlacht bei Leuthen ist wohl die letzte, in welcher
+diese religiösen Gegensätze entscheidend eingewirkt haben.--RANKE,
+_Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie_, vii. 70.
+
+[30] The only real cry in the country is the proper and just
+old No Popery cry.--_Major Beresford_, July, 1847. Unfortunately the
+strongest bond of union amongst them is an apprehension of
+Popery.--_Stanley_, September 12, 1847. The great Protectionist party
+having degenerated into a No Popery, No Jew Party, I am still more
+unfit now than I was in 1846 to lead it.--_G. Bentinck_, December 26,
+1847. _Croker's Memoirs_, iii. 116, 132, 157.
+
+[31] In the case of Protestantism, this constitutional
+instability is now a simple matter of fact, which has become too plain
+to be denied. The system is not fixed, but in motion; and the motion
+is for the time in the direction of complete self-dissolution.--We
+take it for a transitory scheme, whose breaking up is to make room in
+due time for another and far more perfect state of the Church.--The
+new order in which Protestantism is to become thus complete cannot be
+reached without the co-operation and help of Romanism.--NEVIN,
+_Mercersburg Review_, iv. 48.
+
+[32] Diese Heiligen waren es, die aus dem unmittelbaren
+Glaubensleben und den Grundgedanken der christlichen Freiheit zuerst
+die Idee allgemeiner Menschenrechte abgeleitet und rein von
+Selbstsucht vertheidigt haben.--WEINGARTEN, _Revolutionskirchen_, 447.
+Wie selbst die Idee allgemeiner Menschenrechte, die in dem gemeinsamen
+Character der Ebenbildlichkeit Gottes gegründet sind, erst durch das
+Christenthum zum Bewusstsein gebracht werden, während jeder andere
+Eifer für politische Freiheit als ein mehr oder weniger
+selbstsüchtiger und beschränkter sich erwiesen hat.--NEANDER, _Pref.
+to Uhden's Wilberforce_, p. v. The rights of individuals and the
+justice due to them are as dear and precious as those of states;
+indeed the latter are founded on the former, and the great end and
+object of them must be to secure and support the rights of
+individuals, or else vain is government.--CUSHING in CONWAY, _Life of
+Paine_, i. 217. As it is owned the whole scheme of Scripture is not
+yet understood; so, if it ever comes to be understood, before the
+restitution of all things, and without miraculous interpositions, it
+must be in the same way as natural knowledge is come at--by the
+continuance and progress of learning and liberty.--BUTLER, _Analogy_,
+ii. 3.
+
+[33] Comme les lois elles-męmes sont faillibles, et qu'il
+peut y avoir une autre justice que la justice écrite, les sociétés
+modernes ont voulu garantir les droits de la conscience ŕ la poursuite
+d'une justice meilleure que celle qui existe; et lŕ est le fondement
+de ce qu'on appelle liberté de conscience, liberté d'écrire, liberté
+de pensée.--JANET, _Philosophie Contemporaine_, 308. Si la force
+matérielle a toujours fini par céder ŕ l'opinion, combien plus ne
+sera-t-elle pas contrainte de céder ŕ la conscience? Car la
+conscience, c'est l'opinion renforcée par le sentiment de
+l'obligation.--VINET, _Liberté Religieuse_, 3.
+
+[34] Aprčs la volonté d'un homme, la raison d'état; aprčs la
+raison d'état, la religion; aprčs la religion, la liberté. Voilŕ toute
+la philosophie de l'histoire.--FLOTTES, _La Souveraineté du Peuple_,
+1851, 192. La répartition plus égale des biens et des droits dans ce
+monde est le plus grand objet que doivent se proposer ceux qui mčnent
+les affaires humaines. Je veux seulement que l'égalité en politique
+consiste ŕ ętre également libre.--TOCQUEVILLE, September 10, 1856.
+_Mme. Swetchine_, i. 455. On peut concevoir une législation trčs
+simple, lorsqu'on voudra en écarter tout ce qui est arbitraire, ne
+consulter que les deux premičres lois de la liberté et de la
+propriété, et ne point admettre de lois positives qui ne tirent leur
+raison de ces deux lois souveraines de la justice essentielle et
+absolue.--LETROSNE, _Vues sur la Justice Criminelle_, 16. Summa enim
+libertas est, ad optimum recta ratione cogi.--Nemo optat sibi hanc
+libertatem, volendi quae velit, sed potius volendi optima.--LEIBNIZ,
+_De Fato_. TRENDELENBURG, _Beiträge zur Philosophie_, ii. 190.
+
+[35] All the world is, by the very law of its creation, in
+eternal progress; and the cause of all the evils of the world may be
+traced to that natural, but most deadly error of human indolence and
+corruption, that our business is to preserve and not to
+improve.--ARNOLD, _Life_, i. 259. In whatever state of knowledge we
+may conceive man to be placed, his progress towards a yet higher state
+need never fear a check, but must continue till the last existence of
+society.--HERSCHEL, _Prel. Dis._, 360. It is in the development of
+thought as in every other development; the present suffers from the
+past, and the future struggles hard in escaping from the
+present.--MAX MÜLLER, _Science of Thought_, 617. Most of the great
+positive evils of the world are in themselves removable, and will, if
+human affairs continue to improve, be in the end reduced within narrow
+limits. Poverty in any sense implying suffering may be completely
+extinguished by the wisdom of society combined with the good sense and
+providence of individuals.--All the grand sources, in short, of human
+suffering are in a great degree, many of them almost entirely,
+conquerable by human care and effort.--J. S. MILL, _Utilitarianism_,
+21, 22. The ultimate standard of worth is personal worth, and the only
+progress that is worth striving after, the only acquisition that is
+truly good and enduring, is the growth of the soul.--BIXBY, _Crisis of
+Morals_, 210. La science, et l'industrie qu'elle produit, ont, parmi
+tous les autres enfants du génie de l'homme, ce privilčge particulier,
+que leur vol non-seulement ne peut pas s'interrompre, mais qu'il
+s'accélčre sans cesse.--CUVIER, _Discours sur la Marche des Sciences_,
+24 Avril, 1816. Aucune idée parmi celles qui se réfčrent ŕ l'ordre des
+faits naturels, ne tient de plus prčs ŕ la famille des idées
+religieuses que l'idée du progrčs, et n'est plus propre ŕ devenir le
+principe d'une sorte de foi religieuse pour ceux qui n'en ont pas
+d'autres. Elle a, comme la foi religieuse, la vertu de relever les
+âmes et les caractčres.--COURNOT, _Marche des Idées_, ii. 425. Dans le
+spectacle de l'humanité errante, souffrante et travaillant toujours ŕ
+mieux voir, ŕ mieux penser, ŕ mieux agir, ŕ diminuer l'infirmité de
+l'ętre humain, ŕ apaiser l'inquiétude de son coeur, la science
+découvre une direction et un progrčs.--A. SOREL, _Discours de
+Réception_, 14. Le jeune homme qui commence son éducation quinze ans
+aprčs son pčre, ŕ une époque oů celui-ci, engagé dans une profession
+spéciale et active, ne peut que suivre les anciens principes, acquiert
+une supériorité théorique dont on doit tenir compte dans la hiérarchie
+sociale. Le plus souvent le pčre n'est-il pas pénétré de l'esprit de
+routine, tandis que le fils représente et défend la science
+progressive? En diminuant l'écart qui existait entre l'influence des
+jeunes générations et celle de la vieillesse ou de l'âge műr, les
+peuples modernes n'auraient donc fait que reproduire dans leur ordre
+social un changement de rapports qui s'était déjŕ accompli dans la
+nature intime des choses.--BOUTMY, _Revue Nationale_, xxi. 393. Il y a
+dans l'homme individuel des principes de progrčs viager; il y a, en
+toute société, des causes constantes qui transforment ce progrčs
+viager en progrčs héréditaire. Une société quelconque tend ŕ
+progresser tant que les circonstances ne touchent pas aux causes de
+progrčs que nous avons reconnues, l'imitation des dévanciers par les
+successeurs, des étrangers par les indigčnes.--LACOMBE, _L'Histoire
+comme Science_, 292. Veram creatć mentis beatitudinem consistere in
+non impedito progressu ad bona majora.--LEIBNIZ to WOLF, February 21,
+1705. In cumulum etiam pulchritudinis perfectionisque universalis
+operum divinorum progressus quidam perpetuus liberrimusque totius
+universi est agnoscendus, ita ut ad majorem semper cultum
+procedat.--LEIBNIZ ed. Erdmann, 150_a_. Der Creaturen und also auch
+unsere Vollkommenheit bestehet in einem ungehinderten starken
+Forttrieb zu neuen und neuen Vollkommenheiten.--LEIBNIZ, _Deutsche
+Schriften_, ii. 36. Hegel, welcher annahm, der Fortschritt der Neuzeit
+gegen das Mittelalter sei dieser, dass die Principien der Tugend und
+des Christenthums, welche im Mittelalter sich allein im Privatleben
+und der Kirche zur Geltung gebracht hätten, nun auch anfingen, das
+politische Leben zu durchdringen.--FORTLAGE, _Allg. Monatschrift_,
+1853, 777. Wir Slawen wissen, dass die Geister einzelner Menschen und
+ganzer Völker sich nur durch die Stufe ihrer Entwicklung
+unterscheiden.--MICKIEWICZ, _Slawische Literatur_, ii. 436. Le progrčs
+ne disparait jamais, mais il se déplace souvent. Il va des gouvernants
+aux gouvernés. La tendance des révolutions est de le ramener toujours
+parmi les gouvernants. Lorsqu'il est ŕ la tęte des sociétés, il marche
+hardiment, car il conduit. Lorsqu'il est dans la masse, il marche ŕ
+pas lents, car il lutte.--NAPOLEON III., _Des Idées Napoléoniennes_.
+La loi du progrčs avait jadis l'inexorable rigueur du destin; elle
+prend maintenant de jour en jour la douce puissance de la Providence.
+C'est l'erreur, c'est l'iniquité, c'est le vice, que la civilisation
+tend ŕ emporter dans sa marche irrésistible; mais la vie des individus
+et des peuples est devenue pour elle une chose sacrée. Elle transforme
+plutôt qu'elle ne détruit les choses qui s'opposent ŕ son
+développement; elle procčde par absorption graduelle plutôt que par
+brusque exécution; elle aime ŕ conquérir par l'influence des idées
+plutôt que par la force des armes, un peuple, une classe, une
+institution qui résiste au progrčs.--VACHEROT, _Essais de Philosophie
+Critique_, 443. Peu ŕ peu l'homme intellectuel finit par effacer
+l'homme physique.--QUETELET, _De l'Homme_, ii. 285. In dem Fortschritt
+der ethischen Anschauungen liegt daher der Kern des geschichtlichen
+Fortschritts überhaupt.--SCHÄFER, _Arbeitsgebiet der Geschichte_, 24.
+Si l'homme a plus de devoirs ŕ mesure qu'il avance en âge, ce qui est
+mélancolique, mais ce qui est vrai, de męme aussi l'humanité est tenue
+d'avoir une morale plus sévčre ŕ mesure qu'elle prend plus de
+sičcles.--FAGUET, _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1894, iii. 871. Si donc il
+y a une loi de progrčs, elle se confond avec la loi morale, et la
+condition fondamentale du progrčs, c'est la pratique de cette
+loi.--CARRAU, _Ib._, 1875, v. 585. L'idée du progrčs, du
+développement, me paraît ętre l'idée fondamentale contenue sous le mot
+de civilisation.--GUIZOT, _Cours d'Histoire_, 1828, 15. Le progrčs
+n'est sous un autre nom, que la liberté en action.--BROGLIE, _Journal
+des Débats_, January 28, 1869. Le progrčs social est continu. Il a ses
+périodes de fičvre ou d'atonie, de surexcitation ou de léthargie; il a
+ses soubresauts et ses haltes, mais il avance toujours.--DE DECKER,
+_La Providence_, 174. Ce n'est pas au bonheur seul, c'est au
+perfectionnement que notre destin nous appelle; et la liberté
+politique est le plus puissant, le plus énergique moyen de
+perfectionnement que le ciel nous ait donné.--B. CONSTANT, _Cours de
+Politique_, ii. 559. To explode error, on whichever side it lies, is
+certainly to secure progress.--MARTINEAU, _Essays_, i. 114. Die
+sämmtlichen Freiheitsrechte, welche der heutigen Menschheit so theuer sind,
+sind im Grunde nur Anwendungen des Rechts der Entwickelung.--BLUNTSCHLI,
+_Kleine Schriften_, i. 51. Geistiges Leben ist auf Freiheit beruhende
+Entwicklung, mit Freiheit vollzogene That und geschichtlicher
+Fortschritt.--_Münchner Gel. Anzeigen_ 1849, ii. 83. Wie das Denken
+erst nach und nach reift, so wird auch der freie Wille nicht fertig
+geboren, sondern in der Entwickelung erworben.--TRENDELENBURG,
+_Logische Untersuchungen_, ii. 94. Das Liberum Arbitrium im vollen
+Sinne (die vollständig aktuelle Macht der Selbstbestimmung) lässt sich
+seinem Begriff zufolge schlechterdings nicht unmittelbar geben; es
+kann nur erworben werden durch das Subjekt selbst, in sich moralisch
+hervorgebracht werden kraft seiner eigenen Entwickelung.--ROTHE,
+_Ethik_, i. 360. So gewaltig sei der Andrang der Erfindungen und
+Entdeckungen, dass "Entwicklungsperioden, die in früheren Zeiten erst
+in Jahrhunderten durchlaufen wurden, die im Beginn unserer Zeitperiode
+noch der Jahrzehnte bedurften, sich heute in Jahren volienden, häufig
+schon in voller Ausbildung ins Dasein treten."--PHILIPPOVICH,
+_Fortschritt und Kulturentwicklung_, 1892, i. quoting SIEMENS, 1886.
+Wir erkennen dass dem Menschen die schwere körperliche Arbeit, von der
+er in seinem Kampfe um's Dasein stets schwer niedergedrückt war und
+grossenteils noch ist, mehr und mehr durch die wachsende Benutzung der
+Naturkräfte zur mechanischen Arbeitsleistung abgenommen wird, dass
+die ihm zufallende Arbeit immer mehr eine intellektuelle
+wird.--SIEMENS, 1886, _Ib._ 6.
+
+[36] Once, however, he wrote:--Darin könnte man den idealen
+Kern der Geschichte des menschlichen Geschlechtes überhaupt sehen,
+dass in den Kämpfen, die sich in den gegenseitigen Interessen der
+Staaten und Völker vollziehen, doch immer höhere Potenzen emporkommen,
+die das Allgemeine demgemäss umgestalten und ihm wieder einen anderen
+Charakter verleihen.--RANKE, _Weltgeschichte_, iii. 1, 6.
+
+[37] Toujours et partout, les hommes furent de plus en plus
+dominés par l'ensemble de leurs prédécesseurs, dont ils purent
+seulement modifier l'empire nécessaire.--COMTE, _Politique Positive_,
+iii. 621.
+
+[38] La liberté est l'âme du commerce.--Il faut laisser faire
+les hommes qui s'appliquent sans peine ŕ ce qui convient le mieux;
+c'est ce qui apporte le plus d'avantage.--COLBERT, in _Comptes Rendus
+de l'Institut_, xxxix. 93.
+
+[39] Il n'y a que les choses humaines exposées dans leur
+vérité, c'est-ŕ-dire avec leur grandeur, leur variété, leur
+inépuisable fécondité, qui aient le droit de retenir le lecteur et qui
+le retiennent en effet. Si l'écrivain paraît une fois, il ennuie ou
+fait sourire de pitié les lecteurs sérieux.--THIERS to STE. BEUVE,
+_Lundis_, iii. 195. Comme l'a dit Taine, la disparition du style,
+c'est la perfection du style.--FAGUET, _Revue Politique_, lii. 67.
+
+[40] Ne m'applaudissez pas; ce n'est pas moi qui vous parle;
+c'est l'histoire qui parle par ma bouche.--_Revue Historique_, xli.
+278.
+
+[41] Das Evangelium trat als Geschichte in die Welt, nicht
+als Dogma--wurde als Geschichte in der christlichen Kirche
+deponirt.--ROTHE, _Kirchengeschichte_, ii. p. x. Das Christenthum ist
+nicht der Herr Christus, sondern dieser macht es. Es ist sein Werk,
+und zwar ein Werk das er stets unter der Arbeit hat.--Er selbst,
+Christus der Herr, bleibt der er ist in alle Zukunft, dagegen liegt es
+ausdrücklich im Begriffe seines Werks, des Christenthums, dass es
+nicht so bleibt wie es anhebt.--ROTHE, _Allgemeine kirchliche
+Zeitschrift_, 1864, 299. Diess Werk, weil es dem Wesen der Geschichte
+zufolge eine Entwickelung ist, muss über Stufen hinweggehen, die
+einander ablösen, und von denen jede folgende neue immer nur unter der
+Zertrümmerung der ihr vorangehenden Platz greifen kann.--ROTHE, _Ib._
+April 19, 1865. Je grösser ein geschichtliches Princip ist, desto
+langsamer und über mehr Stufen hinweg entfaltet es seinen Gehalt;
+desto langlebiger ist es aber ebendeshalb auch in diesen seinen
+unaufhörlichen Abwandelungen.--ROTHE, _Stille Stunden_, 301. Der
+christliche Glaube geht nicht von der Anerkennung abstracter
+Lehrwahrheiten aus, sondern von der Anerkennung einer Reihe von
+Thatsachen, die in der Erscheinung Jesu ihren Mittelpunkt
+haben.--NITZSCH, _Dogmengeschichte_, i. 17. Der Gedankengang der
+evangelischen Erzählung gibt darum auch eine vollständige Darstellung
+der christlichen Lehre in ihren wesentlichen Grundzügen; aber er gibt
+sie im allseitigen lebendigen Zusammenhange mit der Geschichte der
+christlichen Offenbarung, und nicht in einer theoretisch
+zusammenhängenden Folgenreihe von ethischen und dogmatischen
+Lehrsätzen.--DEUTINGER, _Reich Gottes_, i. p. v.
+
+[42] L'Univers ne doit pas estre considéré seulement dans ce
+qu'il est; pour le bien connoître, il faut le voir aussi dans ce qu'il
+doit estre. C'est cet avenir surtout qui a été le grand objet de Dieu
+dans la création, et c'est pour cet avenir seul que le présent
+existe.--D'HOUTEVILLE, _Essai sur la Providence_, 273. La Providence
+emploie les sičcles ŕ élever toujours un plus grand nombre de familles
+et d'individus ŕ ces biens de la liberté et de l'égalité légitimes
+que, dans l'enfance des sociétés, la force avait rendus le privilčge
+de quelques-uns.--GUIZOT, _Gouvernement de la France_, 1820, 9. La
+marche de la Providence n'est pas assujettie ŕ d'étroites limites;
+elle ne s'inquičte pas de tirer aujourd'hui la conséquence du principe
+qu'elle a posé hier; elle la tirera dans des sičcles, quand l'heure
+sera venue; et pour raisonner lentement selon nous, sa logique n'est
+pas moins sűre.--GUIZOT, _Histoire de la Civilisation_, 20. Der Keim
+fortschreitender Entwicklung ist, auch auf göttlichem Geheisse, der
+Menschheit eingepflanzt. Die Weltgeschichte ist der blosse Ausdruck
+einer vorbestimmten Entwicklung.--A. HUMBOLDT, January 2, 1842, _Im
+Neuen Reich_, 1872, i. 197. Das historisch grosse ist religiös gross;
+es ist die Gottheit selbst, die sich offenbart.--RAUMER, April 1807,
+_Erinnerungen_, i. 85.
+
+[43] Je suis arrivé ŕ l'âge oů je suis, ŕ travers bien des
+évčnements différents, mais avec une seule cause, celle de la liberté
+réguličre.--TOCQUEVILLE, May 1, 1852, _OEuvres Inédites_, ii. 185.
+Me trouvant dans un pays oů la religion et le libéralisme sont
+d'accord, j'avais respiré.--J'exprimais ce sentiment, il y a plus de
+vingt ans, dans l'avant-propos de la _Démocratie_. Je l'éprouve
+aujourd'hui aussi vivement que si j'étais encore jeune, et je ne sais
+s'il y a une seule pensée qui ait été plus constamment présente ŕ mon
+esprit.--August 5, 1857, _OEuvres_, vi. 395. Il n'y a que la liberté
+(j'entends la modérée et la réguličre) et la religion, qui, par un
+effort combiné, puissent soulever les hommes au-dessus du bourbier oů
+l'égalité démocratique les plonge naturellement.--December 1, 1852,
+_OEuvres_, vii. 295. L'un de mes ręves, le principal en entrant dans
+la vie politique, était de travailler ŕ concilier l'esprit libéral et
+l'esprit de religion, la société nouvelle et l'église.--November 15,
+1843, _OEuvres Inédites_, ii. 121. La véritable grandeur de l'homme
+n'est que dans l'accord du sentiment libéral et du sentiment
+religieux.--September 17, 1853, _OEuvres Inédites_, ii. 228. Qui
+cherche dans la liberté autre chose qu'elle-męme est fait pour
+servir.--_Ancien Régime_, 248. Je regarde, ainsi que je l'ai toujours
+fait, la liberté comme le premier des biens; je vois toujours en elle
+l'une des sources les plus fécondes des vertus mâles et des actions
+grandes. Il n'y a pas de tranquillité ni de bien-ętre qui puisse me
+tenir lieu d'elle.--January 7, 1856, _Mme. Swetchine_, i. 452. La
+liberté a un faux air d'aristocratie; en donnant pleine carričre aux
+facultés humaines, en encourageant le travail et l'économie, elle fait
+ressortir les supériorités naturelles ou acquises.--LABOULAYE, _L'État
+et ses Limites_, 154. Dire que la liberté n'est point par elle-męme,
+qu'elle dépend d'une situation, d'une opportunité, c'est lui assigner
+une valeur négative. La liberté n'est pas dčs qu'on la subordonne.
+Elle n'est pas un principe purement négatif, un simple élément de
+contrôle et de critique. Elle est le principe actif, créateur
+organisateur par excellence. Elle est le moteur et la rčgle, la source
+de toute vie, et le principe de l'ordre. Elle est, en un mot, le nom
+que prend la conscience souveraine, lorsque, se posant en face du
+monde social et politique, elle émerge du moi pour modeler les
+sociétés sur les données de la raison.--BRISSON, _Revue Nationale_,
+xxiii. 214. Le droit, dans l'histoire, est le développement progressif
+de la liberté, sous la loi de la raison.--LERMINIER, _Philosophie du
+Droit_, i. 211. En prouvant par les leçons de l'histoire que la
+liberté fait vivre les peuples et que le despotisme les tue, en
+montrant que l'expiation suit la faute et que la fortune finit
+d'ordinaire par se ranger du côté de la vertu, Montesquieu n'est ni
+moins moral ni moins religieux que Bossuet.--LABOULAYE, _OEuvres de
+Montesquieu_, ii. 109. Je ne comprendrais pas qu'une nation ne plaçât
+pas les libertés politiques au premier rang, parce que c'est des
+libertés politiques que doivent découler toutes les autres.--THIERS,
+_Discours_, x. 8, _March_ 28, 1865. Nous sommes arrivés ŕ une époque
+oů la liberté est le but sérieux de tous, oů le reste n'est plus
+qu'une question de moyens.--J. LEBEAU, _Observations sur le Pouvoir
+Royal_: Liége, 1830, p. 10. Le libéralisme, ayant la prétention de se
+fonder uniquement sur les principes de la raison, croit d'ordinaire
+n'avoir pas besoin de tradition. Lŕ est son erreur. L'erreur de
+l'école libérale est d'avoir trop cru qu'il est facile de créer la
+liberté par la réflexion, et de n'avoir pas vu qu'un établissement
+n'est solide que quand il a des racines historiques.--RENAN, 1858,
+_Nouvelle Revue_, lxxix. 596. Le respect des individus et des droits
+existants est autant au-dessus du bonheur de tous, qu'un intéręt moral
+surpasse un intéręt purement temporel.--RENAN, 1858, _Ib._ lxxix. 597.
+Die Rechte gelten nichts, wo es sich handelt um das Recht, und das
+Recht der Freiheit kann nie verjähren, weil es die Quelle alles
+Rechtes selbst ist.--C. FRANTZ, _Ueber die Freiheit_, 110. Wir
+erfahren hienieden nie die ganze Wahrheit: wir geniessen nie die ganze
+Freiheit.--REUSS, _Reden_, 56. Le gouvernement constitutionnel, comme
+tout gouvernement libre, présente et doit présenter un état de lutte
+permanent. La liberté est la perpétuité de la lutte.--DE SERRE.
+BROGLIE, _Nouvelles Études_, 243. The experiment of free government is
+not one which can be tried once for all. Every generation must try it
+for itself. As each new generation starts up to the responsibilities
+of manhood, there is, as it were, a new launch of Liberty, and its
+voyage of experiment begins afresh.--WINTHROP, _Addresses_, 163.
+L'histoire perd son véritable caractčre du moment que la liberté en a
+disparu; elle devient une sorte de physique sociale. C'est l'élément
+personnel de l'histoire qui en fait la réalité.--VACHEROT, _Revue des
+Deux Mondes_, 1869, iv. 215. Demander la liberté pour soi et la
+refuser aux autres, c'est la définition du despotisme.--LABOULAYE,
+December 4, 1874. Les causes justes profitent de tout, des bonnes
+intentions comme des mauvaises, des calculs personnels comme des
+dévouemens courageux, de la démence, enfin, comme de la raison.--B.
+CONSTANT, _Les Cent Jours_, ii. 29. Sie ist die Kunst, das Gute der
+schon weit gediehenen Civilisation zu sichern.--BALTISCH, _Politische
+Freiheit_, 9. In einem Volke, welches sich zur bürgerlichen
+Gesellschaft, überhaupt zum Bewusstseyn der Unendlichkeit des
+Freien--entwickelt hat, ist nur die constitutionelle Monarchie
+möglich.--HEGEL'S _Philosophie des Rechts_, § 137, _Hegel und
+Preussen_, 1841, 31. Freiheit ist das höchste Gut. Alles andere ist
+nur das Mittel dazu: gut falls es ein Mittel dazu ist, übel falls es
+dieselbe hemmt.--FICHTE, _Werke_, iv. 403. You are not to inquire how
+your trade may be increased, nor how you are to become a great and
+powerful people, but how your liberties can be secured. For liberty
+ought to be the direct end of your government.--PATRICK HENRY, 1788.
+WIRT, _Life of Henry_, 272.
+
+[44] Historić ipsius prćter delectationem utilitas nulla est,
+quam ut religionis Christianć veritas demonstretur, quod aliter quam
+per historiam fieri non potest.--LEIBNIZ, _Opera_, ed. Dutens, vi.
+297. The study of Modern History is, next to Theology itself, and only
+next in so far as Theology rests on a divine revelation, the most
+thoroughly religious training that the mind can receive. It is no
+paradox to say that Modern History, including Medieval History in the
+term, is co-extensive in its field of view, in its habits of
+criticism, in the persons of its most famous students, with
+Ecclesiastical History.--STUBBS, _Lectures_, 9. Je regarde donc
+l'étude de l'histoire comme l'étude de la providence.--L'histoire est
+vraiment une seconde philosophie.--Si Dieu ne parle pas toujours, il
+agit toujours en Dieu.--D'AGUESSEAU, _OEuvres_, xv. 34, 31, 35. Für
+diejenigen, welche das Wesen der menschlichen Freiheit erkannt haben,
+bildet die denkende Betrachtung der Weltgeschichte, besonders des
+christlichen Weltalters, die höchste, und umfassendste Theodicee.--VATKE,
+_Die Menschliche Freiheit_, 1841, 516. La théologie, que l'on regarde
+volontiers comme la plus étroite et la plus stérile des sciences, en
+est, au contraire, la plus étendue et la plus féconde. Elle confine ŕ
+toutes les études et touche ŕ toutes les questions. Elle renferme tous
+les éléments d'une instruction libérale.--SCHERER, _Mélanges_, 522. The
+belief that the course of events and the agency of man are subject to
+the laws of a divine order, which it is alike impossible for any one
+either fully to comprehend or effectually to resist--this belief is the
+ground of all our hope for the future destinies of mankind.--THIRLWALL,
+_Remains_, iii. 282. A true religion must consist of ideas and facts
+both; not of ideas alone without facts, for then it would be mere
+philosophy; nor of facts alone without ideas, of which those facts are
+the symbols, or out of which they are grounded; for then it would be
+mere history.--COLERIDGE, _Table Talk_, 144. It certainly appears
+strange that the men most conversant with the order of the visible
+universe should soonest suspect it empty of directing mind; and, on
+the other hand, that humanistic, moral and historical studies--which
+first open the terrible problems of suffering and grief, and contain
+all the reputed provocatives of denial and despair--should confirm, and
+enlarge rather than disturb, the prepossessions of natural
+piety.--MARTINEAU, _Essays_, i. 122. Die Religion hat nur dann eine
+Bedeutung für den Menschen, wenn er in der Geschichte einen Punkt
+findet, dem er sich völlig unbedingt hingeben kann.--STEFFENS,
+_Christliche Religionsphilosophie_, 440, 1839. Wir erkennen darin nur
+eine Thätigkeit des zu seinem ächten und wahren Leben, zu seinem
+verlornen, objectiven Selbstverständnisse sich zurücksehnenden
+christlichen Geistes unserer Zeit, einen Ausdruck für das Bedürfniss
+desselben, sich aus den unwahren und unächten Verkleidungen, womit ihn
+der moderne, subjective Geschmack der letzten Entwicklungsphase des
+theologischen Bewusstseyns umhüllt hat, zu seiner historischen allein
+wahren und ursprünglichen Gestalt wiederzugebären, zu derjenigen
+Bedeutung zurückzukehren, die ihm in dem Bewusstseyn der Geschichte
+allein zukommt und deren Verständniss in dem wogenden luxuriösen Leben
+der modernen Theologie längst untergegangen ist.--GEORGII, _Zeitschrift
+für Hist. Theologie_, ix. 5, 1839.
+
+[45] Liberty, in fact, means just so far as it is realised,
+the right man in the right place.--SEELEY, _Lectures and Essays_,
+109.
+
+[46] In diesem Sinne ist Freiheit und sich entwickelnde
+moralische Vernunft und Gewissen gleichbedeutend. In diesem Sinne ist
+der Mensch frei, sobald sich das Gewissen in ihm entwickelt.--SCHEIDLER,
+_Ersch und Gruber_, xlix. 20. Aus der unendlichen und ewigen Geltung
+der menschlichen Persönlichkeit vor Gott, aus der Vorstellung von der
+in Gott freien Persönlichkeit, folgt auch der Anspruch auf das Recht
+derselben in der weltlichen Sphäre, auf bürgerliche und politische
+Freiheit, auf Gewissen und Religionsfreiheit, auf freie
+wissenschaftliche Forschung u.s.w., und namentlich die Forderung dass
+niemand lediglich zum Mittel für andere diene.--MARTENSEN, _Christliche
+Ethik_, i. 50.
+
+[47] Es giebt angeborne Menschenrechte, weil es angeborne
+Menschenpflichten giebt.--WOLFF, _Naturrecht_; LOEPER, _Einleitung
+zu Faust_, lvii.
+
+[48] La constitution de l'état reste jusqu'ŕ un certain point
+ŕ notre discrétion. La constitution de la société ne dépend pas de
+nous; elle est donnée par la force des choses, et si l'on veut élever
+le langage, elle est l'oeuvre de la Providence.--RÉMUSAT, _Revue des
+Deux Mondes_, 1861, v. 795.
+
+[49] Die Freiheit ist bekanntlich kein Geschenk der Götter,
+sondern ein Gut das jedes Volk sich selbst verdankt und das nur bei
+dem erforderlichen Mass moralischer Kraft und Würdigkeit
+gedeiht.--IHERING, _Geist des Römischen Rechts_, ii. 290. Liberty, in
+the very nature of it, absolutely requires and even supposes, that
+people be able to govern themselves in those respects in which they
+are free; otherwise their wickedness will be in proportion to their
+liberty, and this greatest of blessings will become a curse.--BUTLER,
+_Sermons_, 331. In each degree and each variety of public development
+there are corresponding institutions, best answering the public needs;
+and what is meat to one is poison to another. Freedom is for those who
+are fit for it.--PARKMAN, _Canada_, 396. Die Freiheit ist die Wurzel
+einer neuen Schöpfung in der Schöpfung.--SEDERHOLM, _Die ewigen
+Thatsachen_, 86.
+
+[50] La liberté politique, qui n'est qu'une complexité plus
+grande, de plus en plus grande, dans le gouvernement d'un peuple, ŕ
+mesure que le peuple lui-męme contient un plus grand nombre de forces
+diverses ayant droit et de vivre et de participer ŕ la chose publique,
+est un fait de civilisation qui s'impose lentement ŕ une société
+organisée, mais qui n'apparaît point comme un principe ŕ une société
+qui s'organise.--FAGUET, _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1889, ii. 942.
+
+[51] Il y a bien un droit du plus sage, mais non pas un droit
+du plus fort.--La justice est le droit du plus faible.--JOUBERT,
+_Pensées_, i. 355, 358.
+
+[52] Nicht durch ein pflanzenähnliches Wachsthum, nicht aus
+den dunklen Gründen der Volksempfindung, sondern durch den männlichen
+Willen, durch die Ueberzeugung, durch die That, durch den Kampf
+entsteht, behauptet, entwickelt sich das Recht. Sein historisches
+Werden ist ein bewusstes, im hellen Mittagslicht der Erkenntniss und
+der Gesetzgebung.--_Rundschau_, Nov. 1893, 313. Nicht das Normale,
+Zahme, sondern das Abnorme, Wilde, bildet überall die Grundlage und
+den Anfang einer neuen Ordnung.--LASAULX, _Philosophie der
+Geschichte_, 143.
+
+[53] Um den Sieg zu vervollständigen, erübrigte das zweite
+Stadium oder die Aufgabe: die Berechtigung der Mehrheit nach allen
+Seiten hin zur gleichen Berechtigung aller zu erweitern, d.h. bis zur
+Gleichstellung aller Bekenntnisse im Kirchenrecht, aller Völker im
+Völkerrecht, aller Staatsbürger im Staatsrecht und aller socialen
+Interessen im Gesellschaftsrecht fortzuführen.--A. SCHMIDT, _Züricher
+Monatschrift_, i. 68.
+
+[54] Notre histoire ne nous enseignait nullement la liberté.
+Le jour oů la France voulut ętre libre, elle eut tout ŕ créer, tout ŕ
+inventer dans cet ordre de faits.--Cependant il faut marcher, l'avenir
+appelle les peuples. Quand on n'a point pour cela l'impulsion du
+passé, il faut bien se confier ŕ la raison.--DUPONT WHITE, _Revue des
+Deux Mondes_, 1861, vi. 191. Le peuple français a peu de goűt pour le
+développement graduel des institutions. Il ignore son histoire, il ne
+s'y reconnaît pas, elle n'a pas laissé de trace dans sa
+conscience.--SCHERER, _Études Critiques_, i. 100. Durch die Revolution
+befreiten sich die Franzosen von ihrer Geschichte.--ROSENKRANZ, _Aus
+einem Tagebuch_, 199.
+
+[55] The discovery of the comparative method in philology, in
+mythology--let me add in politics and history and the whole range of
+human thought--marks a stage in the progress of the human mind at
+least as great and memorable as the revival of Greek and Latin
+learning.--FREEMAN, _Historical Essays_, iv. 301. The diffusion of a
+critical spirit in history and literature is affecting the criticism
+of the Bible in our own day in a manner not unlike the burst of
+intellectual life in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.--JOWETT,
+_Essays and Reviews_, 346. As the revival of literature in the
+sixteenth century produced the Reformation, so the growth of the
+critical spirit, and the change that has come over mental science, and
+the mere increase of knowledge of all kinds, threaten now a revolution
+less external but not less profound.--HADDAN, _Replies_, 348.
+
+[56] In his just contempt and detestation of the crimes and
+follies of the Revolutionists, he suffers himself to forget that the
+revolution itself is a process of the Divine Providence, and that as
+the folly of men is the wisdom of God, so are their iniquities
+instruments of His goodness.--COLERIDGE, _Biographia Literaria_, ii.
+240. In other parts of the world, the idea of revolutions in
+government is, by a mournful and indissoluble association, connected
+with the idea of wars, and all the calamities attendant on wars. But
+happy experience teaches us to view such revolutions in a very
+different light--to consider them only as progressive steps in
+improving the knowledge of government, and increasing the happiness of
+society and mankind.--J. WILSON, November 26, 1787, _Works_, iii. 293.
+La Révolution, c'est-ŕ-dire l'oeuvre des sičcles, ou, si vous
+voulez, le renouvellement progressif de la société, ou encore, sa
+nouvelle constitution.--RÉMUSAT, _Correspondance_, October 11, 1818. A
+ses yeux loin d'avoir rompu le cours naturel des évčnements, ni la
+Révolution d'Angleterre, ni la nôtre, n'ont rien dit, rien fait, qui
+n'eűt été dit, souhaité, fait, ou tenté cent fois avant leur
+explosion. "Il faut en ceci," dit-il, "tout accorder ŕ leurs
+adversaires, les surpasser męme en sévérité, ne regarder ŕ leurs
+accusations que pour y ajouter, s'ils en oublient; et puis les sommer
+de dresser, ŕ leur tour, le compte des erreurs, des crimes, et des
+maux de ces temps et de ces pouvoirs qu'ils ont pris sous leur
+garde."--_Revue de Paris_, xvi. 303, on Guizot. Quant aux nouveautés
+mises en oeuvre par la Révolution Française on les retrouve une ŕ
+une, en remontant d'âge en âge, chez les philosophes du XVIIIe
+sičcle, chez les grands penseurs du XVIe, chez certains Pčres
+d'Église et jusque dans la République de Platon.--En présence de cette
+belle continuité de l'histoire, qui ne fait pas plus de sauts que la
+nature, devant cette solidarité nécessaire des révolutions avec le
+passé qu'elles brisent.--KRANTZ, _Revue Politique_, xxxiii. 264.
+L'esprit du XIXe sičcle est de comprendre et de juger les choses du
+passé. Notre oeuvre est d'expliquer ce que le XVIIIe sičcle avait
+mission de nier.--VACHEROT, _De la Démocratie_, pref., 28.
+
+[57] La commission recherchera, dans toutes les parties des
+archives pontificales, les pičces relatives ŕ l'abus que les papes ont
+fait de leur ministčre spirituel contre l'autorité des souverains et
+la tranquillité des peuples.--DAUNOU, _Instructions_, Jan. 3, 1811.
+LABORDE, _Inventaires_, p. cxii.
+
+[58] Aucun des historiens remarquables de cette époque
+n'avait senti encore le besoin de chercher les faits hors des livres
+imprimés, aux sources primitives, la plupart inédites alors, aux
+manuscrits de nos bibliothčques, aux documents de nos archives.--MICHELET,
+_Histoire de France_, 1869, i. 2.
+
+[59] Doch besteht eine Grenze, wo die Geschichte aufhört und
+das Archiv anfängt, und die von der Geschichtschreibung nicht
+überschritten werden sollte. _Unsere Zeit_, 1866, ii. 635. Il faut
+avertir nos jeunes historiens ŕ la fois de la nécessité inéluctable du
+document et, d'autre part, du danger qu'il présente.--M. HANOTAUX.
+
+[60] This process consists in determining with documentary
+proofs, and by minute investigations duly set forth, the literal,
+precise, and positive inferences to be drawn at the present day from
+every authentic statement, without regard to commonly received
+notions, to sweeping generalities, or to possible consequences.--HARRISSE,
+_Discovery of America_, 1892, p. vi. Perhaps the time has not yet come
+for synthetic labours in the sphere of History. It may be that the
+student of the Past must still content himself with critical
+inquiries.--_Ib._ p. v. Few scholars are critics, few critics are
+philosophers, and few philosophers look with equal care on both sides
+of a question.--W. S. LANDOR in HOLYOAKE'S _Agitator's Life_, ii. 15.
+Introduire dans l'histoire, et sans tenir compte des passions
+politiques et religieuses, le doute méthodique que Descartes, le
+premier, appliqua ŕ l'étude de la philosophie, n'est-ce pas lŕ une
+excellente méthode? n'est-ce pas męme la meilleure?--CHANTELAUZE,
+_Correspondant_, 1883, i. 129. La critique historique ne sera jamais
+populaire. Comme elle est de toutes les sciences la plus délicate, la plus
+déliée, elle n'a de crédit qu'auprčs des esprits cultivés.--CHERBULIEZ,
+_Revue des Deux Mondes_, xcvii. 517. Nun liefert aber die Kritik, wenn
+sie rechter Art ist, immer nur einzelne Data, gleichsam die Atome des
+Thatbestandes, und jede Kombination, jede Zusammenfassung und
+Schlussfolgerung, ohne die es doch einmal nicht abgeht, ist ein
+subjektiver Akt des Forschers. Demnach blieb Waitz, bei der eigenen
+Arbeit wie bei jener der anderen, immer höchst mistrauisch gegen jedes
+Résumé, jede Definition, jedes abschliessende Wort.--SYBEL,
+_Historische Zeitschrift_, lvi. 484. Mit blosser Kritik wird darin
+nichts ausgerichtet, denn die ist nur eine Vorarbeit, welche da
+aufhört wo die echte historische Kunst anfängt.--LASAULX, _Philosophie
+der Künste_, 212.
+
+[61] The only case in which such extraneous matters can be
+fairly called in is when facts are stated resting on testimony; then
+it is not only just, but it is necessary for the sake of truth, to
+inquire into the habits of mind of him by whom they are
+adduced.--BABBAGE, _Bridgewater Treatise_, p. xiv.
+
+[62] There is no part of our knowledge which it is more
+useful to obtain at first hand--to go to the fountain-head for--than
+our knowledge of History.--J. S. MILL, _Inaugural Address_, 34. The
+only sound intellects are those which, in the first instance, set
+their standard of proof high.--J. S. MILL, _Examination of Hamilton's
+Philosophy_, 525.
+
+[63] There are so few men mentally capable of seeing both
+sides of a question; so few with consciences sensitively alive to the
+obligation of seeing both sides; so few placed under conditions either
+of circumstance or temper, which admit of their seeing both
+sides.--GREG, _Political Problems_, 1870, 173. Il n'y a que les
+Allemands qui sachent ętre aussi complčtement objectifs. Ils se
+dédoublent, pour ainsi dire, en deux hommes, l'un qui a des principes
+trčs arrętés et des passions trčs vives, l'autre qui sait voir et
+observer comme s'il n'en avait point.--LAVELEYE, _Revue des Deux
+Mondes_, 1868, i. 431. L'écrivain qui penche trop dans le sens oů il
+incline, et qui ne se défie pas de ses qualités presque autant que ses
+défauts, cet écrivain tourne ŕ la maničre.--SCHERER, _Mélanges_, 484.
+Il faut faire volte-face, et vivement, franchement, tourner le dos au
+moyen âge, ŕ ce passé morbide, qui, męme quand il n'agit pas, influe
+terriblement par la contagion de la mort. Il ne faut ni combattre, ni
+critiquer, mais oublier. Oublions et marchons!--MICHELET, _La Bible de
+l'Humanité_, 483. It has excited surprise that Thucydides should speak
+of Antiphon, the traitor to the democracy, and the employer of assassins,
+as "a man inferior in virtue to none of his contemporaries." But
+neither here nor elsewhere does Thucydides pass moral judgments.--JOWETT,
+_Thucydides_, ii. 501.
+
+[64] Non theologi provinciam suscepimus; scimus enim quantum hoc
+ingenii nostri tenuitatem superet: ideo sufficit nobis [Greek: to
+hoti] fideliter ex antiquis auctoribus retulisse.--MORINUS, _De
+Poenitentia_, ix. 10.--Il faut avouer que la religion chrétienne a
+quelque chose d'étonnant! C'est parce que vous y ętes né, dira-t-on.
+Tant s'en faut, je me roidis contre par cette raison-lŕ męme, de peur
+que cette prévention ne me suborne.--PASCAL, _Pensées_, XVI., 7.--I
+was fond of Fleury for a reason which I express in the advertisement;
+because it presented a sort of photograph of ecclesiastical history
+without any comment upon it. In the event, that simple representation
+of the early centuries had a good deal to do with unsettling
+me.--NEWMAN, _Apologia_, 152.--Nur was sich vor dem Richterstuhl einer
+ächten, unbefangenen, nicht durch die Brille einer philosophischen
+oder dogmatischen Schule stehenden Wissenschaft als wahr bewährt, kann
+zur Erbauung, Belehrung und Warnung tüchtig seyn.--NEANDER,
+_Kirchengeschichte_, i. p. vii. Wie weit bei katholischen Publicisten
+bei der Annahme der Ansicht von der Staatsanstalt apologetische
+Gesichtspunkte massgebend gewesen sind, mag dahingestellt bleiben. Der
+Historiker darf sich jedoch nie durch apologetische Zwecke leiten
+lassen; sein einziges Ziel soll die Ergründungder Wahrheit
+sein.--PASTOR, _Geschichte der Päbste_, ii. 545. Church history
+falsely written is a school of vainglory, hatred, and uncharitableness;
+truly written, it is a discipline of humility, of charity, of mutual
+love.--SIR W. HAMILTON, _Discussions_, 506. The more trophies and
+crowns of honour the Church of former ages can be shown to have won in
+the service of her adorable head, the more tokens her history can be
+brought to furnish of his powerful presence in her midst, the more
+will we be pleased and rejoice, Protestant though we be.--NEVIN,
+_Mercersburg Review_, 1851, 168. S'il est une chose ŕ laquelle j'ai
+donné tous mes soins, c'est ŕ ne pas laisser influencer mes jugements
+par les opinions politiques ou religieuses; que si j'ai quelquefois
+péché par quelque excčs, c'est par la bienveillance pour les oeuvres
+de ceux qui pensent autrement que moi.--MONOD, _R. Hist._, xvi. 184.
+Nous n'avons nul intéręt ŕ faire parler l'histoire en faveur de nos
+propres opinions. C'est son droit imprescriptible que le narrateur
+reproduise tous les faits sans aucune réticence et range toutes les
+évolutions dans leur ordre naturel. Notre récit restera complčtement
+en dehors des préoccupations de la dogmatique et des déclamations de
+la polémique. Plus les questions auxquelles nous aurons ŕ toucher
+agitent et passionnent de nos jours les esprits, plus il est du devoir
+de l'historien de s'effacer devant les faits qu'il veut faire
+connaître.--REUSS, _Nouvelle Revue de Théologie_, vi. 193, 1860. To
+love truth for truth's sake is the principal part of human perfection
+in this world, and the seed plot of all other virtues.--LOCKE, _Letter
+to Collins_. Il n'est plus possible aujourd'hui ŕ l'historien d'ętre
+national dans le sens étroit du mot. Son patriotisme ŕ lui c'est
+l'amour de la vérité. Il n'est pas l'homme d'une race ou d'un pays, il
+est l'homme de tous les pays, il parle au nom de la civilisation
+générale.--LANFREY, _Hist. de Nap._, iii. 2, 1870. Juger avec les
+parties de soi-męme qui sont le moins des formes du tempérament, et le
+plus des facultés pénétrées et modelées par l'expérience, par l'étude,
+par l'investigation, par le non-moi.--FAGUET, _R. de Paris_, i. 151.
+Aucun critique n'est aussi impersonnel que lui, aussi libre de parti
+pris et d'opinions préconçues, aussi objectif.--Il ne męle ou parait
+męler ŕ ses appréciations ni inclinations personnelles de goűt ou
+d'humeur, ou théories d'aucune sorte.--G. MONOD, of Faguet, _Revue
+Historique_, xlii. 417. On dirait qu'il a peur, en généralisant ses
+observations, en systématisant ses connaissances, de męler de lui-męme
+aux choses.--Je lis tout un volume de M. Faguet, sans penser une fois
+ŕ M. Faguet: je ne vois que les originaux qu'il montre.--J'envisage
+toujours une réalité objective, jamais l'idée de M. Faguet, jamais la
+doctrine de M. Faguet.--LANSON, _Revue Politique_, 1894, i. 98.
+
+[65] It should teach us to disentangle principles first from
+parties, and again from one another; first of all as showing how
+imperfectly all parties represent their own principles, and then how
+the principles themselves are a mingled tissue.--ARNOLD, _Modern
+History_, 184. I find it a good rule, when I am contemplating a person
+from whom I want to learn, always to look out for his strength, being
+confident that the weakness will discover itself.--MAURICE, _Essays_,
+305. We may seek for agreement somewhere with our neighbours, using
+that as a point of departure for the sake of argument. It is this
+latter course that I wish here to explain and defend. The method is
+simple enough, though not yet very familiar.--It aims at conciliation;
+it proceeds by making the best of our opponent's case, instead of
+taking him at his worst.--The most interesting part of every disputed
+question only begins to appear when the rival ideals admit each
+other's right to exist.--A. SIDGWICK, _Distinction and the Criticism
+of Beliefs_, 1892, 211. That cruel reticence in the breasts of wise
+men which makes them always hide their deeper thought.--RUSKIN,
+_Sesame and Lilies_, i. 16. Je offener wir die einzelnen Wahrheiten
+des Sozialismus anerkennen, desto erfolgreicher können wir seine
+fundamentalen Unwahrheiten widerlegen.--ROSCHER, _Deutsche
+Vierteljahrschrift_, 1849, i. 177.
+
+[66] Dann habe ihn die Wahrnehmung, dass manche Angaben in
+den historischen Romanen Walter Scott's, mit den gleichzeitigen
+Quellen im Widerspruch standen, "mit Erstaunen" erfüllt, und ihn zu
+dem Entschlusse gebracht, auf das Gewissenhafteste an der
+Ueberlieferung der Quellen festzuhalten.--SYBEL, _Gedächtnissrede auf
+Ranke_. _Akad. der Wissenschaften_, 1887, p. 6. Sich frei zu halten
+von allem Widerschein der Gegenwart, sogar, soweit das menschenmöglich,
+von dem der eignen subjectiven Meinung in den Dingen des Staates, der
+Kirche und der Gesellschaft.--A. DOVE, _Im Neuen Reich_, 1875, ii. 967.
+Wir sind durchaus nicht für die leblose und schemenartige
+Darstellungsweise der Ranke'schen Schule eingenommen; es wird uns
+immer kühl bis ans Herz heran, wenn wir derartige Schilderungen der
+Reformation und der Revolution lesen, welche so ganz im kühlen Element
+des Pragmatismus sich bewegen und dabei so ganz Undinenhaft sind und
+keine Seele haben.--Wir lassen es uns lieber gefallen, dass die Männer
+der Geschichte hier und dort gehofmeistert werden, als dass sie uns
+mit Glasaugen ansehen, so meisterhaft immer die Kunst sein mag die sie
+ihnen eingesetzt hat.--GOTTSCHALL, _Unsere Zeit_, 1866, ii. 636, 637. A
+vivre avec des diplomates, il leur a pris des qualités qui sont un
+défaut chez un historien. L'historien n'est pas un témoin, c'est un
+juge; c'est ŕ lui d'accuser et de condamner au nom du passé opprimé et
+dans l'intéręt de l'avenir.--LABOULAYE on RANKE. _Débats_, January 12,
+1852.
+
+[67] Un théologien qui a composé une éloquente histoire de la
+Réformation, rencontrant ŕ Berlin un illustre historien qui, lui
+aussi, a raconté Luther et le XVIe sičcle, l'embrassa avec effusion
+en le traitant de confrčre. "Ah! permettez," lui répondit l'autre en
+se dégageant, "il y a une grande différence entre nous: vous ętes
+avant tout chrétien, et je suis avant tout historien."--CHERBULIEZ,
+_Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1872, i. 537.
+
+[68] Nackte Wahrheit ohne allen Schmuck; gründliche
+Erforschung des Einzelnen; das Uebrige, Gott befohlen.--_Werke_,
+xxxiv. 24. Ce ne sont pas les théories qui doivent nous servir de base
+dans la recherche des faits, mais ce sont les faits qui doivent nous
+servir de base pour la composition des théories.--VINCENT, _Nouvelle
+Revue de Théologie_, 1859, ii. 252.
+
+[69] Die zwanglose Anordnungs--die leichte und leise
+Andeutungskunst des grossen Historikers voll zu würdigen, hinderte ihn
+in früherer Zeit sein Bedürfniss nach scharfer begrifflicher Ordnung
+und Ausführung, später, und in immer zunehmenden Grade, sein Sinn für
+strenge Sachlichkeit, und genaue Erforschung der ursächlichen
+Zusammenhänge, noch mehr aber regte sich seine geradherzige Offenheit
+seine männliche Ehrlichkeit, wenn er hinter den fein verstrichenen
+Farben der Rankeschen Erzählungsbilder die gedeckte Haltung des klugen
+Diplomaten zu entdecken glaubte.--HAYM, _Duncker's Leben_, 437. The
+ground of criticism is indeed, in my opinion, nothing else but
+distinct attention, which every reader should endeavour to be master
+of.--HARE, _Dec._, 1736, _Warburton's Works_, xiv. 98. Wenn die
+Quellenkritik so verstanden wird, als sei sie der Nachweis, wie ein
+Autor den andern benutzt hat, so ist das nur ein gelegentliches
+Mittel--eins unter anderen--ihre Aufgabe, den Nachweis der Richtigkeit
+zu lösen oder vorzubereiten.--DROYSEN, _Historik_, 18.
+
+[70] L'esprit scientifique n'est autre en soi que l'instinct
+du travail et de la patience, le sentiment de l'ordre, de la réalité
+et de la mesure.--PAPILLON, _R. des Deux Mondes_, 1873, v. 704. Non
+seulement les sciences, mais toutes les institutions humaines s'organisent
+de męme, et sous l'empire des męmes idées régulatrices.--COURNOT,
+_Idées Fondamentales_, i. 4. There is no branch of human work whose
+constant laws have not close analogy with those which govern every
+other mode of man's exertion. But more than this, exactly as we reduce
+to greater simplicity and surety any one group of these practical
+laws, we shall find them passing the mere condition of connection or
+analogy, and becoming the actual expression of some ultimate nerve or
+fibre of the mighty laws which govern the moral world.--RUSKIN, _Seven
+Lamps_, 4. The sum total of all intellectual excellence is good sense
+and method. When these have passed into the instinctive readiness of
+habit, when the wheel revolves so rapidly that we cannot see it
+revolve at all, then we call the combination genius. But in all modes
+alike, and in all professions, the two sole component parts, even of
+genius, are good sense and method.--COLERIDGE, _June_, 1814, _Mem. of
+Coleorton_, ii. 172. Si l'exercice d'un art nous empęche d'en
+apprendre un autre, il n'en est pas ainsi dans les sciences: la
+connoissance d'une vérité nous aide ŕ en decouvrir une autre.--Toutes
+les sciences sont tellement liées ensemble qu'il est bien plus facile
+de les apprendre toutes ŕ la fois que d'en apprendre une seule en la
+détachant des autres.--Il ne doit songer qu'ŕ augmenter les lumičres
+naturelles de sa raison, non pour résoudre telle ou telle difficulté
+de l'école, mais pour que dans chaque circonstance de la vie son
+intelligence montre d'avance ŕ sa volonté le parti qu'elle doit
+prendre.--DESCARTES, _OEuvres Choisies_, 300, 301. _Rčgles pour la
+Direction de l'Esprit._ La connaissance de la méthode qui a guidé
+l'homme de génie n'est pas moins utile au progrčs de la science et
+męme ŕ sa propre gloire, que ses découvertes.--LAPLACE, _Systčme du
+Monde_, ii. 371. On ne fait rien sans idées préconçues, il faut avoir
+seulement la sagesse de ne croire ŕ leurs déductions qu'autant que
+l'expérience les confirme. Les idées préconçues, soumises au contrôle
+sévčre de l'expérimentation, sont la flamme vivante des sciences
+d'observation; les idées fixes en sont le danger.--PASTEUR, in
+_Histoire d'un Savant_, 284. Douter des vérités humaines, c'est ouvrir
+la porte aux découvertes; en faire des articles de foi, c'est la
+fermer.--DUMAS, _Discours_, i. 123.
+
+[71] We should not only become familiar with the laws of
+phenomena within our own pursuit, but also with the modes of thought
+of men engaged in other discussions and researches, and even with the
+laws of knowledge itself, that highest philosophy.--Above all things,
+know that we call you not here to run your minds into our moulds. We
+call you here on an excursion, on an adventure, on a voyage of
+discovery into space as yet uncharted.--ALLBUTT, _Introductory Address
+at St. George's_, October 1889. Consistency in regard to opinions is
+the slow poison of intellectual life.--DAVY, _Memoirs_, 68.
+
+[72] Ce sont vous autres physiologistes des corps vivants,
+qui avez appris ŕ nous autres physiologistes de la société (qui est
+aussi un corps vivant) la maničre de l'observer et de tirer des
+conséquences de nos observations.--J. B. SAY to DE CANDOLLE, June 1,
+1827.--DE CANDOLLE, _Mémoires_, 567.
+
+[73] Success is certain to the pure and true: success to
+falsehood and corruption, tyranny and aggression, is only the prelude
+to a greater and an irremediable fall.--STUBBS, _Seventeen Lectures_,
+20. The Carlylean faith, that the cause we fight for, so far as it is
+true, is sure of victory, is the necessary basis of all effective
+activity for good.--CAIRD, _Evolution of Religion_, ii. 43. It is the
+property of truth to be fearless, and to prove victorious over every
+adversary. Sound reasoning and truth, when adequately communicated,
+must always be victorious over error.--GODWIN, _Political Justice_
+(Conclusion). Vice was obliged to retire and give place to virtue.
+This will always be the consequence when truth has fair play.
+Falsehood only dreads the attack, and cries out for auxiliaries. Truth
+never fears the encounter; she scorns the aid of the secular arm, and
+triumphs by her natural strength.--FRANKLIN, _Works_, ii. 292. It is a
+condition of our race that we must ever wade through error in our
+advance towards truth: and it may even be said that in many cases we
+exhaust almost every variety of error before we attain the desired
+goal.--BABBAGE, _Bridgewater Treatise_, 27. Les hommes ne peuvent, en
+quelque genre que ce soit, arriver ŕ quelque chose de raisonnable
+qu'aprčs avoir, en ce męme genre, épuisé toutes les sottises
+imaginables. Que de sottises ne dirions-nous pas maintenant, si les
+anciens ne les avaient pas déjŕ dites avant nous, et ne nous les
+avaient, pour ainsi dire, enlevées!--FONTENELLE. Without premature
+generalisations the true generalisation would never be arrived at.--H.
+SPENCER, _Essays_, ii. 57. The more important the subject of
+difference, the greater, not the less, will be the indulgence of him
+who has learned to trace the sources of human error,--of error, that
+has its origin not in our weakness and imperfection merely, but often
+in the most virtuous affections of the heart.--BROWN, _Philosophy of
+the Human Mind_, i. 48, 1824. Parmi les châtiments du crime qui ne lui
+manquent jamais, ŕ côté de celui que lui inflige la conscience,
+l'histoire lui en inflige un autre encore, éclatant et manifeste,
+l'impuissance.--COUSIN, _Phil. Mod._ ii. 24. L'avenir de la science
+est garanti; car dans le grand livre scientifique tout s'ajoute et
+rien ne se perd. L'erreur ne fonde pas; aucune erreur ne dure trčs
+longtemps.--RENAN, _Feuilles Détachées_, xiii. Toutes les fois que
+deux hommes sont d'un avis contraire sur la męme chose, ŕ coup sűr,
+l'un ou l'autre se trompe; bien plus, aucun ne semble posséder la
+vérité; car si les raisons de l'un étoient certaines et évidentes, il
+pourroit les exposer ŕ l'autre de telle maničre qu'il finiroit par le
+convaincre également.--DESCARTES, _Rčgles: OEuvres Choisies_, 302.
+Le premier principe de la critique est qu'une doctrine ne captive ses
+adhérents que par ce qu'elle a de légitime.--RENAN, _Essais de
+Morale_, 184. Was dem Wahn solche Macht giebt ist wirklich nicht er
+selbst, sondern die ihm zu Grunde liegende und darin nur verzerrte
+Wahrheit.--FRANTZ, _Schelling's Philosophie_, i. 62. Quand les hommes
+ont vu une fois la vérité dans son éclat, ils ne peuvent plus
+l'oublier. Elle reste debout, et tôt ou tard elle triomphe, parce
+qu'elle est la pensée de Dieu et le besoin du monde.--MIGNET,
+_Portraits_, ii. 295. C'est toujours le sens commun inaperçu qui fait
+la fortune des hypothčses auxquelles il se męle.--COUSIN, _Fragments
+Phil._ i. 51. Preface of 1826. Wer da sieht wie der Irrthum selbst ein
+Träger mannigfaltigen und bleibenden Fortschritts wird, der wird auch
+nicht so leicht aus dem thatsächlichen Fortschritt der Gegenwart auf
+Unumstösslichkeit unserer Hypothesen schliessen.--Das richtigste
+Resultat der geschichtlichen Betrachtung ist die akademische Ruhe, mit
+welcher unsere Hypothesen und Theorieen ohne Feindschaft und ohne
+Glauben als das betrachtet werden was sie sind; als Stufen in jener
+unendlichen Annäherung an die Wahrheit, welche die Bestimmung unserer
+intellectuellen Entwicklung zu sein scheint.--LANGE, _Geschichte des
+Materialismus_, 502, 503. Hominum errores divina providentia reguntur,
+ita ut sćpe male jacta bene cadant.--LEIBNIZ, ed. Klopp, i., p. lii.
+Sainte-Beuve n'était męme pas de la race des libéraux, c'est-ŕ-dire
+de ceux qui croient que, tout compte fait, et dans un état de
+civilisation donné, le bien triomphe du mal ŕ armes égales, et la
+vérité de l'erreur.--D'HAUSSONVILLE, _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1875, i.
+567. In the progress of the human mind, a period of controversy
+amongst the cultivators of any branch of science must necessarily
+precede the period of unanimity.--TORRENS, _Essay on the Production of
+Wealth_, 1821, p. xiii. Even the spread of an error is part of the
+wide-world process by which we stumble into mere approximations to
+truth.--L. STEPHEN, _Apology of an Agnostic_, 81. Errors, to be
+dangerous, must have a great deal of truth mingled with them; it is
+only from this alliance that they can ever obtain an extensive
+circulation.--S. SMITH, _Moral Philosophy_, 7. The admission of the
+few errors of Newton himself is at least of as much importance to his
+followers in science as the history of the progress of his real
+discoveries.--YOUNG, _Works_, iii. 621. Error is almost always partial
+truth, and so consists in the exaggeration or distortion of one verity
+by the suppression of another, which qualifies and modifies the
+former.--MIVART, _Genesis of Species_, 3. The attainment of scientific
+truth has been effected, to a great extent, by the help of scientific
+errors.--HUXLEY: WARD, _Reign of Victoria_, ii. 337. Jede neue tief
+eingreifende Wahrheit hat meiner Ansicht nach erst das Stadium der
+Einseitigkeit durchzumachen.--IHERING, _Geist des R. Rechts_, ii. 22.
+The more readily we admit the possibility of our own cherished
+convictions being mixed with error, the more vital and helpful
+whatever is right in them will become.--RUSKIN, _Ethics of the Dust_,
+225. They hardly grasp the plain truth unless they examine the error
+which it cancels.--CORY, _Modern English History_, 1880, i. 109. Nur
+durch Irrthum kommen wir, der eine kürzeren und glücklicheren
+Schrittes, als der andere, zur Wahrheit; und die Geschichte darf
+nirgends diese Verirrungen übergehen, wenn sie Lehrerin und Warnerin
+für die nachfolgenden Geschlechter werden will.--_Münchner Gel.
+Anzeigen_, 1840, i. 737.
+
+[74] Wie die Weltgeschichte das Weltgericht ist, so kann in
+noch allgemeinerem Sinne gesagt werden, dass das gerechte Gericht,
+d.h. die wahre Kritik einer Sache, nur in ihrer Geschichte liegen
+kann. Insbesondere in der Hinsicht lehrt die Geschichte denjenigen,
+der ihr folgt, ihre eigene Methode, dass ihr Fortschritt niemals ein
+reines Vernichten, sondern nur ein Aufheben im philosophischen Sinne
+ist.--STRAUSS, _Hallische Jahrbücher_, 1839, 120.
+
+[75] Dans tous les livres qu'il lit, et il en dévore des
+quantités, Darwin ne note que les passages qui contrarient ses idées
+systématiques.--Il collectionne les difficultés, les cas épineux, les
+critiques possibles.--VERNIER, _Le Temps_, 6 Décembre, 1887. Je
+demandais ŕ un savant célčbre oů il en était de ses recherches. "Cela
+ne marche plus," me dit-il, "je ne trouve plus de faits
+contradictoires." Ainsi le savant cherche ŕ se contredire lui-męme
+pour faire avancer sa pensée.--JANET, _Journal des Savants_, 1892, 20.
+Ein Umstand, der uns die Selbständigkeit des Ganges der Wissenschaft
+anschaulich machen kann, ist auch der: dass der Irrthum, wenn er nur
+gründlich behandelt wird, fast ebenso fördernd ist als das Finden der
+Wahrheit, denn er erzeugt fortgesetzten Widerspruch.--BAER, _Blicke
+auf die Entwicklung der Wissenschaft_, 120. It is only by virtue of
+the opposition which it has surmounted that any truth can stand in the
+human mind.--BISHOP TEMPLE; KINGLAKE, _Crimea_, _Winter Troubles_,
+app. 104. I have for many years found it expedient to lay down a rule
+for my own practice, to confine my reading mainly to those journals
+the general line of opinions in which is adverse to my own.--HARE,
+_Means of Unity_, i. 19. Kant had a harder struggle with himself than
+he could possibly have had with any critic or opponent of his
+philosophy.--CAIRD, _Philosophy of Kant_, 1889, i. p. ix.
+
+[76] The social body is no more liable to arbitrary changes
+than the individual body.--A full perception of the truth that society
+is not a mere aggregate, but an organic growth, that it forms a whole
+the laws of whose growth can be studied apart from those of the
+individual atom, supplies the most characteristic postulate of modern
+speculation.--L. STEPHEN, _Science of Ethics_, 31. Wie in dem Leben
+des Einzelnen Menschen kein Augenblick eines vollkommenen Stillstandes
+wahrgenommen wird, sondern stete organische Entwicklung, so verhält es
+sich auch in dem Leben der Völker, und in jedem einzelnen Element,
+woraus dieses Gesammtleben besteht. So finden wir in der Sprache stete
+Fortbildung und Entwicklung, und auf gleiche Weise in dem Recht. Und
+auch diese Fortbildung steht unter demselben Gesetz der Erzeugung aus
+innerer Kraft und Nothwendigkeit, unabhängig von Zufall und
+individueller Willkür, wie die ursprüngliche Entstehung.--SAVIGNY,
+_System_, i. 16, 17. Seine eigene Entdeckung, dass auch die geistige
+Produktion, bis in einem gewissen Punkte wenigstens, unter dem Gesetze
+der Kausalität steht, dass jedeiner nur geben kann was er hat, nur hat
+was er irgendwoher bekommen, muss auch für ihn selber gelten.--BEKKER,
+_Das Recht des Besitzes bei den Römern_, 3, 1880. Die geschichtliche
+Wandlung des Rechts, in welcher vergangene Jahrhunderte halb ein Spiel
+des Zufalls und halb ein Werk vernünftelnder Willkür sahen, als
+gesetzmässige Entwickelung zu begreifen, war das unsterbliche
+Verdienst der von Männern wie Savigny, Eichhorn und Jacob Grimm
+geführten historischen Rechtsschule.--GIERKE, _Rundschau_, xviii.
+205.
+
+[77] The only effective way of studying what is called the
+philosophy of religion, or the philosophical criticism of religion, is
+to study the history of religion. The true science of war is the
+history of war, the true science of religion is, I believe, the
+history of religion.--M. MÜLLER, _Theosophy_, 3, 4. La théologie ne
+doit plus ętre que l'histoire des efforts spontanés tentés pour
+résoudre le problčme divin. L'histoire, en effet, est la forme
+nécessaire de la science de tout ce qui est soumis aux lois de la vie
+changeante et successive. La science de l'esprit humain, c'est de
+męme, l'histoire de l'esprit humain.--RENAN, _Averroës_, Pref. vi.
+
+[78] Political economy is not a science, in any strict sense,
+but a body of systematic knowledge gathered from the study of common
+processes, which have been practised all down the history of the human
+race in the production and distribution of wealth.--BONAMY PRICE,
+_Social Science Congress_, 1878. Such a study is in harmony with the
+best intellectual tendencies of our age, which is, more than anything
+else, characterized by the universal supremacy of the historical
+spirit. To such a degree has this spirit permeated all our modes of
+thinking, that with respect to every branch of knowledge, no less than
+with respect to every institution and every form of human activity, we
+almost instinctively ask, not merely what is its existing condition,
+but what were its earliest discoverable germs, and what has been the
+course of its development.--INGRAM, _History of Political Economy_, 2.
+Wir dagegen stehen keinen Augenblick an, die Nationalökonomie für eine
+reine Erfahrungswissenschaft zu erklären, und die Geschichte ist uns
+daher nicht Hülfsmittel, sondern Gegenstand selber.--ROSCHER,
+_Deutsche Vierteljahrschrift_, 1849, i. 182. Der bei weitem grösste
+Theil menschlicher Irrthümer beruhet darauf, dass man zeitlich und
+örtlich Wahres oder Heilsames für absolut wahr oder heilsam ausgiebt.
+Für jede Stufe der Volksentwickelung passt eine besondere
+Staatsverfassung, die mit allen übrigen Verhältnissen des Volks als
+Ursache und Wirkung auf's Innigste verbunden ist; so passt auch für jede
+Entwickelungsstufe eine besondere Landwirthschaftsverfassung.--ROSCHER,
+_Archiv f. p. Oek._, viii., 2 Heft 1845. Seitdem vor allen Roscher,
+Hildebrand und Knies den Werth, die Berechtigung und die
+Nothwendigkeit derselben unwiderleglich dargethan, hat sich immer
+allgemeiner der Gedanke Bahn gebrochen dass diese Wissenschaft, die
+bis dahin nur auf die Gegenwart, auf die Erkenntniss der bestehenden
+Verhältnisse und die in ihnen sichtbaren Gesetze den Blick gerichtet
+hatte, auch in die Vergangenheit, in die Erforschung der bereits
+hinter uns liegenden wirthschaftlichen Entwicklung der Völker sich
+vertiefen müsse.--SCHÖNBERG, _Jahrbücher f. Nationalökonomie und
+Statistik_, Neue Folge, 1867, i. 1. Schmoller, moins dogmatique et
+mettant comme une sorte de coquetterie ŕ ętre incertain, démontre, par
+les faits, la fausseté ou l'arbitraire de tous ces postulats, et
+laisse l'économie politique se dissoudre dans l'histoire.--BRETON, _R.
+de Paris_, ix. 67. Wer die politische Oekonomie Feuerlands unter
+dieselben Gesetze bringen wollte mit der des heutigen Englands, würde
+damit augenscheinlich nichts zu Tage fördern als den allerbanalsten
+Gemeinplatz. Die politische Oekonomie ist somit wesentlich eine
+historische Wissenschaft. Sie behandelt einen geschichtlichen, das
+heisst einen stets wechselnden Stoff. Sie untersucht zunächst die
+besondern Gesetze jeder einzelnen Entwicklungsstufe der Produktion und
+des Austausches, und wird erst am Schluss dieser Untersuchung die
+wenigen, für Produktion und Austausch überhaupt geltenden, ganz
+allgemeinen Gesetze aufstellen können.--ENGELS, _Dührings Umwälzung der
+Wissenschaft_, 1878, 121.
+
+[79] History preserves the student from being led astray by a
+too servile adherence to any system.--WOLOWSKI. No system can be
+anything more than a history, not in the order of impression, but in
+the order of arrangement by analogy.--DAVY, _Memoirs_, 68. Avec des
+matériaux si nombreux et si importants, il fallait bien du courage
+pour résister ŕ la tentation de faire un systčme. De Saussure eut ce
+courage, et nous en ferons le dernier trait et le trait principal de
+son éloge.--CUVIER, _Éloge de Saussure_, 1810.
+
+[80] C'était, en 1804, une idée heureuse et nouvelle,
+d'appeler l'histoire au secours de la science, d'interroger les deux
+grandes écoles rivales au profit de la vérité.--COUSIN, _Fragments
+Littéraires_, 1843, 95, on Dégerando. No branch of philosophical
+doctrine, indeed, can be fairly investigated or apprehended apart from
+its history. All our systems of politics, morals, and metaphysics
+would be different if we knew exactly how they grew up, and what
+transformations they have undergone; if we knew, in short, the true
+history of human ideas.--CLIFFE LESLIE, _Essays in Political and Moral
+Philosophy_, 1879, 149. The history of philosophy must be rational and
+philosophic. It must be philosophy itself, with all its elements, in
+all their relations, and under all their laws represented in striking
+characters by the hands of time and of history, in the manifested
+progress of the human mind.--SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON, _Edin. Rev._ l.
+200, 1829. Il n'est point d'étude plus instructive, plus utile que
+l'étude de l'histoire de la philosophie; car on y apprend ŕ se
+désabuser des philosophes, et l'on y désapprend la fausse science de
+leurs systčmes.--ROYER COLLARD, _OEuvres de Reid_, iv. 426. On ne
+peut gučre échapper ŕ la conviction que toutes les solutions des
+questions philosophiques n'aient été développées ou indiquées avant le
+commencement du dix-neuvičme sičcle, et que par conséquent il ne soit
+trčs difficile, pour ne pas dire impossible, de tomber, en pareille
+matičre, sur une idée neuve de quelque importance. Or si cette
+conviction est fondée, il s'ensuit que la science est faite.--JOUFFROY,
+in DAMIRON, _Philosophie du XIXe Sičcle_, 363. Le but dernier de tous
+mes efforts, l'âme de mes écrits et de tout mon enseignement, c'est
+l'identité de la philosophie et de son histoire.--COUSIN, _Cours de
+1829_. Ma route est historique, il est vrai, mais mon but est
+dogmatique; je tends ŕ une théorie, et cette théorie je la demande ŕ
+l'histoire.--COUSIN, _Ph. du XVIIIe Sičcle_, 15. L'histoire de la
+philosophie est contrainte d'emprunter d'abord ŕ la philosophie la
+lumičre qu'elle doit lui rendre un jour avec usure.--COUSIN, _Du Vrai_,
+1855, 14. M. Cousin, durant tout son professorat de 1816 ŕ 1829, a
+pensé que l'histoire de la philosophie était la source de la
+philosophie męme. Nous ne croyons pas exagérer en lui prętant cette
+opinion.--B. ST. HILAIRE, _Victor Cousin_, i. 302. Il se hâta de
+convertir le fait en loi, et proclama que la philosophie, étant
+identique ŕ son histoire, ne pouvait avoir une loi différente, et
+était vouée ŕ jamais ŕ l'évolution fatale des quatre systčmes, se
+contredisant toujours, mais se limitant, et se modérant, par cela męme
+de maničre ŕ maintenir l'equilibre, sinon l'harmonie de la pensée
+humaine.--VACHEROT, _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1868, iii. 957. Er hat
+überhaupt das unvergängliche Verdienst, zuerst in Frankreich zu der
+Erkenntniss gelangt zu sein, dass die menschliche Vernunft nur durch
+das Studium des Gesetzes ihrer Entwickelungen begriffen werden
+kann.--LAUSER, _Unsere Zeit_, 1868, i. 459. Le philosophe en quęte du
+vrai en soi, n'est plus réduit ŕ ses conceptions individuelles; il est
+riche du trésor amassé par l'humanité.--BOUTROUX, _Revue Politique_,
+xxxvii. 802. L'histoire, je veux dire l'histoire de l'esprit humain,
+est en ce sens la vraie philosophie de notre temps.--RENAN, _Études de
+Morale_, 83. Die Philosophie wurde eine höchst bedeutende
+Hülfswissenschaft der Geschichte, sie hat ihre Richtung auf das
+Allgemeine gefördert, ihren Blick für dasselbe geschärft, und sie,
+wenigstens durch ihre Vermittlung, mit Gesichtspuncten, Ideen,
+bereichert die sie aus ihrem eigenen Schoosse sobald noch nicht
+erzeugt haben würde. Weit die fruchtbarste darunter war die aus der
+Naturwissenschaft geschöpfte Idee des organischen Lebens, dieselbe auf
+der die neueste Philosophie selbst beruht. Die seit zwei bis drei
+Jahrzehnten in der Behandlung der Geschichte eingetretene
+durchgreifende Veränderung, wie die völlige Umgestaltung so mancher
+anderen Wissenschaft ... ist der Hauptsache nach ihr Werk.--HAUG,
+_Allgemeine Geschichte_, 1841, i. 22. Eine Geschichte der Philosophie
+in eigentlichen Sinne wurde erst möglich als man an die Stelle der
+Philosophen deren Systeme setzte, den inneren Zusammenhang zwischen
+diesen feststellte und--wie Dilthey sagt--mitten in Wechsel der
+Philosophien ein siegreiches Fortschreiten zur Wahrheit nachwies. Die
+Gesammtheit der Philosophie stellt sich also dar als eine
+geschichtliche Einheit.--SAUL, _Rundschau_, Feb. 1894, 307. Warum die
+Philosophie eine Geschichte habe und haben müsse, blieb unerörtert, ja
+ungeahnt, dass die Philosophie am meisten von allen Wissenschaften
+historisch sei, denn man hatte in der Geschichte den Begriff der
+Entwicklung nicht entdeckt.--MARBACH, _Griechische Philosophie_, 15.
+Was bei oberflächlicher Betrachtung nur ein Gewirre einzelner Personen
+und Meinungen zu sein schien, zeigt sich bei genauerer und gründlicherer
+Untersuchung als eine geschichtliche Entwicklung, in der alles, bald
+näher, bald entfernter, mit allem anderen zusammenhängt.--ZELLER,
+_Rundschau_, Feb. 1894, 307. Nur die Philosophie, die an die
+geschichtliche Entwickelung anknüpft kann auf bleibenden Erfolg auch
+für die Zukunft rechnen und fortschreiten zu dem, was in der
+bisherigen philosophischen Entwickelung nur erst unvollkommen erreicht
+oder angestrebt worden ist. Kann sich doch die Philosophie überhaupt
+und insbesondere die Metaphysik ihrer eigenen geschichtlichen
+Entwickelung nicht entschlagen, sondern hat eine Geschichte der
+Philosophie als eigene und zwar zugleich historische und spekulative
+Disziplin, in deren geschichtlichen Entwickelungsphasen und
+geschichtlich aufeinanderfolgenden Systemen der Philosophen die neuere
+Spekulation seit Schelling and Hegel zugleich die Philosophie selbst
+als ein die verschiedenen geschichtlichen Systeme umfassendes ganzes
+in seiner dialektischen Gliederung erkannt hat.--GLOATZ, _Spekulative
+Theologie_, i. 23. Die heutige Philosophie führt uns auf einen
+Standpunkt von dem aus die philosophische Idee als das innere Wesen
+der Geschichte selbst erscheint. So trat an die Stelle einer abstrakt
+philosophischen Richtung, welche das Geschichtliche verneinte, eine
+abstrakt geschichtliche Richtung welche das Philosophische
+verläugnete. Beide Richtungen sind als überschrittene und besiegte zu
+betrachten.--BERNER, _Strafrecht_, 75. Die Geschichte der Philosophie
+hat uns fast schon die Wissenschaft der Philosophie selbst
+ersetzt.--HERMANN, _Phil. Monatshefte_, ii. 198, 1889.
+
+[81] Le sičcle actuel sera principalement caractérisé par
+l'irrévocable prépondérance de l'histoire, en philosophie, en
+politique, et męme en poésie.--COMTE, _Politique Positive_, iii. 1.
+
+[82] The historical or comparative method has revolutionized
+not only the sciences of law, mythology, and language, of anthropology
+and sociology, but it has forced its way even into the domain of
+philosophy and natural science. For what is the theory of evolution
+itself, with all its far-reaching consequences, but the achievement of
+the historical method?--PROTHERO, _Inaugural_. _National Review_,
+_Dec._ 1894, 461. To facilitate the advancement of all the branches of
+useful science, two things seem to be principally requisite. The first
+is, an historical account of their rise, progress, and present state.
+Without the former of these helps, a person every way qualified for
+extending the bounds of science labours under great disadvantages;
+wanting the lights which have been struck out by others, and
+perpetually running the risk of losing his labour, and finding himself
+anticipated.--PRIESTLEY, _History of Vision_, 1772, i. Pref. i.
+Cuvier se proposait de montrer l'enchaînement scientifique des
+découvertes, leurs relations avec les grands évčnements historiques,
+et leur influence sur les progrčs et le développement de la
+civilisation.--DARESTE, _Biographie Générale_, xii. 685. Dans ses
+éloquentes leçons, l'histoire des sciences est devenue l'histoire męme
+de l'esprit humain; car, remontant aux causes de leurs progrčs et de
+leurs erreurs, c'est toujours dans les bonnes ou mauvaises routes
+suivies par l'esprit humain, qu'il trouve ces causes.--FLOURENS,
+_Éloge de Cuvier_, xxxi. Wie keine fortlaufende Entwickelungsreihe von
+nur Einem Punkte aus vollkommen aufzufassen ist, so wird auch keine
+lebendige Wissenschaft nur aus der Gegenwart begriffen werden
+können.--Deswegen ist aber eine solche Darstellung doch noch nicht der
+gesammten Wissenschaft adäquat, und sie birgt, wenn sie damit
+verwechselt wird, starke Gefahren der Einseitigkeit, des Dogmatismus
+und damit der Stagnation in sich. Diesen Gefahren kann wirksam nur
+begegnet werden durch die verständige Betrachtung der Geschichte der
+Wissenschaften, welche diese selbst in stetem Flusse zeigt und die
+Tendenz ihres Fortschreitens in offenbarer und sicherer Weise
+klarlegt.--ROSENBERGER, _Geschichte der Physik_, iii., p. vi. Die
+Continuität in der Ausbildung aller Auffassungen tritt um so
+deutlicher hervor, je vollständiger man sich damit, wie sie zu
+verschiedenen Zeiten waren, vertraut macht.--KOPP, _Entwickelung der
+Chemie_, 814.
+
+[83] Die Geschichte und die Politik sind Ein und derselbe
+Janus mit dem Doppelgesicht, das in der Geschichte in die
+Vergangenheit, in der Politik in die Zukunft hinschaut.--GÜGLER'S
+_Leben_, ii. 59.
+
+[84] The papers inclosed, which give an account of the
+killing of two men in the county of Londonderry; if they prove to be
+Tories, 'tis very well they are gone.--I think it will not only be
+necessary to grant those a pardon who killed them, but also that they
+have some reward for their own and others' encouragement.--ESSEX,
+_Letters_, 10, _Jan._ 10, 1675. The author of this happened to be
+present. There was a meeting of some honest people in the city, upon
+the occasion of the discovery of some attempt to stifle the evidence
+of the witnesses.--Bedloe said he had letters from Ireland, that there
+were some Tories to be brought over hither, who were privately to
+murder Dr. Oates and the said Bedloe. The doctor, whose zeal was very
+hot, could never after this hear any man talk against the plot, or
+against the witnesses, but he thought he was one of these Tories, and
+called almost every man a Tory that opposed him in discourse; till at
+last the word Tory became popular.--DEFOE, _Edinburgh Review_, l.
+403.
+
+[85] La Espańa será el primer pueblo en donde se encenderá
+esta guerra patriotica que solo puede libertar á Europa.--Hemos oido
+esto en Inglaterra á varios de los que estaban alli presentes. Muchas
+veces ha oido lo mismo al duque de Wellington el general Don Miguel de
+Alava, y dicho duque refirió el suceso en una comida diplomatica que
+dió en Paris el duque de Richelieu en 1816.--TORENO, _Historia del
+Levantamiento de Espańa_, 1838, i. 508.
+
+[86] Nunquam propter auctoritatem illorum, quamvis magni sint
+nominis (supponimus scilicet semper nos cum eo agere qui scientiam
+historicam vult consequi), sententias quas secuti sunt ipse tamquam
+certas admittet, sed solummodo ob vim testimoniorum et argumentorum
+quibus eas confirmarunt.--DE SMEDT, _Introductio ad historiam critice
+tractandam_, 1866, i. 5.
+
+[87] Hundert schwere Verbrechen wiegen nicht so schwer in der
+Schale der Unsittlichkeit, als ein unsittliches Princip.--_Hallische
+Jahrbücher_, 1839, 308. Il faut flétrir les crimes; mais il faut
+aussi, et surtout, flétrir les doctrines et les systčmes qui tendent ŕ
+les justifier.--MORTIMER TERNAUX, _Histoire de la Terreur_.
+
+[88] We see how good and evil mingle in the best of men and
+in the best of causes; we learn to see with patience the men whom we
+like best often in the wrong, and the repulsive men often in the
+right; we learn to bear with patience the knowledge that the cause
+which we love best has suffered, from the awkwardness of its
+defenders, so great disparagement, as in strict equity to justify the
+men who were assaulting it.--STUBBS, _Seventeen Lectures_, 97.
+
+[89] Caeteris paribus, on trouvera tousjours que ceux qui ont plus de
+puissance sont sujets ŕ pécher davantage; et il n'y a point de théorčme
+de géométrie qui soit plus asseuré que cette proposition.--LEIBNIZ,
+1688, ed. Rommel, ii. 197. Il y a toujours eu de la malignité dans la
+grandeur, et de l'opposition ŕ l'esprit de l'Évangile; mais maintenant
+il y en a plus que jamais, et il semble que comme le monde va ŕ sa
+fin, celui qui est dans l'élévation fait tous ses efforts pour dominer
+avec plus de tyrannie, et pour étouffer les maximes du Christianisme et
+le rčgne de Jésus-Christ, voiant qu'il s'approche.--GODEAU, _Lettres_,
+423, March 27, 1667. There is, in fact, an unconquerable tendency in
+all power, save that of knowledge, acting by and through knowledge, to
+injure the mind of him by whom that power is exercised.--WORDSWORTH,
+June 22, 1817. _Letters of Lake Poets_, 369.
+
+[90] I cieli han messo sulla terra due giudici delle umane
+azioni, la coscienza e la storia.--COLLETTA. Wenn gerade die edelsten
+Männer um des Nachruhmes willen gearbeitet haben, so soll die
+Geschichte ihre Belohnung sein, sie auch die Strafe für die
+Schlechten.--LASAULX, _Philosophie der Künste_, 211. Pour juger ce qui
+est bon et juste dans la vie actuelle ou passée, il faut posséder un
+criterium, qui ne soit pas tiré du passé ou du présent, mais de la
+nature humaine.--AHRENS, _Cours de Droit Naturel_, i. 67.
+
+[91] L'homme de notre temps! La conscience moderne! Voilŕ
+encore de ces termes qui nous ramčnent la prétendue philosophie de
+l'histoire et la doctrine du progrčs, quand il s'agit de la justice,
+c'est-ŕ-dire de la conscience pure et de l'homme rationnel, que
+d'autres sičcles encore que le nôtre ont connu.--RENOUVIER, _Crit.
+Phil._ 1873, ii. 55.
+
+[92] Il faut pardonner aux grands hommes le marchepied de
+leur grandeur.--COUSIN, in J. SIMON, _Nos Hommes d'État_, 1887, 55.
+L'esprit du XVIIIe sičcle n'a pas besoin d'apologie: l'apologie d'un
+sičcle est dans son existence.--COUSIN, _Fragments_, iii. 1826.
+Suspendus aux lčvres éloquentes de M. Cousin, nous l'entendîmes
+s'écrier que la meilleure cause l'emportait toujours, que c'était la
+loi de l'histoire, le rhythme immuable du progrčs.--GASPARIN, _La
+Liberté Morale_, ii. 63. Cousin verurtheilen heisst darum nichts
+Anderes als jenen Geist historischer Betrachtung verdammen, durch
+welchen das 19 Jahrhundert die revolutionäre Kritik des 18
+Jahrhunderts ergänzt, durch welchen insbesondere Deutschland die
+geistigen Wohlthaten vergolten hat, welche es im Zeitalter der
+Aufklärung von seinen westlichen Nachbarn empfangen.--IODL, _Gesch.
+der Ethik_, ii. 295. Der Gang der Weltgeschichte steht ausserhalb der
+Tugend, des Lasters, und der Gerechtigkeit.--HEGEL, _Werke_, viii.
+425. Die Vermischung des Zufälligen im Individuum mit dem an ihm
+Historischen führt zu unzähligen falschen Ansichten und Urtheilen.
+Hierzu gehört namentlich alles Absprechen über die moralische
+Tüchtigkeit der Individuen, und die Verwunderung, welche his zur
+Verzweiflung an göttlicher Gerechtigkeit sich steigert, dass
+historisch grosse Individuen moralisch nichtswürdig erscheinen können.
+Die moralische Tüchtigkeit besteht in der Unterordnung alles dessen
+was zufällig am Einzelnen unter das an ihm dem Allgemeinen
+Angehörige.--MARBACH, _Geschichte der Griechischen Philosophie_, 7.
+Das Sittliche der Neuseeländer, der Mexikaner ist vielmehr ebenso
+sittlich, wie das der Griechen, der Römer; und das Sittliche der
+Christen des Mittelalters ist ebenso sittlich, wie das der
+Gegenwart.--KIRCHMANN, _Grundbegriffe des Rechts_, 194. Die
+Geschichtswissenschaft als solche kennt nur ein zeitliches und mithin
+auch nur ein relatives Maass der Dinge. Alle Werthbeurtheilung der
+Geschichte kann daher nur relativ und aus zeitlichen Momenten
+fliessen, und wer sich nicht selbst täuschen und den Dingen nicht
+Gewalt anthun will, muss ein für allemal in dieser Wissenschaft auf
+absolute Werthe verzichten.--LORENZ, _Schlosser_, 80. Only according
+to his faith is each man judged. Committed as this deed has been by a
+pure-minded, pious youth, it is a beautiful sign of the time.--DE
+WETTE to Sand's Mother, CHEYNE, _Founders of Criticism_, 44. The men
+of each age must be judged by the ideal of their own age and country,
+and not by the ideal of ours.--LECKY, _Value of History_, 50.
+
+[93] La durée ici-bas, c'est le droit, c'est la sanction de
+Dieu.--GUIRAUD, _Philosophie Catholique de l'Histoire_.
+
+[94] Ceux qui ne sont pas contens de l'ordre des choses ne
+sçauroient se vanter d'aimer Dieu comme il faut.--Il faut toujours
+estre content de l'ordre du passé, parce qu'il est conforme ŕ la
+volonté de Dieu absolue, qu'on connoit par l'évčnement. Il faut tâcher
+de rendre l'avenir, autant qu'il dépend de nous, conforme ŕ la volonté
+de Dieu présomptive.--LEIBNIZ, _Werke_, ed. Gerhardt, ii. 136. Ich
+habe damals bekannt und bekenne jetzt, dass die politische Wahrheit
+aus denselben Quellen zu schöpfen ist, wie alle anderen, aus dem
+göttlichen Willen und dessen Kundgebung in der Geschichte des
+Menschengeschlechts.--RADOWITZ, _Neue Gespräche_, 65.
+
+[95] A man is great as he contends best with the
+circumstances of his age.--FROUDE, _Short Studies_ i. 388. La
+persuasion que l'homme est avant tout une personne morale et libre, et
+qu'ayant conçu seul, dans sa conscience et devant Dieu, la rčgle de sa
+conduite, il doit s'employer tout entier ŕ l'appliquer en lui, hors de
+lui, absolument, obstinément, inflexiblement, par une résistance
+perpétuelle opposée aux autres; et par une contrainte perpétuelle
+exercée sur soi, voilŕ la grande idée anglaise.--TAINE; SOREL,
+_Discours de Réception_, 24. In jeder Zeit des Christenthums hat es
+einzelne Männer gegeben, die über ihrer Zeit standen und von ihren
+Gegensätzen nicht berührt wurden.--BACHMANN, _Hengstenberg_, i. 160.
+Eorum enim qui de iisdem rebus mecum aliquid ediderunt, aut solus
+insanio ego, aut solus non insanio; tertium enim non est, nisi (quod
+dicet forte aliquis) insaniamus omnes.--HOBBES, quoted by DE MORGAN,
+June 3, 1858, _Life of Sir W. R. Hamilton_, iii. 552.
+
+[96] I have now to exhibit a rare combination of good
+qualities, and a steady perseverance in good conduct, which raised an
+individual to be an object of admiration and love to all his
+contemporaries, and have made him to be regarded by succeeding
+generations as a model of public and private virtue.--The evidence
+shows that upon this occasion he was not only under the influence of
+the most vulgar credulity, but that he violated the plainest rules of
+justice, and that he really was the murderer of two innocent
+women.--Hale's motives were most laudable.--CAMPBELL'S _Lives of the
+Chief Justices_, i. 512, 561, 566. It was not to be expected of the
+colonists of New England that they should be the first to see through
+a delusion which befooled the whole civilized world, and the gravest
+and most knowing persons in it.--The people of New England believed
+what the wisest men of the world believed at the end of the
+seventeenth century.--PALFREY, _New England_, iv. 127, 129 (also
+speaking of witchcraft). Il est donc bien étrange que sa sévérité
+tardive s'exerce aujourd'hui sur un homme auquel elle n'a d'autre
+reproche ŕ faire que d'avoir trop bien servi l'état par des mesures
+politiques, injustes peut-ętre, violentes, mais qui, en aucune
+maničre, n'avaient l'intéręt personnel du coupable pour objet.--M.
+Hastings peut sans doute paraître répréhensible aux yeux des
+étrangers, des particuliers męme, mais il est assez extraordinaire
+qu'une nation usurpatrice d'une partie de l'Indostan veuille męler les
+rčgles de la morale ŕ celles d'une administration forcée, injuste et
+violente par essence, et ŕ laquelle il faudrait renoncer ŕ jamais pour
+ętre conséquent.--MALLET DU PAN, _Memories_, ed. Sayous, i. 102.
+
+[97] On parle volontiers de la stabilité de la constitution
+anglaise. La vérité est que cette constitution est toujours en
+mouvement et en oscillation et qu'elle se pręte merveilleusement au
+jeu de ses différentes parties. Sa solidité vient de sa souplesse;
+elle plie et ne rompt pas.--BOUTMY, _Nouvelle Revue_, 1878, 49.
+
+[98] This is not an age for a man to follow the strict
+morality of better times, yet sure mankind is not yet so debased but
+that there will ever be found some few men who will scorn to join
+concert with the public voice when it is not well grounded.--_Savile
+Correspondence_, 173.
+
+[99] Cette proposition: L'homme est incomparablement plus
+porté au mal qu'au bien, et il se fait dans le monde incomparablement
+plus de mauvaises actions que de bonnes--est aussi certaine qu'aucun
+principe de métaphysique. Il est donc incomparablement plus probable
+qu'une action faite par un homme, est mauvaise, qu'il n'est probable
+qu'elle soit bonne. Il est incomparablement plus probable que ces
+secrets ressorts qui l'ont produite sont corrompus, qu'il n'est
+probable qu'ils soient honnętes. Je vous avertis que je parle d'une
+action qui n'est point mauvaise extérieurement.--BAYLE, _OEuvres_,
+ii. 248.
+
+[100] A Christian is bound by his very creed to suspect evil,
+and cannot release himself.--His religion has brought evil to light in
+a way in which it never was before; it has shown its depth, subtlety,
+ubiquity; and a revelation, full of mercy on the one hand, is terrible
+in its exposure of the world's real state on the other. The Gospel
+fastens the sense of evil upon the mind; a Christian is enlightened,
+hardened, sharpened, as to evil; he sees it where others do
+not.--MOZLEY, _Essays_, i. 308. All satirists, of course, work in the
+direction of Christian doctrine, by the support they give to the
+doctrine of original sin, making a sort of meanness and badness a law
+of society.--MOZLEY, _Letters_, 333. Les critiques, męme malveillants,
+sont plus prčs de la vérité derničre que les admirateurs.--NISARD,
+_Lit. fr._, Conclusion. Les hommes supérieurs doivent nécessairement
+passer pour méchants. Oů les autres ne voient ni un défaut, ni un
+ridicule, ni un vice, leur implacable oeil l'aperçoit.--BARBEY
+D'AUREVILLY, _Figaro_, March 31, 1888.
+
+[101] Prenons garde de ne pas trop expliquer, pour ne pas
+fournir des arguments ŕ ceux qui veulent tout excuser.--BROGLIE,
+_Réception de Sorel_, 46.
+
+[102] The eternal truths and rights of things exist,
+fortunately, independent of our thoughts or wishes, fixed as
+mathematics, inherent in the nature of man and the world. They are no
+more to be trifled with than gravitation.--FROUDE, _Inaugural Lecture
+at St. Andrews_, 1869, 41. What have men to do with interests? There
+is a right way and a wrong way. That is all we need think
+about.--CARLYLE to FROUDE, _Longman's Magazine_, Dec. 1892, 151. As to
+History, it is full of indirect but very effective moral teaching. It
+is not only, as Bolingbroke called it, "Philosophy teaching by
+examples," but it is morality teaching by examples.--It is essentially
+the study which best helps the student to conceive large thoughts.--It
+is impossible to overvalue the moral teaching of History.--FITCH,
+_Lectures on Teaching_, 432. Judging from the past history of our
+race, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, war is a folly and a
+crime.--Where it is so, it is the saddest and the wildest of all
+follies, and the most heinous of all crimes.--GREG, _Essays on
+Political and Social Science_, 1853, i. 562. La volonté de tout un
+peuple ne peut rendre juste ce qui est injuste: les représentants
+d'une nation n'ont pas le droit de faire ce que la nation n'a pas le
+droit de faire elle-męme.--B. CONSTANT, _Principes de Politique_, i.
+15.
+
+[103] Think not that morality is ambulatory; that vices in
+one age are not vices in another, or that virtues, which are under the
+everlasting seal of right reason, may be stamped by opinion.--SIR
+THOMAS BROWNE, _Works_, iv. 64.
+
+[104] Osons croire qu'il seroit plus ŕ propos de mettre de
+côté ces traditions, ces usages, et ces coutumes souvent si
+imparfaites, si contradictoires, si incohérentes, ou de ne les
+consulter que pour saisir les inconvéniens et les éviter; et qu'il
+faudroit chercher non-seulement les éléments d'une nouvelle
+législation, mais męme ses derniers détails dans une étude approfondie
+de la morale.--LETROSNE, _Réflexions sur la Législation Criminelle_,
+137. M. Renan appartient ŕ cette famille d'esprits qui ne croient pas
+en réalité la raison, la conscience, le droit applicables ŕ la
+direction des sociétés humaines, et qui demandent ŕ l'histoire, ŕ la
+tradition, non ŕ la morale, les rčgles de la politique. Ces esprits
+sont atteints de la maladie du sičcle, le scepticisme moral.--PILLON,
+_Critique Philosophique_, i. 49.
+
+[105] The subject of modern history is of all others, to my
+mind, the most interesting, inasmuch as it includes all questions of
+the deepest interest relating not to human things only, but to
+divine.--ARNOLD, _Modern History_, 311.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's A Lecture on the Study of History, by Lord Acton
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