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+Project Gutenberg's A Lecture on the Study of History, by Lord Acton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Lecture on the Study of History
+
+Author: Lord Acton
+
+Release Date: June 7, 2008 [EBook #25720]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Irma Spehar and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+                   A LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF HISTORY
+
+
+                      MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
+                      LONDON . BOMBAY . CALCUTTA
+                               MELBOURNE
+
+                         THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+                      NEW YORK . BOSTON . CHICAGO
+                        ATLANTA . SAN FRANCISCO
+
+                   THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
+                                TORONTO
+
+
+
+
+                               A LECTURE
+                                  ON
+                         THE STUDY OF HISTORY
+
+                       _DELIVERED AT CAMBRIDGE,
+                            JUNE 11, 1895_
+
+                                  BY
+
+                              LORD ACTON
+                             LL.D., D.C.L.
+                  REGIUS PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY
+
+
+                      MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
+                      ST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON
+                                 1911
+
+
+                    RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED,
+               BRUNSWICK STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S. E.,
+                          AND BUNGAY, SUFFOLK
+
+                    _First Edition, October, 1895.
+                    Second Edition, January, 1896.
+                        Reprinted, 1905, 1911._
+
+
+
+
+FELLOW STUDENTS,
+
+I look back to-day to a time before the middle of the century, when I
+was reading at Edinburgh, and fervently wishing to come to this
+University. At three colleges I applied for admission, and, as things
+then were, I was refused by all. Here, from the first, I vainly fixed
+my hopes, and here, in a happier hour, after five-and-forty years,
+they are at last fulfilled.
+
+[Sidenote: UNITY OF MODERN HISTORY]
+
+I desire first to speak to you of that which I may reasonably call the
+Unity of Modern History, as an easy approach to questions necessary
+to be met on the threshold by any one occupying this place, which my
+predecessor has made so formidable to me by the reflected lustre of
+his name.
+
+You have often heard it said that Modern History is a subject to which
+neither beginning nor end can be assigned. No beginning, because the
+dense web of the fortunes of man is woven without a void; because, in
+society as in nature, the structure is continuous, and we can trace
+things back uninterruptedly, until we dimly descry the Declaration of
+Independence in the forests of Germany. No end, because, on the same
+principle, history made and history making are scientifically
+inseparable and separately unmeaning.
+
+[Sidenote: LINK BETWEEN HISTORY AND POLITICS]
+
+“Politics,” said Sir John Seeley, “are vulgar when they are not
+liberalised by history, and history fades into mere literature when
+it loses sight of its relation to practical politics.” Everybody
+perceives the sense in which this is true. For the science of politics
+is the one science that is deposited by the stream of history, like
+grains of gold in the sand of a river; and the knowledge of the past,
+the record of truths revealed by experience, is eminently practical,
+as an instrument of action, and a power that goes to the making of the
+future.[1] In France, such is the weight attached to the study of our
+own time, that there is an appointed course of contemporary history,
+with appropriate textbooks.[2] That is a chair which, in the
+progressive division of labour by which both science and government
+prosper,[3] may some day be founded in this country. Meantime, we do
+well to acknowledge the points at which the two epochs diverge. For
+the contemporary differs from the modern in this, that many of its
+facts cannot by us be definitely ascertained. The living do not give
+up their secrets with the candour of the dead; one key is always
+excepted, and a generation passes before we can ensure accuracy.
+Common report and outward seeming are bad copies of the reality, as
+the initiated know it. Even of a thing so memorable as the war of
+1870, the true cause is still obscure; much that we believed has been
+scattered to the winds in the last six months, and further revelations
+by important witnesses are about to appear. The use of history turns
+far more on certainty than on abundance of acquired information.
+
+Beyond the question of certainty is the question of detachment. The
+process by which principles are discovered and appropriated is other
+than that by which, in practice, they are applied; and our most sacred
+and disinterested convictions ought to take shape in the tranquil
+regions of the air, above the tumult and the tempest of active
+life.[4] For a man is justly despised who has one opinion in history
+and another in politics, one for abroad and another at home, one for
+opposition and another for office. History compels us to fasten on
+abiding issues, and rescues us from the temporary and transient.
+Politics and history are interwoven, but are not commensurate. Ours is
+a domain that reaches farther than affairs of state, and is not
+subject to the jurisdiction of governments. It is our function to keep
+in view and to command the movement of ideas, which are not the
+effect but the cause of public events;[5] and even to allow some
+priority to ecclesiastical history over civil, since, by reason of the
+graver issues concerned, and the vital consequences of error, it
+opened the way in research, and was the first to be treated by close
+reasoners and scholars of the higher rank.[6]
+
+[Sidenote: NOT GOVERNED BY NATIONAL CAUSES]
+
+In the same manner, there is wisdom and depth in the philosophy which
+always considers the origin and the germ, and glories in history as
+one consistent epic.[7] Yet every student ought to know that mastery
+is acquired by resolved limitation. And confusion ensues from the
+theory of Montesquieu and of his school, who, adapting the same term
+to things unlike, insist that freedom is the primitive condition of
+the race from which we are sprung.[8] If we are to account mind not
+matter, ideas not force, the spiritual property that gives dignity,
+and grace, and intellectual value to history, and its action on the
+ascending life of man, then we shall not be prone to explain the
+universal by the national, and civilisation by custom.[9] A speech of
+Antigone, a single sentence of Socrates, a few lines that were
+inscribed on an Indian rock before the Second Punic War, the footsteps
+of a silent yet prophetic people who dwelt by the Dead Sea, and
+perished in the fall of Jerusalem, come nearer to our lives than the
+ancestral wisdom of barbarians who fed their swine on the Hercynian
+acorns.
+
+[Sidenote: MEDIÆVAL LIMIT OF MODERN HISTORY]
+
+For our present purpose, then, I describe as modern history that which
+begins four hundred years ago, which is marked off by an evident and
+intelligible line from the time immediately preceding, and displays
+in its course specific and distinctive characteristics of its own.[10]
+The modern age did not proceed from the mediæval by normal succession,
+with outward tokens of legitimate descent. Unheralded, it founded a
+new order of things, under a law of innovation, sapping the ancient
+reign of continuity. In those days Columbus subverted the notions of
+the world, and reversed the conditions of production, wealth and
+power; in those days, Machiavelli released government from the
+restraint of law; Erasmus diverted the current of ancient learning
+from profane into Christian channels; Luther broke the chain of
+authority and tradition at the strongest link; and Copernicus erected
+an invincible power that set for ever the mark of progress upon the
+time that was to come. There is the same unbound originality and
+disregard for inherited sanctions in the rare philosophers as in the
+discovery of Divine Right, and the intruding Imperialism of Rome. The
+like effects are visible everywhere, and one generation beheld them
+all. It was an awakening of new life; the world revolved in a
+different orbit, determined by influences unknown before. After many
+ages persuaded of the headlong decline and impending dissolution of
+society,[11] and governed by usage and the will of masters who were in
+their graves, the sixteenth century went forth armed for untried
+experience, and ready to watch with hopefulness a prospect of
+incalculable change.
+
+[Sidenote: INFLUENCE OF KNOWLEDGE ON MODERN HISTORY]
+
+That forward movement divides it broadly from the older world; and the
+unity of the new is manifest in the universal spirit of investigation
+and discovery which did not cease to operate, and withstood the
+recurring efforts of reaction, until, by the advent of the reign of
+general ideas which we call the Revolution, it at length
+prevailed.[12] This successive deliverance and gradual passage, for
+good and evil, from subordination to independence is a phenomenon of
+primary import to us, because historical science has been one of its
+instruments.[13] If the Past has been an obstacle and a burden,
+knowledge of the Past is the safest and the surest emancipation. And
+the earnest search for it is one of the signs that distinguish the
+four centuries of which I speak from those that went before. The
+middle ages, which possessed good writers of contemporary narrative,
+were careless and impatient of older fact. They became content to be
+deceived, to live in a twilight of fiction, under clouds of false
+witness, inventing according to convenience, and glad to welcome the
+forger and the cheat.[14] As time went on, the atmosphere of
+accredited mendacity thickened, until, in the Renaissance, the art of
+exposing falsehood dawned upon keen Italian minds. It was then that
+history as we understand it began to be understood, and the
+illustrious dynasty of scholars arose to whom we still look both for
+method and material. Unlike the dreaming prehistoric world, ours knows
+the need and the duty to make itself master of the earlier times, and
+to forfeit nothing of their wisdom or their warnings,[15] and has
+devoted its best energy and treasure to the sovereign purpose of
+detecting error and vindicating entrusted truth.[16]
+
+[Sidenote: INTERNATIONAL IDEAS]
+
+[Sidenote: MEMORABLE MEN]
+
+[Sidenote: INDEPENDENT MINDS]
+
+In this epoch of full-grown history men have not acquiesced in the
+given conditions of their lives. Taking little for granted they have
+sought to know the ground they stand on, and the road they travel, and
+the reason why. Over them, therefore, the historian has obtained an
+increasing ascendancy.[17] The law of stability was overcome by the
+power of ideas, constantly varied and rapidly renewed;[18] ideas that
+give life and motion, that take wing and traverse seas and frontiers,
+making it futile to pursue the consecutive order of events in the
+seclusion of a separate nationality.[19] They compel us to share the
+existence of societies wider than our own, to be familiar with distant
+and exotic types, to hold our march upon the loftier summits, along
+the central range, to live in the company of heroes, and saints, and
+men of genius, that no single country could produce. We cannot afford
+wantonly to lose sight of great men and memorable lives, and are bound
+to store up objects for admiration as far as may be;[20] for the
+effect of implacable research is constantly to reduce their number. No
+intellectual exercise, for instance, can be more invigorating than to
+watch the working of the mind of Napoleon, the most entirely known as
+well as the ablest of historic men. In another sphere, it is the
+vision of a higher world to be intimate with the character of Fénelon,
+the cherished model of politicians, ecclesiastics, and men of letters,
+the witness against one century and precursor of another, the advocate
+of the poor against oppression, of liberty in an age of arbitrary
+power, of tolerance in an age of persecution, of the humane virtues
+among men accustomed to sacrifice them to authority, the man of whom
+one enemy says that his cleverness was enough to strike terror, and
+another, that genius poured in torrents from his eyes. For the minds
+that are greatest and best alone furnish the instructive examples. A
+man of ordinary proportion or inferior metal knows not how to think
+out the rounded circle of his thought, how to divest his will of its
+surroundings and to rise above the pressure of time and race and
+circumstance,[21] to choose the star that guides his course, to
+correct, and test, and assay his convictions by the light within,[22]
+and, with a resolute conscience and ideal courage, to re-model and
+reconstitute the character which birth and education gave him.[23]
+
+[Sidenote: FOREIGN CONSTITUTIONS]
+
+For ourselves, if it were not the quest of the higher level and the
+extended horizon, international history would be imposed by the
+exclusive and insular reason that parliamentary reporting is younger
+than parliaments. The foreigner has no mystic fabric in his
+government, and no _arcanum imperii_. For him, the foundations have
+been laid bare; every motive and function of the mechanism is
+accounted for as distinctly as the works of a watch. But with our
+indigenous constitution, not made with hands or written upon paper,
+but claiming to develope by a law of organic growth; with our
+disbelief in the virtue of definitions and general principles and our
+reliance on relative truths, we can have nothing equivalent to the
+vivid and prolonged debates in which other communities have displayed
+the inmost secrets of political science to every man who can read.
+And the discussions of constituent assemblies, at Philadelphia,
+Versailles and Paris, at Cadiz and Brussels, at Geneva, Frankfort and
+Berlin, above nearly all, those of the most enlightened States in the
+American Union, when they have recast their institutions, are
+paramount in the literature of politics, and proffer treasures which
+at home we have never enjoyed.
+
+[Sidenote: RESOURCES OF MODERN HISTORY]
+
+[Sidenote: BEGINNING OF THE DOCUMENTARY AGE]
+
+To historians the later part of their enormous subject is precious
+because it is inexhaustible. It is the best to know because it is the
+best known and the most explicit. Earlier scenes stand out from a
+background of obscurity. We soon reach the sphere of hopeless
+ignorance and unprofitable doubt. But hundreds and even thousands of
+the moderns have borne testimony against themselves, and may be
+studied in their private correspondence and sentenced on their own
+confession. Their deeds are done in the daylight. Every country opens
+its archives and invites us to penetrate the mysteries of State. When
+Hallam wrote his chapter on James II., France was the only Power whose
+reports were available. Rome followed, and the Hague; and then came
+the stores of the Italian States, and at last the Prussian and the
+Austrian papers, and partly those of Spain. Where Hallam and Lingard
+were dependent on Barillon, their successors consult the diplomacy of
+ten governments. The topics indeed are few on which the resources have
+been so employed that we can be content with the work done for us, and
+never wish it to be done over again. Part of the lives of Luther and
+Frederic, a little of the Thirty Years' War, much of the American
+Revolution and the French Restoration, the early years of Richelieu
+and Mazarin, and a few volumes of Mr. Gardiner, show here and there
+like Pacific islands in the ocean. I should not even venture to claim
+for Ranke, the real originator of the heroic study of records, and the
+most prompt and fortunate of European pathfinders, that there is one
+of his seventy volumes that has not been overtaken and in part
+surpassed. It is through his accelerating influence mainly that our
+branch of study has become progressive, so that the best master is
+quickly distanced by the better pupil.[24] The Vatican archives alone,
+now made accessible to the world, filled 3,239 cases when they were
+sent to France; and they are not the richest. We are still at the
+beginning of the documentary age, which will tend to make history
+independent of historians, to develope learning at the expense of
+writing, and to accomplish a revolution in other sciences as well.[25]
+
+[Sidenote: MODERN HISTORY]
+
+To men in general I would justify the stress I am laying on modern
+history, neither by urging its varied wealth, nor the rupture with
+precedent, nor the perpetuity of change and increase of pace, nor the
+growing predominance of opinion over belief, and of knowledge over
+opinion, but by the argument that it is a narrative told of ourselves,
+the record of a life which is our own, of efforts not yet abandoned to
+repose, of problems that still entangle the feet and vex the hearts of
+men. Every part of it is weighty with inestimable lessons that we
+must learn by experience and at a great price, if we know not how to
+profit by the example and teaching of those who have gone before us,
+in a society largely resembling the one we live in.[26] Its study
+fulfils its purpose even if it only makes us wiser, without producing
+books, and gives us the gift of historical thinking, which is better
+than historical learning.[27] It is a most powerful ingredient in the
+formation of character and the training of talent, and our historical
+judgments have as much to do with hopes of heaven as public or private
+conduct. Convictions that have been strained through the instances and
+the comparisons of modern times differ immeasurably in solidity and
+force from those which every new fact perturbs, and which are often
+little better than illusions or unsifted prejudice.[28]
+
+[Sidenote: A SCHOOL OF OPINION]
+
+[Sidenote: INFLUENCE OF THE RELIGIOUS ELEMENT]
+
+The first of human concerns is religion, and it is the salient feature
+of the modern centuries. They are signalised as the scene of
+Protestant developments. Starting from a time of extreme indifference,
+ignorance, and decline, they were at once occupied with that conflict
+which was to rage so long, and of which no man could imagine the
+infinite consequences. Dogmatic conviction—for I shun to speak of
+faith in connection with many characters of those days—dogmatic
+conviction rose to be the centre of universal interest, and remained
+down to Cromwell the supreme influence and motive of public policy. A
+time came when the intensity of prolonged conflict, when even the
+energy of antagonistic assurance, abated somewhat, and the
+controversial spirit began to make room for the scientific; and as the
+storm subsided, and the area of settled questions emerged, much of
+the dispute was abandoned to the serene and soothing touch of
+historians, invested as they are with the prerogative of redeeming the
+cause of religion from many unjust reproaches, and from the graver
+evil of reproaches that are just. Ranke used to say that Church
+interests prevailed in politics until the Seven Years' War, and marked
+a phase of society that ended when the hosts of Brandenburg went into
+action at Leuthen, chanting their Lutheran hymns.[29] That bold
+proposition would be disputed even if applied to the present age.
+After Sir Robert Peel had broken up his party, the leaders who
+followed him declared that no-popery was the only basis on which it
+could be reconstructed.[30] On the other side may be urged that, in
+July 1870, at the outbreak of the French war, the only government
+that insisted on the abolition of the temporal power was Austria; and
+since then we have witnessed the fall of Castelar, because he
+attempted to reconcile Spain with Rome.
+
+[Sidenote: RELIGION]
+
+Soon after 1850 several of the most intelligent men in France, struck
+by the arrested increase of their own population and by the telling
+statistics from Further Britain, foretold the coming preponderance of
+the English race. They did not foretell, what none could then foresee,
+the still more sudden growth of Prussia, or that the three most
+important countries of the globe would, by the end of the century, be
+those that chiefly belonged to the conquests of the Reformation. So
+that in Religion, as in so many things, the product of these
+centuries has favoured the new elements; and the centre of gravity,
+moving from the Mediterranean nations to the Oceanic, from the Latin
+to the Teuton, has also passed from the Catholic to the
+Protestant.[31]
+
+[Sidenote: THE CAUSE OF LIBERTY]
+
+[Sidenote: REVOLUTION]
+
+Out of these controversies proceeded political as well as historical
+science. It was in the Puritan phase, before the restoration of the
+Stuarts, that theology, blending with politics, effected a fundamental
+change. The essentially English reformation of the seventeenth century
+was less a struggle between churches than between sects, often
+subdivided by questions of discipline and self-regulation rather than
+by dogma. The sectaries cherished no purpose or prospect of prevailing
+over the nations; and they were concerned with the individual more
+than with the congregation, with conventicles, not with
+state-churches. Their view was narrowed, but their sight was
+sharpened. It appeared to them that governments and institutions are
+made to pass away, like things of earth, whilst souls are immortal;
+that there is no more proportion between liberty and power than
+between eternity and time; that, therefore, the sphere of enforced
+command ought to be restricted within fixed limits, and that which had
+been done by authority, and outward discipline, and organised
+violence, should be attempted by division of power, and committed to
+the intellect and the conscience of free men.[32] Thus was exchanged
+the dominion of will over will for the dominion of reason over reason.
+The true apostles of toleration are not those who sought protection
+for their own beliefs, or who had none to protect; but men to whom,
+irrespective of their cause, it was a political, a moral, and a
+theological dogma, a question of conscience, involving both religion
+and policy.[33] Such a man was Socinus; and others arose in the
+smaller sects—the Independent founder of the colony of Rhode Island,
+and the Quaker patriarch of Pennsylvania. Much of the energy and zeal
+which had laboured for authority of doctrine was employed for liberty
+of prophesying. The air was filled with the enthusiasm of a new cry;
+but the cause was still the same. It became a boast that religion was
+the mother of freedom, that freedom was the lawful off spring of
+religion; and this transmutation, this subversion of established forms
+of political life by the development of religious thought, brings us
+to the heart of my subject, to the significant and central feature of
+the historic cycle before us. Beginning with the strongest religious
+movement and the most refined despotism ever known, it has led to the
+superiority of politics over divinity in the life of nations, and
+terminates in the equal claim of every man to be unhindered by man in
+the fulfilment of duty to God[34]—a doctrine laden with storm and
+havoc, which is the secret essence of the Rights of Man, and the
+indestructible soul of Revolution.
+
+[Sidenote: THE MODE OF LIBERTY]
+
+[Sidenote: PROGRESS]
+
+[Sidenote: THE MARK OF PROVIDENCE]
+
+When we consider what the adverse forces were, their sustained
+resistance, their frequent recovery, the critical moments when the
+struggle seemed for ever desperate, in 1685, in 1772, in 1808, it is
+no hyperbole to say that the progress of the world towards
+self-government would have been arrested but for the strength afforded
+by the religious motive in the seventeenth century. And this
+constancy of progress, of progress in the direction of organised and
+assured freedom, is the characteristic fact of modern history, and its
+tribute to the theory, of Providence.[35] Many persons, I am well
+assured, would detect that this is a very old story, and a trivial
+commonplace, and would challenge proof that the world is making
+progress in aught but intellect, that it is gaining in freedom, or
+that increase in freedom is either a progress or a gain. Ranke, who
+was my own master, rejected the view that I have stated;[36] Comte,
+the master of better men, believed that we drag a lengthening chain
+under the gathered weight of the dead hand;[37] and many of our recent
+classics, Carlyle, Newman, Froude, were persuaded that there is no
+progress justifying the ways of God to man, and that the mere
+consolidation of liberty is like the motion of creatures whose advance
+is in the direction of their tails. They deem that anxious precaution
+against bad government is an obstruction to good, and degrades
+morality and mind by placing the capable at the mercy of the
+incapable, dethroning enlightened virtue for the benefit of the
+average man. They hold that great and salutary things are done for
+mankind by power concentrated, not by power balanced and cancelled and
+dispersed, and that the whig theory, sprung from decomposing sects,
+the theory that authority is legitimate only by virtue of its checks,
+and that the sovereign is dependent on the subject, is rebellion
+against the divine will manifested all down the stream of time.
+
+[Sidenote: CERTAINTY]
+
+[Sidenote: DEPENDENT ON RESERVE]
+
+I state the objection not that we may plunge into the crucial
+controversy of a science that is not identical with ours, but in order
+to make my drift clear by the defining aid of express contradiction.
+No political dogma is as serviceable to my purpose here as the
+historian's maxim to do the best he can for the other side, and to
+avoid pertinacity or emphasis on his own. Like the economic precept
+_Laissez-faire_[38] which the eighteenth century derived from Colbert,
+it has been an important, if not a final step in the making of method.
+The strongest and most impressive personalities, it is true, like
+Macaulay, Thiers, and the two greatest of living writers, Mommsen and
+Treitschke, project their own broad shadow upon their pages. This is a
+practice proper to great men, and a great man may be worth several
+immaculate historians. Otherwise there is virtue in the saying that a
+historian is seen at his best when he does not appear.[39] Better for
+us is the example of the Bishop of Oxford, who never lets us know what
+he thinks of anything but the matter before him; and of his
+illustrious French rival, Fustel de Coulanges, who said to an excited
+audience: “Do not imagine you are listening to me; it is history
+itself that speaks.”[40] We can found no philosophy on the observation
+of four hundred years, excluding three thousand. It would be an
+imperfect and a fallacious induction. But I hope that even this narrow
+and disedifying section of history will aid you to see that the action
+of Christ who is risen on mankind whom he redeemed fails not, but
+increases;[41] that the wisdom of divine rule appears not in the
+perfection but in the improvement of the world;[42] and that achieved
+liberty is the one ethical result that rests on the converging and
+combined conditions of advancing civilisation.[43] Then you will
+understand what a famous philosopher said, that History is the true
+demonstration of Religion.[44]
+
+[Sidenote: MEANING OF LIBERTY]
+
+But what do people mean who proclaim that liberty is the palm, and the
+prize, and the crown, seeing that it is an idea of which there are two
+hundred definitions, and that this wealth of interpretation has caused
+more bloodshed than anything, except theology? Is it Democracy as in
+France, or Federalism as in America, or the national independence
+which bounds the Italian view, or the reign of the fittest, which is
+the ideal of Germans?[45] I know not whether it will ever fall within
+my sphere of duty to trace the slow progress of that idea through the
+chequered scenes of our history, and to describe how subtle
+speculations touching the nature of conscience promoted a nobler and
+more spiritual conception of the liberty that protects it,[46] until
+the guardian of rights developed into the guardian of duties which are
+the cause of rights,[47] and that which had been prized as the
+material safeguard for treasures of earth became sacred as security
+for things that are divine. All that we require is a workday key to
+history, and our present need can be supplied without pausing to
+satisfy philosophers. Without inquiring how far Sarasa or Butler, Kant
+or Vinet, is right as to the infallible voice of God in man, we may
+easily agree in this, that where absolutism reigned, by irresistible
+arms, concentrated possessions, auxiliary churches, and inhuman laws,
+it reigns no more; that commerce having risen against land, labour
+against wealth, the state against the forces dominant in society,[48]
+the division of power against the state, the thought of individuals
+against the practice of ages, neither authorities, nor minorities, nor
+majorities can command implicit obedience; and, where there has been
+long and arduous experience, a rampart of tried conviction and
+accumulated knowledge,[49] where there is a fair level of general
+morality, education, courage, and self-restraint, there, if there
+only, a society may be found that exhibits the condition of life
+towards which, by elimination of failures, the world has been moving
+through the allotted space.[50] You will know it by outward signs:
+Representation, the extinction of slavery, the reign of opinion, and
+the like; better still by less apparent evidences: the security of the
+weaker groups[51] and the liberty of conscience, which, effectually
+secured, secures the rest.
+
+[Sidenote: THE GROWTH OF REVOLUTION]
+
+[Sidenote: RENOVATION OF HISTORY BY REVOLUTION]
+
+Here we reach a point at which my argument threatens to abut on a
+contradiction. If the supreme conquests of society are won more often
+by violence than by lenient arts, if the trend and drift of things is
+towards convulsions and catastrophes,[52] if the world owes religious
+liberty to the Dutch Revolution, constitutional government to the
+English, federal republicanism to the American, political equality to
+the French and its successors,[53] what is to become of us, docile and
+attentive students of the absorbing Past? The triumph of the
+Revolutionist annuls the historian.[54] By its authentic exponents,
+Jefferson and Sieyès, the Revolution of the last century repudiates
+history. Their followers renounced acquaintance with it, and were
+ready to destroy its records and to abolish its inoffensive
+professors. But the unexpected truth, stranger than fiction, is that
+this was not the ruin but the renovation of history. Directly and
+indirectly, by process of development and by process of reaction, an
+impulse was given which made it infinitely more effectual as a factor
+of civilisation than ever before, and a movement began in the world of
+minds which was deeper and more serious than the revival of ancient
+learning.[55] The dispensation under which we live and labour consists
+first in the recoil from the negative spirit that rejected the law of
+growth, and partly in the endeavour to classify and adjust the
+revolution, and to account for it by the natural working of historic
+causes. The Conservative line of writers, under the name of the
+Romantic or Historical School, had its seat in Germany, looked upon
+the Revolution as an alien episode, the error of an age, a disease to
+be treated by the investigation of its origin, and strove to unite the
+broken threads and to restore the normal conditions of organic
+evolution. The Liberal School, whose home was France, explained and
+justified the Revolution as a true development, and the ripened fruit
+of all history.[56] These are the two main arguments of the generation
+to which we owe the notion and the scientific methods that make
+history so unlike what it was to the survivors of the last century.
+Severally, the innovators were not superior to the men of old.
+Muratori was as widely read, Tillemont as accurate, Leibniz as able,
+Fréret as acute, Gibbon as masterly in the craft of composite
+construction. Nevertheless, in the second quarter of this century, a
+new era began for historians.
+
+[Sidenote: USE OF UNPUBLISHED SOURCES]
+
+[Sidenote: INSUFFICIENCY OF BOOKS]
+
+I would point to three things in particular, out of many, which
+constitute the amended order. Of the incessant deluge of new and
+unsuspected matter I need say little. For some years, the secret
+archives of the papacy were accessible at Paris; but the time was not
+ripe, and almost the only man whom they availed was the archivist
+himself.[57] Towards 1830 the documentary studies began on a large
+scale, Austria leading the way. Michelet, who claims, towards 1836,
+to have been the pioneer,[58] was preceded by such rivals as
+Mackintosh, Bucholtz, and Mignet. A new and more productive period
+began thirty years later, when the war of 1859 laid open the spoils of
+Italy. Every country in succession has now allowed the exploration of
+its records, and there is more fear of drowning than of drought. The
+result has been that a lifetime spent in the largest collection of
+printed books would not suffice to train a real master of modern
+history. After he had turned from literature to sources, from Burnet
+to Pocock, from Macaulay to Madame Campana, from Thiers to the
+interminable correspondence of the Bonapartes, he would still feel
+instant need of inquiry at Venice or Naples, in the Ossuna library or
+at the Hermitage.[59]
+
+[Sidenote: HISTORY RENEWED BY CRITICISM]
+
+These matters do not now concern us. For our purpose, the main thing
+to learn is not the art of accumulating material, but the sublimer art
+of investigating it, of discerning truth from falsehood, and certainty
+from doubt. It is by solidity of criticism more than by the plenitude
+of erudition, that the study of history strengthens, and straightens,
+and extends the mind.[60] And the accession of the critic in the place
+of the indefatigable compiler, of the artist in coloured narrative,
+the skilled limner of character, the persuasive advocate of good, or
+other, causes, amounts to a transfer of government, to a change of
+dynasty, in the historic realm. For the critic is one who, when he
+lights on an interesting statement, begins by suspecting it. He
+remains in suspense until he has subjected his authority to three
+operations. First, he asks whether he has read the passage as the
+author wrote it. For the transcriber, and the editor, and the official
+or officious censor on the top of the editor, have played strange
+tricks, and have much to answer for. And if they are not to blame, it
+may turn out that the author wrote his book twice over, that you can
+discover the first jet, the progressive variations, things added, and
+things struck out. Next is the question where the writer got his
+information. If from a previous writer, it can be ascertained, and the
+inquiry has to be repeated. If from unpublished papers, they must be
+traced, and when the fountain head is reached, or the track
+disappears, the question of veracity arises. The responsible writer's
+character, his position, antecedents, and probable motives have to be
+examined into; and this is what, in a different and adapted sense of
+the word, may be called the higher criticism, in comparison with the
+servile and often mechanical work of pursuing statements to their
+root. For a historian has to be treated as a witness, and not believed
+unless his sincerity is established.[61] The maxim that a man must be
+presumed to be innocent until his guilt is proved, was not made for
+him.
+
+[Sidenote: CRITICAL STUDY OF EARLIER TIMES]
+
+For us then the estimate of authorities, the weighing of testimony, is
+more meritorious than the potential discovery of new matter.[62] And
+modern history, which is the widest field of application, is not the
+best to learn our business in; for it is too wide, and the harvest has
+not been winnowed as in antiquity, and further on to the Crusades. It
+is better to examine what has been done for questions that are
+compact and circumscribed, such as the sources of Plutarch's
+_Pericles_, the two tracts on Athenian government, the origin of the
+epistle to Diognetus, the date of the life of St. Antony; and to learn
+from Schwegler how this analytical work began. More satisfying because
+more decisive has been the critical treatment of the mediæval writers,
+parallel with the new editions, on which incredible labour has been
+lavished, and of which we have no better examples than the prefaces of
+Bishop Stubbs. An important event in this series was the attack on
+Dino Compagni, which, for the sake of Dante, roused the best Italian
+scholars to a not unequal contest. When we are told that England is
+behind the Continent in critical faculty, we must admit that this is
+true as to quantity, not as to quality of work. As they are no longer
+living, I will say of two Cambridge professors, Lightfoot and Hort,
+that they were critical scholars whom neither Frenchman nor German has
+surpassed.
+
+[Sidenote: DEGREES OF IMPARTIALITY]
+
+The third distinctive note of the generation of writers who dug so
+deep a trench between history as known to our grandfathers and as it
+appears to us, is their dogma of impartiality. To an ordinary man the
+word means no more than justice. He considers that he may proclaim the
+merits of his own religion, of his prosperous and enlightened country,
+of his political persuasion, whether democracy, or liberal monarchy,
+or historic conservatism, without transgression or offence, so long as
+he is fair to the relative, though inferior merits of others, and
+never treats men as saints or as rogues for the side they take. There
+is no impartiality, he would say, like that of a hanging judge. The
+men who, with the compass of criticism in their hands, sailed the
+uncharted sea of original research, proposed a different view.
+History, to be above evasion or dispute, must stand on documents, not
+on opinions. They had their own notion of truthfulness, based on the
+exceeding difficulty of finding truth, and the still greater
+difficulty of impressing it when found. They thought it possible to
+write, with so much scruple, and simplicity, and insight, as to carry
+along with them every man of good will, and, whatever his feelings, to
+compel his assent. Ideas which, in religion and in politics, are
+truths, in history are forces. They must be respected; they must not
+be affirmed. By dint of a supreme reserve, by much self-control, by a
+timely and discreet indifference, by secrecy in the matter of the
+black cap, history might be lifted above contention, and made an
+accepted tribunal, and the same for all.[63] If men were truly
+sincere, and delivered judgment by no canons but those of evident
+morality, then Julian would be described in the same terms by
+Christian and pagan, Luther by Catholic and Protestant, Washington by
+Whig and Tory, Napoleon by patriotic Frenchman and patriotic
+German.[64]
+
+[Sidenote: MORALITY THE SOLE RULE OF JUDGMENT]
+
+I speak of this school with reverence, for the good it has done, by
+the assertion of historic truth and of its legitimate authority over
+the minds of men. It provides a discipline which every one of us does
+well to undergo, and perhaps also well to relinquish. For it is not
+the whole truth. Lanfrey's essay on Carnot, Chuquet's wars of the
+Revolution, Ropes's military histories, Roget's Geneva in the time of
+Calvin, will supply you with examples of a more robust impartiality
+than I have described. Renan calls it the luxury of an opulent and
+aristocratic society, doomed to vanish in an age of fierce and sordid
+striving. In our universities it has a magnificent and appointed
+refuge; and to serve its cause, which is sacred, because it is the
+cause of truth and honour, we may import a profitable lesson from the
+highly unscientific region of public life. There a man does not take
+long to find out that he is opposed by some who are abler and better
+than himself. And, in order to understand the cosmic force and the
+true connection of ideas, it is a source of power, and an excellent
+school of principle, not to rest until, by excluding the fallacies,
+the prejudices, the exaggerations which perpetual contention and the
+consequent precautions breed, we have made out for our opponents a
+stronger and more impressive case than they present themselves.[65]
+Excepting one to which we are coming before I release you, there is no
+precept less faithfully observed by historians.
+
+[Sidenote: EXAMPLE OF RANKE]
+
+Ranke is the representative of the age which instituted the modern
+study of history. He taught it to be critical, to be colourless, and
+to be new. We meet him at every step, and he has done more for us than
+any other man. There are stronger books than any one of his, and some
+may have surpassed him in political, religious, philosophic insight,
+in vividness of the creative imagination, in originality, elevation,
+and depth of thought; but by the extent of important work well
+executed, by his influence on able men, and by the amount of knowledge
+which mankind receives and employs with the stamp of his mind upon it,
+he stands without a rival. I saw him last in 1877, when he was feeble,
+sunken, and almost blind, and scarcely able to read or write. He
+uttered his farewell with kindly emotion, and I feared that the next I
+should hear of him would be the news of his death. Two years later he
+began a Universal History which is not without traces of weakness, but
+which, composed after the age of eighty-three, and carried, in
+seventeen volumes, far into the Middle Ages, brings to a close the
+most astonishing career in literature.
+
+[Sidenote: SUPPRESSION OF OPINION]
+
+His course had been determined, in early life, by _Quentin Durward_.
+The shock of the discovery that Scott's Lewis the Eleventh was
+inconsistent with the original in Commynes made him resolve that his
+object thenceforth should be above all things to follow, without
+swerving, and in stern subordination and surrender, the lead of his
+authorities. He decided effectually to repress the poet, the patriot,
+the religious or political partisan, to sustain no cause, to banish
+himself from his books, and to write nothing that would gratify his
+own feelings or disclose his private convictions.[66] When a strenuous
+divine who, like him, had written on the Reformation, hailed him as a
+comrade, Ranke repelled his advances. “You,” he said, “are in the
+first place a Christian: I am in the first place a historian. There is
+a gulf between us.”[67] He was the first eminent writer who exhibited
+what Michelet calls _le désintéressement des morts_. It was a moral
+triumph for him when he could refrain from judging, show that much
+might be said on both sides, and leave the rest to Providence.[68] He
+would have felt sympathy with the two famous London physicians of our
+day, of whom it is told that they could not make up their minds on a
+case and reported dubiously. The head of the family insisted on a
+positive opinion. They answered that they were unable to give one, but
+he might easily find fifty doctors who could.
+
+[Sidenote: CRITICISM OF MODERN SOURCES]
+
+Niebuhr had pointed out that chroniclers who wrote before the
+invention of printing generally copied one predecessor at a time, and
+knew little about sifting or combining authorities. The suggestion
+became luminous in Ranke's hands, and with his light and dexterous
+touch he scrutinised and dissected the principal historians, from
+Machiavelli to the _Mémoires d'un Homme d'État_, with a rigour never
+before applied to moderns. But whilst Niebuhr dismissed the
+traditional story, replacing it with a construction of his own, it was
+Ranke's mission to preserve, not to undermine, and to set up masters
+whom, in their proper sphere, he could obey. The many excellent
+dissertations in which he displayed this art, though his successors in
+the next generation matched his skill and did still more thorough
+work, are the best introduction from which we can learn the technical
+process by which within living memory the study of modern history has
+been renewed. Ranke's contemporaries, weary of his neutrality and
+suspense, and of the useful but subordinate work that was done by
+beginners who borrowed his wand, thought that too much was made of
+these obscure preliminaries which a man may accomplish for himself, in
+the silence of his chamber, with less demand on the attention of the
+public.[69] That may be reasonable in men who are practised in these
+fundamental technicalities. We who have to learn them, must immerse
+ourselves in the study of the great examples.
+
+[Sidenote: METHOD TO BE LEARNT FROM SCIENCES]
+
+Apart from what is technical, method is only the reduplication of
+common sense, and is best acquired by observing its use by the ablest
+men in every variety of intellectual employment.[70] Bentham
+acknowledged that he learned less from his own profession than from
+writers like Linnæus and Cullen; and Brougham advised the student of
+Law to begin with Dante. Liebig described his _Organic Chemistry_ as
+an application of ideas found in Mill's _Logic_, and a distinguished
+physician, not to be named lest he should overhear me, read three
+books to enlarge his medical mind; and they were Gibbon, Grote, and
+Mill. He goes on to say, “An educated man cannot become so on one
+study alone, but must be brought under the influence of natural,
+civil, and moral modes of thought.”[71] I quote my colleague's golden
+words in order to reciprocate them. If men of science owe anything to
+us, we may learn much from them that is essential.[72] For they can
+show how to test proof, how to secure fulness and soundness in
+induction, how to restrain and to employ with safety hypothesis and
+analogy. It is they who hold the secret of the mysterious property of
+the mind by which error ministers to truth, and truth slowly but
+irrevocably prevails.[73] Theirs is the logic of discovery,[74] the
+demonstration of the advance of knowledge and the development of
+ideas, which as the earthly wants and passions of men remain almost
+unchanged, are the charter of progress, and the vital spark in
+history. And they often give us invaluable counsel when they attend to
+their own subjects and address their own people. Remember Darwin,
+taking note only of those passages that raised difficulties in his
+way; the French philosopher complaining that his work stood still,
+because he found no more contradicting facts; Baer, who thinks error
+treated thoroughly, nearly as remunerative as truth, by the discovery
+of new objections; for, as Sir Robert Ball warns us, it is by
+considering objections that we often learn.[75] Faraday declares that
+“in knowledge, that man only is to be condemned and despised who is
+not in a state of transition.” And John Hunter spoke for all of us,
+when he said: “Never ask me what I have said or what I have written;
+but if you will ask me what my present opinions are, I will tell you.”
+
+[Sidenote: ALL ADOPT THE HISTORIC METHOD]
+
+From the first years of the century we have been quickened and
+enriched by contributors from every quarter. The jurists brought us
+that law of continuous growth which has transformed history from a
+chronicle of casual occurrences into the likeness of something
+organic.[76] Towards 1820 divines began to recast their doctrines on
+the lines of development, of which Newman said, long after, that
+evolution had come to confirm it.[77] Even the Economists, who were
+practical men, dissolved their science into liquid history, affirming
+that it is not an auxiliary, but the actual subject-matter of their
+inquiry.[78] Philosophers claim that, as early as 1804, they began to
+bow the metaphysical neck beneath the historical yoke. They taught
+that philosophy is only the amended sum of all philosophies, that
+systems pass with the age whose impress they bear,[79] that the
+problem is to focus the rays of wandering but extant truth, and that
+history is the source of philosophy, if not quite a substitute for
+it.[80] Comte begins a volume with the words that the preponderance of
+history over philosophy was the characteristic of the time he lived
+in.[81] Since Cuvier first recognised the conjunction between the
+course of inductive discovery and the course of civilization,[82]
+science had its share in saturating the age with historic ways of
+thought, and subjecting all things to that influence for which the
+depressing names historicism and historical-mindedness have been
+devised.
+
+[Sidenote: DANGER OF OBLIVION]
+
+[Sidenote: PROPHECY OF PITT]
+
+There are certain faults which are corrigible mental defects on which
+I ought to say a few denouncing words, because they are common to us
+all. First: the want of an energetic understanding of the sequence and
+real significance of events, which would be fatal to a practical
+politician, is ruin to a student of history who is the politician with
+his face turned backwards.[83] It is playing at study, to see nothing
+but the unmeaning and unsuggestive surface, as we generally do. Then
+we have a curious proclivity to neglect, and by degrees to forget,
+what has been certainly known. An instance or two will explain my
+idea. The most popular English writer relates how it happened in his
+presence that the title of Tory was conferred upon the Conservative
+party. For it was an opprobrious name at the time, applied to men for
+whom the Irish Government offered head-money; so that if I have made
+too sure of progress, I may at least complacently point to this
+instance of our mended manners. One day, Titus Oates lost his temper
+with the men who refused to believe him, and after looking about for a
+scorching imprecation, he began to call them Tories.[84] The name
+remained; but its origin, attested by Defoe, dropped out of common
+memory, as if one party were ashamed of their godfather, and the other
+did not care to be identified with his cause and character. You all
+know, I am sure, the story of the news of Trafalgar, and how, two
+days after it had arrived, Mr. Pitt, drawn by an enthusiastic crowd,
+went to dine in the city. When they drank the health of the minister
+who had saved his country, he declined the praise. “England,” he said,
+“has saved herself by her own energy; and I hope that after having
+saved herself by her energy, she will save Europe by her example.” In
+1814, when this hope had been realised, the last speech of the great
+orator was remembered, and a medal was struck upon which the whole
+sentence was engraved, in four words of compressed Latin: “_Seipsam
+virtute, Europam exemplo._” Now it was just at the time of his last
+appearance in public that Mr. Pitt heard of the overwhelming success
+of the French in Germany, and of the Austrian surrender at Ulm. His
+friends concluded that the contest on land was hopeless, and that it
+was time to abandon the Continent to the conqueror, and to fall back
+upon our new empire of the sea. Pitt did not agree with them. He said
+that Napoleon would meet with a check whenever he encountered a
+national resistance; and he declared that Spain was the place for it,
+and that then England would intervene.[85] General Wellesley, fresh
+from India, was present. Ten years later, when he had accomplished
+that which Pitt had seen in the lucid prescience of his last days, he
+related at Paris what I scarcely hesitate to call the most astounding
+and profound prediction in all political history, where such things
+have not been rare.
+
+[Sidenote: RULES FOR THE STUDY OF HISTORY]
+
+I shall never again enjoy the opportunity of speaking my thoughts to
+such an audience as this, and on so privileged an occasion a lecturer
+may well be tempted to bethink himself whether he knows of any
+neglected truth, any cardinal proposition, that might serve as his
+selected epigraph, as a last signal, perhaps even as a target. I am
+not thinking of those shining precepts which are the registered
+property of every school; that is to say—Learn as much by writing as
+by reading; be not content with the best book; seek sidelights from
+the others; have no favourites; keep men and things apart; guard
+against the prestige of great names;[86] see that your judgments are
+your own, and do not shrink from disagreement; no trusting without
+testing; be more severe to ideas than to actions;[87] do not overlook
+the strength of the bad cause or the weakness of the good;[88] never
+be surprised by the crumbling of an idol or the disclosure of a
+skeleton; judge talent at its best and character at its worst; suspect
+power more than vice,[89] and study problems in preference to periods;
+for instance: the derivation of Luther, the scientific influence of
+Bacon, the predecessors of Adam Smith, the mediæval masters of
+Rousseau, the consistency of Burke, the identity of the first Whig.
+Most of this, I suppose, is undisputed, and calls for no enlargement.
+But the weight of opinion is against me when I exhort you never to
+debase the moral currency or to lower the standard of rectitude, but
+to try others by the final maxim that governs your own lives, and to
+suffer no man and no cause to escape the undying penalty which history
+has the power to inflict on wrong.[90] The plea in extenuation of
+guilt and mitigation of punishment is perpetual. At every step we are
+met by arguments which go to excuse, to palliate, to confound right
+and wrong, and reduce the just man to the level of the reprobate. The
+men who plot to baffle and resist us are, first of all, those who made
+history what it has become. They set up the principle that only a
+foolish Conservative judges the present time with the ideas of the
+Past; that only a foolish Liberal judges the Past with the ideas of
+the Present.[91]
+
+[Sidenote: JUSTIFICATION OF THE PAST]
+
+The mission of that school was to make distant times, and especially
+the middle ages, then most distant of all, intelligible and acceptable
+to a society issuing from the eighteenth century. There were
+difficulties in the way; and among others this, that, in the first
+fervour of the Crusades, the men who took the Cross, after receiving
+communion, heartily devoted the day to the extermination of Jews. To
+judge them by a fixed standard, to call them sacrilegious fanatics or
+furious hypocrites, was to yield a gratuitous victory to Voltaire. It
+became a rule of policy to praise the spirit when you could not defend
+the deed. So that we have no common code; our moral notions are always
+fluid; and you must consider the times, the class from which men
+sprang, the surrounding influences, the masters in their schools, the
+preachers in their pulpits, the movement they obscurely obeyed, and so
+on, until responsibility is merged in numbers, and not a culprit is
+left for execution.[92] A murderer was no criminal if he followed
+local custom, if neighbours approved, if he was encouraged by
+official advisers or prompted by just authority, if he acted for the
+reason of state or the pure love of religion, or if he sheltered
+himself behind the complicity of the Law. The depression of morality
+was flagrant; but the motives were those which have enabled us to
+contemplate with distressing complacency the secret of unhallowed
+lives. The code that is greatly modified by time and place, will vary
+according to the cause. The amnesty is an artifice that enables us to
+make exceptions, to tamper with weights and measures, to deal unequal
+justice to friends and enemies.
+
+[Sidenote: PHILOSOPHIES OF HISTORY]
+
+It is associated with that philosophy which Cato attributes to the
+gods. For we have a theory which justifies Providence by the event,
+and holds nothing so deserving as success, to which there can be no
+victory in a bad cause, prescription and duration legitimate,[93] and
+whatever exists is right and reasonable; and as God manifests His will
+by that which He tolerates, we must conform to the divine decree by
+living to shape the Future after the ratified image of the Past.[94]
+Another theory, less confidently urged, regards History as our guide,
+as much by showing errors to evade as examples to pursue. It is
+suspicious of illusions in success, and, though there may be hope of
+ultimate triumph for what is true, if not by its own attraction, by
+the gradual exhaustion of error, it admits no corresponding promise
+for what is ethically right. It deems the canonisation of the historic
+Past more perilous than ignorance or denial, because it would
+perpetuate the reign of sin and acknowledge the sovereignty of wrong,
+and conceives it the part of real greatness to know how to stand and
+fall alone, stemming, for a lifetime, the contemporary flood.[95]
+
+[Sidenote: DEBASING THE CURRENCY]
+
+Ranke relates, without adornment, that William III. ordered the
+extirpation of a Catholic clan, and scouts the faltering excuse of his
+defenders. But when he comes to the death and character of the
+international deliverer, Glencoe is forgotten, the imputation of
+murder drops, like a thing unworthy of notice.[96] Johannes Mueller, a
+great Swiss celebrity, writes that the British Constitution occurred
+to somebody, perhaps to Halifax. This artless statement might not be
+approved by rigid lawyers as a faithful and felicitous indication of
+the manner of that mysterious growth of ages, from occult beginnings,
+that was never profaned by the invading wit of man;[97] but it is
+less grotesque than it appears. Lord Halifax was the most original
+writer of political tracts in the pamphleteering crowd between
+Harrington and Bolingbroke; and in the Exclusion struggle he produced
+a scheme of limitations which, in substance, if not in form,
+foreshadowed the position of the monarchy in the later Hanoverian
+reigns. Although Halifax did not believe in the Plot,[98] he insisted
+that innocent victims should be sacrificed to content the multitude.
+Sir William Temple writes:—“We only disagreed in one point, which was
+the leaving some priests to the law upon the accusation of being
+priests only, as the House of Commons had desired; which I thought
+wholly unjust. Upon this point Lord Halifax and I had so sharp a
+debate at Lord Sunderland's lodgings, that he told me, if I would not
+concur in points which were so necessary for the people's
+satisfaction, he would tell everybody I was a Papist. And upon his
+affirming that the plot must be handled as if it were true, whether it
+were so or no, in those points that were so generally believed.” In
+spite of this accusing passage Macaulay, who prefers Halifax to all
+the statesmen of his age, praises him for his mercy: “His dislike of
+extremes, and a forgiving and compassionate temper which seems to have
+been natural to him, preserved him from all participation in the worst
+crimes of his time.”
+
+[Sidenote: SINFULNESS OF HISTORY]
+
+[Sidenote: SOVEREIGNTY OF THE MORAL CODE]
+
+If, in our uncertainty, we must often err, it may be sometimes better
+to risk excess in rigour than in indulgence, for then at least we do
+no injury by loss of principle. As Bayle has said, it is more probable
+that the secret motives of an indifferent action are bad than
+good;[99] and this discouraging conclusion does not depend upon
+theology, for James Mozley supports the sceptic from the other flank,
+with all the artillery of Tractarian Oxford. “A Christian,” he says,
+“is bound by his very creed to suspect evil, and cannot release
+himself.... He sees it where others do not; his instinct is divinely
+strengthened; his eye is supernaturally keen; he has a spiritual
+insight, and senses exercised to discern.... He owns the doctrine of
+original sin; that doctrine puts him necessarily on his guard against
+appearances, sustains his apprehension under perplexity, and prepares
+him for recognising anywhere what he knows to be everywhere.”[100]
+There is a popular saying of Madame de Staël, that we forgive whatever
+we really understand. The paradox has been judiciously pruned by her
+descendant, the Duke de Broglie, in the words: “Beware of too much
+explaining, lest we end by too much excusing.”[101] History, says
+Froude, does teach that right and wrong are real distinctions.
+Opinions alter, manners change, creeds rise and fall, but the moral
+law is written on the tablets of eternity.[102] And if there are
+moments when we may resist the teaching of Froude, we have seldom the
+chance of resisting when he is supported by Mr. Goldwin Smith: “A
+sound historical morality will sanction strong measures in evil times;
+selfish ambition, treachery, murder, perjury, it will never sanction
+in the worst of times, for these are the things that make times
+evil.—Justice has been justice, mercy has been mercy, honour has been
+honour, good faith has been good faith, truthfulness has been
+truthfulness from the beginning.” The doctrine that, as Sir Thomas
+Browne says, morality is not ambulatory,[103] is expressed as follows
+by Burke, who, when true to himself, is the most intelligent of our
+instructors: “My principles enable me to form my judgment upon men and
+actions in history, just as they do in common life; and are not formed
+out of events and characters, either present or past. History is a
+preceptor of prudence, not of principles. The principles of true
+politics are those of morality enlarged; and I neither now do, nor
+ever will admit of any other.”[104]
+
+[Sidenote: HISTORY AND CHARACTER]
+
+Whatever a man's notions of these later centuries are, such, in the
+main, the man himself will be. Under the name of History, they cover
+the articles of his philosophic, his religious, and his political
+creed.[105] They give his measure; they denote his character: and, as
+praise is the shipwreck of historians, his preferences betray him more
+than his aversions. Modern history touches us so nearly, it is so deep
+a question of life and death, that we are bound to find our own way
+through it, and to owe our insight to ourselves. The historians of
+former ages, unapproachable for us in knowledge and in talent, cannot
+be our limit. We have the power to be more rigidly impersonal,
+disinterested and just than they; and to learn from undisguised and
+genuine records to look with remorse upon the past, and to the future
+with assured hope of better things; bearing this in mind, that if we
+lower our standard in history, we cannot uphold it in Church or
+State.
+
+
+
+
+                                 NOTES
+
+
+[1] No political conclusions of any value for practice can be
+arrived at by direct experience. All true political science is, in one
+sense of the phrase, _a priori_, being deduced from the tendencies of
+things, tendencies known either through our general experience of
+human nature, or as the result of an analysis of the course of
+history, considered as a progressive evolution.—MILL, _Inaugural
+Address_, 51.
+
+[2] Contemporary history is, in Dr. Arnold's opinion, more
+important than either ancient or modern; and in fact superior to it by
+all the superiority of the end to the means.—SEELEY, _Lectures and
+Essays_, 306.
+
+[3] The law of all progress is one and the same, the
+evolution of the simple into the complex by successive
+differentiations.—_Edinburgh Review_, clvii. 428. Die Entwickelung
+der Völker vollzieht sich nach zwei Gesetzen. Das erste Gesetz ist das
+der Differenzierung. Die primitiven Einrichtungen sind einfach und
+einheitlich, die der Civilisation zusammengesetzt und geteilt, und die
+Arbeitsteilung nimmt beständig zu.—SICKEL, _Goettingen Gelehrte
+Anzeigen_, 1890, 563.
+
+[4] Nous risquons toujours d'être influencés par les
+préjugés de notre époque; mais nous sommes libres des préjugés
+particuliers aux époques antérieures.—E. NAVILLE, _Christianisme de
+Fénelon_, 9.
+
+[5] La nature n'est qu'un écho de l'esprit. L'idée est la
+mère du fait, elle façonne graduellement le monde à son
+image.—FEUCHTERSLEBEN, _in_ CARO, _Nouvelles Études Morales_, 132. Il
+n'est pas d'étude morale qui vaille l'histoire d'une idée.—LABOULAYE,
+_Liberté Religieuse_, 25.
+
+[6] Il y a des savants qui raillent le sentiment religieux.
+Ils ne savent pas que c'est à ce sentiment, et par son moyen, que la
+science historique doit d'avoir pu sortir de l'enfance.... Depuis des
+siècles les âmes indépendantes discutaient les textes et les
+traditions de l'église, quand les lettrés n'avaient pas encore eu
+l'idée de porter un regard critique sur les textes de l'antiquité
+mondaine.—_La France Protestante_, ii. 17.
+
+[7] In our own history, above all, every step in advance has
+been at the same time a step backwards. It has often been shown how
+our latest constitution is, amidst all external differences,
+essentially the same as our earliest, how every struggle for right and
+freedom, from the thirteenth century onwards, has simply been a
+struggle for recovering something old.—FREEMAN, _Historical Essays_,
+iv. 253. Nothing but a thorough knowledge of the social system, based
+upon a regular study of its growth, can give us the power we require
+to affect it.—HARRISON, _Meaning of History_, 19. Eine Sache wird nur
+völlig auf dem Wege verstanden, wie sie selbst entsteht.—In dem
+genetischen Verfahren sind die Gründe der Sache, auch die Gründe des
+Erkennens.—TRENDELENBURG, _Logische Untersuchungen_, ii. 395, 388.
+
+[8] Une telle liberté ... n'a rien de commun avec le savant
+système de garanties qui fait libres les peuples modernes.—BOUTMY,
+_Annales des Sciences Politiques_, i. 157. Les trois grandes réformes
+qui ont renouvelé l'Angleterre, la liberté religieuse, la réforme
+parlementaire, et la liberté économique, ont été obtenues sous la
+pression des organisations extra-constitutionnelles.—OSTROGORSKI,
+_Revue Historique_, lii. 272.
+
+[9] The question which is at the bottom of all constitutional
+struggles, the question between the national will and the national
+law.—GARDINER, _Documents_, xviii. Religion, considered simply as the
+principle which balances the power of human opinion, which takes man
+out of the grasp of custom and fashion, and teaches him to refer
+himself to a higher tribunal, is an infinite aid to moral strength and
+elevation.—CHANNING, _Works_, iv. 83. Je tiens que le passé ne suffit
+jamais au présent. Personne n'est plus disposé que moi à profiter de
+ses leçons; mais en même temps, je le demande, le présent ne
+fournit-il pas toujours les indications qui lui sont propres?—MOLÉ,
+_in_ FALLOUX, _Études et Souvenirs_, 130. Admirons la sagesse de nos
+pères, et tachons de l'imiter, en faisant ce qui convient à notre
+siècle.—GALIANI, _Dialogues_, 40.
+
+[10] Ceterum in legendis Historiis malim te ductum animi,
+quam anxias leges sequi. Nullae sunt, quae non magnas habeant
+utilitates; et melius haerent, quae libenter legimus. In universum
+tamen, non incipere ab antiquissimis, sed ab his, quae nostris
+temporibus nostraeque notitiae propius cohaerent, ac paulatim deinde
+in remotiora eniti, magis è re arbitror.—GROTIUS, _Epistolæ_, 18.
+
+[11] The older idea of a law of degeneracy, of a “fatal drift
+towards the worse,” is as obsolete as astrology or the belief in
+witchcraft. The human race has become hopeful, sanguine.—SEELEY,
+_Rede Lecture_, 1887. _Fortnightly Review_, July, 1887, 124.
+
+[12] Formuler des idées générales, c'est changer le salpêtre
+en poudre.—A. DE MUSSET, _Confessions d'un Enfant du Siècle_, 15. Les
+révolutions c'est l'avènement des idées libérales. C'est presque
+toujours par les révolutions qu'elles prévalent et se fondent, et
+quand les idées libérales en sont véritablement le principe et le but,
+quand elles leur ont donné naissance, et quand elles les couronnent à
+leur dernier jour, alors ces révolutions sont légitimes.—RÉMUSAT,
+1839, in _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1875, vi. 335. Il y a même des
+personnes de piété qui prouvent par raison qu'il faut renoncer à la
+raison; que ce n'est point la lumière, mais la foi seule qui doit nous
+conduire, et que l'obéissance aveugle est la principale vertu des
+chrétiens. La paresse des inférieurs et leur esprit flatteur
+s'accommode souvent de cette vertu prétendue, et l'orgueil de ceux qui
+commandent en est toujours très content. De sorte qu'il se trouvera
+peut-être des gens qui seront scandalisés que je fasse cet honneur à
+la raison, de l'élever au-dessus de toutes les puissances, et qui
+s'imagineront que je me révolte contre les autorités légitimes à cause
+que je prends son parti et que je soutiens que c'est à elle à décider
+et à regner.—MALEBRANCHE, _Morale_, i. 2, 13. That great statesman
+(Mr. Pitt) distinctly avowed that the application of philosophy to
+politics was at that time an innovation, and that it was an innovation
+worthy to be adopted. He was ready to make the same avowal in the
+present day which Mr. Pitt had made in 1792.—CANNING, June 1, 1827.
+_Parliamentary Review_, 1828, 71. American history knows but one
+avenue of success in American legislation, freedom from ancient
+prejudice. The best lawgivers in our colonies first became as little
+children.—BANCROFT, _History of the United States_, i. 494.—Every
+American, from Jefferson and Gallatin down to the poorest squatter,
+seemed to nourish an idea that he was doing what he could to overthrow
+the tyranny which the past had fastened on the human mind.—ADAMS,
+_History of the United States_, i. 175.
+
+[13] The greatest changes of which we have had experience as
+yet are due to our increasing knowledge of history and nature. They
+have been produced by a few minds appearing in three or four favoured
+nations, in comparatively a short period of time. May we be allowed to
+imagine the minds of men everywhere working together during many ages
+for the completion of our knowledge? May not the increase of knowledge
+transfigure the world?—JOWETT, _Plato_, i. 414. Nothing, I believe,
+is so likely to beget in us a spirit of enlightened liberality, of
+Christian forbearance, of large-hearted moderation, as the careful study
+of the history of doctrine and the history of interpretation.—PEROWNE,
+_Psalms_, i. p. xxxi.
+
+[14] Ce n'est guère avant la seconde moitié du XVIIe siècle
+qu'il devint impossible de soutenir l'authenticité des fausses
+décrétales, des Constitutions apostoliques, des Récognitions
+Clémentines, du faux Ignace, du pseudo-Dionys, et de l'immense fatras
+d'œuvres anonymes ou pseudonymes qui grossissait souvent du tiers
+ou de la moitié l'héritage littéraire des auteurs les plus
+considérables.—DUCHESNE, _Témoins anténicéens de la Trinité_, 1883,
+36.
+
+[15] A man who does not know what has been thought by those
+who have gone before him is sure to set an undue value upon his own
+ideas.—M. PATTISON, _Memoirs_, 78.
+
+[16] Travailler à discerner, dans cette discipline, le solide
+d'avec le frivole, le vrai d'avec le vraisemblable, la science d'avec
+l'opinion, ce qui forme le jugement d'avec ce qui ne fait que charger
+la mémoire.—LAMY, _Connoissance de soi-même_, v. 459.
+
+[17] All our hopes of the future depend on a sound
+understanding of the past.—HARRISON, _The Meaning of History_, 6.
+
+[18] The real history of mankind is that of the slow advance
+of resolved deed following laboriously just thought; and all the
+greatest men live in their purpose and effort more than it is possible
+for them to live in reality.—The things that actually happened were
+of small consequence—the thoughts that were developed are of infinite
+consequence.—RUSKIN. Facts are the mere dross of history. It is from
+the abstract truth which interpenetrates them, and lies latent among
+them like gold in the ore, that the mass derives its value.—MACAULAY,
+_Works_, v. 131.
+
+[19] Die Gesetze der Geschichte sind eben die Gesetze der
+ganzen Menschheit, gehen nicht in die Geschicke eines Volkes, einer
+Generation oder gar eines Einzelnen auf. Individuen und Geschlechter,
+Staaten und Nationen, können zerstäuben, die Menschheit bleibt.—A.
+SCHMIDT, _Züricher Monatschrift_. i. 45.
+
+[20] Le grand péril des âges démocratiques, soyez-en sûr,
+c'est la destruction ou l'affaiblissement excessif des parties du
+corps social en présence du tout. Tout ce qui relève de nos jours
+l'idée de l'individu est sain.—TOCQUEVILLE, Jan. 3, 1840,
+_Œuvres_, vii. 97. En France, il n'y a plus d'hommes. On a
+systématiquement tué l'homme au profit du peuple, des masses, comme
+disent nos législateurs écervelés. Puis un beau jour, on s'est aperçu
+que ce peuple n'avait jamais existé qu'en projet, que ces masses
+étaient un troupeau mi-partie de moutons et de tigres. C'est une
+triste histoire. Nous avons à relever l'âme humaine contre l'aveugle
+et brutale tyrannie des multitudes.—LANFREY, March 23, 1855. M. DU
+CAMP, _Souvenirs Littéraires_, ii. 273. C'est le propre de la vertu
+d'être invisible, même dans l'histoire, à tout autre œil que celui
+de la conscience.—VACHEROT, _Comptes Rendus de l'Institut_, lxix.
+319. Dans l'histoire où la bonté est la perle rare, qui a été bon
+passe presque avant qui a été grand.—V. HUGO, _Les Misérables_, vii.
+46. Grosser Maenner Leben und Tod der Wahrheit gemaess mit Liebe zu
+schildern, ist zu allen Zeiten herzerhebend; am meisten aber dann,
+wenn im Kreislauf der irdischen Dinge die Sterne wieder aehnlich
+stehen wie damals als sie unter uns lebten.—LASAULX, _Sokrates_, 3.
+Instead of saying that the history of mankind is the history of the
+masses, it would be much more true to say that the history of mankind
+is the history of its great men.—KINGSLEY, _Lectures_, 329.
+
+[21] Le génie n'est que la plus complète émancipation de
+toutes les influences de temps, de mœurs, et de pays.—NISARD,
+_Souvenirs_, ii. 43.
+
+[22] Meine kritische Richtung zieht mich in der Wissenschaft
+durchaus zur Kritik meiner eigenen Gedanken hin, nicht zu der der
+Gedanken Anderer.—ROTHE, _Ethik_, i., p. xi.
+
+[23] When you are in young years the whole mind is, as it
+were, fluid, and is capable of forming itself into any shape that the
+owner of the mind pleases to order it to form itself into.—CARLYLE,
+_On the Choice of Books_, 131. Nach allem erscheint es somit
+unzweifelhaft als eine der psychologischen Voraussetzungen des
+Strafrechts, ohne welche der Zurechnungsbegriff nicht haltbar wäre,
+dass der Mensch für seinen Charakter verantwortlich ist und ihn muss
+abändern können.—RÜMELIN, _Reden und Aufsätze_, ii., 60. An der
+tiefen und verborgenen Quelle, woraus der Wille entspringt, an diesem
+Punkt, nur hier steht die Freiheit, und führt das Steuer und lenkt den
+Willen. Wer nicht bis zu dieser Tiefe in sich einkehren und seinen
+natürlichen Charakter von hier aus bemeistern kann, der hat nicht den
+Gebrauch seiner Freiheit, der ist nicht frei, sondern unterworfen dem
+Triebwerk seiner Interessen, und dadurch in der Gewalt des Weltlaufs,
+worin jede Begebenheit und jede Handlung eine nothwendige Folge ist
+aller vorhergehenden.—FISCHER, _Problem der Freiheit_, 27.
+
+[24] I must regard the main duty of a Professor to consist,
+not simply in communicating information, but in doing this in such a
+manner, and with such an accompaniment of subsidiary means, that the
+information he conveys may be the occasion of awakening his pupils to
+a vigorous and varied exertion of their faculties.—SIR W. HAMILTON,
+_Lectures_, i. 14. No great man really does his work by imposing his
+maxims on his disciples, he evokes their life. The pupil may become
+much wiser than his instructor, he may not accept his conclusions, but
+he will own, “You awakened me to be myself, for that I thank
+you.”—MAURICE, _The Conscience_, 7, 8.
+
+[25] Ich sehe die Zeit kommen, wo wir die neuere Geschichte
+nicht mehr auf die Berichte selbst nicht der gleichzeitigen
+Historiker, ausser in so weit ihnen neue originale Kenntniss
+beiwohnte, geschweige denn auf die weiter abgeleiteten Bearbeitungen
+zu gründen haben, sondern aus den Relationen der Augenzeugen und der
+ächten und unmittelbarsten Urkunden aufbauen werden.—RANKE,
+_Reformation_, _Preface_, 1838. Ce qu'on a trouvé et mis en œuvre
+est considérable en soi: c'est peu de chose au prix de ce qui reste à
+trouver et à mettre en œuvre.—AULARD, _Études sur la Révolution_,
+21.
+
+[26] N'attendez donc pas les leçons de l'expérience; elles
+coûtent trop cher aux nations.—O. BARROT, _Mémoires_, ii. 435. Il y a
+des leçons dans tous les temps, pour tous les temps; et celles qu'on
+emprunte à des ennemis ne sont pas les moins précieuses.—LANFREY,
+_Napoléon_, v. p. ii. Old facts may always be fresh, and may give out
+a fresh meaning for each generation.—MAURICE, _Lectures_, 62. The
+object is to lead the student to attend to them; to make him take
+interest in history not as a mere narrative, but as a chain of causes
+and effects still unwinding itself before our eyes, and full of
+momentous consequences to himself and his descendants—an unremitting
+conflict between good and evil powers, of which every act done by any
+one of us, insignificant as we are, forms one of the incidents; a
+conflict in which even the smallest of us cannot escape from taking
+part, in which whoever does not help the right side is helping the
+wrong.—MILL, _Inaugural Address_, 59.
+
+[27] I hold that the degree in which Poets dwell in sympathy
+with the Past, marks exactly the degree of their poetical
+faculty.—WORDSWORTH in C. FOX, _Memoirs_, June, 1842. In all
+political, all social, all human questions whatever, history is the
+main resource of the inquirer.—HARRISON, _Meaning of History_, 15.
+There are no truths which more readily gain the assent of mankind, or
+are more firmly retained by them, than those of an historical nature,
+depending upon the testimony of others.—PRIESTLEY, _Letters to French
+Philosophers_, 9. Improvement consists in bringing our opinions into
+nearer agreement with facts; and we shall not be likely to do this
+while we look at facts only through glasses coloured by those very
+opinions.—MILL, _Inaugural Address_, 25.
+
+[28] He who has learnt to understand the true character and
+tendency of many succeeding ages is not likely to go very far wrong in
+estimating his own.—LECKY, _Value of History_, 21. C'est à l'histoire
+qu'il faut se prendre, c'est le fait que nous devons interroger, quand
+l'idée vacille et fuit à nos yeux.—MICHELET, _Disc. d'Ouverture_,
+263. C'est la loi des faits telle qu'elle se manifeste dans leur
+succession. C'est la règle de conduite donnée par la nature humaine et
+indiquée par l'histoire. C'est la logique, mais cette logique qui ne
+fait qu'un avec l'enchaînement des choses. C'est l'enseignement de
+l'expérience.—SCHERER, _Mélanges_, 558. Wer seine Vergangenheit nicht
+als seine Geschichte hat und weiss wird und ist characterlos Wem ein
+Ereigniss sein Sonst plötzlich abreisst von seinem Jetzt wird leicht
+wurzellos.—KLIEFOTH, _Rheinwalds Repertorium_, xliv. 20. La politique
+est une des meilleures écoles pour l'esprit. Elle force à chercher la
+raison de toutes choses, et ne permet pas cependant de la chercher
+hors des faits.—RÉMUSAT, _Le Temps Passé_, i. 31. It is an unsafe
+partition that divides opinions without principle from unprincipled
+opinions.—COLERIDGE, _Lay Sermon_, 373.
+
+    Wer nicht von drei tausend Jahren sich weiss Rechenschaft zu geben,
+    Bleib' im Dunkeln unerfahren, mag von Tag zu Tage leben!
+
+                                                          GOETHE.
+
+What can be rationally required of the student of philosophy is not a
+preliminary and absolute, but a gradual and progressive, abrogation of
+prejudices.—SIR W. HAMILTON, _Lectures_, iv. 92.
+
+[29] Die Schlacht bei Leuthen ist wohl die letzte, in welcher
+diese religiösen Gegensätze entscheidend eingewirkt haben.—RANKE,
+_Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie_, vii. 70.
+
+[30] The only real cry in the country is the proper and just
+old No Popery cry.—_Major Beresford_, July, 1847. Unfortunately the
+strongest bond of union amongst them is an apprehension of
+Popery.—_Stanley_, September 12, 1847. The great Protectionist party
+having degenerated into a No Popery, No Jew Party, I am still more
+unfit now than I was in 1846 to lead it.—_G. Bentinck_, December 26,
+1847. _Croker's Memoirs_, iii. 116, 132, 157.
+
+[31] In the case of Protestantism, this constitutional
+instability is now a simple matter of fact, which has become too plain
+to be denied. The system is not fixed, but in motion; and the motion
+is for the time in the direction of complete self-dissolution.—We
+take it for a transitory scheme, whose breaking up is to make room in
+due time for another and far more perfect state of the Church.—The
+new order in which Protestantism is to become thus complete cannot be
+reached without the co-operation and help of Romanism.—NEVIN,
+_Mercersburg Review_, iv. 48.
+
+[32] Diese Heiligen waren es, die aus dem unmittelbaren
+Glaubensleben und den Grundgedanken der christlichen Freiheit zuerst
+die Idee allgemeiner Menschenrechte abgeleitet und rein von
+Selbstsucht vertheidigt haben.—WEINGARTEN, _Revolutionskirchen_, 447.
+Wie selbst die Idee allgemeiner Menschenrechte, die in dem gemeinsamen
+Character der Ebenbildlichkeit Gottes gegründet sind, erst durch das
+Christenthum zum Bewusstsein gebracht werden, während jeder andere
+Eifer für politische Freiheit als ein mehr oder weniger
+selbstsüchtiger und beschränkter sich erwiesen hat.—NEANDER, _Pref.
+to Uhden's Wilberforce_, p. v. The rights of individuals and the
+justice due to them are as dear and precious as those of states;
+indeed the latter are founded on the former, and the great end and
+object of them must be to secure and support the rights of
+individuals, or else vain is government.—CUSHING in CONWAY, _Life of
+Paine_, i. 217. As it is owned the whole scheme of Scripture is not
+yet understood; so, if it ever comes to be understood, before the
+restitution of all things, and without miraculous interpositions, it
+must be in the same way as natural knowledge is come at—by the
+continuance and progress of learning and liberty.—BUTLER, _Analogy_,
+ii. 3.
+
+[33] Comme les lois elles-mêmes sont faillibles, et qu'il
+peut y avoir une autre justice que la justice écrite, les sociétés
+modernes ont voulu garantir les droits de la conscience à la poursuite
+d'une justice meilleure que celle qui existe; et là est le fondement
+de ce qu'on appelle liberté de conscience, liberté d'écrire, liberté
+de pensée.—JANET, _Philosophie Contemporaine_, 308. Si la force
+matérielle a toujours fini par céder à l'opinion, combien plus ne
+sera-t-elle pas contrainte de céder à la conscience? Car la
+conscience, c'est l'opinion renforcée par le sentiment de
+l'obligation.—VINET, _Liberté Religieuse_, 3.
+
+[34] Après la volonté d'un homme, la raison d'état; après la
+raison d'état, la religion; après la religion, la liberté. Voilà toute
+la philosophie de l'histoire.—FLOTTES, _La Souveraineté du Peuple_,
+1851, 192. La répartition plus égale des biens et des droits dans ce
+monde est le plus grand objet que doivent se proposer ceux qui mènent
+les affaires humaines. Je veux seulement que l'égalité en politique
+consiste à être également libre.—TOCQUEVILLE, September 10, 1856.
+_Mme. Swetchine_, i. 455. On peut concevoir une législation très
+simple, lorsqu'on voudra en écarter tout ce qui est arbitraire, ne
+consulter que les deux premières lois de la liberté et de la
+propriété, et ne point admettre de lois positives qui ne tirent leur
+raison de ces deux lois souveraines de la justice essentielle et
+absolue.—LETROSNE, _Vues sur la Justice Criminelle_, 16. Summa enim
+libertas est, ad optimum recta ratione cogi.—Nemo optat sibi hanc
+libertatem, volendi quae velit, sed potius volendi optima.—LEIBNIZ,
+_De Fato_. TRENDELENBURG, _Beiträge zur Philosophie_, ii. 190.
+
+[35] All the world is, by the very law of its creation, in
+eternal progress; and the cause of all the evils of the world may be
+traced to that natural, but most deadly error of human indolence and
+corruption, that our business is to preserve and not to
+improve.—ARNOLD, _Life_, i. 259. In whatever state of knowledge we
+may conceive man to be placed, his progress towards a yet higher state
+need never fear a check, but must continue till the last existence of
+society.—HERSCHEL, _Prel. Dis._, 360. It is in the development of
+thought as in every other development; the present suffers from the
+past, and the future struggles hard in escaping from the
+present.—MAX MÜLLER, _Science of Thought_, 617. Most of the great
+positive evils of the world are in themselves removable, and will, if
+human affairs continue to improve, be in the end reduced within narrow
+limits. Poverty in any sense implying suffering may be completely
+extinguished by the wisdom of society combined with the good sense and
+providence of individuals.—All the grand sources, in short, of human
+suffering are in a great degree, many of them almost entirely,
+conquerable by human care and effort.—J. S. MILL, _Utilitarianism_,
+21, 22. The ultimate standard of worth is personal worth, and the only
+progress that is worth striving after, the only acquisition that is
+truly good and enduring, is the growth of the soul.—BIXBY, _Crisis of
+Morals_, 210. La science, et l'industrie qu'elle produit, ont, parmi
+tous les autres enfants du génie de l'homme, ce privilège particulier,
+que leur vol non-seulement ne peut pas s'interrompre, mais qu'il
+s'accélère sans cesse.—CUVIER, _Discours sur la Marche des Sciences_,
+24 Avril, 1816. Aucune idée parmi celles qui se réfèrent à l'ordre des
+faits naturels, ne tient de plus près à la famille des idées
+religieuses que l'idée du progrès, et n'est plus propre à devenir le
+principe d'une sorte de foi religieuse pour ceux qui n'en ont pas
+d'autres. Elle a, comme la foi religieuse, la vertu de relever les
+âmes et les caractères.—COURNOT, _Marche des Idées_, ii. 425. Dans le
+spectacle de l'humanité errante, souffrante et travaillant toujours à
+mieux voir, à mieux penser, à mieux agir, à diminuer l'infirmité de
+l'être humain, à apaiser l'inquiétude de son cœur, la science
+découvre une direction et un progrès.—A. SOREL, _Discours de
+Réception_, 14. Le jeune homme qui commence son éducation quinze ans
+après son père, à une époque où celui-ci, engagé dans une profession
+spéciale et active, ne peut que suivre les anciens principes, acquiert
+une supériorité théorique dont on doit tenir compte dans la hiérarchie
+sociale. Le plus souvent le père n'est-il pas pénétré de l'esprit de
+routine, tandis que le fils représente et défend la science
+progressive? En diminuant l'écart qui existait entre l'influence des
+jeunes générations et celle de la vieillesse ou de l'âge mûr, les
+peuples modernes n'auraient donc fait que reproduire dans leur ordre
+social un changement de rapports qui s'était déjà accompli dans la
+nature intime des choses.—BOUTMY, _Revue Nationale_, xxi. 393. Il y a
+dans l'homme individuel des principes de progrès viager; il y a, en
+toute société, des causes constantes qui transforment ce progrès
+viager en progrès héréditaire. Une société quelconque tend à
+progresser tant que les circonstances ne touchent pas aux causes de
+progrès que nous avons reconnues, l'imitation des dévanciers par les
+successeurs, des étrangers par les indigènes.—LACOMBE, _L'Histoire
+comme Science_, 292. Veram creatæ mentis beatitudinem consistere in
+non impedito progressu ad bona majora.—LEIBNIZ to WOLF, February 21,
+1705. In cumulum etiam pulchritudinis perfectionisque universalis
+operum divinorum progressus quidam perpetuus liberrimusque totius
+universi est agnoscendus, ita ut ad majorem semper cultum
+procedat.—LEIBNIZ ed. Erdmann, 150_a_. Der Creaturen und also auch
+unsere Vollkommenheit bestehet in einem ungehinderten starken
+Forttrieb zu neuen und neuen Vollkommenheiten.—LEIBNIZ, _Deutsche
+Schriften_, ii. 36. Hegel, welcher annahm, der Fortschritt der Neuzeit
+gegen das Mittelalter sei dieser, dass die Principien der Tugend und
+des Christenthums, welche im Mittelalter sich allein im Privatleben
+und der Kirche zur Geltung gebracht hätten, nun auch anfingen, das
+politische Leben zu durchdringen.—FORTLAGE, _Allg. Monatschrift_,
+1853, 777. Wir Slawen wissen, dass die Geister einzelner Menschen und
+ganzer Völker sich nur durch die Stufe ihrer Entwicklung
+unterscheiden.—MICKIEWICZ, _Slawische Literatur_, ii. 436. Le progrès
+ne disparait jamais, mais il se déplace souvent. Il va des gouvernants
+aux gouvernés. La tendance des révolutions est de le ramener toujours
+parmi les gouvernants. Lorsqu'il est à la tête des sociétés, il marche
+hardiment, car il conduit. Lorsqu'il est dans la masse, il marche à
+pas lents, car il lutte.—NAPOLEON III., _Des Idées Napoléoniennes_.
+La loi du progrès avait jadis l'inexorable rigueur du destin; elle
+prend maintenant de jour en jour la douce puissance de la Providence.
+C'est l'erreur, c'est l'iniquité, c'est le vice, que la civilisation
+tend à emporter dans sa marche irrésistible; mais la vie des individus
+et des peuples est devenue pour elle une chose sacrée. Elle transforme
+plutôt qu'elle ne détruit les choses qui s'opposent à son
+développement; elle procède par absorption graduelle plutôt que par
+brusque exécution; elle aime à conquérir par l'influence des idées
+plutôt que par la force des armes, un peuple, une classe, une
+institution qui résiste au progrès.—VACHEROT, _Essais de Philosophie
+Critique_, 443. Peu à peu l'homme intellectuel finit par effacer
+l'homme physique.—QUETELET, _De l'Homme_, ii. 285. In dem Fortschritt
+der ethischen Anschauungen liegt daher der Kern des geschichtlichen
+Fortschritts überhaupt.—SCHÄFER, _Arbeitsgebiet der Geschichte_, 24.
+Si l'homme a plus de devoirs à mesure qu'il avance en âge, ce qui est
+mélancolique, mais ce qui est vrai, de même aussi l'humanité est tenue
+d'avoir une morale plus sévère à mesure qu'elle prend plus de
+siècles.—FAGUET, _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1894, iii. 871. Si donc il
+y a une loi de progrès, elle se confond avec la loi morale, et la
+condition fondamentale du progrès, c'est la pratique de cette
+loi.—CARRAU, _Ib._, 1875, v. 585. L'idée du progrès, du
+développement, me paraît être l'idée fondamentale contenue sous le mot
+de civilisation.—GUIZOT, _Cours d'Histoire_, 1828, 15. Le progrès
+n'est sous un autre nom, que la liberté en action.—BROGLIE, _Journal
+des Débats_, January 28, 1869. Le progrès social est continu. Il a ses
+périodes de fièvre ou d'atonie, de surexcitation ou de léthargie; il a
+ses soubresauts et ses haltes, mais il avance toujours.—DE DECKER,
+_La Providence_, 174. Ce n'est pas au bonheur seul, c'est au
+perfectionnement que notre destin nous appelle; et la liberté
+politique est le plus puissant, le plus énergique moyen de
+perfectionnement que le ciel nous ait donné.—B. CONSTANT, _Cours de
+Politique_, ii. 559. To explode error, on whichever side it lies, is
+certainly to secure progress.—MARTINEAU, _Essays_, i. 114. Die
+sämmtlichen Freiheitsrechte, welche der heutigen Menschheit so theuer sind,
+sind im Grunde nur Anwendungen des Rechts der Entwickelung.—BLUNTSCHLI,
+_Kleine Schriften_, i. 51. Geistiges Leben ist auf Freiheit beruhende
+Entwicklung, mit Freiheit vollzogene That und geschichtlicher
+Fortschritt.—_Münchner Gel. Anzeigen_ 1849, ii. 83. Wie das Denken
+erst nach und nach reift, so wird auch der freie Wille nicht fertig
+geboren, sondern in der Entwickelung erworben.—TRENDELENBURG,
+_Logische Untersuchungen_, ii. 94. Das Liberum Arbitrium im vollen
+Sinne (die vollständig aktuelle Macht der Selbstbestimmung) lässt sich
+seinem Begriff zufolge schlechterdings nicht unmittelbar geben; es
+kann nur erworben werden durch das Subjekt selbst, in sich moralisch
+hervorgebracht werden kraft seiner eigenen Entwickelung.—ROTHE,
+_Ethik_, i. 360. So gewaltig sei der Andrang der Erfindungen und
+Entdeckungen, dass “Entwicklungsperioden, die in früheren Zeiten erst
+in Jahrhunderten durchlaufen wurden, die im Beginn unserer Zeitperiode
+noch der Jahrzehnte bedurften, sich heute in Jahren volienden, häufig
+schon in voller Ausbildung ins Dasein treten.”—PHILIPPOVICH,
+_Fortschritt und Kulturentwicklung_, 1892, i. quoting SIEMENS, 1886.
+Wir erkennen dass dem Menschen die schwere körperliche Arbeit, von der
+er in seinem Kampfe um's Dasein stets schwer niedergedrückt war und
+grossenteils noch ist, mehr und mehr durch die wachsende Benutzung der
+Naturkräfte zur mechanischen Arbeitsleistung abgenommen wird, dass
+die ihm zufallende Arbeit immer mehr eine intellektuelle
+wird.—SIEMENS, 1886, _Ib._ 6.
+
+[36] Once, however, he wrote:—Darin könnte man den idealen
+Kern der Geschichte des menschlichen Geschlechtes überhaupt sehen,
+dass in den Kämpfen, die sich in den gegenseitigen Interessen der
+Staaten und Völker vollziehen, doch immer höhere Potenzen emporkommen,
+die das Allgemeine demgemäss umgestalten und ihm wieder einen anderen
+Charakter verleihen.—RANKE, _Weltgeschichte_, iii. 1, 6.
+
+[37] Toujours et partout, les hommes furent de plus en plus
+dominés par l'ensemble de leurs prédécesseurs, dont ils purent
+seulement modifier l'empire nécessaire.—COMTE, _Politique Positive_,
+iii. 621.
+
+[38] La liberté est l'âme du commerce.—Il faut laisser faire
+les hommes qui s'appliquent sans peine à ce qui convient le mieux;
+c'est ce qui apporte le plus d'avantage.—COLBERT, in _Comptes Rendus
+de l'Institut_, xxxix. 93.
+
+[39] Il n'y a que les choses humaines exposées dans leur
+vérité, c'est-à-dire avec leur grandeur, leur variété, leur
+inépuisable fécondité, qui aient le droit de retenir le lecteur et qui
+le retiennent en effet. Si l'écrivain paraît une fois, il ennuie ou
+fait sourire de pitié les lecteurs sérieux.—THIERS to STE. BEUVE,
+_Lundis_, iii. 195. Comme l'a dit Taine, la disparition du style,
+c'est la perfection du style.—FAGUET, _Revue Politique_, lii. 67.
+
+[40] Ne m'applaudissez pas; ce n'est pas moi qui vous parle;
+c'est l'histoire qui parle par ma bouche.—_Revue Historique_, xli.
+278.
+
+[41] Das Evangelium trat als Geschichte in die Welt, nicht
+als Dogma—wurde als Geschichte in der christlichen Kirche
+deponirt.—ROTHE, _Kirchengeschichte_, ii. p. x. Das Christenthum ist
+nicht der Herr Christus, sondern dieser macht es. Es ist sein Werk,
+und zwar ein Werk das er stets unter der Arbeit hat.—Er selbst,
+Christus der Herr, bleibt der er ist in alle Zukunft, dagegen liegt es
+ausdrücklich im Begriffe seines Werks, des Christenthums, dass es
+nicht so bleibt wie es anhebt.—ROTHE, _Allgemeine kirchliche
+Zeitschrift_, 1864, 299. Diess Werk, weil es dem Wesen der Geschichte
+zufolge eine Entwickelung ist, muss über Stufen hinweggehen, die
+einander ablösen, und von denen jede folgende neue immer nur unter der
+Zertrümmerung der ihr vorangehenden Platz greifen kann.—ROTHE, _Ib._
+April 19, 1865. Je grösser ein geschichtliches Princip ist, desto
+langsamer und über mehr Stufen hinweg entfaltet es seinen Gehalt;
+desto langlebiger ist es aber ebendeshalb auch in diesen seinen
+unaufhörlichen Abwandelungen.—ROTHE, _Stille Stunden_, 301. Der
+christliche Glaube geht nicht von der Anerkennung abstracter
+Lehrwahrheiten aus, sondern von der Anerkennung einer Reihe von
+Thatsachen, die in der Erscheinung Jesu ihren Mittelpunkt
+haben.—NITZSCH, _Dogmengeschichte_, i. 17. Der Gedankengang der
+evangelischen Erzählung gibt darum auch eine vollständige Darstellung
+der christlichen Lehre in ihren wesentlichen Grundzügen; aber er gibt
+sie im allseitigen lebendigen Zusammenhange mit der Geschichte der
+christlichen Offenbarung, und nicht in einer theoretisch
+zusammenhängenden Folgenreihe von ethischen und dogmatischen
+Lehrsätzen.—DEUTINGER, _Reich Gottes_, i. p. v.
+
+[42] L'Univers ne doit pas estre considéré seulement dans ce
+qu'il est; pour le bien connoître, il faut le voir aussi dans ce qu'il
+doit estre. C'est cet avenir surtout qui a été le grand objet de Dieu
+dans la création, et c'est pour cet avenir seul que le présent
+existe.—D'HOUTEVILLE, _Essai sur la Providence_, 273. La Providence
+emploie les siècles à élever toujours un plus grand nombre de familles
+et d'individus à ces biens de la liberté et de l'égalité légitimes
+que, dans l'enfance des sociétés, la force avait rendus le privilège
+de quelques-uns.—GUIZOT, _Gouvernement de la France_, 1820, 9. La
+marche de la Providence n'est pas assujettie à d'étroites limites;
+elle ne s'inquiète pas de tirer aujourd'hui la conséquence du principe
+qu'elle a posé hier; elle la tirera dans des siècles, quand l'heure
+sera venue; et pour raisonner lentement selon nous, sa logique n'est
+pas moins sûre.—GUIZOT, _Histoire de la Civilisation_, 20. Der Keim
+fortschreitender Entwicklung ist, auch auf göttlichem Geheisse, der
+Menschheit eingepflanzt. Die Weltgeschichte ist der blosse Ausdruck
+einer vorbestimmten Entwicklung.—A. HUMBOLDT, January 2, 1842, _Im
+Neuen Reich_, 1872, i. 197. Das historisch grosse ist religiös gross;
+es ist die Gottheit selbst, die sich offenbart.—RAUMER, April 1807,
+_Erinnerungen_, i. 85.
+
+[43] Je suis arrivé à l'âge où je suis, à travers bien des
+évènements différents, mais avec une seule cause, celle de la liberté
+régulière.—TOCQUEVILLE, May 1, 1852, _Œuvres Inédites_, ii. 185.
+Me trouvant dans un pays où la religion et le libéralisme sont
+d'accord, j'avais respiré.—J'exprimais ce sentiment, il y a plus de
+vingt ans, dans l'avant-propos de la _Démocratie_. Je l'éprouve
+aujourd'hui aussi vivement que si j'étais encore jeune, et je ne sais
+s'il y a une seule pensée qui ait été plus constamment présente à mon
+esprit.—August 5, 1857, _Œuvres_, vi. 395. Il n'y a que la liberté
+(j'entends la modérée et la régulière) et la religion, qui, par un
+effort combiné, puissent soulever les hommes au-dessus du bourbier où
+l'égalité démocratique les plonge naturellement.—December 1, 1852,
+_Œuvres_, vii. 295. L'un de mes rêves, le principal en entrant dans
+la vie politique, était de travailler à concilier l'esprit libéral et
+l'esprit de religion, la société nouvelle et l'église.—November 15,
+1843, _Œuvres Inédites_, ii. 121. La véritable grandeur de l'homme
+n'est que dans l'accord du sentiment libéral et du sentiment
+religieux.—September 17, 1853, _Œuvres Inédites_, ii. 228. Qui
+cherche dans la liberté autre chose qu'elle-même est fait pour
+servir.—_Ancien Régime_, 248. Je regarde, ainsi que je l'ai toujours
+fait, la liberté comme le premier des biens; je vois toujours en elle
+l'une des sources les plus fécondes des vertus mâles et des actions
+grandes. Il n'y a pas de tranquillité ni de bien-être qui puisse me
+tenir lieu d'elle.—January 7, 1856, _Mme. Swetchine_, i. 452. La
+liberté a un faux air d'aristocratie; en donnant pleine carrière aux
+facultés humaines, en encourageant le travail et l'économie, elle fait
+ressortir les supériorités naturelles ou acquises.—LABOULAYE, _L'État
+et ses Limites_, 154. Dire que la liberté n'est point par elle-même,
+qu'elle dépend d'une situation, d'une opportunité, c'est lui assigner
+une valeur négative. La liberté n'est pas dès qu'on la subordonne.
+Elle n'est pas un principe purement négatif, un simple élément de
+contrôle et de critique. Elle est le principe actif, créateur
+organisateur par excellence. Elle est le moteur et la règle, la source
+de toute vie, et le principe de l'ordre. Elle est, en un mot, le nom
+que prend la conscience souveraine, lorsque, se posant en face du
+monde social et politique, elle émerge du moi pour modeler les
+sociétés sur les données de la raison.—BRISSON, _Revue Nationale_,
+xxiii. 214. Le droit, dans l'histoire, est le développement progressif
+de la liberté, sous la loi de la raison.—LERMINIER, _Philosophie du
+Droit_, i. 211. En prouvant par les leçons de l'histoire que la
+liberté fait vivre les peuples et que le despotisme les tue, en
+montrant que l'expiation suit la faute et que la fortune finit
+d'ordinaire par se ranger du côté de la vertu, Montesquieu n'est ni
+moins moral ni moins religieux que Bossuet.—LABOULAYE, _Œuvres de
+Montesquieu_, ii. 109. Je ne comprendrais pas qu'une nation ne plaçât
+pas les libertés politiques au premier rang, parce que c'est des
+libertés politiques que doivent découler toutes les autres.—THIERS,
+_Discours_, x. 8, _March_ 28, 1865. Nous sommes arrivés à une époque
+où la liberté est le but sérieux de tous, où le reste n'est plus
+qu'une question de moyens.—J. LEBEAU, _Observations sur le Pouvoir
+Royal_: Liége, 1830, p. 10. Le libéralisme, ayant la prétention de se
+fonder uniquement sur les principes de la raison, croit d'ordinaire
+n'avoir pas besoin de tradition. Là est son erreur. L'erreur de
+l'école libérale est d'avoir trop cru qu'il est facile de créer la
+liberté par la réflexion, et de n'avoir pas vu qu'un établissement
+n'est solide que quand il a des racines historiques.—RENAN, 1858,
+_Nouvelle Revue_, lxxix. 596. Le respect des individus et des droits
+existants est autant au-dessus du bonheur de tous, qu'un intérêt moral
+surpasse un intérêt purement temporel.—RENAN, 1858, _Ib._ lxxix. 597.
+Die Rechte gelten nichts, wo es sich handelt um das Recht, und das
+Recht der Freiheit kann nie verjähren, weil es die Quelle alles
+Rechtes selbst ist.—C. FRANTZ, _Ueber die Freiheit_, 110. Wir
+erfahren hienieden nie die ganze Wahrheit: wir geniessen nie die ganze
+Freiheit.—REUSS, _Reden_, 56. Le gouvernement constitutionnel, comme
+tout gouvernement libre, présente et doit présenter un état de lutte
+permanent. La liberté est la perpétuité de la lutte.—DE SERRE.
+BROGLIE, _Nouvelles Études_, 243. The experiment of free government is
+not one which can be tried once for all. Every generation must try it
+for itself. As each new generation starts up to the responsibilities
+of manhood, there is, as it were, a new launch of Liberty, and its
+voyage of experiment begins afresh.—WINTHROP, _Addresses_, 163.
+L'histoire perd son véritable caractère du moment que la liberté en a
+disparu; elle devient une sorte de physique sociale. C'est l'élément
+personnel de l'histoire qui en fait la réalité.—VACHEROT, _Revue des
+Deux Mondes_, 1869, iv. 215. Demander la liberté pour soi et la
+refuser aux autres, c'est la définition du despotisme.—LABOULAYE,
+December 4, 1874. Les causes justes profitent de tout, des bonnes
+intentions comme des mauvaises, des calculs personnels comme des
+dévouemens courageux, de la démence, enfin, comme de la raison.—B.
+CONSTANT, _Les Cent Jours_, ii. 29. Sie ist die Kunst, das Gute der
+schon weit gediehenen Civilisation zu sichern.—BALTISCH, _Politische
+Freiheit_, 9. In einem Volke, welches sich zur bürgerlichen
+Gesellschaft, überhaupt zum Bewusstseyn der Unendlichkeit des
+Freien—entwickelt hat, ist nur die constitutionelle Monarchie
+möglich.—HEGEL'S _Philosophie des Rechts_, § 137, _Hegel und
+Preussen_, 1841, 31. Freiheit ist das höchste Gut. Alles andere ist
+nur das Mittel dazu: gut falls es ein Mittel dazu ist, übel falls es
+dieselbe hemmt.—FICHTE, _Werke_, iv. 403. You are not to inquire how
+your trade may be increased, nor how you are to become a great and
+powerful people, but how your liberties can be secured. For liberty
+ought to be the direct end of your government.—PATRICK HENRY, 1788.
+WIRT, _Life of Henry_, 272.
+
+[44] Historiæ ipsius præter delectationem utilitas nulla est,
+quam ut religionis Christianæ veritas demonstretur, quod aliter quam
+per historiam fieri non potest.—LEIBNIZ, _Opera_, ed. Dutens, vi.
+297. The study of Modern History is, next to Theology itself, and only
+next in so far as Theology rests on a divine revelation, the most
+thoroughly religious training that the mind can receive. It is no
+paradox to say that Modern History, including Medieval History in the
+term, is co-extensive in its field of view, in its habits of
+criticism, in the persons of its most famous students, with
+Ecclesiastical History.—STUBBS, _Lectures_, 9. Je regarde donc
+l'étude de l'histoire comme l'étude de la providence.—L'histoire est
+vraiment une seconde philosophie.—Si Dieu ne parle pas toujours, il
+agit toujours en Dieu.—D'AGUESSEAU, _Œuvres_, xv. 34, 31, 35. Für
+diejenigen, welche das Wesen der menschlichen Freiheit erkannt haben,
+bildet die denkende Betrachtung der Weltgeschichte, besonders des
+christlichen Weltalters, die höchste, und umfassendste Theodicee.—VATKE,
+_Die Menschliche Freiheit_, 1841, 516. La théologie, que l'on regarde
+volontiers comme la plus étroite et la plus stérile des sciences, en
+est, au contraire, la plus étendue et la plus féconde. Elle confine à
+toutes les études et touche à toutes les questions. Elle renferme tous
+les éléments d'une instruction libérale.—SCHERER, _Mélanges_, 522. The
+belief that the course of events and the agency of man are subject to
+the laws of a divine order, which it is alike impossible for any one
+either fully to comprehend or effectually to resist—this belief is the
+ground of all our hope for the future destinies of mankind.—THIRLWALL,
+_Remains_, iii. 282. A true religion must consist of ideas and facts
+both; not of ideas alone without facts, for then it would be mere
+philosophy; nor of facts alone without ideas, of which those facts are
+the symbols, or out of which they are grounded; for then it would be
+mere history.—COLERIDGE, _Table Talk_, 144. It certainly appears
+strange that the men most conversant with the order of the visible
+universe should soonest suspect it empty of directing mind; and, on
+the other hand, that humanistic, moral and historical studies—which
+first open the terrible problems of suffering and grief, and contain
+all the reputed provocatives of denial and despair—should confirm, and
+enlarge rather than disturb, the prepossessions of natural
+piety.—MARTINEAU, _Essays_, i. 122. Die Religion hat nur dann eine
+Bedeutung für den Menschen, wenn er in der Geschichte einen Punkt
+findet, dem er sich völlig unbedingt hingeben kann.—STEFFENS,
+_Christliche Religionsphilosophie_, 440, 1839. Wir erkennen darin nur
+eine Thätigkeit des zu seinem ächten und wahren Leben, zu seinem
+verlornen, objectiven Selbstverständnisse sich zurücksehnenden
+christlichen Geistes unserer Zeit, einen Ausdruck für das Bedürfniss
+desselben, sich aus den unwahren und unächten Verkleidungen, womit ihn
+der moderne, subjective Geschmack der letzten Entwicklungsphase des
+theologischen Bewusstseyns umhüllt hat, zu seiner historischen allein
+wahren und ursprünglichen Gestalt wiederzugebären, zu derjenigen
+Bedeutung zurückzukehren, die ihm in dem Bewusstseyn der Geschichte
+allein zukommt und deren Verständniss in dem wogenden luxuriösen Leben
+der modernen Theologie längst untergegangen ist.—GEORGII, _Zeitschrift
+für Hist. Theologie_, ix. 5, 1839.
+
+[45] Liberty, in fact, means just so far as it is realised,
+the right man in the right place.—SEELEY, _Lectures and Essays_,
+109.
+
+[46] In diesem Sinne ist Freiheit und sich entwickelnde
+moralische Vernunft und Gewissen gleichbedeutend. In diesem Sinne ist
+der Mensch frei, sobald sich das Gewissen in ihm entwickelt.—SCHEIDLER,
+_Ersch und Gruber_, xlix. 20. Aus der unendlichen und ewigen Geltung
+der menschlichen Persönlichkeit vor Gott, aus der Vorstellung von der
+in Gott freien Persönlichkeit, folgt auch der Anspruch auf das Recht
+derselben in der weltlichen Sphäre, auf bürgerliche und politische
+Freiheit, auf Gewissen und Religionsfreiheit, auf freie
+wissenschaftliche Forschung u.s.w., und namentlich die Forderung dass
+niemand lediglich zum Mittel für andere diene.—MARTENSEN, _Christliche
+Ethik_, i. 50.
+
+[47] Es giebt angeborne Menschenrechte, weil es angeborne
+Menschenpflichten giebt.—WOLFF, _Naturrecht_; LŒPER, _Einleitung
+zu Faust_, lvii.
+
+[48] La constitution de l'état reste jusqu'à un certain point
+à notre discrétion. La constitution de la société ne dépend pas de
+nous; elle est donnée par la force des choses, et si l'on veut élever
+le langage, elle est l'œuvre de la Providence.—RÉMUSAT, _Revue des
+Deux Mondes_, 1861, v. 795.
+
+[49] Die Freiheit ist bekanntlich kein Geschenk der Götter,
+sondern ein Gut das jedes Volk sich selbst verdankt und das nur bei
+dem erforderlichen Mass moralischer Kraft und Würdigkeit
+gedeiht.—IHERING, _Geist des Römischen Rechts_, ii. 290. Liberty, in
+the very nature of it, absolutely requires and even supposes, that
+people be able to govern themselves in those respects in which they
+are free; otherwise their wickedness will be in proportion to their
+liberty, and this greatest of blessings will become a curse.—BUTLER,
+_Sermons_, 331. In each degree and each variety of public development
+there are corresponding institutions, best answering the public needs;
+and what is meat to one is poison to another. Freedom is for those who
+are fit for it.—PARKMAN, _Canada_, 396. Die Freiheit ist die Wurzel
+einer neuen Schöpfung in der Schöpfung.—SEDERHOLM, _Die ewigen
+Thatsachen_, 86.
+
+[50] La liberté politique, qui n'est qu'une complexité plus
+grande, de plus en plus grande, dans le gouvernement d'un peuple, à
+mesure que le peuple lui-même contient un plus grand nombre de forces
+diverses ayant droit et de vivre et de participer à la chose publique,
+est un fait de civilisation qui s'impose lentement à une société
+organisée, mais qui n'apparaît point comme un principe à une société
+qui s'organise.—FAGUET, _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1889, ii. 942.
+
+[51] Il y a bien un droit du plus sage, mais non pas un droit
+du plus fort.—La justice est le droit du plus faible.—JOUBERT,
+_Pensées_, i. 355, 358.
+
+[52] Nicht durch ein pflanzenähnliches Wachsthum, nicht aus
+den dunklen Gründen der Volksempfindung, sondern durch den männlichen
+Willen, durch die Ueberzeugung, durch die That, durch den Kampf
+entsteht, behauptet, entwickelt sich das Recht. Sein historisches
+Werden ist ein bewusstes, im hellen Mittagslicht der Erkenntniss und
+der Gesetzgebung.—_Rundschau_, Nov. 1893, 313. Nicht das Normale,
+Zahme, sondern das Abnorme, Wilde, bildet überall die Grundlage und
+den Anfang einer neuen Ordnung.—LASAULX, _Philosophie der
+Geschichte_, 143.
+
+[53] Um den Sieg zu vervollständigen, erübrigte das zweite
+Stadium oder die Aufgabe: die Berechtigung der Mehrheit nach allen
+Seiten hin zur gleichen Berechtigung aller zu erweitern, d.h. bis zur
+Gleichstellung aller Bekenntnisse im Kirchenrecht, aller Völker im
+Völkerrecht, aller Staatsbürger im Staatsrecht und aller socialen
+Interessen im Gesellschaftsrecht fortzuführen.—A. SCHMIDT, _Züricher
+Monatschrift_, i. 68.
+
+[54] Notre histoire ne nous enseignait nullement la liberté.
+Le jour où la France voulut être libre, elle eut tout à créer, tout à
+inventer dans cet ordre de faits.—Cependant il faut marcher, l'avenir
+appelle les peuples. Quand on n'a point pour cela l'impulsion du
+passé, il faut bien se confier à la raison.—DUPONT WHITE, _Revue des
+Deux Mondes_, 1861, vi. 191. Le peuple français a peu de goût pour le
+développement graduel des institutions. Il ignore son histoire, il ne
+s'y reconnaît pas, elle n'a pas laissé de trace dans sa
+conscience.—SCHERER, _Études Critiques_, i. 100. Durch die Revolution
+befreiten sich die Franzosen von ihrer Geschichte.—ROSENKRANZ, _Aus
+einem Tagebuch_, 199.
+
+[55] The discovery of the comparative method in philology, in
+mythology—let me add in politics and history and the whole range of
+human thought—marks a stage in the progress of the human mind at
+least as great and memorable as the revival of Greek and Latin
+learning.—FREEMAN, _Historical Essays_, iv. 301. The diffusion of a
+critical spirit in history and literature is affecting the criticism
+of the Bible in our own day in a manner not unlike the burst of
+intellectual life in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.—JOWETT,
+_Essays and Reviews_, 346. As the revival of literature in the
+sixteenth century produced the Reformation, so the growth of the
+critical spirit, and the change that has come over mental science, and
+the mere increase of knowledge of all kinds, threaten now a revolution
+less external but not less profound.—HADDAN, _Replies_, 348.
+
+[56] In his just contempt and detestation of the crimes and
+follies of the Revolutionists, he suffers himself to forget that the
+revolution itself is a process of the Divine Providence, and that as
+the folly of men is the wisdom of God, so are their iniquities
+instruments of His goodness.—COLERIDGE, _Biographia Literaria_, ii.
+240. In other parts of the world, the idea of revolutions in
+government is, by a mournful and indissoluble association, connected
+with the idea of wars, and all the calamities attendant on wars. But
+happy experience teaches us to view such revolutions in a very
+different light—to consider them only as progressive steps in
+improving the knowledge of government, and increasing the happiness of
+society and mankind.—J. WILSON, November 26, 1787, _Works_, iii. 293.
+La Révolution, c'est-à-dire l'œuvre des siècles, ou, si vous
+voulez, le renouvellement progressif de la société, ou encore, sa
+nouvelle constitution.—RÉMUSAT, _Correspondance_, October 11, 1818. A
+ses yeux loin d'avoir rompu le cours naturel des évènements, ni la
+Révolution d'Angleterre, ni la nôtre, n'ont rien dit, rien fait, qui
+n'eût été dit, souhaité, fait, ou tenté cent fois avant leur
+explosion. “Il faut en ceci,” dit-il, “tout accorder à leurs
+adversaires, les surpasser même en sévérité, ne regarder à leurs
+accusations que pour y ajouter, s'ils en oublient; et puis les sommer
+de dresser, à leur tour, le compte des erreurs, des crimes, et des
+maux de ces temps et de ces pouvoirs qu'ils ont pris sous leur
+garde.”—_Revue de Paris_, xvi. 303, on Guizot. Quant aux nouveautés
+mises en œuvre par la Révolution Française on les retrouve une à
+une, en remontant d'âge en âge, chez les philosophes du XVIIIe
+siècle, chez les grands penseurs du XVIe, chez certains Pères
+d'Église et jusque dans la République de Platon.—En présence de cette
+belle continuité de l'histoire, qui ne fait pas plus de sauts que la
+nature, devant cette solidarité nécessaire des révolutions avec le
+passé qu'elles brisent.—KRANTZ, _Revue Politique_, xxxiii. 264.
+L'esprit du XIXe siècle est de comprendre et de juger les choses du
+passé. Notre œuvre est d'expliquer ce que le XVIIIe siècle avait
+mission de nier.—VACHEROT, _De la Démocratie_, pref., 28.
+
+[57] La commission recherchera, dans toutes les parties des
+archives pontificales, les pièces relatives à l'abus que les papes ont
+fait de leur ministère spirituel contre l'autorité des souverains et
+la tranquillité des peuples.—DAUNOU, _Instructions_, Jan. 3, 1811.
+LABORDE, _Inventaires_, p. cxii.
+
+[58] Aucun des historiens remarquables de cette époque
+n'avait senti encore le besoin de chercher les faits hors des livres
+imprimés, aux sources primitives, la plupart inédites alors, aux
+manuscrits de nos bibliothèques, aux documents de nos archives.—MICHELET,
+_Histoire de France_, 1869, i. 2.
+
+[59] Doch besteht eine Grenze, wo die Geschichte aufhört und
+das Archiv anfängt, und die von der Geschichtschreibung nicht
+überschritten werden sollte. _Unsere Zeit_, 1866, ii. 635. Il faut
+avertir nos jeunes historiens à la fois de la nécessité inéluctable du
+document et, d'autre part, du danger qu'il présente.—M. HANOTAUX.
+
+[60] This process consists in determining with documentary
+proofs, and by minute investigations duly set forth, the literal,
+precise, and positive inferences to be drawn at the present day from
+every authentic statement, without regard to commonly received
+notions, to sweeping generalities, or to possible consequences.—HARRISSE,
+_Discovery of America_, 1892, p. vi. Perhaps the time has not yet come
+for synthetic labours in the sphere of History. It may be that the
+student of the Past must still content himself with critical
+inquiries.—_Ib._ p. v. Few scholars are critics, few critics are
+philosophers, and few philosophers look with equal care on both sides
+of a question.—W. S. LANDOR in HOLYOAKE'S _Agitator's Life_, ii. 15.
+Introduire dans l'histoire, et sans tenir compte des passions
+politiques et religieuses, le doute méthodique que Descartes, le
+premier, appliqua à l'étude de la philosophie, n'est-ce pas là une
+excellente méthode? n'est-ce pas même la meilleure?—CHANTELAUZE,
+_Correspondant_, 1883, i. 129. La critique historique ne sera jamais
+populaire. Comme elle est de toutes les sciences la plus délicate, la
+plus déliée, elle n'a de crédit qu'auprès des esprits cultivés.—CHERBULIEZ,
+_Revue des Deux Mondes_, xcvii. 517. Nun liefert aber die Kritik, wenn
+sie rechter Art ist, immer nur einzelne Data, gleichsam die Atome des
+Thatbestandes, und jede Kombination, jede Zusammenfassung und
+Schlussfolgerung, ohne die es doch einmal nicht abgeht, ist ein
+subjektiver Akt des Forschers. Demnach blieb Waitz, bei der eigenen
+Arbeit wie bei jener der anderen, immer höchst mistrauisch gegen jedes
+Résumé, jede Definition, jedes abschliessende Wort.—SYBEL,
+_Historische Zeitschrift_, lvi. 484. Mit blosser Kritik wird darin
+nichts ausgerichtet, denn die ist nur eine Vorarbeit, welche da
+aufhört wo die echte historische Kunst anfängt.—LASAULX, _Philosophie
+der Künste_, 212.
+
+[61] The only case in which such extraneous matters can be
+fairly called in is when facts are stated resting on testimony; then
+it is not only just, but it is necessary for the sake of truth, to
+inquire into the habits of mind of him by whom they are
+adduced.—BABBAGE, _Bridgewater Treatise_, p. xiv.
+
+[62] There is no part of our knowledge which it is more
+useful to obtain at first hand—to go to the fountain-head for—than
+our knowledge of History.—J. S. MILL, _Inaugural Address_, 34. The
+only sound intellects are those which, in the first instance, set
+their standard of proof high.—J. S. MILL, _Examination of Hamilton's
+Philosophy_, 525.
+
+[63] There are so few men mentally capable of seeing both
+sides of a question; so few with consciences sensitively alive to the
+obligation of seeing both sides; so few placed under conditions either
+of circumstance or temper, which admit of their seeing both
+sides.—GREG, _Political Problems_, 1870, 173. Il n'y a que les
+Allemands qui sachent être aussi complètement objectifs. Ils se
+dédoublent, pour ainsi dire, en deux hommes, l'un qui a des principes
+très arrêtés et des passions très vives, l'autre qui sait voir et
+observer comme s'il n'en avait point.—LAVELEYE, _Revue des Deux
+Mondes_, 1868, i. 431. L'écrivain qui penche trop dans le sens où il
+incline, et qui ne se défie pas de ses qualités presque autant que ses
+défauts, cet écrivain tourne à la manière.—SCHERER, _Mélanges_, 484.
+Il faut faire volte-face, et vivement, franchement, tourner le dos au
+moyen âge, à ce passé morbide, qui, même quand il n'agit pas, influe
+terriblement par la contagion de la mort. Il ne faut ni combattre, ni
+critiquer, mais oublier. Oublions et marchons!—MICHELET, _La Bible de
+l'Humanité_, 483. It has excited surprise that Thucydides should speak
+of Antiphon, the traitor to the democracy, and the employer of
+assassins, as “a man inferior in virtue to none of his
+contemporaries.” But neither here nor elsewhere does Thucydides pass
+moral judgments.—JOWETT, _Thucydides_, ii. 501.
+
+[64] Non theologi provinciam suscepimus; scimus enim quantum
+hoc ingenii nostri tenuitatem superet: ideo sufficit nobis τὀ ὅτι
+fideliter ex antiquis auctoribus retulisse.—MORINUS, _De
+Pœnitentia_, ix. 10.—Il faut avouer que la religion chrétienne a
+quelque chose d'étonnant! C'est parce que vous y êtes né, dira-t-on.
+Tant s'en faut, je me roidis contre par cette raison-là même, de peur
+que cette prévention ne me suborne.—PASCAL, _Pensées_, XVI., 7.—I
+was fond of Fleury for a reason which I express in the advertisement;
+because it presented a sort of photograph of ecclesiastical history
+without any comment upon it. In the event, that simple representation
+of the early centuries had a good deal to do with unsettling
+me.—NEWMAN, _Apologia_, 152.—Nur was sich vor dem Richterstuhl einer
+ächten, unbefangenen, nicht durch die Brille einer philosophischen
+oder dogmatischen Schule stehenden Wissenschaft als wahr bewährt, kann
+zur Erbauung, Belehrung und Warnung tüchtig seyn.—NEANDER,
+_Kirchengeschichte_, i. p. vii. Wie weit bei katholischen Publicisten
+bei der Annahme der Ansicht von der Staatsanstalt apologetische
+Gesichtspunkte massgebend gewesen sind, mag dahingestellt bleiben. Der
+Historiker darf sich jedoch nie durch apologetische Zwecke leiten
+lassen; sein einziges Ziel soll die Ergründungder Wahrheit
+sein.—PASTOR, _Geschichte der Päbste_, ii. 545. Church history
+falsely written is a school of vainglory, hatred, and uncharitableness;
+truly written, it is a discipline of humility, of charity, of mutual
+love.—SIR W. HAMILTON, _Discussions_, 506. The more trophies and
+crowns of honour the Church of former ages can be shown to have won in
+the service of her adorable head, the more tokens her history can be
+brought to furnish of his powerful presence in her midst, the more
+will we be pleased and rejoice, Protestant though we be.—NEVIN,
+_Mercersburg Review_, 1851, 168. S'il est une chose à laquelle j'ai
+donné tous mes soins, c'est à ne pas laisser influencer mes jugements
+par les opinions politiques ou religieuses; que si j'ai quelquefois
+péché par quelque excès, c'est par la bienveillance pour les œuvres de
+ceux qui pensent autrement que moi.—MONOD, _R. Hist._, xvi. 184. Nous
+n'avons nul intérêt à faire parler l'histoire en faveur de nos
+propres opinions. C'est son droit imprescriptible que le narrateur
+reproduise tous les faits sans aucune réticence et range toutes les
+évolutions dans leur ordre naturel. Notre récit restera complètement
+en dehors des préoccupations de la dogmatique et des déclamations de
+la polémique. Plus les questions auxquelles nous aurons à toucher
+agitent et passionnent de nos jours les esprits, plus il est du devoir
+de l'historien de s'effacer devant les faits qu'il veut faire
+connaître.—REUSS, _Nouvelle Revue de Théologie_, vi. 193, 1860. To
+love truth for truth's sake is the principal part of human perfection
+in this world, and the seed plot of all other virtues.—LOCKE, _Letter
+to Collins_. Il n'est plus possible aujourd'hui à l'historien d'être
+national dans le sens étroit du mot. Son patriotisme à lui c'est
+l'amour de la vérité. Il n'est pas l'homme d'une race ou d'un pays, il
+est l'homme de tous les pays, il parle au nom de la civilisation
+générale.—LANFREY, _Hist. de Nap._, iii. 2, 1870. Juger avec les
+parties de soi-même qui sont le moins des formes du tempérament, et le
+plus des facultés pénétrées et modelées par l'expérience, par l'étude,
+par l'investigation, par le non-moi.—FAGUET, _R. de Paris_, i. 151.
+Aucun critique n'est aussi impersonnel que lui, aussi libre de parti
+pris et d'opinions préconçues, aussi objectif.—Il ne mêle ou parait
+mêler à ses appréciations ni inclinations personnelles de goût ou
+d'humeur, ou théories d'aucune sorte.—G. MONOD, of Faguet, _Revue
+Historique_, xlii. 417. On dirait qu'il a peur, en généralisant ses
+observations, en systématisant ses connaissances, de mêler de lui-même
+aux choses.—Je lis tout un volume de M. Faguet, sans penser une fois
+à M. Faguet: je ne vois que les originaux qu'il montre.—J'envisage
+toujours une réalité objective, jamais l'idée de M. Faguet, jamais la
+doctrine de M. Faguet.—LANSON, _Revue Politique_, 1894, i. 98.
+
+[65] It should teach us to disentangle principles first from
+parties, and again from one another; first of all as showing how
+imperfectly all parties represent their own principles, and then how
+the principles themselves are a mingled tissue.—ARNOLD, _Modern
+History_, 184. I find it a good rule, when I am contemplating a person
+from whom I want to learn, always to look out for his strength, being
+confident that the weakness will discover itself.—MAURICE, _Essays_,
+305. We may seek for agreement somewhere with our neighbours, using
+that as a point of departure for the sake of argument. It is this
+latter course that I wish here to explain and defend. The method is
+simple enough, though not yet very familiar.—It aims at conciliation;
+it proceeds by making the best of our opponent's case, instead of
+taking him at his worst.—The most interesting part of every disputed
+question only begins to appear when the rival ideals admit each
+other's right to exist.—A. SIDGWICK, _Distinction and the Criticism
+of Beliefs_, 1892, 211. That cruel reticence in the breasts of wise
+men which makes them always hide their deeper thought.—RUSKIN,
+_Sesame and Lilies_, i. 16. Je offener wir die einzelnen Wahrheiten
+des Sozialismus anerkennen, desto erfolgreicher können wir seine
+fundamentalen Unwahrheiten widerlegen.—ROSCHER, _Deutsche
+Vierteljahrschrift_, 1849, i. 177.
+
+[66] Dann habe ihn die Wahrnehmung, dass manche Angaben in
+den historischen Romanen Walter Scott's, mit den gleichzeitigen
+Quellen im Widerspruch standen, “mit Erstaunen” erfüllt, und ihn zu
+dem Entschlusse gebracht, auf das Gewissenhafteste an der
+Ueberlieferung der Quellen festzuhalten.—SYBEL, _Gedächtnissrede auf
+Ranke_. _Akad. der Wissenschaften_, 1887, p. 6. Sich frei zu halten
+von allem Widerschein der Gegenwart, sogar, soweit das menschenmöglich,
+von dem der eignen subjectiven Meinung in den Dingen des Staates, der
+Kirche und der Gesellschaft.—A. DOVE, _Im Neuen Reich_, 1875, ii. 967.
+Wir sind durchaus nicht für die leblose und schemenartige
+Darstellungsweise der Ranke'schen Schule eingenommen; es wird uns
+immer kühl bis ans Herz heran, wenn wir derartige Schilderungen der
+Reformation und der Revolution lesen, welche so ganz im kühlen Element
+des Pragmatismus sich bewegen und dabei so ganz Undinenhaft sind und
+keine Seele haben.—Wir lassen es uns lieber gefallen, dass die Männer
+der Geschichte hier und dort gehofmeistert werden, als dass sie uns
+mit Glasaugen ansehen, so meisterhaft immer die Kunst sein mag die sie
+ihnen eingesetzt hat.—GOTTSCHALL, _Unsere Zeit_, 1866, ii. 636, 637. A
+vivre avec des diplomates, il leur a pris des qualités qui sont un
+défaut chez un historien. L'historien n'est pas un témoin, c'est un
+juge; c'est à lui d'accuser et de condamner au nom du passé opprimé et
+dans l'intérêt de l'avenir.—LABOULAYE on RANKE. _Débats_, January 12,
+1852.
+
+[67] Un théologien qui a composé une éloquente histoire de la
+Réformation, rencontrant à Berlin un illustre historien qui, lui
+aussi, a raconté Luther et le XVIe siècle, l'embrassa avec effusion
+en le traitant de confrère. “Ah! permettez,” lui répondit l'autre en
+se dégageant, “il y a une grande différence entre nous: vous êtes
+avant tout chrétien, et je suis avant tout historien.”—CHERBULIEZ,
+_Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1872, i. 537.
+
+[68] Nackte Wahrheit ohne allen Schmuck; gründliche
+Erforschung des Einzelnen; das Uebrige, Gott befohlen.—_Werke_,
+xxxiv. 24. Ce ne sont pas les théories qui doivent nous servir de base
+dans la recherche des faits, mais ce sont les faits qui doivent nous
+servir de base pour la composition des théories.—VINCENT, _Nouvelle
+Revue de Théologie_, 1859, ii. 252.
+
+[69] Die zwanglose Anordnungs—die leichte und leise
+Andeutungskunst des grossen Historikers voll zu würdigen, hinderte ihn
+in früherer Zeit sein Bedürfniss nach scharfer begrifflicher Ordnung
+und Ausführung, später, und in immer zunehmenden Grade, sein Sinn für
+strenge Sachlichkeit, und genaue Erforschung der ursächlichen
+Zusammenhänge, noch mehr aber regte sich seine geradherzige Offenheit
+seine männliche Ehrlichkeit, wenn er hinter den fein verstrichenen
+Farben der Rankeschen Erzählungsbilder die gedeckte Haltung des klugen
+Diplomaten zu entdecken glaubte.—HAYM, _Duncker's Leben_, 437. The
+ground of criticism is indeed, in my opinion, nothing else but
+distinct attention, which every reader should endeavour to be master
+of.—HARE, _Dec._, 1736, _Warburton's Works_, xiv. 98. Wenn die
+Quellenkritik so verstanden wird, als sei sie der Nachweis, wie ein
+Autor den andern benutzt hat, so ist das nur ein gelegentliches
+Mittel—eins unter anderen—ihre Aufgabe, den Nachweis der Richtigkeit
+zu lösen oder vorzubereiten.—DROYSEN, _Historik_, 18.
+
+[70] L'esprit scientifique n'est autre en soi que l'instinct
+du travail et de la patience, le sentiment de l'ordre, de la réalité
+et de la mesure.—PAPILLON, _R. des Deux Mondes_, 1873, v. 704. Non
+seulement les sciences, mais toutes les institutions humaines s'organisent
+de même, et sous l'empire des mêmes idées régulatrices.—COURNOT,
+_Idées Fondamentales_, i. 4. There is no branch of human work whose
+constant laws have not close analogy with those which govern every
+other mode of man's exertion. But more than this, exactly as we reduce
+to greater simplicity and surety any one group of these practical
+laws, we shall find them passing the mere condition of connection or
+analogy, and becoming the actual expression of some ultimate nerve or
+fibre of the mighty laws which govern the moral world.—RUSKIN, _Seven
+Lamps_, 4. The sum total of all intellectual excellence is good sense
+and method. When these have passed into the instinctive readiness of
+habit, when the wheel revolves so rapidly that we cannot see it
+revolve at all, then we call the combination genius. But in all modes
+alike, and in all professions, the two sole component parts, even of
+genius, are good sense and method.—COLERIDGE, _June_, 1814, _Mem. of
+Coleorton_, ii. 172. Si l'exercice d'un art nous empêche d'en
+apprendre un autre, il n'en est pas ainsi dans les sciences: la
+connoissance d'une vérité nous aide à en decouvrir une autre.—Toutes
+les sciences sont tellement liées ensemble qu'il est bien plus facile
+de les apprendre toutes à la fois que d'en apprendre une seule en la
+détachant des autres.—Il ne doit songer qu'à augmenter les lumières
+naturelles de sa raison, non pour résoudre telle ou telle difficulté
+de l'école, mais pour que dans chaque circonstance de la vie son
+intelligence montre d'avance à sa volonté le parti qu'elle doit
+prendre.—DESCARTES, _Œuvres Choisies_, 300, 301. _Règles pour la
+Direction de l'Esprit._ La connaissance de la méthode qui a guidé
+l'homme de génie n'est pas moins utile au progrès de la science et
+même à sa propre gloire, que ses découvertes.—LAPLACE, _Système du
+Monde_, ii. 371. On ne fait rien sans idées préconçues, il faut avoir
+seulement la sagesse de ne croire à leurs déductions qu'autant que
+l'expérience les confirme. Les idées préconçues, soumises au contrôle
+sévère de l'expérimentation, sont la flamme vivante des sciences
+d'observation; les idées fixes en sont le danger.—PASTEUR, in
+_Histoire d'un Savant_, 284. Douter des vérités humaines, c'est ouvrir
+la porte aux découvertes; en faire des articles de foi, c'est la
+fermer.—DUMAS, _Discours_, i. 123.
+
+[71] We should not only become familiar with the laws of
+phenomena within our own pursuit, but also with the modes of thought
+of men engaged in other discussions and researches, and even with the
+laws of knowledge itself, that highest philosophy.—Above all things,
+know that we call you not here to run your minds into our moulds. We
+call you here on an excursion, on an adventure, on a voyage of
+discovery into space as yet uncharted.—ALLBUTT, _Introductory Address
+at St. George's_, October 1889. Consistency in regard to opinions is
+the slow poison of intellectual life.—DAVY, _Memoirs_, 68.
+
+[72] Ce sont vous autres physiologistes des corps vivants,
+qui avez appris à nous autres physiologistes de la société (qui est
+aussi un corps vivant) la manière de l'observer et de tirer des
+conséquences de nos observations.—J. B. SAY to DE CANDOLLE, June 1,
+1827.—DE CANDOLLE, _Mémoires_, 567.
+
+[73] Success is certain to the pure and true: success to
+falsehood and corruption, tyranny and aggression, is only the prelude
+to a greater and an irremediable fall.—STUBBS, _Seventeen Lectures_,
+20. The Carlylean faith, that the cause we fight for, so far as it is
+true, is sure of victory, is the necessary basis of all effective
+activity for good.—CAIRD, _Evolution of Religion_, ii. 43. It is the
+property of truth to be fearless, and to prove victorious over every
+adversary. Sound reasoning and truth, when adequately communicated,
+must always be victorious over error.—GODWIN, _Political Justice_
+(Conclusion). Vice was obliged to retire and give place to virtue.
+This will always be the consequence when truth has fair play.
+Falsehood only dreads the attack, and cries out for auxiliaries. Truth
+never fears the encounter; she scorns the aid of the secular arm, and
+triumphs by her natural strength.—FRANKLIN, _Works_, ii. 292. It is a
+condition of our race that we must ever wade through error in our
+advance towards truth: and it may even be said that in many cases we
+exhaust almost every variety of error before we attain the desired
+goal.—BABBAGE, _Bridgewater Treatise_, 27. Les hommes ne peuvent, en
+quelque genre que ce soit, arriver à quelque chose de raisonnable
+qu'après avoir, en ce même genre, épuisé toutes les sottises
+imaginables. Que de sottises ne dirions-nous pas maintenant, si les
+anciens ne les avaient pas déjà dites avant nous, et ne nous les
+avaient, pour ainsi dire, enlevées!—FONTENELLE. Without premature
+generalisations the true generalisation would never be arrived at.—H.
+SPENCER, _Essays_, ii. 57. The more important the subject of
+difference, the greater, not the less, will be the indulgence of him
+who has learned to trace the sources of human error,—of error, that
+has its origin not in our weakness and imperfection merely, but often
+in the most virtuous affections of the heart.—BROWN, _Philosophy of
+the Human Mind_, i. 48, 1824. Parmi les châtiments du crime qui ne lui
+manquent jamais, à côté de celui que lui inflige la conscience,
+l'histoire lui en inflige un autre encore, éclatant et manifeste,
+l'impuissance.—COUSIN, _Phil. Mod._ ii. 24. L'avenir de la science
+est garanti; car dans le grand livre scientifique tout s'ajoute et
+rien ne se perd. L'erreur ne fonde pas; aucune erreur ne dure très
+longtemps.—RENAN, _Feuilles Détachées_, xiii. Toutes les fois que
+deux hommes sont d'un avis contraire sur la même chose, à coup sûr,
+l'un ou l'autre se trompe; bien plus, aucun ne semble posséder la
+vérité; car si les raisons de l'un étoient certaines et évidentes, il
+pourroit les exposer à l'autre de telle manière qu'il finiroit par le
+convaincre également.—DESCARTES, _Règles: Œuvres Choisies_, 302.
+Le premier principe de la critique est qu'une doctrine ne captive ses
+adhérents que par ce qu'elle a de légitime.—RENAN, _Essais de
+Morale_, 184. Was dem Wahn solche Macht giebt ist wirklich nicht er
+selbst, sondern die ihm zu Grunde liegende und darin nur verzerrte
+Wahrheit.—FRANTZ, _Schelling's Philosophie_, i. 62. Quand les hommes
+ont vu une fois la vérité dans son éclat, ils ne peuvent plus
+l'oublier. Elle reste debout, et tôt ou tard elle triomphe, parce
+qu'elle est la pensée de Dieu et le besoin du monde.—MIGNET,
+_Portraits_, ii. 295. C'est toujours le sens commun inaperçu qui fait
+la fortune des hypothèses auxquelles il se mêle.—COUSIN, _Fragments
+Phil._ i. 51. Preface of 1826. Wer da sieht wie der Irrthum selbst ein
+Träger mannigfaltigen und bleibenden Fortschritts wird, der wird auch
+nicht so leicht aus dem thatsächlichen Fortschritt der Gegenwart auf
+Unumstösslichkeit unserer Hypothesen schliessen.—Das richtigste
+Resultat der geschichtlichen Betrachtung ist die akademische Ruhe, mit
+welcher unsere Hypothesen und Theorieen ohne Feindschaft und ohne
+Glauben als das betrachtet werden was sie sind; als Stufen in jener
+unendlichen Annäherung an die Wahrheit, welche die Bestimmung unserer
+intellectuellen Entwicklung zu sein scheint.—LANGE, _Geschichte des
+Materialismus_, 502, 503. Hominum errores divina providentia reguntur,
+ita ut sæpe male jacta bene cadant.—LEIBNIZ, ed. Klopp, i., p. lii.
+Sainte-Beuve n'était même pas de la race des libéraux, c'est-à-dire
+de ceux qui croient que, tout compte fait, et dans un état de
+civilisation donné, le bien triomphe du mal à armes égales, et la
+vérité de l'erreur.—D'HAUSSONVILLE, _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1875, i.
+567. In the progress of the human mind, a period of controversy
+amongst the cultivators of any branch of science must necessarily
+precede the period of unanimity.—TORRENS, _Essay on the Production of
+Wealth_, 1821, p. xiii. Even the spread of an error is part of the
+wide-world process by which we stumble into mere approximations to
+truth.—L. STEPHEN, _Apology of an Agnostic_, 81. Errors, to be
+dangerous, must have a great deal of truth mingled with them; it is
+only from this alliance that they can ever obtain an extensive
+circulation.—S. SMITH, _Moral Philosophy_, 7. The admission of the
+few errors of Newton himself is at least of as much importance to his
+followers in science as the history of the progress of his real
+discoveries.—YOUNG, _Works_, iii. 621. Error is almost always partial
+truth, and so consists in the exaggeration or distortion of one verity
+by the suppression of another, which qualifies and modifies the
+former.—MIVART, _Genesis of Species_, 3. The attainment of scientific
+truth has been effected, to a great extent, by the help of scientific
+errors.—HUXLEY: WARD, _Reign of Victoria_, ii. 337. Jede neue tief
+eingreifende Wahrheit hat meiner Ansicht nach erst das Stadium der
+Einseitigkeit durchzumachen.—IHERING, _Geist des R. Rechts_, ii. 22.
+The more readily we admit the possibility of our own cherished
+convictions being mixed with error, the more vital and helpful
+whatever is right in them will become.—RUSKIN, _Ethics of the Dust_,
+225. They hardly grasp the plain truth unless they examine the error
+which it cancels.—CORY, _Modern English History_, 1880, i. 109. Nur
+durch Irrthum kommen wir, der eine kürzeren und glücklicheren
+Schrittes, als der andere, zur Wahrheit; und die Geschichte darf
+nirgends diese Verirrungen übergehen, wenn sie Lehrerin und Warnerin
+für die nachfolgenden Geschlechter werden will.—_Münchner Gel.
+Anzeigen_, 1840, i. 737.
+
+[74] Wie die Weltgeschichte das Weltgericht ist, so kann in
+noch allgemeinerem Sinne gesagt werden, dass das gerechte Gericht,
+d.h. die wahre Kritik einer Sache, nur in ihrer Geschichte liegen
+kann. Insbesondere in der Hinsicht lehrt die Geschichte denjenigen,
+der ihr folgt, ihre eigene Methode, dass ihr Fortschritt niemals ein
+reines Vernichten, sondern nur ein Aufheben im philosophischen Sinne
+ist.—STRAUSS, _Hallische Jahrbücher_, 1839, 120.
+
+[75] Dans tous les livres qu'il lit, et il en dévore des
+quantités, Darwin ne note que les passages qui contrarient ses idées
+systématiques.—Il collectionne les difficultés, les cas épineux, les
+critiques possibles.—VERNIER, _Le Temps_, 6 Décembre, 1887. Je
+demandais à un savant célèbre où il en était de ses recherches. “Cela
+ne marche plus,” me dit-il, “je ne trouve plus de faits
+contradictoires.” Ainsi le savant cherche à se contredire lui-même
+pour faire avancer sa pensée.—JANET, _Journal des Savants_, 1892, 20.
+Ein Umstand, der uns die Selbständigkeit des Ganges der Wissenschaft
+anschaulich machen kann, ist auch der: dass der Irrthum, wenn er nur
+gründlich behandelt wird, fast ebenso fördernd ist als das Finden der
+Wahrheit, denn er erzeugt fortgesetzten Widerspruch.—BAER, _Blicke
+auf die Entwicklung der Wissenschaft_, 120. It is only by virtue of
+the opposition which it has surmounted that any truth can stand in the
+human mind.—BISHOP TEMPLE; KINGLAKE, _Crimea_, _Winter Troubles_,
+app. 104. I have for many years found it expedient to lay down a rule
+for my own practice, to confine my reading mainly to those journals
+the general line of opinions in which is adverse to my own.—HARE,
+_Means of Unity_, i. 19. Kant had a harder struggle with himself than
+he could possibly have had with any critic or opponent of his
+philosophy.—CAIRD, _Philosophy of Kant_, 1889, i. p. ix.
+
+[76] The social body is no more liable to arbitrary changes
+than the individual body.—A full perception of the truth that society
+is not a mere aggregate, but an organic growth, that it forms a whole
+the laws of whose growth can be studied apart from those of the
+individual atom, supplies the most characteristic postulate of modern
+speculation.—L. STEPHEN, _Science of Ethics_, 31. Wie in dem Leben
+des Einzelnen Menschen kein Augenblick eines vollkommenen Stillstandes
+wahrgenommen wird, sondern stete organische Entwicklung, so verhält es
+sich auch in dem Leben der Völker, und in jedem einzelnen Element,
+woraus dieses Gesammtleben besteht. So finden wir in der Sprache stete
+Fortbildung und Entwicklung, und auf gleiche Weise in dem Recht. Und
+auch diese Fortbildung steht unter demselben Gesetz der Erzeugung aus
+innerer Kraft und Nothwendigkeit, unabhängig von Zufall und
+individueller Willkür, wie die ursprüngliche Entstehung.—SAVIGNY,
+_System_, i. 16, 17. Seine eigene Entdeckung, dass auch die geistige
+Produktion, bis in einem gewissen Punkte wenigstens, unter dem Gesetze
+der Kausalität steht, dass jedeiner nur geben kann was er hat, nur hat
+was er irgendwoher bekommen, muss auch für ihn selber gelten.—BEKKER,
+_Das Recht des Besitzes bei den Römern_, 3, 1880. Die geschichtliche
+Wandlung des Rechts, in welcher vergangene Jahrhunderte halb ein Spiel
+des Zufalls und halb ein Werk vernünftelnder Willkür sahen, als
+gesetzmässige Entwickelung zu begreifen, war das unsterbliche
+Verdienst der von Männern wie Savigny, Eichhorn und Jacob Grimm
+geführten historischen Rechtsschule.—GIERKE, _Rundschau_, xviii.
+205.
+
+[77] The only effective way of studying what is called the
+philosophy of religion, or the philosophical criticism of religion, is
+to study the history of religion. The true science of war is the
+history of war, the true science of religion is, I believe, the
+history of religion.—M. MÜLLER, _Theosophy_, 3, 4. La théologie ne
+doit plus être que l'histoire des efforts spontanés tentés pour
+résoudre le problème divin. L'histoire, en effet, est la forme
+nécessaire de la science de tout ce qui est soumis aux lois de la vie
+changeante et successive. La science de l'esprit humain, c'est de
+même, l'histoire de l'esprit humain.—RENAN, _Averroës_, Pref. vi.
+
+[78] Political economy is not a science, in any strict sense,
+but a body of systematic knowledge gathered from the study of common
+processes, which have been practised all down the history of the human
+race in the production and distribution of wealth.—BONAMY PRICE,
+_Social Science Congress_, 1878. Such a study is in harmony with the
+best intellectual tendencies of our age, which is, more than anything
+else, characterized by the universal supremacy of the historical
+spirit. To such a degree has this spirit permeated all our modes of
+thinking, that with respect to every branch of knowledge, no less than
+with respect to every institution and every form of human activity, we
+almost instinctively ask, not merely what is its existing condition,
+but what were its earliest discoverable germs, and what has been the
+course of its development.—INGRAM, _History of Political Economy_, 2.
+Wir dagegen stehen keinen Augenblick an, die Nationalökonomie für eine
+reine Erfahrungswissenschaft zu erklären, und die Geschichte ist uns
+daher nicht Hülfsmittel, sondern Gegenstand selber.—ROSCHER,
+_Deutsche Vierteljahrschrift_, 1849, i. 182. Der bei weitem grösste
+Theil menschlicher Irrthümer beruhet darauf, dass man zeitlich und
+örtlich Wahres oder Heilsames für absolut wahr oder heilsam ausgiebt.
+Für jede Stufe der Volksentwickelung passt eine besondere
+Staatsverfassung, die mit allen übrigen Verhältnissen des Volks als
+Ursache und Wirkung auf's Innigste verbunden ist; so passt auch für
+jede Entwickelungsstufe eine besondere Landwirthschaftsverfassung.—ROSCHER,
+_Archiv f. p. Oek._, viii., 2 Heft 1845. Seitdem vor allen Roscher,
+Hildebrand und Knies den Werth, die Berechtigung und die
+Nothwendigkeit derselben unwiderleglich dargethan, hat sich immer
+allgemeiner der Gedanke Bahn gebrochen dass diese Wissenschaft, die
+bis dahin nur auf die Gegenwart, auf die Erkenntniss der bestehenden
+Verhältnisse und die in ihnen sichtbaren Gesetze den Blick gerichtet
+hatte, auch in die Vergangenheit, in die Erforschung der bereits
+hinter uns liegenden wirthschaftlichen Entwicklung der Völker sich
+vertiefen müsse.—SCHÖNBERG, _Jahrbücher f. Nationalökonomie und
+Statistik_, Neue Folge, 1867, i. 1. Schmoller, moins dogmatique et
+mettant comme une sorte de coquetterie à être incertain, démontre, par
+les faits, la fausseté ou l'arbitraire de tous ces postulats, et
+laisse l'économie politique se dissoudre dans l'histoire.—BRETON, _R.
+de Paris_, ix. 67. Wer die politische Oekonomie Feuerlands unter
+dieselben Gesetze bringen wollte mit der des heutigen Englands, würde
+damit augenscheinlich nichts zu Tage fördern als den allerbanalsten
+Gemeinplatz. Die politische Oekonomie ist somit wesentlich eine
+historische Wissenschaft. Sie behandelt einen geschichtlichen, das
+heisst einen stets wechselnden Stoff. Sie untersucht zunächst die
+besondern Gesetze jeder einzelnen Entwicklungsstufe der Produktion und
+des Austausches, und wird erst am Schluss dieser Untersuchung die
+wenigen, für Produktion und Austausch überhaupt geltenden, ganz
+allgemeinen Gesetze aufstellen können.—ENGELS, _Dührings Umwälzung der
+Wissenschaft_, 1878, 121.
+
+[79] History preserves the student from being led astray by a
+too servile adherence to any system.—WOLOWSKI. No system can be
+anything more than a history, not in the order of impression, but in
+the order of arrangement by analogy.—DAVY, _Memoirs_, 68. Avec des
+matériaux si nombreux et si importants, il fallait bien du courage
+pour résister à la tentation de faire un système. De Saussure eut ce
+courage, et nous en ferons le dernier trait et le trait principal de
+son éloge.—CUVIER, _Éloge de Saussure_, 1810.
+
+[80] C'était, en 1804, une idée heureuse et nouvelle,
+d'appeler l'histoire au secours de la science, d'interroger les deux
+grandes écoles rivales au profit de la vérité.—COUSIN, _Fragments
+Littéraires_, 1843, 95, on Dégerando. No branch of philosophical
+doctrine, indeed, can be fairly investigated or apprehended apart from
+its history. All our systems of politics, morals, and metaphysics
+would be different if we knew exactly how they grew up, and what
+transformations they have undergone; if we knew, in short, the true
+history of human ideas.—CLIFFE LESLIE, _Essays in Political and Moral
+Philosophy_, 1879, 149. The history of philosophy must be rational and
+philosophic. It must be philosophy itself, with all its elements, in
+all their relations, and under all their laws represented in striking
+characters by the hands of time and of history, in the manifested
+progress of the human mind.—SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON, _Edin. Rev._ l.
+200, 1829. Il n'est point d'étude plus instructive, plus utile que
+l'étude de l'histoire de la philosophie; car on y apprend à se
+désabuser des philosophes, et l'on y désapprend la fausse science de
+leurs systèmes.—ROYER COLLARD, _Œuvres de Reid_, iv. 426. On ne
+peut guère échapper à la conviction que toutes les solutions des
+questions philosophiques n'aient été développées ou indiquées avant le
+commencement du dix-neuvième siècle, et que par conséquent il ne soit
+très difficile, pour ne pas dire impossible, de tomber, en pareille
+matière, sur une idée neuve de quelque importance. Or si cette
+conviction est fondée, il s'ensuit que la science est faite.—JOUFFROY,
+in DAMIRON, _Philosophie du XIXe Siècle_, 363. Le but dernier de tous
+mes efforts, l'âme de mes écrits et de tout mon enseignement, c'est
+l'identité de la philosophie et de son histoire.—COUSIN, _Cours de
+1829_. Ma route est historique, il est vrai, mais mon but est
+dogmatique; je tends à une théorie, et cette théorie je la demande à
+l'histoire.—COUSIN, _Ph. du XVIIIe Siècle_, 15. L'histoire de la
+philosophie est contrainte d'emprunter d'abord à la philosophie la
+lumière qu'elle doit lui rendre un jour avec usure.—COUSIN, _Du Vrai_,
+1855, 14. M. Cousin, durant tout son professorat de 1816 à 1829, a
+pensé que l'histoire de la philosophie était la source de la
+philosophie même. Nous ne croyons pas exagérer en lui prêtant cette
+opinion.—B. ST. HILAIRE, _Victor Cousin_, i. 302. Il se hâta de
+convertir le fait en loi, et proclama que la philosophie, étant
+identique à son histoire, ne pouvait avoir une loi différente, et
+était vouée à jamais à l'évolution fatale des quatre systèmes, se
+contredisant toujours, mais se limitant, et se modérant, par cela même
+de manière à maintenir l'equilibre, sinon l'harmonie de la pensée
+humaine.—VACHEROT, _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1868, iii. 957. Er hat
+überhaupt das unvergängliche Verdienst, zuerst in Frankreich zu der
+Erkenntniss gelangt zu sein, dass die menschliche Vernunft nur durch
+das Studium des Gesetzes ihrer Entwickelungen begriffen werden
+kann.—LAUSER, _Unsere Zeit_, 1868, i. 459. Le philosophe en quête du
+vrai en soi, n'est plus réduit à ses conceptions individuelles; il est
+riche du trésor amassé par l'humanité.—BOUTROUX, _Revue Politique_,
+xxxvii. 802. L'histoire, je veux dire l'histoire de l'esprit humain,
+est en ce sens la vraie philosophie de notre temps.—RENAN, _Études de
+Morale_, 83. Die Philosophie wurde eine höchst bedeutende
+Hülfswissenschaft der Geschichte, sie hat ihre Richtung auf das
+Allgemeine gefördert, ihren Blick für dasselbe geschärft, und sie,
+wenigstens durch ihre Vermittlung, mit Gesichtspuncten, Ideen,
+bereichert die sie aus ihrem eigenen Schoosse sobald noch nicht
+erzeugt haben würde. Weit die fruchtbarste darunter war die aus der
+Naturwissenschaft geschöpfte Idee des organischen Lebens, dieselbe auf
+der die neueste Philosophie selbst beruht. Die seit zwei bis drei
+Jahrzehnten in der Behandlung der Geschichte eingetretene
+durchgreifende Veränderung, wie die völlige Umgestaltung so mancher
+anderen Wissenschaft ... ist der Hauptsache nach ihr Werk.—HAUG,
+_Allgemeine Geschichte_, 1841, i. 22. Eine Geschichte der Philosophie
+in eigentlichen Sinne wurde erst möglich als man an die Stelle der
+Philosophen deren Systeme setzte, den inneren Zusammenhang zwischen
+diesen feststellte und—wie Dilthey sagt—mitten in Wechsel der
+Philosophien ein siegreiches Fortschreiten zur Wahrheit nachwies. Die
+Gesammtheit der Philosophie stellt sich also dar als eine
+geschichtliche Einheit.—SAUL, _Rundschau_, Feb. 1894, 307. Warum die
+Philosophie eine Geschichte habe und haben müsse, blieb unerörtert, ja
+ungeahnt, dass die Philosophie am meisten von allen Wissenschaften
+historisch sei, denn man hatte in der Geschichte den Begriff der
+Entwicklung nicht entdeckt.—MARBACH, _Griechische Philosophie_, 15.
+Was bei oberflächlicher Betrachtung nur ein Gewirre einzelner Personen
+und Meinungen zu sein schien, zeigt sich bei genauerer und gründlicherer
+Untersuchung als eine geschichtliche Entwicklung, in der alles, bald
+näher, bald entfernter, mit allem anderen zusammenhängt.—ZELLER,
+_Rundschau_, Feb. 1894, 307. Nur die Philosophie, die an die
+geschichtliche Entwickelung anknüpft kann auf bleibenden Erfolg auch
+für die Zukunft rechnen und fortschreiten zu dem, was in der
+bisherigen philosophischen Entwickelung nur erst unvollkommen erreicht
+oder angestrebt worden ist. Kann sich doch die Philosophie überhaupt
+und insbesondere die Metaphysik ihrer eigenen geschichtlichen
+Entwickelung nicht entschlagen, sondern hat eine Geschichte der
+Philosophie als eigene und zwar zugleich historische und spekulative
+Disziplin, in deren geschichtlichen Entwickelungsphasen und
+geschichtlich aufeinanderfolgenden Systemen der Philosophen die neuere
+Spekulation seit Schelling and Hegel zugleich die Philosophie selbst
+als ein die verschiedenen geschichtlichen Systeme umfassendes ganzes
+in seiner dialektischen Gliederung erkannt hat.—GLOATZ, _Spekulative
+Theologie_, i. 23. Die heutige Philosophie führt uns auf einen
+Standpunkt von dem aus die philosophische Idee als das innere Wesen
+der Geschichte selbst erscheint. So trat an die Stelle einer abstrakt
+philosophischen Richtung, welche das Geschichtliche verneinte, eine
+abstrakt geschichtliche Richtung welche das Philosophische
+verläugnete. Beide Richtungen sind als überschrittene und besiegte zu
+betrachten.—BERNER, _Strafrecht_, 75. Die Geschichte der Philosophie
+hat uns fast schon die Wissenschaft der Philosophie selbst
+ersetzt.—HERMANN, _Phil. Monatshefte_, ii. 198, 1889.
+
+[81] Le siècle actuel sera principalement caractérisé par
+l'irrévocable prépondérance de l'histoire, en philosophie, en
+politique, et même en poésie.—COMTE, _Politique Positive_, iii. 1.
+
+[82] The historical or comparative method has revolutionized
+not only the sciences of law, mythology, and language, of anthropology
+and sociology, but it has forced its way even into the domain of
+philosophy and natural science. For what is the theory of evolution
+itself, with all its far-reaching consequences, but the achievement of
+the historical method?—PROTHERO, _Inaugural_. _National Review_,
+_Dec._ 1894, 461. To facilitate the advancement of all the branches of
+useful science, two things seem to be principally requisite. The first
+is, an historical account of their rise, progress, and present state.
+Without the former of these helps, a person every way qualified for
+extending the bounds of science labours under great disadvantages;
+wanting the lights which have been struck out by others, and
+perpetually running the risk of losing his labour, and finding himself
+anticipated.—PRIESTLEY, _History of Vision_, 1772, i. Pref. i.
+Cuvier se proposait de montrer l'enchaînement scientifique des
+découvertes, leurs relations avec les grands évènements historiques,
+et leur influence sur les progrès et le développement de la
+civilisation.—DARESTE, _Biographie Générale_, xii. 685. Dans ses
+éloquentes leçons, l'histoire des sciences est devenue l'histoire même
+de l'esprit humain; car, remontant aux causes de leurs progrès et de
+leurs erreurs, c'est toujours dans les bonnes ou mauvaises routes
+suivies par l'esprit humain, qu'il trouve ces causes.—FLOURENS,
+_Éloge de Cuvier_, xxxi. Wie keine fortlaufende Entwickelungsreihe von
+nur Einem Punkte aus vollkommen aufzufassen ist, so wird auch keine
+lebendige Wissenschaft nur aus der Gegenwart begriffen werden
+können.—Deswegen ist aber eine solche Darstellung doch noch nicht der
+gesammten Wissenschaft adäquat, und sie birgt, wenn sie damit
+verwechselt wird, starke Gefahren der Einseitigkeit, des Dogmatismus
+und damit der Stagnation in sich. Diesen Gefahren kann wirksam nur
+begegnet werden durch die verständige Betrachtung der Geschichte der
+Wissenschaften, welche diese selbst in stetem Flusse zeigt und die
+Tendenz ihres Fortschreitens in offenbarer und sicherer Weise
+klarlegt.—ROSENBERGER, _Geschichte der Physik_, iii., p. vi. Die
+Continuität in der Ausbildung aller Auffassungen tritt um so
+deutlicher hervor, je vollständiger man sich damit, wie sie zu
+verschiedenen Zeiten waren, vertraut macht.—KOPP, _Entwickelung der
+Chemie_, 814.
+
+[83] Die Geschichte und die Politik sind Ein und derselbe
+Janus mit dem Doppelgesicht, das in der Geschichte in die
+Vergangenheit, in der Politik in die Zukunft hinschaut.—GÜGLER'S
+_Leben_, ii. 59.
+
+[84] The papers inclosed, which give an account of the
+killing of two men in the county of Londonderry; if they prove to be
+Tories, 'tis very well they are gone.—I think it will not only be
+necessary to grant those a pardon who killed them, but also that they
+have some reward for their own and others' encouragement.—ESSEX,
+_Letters_, 10, _Jan._ 10, 1675. The author of this happened to be
+present. There was a meeting of some honest people in the city, upon
+the occasion of the discovery of some attempt to stifle the evidence
+of the witnesses.—Bedloe said he had letters from Ireland, that there
+were some Tories to be brought over hither, who were privately to
+murder Dr. Oates and the said Bedloe. The doctor, whose zeal was very
+hot, could never after this hear any man talk against the plot, or
+against the witnesses, but he thought he was one of these Tories, and
+called almost every man a Tory that opposed him in discourse; till at
+last the word Tory became popular.—DEFOE, _Edinburgh Review_, l.
+403.
+
+[85] La España será el primer pueblo en donde se encenderá
+esta guerra patriotica que solo puede libertar á Europa.—Hemos oido
+esto en Inglaterra á varios de los que estaban alli presentes. Muchas
+veces ha oido lo mismo al duque de Wellington el general Don Miguel de
+Alava, y dicho duque refirió el suceso en una comida diplomatica que
+dió en Paris el duque de Richelieu en 1816.—TORENO, _Historia del
+Levantamiento de España_, 1838, i. 508.
+
+[86] Nunquam propter auctoritatem illorum, quamvis magni sint
+nominis (supponimus scilicet semper nos cum eo agere qui scientiam
+historicam vult consequi), sententias quas secuti sunt ipse tamquam
+certas admittet, sed solummodo ob vim testimoniorum et argumentorum
+quibus eas confirmarunt.—DE SMEDT, _Introductio ad historiam critice
+tractandam_, 1866, i. 5.
+
+[87] Hundert schwere Verbrechen wiegen nicht so schwer in der
+Schale der Unsittlichkeit, als ein unsittliches Princip.—_Hallische
+Jahrbücher_, 1839, 308. Il faut flétrir les crimes; mais il faut
+aussi, et surtout, flétrir les doctrines et les systèmes qui tendent à
+les justifier.—MORTIMER TERNAUX, _Histoire de la Terreur_.
+
+[88] We see how good and evil mingle in the best of men and
+in the best of causes; we learn to see with patience the men whom we
+like best often in the wrong, and the repulsive men often in the
+right; we learn to bear with patience the knowledge that the cause
+which we love best has suffered, from the awkwardness of its
+defenders, so great disparagement, as in strict equity to justify the
+men who were assaulting it.—STUBBS, _Seventeen Lectures_, 97.
+
+[89] Caeteris paribus, on trouvera tousjours que ceux qui ont
+plus de puissance sont sujets à pécher davantage; et il n'y a point de
+théorème de géométrie qui soit plus asseuré que cette proposition.—LEIBNIZ,
+1688, ed. Rommel, ii. 197. Il y a toujours eu de la malignité dans la
+grandeur, et de l'opposition à l'esprit de l'Évangile; mais maintenant
+il y en a plus que jamais, et il semble que comme le monde va à sa
+fin, celui qui est dans l'élévation fait tous ses efforts pour
+dominer avec plus de tyrannie, et pour étouffer les maximes du
+Christianisme et le règne de Jésus-Christ, voiant qu'il s'approche.—GODEAU,
+_Lettres_, 423, March 27, 1667. There is, in fact, an unconquerable
+tendency in all power, save that of knowledge, acting by and through
+knowledge, to injure the mind of him by whom that power is
+exercised.—WORDSWORTH, June 22, 1817. _Letters of Lake Poets_, 369.
+
+[90] I cieli han messo sulla terra due giudici delle umane
+azioni, la coscienza e la storia.—COLLETTA. Wenn gerade die edelsten
+Männer um des Nachruhmes willen gearbeitet haben, so soll die
+Geschichte ihre Belohnung sein, sie auch die Strafe für die
+Schlechten.—LASAULX, _Philosophie der Künste_, 211. Pour juger ce qui
+est bon et juste dans la vie actuelle ou passée, il faut posséder un
+criterium, qui ne soit pas tiré du passé ou du présent, mais de la
+nature humaine.—AHRENS, _Cours de Droit Naturel_, i. 67.
+
+[91] L'homme de notre temps! La conscience moderne! Voilà
+encore de ces termes qui nous ramènent la prétendue philosophie de
+l'histoire et la doctrine du progrès, quand il s'agit de la justice,
+c'est-à-dire de la conscience pure et de l'homme rationnel, que
+d'autres siècles encore que le nôtre ont connu.—RENOUVIER, _Crit.
+Phil._ 1873, ii. 55.
+
+[92] Il faut pardonner aux grands hommes le marchepied de
+leur grandeur.—COUSIN, in J. SIMON, _Nos Hommes d'État_, 1887, 55.
+L'esprit du XVIIIe siècle n'a pas besoin d'apologie: l'apologie d'un
+siècle est dans son existence.—COUSIN, _Fragments_, iii. 1826.
+Suspendus aux lèvres éloquentes de M. Cousin, nous l'entendîmes
+s'écrier que la meilleure cause l'emportait toujours, que c'était la
+loi de l'histoire, le rhythme immuable du progrès.—GASPARIN, _La
+Liberté Morale_, ii. 63. Cousin verurtheilen heisst darum nichts
+Anderes als jenen Geist historischer Betrachtung verdammen, durch
+welchen das 19 Jahrhundert die revolutionäre Kritik des 18
+Jahrhunderts ergänzt, durch welchen insbesondere Deutschland die
+geistigen Wohlthaten vergolten hat, welche es im Zeitalter der
+Aufklärung von seinen westlichen Nachbarn empfangen.—IODL, _Gesch.
+der Ethik_, ii. 295. Der Gang der Weltgeschichte steht ausserhalb der
+Tugend, des Lasters, und der Gerechtigkeit.—HEGEL, _Werke_, viii.
+425. Die Vermischung des Zufälligen im Individuum mit dem an ihm
+Historischen führt zu unzähligen falschen Ansichten und Urtheilen.
+Hierzu gehört namentlich alles Absprechen über die moralische
+Tüchtigkeit der Individuen, und die Verwunderung, welche his zur
+Verzweiflung an göttlicher Gerechtigkeit sich steigert, dass
+historisch grosse Individuen moralisch nichtswürdig erscheinen können.
+Die moralische Tüchtigkeit besteht in der Unterordnung alles dessen
+was zufällig am Einzelnen unter das an ihm dem Allgemeinen
+Angehörige.—MARBACH, _Geschichte der Griechischen Philosophie_, 7.
+Das Sittliche der Neuseeländer, der Mexikaner ist vielmehr ebenso
+sittlich, wie das der Griechen, der Römer; und das Sittliche der
+Christen des Mittelalters ist ebenso sittlich, wie das der
+Gegenwart.—KIRCHMANN, _Grundbegriffe des Rechts_, 194. Die
+Geschichtswissenschaft als solche kennt nur ein zeitliches und mithin
+auch nur ein relatives Maass der Dinge. Alle Werthbeurtheilung der
+Geschichte kann daher nur relativ und aus zeitlichen Momenten
+fliessen, und wer sich nicht selbst täuschen und den Dingen nicht
+Gewalt anthun will, muss ein für allemal in dieser Wissenschaft auf
+absolute Werthe verzichten.—LORENZ, _Schlosser_, 80. Only according
+to his faith is each man judged. Committed as this deed has been by a
+pure-minded, pious youth, it is a beautiful sign of the time.—DE
+WETTE to Sand's Mother, CHEYNE, _Founders of Criticism_, 44. The men
+of each age must be judged by the ideal of their own age and country,
+and not by the ideal of ours.—LECKY, _Value of History_, 50.
+
+[93] La durée ici-bas, c'est le droit, c'est la sanction de
+Dieu.—GUIRAUD, _Philosophie Catholique de l'Histoire_.
+
+[94] Ceux qui ne sont pas contens de l'ordre des choses ne
+sçauroient se vanter d'aimer Dieu comme il faut.—Il faut toujours
+estre content de l'ordre du passé, parce qu'il est conforme à la
+volonté de Dieu absolue, qu'on connoit par l'évènement. Il faut tâcher
+de rendre l'avenir, autant qu'il dépend de nous, conforme à la volonté
+de Dieu présomptive.—LEIBNIZ, _Werke_, ed. Gerhardt, ii. 136. Ich
+habe damals bekannt und bekenne jetzt, dass die politische Wahrheit
+aus denselben Quellen zu schöpfen ist, wie alle anderen, aus dem
+göttlichen Willen und dessen Kundgebung in der Geschichte des
+Menschengeschlechts.—RADOWITZ, _Neue Gespräche_, 65.
+
+[95] A man is great as he contends best with the
+circumstances of his age.—FROUDE, _Short Studies_ i. 388. La
+persuasion que l'homme est avant tout une personne morale et libre, et
+qu'ayant conçu seul, dans sa conscience et devant Dieu, la règle de sa
+conduite, il doit s'employer tout entier à l'appliquer en lui, hors de
+lui, absolument, obstinément, inflexiblement, par une résistance
+perpétuelle opposée aux autres; et par une contrainte perpétuelle
+exercée sur soi, voilà la grande idée anglaise.—TAINE; SOREL,
+_Discours de Réception_, 24. In jeder Zeit des Christenthums hat es
+einzelne Männer gegeben, die über ihrer Zeit standen und von ihren
+Gegensätzen nicht berührt wurden.—BACHMANN, _Hengstenberg_, i. 160.
+Eorum enim qui de iisdem rebus mecum aliquid ediderunt, aut solus
+insanio ego, aut solus non insanio; tertium enim non est, nisi (quod
+dicet forte aliquis) insaniamus omnes.—HOBBES, quoted by DE MORGAN,
+June 3, 1858, _Life of Sir W. R. Hamilton_, iii. 552.
+
+[96] I have now to exhibit a rare combination of good
+qualities, and a steady perseverance in good conduct, which raised an
+individual to be an object of admiration and love to all his
+contemporaries, and have made him to be regarded by succeeding
+generations as a model of public and private virtue.—The evidence
+shows that upon this occasion he was not only under the influence of
+the most vulgar credulity, but that he violated the plainest rules of
+justice, and that he really was the murderer of two innocent
+women.—Hale's motives were most laudable.—CAMPBELL'S _Lives of the
+Chief Justices_, i. 512, 561, 566. It was not to be expected of the
+colonists of New England that they should be the first to see through
+a delusion which befooled the whole civilized world, and the gravest
+and most knowing persons in it.—The people of New England believed
+what the wisest men of the world believed at the end of the
+seventeenth century.—PALFREY, _New England_, iv. 127, 129 (also
+speaking of witchcraft). Il est donc bien étrange que sa sévérité
+tardive s'exerce aujourd'hui sur un homme auquel elle n'a d'autre
+reproche à faire que d'avoir trop bien servi l'état par des mesures
+politiques, injustes peut-être, violentes, mais qui, en aucune
+manière, n'avaient l'intérêt personnel du coupable pour objet.—M.
+Hastings peut sans doute paraître répréhensible aux yeux des
+étrangers, des particuliers même, mais il est assez extraordinaire
+qu'une nation usurpatrice d'une partie de l'Indostan veuille mêler les
+règles de la morale à celles d'une administration forcée, injuste et
+violente par essence, et à laquelle il faudrait renoncer à jamais pour
+être conséquent.—MALLET DU PAN, _Memories_, ed. Sayous, i. 102.
+
+[97] On parle volontiers de la stabilité de la constitution
+anglaise. La vérité est que cette constitution est toujours en
+mouvement et en oscillation et qu'elle se prête merveilleusement au
+jeu de ses différentes parties. Sa solidité vient de sa souplesse;
+elle plie et ne rompt pas.—BOUTMY, _Nouvelle Revue_, 1878, 49.
+
+[98] This is not an age for a man to follow the strict
+morality of better times, yet sure mankind is not yet so debased but
+that there will ever be found some few men who will scorn to join
+concert with the public voice when it is not well grounded.—_Savile
+Correspondence_, 173.
+
+[99] Cette proposition: L'homme est incomparablement plus
+porté au mal qu'au bien, et il se fait dans le monde incomparablement
+plus de mauvaises actions que de bonnes—est aussi certaine qu'aucun
+principe de métaphysique. Il est donc incomparablement plus probable
+qu'une action faite par un homme, est mauvaise, qu'il n'est probable
+qu'elle soit bonne. Il est incomparablement plus probable que ces
+secrets ressorts qui l'ont produite sont corrompus, qu'il n'est
+probable qu'ils soient honnêtes. Je vous avertis que je parle d'une
+action qui n'est point mauvaise extérieurement.—BAYLE, _Œuvres_,
+ii. 248.
+
+[100] A Christian is bound by his very creed to suspect evil,
+and cannot release himself.—His religion has brought evil to light in
+a way in which it never was before; it has shown its depth, subtlety,
+ubiquity; and a revelation, full of mercy on the one hand, is terrible
+in its exposure of the world's real state on the other. The Gospel
+fastens the sense of evil upon the mind; a Christian is enlightened,
+hardened, sharpened, as to evil; he sees it where others do
+not.—MOZLEY, _Essays_, i. 308. All satirists, of course, work in the
+direction of Christian doctrine, by the support they give to the
+doctrine of original sin, making a sort of meanness and badness a law
+of society.—MOZLEY, _Letters_, 333. Les critiques, même malveillants,
+sont plus près de la vérité dernière que les admirateurs.—NISARD,
+_Lit. fr._, Conclusion. Les hommes supérieurs doivent nécessairement
+passer pour méchants. Où les autres ne voient ni un défaut, ni un
+ridicule, ni un vice, leur implacable œil l'aperçoit.—BARBEY
+D'AUREVILLY, _Figaro_, March 31, 1888.
+
+[101] Prenons garde de ne pas trop expliquer, pour ne pas
+fournir des arguments à ceux qui veulent tout excuser.—BROGLIE,
+_Réception de Sorel_, 46.
+
+[102] The eternal truths and rights of things exist,
+fortunately, independent of our thoughts or wishes, fixed as
+mathematics, inherent in the nature of man and the world. They are no
+more to be trifled with than gravitation.—FROUDE, _Inaugural Lecture
+at St. Andrews_, 1869, 41. What have men to do with interests? There
+is a right way and a wrong way. That is all we need think
+about.—CARLYLE to FROUDE, _Longman's Magazine_, Dec. 1892, 151. As to
+History, it is full of indirect but very effective moral teaching. It
+is not only, as Bolingbroke called it, “Philosophy teaching by
+examples,” but it is morality teaching by examples.—It is essentially
+the study which best helps the student to conceive large thoughts.—It
+is impossible to overvalue the moral teaching of History.—FITCH,
+_Lectures on Teaching_, 432. Judging from the past history of our
+race, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, war is a folly and a
+crime.—Where it is so, it is the saddest and the wildest of all
+follies, and the most heinous of all crimes.—GREG, _Essays on
+Political and Social Science_, 1853, i. 562. La volonté de tout un
+peuple ne peut rendre juste ce qui est injuste: les représentants
+d'une nation n'ont pas le droit de faire ce que la nation n'a pas le
+droit de faire elle-même.—B. CONSTANT, _Principes de Politique_, i.
+15.
+
+[103] Think not that morality is ambulatory; that vices in
+one age are not vices in another, or that virtues, which are under the
+everlasting seal of right reason, may be stamped by opinion.—SIR
+THOMAS BROWNE, _Works_, iv. 64.
+
+[104] Osons croire qu'il seroit plus à propos de mettre de
+côté ces traditions, ces usages, et ces coutumes souvent si
+imparfaites, si contradictoires, si incohérentes, ou de ne les
+consulter que pour saisir les inconvéniens et les éviter; et qu'il
+faudroit chercher non-seulement les éléments d'une nouvelle
+législation, mais même ses derniers détails dans une étude approfondie
+de la morale.—LETROSNE, _Réflexions sur la Législation Criminelle_,
+137. M. Renan appartient à cette famille d'esprits qui ne croient pas
+en réalité la raison, la conscience, le droit applicables à la
+direction des sociétés humaines, et qui demandent à l'histoire, à la
+tradition, non à la morale, les règles de la politique. Ces esprits
+sont atteints de la maladie du siècle, le scepticisme moral.—PILLON,
+_Critique Philosophique_, i. 49.
+
+[105] The subject of modern history is of all others, to my
+mind, the most interesting, inasmuch as it includes all questions of
+the deepest interest relating not to human things only, but to
+divine.—ARNOLD, _Modern History_, 311.
+
+
+
+
+
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diff --git a/25720-0.zip b/25720-0.zip
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+Project Gutenberg's A Lecture on the Study of History, by Lord Acton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Lecture on the Study of History
+
+Author: Lord Acton
+
+Release Date: June 7, 2008 [EBook #25720]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Irma Spehar and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+                   A LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF HISTORY
+
+
+                      MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
+                      LONDON . BOMBAY . CALCUTTA
+                               MELBOURNE
+
+                         THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+                      NEW YORK . BOSTON . CHICAGO
+                        ATLANTA . SAN FRANCISCO
+
+                   THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
+                                TORONTO
+
+
+
+
+                               A LECTURE
+                                  ON
+                         THE STUDY OF HISTORY
+
+                       _DELIVERED AT CAMBRIDGE,
+                            JUNE 11, 1895_
+
+                                  BY
+
+                              LORD ACTON
+                             LL.D., D.C.L.
+                  REGIUS PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY
+
+
+                      MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
+                      ST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON
+                                 1911
+
+
+                    RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED,
+               BRUNSWICK STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S. E.,
+                          AND BUNGAY, SUFFOLK
+
+                    _First Edition, October, 1895.
+                    Second Edition, January, 1896.
+                        Reprinted, 1905, 1911._
+
+
+
+
+FELLOW STUDENTS,
+
+I look back to-day to a time before the middle of the century, when I
+was reading at Edinburgh, and fervently wishing to come to this
+University. At three colleges I applied for admission, and, as things
+then were, I was refused by all. Here, from the first, I vainly fixed
+my hopes, and here, in a happier hour, after five-and-forty years,
+they are at last fulfilled.
+
+[Sidenote: UNITY OF MODERN HISTORY]
+
+I desire first to speak to you of that which I may reasonably call the
+Unity of Modern History, as an easy approach to questions necessary
+to be met on the threshold by any one occupying this place, which my
+predecessor has made so formidable to me by the reflected lustre of
+his name.
+
+You have often heard it said that Modern History is a subject to which
+neither beginning nor end can be assigned. No beginning, because the
+dense web of the fortunes of man is woven without a void; because, in
+society as in nature, the structure is continuous, and we can trace
+things back uninterruptedly, until we dimly descry the Declaration of
+Independence in the forests of Germany. No end, because, on the same
+principle, history made and history making are scientifically
+inseparable and separately unmeaning.
+
+[Sidenote: LINK BETWEEN HISTORY AND POLITICS]
+
+"Politics," said Sir John Seeley, "are vulgar when they are not
+liberalised by history, and history fades into mere literature when
+it loses sight of its relation to practical politics." Everybody
+perceives the sense in which this is true. For the science of politics
+is the one science that is deposited by the stream of history, like
+grains of gold in the sand of a river; and the knowledge of the past,
+the record of truths revealed by experience, is eminently practical,
+as an instrument of action, and a power that goes to the making of the
+future.[1] In France, such is the weight attached to the study of our
+own time, that there is an appointed course of contemporary history,
+with appropriate textbooks.[2] That is a chair which, in the
+progressive division of labour by which both science and government
+prosper,[3] may some day be founded in this country. Meantime, we do
+well to acknowledge the points at which the two epochs diverge. For
+the contemporary differs from the modern in this, that many of its
+facts cannot by us be definitely ascertained. The living do not give
+up their secrets with the candour of the dead; one key is always
+excepted, and a generation passes before we can ensure accuracy.
+Common report and outward seeming are bad copies of the reality, as
+the initiated know it. Even of a thing so memorable as the war of
+1870, the true cause is still obscure; much that we believed has been
+scattered to the winds in the last six months, and further revelations
+by important witnesses are about to appear. The use of history turns
+far more on certainty than on abundance of acquired information.
+
+Beyond the question of certainty is the question of detachment. The
+process by which principles are discovered and appropriated is other
+than that by which, in practice, they are applied; and our most sacred
+and disinterested convictions ought to take shape in the tranquil
+regions of the air, above the tumult and the tempest of active
+life.[4] For a man is justly despised who has one opinion in history
+and another in politics, one for abroad and another at home, one for
+opposition and another for office. History compels us to fasten on
+abiding issues, and rescues us from the temporary and transient.
+Politics and history are interwoven, but are not commensurate. Ours is
+a domain that reaches farther than affairs of state, and is not
+subject to the jurisdiction of governments. It is our function to keep
+in view and to command the movement of ideas, which are not the
+effect but the cause of public events;[5] and even to allow some
+priority to ecclesiastical history over civil, since, by reason of the
+graver issues concerned, and the vital consequences of error, it
+opened the way in research, and was the first to be treated by close
+reasoners and scholars of the higher rank.[6]
+
+[Sidenote: NOT GOVERNED BY NATIONAL CAUSES]
+
+In the same manner, there is wisdom and depth in the philosophy which
+always considers the origin and the germ, and glories in history as
+one consistent epic.[7] Yet every student ought to know that mastery
+is acquired by resolved limitation. And confusion ensues from the
+theory of Montesquieu and of his school, who, adapting the same term
+to things unlike, insist that freedom is the primitive condition of
+the race from which we are sprung.[8] If we are to account mind not
+matter, ideas not force, the spiritual property that gives dignity,
+and grace, and intellectual value to history, and its action on the
+ascending life of man, then we shall not be prone to explain the
+universal by the national, and civilisation by custom.[9] A speech of
+Antigone, a single sentence of Socrates, a few lines that were
+inscribed on an Indian rock before the Second Punic War, the footsteps
+of a silent yet prophetic people who dwelt by the Dead Sea, and
+perished in the fall of Jerusalem, come nearer to our lives than the
+ancestral wisdom of barbarians who fed their swine on the Hercynian
+acorns.
+
+[Sidenote: MEDI�VAL LIMIT OF MODERN HISTORY]
+
+For our present purpose, then, I describe as modern history that which
+begins four hundred years ago, which is marked off by an evident and
+intelligible line from the time immediately preceding, and displays
+in its course specific and distinctive characteristics of its own.[10]
+The modern age did not proceed from the medi�val by normal succession,
+with outward tokens of legitimate descent. Unheralded, it founded a
+new order of things, under a law of innovation, sapping the ancient
+reign of continuity. In those days Columbus subverted the notions of
+the world, and reversed the conditions of production, wealth and
+power; in those days, Machiavelli released government from the
+restraint of law; Erasmus diverted the current of ancient learning
+from profane into Christian channels; Luther broke the chain of
+authority and tradition at the strongest link; and Copernicus erected
+an invincible power that set for ever the mark of progress upon the
+time that was to come. There is the same unbound originality and
+disregard for inherited sanctions in the rare philosophers as in the
+discovery of Divine Right, and the intruding Imperialism of Rome. The
+like effects are visible everywhere, and one generation beheld them
+all. It was an awakening of new life; the world revolved in a
+different orbit, determined by influences unknown before. After many
+ages persuaded of the headlong decline and impending dissolution of
+society,[11] and governed by usage and the will of masters who were in
+their graves, the sixteenth century went forth armed for untried
+experience, and ready to watch with hopefulness a prospect of
+incalculable change.
+
+[Sidenote: INFLUENCE OF KNOWLEDGE ON MODERN HISTORY]
+
+That forward movement divides it broadly from the older world; and the
+unity of the new is manifest in the universal spirit of investigation
+and discovery which did not cease to operate, and withstood the
+recurring efforts of reaction, until, by the advent of the reign of
+general ideas which we call the Revolution, it at length
+prevailed.[12] This successive deliverance and gradual passage, for
+good and evil, from subordination to independence is a phenomenon of
+primary import to us, because historical science has been one of its
+instruments.[13] If the Past has been an obstacle and a burden,
+knowledge of the Past is the safest and the surest emancipation. And
+the earnest search for it is one of the signs that distinguish the
+four centuries of which I speak from those that went before. The
+middle ages, which possessed good writers of contemporary narrative,
+were careless and impatient of older fact. They became content to be
+deceived, to live in a twilight of fiction, under clouds of false
+witness, inventing according to convenience, and glad to welcome the
+forger and the cheat.[14] As time went on, the atmosphere of
+accredited mendacity thickened, until, in the Renaissance, the art of
+exposing falsehood dawned upon keen Italian minds. It was then that
+history as we understand it began to be understood, and the
+illustrious dynasty of scholars arose to whom we still look both for
+method and material. Unlike the dreaming prehistoric world, ours knows
+the need and the duty to make itself master of the earlier times, and
+to forfeit nothing of their wisdom or their warnings,[15] and has
+devoted its best energy and treasure to the sovereign purpose of
+detecting error and vindicating entrusted truth.[16]
+
+[Sidenote: INTERNATIONAL IDEAS]
+
+[Sidenote: MEMORABLE MEN]
+
+[Sidenote: INDEPENDENT MINDS]
+
+In this epoch of full-grown history men have not acquiesced in the
+given conditions of their lives. Taking little for granted they have
+sought to know the ground they stand on, and the road they travel, and
+the reason why. Over them, therefore, the historian has obtained an
+increasing ascendancy.[17] The law of stability was overcome by the
+power of ideas, constantly varied and rapidly renewed;[18] ideas that
+give life and motion, that take wing and traverse seas and frontiers,
+making it futile to pursue the consecutive order of events in the
+seclusion of a separate nationality.[19] They compel us to share the
+existence of societies wider than our own, to be familiar with distant
+and exotic types, to hold our march upon the loftier summits, along
+the central range, to live in the company of heroes, and saints, and
+men of genius, that no single country could produce. We cannot afford
+wantonly to lose sight of great men and memorable lives, and are bound
+to store up objects for admiration as far as may be;[20] for the
+effect of implacable research is constantly to reduce their number. No
+intellectual exercise, for instance, can be more invigorating than to
+watch the working of the mind of Napoleon, the most entirely known as
+well as the ablest of historic men. In another sphere, it is the
+vision of a higher world to be intimate with the character of F�nelon,
+the cherished model of politicians, ecclesiastics, and men of letters,
+the witness against one century and precursor of another, the advocate
+of the poor against oppression, of liberty in an age of arbitrary
+power, of tolerance in an age of persecution, of the humane virtues
+among men accustomed to sacrifice them to authority, the man of whom
+one enemy says that his cleverness was enough to strike terror, and
+another, that genius poured in torrents from his eyes. For the minds
+that are greatest and best alone furnish the instructive examples. A
+man of ordinary proportion or inferior metal knows not how to think
+out the rounded circle of his thought, how to divest his will of its
+surroundings and to rise above the pressure of time and race and
+circumstance,[21] to choose the star that guides his course, to
+correct, and test, and assay his convictions by the light within,[22]
+and, with a resolute conscience and ideal courage, to re-model and
+reconstitute the character which birth and education gave him.[23]
+
+[Sidenote: FOREIGN CONSTITUTIONS]
+
+For ourselves, if it were not the quest of the higher level and the
+extended horizon, international history would be imposed by the
+exclusive and insular reason that parliamentary reporting is younger
+than parliaments. The foreigner has no mystic fabric in his
+government, and no _arcanum imperii_. For him, the foundations have
+been laid bare; every motive and function of the mechanism is
+accounted for as distinctly as the works of a watch. But with our
+indigenous constitution, not made with hands or written upon paper,
+but claiming to develope by a law of organic growth; with our
+disbelief in the virtue of definitions and general principles and our
+reliance on relative truths, we can have nothing equivalent to the
+vivid and prolonged debates in which other communities have displayed
+the inmost secrets of political science to every man who can read.
+And the discussions of constituent assemblies, at Philadelphia,
+Versailles and Paris, at Cadiz and Brussels, at Geneva, Frankfort and
+Berlin, above nearly all, those of the most enlightened States in the
+American Union, when they have recast their institutions, are
+paramount in the literature of politics, and proffer treasures which
+at home we have never enjoyed.
+
+[Sidenote: RESOURCES OF MODERN HISTORY]
+
+[Sidenote: BEGINNING OF THE DOCUMENTARY AGE]
+
+To historians the later part of their enormous subject is precious
+because it is inexhaustible. It is the best to know because it is the
+best known and the most explicit. Earlier scenes stand out from a
+background of obscurity. We soon reach the sphere of hopeless
+ignorance and unprofitable doubt. But hundreds and even thousands of
+the moderns have borne testimony against themselves, and may be
+studied in their private correspondence and sentenced on their own
+confession. Their deeds are done in the daylight. Every country opens
+its archives and invites us to penetrate the mysteries of State. When
+Hallam wrote his chapter on James II., France was the only Power whose
+reports were available. Rome followed, and the Hague; and then came
+the stores of the Italian States, and at last the Prussian and the
+Austrian papers, and partly those of Spain. Where Hallam and Lingard
+were dependent on Barillon, their successors consult the diplomacy of
+ten governments. The topics indeed are few on which the resources have
+been so employed that we can be content with the work done for us, and
+never wish it to be done over again. Part of the lives of Luther and
+Frederic, a little of the Thirty Years' War, much of the American
+Revolution and the French Restoration, the early years of Richelieu
+and Mazarin, and a few volumes of Mr. Gardiner, show here and there
+like Pacific islands in the ocean. I should not even venture to claim
+for Ranke, the real originator of the heroic study of records, and the
+most prompt and fortunate of European pathfinders, that there is one
+of his seventy volumes that has not been overtaken and in part
+surpassed. It is through his accelerating influence mainly that our
+branch of study has become progressive, so that the best master is
+quickly distanced by the better pupil.[24] The Vatican archives alone,
+now made accessible to the world, filled 3,239 cases when they were
+sent to France; and they are not the richest. We are still at the
+beginning of the documentary age, which will tend to make history
+independent of historians, to develope learning at the expense of
+writing, and to accomplish a revolution in other sciences as well.[25]
+
+[Sidenote: MODERN HISTORY]
+
+To men in general I would justify the stress I am laying on modern
+history, neither by urging its varied wealth, nor the rupture with
+precedent, nor the perpetuity of change and increase of pace, nor the
+growing predominance of opinion over belief, and of knowledge over
+opinion, but by the argument that it is a narrative told of ourselves,
+the record of a life which is our own, of efforts not yet abandoned to
+repose, of problems that still entangle the feet and vex the hearts of
+men. Every part of it is weighty with inestimable lessons that we
+must learn by experience and at a great price, if we know not how to
+profit by the example and teaching of those who have gone before us,
+in a society largely resembling the one we live in.[26] Its study
+fulfils its purpose even if it only makes us wiser, without producing
+books, and gives us the gift of historical thinking, which is better
+than historical learning.[27] It is a most powerful ingredient in the
+formation of character and the training of talent, and our historical
+judgments have as much to do with hopes of heaven as public or private
+conduct. Convictions that have been strained through the instances and
+the comparisons of modern times differ immeasurably in solidity and
+force from those which every new fact perturbs, and which are often
+little better than illusions or unsifted prejudice.[28]
+
+[Sidenote: A SCHOOL OF OPINION]
+
+[Sidenote: INFLUENCE OF THE RELIGIOUS ELEMENT]
+
+The first of human concerns is religion, and it is the salient feature
+of the modern centuries. They are signalised as the scene of
+Protestant developments. Starting from a time of extreme indifference,
+ignorance, and decline, they were at once occupied with that conflict
+which was to rage so long, and of which no man could imagine the
+infinite consequences. Dogmatic conviction--for I shun to speak of
+faith in connection with many characters of those days--dogmatic
+conviction rose to be the centre of universal interest, and remained
+down to Cromwell the supreme influence and motive of public policy. A
+time came when the intensity of prolonged conflict, when even the
+energy of antagonistic assurance, abated somewhat, and the
+controversial spirit began to make room for the scientific; and as the
+storm subsided, and the area of settled questions emerged, much of
+the dispute was abandoned to the serene and soothing touch of
+historians, invested as they are with the prerogative of redeeming the
+cause of religion from many unjust reproaches, and from the graver
+evil of reproaches that are just. Ranke used to say that Church
+interests prevailed in politics until the Seven Years' War, and marked
+a phase of society that ended when the hosts of Brandenburg went into
+action at Leuthen, chanting their Lutheran hymns.[29] That bold
+proposition would be disputed even if applied to the present age.
+After Sir Robert Peel had broken up his party, the leaders who
+followed him declared that no-popery was the only basis on which it
+could be reconstructed.[30] On the other side may be urged that, in
+July 1870, at the outbreak of the French war, the only government
+that insisted on the abolition of the temporal power was Austria; and
+since then we have witnessed the fall of Castelar, because he
+attempted to reconcile Spain with Rome.
+
+[Sidenote: RELIGION]
+
+Soon after 1850 several of the most intelligent men in France, struck
+by the arrested increase of their own population and by the telling
+statistics from Further Britain, foretold the coming preponderance of
+the English race. They did not foretell, what none could then foresee,
+the still more sudden growth of Prussia, or that the three most
+important countries of the globe would, by the end of the century, be
+those that chiefly belonged to the conquests of the Reformation. So
+that in Religion, as in so many things, the product of these
+centuries has favoured the new elements; and the centre of gravity,
+moving from the Mediterranean nations to the Oceanic, from the Latin
+to the Teuton, has also passed from the Catholic to the
+Protestant.[31]
+
+[Sidenote: THE CAUSE OF LIBERTY]
+
+[Sidenote: REVOLUTION]
+
+Out of these controversies proceeded political as well as historical
+science. It was in the Puritan phase, before the restoration of the
+Stuarts, that theology, blending with politics, effected a fundamental
+change. The essentially English reformation of the seventeenth century
+was less a struggle between churches than between sects, often
+subdivided by questions of discipline and self-regulation rather than
+by dogma. The sectaries cherished no purpose or prospect of prevailing
+over the nations; and they were concerned with the individual more
+than with the congregation, with conventicles, not with
+state-churches. Their view was narrowed, but their sight was
+sharpened. It appeared to them that governments and institutions are
+made to pass away, like things of earth, whilst souls are immortal;
+that there is no more proportion between liberty and power than
+between eternity and time; that, therefore, the sphere of enforced
+command ought to be restricted within fixed limits, and that which had
+been done by authority, and outward discipline, and organised
+violence, should be attempted by division of power, and committed to
+the intellect and the conscience of free men.[32] Thus was exchanged
+the dominion of will over will for the dominion of reason over reason.
+The true apostles of toleration are not those who sought protection
+for their own beliefs, or who had none to protect; but men to whom,
+irrespective of their cause, it was a political, a moral, and a
+theological dogma, a question of conscience, involving both religion
+and policy.[33] Such a man was Socinus; and others arose in the
+smaller sects--the Independent founder of the colony of Rhode Island,
+and the Quaker patriarch of Pennsylvania. Much of the energy and zeal
+which had laboured for authority of doctrine was employed for liberty
+of prophesying. The air was filled with the enthusiasm of a new cry;
+but the cause was still the same. It became a boast that religion was
+the mother of freedom, that freedom was the lawful off spring of
+religion; and this transmutation, this subversion of established forms
+of political life by the development of religious thought, brings us
+to the heart of my subject, to the significant and central feature of
+the historic cycle before us. Beginning with the strongest religious
+movement and the most refined despotism ever known, it has led to the
+superiority of politics over divinity in the life of nations, and
+terminates in the equal claim of every man to be unhindered by man in
+the fulfilment of duty to God[34]--a doctrine laden with storm and
+havoc, which is the secret essence of the Rights of Man, and the
+indestructible soul of Revolution.
+
+[Sidenote: THE MODE OF LIBERTY]
+
+[Sidenote: PROGRESS]
+
+[Sidenote: THE MARK OF PROVIDENCE]
+
+When we consider what the adverse forces were, their sustained
+resistance, their frequent recovery, the critical moments when the
+struggle seemed for ever desperate, in 1685, in 1772, in 1808, it is
+no hyperbole to say that the progress of the world towards
+self-government would have been arrested but for the strength afforded
+by the religious motive in the seventeenth century. And this
+constancy of progress, of progress in the direction of organised and
+assured freedom, is the characteristic fact of modern history, and its
+tribute to the theory, of Providence.[35] Many persons, I am well
+assured, would detect that this is a very old story, and a trivial
+commonplace, and would challenge proof that the world is making
+progress in aught but intellect, that it is gaining in freedom, or
+that increase in freedom is either a progress or a gain. Ranke, who
+was my own master, rejected the view that I have stated;[36] Comte,
+the master of better men, believed that we drag a lengthening chain
+under the gathered weight of the dead hand;[37] and many of our recent
+classics, Carlyle, Newman, Froude, were persuaded that there is no
+progress justifying the ways of God to man, and that the mere
+consolidation of liberty is like the motion of creatures whose advance
+is in the direction of their tails. They deem that anxious precaution
+against bad government is an obstruction to good, and degrades
+morality and mind by placing the capable at the mercy of the
+incapable, dethroning enlightened virtue for the benefit of the
+average man. They hold that great and salutary things are done for
+mankind by power concentrated, not by power balanced and cancelled and
+dispersed, and that the whig theory, sprung from decomposing sects,
+the theory that authority is legitimate only by virtue of its checks,
+and that the sovereign is dependent on the subject, is rebellion
+against the divine will manifested all down the stream of time.
+
+[Sidenote: CERTAINTY]
+
+[Sidenote: DEPENDENT ON RESERVE]
+
+I state the objection not that we may plunge into the crucial
+controversy of a science that is not identical with ours, but in order
+to make my drift clear by the defining aid of express contradiction.
+No political dogma is as serviceable to my purpose here as the
+historian's maxim to do the best he can for the other side, and to
+avoid pertinacity or emphasis on his own. Like the economic precept
+_Laissez-faire_[38] which the eighteenth century derived from Colbert,
+it has been an important, if not a final step in the making of method.
+The strongest and most impressive personalities, it is true, like
+Macaulay, Thiers, and the two greatest of living writers, Mommsen and
+Treitschke, project their own broad shadow upon their pages. This is a
+practice proper to great men, and a great man may be worth several
+immaculate historians. Otherwise there is virtue in the saying that a
+historian is seen at his best when he does not appear.[39] Better for
+us is the example of the Bishop of Oxford, who never lets us know what
+he thinks of anything but the matter before him; and of his
+illustrious French rival, Fustel de Coulanges, who said to an excited
+audience: "Do not imagine you are listening to me; it is history
+itself that speaks."[40] We can found no philosophy on the observation
+of four hundred years, excluding three thousand. It would be an
+imperfect and a fallacious induction. But I hope that even this narrow
+and disedifying section of history will aid you to see that the action
+of Christ who is risen on mankind whom he redeemed fails not, but
+increases;[41] that the wisdom of divine rule appears not in the
+perfection but in the improvement of the world;[42] and that achieved
+liberty is the one ethical result that rests on the converging and
+combined conditions of advancing civilisation.[43] Then you will
+understand what a famous philosopher said, that History is the true
+demonstration of Religion.[44]
+
+[Sidenote: MEANING OF LIBERTY]
+
+But what do people mean who proclaim that liberty is the palm, and the
+prize, and the crown, seeing that it is an idea of which there are two
+hundred definitions, and that this wealth of interpretation has caused
+more bloodshed than anything, except theology? Is it Democracy as in
+France, or Federalism as in America, or the national independence
+which bounds the Italian view, or the reign of the fittest, which is
+the ideal of Germans?[45] I know not whether it will ever fall within
+my sphere of duty to trace the slow progress of that idea through the
+chequered scenes of our history, and to describe how subtle
+speculations touching the nature of conscience promoted a nobler and
+more spiritual conception of the liberty that protects it,[46] until
+the guardian of rights developed into the guardian of duties which are
+the cause of rights,[47] and that which had been prized as the
+material safeguard for treasures of earth became sacred as security
+for things that are divine. All that we require is a workday key to
+history, and our present need can be supplied without pausing to
+satisfy philosophers. Without inquiring how far Sarasa or Butler, Kant
+or Vinet, is right as to the infallible voice of God in man, we may
+easily agree in this, that where absolutism reigned, by irresistible
+arms, concentrated possessions, auxiliary churches, and inhuman laws,
+it reigns no more; that commerce having risen against land, labour
+against wealth, the state against the forces dominant in society,[48]
+the division of power against the state, the thought of individuals
+against the practice of ages, neither authorities, nor minorities, nor
+majorities can command implicit obedience; and, where there has been
+long and arduous experience, a rampart of tried conviction and
+accumulated knowledge,[49] where there is a fair level of general
+morality, education, courage, and self-restraint, there, if there
+only, a society may be found that exhibits the condition of life
+towards which, by elimination of failures, the world has been moving
+through the allotted space.[50] You will know it by outward signs:
+Representation, the extinction of slavery, the reign of opinion, and
+the like; better still by less apparent evidences: the security of the
+weaker groups[51] and the liberty of conscience, which, effectually
+secured, secures the rest.
+
+[Sidenote: THE GROWTH OF REVOLUTION]
+
+[Sidenote: RENOVATION OF HISTORY BY REVOLUTION]
+
+Here we reach a point at which my argument threatens to abut on a
+contradiction. If the supreme conquests of society are won more often
+by violence than by lenient arts, if the trend and drift of things is
+towards convulsions and catastrophes,[52] if the world owes religious
+liberty to the Dutch Revolution, constitutional government to the
+English, federal republicanism to the American, political equality to
+the French and its successors,[53] what is to become of us, docile and
+attentive students of the absorbing Past? The triumph of the
+Revolutionist annuls the historian.[54] By its authentic exponents,
+Jefferson and Siey�s, the Revolution of the last century repudiates
+history. Their followers renounced acquaintance with it, and were
+ready to destroy its records and to abolish its inoffensive
+professors. But the unexpected truth, stranger than fiction, is that
+this was not the ruin but the renovation of history. Directly and
+indirectly, by process of development and by process of reaction, an
+impulse was given which made it infinitely more effectual as a factor
+of civilisation than ever before, and a movement began in the world of
+minds which was deeper and more serious than the revival of ancient
+learning.[55] The dispensation under which we live and labour consists
+first in the recoil from the negative spirit that rejected the law of
+growth, and partly in the endeavour to classify and adjust the
+revolution, and to account for it by the natural working of historic
+causes. The Conservative line of writers, under the name of the
+Romantic or Historical School, had its seat in Germany, looked upon
+the Revolution as an alien episode, the error of an age, a disease to
+be treated by the investigation of its origin, and strove to unite the
+broken threads and to restore the normal conditions of organic
+evolution. The Liberal School, whose home was France, explained and
+justified the Revolution as a true development, and the ripened fruit
+of all history.[56] These are the two main arguments of the generation
+to which we owe the notion and the scientific methods that make
+history so unlike what it was to the survivors of the last century.
+Severally, the innovators were not superior to the men of old.
+Muratori was as widely read, Tillemont as accurate, Leibniz as able,
+Fr�ret as acute, Gibbon as masterly in the craft of composite
+construction. Nevertheless, in the second quarter of this century, a
+new era began for historians.
+
+[Sidenote: USE OF UNPUBLISHED SOURCES]
+
+[Sidenote: INSUFFICIENCY OF BOOKS]
+
+I would point to three things in particular, out of many, which
+constitute the amended order. Of the incessant deluge of new and
+unsuspected matter I need say little. For some years, the secret
+archives of the papacy were accessible at Paris; but the time was not
+ripe, and almost the only man whom they availed was the archivist
+himself.[57] Towards 1830 the documentary studies began on a large
+scale, Austria leading the way. Michelet, who claims, towards 1836,
+to have been the pioneer,[58] was preceded by such rivals as
+Mackintosh, Bucholtz, and Mignet. A new and more productive period
+began thirty years later, when the war of 1859 laid open the spoils of
+Italy. Every country in succession has now allowed the exploration of
+its records, and there is more fear of drowning than of drought. The
+result has been that a lifetime spent in the largest collection of
+printed books would not suffice to train a real master of modern
+history. After he had turned from literature to sources, from Burnet
+to Pocock, from Macaulay to Madame Campana, from Thiers to the
+interminable correspondence of the Bonapartes, he would still feel
+instant need of inquiry at Venice or Naples, in the Ossuna library or
+at the Hermitage.[59]
+
+[Sidenote: HISTORY RENEWED BY CRITICISM]
+
+These matters do not now concern us. For our purpose, the main thing
+to learn is not the art of accumulating material, but the sublimer art
+of investigating it, of discerning truth from falsehood, and certainty
+from doubt. It is by solidity of criticism more than by the plenitude
+of erudition, that the study of history strengthens, and straightens,
+and extends the mind.[60] And the accession of the critic in the place
+of the indefatigable compiler, of the artist in coloured narrative,
+the skilled limner of character, the persuasive advocate of good, or
+other, causes, amounts to a transfer of government, to a change of
+dynasty, in the historic realm. For the critic is one who, when he
+lights on an interesting statement, begins by suspecting it. He
+remains in suspense until he has subjected his authority to three
+operations. First, he asks whether he has read the passage as the
+author wrote it. For the transcriber, and the editor, and the official
+or officious censor on the top of the editor, have played strange
+tricks, and have much to answer for. And if they are not to blame, it
+may turn out that the author wrote his book twice over, that you can
+discover the first jet, the progressive variations, things added, and
+things struck out. Next is the question where the writer got his
+information. If from a previous writer, it can be ascertained, and the
+inquiry has to be repeated. If from unpublished papers, they must be
+traced, and when the fountain head is reached, or the track
+disappears, the question of veracity arises. The responsible writer's
+character, his position, antecedents, and probable motives have to be
+examined into; and this is what, in a different and adapted sense of
+the word, may be called the higher criticism, in comparison with the
+servile and often mechanical work of pursuing statements to their
+root. For a historian has to be treated as a witness, and not believed
+unless his sincerity is established.[61] The maxim that a man must be
+presumed to be innocent until his guilt is proved, was not made for
+him.
+
+[Sidenote: CRITICAL STUDY OF EARLIER TIMES]
+
+For us then the estimate of authorities, the weighing of testimony, is
+more meritorious than the potential discovery of new matter.[62] And
+modern history, which is the widest field of application, is not the
+best to learn our business in; for it is too wide, and the harvest has
+not been winnowed as in antiquity, and further on to the Crusades. It
+is better to examine what has been done for questions that are
+compact and circumscribed, such as the sources of Plutarch's
+_Pericles_, the two tracts on Athenian government, the origin of the
+epistle to Diognetus, the date of the life of St. Antony; and to learn
+from Schwegler how this analytical work began. More satisfying because
+more decisive has been the critical treatment of the medi�val writers,
+parallel with the new editions, on which incredible labour has been
+lavished, and of which we have no better examples than the prefaces of
+Bishop Stubbs. An important event in this series was the attack on
+Dino Compagni, which, for the sake of Dante, roused the best Italian
+scholars to a not unequal contest. When we are told that England is
+behind the Continent in critical faculty, we must admit that this is
+true as to quantity, not as to quality of work. As they are no longer
+living, I will say of two Cambridge professors, Lightfoot and Hort,
+that they were critical scholars whom neither Frenchman nor German has
+surpassed.
+
+[Sidenote: DEGREES OF IMPARTIALITY]
+
+The third distinctive note of the generation of writers who dug so
+deep a trench between history as known to our grandfathers and as it
+appears to us, is their dogma of impartiality. To an ordinary man the
+word means no more than justice. He considers that he may proclaim the
+merits of his own religion, of his prosperous and enlightened country,
+of his political persuasion, whether democracy, or liberal monarchy,
+or historic conservatism, without transgression or offence, so long as
+he is fair to the relative, though inferior merits of others, and
+never treats men as saints or as rogues for the side they take. There
+is no impartiality, he would say, like that of a hanging judge. The
+men who, with the compass of criticism in their hands, sailed the
+uncharted sea of original research, proposed a different view.
+History, to be above evasion or dispute, must stand on documents, not
+on opinions. They had their own notion of truthfulness, based on the
+exceeding difficulty of finding truth, and the still greater
+difficulty of impressing it when found. They thought it possible to
+write, with so much scruple, and simplicity, and insight, as to carry
+along with them every man of good will, and, whatever his feelings, to
+compel his assent. Ideas which, in religion and in politics, are
+truths, in history are forces. They must be respected; they must not
+be affirmed. By dint of a supreme reserve, by much self-control, by a
+timely and discreet indifference, by secrecy in the matter of the
+black cap, history might be lifted above contention, and made an
+accepted tribunal, and the same for all.[63] If men were truly
+sincere, and delivered judgment by no canons but those of evident
+morality, then Julian would be described in the same terms by
+Christian and pagan, Luther by Catholic and Protestant, Washington by
+Whig and Tory, Napoleon by patriotic Frenchman and patriotic
+German.[64]
+
+[Sidenote: MORALITY THE SOLE RULE OF JUDGMENT]
+
+I speak of this school with reverence, for the good it has done, by
+the assertion of historic truth and of its legitimate authority over
+the minds of men. It provides a discipline which every one of us does
+well to undergo, and perhaps also well to relinquish. For it is not
+the whole truth. Lanfrey's essay on Carnot, Chuquet's wars of the
+Revolution, Ropes's military histories, Roget's Geneva in the time of
+Calvin, will supply you with examples of a more robust impartiality
+than I have described. Renan calls it the luxury of an opulent and
+aristocratic society, doomed to vanish in an age of fierce and sordid
+striving. In our universities it has a magnificent and appointed
+refuge; and to serve its cause, which is sacred, because it is the
+cause of truth and honour, we may import a profitable lesson from the
+highly unscientific region of public life. There a man does not take
+long to find out that he is opposed by some who are abler and better
+than himself. And, in order to understand the cosmic force and the
+true connection of ideas, it is a source of power, and an excellent
+school of principle, not to rest until, by excluding the fallacies,
+the prejudices, the exaggerations which perpetual contention and the
+consequent precautions breed, we have made out for our opponents a
+stronger and more impressive case than they present themselves.[65]
+Excepting one to which we are coming before I release you, there is no
+precept less faithfully observed by historians.
+
+[Sidenote: EXAMPLE OF RANKE]
+
+Ranke is the representative of the age which instituted the modern
+study of history. He taught it to be critical, to be colourless, and
+to be new. We meet him at every step, and he has done more for us than
+any other man. There are stronger books than any one of his, and some
+may have surpassed him in political, religious, philosophic insight,
+in vividness of the creative imagination, in originality, elevation,
+and depth of thought; but by the extent of important work well
+executed, by his influence on able men, and by the amount of knowledge
+which mankind receives and employs with the stamp of his mind upon it,
+he stands without a rival. I saw him last in 1877, when he was feeble,
+sunken, and almost blind, and scarcely able to read or write. He
+uttered his farewell with kindly emotion, and I feared that the next I
+should hear of him would be the news of his death. Two years later he
+began a Universal History which is not without traces of weakness, but
+which, composed after the age of eighty-three, and carried, in
+seventeen volumes, far into the Middle Ages, brings to a close the
+most astonishing career in literature.
+
+[Sidenote: SUPPRESSION OF OPINION]
+
+His course had been determined, in early life, by _Quentin Durward_.
+The shock of the discovery that Scott's Lewis the Eleventh was
+inconsistent with the original in Commynes made him resolve that his
+object thenceforth should be above all things to follow, without
+swerving, and in stern subordination and surrender, the lead of his
+authorities. He decided effectually to repress the poet, the patriot,
+the religious or political partisan, to sustain no cause, to banish
+himself from his books, and to write nothing that would gratify his
+own feelings or disclose his private convictions.[66] When a strenuous
+divine who, like him, had written on the Reformation, hailed him as a
+comrade, Ranke repelled his advances. "You," he said, "are in the
+first place a Christian: I am in the first place a historian. There is
+a gulf between us."[67] He was the first eminent writer who exhibited
+what Michelet calls _le d�sint�ressement des morts_. It was a moral
+triumph for him when he could refrain from judging, show that much
+might be said on both sides, and leave the rest to Providence.[68] He
+would have felt sympathy with the two famous London physicians of our
+day, of whom it is told that they could not make up their minds on a
+case and reported dubiously. The head of the family insisted on a
+positive opinion. They answered that they were unable to give one, but
+he might easily find fifty doctors who could.
+
+[Sidenote: CRITICISM OF MODERN SOURCES]
+
+Niebuhr had pointed out that chroniclers who wrote before the
+invention of printing generally copied one predecessor at a time, and
+knew little about sifting or combining authorities. The suggestion
+became luminous in Ranke's hands, and with his light and dexterous
+touch he scrutinised and dissected the principal historians, from
+Machiavelli to the _M�moires d'un Homme d'�tat_, with a rigour never
+before applied to moderns. But whilst Niebuhr dismissed the
+traditional story, replacing it with a construction of his own, it was
+Ranke's mission to preserve, not to undermine, and to set up masters
+whom, in their proper sphere, he could obey. The many excellent
+dissertations in which he displayed this art, though his successors in
+the next generation matched his skill and did still more thorough
+work, are the best introduction from which we can learn the technical
+process by which within living memory the study of modern history has
+been renewed. Ranke's contemporaries, weary of his neutrality and
+suspense, and of the useful but subordinate work that was done by
+beginners who borrowed his wand, thought that too much was made of
+these obscure preliminaries which a man may accomplish for himself, in
+the silence of his chamber, with less demand on the attention of the
+public.[69] That may be reasonable in men who are practised in these
+fundamental technicalities. We who have to learn them, must immerse
+ourselves in the study of the great examples.
+
+[Sidenote: METHOD TO BE LEARNT FROM SCIENCES]
+
+Apart from what is technical, method is only the reduplication of
+common sense, and is best acquired by observing its use by the ablest
+men in every variety of intellectual employment.[70] Bentham
+acknowledged that he learned less from his own profession than from
+writers like Linn�us and Cullen; and Brougham advised the student of
+Law to begin with Dante. Liebig described his _Organic Chemistry_ as
+an application of ideas found in Mill's _Logic_, and a distinguished
+physician, not to be named lest he should overhear me, read three
+books to enlarge his medical mind; and they were Gibbon, Grote, and
+Mill. He goes on to say, "An educated man cannot become so on one
+study alone, but must be brought under the influence of natural,
+civil, and moral modes of thought."[71] I quote my colleague's golden
+words in order to reciprocate them. If men of science owe anything to
+us, we may learn much from them that is essential.[72] For they can
+show how to test proof, how to secure fulness and soundness in
+induction, how to restrain and to employ with safety hypothesis and
+analogy. It is they who hold the secret of the mysterious property of
+the mind by which error ministers to truth, and truth slowly but
+irrevocably prevails.[73] Theirs is the logic of discovery,[74] the
+demonstration of the advance of knowledge and the development of
+ideas, which as the earthly wants and passions of men remain almost
+unchanged, are the charter of progress, and the vital spark in
+history. And they often give us invaluable counsel when they attend to
+their own subjects and address their own people. Remember Darwin,
+taking note only of those passages that raised difficulties in his
+way; the French philosopher complaining that his work stood still,
+because he found no more contradicting facts; Baer, who thinks error
+treated thoroughly, nearly as remunerative as truth, by the discovery
+of new objections; for, as Sir Robert Ball warns us, it is by
+considering objections that we often learn.[75] Faraday declares that
+"in knowledge, that man only is to be condemned and despised who is
+not in a state of transition." And John Hunter spoke for all of us,
+when he said: "Never ask me what I have said or what I have written;
+but if you will ask me what my present opinions are, I will tell you."
+
+[Sidenote: ALL ADOPT THE HISTORIC METHOD]
+
+From the first years of the century we have been quickened and
+enriched by contributors from every quarter. The jurists brought us
+that law of continuous growth which has transformed history from a
+chronicle of casual occurrences into the likeness of something
+organic.[76] Towards 1820 divines began to recast their doctrines on
+the lines of development, of which Newman said, long after, that
+evolution had come to confirm it.[77] Even the Economists, who were
+practical men, dissolved their science into liquid history, affirming
+that it is not an auxiliary, but the actual subject-matter of their
+inquiry.[78] Philosophers claim that, as early as 1804, they began to
+bow the metaphysical neck beneath the historical yoke. They taught
+that philosophy is only the amended sum of all philosophies, that
+systems pass with the age whose impress they bear,[79] that the
+problem is to focus the rays of wandering but extant truth, and that
+history is the source of philosophy, if not quite a substitute for
+it.[80] Comte begins a volume with the words that the preponderance of
+history over philosophy was the characteristic of the time he lived
+in.[81] Since Cuvier first recognised the conjunction between the
+course of inductive discovery and the course of civilization,[82]
+science had its share in saturating the age with historic ways of
+thought, and subjecting all things to that influence for which the
+depressing names historicism and historical-mindedness have been
+devised.
+
+[Sidenote: DANGER OF OBLIVION]
+
+[Sidenote: PROPHECY OF PITT]
+
+There are certain faults which are corrigible mental defects on which
+I ought to say a few denouncing words, because they are common to us
+all. First: the want of an energetic understanding of the sequence and
+real significance of events, which would be fatal to a practical
+politician, is ruin to a student of history who is the politician with
+his face turned backwards.[83] It is playing at study, to see nothing
+but the unmeaning and unsuggestive surface, as we generally do. Then
+we have a curious proclivity to neglect, and by degrees to forget,
+what has been certainly known. An instance or two will explain my
+idea. The most popular English writer relates how it happened in his
+presence that the title of Tory was conferred upon the Conservative
+party. For it was an opprobrious name at the time, applied to men for
+whom the Irish Government offered head-money; so that if I have made
+too sure of progress, I may at least complacently point to this
+instance of our mended manners. One day, Titus Oates lost his temper
+with the men who refused to believe him, and after looking about for a
+scorching imprecation, he began to call them Tories.[84] The name
+remained; but its origin, attested by Defoe, dropped out of common
+memory, as if one party were ashamed of their godfather, and the other
+did not care to be identified with his cause and character. You all
+know, I am sure, the story of the news of Trafalgar, and how, two
+days after it had arrived, Mr. Pitt, drawn by an enthusiastic crowd,
+went to dine in the city. When they drank the health of the minister
+who had saved his country, he declined the praise. "England," he said,
+"has saved herself by her own energy; and I hope that after having
+saved herself by her energy, she will save Europe by her example." In
+1814, when this hope had been realised, the last speech of the great
+orator was remembered, and a medal was struck upon which the whole
+sentence was engraved, in four words of compressed Latin: "_Seipsam
+virtute, Europam exemplo._" Now it was just at the time of his last
+appearance in public that Mr. Pitt heard of the overwhelming success
+of the French in Germany, and of the Austrian surrender at Ulm. His
+friends concluded that the contest on land was hopeless, and that it
+was time to abandon the Continent to the conqueror, and to fall back
+upon our new empire of the sea. Pitt did not agree with them. He said
+that Napoleon would meet with a check whenever he encountered a
+national resistance; and he declared that Spain was the place for it,
+and that then England would intervene.[85] General Wellesley, fresh
+from India, was present. Ten years later, when he had accomplished
+that which Pitt had seen in the lucid prescience of his last days, he
+related at Paris what I scarcely hesitate to call the most astounding
+and profound prediction in all political history, where such things
+have not been rare.
+
+[Sidenote: RULES FOR THE STUDY OF HISTORY]
+
+I shall never again enjoy the opportunity of speaking my thoughts to
+such an audience as this, and on so privileged an occasion a lecturer
+may well be tempted to bethink himself whether he knows of any
+neglected truth, any cardinal proposition, that might serve as his
+selected epigraph, as a last signal, perhaps even as a target. I am
+not thinking of those shining precepts which are the registered
+property of every school; that is to say--Learn as much by writing as
+by reading; be not content with the best book; seek sidelights from
+the others; have no favourites; keep men and things apart; guard
+against the prestige of great names;[86] see that your judgments are
+your own, and do not shrink from disagreement; no trusting without
+testing; be more severe to ideas than to actions;[87] do not overlook
+the strength of the bad cause or the weakness of the good;[88] never
+be surprised by the crumbling of an idol or the disclosure of a
+skeleton; judge talent at its best and character at its worst; suspect
+power more than vice,[89] and study problems in preference to periods;
+for instance: the derivation of Luther, the scientific influence of
+Bacon, the predecessors of Adam Smith, the medi�val masters of
+Rousseau, the consistency of Burke, the identity of the first Whig.
+Most of this, I suppose, is undisputed, and calls for no enlargement.
+But the weight of opinion is against me when I exhort you never to
+debase the moral currency or to lower the standard of rectitude, but
+to try others by the final maxim that governs your own lives, and to
+suffer no man and no cause to escape the undying penalty which history
+has the power to inflict on wrong.[90] The plea in extenuation of
+guilt and mitigation of punishment is perpetual. At every step we are
+met by arguments which go to excuse, to palliate, to confound right
+and wrong, and reduce the just man to the level of the reprobate. The
+men who plot to baffle and resist us are, first of all, those who made
+history what it has become. They set up the principle that only a
+foolish Conservative judges the present time with the ideas of the
+Past; that only a foolish Liberal judges the Past with the ideas of
+the Present.[91]
+
+[Sidenote: JUSTIFICATION OF THE PAST]
+
+The mission of that school was to make distant times, and especially
+the middle ages, then most distant of all, intelligible and acceptable
+to a society issuing from the eighteenth century. There were
+difficulties in the way; and among others this, that, in the first
+fervour of the Crusades, the men who took the Cross, after receiving
+communion, heartily devoted the day to the extermination of Jews. To
+judge them by a fixed standard, to call them sacrilegious fanatics or
+furious hypocrites, was to yield a gratuitous victory to Voltaire. It
+became a rule of policy to praise the spirit when you could not defend
+the deed. So that we have no common code; our moral notions are always
+fluid; and you must consider the times, the class from which men
+sprang, the surrounding influences, the masters in their schools, the
+preachers in their pulpits, the movement they obscurely obeyed, and so
+on, until responsibility is merged in numbers, and not a culprit is
+left for execution.[92] A murderer was no criminal if he followed
+local custom, if neighbours approved, if he was encouraged by
+official advisers or prompted by just authority, if he acted for the
+reason of state or the pure love of religion, or if he sheltered
+himself behind the complicity of the Law. The depression of morality
+was flagrant; but the motives were those which have enabled us to
+contemplate with distressing complacency the secret of unhallowed
+lives. The code that is greatly modified by time and place, will vary
+according to the cause. The amnesty is an artifice that enables us to
+make exceptions, to tamper with weights and measures, to deal unequal
+justice to friends and enemies.
+
+[Sidenote: PHILOSOPHIES OF HISTORY]
+
+It is associated with that philosophy which Cato attributes to the
+gods. For we have a theory which justifies Providence by the event,
+and holds nothing so deserving as success, to which there can be no
+victory in a bad cause, prescription and duration legitimate,[93] and
+whatever exists is right and reasonable; and as God manifests His will
+by that which He tolerates, we must conform to the divine decree by
+living to shape the Future after the ratified image of the Past.[94]
+Another theory, less confidently urged, regards History as our guide,
+as much by showing errors to evade as examples to pursue. It is
+suspicious of illusions in success, and, though there may be hope of
+ultimate triumph for what is true, if not by its own attraction, by
+the gradual exhaustion of error, it admits no corresponding promise
+for what is ethically right. It deems the canonisation of the historic
+Past more perilous than ignorance or denial, because it would
+perpetuate the reign of sin and acknowledge the sovereignty of wrong,
+and conceives it the part of real greatness to know how to stand and
+fall alone, stemming, for a lifetime, the contemporary flood.[95]
+
+[Sidenote: DEBASING THE CURRENCY]
+
+Ranke relates, without adornment, that William III. ordered the
+extirpation of a Catholic clan, and scouts the faltering excuse of his
+defenders. But when he comes to the death and character of the
+international deliverer, Glencoe is forgotten, the imputation of
+murder drops, like a thing unworthy of notice.[96] Johannes Mueller, a
+great Swiss celebrity, writes that the British Constitution occurred
+to somebody, perhaps to Halifax. This artless statement might not be
+approved by rigid lawyers as a faithful and felicitous indication of
+the manner of that mysterious growth of ages, from occult beginnings,
+that was never profaned by the invading wit of man;[97] but it is
+less grotesque than it appears. Lord Halifax was the most original
+writer of political tracts in the pamphleteering crowd between
+Harrington and Bolingbroke; and in the Exclusion struggle he produced
+a scheme of limitations which, in substance, if not in form,
+foreshadowed the position of the monarchy in the later Hanoverian
+reigns. Although Halifax did not believe in the Plot,[98] he insisted
+that innocent victims should be sacrificed to content the multitude.
+Sir William Temple writes:--"We only disagreed in one point, which was
+the leaving some priests to the law upon the accusation of being
+priests only, as the House of Commons had desired; which I thought
+wholly unjust. Upon this point Lord Halifax and I had so sharp a
+debate at Lord Sunderland's lodgings, that he told me, if I would not
+concur in points which were so necessary for the people's
+satisfaction, he would tell everybody I was a Papist. And upon his
+affirming that the plot must be handled as if it were true, whether it
+were so or no, in those points that were so generally believed." In
+spite of this accusing passage Macaulay, who prefers Halifax to all
+the statesmen of his age, praises him for his mercy: "His dislike of
+extremes, and a forgiving and compassionate temper which seems to have
+been natural to him, preserved him from all participation in the worst
+crimes of his time."
+
+[Sidenote: SINFULNESS OF HISTORY]
+
+[Sidenote: SOVEREIGNTY OF THE MORAL CODE]
+
+If, in our uncertainty, we must often err, it may be sometimes better
+to risk excess in rigour than in indulgence, for then at least we do
+no injury by loss of principle. As Bayle has said, it is more probable
+that the secret motives of an indifferent action are bad than
+good;[99] and this discouraging conclusion does not depend upon
+theology, for James Mozley supports the sceptic from the other flank,
+with all the artillery of Tractarian Oxford. "A Christian," he says,
+"is bound by his very creed to suspect evil, and cannot release
+himself.... He sees it where others do not; his instinct is divinely
+strengthened; his eye is supernaturally keen; he has a spiritual
+insight, and senses exercised to discern.... He owns the doctrine of
+original sin; that doctrine puts him necessarily on his guard against
+appearances, sustains his apprehension under perplexity, and prepares
+him for recognising anywhere what he knows to be everywhere."[100]
+There is a popular saying of Madame de Sta�l, that we forgive whatever
+we really understand. The paradox has been judiciously pruned by her
+descendant, the Duke de Broglie, in the words: "Beware of too much
+explaining, lest we end by too much excusing."[101] History, says
+Froude, does teach that right and wrong are real distinctions.
+Opinions alter, manners change, creeds rise and fall, but the moral
+law is written on the tablets of eternity.[102] And if there are
+moments when we may resist the teaching of Froude, we have seldom the
+chance of resisting when he is supported by Mr. Goldwin Smith: "A
+sound historical morality will sanction strong measures in evil times;
+selfish ambition, treachery, murder, perjury, it will never sanction
+in the worst of times, for these are the things that make times
+evil.--Justice has been justice, mercy has been mercy, honour has been
+honour, good faith has been good faith, truthfulness has been
+truthfulness from the beginning." The doctrine that, as Sir Thomas
+Browne says, morality is not ambulatory,[103] is expressed as follows
+by Burke, who, when true to himself, is the most intelligent of our
+instructors: "My principles enable me to form my judgment upon men and
+actions in history, just as they do in common life; and are not formed
+out of events and characters, either present or past. History is a
+preceptor of prudence, not of principles. The principles of true
+politics are those of morality enlarged; and I neither now do, nor
+ever will admit of any other."[104]
+
+[Sidenote: HISTORY AND CHARACTER]
+
+Whatever a man's notions of these later centuries are, such, in the
+main, the man himself will be. Under the name of History, they cover
+the articles of his philosophic, his religious, and his political
+creed.[105] They give his measure; they denote his character: and, as
+praise is the shipwreck of historians, his preferences betray him more
+than his aversions. Modern history touches us so nearly, it is so deep
+a question of life and death, that we are bound to find our own way
+through it, and to owe our insight to ourselves. The historians of
+former ages, unapproachable for us in knowledge and in talent, cannot
+be our limit. We have the power to be more rigidly impersonal,
+disinterested and just than they; and to learn from undisguised and
+genuine records to look with remorse upon the past, and to the future
+with assured hope of better things; bearing this in mind, that if we
+lower our standard in history, we cannot uphold it in Church or
+State.
+
+
+
+
+                                 NOTES
+
+
+[1] No political conclusions of any value for practice can be
+arrived at by direct experience. All true political science is, in one
+sense of the phrase, _a priori_, being deduced from the tendencies of
+things, tendencies known either through our general experience of
+human nature, or as the result of an analysis of the course of
+history, considered as a progressive evolution.--MILL, _Inaugural
+Address_, 51.
+
+[2] Contemporary history is, in Dr. Arnold's opinion, more
+important than either ancient or modern; and in fact superior to it by
+all the superiority of the end to the means.--SEELEY, _Lectures and
+Essays_, 306.
+
+[3] The law of all progress is one and the same, the
+evolution of the simple into the complex by successive
+differentiations.--_Edinburgh Review_, clvii. 428. Die Entwickelung
+der V�lker vollzieht sich nach zwei Gesetzen. Das erste Gesetz ist das
+der Differenzierung. Die primitiven Einrichtungen sind einfach und
+einheitlich, die der Civilisation zusammengesetzt und geteilt, und die
+Arbeitsteilung nimmt best�ndig zu.--SICKEL, _Goettingen Gelehrte
+Anzeigen_, 1890, 563.
+
+[4] Nous risquons toujours d'�tre influenc�s par les
+pr�jug�s de notre �poque; mais nous sommes libres des pr�jug�s
+particuliers aux �poques ant�rieures.--E. NAVILLE, _Christianisme de
+F�nelon_, 9.
+
+[5] La nature n'est qu'un �cho de l'esprit. L'id�e est la
+m�re du fait, elle fa�onne graduellement le monde � son
+image.--FEUCHTERSLEBEN, _in_ CARO, _Nouvelles �tudes Morales_, 132. Il
+n'est pas d'�tude morale qui vaille l'histoire d'une id�e.--LABOULAYE,
+_Libert� Religieuse_, 25.
+
+[6] Il y a des savants qui raillent le sentiment religieux.
+Ils ne savent pas que c'est � ce sentiment, et par son moyen, que la
+science historique doit d'avoir pu sortir de l'enfance.... Depuis des
+si�cles les �mes ind�pendantes discutaient les textes et les
+traditions de l'�glise, quand les lettr�s n'avaient pas encore eu
+l'id�e de porter un regard critique sur les textes de l'antiquit�
+mondaine.--_La France Protestante_, ii. 17.
+
+[7] In our own history, above all, every step in advance has
+been at the same time a step backwards. It has often been shown how
+our latest constitution is, amidst all external differences,
+essentially the same as our earliest, how every struggle for right and
+freedom, from the thirteenth century onwards, has simply been a
+struggle for recovering something old.--FREEMAN, _Historical Essays_,
+iv. 253. Nothing but a thorough knowledge of the social system, based
+upon a regular study of its growth, can give us the power we require
+to affect it.--HARRISON, _Meaning of History_, 19. Eine Sache wird nur
+v�llig auf dem Wege verstanden, wie sie selbst entsteht.--In dem
+genetischen Verfahren sind die Gr�nde der Sache, auch die Gr�nde des
+Erkennens.--TRENDELENBURG, _Logische Untersuchungen_, ii. 395, 388.
+
+[8] Une telle libert� ... n'a rien de commun avec le savant
+syst�me de garanties qui fait libres les peuples modernes.--BOUTMY,
+_Annales des Sciences Politiques_, i. 157. Les trois grandes r�formes
+qui ont renouvel� l'Angleterre, la libert� religieuse, la r�forme
+parlementaire, et la libert� �conomique, ont �t� obtenues sous la
+pression des organisations extra-constitutionnelles.--OSTROGORSKI,
+_Revue Historique_, lii. 272.
+
+[9] The question which is at the bottom of all constitutional
+struggles, the question between the national will and the national
+law.--GARDINER, _Documents_, xviii. Religion, considered simply as the
+principle which balances the power of human opinion, which takes man
+out of the grasp of custom and fashion, and teaches him to refer
+himself to a higher tribunal, is an infinite aid to moral strength and
+elevation.--CHANNING, _Works_, iv. 83. Je tiens que le pass� ne suffit
+jamais au pr�sent. Personne n'est plus dispos� que moi � profiter de
+ses le�ons; mais en m�me temps, je le demande, le pr�sent ne
+fournit-il pas toujours les indications qui lui sont propres?--MOL�,
+_in_ FALLOUX, _�tudes et Souvenirs_, 130. Admirons la sagesse de nos
+p�res, et tachons de l'imiter, en faisant ce qui convient � notre
+si�cle.--GALIANI, _Dialogues_, 40.
+
+[10] Ceterum in legendis Historiis malim te ductum animi,
+quam anxias leges sequi. Nullae sunt, quae non magnas habeant
+utilitates; et melius haerent, quae libenter legimus. In universum
+tamen, non incipere ab antiquissimis, sed ab his, quae nostris
+temporibus nostraeque notitiae propius cohaerent, ac paulatim deinde
+in remotiora eniti, magis � re arbitror.--GROTIUS, _Epistol�_, 18.
+
+[11] The older idea of a law of degeneracy, of a "fatal drift
+towards the worse," is as obsolete as astrology or the belief in
+witchcraft. The human race has become hopeful, sanguine.--SEELEY,
+_Rede Lecture_, 1887. _Fortnightly Review_, July, 1887, 124.
+
+[12] Formuler des id�es g�n�rales, c'est changer le salp�tre
+en poudre.--A. DE MUSSET, _Confessions d'un Enfant du Si�cle_, 15. Les
+r�volutions c'est l'av�nement des id�es lib�rales. C'est presque
+toujours par les r�volutions qu'elles pr�valent et se fondent, et
+quand les id�es lib�rales en sont v�ritablement le principe et le but,
+quand elles leur ont donn� naissance, et quand elles les couronnent �
+leur dernier jour, alors ces r�volutions sont l�gitimes.--R�MUSAT,
+1839, in _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1875, vi. 335. Il y a m�me des
+personnes de pi�t� qui prouvent par raison qu'il faut renoncer � la
+raison; que ce n'est point la lumi�re, mais la foi seule qui doit nous
+conduire, et que l'ob�issance aveugle est la principale vertu des
+chr�tiens. La paresse des inf�rieurs et leur esprit flatteur
+s'accommode souvent de cette vertu pr�tendue, et l'orgueil de ceux qui
+commandent en est toujours tr�s content. De sorte qu'il se trouvera
+peut-�tre des gens qui seront scandalis�s que je fasse cet honneur �
+la raison, de l'�lever au-dessus de toutes les puissances, et qui
+s'imagineront que je me r�volte contre les autorit�s l�gitimes � cause
+que je prends son parti et que je soutiens que c'est � elle � d�cider
+et � regner.--MALEBRANCHE, _Morale_, i. 2, 13. That great statesman
+(Mr. Pitt) distinctly avowed that the application of philosophy to
+politics was at that time an innovation, and that it was an innovation
+worthy to be adopted. He was ready to make the same avowal in the
+present day which Mr. Pitt had made in 1792.--CANNING, June 1, 1827.
+_Parliamentary Review_, 1828, 71. American history knows but one
+avenue of success in American legislation, freedom from ancient
+prejudice. The best lawgivers in our colonies first became as little
+children.--BANCROFT, _History of the United States_, i. 494.--Every
+American, from Jefferson and Gallatin down to the poorest squatter,
+seemed to nourish an idea that he was doing what he could to overthrow
+the tyranny which the past had fastened on the human mind.--ADAMS,
+_History of the United States_, i. 175.
+
+[13] The greatest changes of which we have had experience as
+yet are due to our increasing knowledge of history and nature. They
+have been produced by a few minds appearing in three or four favoured
+nations, in comparatively a short period of time. May we be allowed to
+imagine the minds of men everywhere working together during many ages
+for the completion of our knowledge? May not the increase of knowledge
+transfigure the world?--JOWETT, _Plato_, i. 414. Nothing, I believe,
+is so likely to beget in us a spirit of enlightened liberality, of
+Christian forbearance, of large-hearted moderation, as the careful study
+of the history of doctrine and the history of interpretation.--PEROWNE,
+_Psalms_, i. p. xxxi.
+
+[14] Ce n'est gu�re avant la seconde moiti� du XVIIe si�cle
+qu'il devint impossible de soutenir l'authenticit� des fausses
+d�cr�tales, des Constitutions apostoliques, des R�cognitions
+Cl�mentines, du faux Ignace, du pseudo-Dionys, et de l'immense fatras
+d'oeuvres anonymes ou pseudonymes qui grossissait souvent du tiers
+ou de la moiti� l'h�ritage litt�raire des auteurs les plus
+consid�rables.--DUCHESNE, _T�moins ant�nic�ens de la Trinit�_, 1883,
+36.
+
+[15] A man who does not know what has been thought by those
+who have gone before him is sure to set an undue value upon his own
+ideas.--M. PATTISON, _Memoirs_, 78.
+
+[16] Travailler � discerner, dans cette discipline, le solide
+d'avec le frivole, le vrai d'avec le vraisemblable, la science d'avec
+l'opinion, ce qui forme le jugement d'avec ce qui ne fait que charger
+la m�moire.--LAMY, _Connoissance de soi-m�me_, v. 459.
+
+[17] All our hopes of the future depend on a sound
+understanding of the past.--HARRISON, _The Meaning of History_, 6.
+
+[18] The real history of mankind is that of the slow advance
+of resolved deed following laboriously just thought; and all the
+greatest men live in their purpose and effort more than it is possible
+for them to live in reality.--The things that actually happened were
+of small consequence--the thoughts that were developed are of infinite
+consequence.--RUSKIN. Facts are the mere dross of history. It is from
+the abstract truth which interpenetrates them, and lies latent among
+them like gold in the ore, that the mass derives its value.--MACAULAY,
+_Works_, v. 131.
+
+[19] Die Gesetze der Geschichte sind eben die Gesetze der
+ganzen Menschheit, gehen nicht in die Geschicke eines Volkes, einer
+Generation oder gar eines Einzelnen auf. Individuen und Geschlechter,
+Staaten und Nationen, k�nnen zerst�uben, die Menschheit bleibt.--A.
+SCHMIDT, _Z�richer Monatschrift_. i. 45.
+
+[20] Le grand p�ril des �ges d�mocratiques, soyez-en s�r,
+c'est la destruction ou l'affaiblissement excessif des parties du
+corps social en pr�sence du tout. Tout ce qui rel�ve de nos jours
+l'id�e de l'individu est sain.--TOCQUEVILLE, Jan. 3, 1840,
+_OEuvres_, vii. 97. En France, il n'y a plus d'hommes. On a
+syst�matiquement tu� l'homme au profit du peuple, des masses, comme
+disent nos l�gislateurs �cervel�s. Puis un beau jour, on s'est aper�u
+que ce peuple n'avait jamais exist� qu'en projet, que ces masses
+�taient un troupeau mi-partie de moutons et de tigres. C'est une
+triste histoire. Nous avons � relever l'�me humaine contre l'aveugle
+et brutale tyrannie des multitudes.--LANFREY, March 23, 1855. M. DU
+CAMP, _Souvenirs Litt�raires_, ii. 273. C'est le propre de la vertu
+d'�tre invisible, m�me dans l'histoire, � tout autre oeil que celui
+de la conscience.--VACHEROT, _Comptes Rendus de l'Institut_, lxix.
+319. Dans l'histoire o� la bont� est la perle rare, qui a �t� bon
+passe presque avant qui a �t� grand.--V. HUGO, _Les Mis�rables_, vii.
+46. Grosser Maenner Leben und Tod der Wahrheit gemaess mit Liebe zu
+schildern, ist zu allen Zeiten herzerhebend; am meisten aber dann,
+wenn im Kreislauf der irdischen Dinge die Sterne wieder aehnlich
+stehen wie damals als sie unter uns lebten.--LASAULX, _Sokrates_, 3.
+Instead of saying that the history of mankind is the history of the
+masses, it would be much more true to say that the history of mankind
+is the history of its great men.--KINGSLEY, _Lectures_, 329.
+
+[21] Le g�nie n'est que la plus compl�te �mancipation de
+toutes les influences de temps, de moeurs, et de pays.--NISARD,
+_Souvenirs_, ii. 43.
+
+[22] Meine kritische Richtung zieht mich in der Wissenschaft
+durchaus zur Kritik meiner eigenen Gedanken hin, nicht zu der der
+Gedanken Anderer.--ROTHE, _Ethik_, i., p. xi.
+
+[23] When you are in young years the whole mind is, as it
+were, fluid, and is capable of forming itself into any shape that the
+owner of the mind pleases to order it to form itself into.--CARLYLE,
+_On the Choice of Books_, 131. Nach allem erscheint es somit
+unzweifelhaft als eine der psychologischen Voraussetzungen des
+Strafrechts, ohne welche der Zurechnungsbegriff nicht haltbar w�re,
+dass der Mensch f�r seinen Charakter verantwortlich ist und ihn muss
+ab�ndern k�nnen.--R�MELIN, _Reden und Aufs�tze_, ii., 60. An der
+tiefen und verborgenen Quelle, woraus der Wille entspringt, an diesem
+Punkt, nur hier steht die Freiheit, und f�hrt das Steuer und lenkt den
+Willen. Wer nicht bis zu dieser Tiefe in sich einkehren und seinen
+nat�rlichen Charakter von hier aus bemeistern kann, der hat nicht den
+Gebrauch seiner Freiheit, der ist nicht frei, sondern unterworfen dem
+Triebwerk seiner Interessen, und dadurch in der Gewalt des Weltlaufs,
+worin jede Begebenheit und jede Handlung eine nothwendige Folge ist
+aller vorhergehenden.--FISCHER, _Problem der Freiheit_, 27.
+
+[24] I must regard the main duty of a Professor to consist,
+not simply in communicating information, but in doing this in such a
+manner, and with such an accompaniment of subsidiary means, that the
+information he conveys may be the occasion of awakening his pupils to
+a vigorous and varied exertion of their faculties.--SIR W. HAMILTON,
+_Lectures_, i. 14. No great man really does his work by imposing his
+maxims on his disciples, he evokes their life. The pupil may become
+much wiser than his instructor, he may not accept his conclusions, but
+he will own, "You awakened me to be myself, for that I thank
+you."--MAURICE, _The Conscience_, 7, 8.
+
+[25] Ich sehe die Zeit kommen, wo wir die neuere Geschichte
+nicht mehr auf die Berichte selbst nicht der gleichzeitigen
+Historiker, ausser in so weit ihnen neue originale Kenntniss
+beiwohnte, geschweige denn auf die weiter abgeleiteten Bearbeitungen
+zu gr�nden haben, sondern aus den Relationen der Augenzeugen und der
+�chten und unmittelbarsten Urkunden aufbauen werden.--RANKE,
+_Reformation_, _Preface_, 1838. Ce qu'on a trouv� et mis en oeuvre
+est consid�rable en soi: c'est peu de chose au prix de ce qui reste �
+trouver et � mettre en oeuvre.--AULARD, _�tudes sur la R�volution_,
+21.
+
+[26] N'attendez donc pas les le�ons de l'exp�rience; elles
+co�tent trop cher aux nations.--O. BARROT, _M�moires_, ii. 435. Il y a
+des le�ons dans tous les temps, pour tous les temps; et celles qu'on
+emprunte � des ennemis ne sont pas les moins pr�cieuses.--LANFREY,
+_Napol�on_, v. p. ii. Old facts may always be fresh, and may give out
+a fresh meaning for each generation.--MAURICE, _Lectures_, 62. The
+object is to lead the student to attend to them; to make him take
+interest in history not as a mere narrative, but as a chain of causes
+and effects still unwinding itself before our eyes, and full of
+momentous consequences to himself and his descendants--an unremitting
+conflict between good and evil powers, of which every act done by any
+one of us, insignificant as we are, forms one of the incidents; a
+conflict in which even the smallest of us cannot escape from taking
+part, in which whoever does not help the right side is helping the
+wrong.--MILL, _Inaugural Address_, 59.
+
+[27] I hold that the degree in which Poets dwell in sympathy
+with the Past, marks exactly the degree of their poetical
+faculty.--WORDSWORTH in C. FOX, _Memoirs_, June, 1842. In all
+political, all social, all human questions whatever, history is the
+main resource of the inquirer.--HARRISON, _Meaning of History_, 15.
+There are no truths which more readily gain the assent of mankind, or
+are more firmly retained by them, than those of an historical nature,
+depending upon the testimony of others.--PRIESTLEY, _Letters to French
+Philosophers_, 9. Improvement consists in bringing our opinions into
+nearer agreement with facts; and we shall not be likely to do this
+while we look at facts only through glasses coloured by those very
+opinions.--MILL, _Inaugural Address_, 25.
+
+[28] He who has learnt to understand the true character and
+tendency of many succeeding ages is not likely to go very far wrong in
+estimating his own.--LECKY, _Value of History_, 21. C'est � l'histoire
+qu'il faut se prendre, c'est le fait que nous devons interroger, quand
+l'id�e vacille et fuit � nos yeux.--MICHELET, _Disc. d'Ouverture_,
+263. C'est la loi des faits telle qu'elle se manifeste dans leur
+succession. C'est la r�gle de conduite donn�e par la nature humaine et
+indiqu�e par l'histoire. C'est la logique, mais cette logique qui ne
+fait qu'un avec l'encha�nement des choses. C'est l'enseignement de
+l'exp�rience.--SCHERER, _M�langes_, 558. Wer seine Vergangenheit nicht
+als seine Geschichte hat und weiss wird und ist characterlos Wem ein
+Ereigniss sein Sonst pl�tzlich abreisst von seinem Jetzt wird leicht
+wurzellos.--KLIEFOTH, _Rheinwalds Repertorium_, xliv. 20. La politique
+est une des meilleures �coles pour l'esprit. Elle force � chercher la
+raison de toutes choses, et ne permet pas cependant de la chercher
+hors des faits.--R�MUSAT, _Le Temps Pass�_, i. 31. It is an unsafe
+partition that divides opinions without principle from unprincipled
+opinions.--COLERIDGE, _Lay Sermon_, 373.
+
+    Wer nicht von drei tausend Jahren sich weiss Rechenschaft zu geben,
+    Bleib' im Dunkeln unerfahren, mag von Tag zu Tage leben!
+
+                                                          GOETHE.
+
+What can be rationally required of the student of philosophy is not a
+preliminary and absolute, but a gradual and progressive, abrogation of
+prejudices.--SIR W. HAMILTON, _Lectures_, iv. 92.
+
+[29] Die Schlacht bei Leuthen ist wohl die letzte, in welcher
+diese religi�sen Gegens�tze entscheidend eingewirkt haben.--RANKE,
+_Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie_, vii. 70.
+
+[30] The only real cry in the country is the proper and just
+old No Popery cry.--_Major Beresford_, July, 1847. Unfortunately the
+strongest bond of union amongst them is an apprehension of
+Popery.--_Stanley_, September 12, 1847. The great Protectionist party
+having degenerated into a No Popery, No Jew Party, I am still more
+unfit now than I was in 1846 to lead it.--_G. Bentinck_, December 26,
+1847. _Croker's Memoirs_, iii. 116, 132, 157.
+
+[31] In the case of Protestantism, this constitutional
+instability is now a simple matter of fact, which has become too plain
+to be denied. The system is not fixed, but in motion; and the motion
+is for the time in the direction of complete self-dissolution.--We
+take it for a transitory scheme, whose breaking up is to make room in
+due time for another and far more perfect state of the Church.--The
+new order in which Protestantism is to become thus complete cannot be
+reached without the co-operation and help of Romanism.--NEVIN,
+_Mercersburg Review_, iv. 48.
+
+[32] Diese Heiligen waren es, die aus dem unmittelbaren
+Glaubensleben und den Grundgedanken der christlichen Freiheit zuerst
+die Idee allgemeiner Menschenrechte abgeleitet und rein von
+Selbstsucht vertheidigt haben.--WEINGARTEN, _Revolutionskirchen_, 447.
+Wie selbst die Idee allgemeiner Menschenrechte, die in dem gemeinsamen
+Character der Ebenbildlichkeit Gottes gegr�ndet sind, erst durch das
+Christenthum zum Bewusstsein gebracht werden, w�hrend jeder andere
+Eifer f�r politische Freiheit als ein mehr oder weniger
+selbsts�chtiger und beschr�nkter sich erwiesen hat.--NEANDER, _Pref.
+to Uhden's Wilberforce_, p. v. The rights of individuals and the
+justice due to them are as dear and precious as those of states;
+indeed the latter are founded on the former, and the great end and
+object of them must be to secure and support the rights of
+individuals, or else vain is government.--CUSHING in CONWAY, _Life of
+Paine_, i. 217. As it is owned the whole scheme of Scripture is not
+yet understood; so, if it ever comes to be understood, before the
+restitution of all things, and without miraculous interpositions, it
+must be in the same way as natural knowledge is come at--by the
+continuance and progress of learning and liberty.--BUTLER, _Analogy_,
+ii. 3.
+
+[33] Comme les lois elles-m�mes sont faillibles, et qu'il
+peut y avoir une autre justice que la justice �crite, les soci�t�s
+modernes ont voulu garantir les droits de la conscience � la poursuite
+d'une justice meilleure que celle qui existe; et l� est le fondement
+de ce qu'on appelle libert� de conscience, libert� d'�crire, libert�
+de pens�e.--JANET, _Philosophie Contemporaine_, 308. Si la force
+mat�rielle a toujours fini par c�der � l'opinion, combien plus ne
+sera-t-elle pas contrainte de c�der � la conscience? Car la
+conscience, c'est l'opinion renforc�e par le sentiment de
+l'obligation.--VINET, _Libert� Religieuse_, 3.
+
+[34] Apr�s la volont� d'un homme, la raison d'�tat; apr�s la
+raison d'�tat, la religion; apr�s la religion, la libert�. Voil� toute
+la philosophie de l'histoire.--FLOTTES, _La Souverainet� du Peuple_,
+1851, 192. La r�partition plus �gale des biens et des droits dans ce
+monde est le plus grand objet que doivent se proposer ceux qui m�nent
+les affaires humaines. Je veux seulement que l'�galit� en politique
+consiste � �tre �galement libre.--TOCQUEVILLE, September 10, 1856.
+_Mme. Swetchine_, i. 455. On peut concevoir une l�gislation tr�s
+simple, lorsqu'on voudra en �carter tout ce qui est arbitraire, ne
+consulter que les deux premi�res lois de la libert� et de la
+propri�t�, et ne point admettre de lois positives qui ne tirent leur
+raison de ces deux lois souveraines de la justice essentielle et
+absolue.--LETROSNE, _Vues sur la Justice Criminelle_, 16. Summa enim
+libertas est, ad optimum recta ratione cogi.--Nemo optat sibi hanc
+libertatem, volendi quae velit, sed potius volendi optima.--LEIBNIZ,
+_De Fato_. TRENDELENBURG, _Beitr�ge zur Philosophie_, ii. 190.
+
+[35] All the world is, by the very law of its creation, in
+eternal progress; and the cause of all the evils of the world may be
+traced to that natural, but most deadly error of human indolence and
+corruption, that our business is to preserve and not to
+improve.--ARNOLD, _Life_, i. 259. In whatever state of knowledge we
+may conceive man to be placed, his progress towards a yet higher state
+need never fear a check, but must continue till the last existence of
+society.--HERSCHEL, _Prel. Dis._, 360. It is in the development of
+thought as in every other development; the present suffers from the
+past, and the future struggles hard in escaping from the
+present.--MAX M�LLER, _Science of Thought_, 617. Most of the great
+positive evils of the world are in themselves removable, and will, if
+human affairs continue to improve, be in the end reduced within narrow
+limits. Poverty in any sense implying suffering may be completely
+extinguished by the wisdom of society combined with the good sense and
+providence of individuals.--All the grand sources, in short, of human
+suffering are in a great degree, many of them almost entirely,
+conquerable by human care and effort.--J. S. MILL, _Utilitarianism_,
+21, 22. The ultimate standard of worth is personal worth, and the only
+progress that is worth striving after, the only acquisition that is
+truly good and enduring, is the growth of the soul.--BIXBY, _Crisis of
+Morals_, 210. La science, et l'industrie qu'elle produit, ont, parmi
+tous les autres enfants du g�nie de l'homme, ce privil�ge particulier,
+que leur vol non-seulement ne peut pas s'interrompre, mais qu'il
+s'acc�l�re sans cesse.--CUVIER, _Discours sur la Marche des Sciences_,
+24 Avril, 1816. Aucune id�e parmi celles qui se r�f�rent � l'ordre des
+faits naturels, ne tient de plus pr�s � la famille des id�es
+religieuses que l'id�e du progr�s, et n'est plus propre � devenir le
+principe d'une sorte de foi religieuse pour ceux qui n'en ont pas
+d'autres. Elle a, comme la foi religieuse, la vertu de relever les
+�mes et les caract�res.--COURNOT, _Marche des Id�es_, ii. 425. Dans le
+spectacle de l'humanit� errante, souffrante et travaillant toujours �
+mieux voir, � mieux penser, � mieux agir, � diminuer l'infirmit� de
+l'�tre humain, � apaiser l'inqui�tude de son coeur, la science
+d�couvre une direction et un progr�s.--A. SOREL, _Discours de
+R�ception_, 14. Le jeune homme qui commence son �ducation quinze ans
+apr�s son p�re, � une �poque o� celui-ci, engag� dans une profession
+sp�ciale et active, ne peut que suivre les anciens principes, acquiert
+une sup�riorit� th�orique dont on doit tenir compte dans la hi�rarchie
+sociale. Le plus souvent le p�re n'est-il pas p�n�tr� de l'esprit de
+routine, tandis que le fils repr�sente et d�fend la science
+progressive? En diminuant l'�cart qui existait entre l'influence des
+jeunes g�n�rations et celle de la vieillesse ou de l'�ge m�r, les
+peuples modernes n'auraient donc fait que reproduire dans leur ordre
+social un changement de rapports qui s'�tait d�j� accompli dans la
+nature intime des choses.--BOUTMY, _Revue Nationale_, xxi. 393. Il y a
+dans l'homme individuel des principes de progr�s viager; il y a, en
+toute soci�t�, des causes constantes qui transforment ce progr�s
+viager en progr�s h�r�ditaire. Une soci�t� quelconque tend �
+progresser tant que les circonstances ne touchent pas aux causes de
+progr�s que nous avons reconnues, l'imitation des d�vanciers par les
+successeurs, des �trangers par les indig�nes.--LACOMBE, _L'Histoire
+comme Science_, 292. Veram creat� mentis beatitudinem consistere in
+non impedito progressu ad bona majora.--LEIBNIZ to WOLF, February 21,
+1705. In cumulum etiam pulchritudinis perfectionisque universalis
+operum divinorum progressus quidam perpetuus liberrimusque totius
+universi est agnoscendus, ita ut ad majorem semper cultum
+procedat.--LEIBNIZ ed. Erdmann, 150_a_. Der Creaturen und also auch
+unsere Vollkommenheit bestehet in einem ungehinderten starken
+Forttrieb zu neuen und neuen Vollkommenheiten.--LEIBNIZ, _Deutsche
+Schriften_, ii. 36. Hegel, welcher annahm, der Fortschritt der Neuzeit
+gegen das Mittelalter sei dieser, dass die Principien der Tugend und
+des Christenthums, welche im Mittelalter sich allein im Privatleben
+und der Kirche zur Geltung gebracht h�tten, nun auch anfingen, das
+politische Leben zu durchdringen.--FORTLAGE, _Allg. Monatschrift_,
+1853, 777. Wir Slawen wissen, dass die Geister einzelner Menschen und
+ganzer V�lker sich nur durch die Stufe ihrer Entwicklung
+unterscheiden.--MICKIEWICZ, _Slawische Literatur_, ii. 436. Le progr�s
+ne disparait jamais, mais il se d�place souvent. Il va des gouvernants
+aux gouvern�s. La tendance des r�volutions est de le ramener toujours
+parmi les gouvernants. Lorsqu'il est � la t�te des soci�t�s, il marche
+hardiment, car il conduit. Lorsqu'il est dans la masse, il marche �
+pas lents, car il lutte.--NAPOLEON III., _Des Id�es Napol�oniennes_.
+La loi du progr�s avait jadis l'inexorable rigueur du destin; elle
+prend maintenant de jour en jour la douce puissance de la Providence.
+C'est l'erreur, c'est l'iniquit�, c'est le vice, que la civilisation
+tend � emporter dans sa marche irr�sistible; mais la vie des individus
+et des peuples est devenue pour elle une chose sacr�e. Elle transforme
+plut�t qu'elle ne d�truit les choses qui s'opposent � son
+d�veloppement; elle proc�de par absorption graduelle plut�t que par
+brusque ex�cution; elle aime � conqu�rir par l'influence des id�es
+plut�t que par la force des armes, un peuple, une classe, une
+institution qui r�siste au progr�s.--VACHEROT, _Essais de Philosophie
+Critique_, 443. Peu � peu l'homme intellectuel finit par effacer
+l'homme physique.--QUETELET, _De l'Homme_, ii. 285. In dem Fortschritt
+der ethischen Anschauungen liegt daher der Kern des geschichtlichen
+Fortschritts �berhaupt.--SCH�FER, _Arbeitsgebiet der Geschichte_, 24.
+Si l'homme a plus de devoirs � mesure qu'il avance en �ge, ce qui est
+m�lancolique, mais ce qui est vrai, de m�me aussi l'humanit� est tenue
+d'avoir une morale plus s�v�re � mesure qu'elle prend plus de
+si�cles.--FAGUET, _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1894, iii. 871. Si donc il
+y a une loi de progr�s, elle se confond avec la loi morale, et la
+condition fondamentale du progr�s, c'est la pratique de cette
+loi.--CARRAU, _Ib._, 1875, v. 585. L'id�e du progr�s, du
+d�veloppement, me para�t �tre l'id�e fondamentale contenue sous le mot
+de civilisation.--GUIZOT, _Cours d'Histoire_, 1828, 15. Le progr�s
+n'est sous un autre nom, que la libert� en action.--BROGLIE, _Journal
+des D�bats_, January 28, 1869. Le progr�s social est continu. Il a ses
+p�riodes de fi�vre ou d'atonie, de surexcitation ou de l�thargie; il a
+ses soubresauts et ses haltes, mais il avance toujours.--DE DECKER,
+_La Providence_, 174. Ce n'est pas au bonheur seul, c'est au
+perfectionnement que notre destin nous appelle; et la libert�
+politique est le plus puissant, le plus �nergique moyen de
+perfectionnement que le ciel nous ait donn�.--B. CONSTANT, _Cours de
+Politique_, ii. 559. To explode error, on whichever side it lies, is
+certainly to secure progress.--MARTINEAU, _Essays_, i. 114. Die
+s�mmtlichen Freiheitsrechte, welche der heutigen Menschheit so theuer sind,
+sind im Grunde nur Anwendungen des Rechts der Entwickelung.--BLUNTSCHLI,
+_Kleine Schriften_, i. 51. Geistiges Leben ist auf Freiheit beruhende
+Entwicklung, mit Freiheit vollzogene That und geschichtlicher
+Fortschritt.--_M�nchner Gel. Anzeigen_ 1849, ii. 83. Wie das Denken
+erst nach und nach reift, so wird auch der freie Wille nicht fertig
+geboren, sondern in der Entwickelung erworben.--TRENDELENBURG,
+_Logische Untersuchungen_, ii. 94. Das Liberum Arbitrium im vollen
+Sinne (die vollst�ndig aktuelle Macht der Selbstbestimmung) l�sst sich
+seinem Begriff zufolge schlechterdings nicht unmittelbar geben; es
+kann nur erworben werden durch das Subjekt selbst, in sich moralisch
+hervorgebracht werden kraft seiner eigenen Entwickelung.--ROTHE,
+_Ethik_, i. 360. So gewaltig sei der Andrang der Erfindungen und
+Entdeckungen, dass "Entwicklungsperioden, die in fr�heren Zeiten erst
+in Jahrhunderten durchlaufen wurden, die im Beginn unserer Zeitperiode
+noch der Jahrzehnte bedurften, sich heute in Jahren volienden, h�ufig
+schon in voller Ausbildung ins Dasein treten."--PHILIPPOVICH,
+_Fortschritt und Kulturentwicklung_, 1892, i. quoting SIEMENS, 1886.
+Wir erkennen dass dem Menschen die schwere k�rperliche Arbeit, von der
+er in seinem Kampfe um's Dasein stets schwer niedergedr�ckt war und
+grossenteils noch ist, mehr und mehr durch die wachsende Benutzung der
+Naturkr�fte zur mechanischen Arbeitsleistung abgenommen wird, dass
+die ihm zufallende Arbeit immer mehr eine intellektuelle
+wird.--SIEMENS, 1886, _Ib._ 6.
+
+[36] Once, however, he wrote:--Darin k�nnte man den idealen
+Kern der Geschichte des menschlichen Geschlechtes �berhaupt sehen,
+dass in den K�mpfen, die sich in den gegenseitigen Interessen der
+Staaten und V�lker vollziehen, doch immer h�here Potenzen emporkommen,
+die das Allgemeine demgem�ss umgestalten und ihm wieder einen anderen
+Charakter verleihen.--RANKE, _Weltgeschichte_, iii. 1, 6.
+
+[37] Toujours et partout, les hommes furent de plus en plus
+domin�s par l'ensemble de leurs pr�d�cesseurs, dont ils purent
+seulement modifier l'empire n�cessaire.--COMTE, _Politique Positive_,
+iii. 621.
+
+[38] La libert� est l'�me du commerce.--Il faut laisser faire
+les hommes qui s'appliquent sans peine � ce qui convient le mieux;
+c'est ce qui apporte le plus d'avantage.--COLBERT, in _Comptes Rendus
+de l'Institut_, xxxix. 93.
+
+[39] Il n'y a que les choses humaines expos�es dans leur
+v�rit�, c'est-�-dire avec leur grandeur, leur vari�t�, leur
+in�puisable f�condit�, qui aient le droit de retenir le lecteur et qui
+le retiennent en effet. Si l'�crivain para�t une fois, il ennuie ou
+fait sourire de piti� les lecteurs s�rieux.--THIERS to STE. BEUVE,
+_Lundis_, iii. 195. Comme l'a dit Taine, la disparition du style,
+c'est la perfection du style.--FAGUET, _Revue Politique_, lii. 67.
+
+[40] Ne m'applaudissez pas; ce n'est pas moi qui vous parle;
+c'est l'histoire qui parle par ma bouche.--_Revue Historique_, xli.
+278.
+
+[41] Das Evangelium trat als Geschichte in die Welt, nicht
+als Dogma--wurde als Geschichte in der christlichen Kirche
+deponirt.--ROTHE, _Kirchengeschichte_, ii. p. x. Das Christenthum ist
+nicht der Herr Christus, sondern dieser macht es. Es ist sein Werk,
+und zwar ein Werk das er stets unter der Arbeit hat.--Er selbst,
+Christus der Herr, bleibt der er ist in alle Zukunft, dagegen liegt es
+ausdr�cklich im Begriffe seines Werks, des Christenthums, dass es
+nicht so bleibt wie es anhebt.--ROTHE, _Allgemeine kirchliche
+Zeitschrift_, 1864, 299. Diess Werk, weil es dem Wesen der Geschichte
+zufolge eine Entwickelung ist, muss �ber Stufen hinweggehen, die
+einander abl�sen, und von denen jede folgende neue immer nur unter der
+Zertr�mmerung der ihr vorangehenden Platz greifen kann.--ROTHE, _Ib._
+April 19, 1865. Je gr�sser ein geschichtliches Princip ist, desto
+langsamer und �ber mehr Stufen hinweg entfaltet es seinen Gehalt;
+desto langlebiger ist es aber ebendeshalb auch in diesen seinen
+unaufh�rlichen Abwandelungen.--ROTHE, _Stille Stunden_, 301. Der
+christliche Glaube geht nicht von der Anerkennung abstracter
+Lehrwahrheiten aus, sondern von der Anerkennung einer Reihe von
+Thatsachen, die in der Erscheinung Jesu ihren Mittelpunkt
+haben.--NITZSCH, _Dogmengeschichte_, i. 17. Der Gedankengang der
+evangelischen Erz�hlung gibt darum auch eine vollst�ndige Darstellung
+der christlichen Lehre in ihren wesentlichen Grundz�gen; aber er gibt
+sie im allseitigen lebendigen Zusammenhange mit der Geschichte der
+christlichen Offenbarung, und nicht in einer theoretisch
+zusammenh�ngenden Folgenreihe von ethischen und dogmatischen
+Lehrs�tzen.--DEUTINGER, _Reich Gottes_, i. p. v.
+
+[42] L'Univers ne doit pas estre consid�r� seulement dans ce
+qu'il est; pour le bien conno�tre, il faut le voir aussi dans ce qu'il
+doit estre. C'est cet avenir surtout qui a �t� le grand objet de Dieu
+dans la cr�ation, et c'est pour cet avenir seul que le pr�sent
+existe.--D'HOUTEVILLE, _Essai sur la Providence_, 273. La Providence
+emploie les si�cles � �lever toujours un plus grand nombre de familles
+et d'individus � ces biens de la libert� et de l'�galit� l�gitimes
+que, dans l'enfance des soci�t�s, la force avait rendus le privil�ge
+de quelques-uns.--GUIZOT, _Gouvernement de la France_, 1820, 9. La
+marche de la Providence n'est pas assujettie � d'�troites limites;
+elle ne s'inqui�te pas de tirer aujourd'hui la cons�quence du principe
+qu'elle a pos� hier; elle la tirera dans des si�cles, quand l'heure
+sera venue; et pour raisonner lentement selon nous, sa logique n'est
+pas moins s�re.--GUIZOT, _Histoire de la Civilisation_, 20. Der Keim
+fortschreitender Entwicklung ist, auch auf g�ttlichem Geheisse, der
+Menschheit eingepflanzt. Die Weltgeschichte ist der blosse Ausdruck
+einer vorbestimmten Entwicklung.--A. HUMBOLDT, January 2, 1842, _Im
+Neuen Reich_, 1872, i. 197. Das historisch grosse ist religi�s gross;
+es ist die Gottheit selbst, die sich offenbart.--RAUMER, April 1807,
+_Erinnerungen_, i. 85.
+
+[43] Je suis arriv� � l'�ge o� je suis, � travers bien des
+�v�nements diff�rents, mais avec une seule cause, celle de la libert�
+r�guli�re.--TOCQUEVILLE, May 1, 1852, _OEuvres In�dites_, ii. 185.
+Me trouvant dans un pays o� la religion et le lib�ralisme sont
+d'accord, j'avais respir�.--J'exprimais ce sentiment, il y a plus de
+vingt ans, dans l'avant-propos de la _D�mocratie_. Je l'�prouve
+aujourd'hui aussi vivement que si j'�tais encore jeune, et je ne sais
+s'il y a une seule pens�e qui ait �t� plus constamment pr�sente � mon
+esprit.--August 5, 1857, _OEuvres_, vi. 395. Il n'y a que la libert�
+(j'entends la mod�r�e et la r�guli�re) et la religion, qui, par un
+effort combin�, puissent soulever les hommes au-dessus du bourbier o�
+l'�galit� d�mocratique les plonge naturellement.--December 1, 1852,
+_OEuvres_, vii. 295. L'un de mes r�ves, le principal en entrant dans
+la vie politique, �tait de travailler � concilier l'esprit lib�ral et
+l'esprit de religion, la soci�t� nouvelle et l'�glise.--November 15,
+1843, _OEuvres In�dites_, ii. 121. La v�ritable grandeur de l'homme
+n'est que dans l'accord du sentiment lib�ral et du sentiment
+religieux.--September 17, 1853, _OEuvres In�dites_, ii. 228. Qui
+cherche dans la libert� autre chose qu'elle-m�me est fait pour
+servir.--_Ancien R�gime_, 248. Je regarde, ainsi que je l'ai toujours
+fait, la libert� comme le premier des biens; je vois toujours en elle
+l'une des sources les plus f�condes des vertus m�les et des actions
+grandes. Il n'y a pas de tranquillit� ni de bien-�tre qui puisse me
+tenir lieu d'elle.--January 7, 1856, _Mme. Swetchine_, i. 452. La
+libert� a un faux air d'aristocratie; en donnant pleine carri�re aux
+facult�s humaines, en encourageant le travail et l'�conomie, elle fait
+ressortir les sup�riorit�s naturelles ou acquises.--LABOULAYE, _L'�tat
+et ses Limites_, 154. Dire que la libert� n'est point par elle-m�me,
+qu'elle d�pend d'une situation, d'une opportunit�, c'est lui assigner
+une valeur n�gative. La libert� n'est pas d�s qu'on la subordonne.
+Elle n'est pas un principe purement n�gatif, un simple �l�ment de
+contr�le et de critique. Elle est le principe actif, cr�ateur
+organisateur par excellence. Elle est le moteur et la r�gle, la source
+de toute vie, et le principe de l'ordre. Elle est, en un mot, le nom
+que prend la conscience souveraine, lorsque, se posant en face du
+monde social et politique, elle �merge du moi pour modeler les
+soci�t�s sur les donn�es de la raison.--BRISSON, _Revue Nationale_,
+xxiii. 214. Le droit, dans l'histoire, est le d�veloppement progressif
+de la libert�, sous la loi de la raison.--LERMINIER, _Philosophie du
+Droit_, i. 211. En prouvant par les le�ons de l'histoire que la
+libert� fait vivre les peuples et que le despotisme les tue, en
+montrant que l'expiation suit la faute et que la fortune finit
+d'ordinaire par se ranger du c�t� de la vertu, Montesquieu n'est ni
+moins moral ni moins religieux que Bossuet.--LABOULAYE, _OEuvres de
+Montesquieu_, ii. 109. Je ne comprendrais pas qu'une nation ne pla��t
+pas les libert�s politiques au premier rang, parce que c'est des
+libert�s politiques que doivent d�couler toutes les autres.--THIERS,
+_Discours_, x. 8, _March_ 28, 1865. Nous sommes arriv�s � une �poque
+o� la libert� est le but s�rieux de tous, o� le reste n'est plus
+qu'une question de moyens.--J. LEBEAU, _Observations sur le Pouvoir
+Royal_: Li�ge, 1830, p. 10. Le lib�ralisme, ayant la pr�tention de se
+fonder uniquement sur les principes de la raison, croit d'ordinaire
+n'avoir pas besoin de tradition. L� est son erreur. L'erreur de
+l'�cole lib�rale est d'avoir trop cru qu'il est facile de cr�er la
+libert� par la r�flexion, et de n'avoir pas vu qu'un �tablissement
+n'est solide que quand il a des racines historiques.--RENAN, 1858,
+_Nouvelle Revue_, lxxix. 596. Le respect des individus et des droits
+existants est autant au-dessus du bonheur de tous, qu'un int�r�t moral
+surpasse un int�r�t purement temporel.--RENAN, 1858, _Ib._ lxxix. 597.
+Die Rechte gelten nichts, wo es sich handelt um das Recht, und das
+Recht der Freiheit kann nie verj�hren, weil es die Quelle alles
+Rechtes selbst ist.--C. FRANTZ, _Ueber die Freiheit_, 110. Wir
+erfahren hienieden nie die ganze Wahrheit: wir geniessen nie die ganze
+Freiheit.--REUSS, _Reden_, 56. Le gouvernement constitutionnel, comme
+tout gouvernement libre, pr�sente et doit pr�senter un �tat de lutte
+permanent. La libert� est la perp�tuit� de la lutte.--DE SERRE.
+BROGLIE, _Nouvelles �tudes_, 243. The experiment of free government is
+not one which can be tried once for all. Every generation must try it
+for itself. As each new generation starts up to the responsibilities
+of manhood, there is, as it were, a new launch of Liberty, and its
+voyage of experiment begins afresh.--WINTHROP, _Addresses_, 163.
+L'histoire perd son v�ritable caract�re du moment que la libert� en a
+disparu; elle devient une sorte de physique sociale. C'est l'�l�ment
+personnel de l'histoire qui en fait la r�alit�.--VACHEROT, _Revue des
+Deux Mondes_, 1869, iv. 215. Demander la libert� pour soi et la
+refuser aux autres, c'est la d�finition du despotisme.--LABOULAYE,
+December 4, 1874. Les causes justes profitent de tout, des bonnes
+intentions comme des mauvaises, des calculs personnels comme des
+d�vouemens courageux, de la d�mence, enfin, comme de la raison.--B.
+CONSTANT, _Les Cent Jours_, ii. 29. Sie ist die Kunst, das Gute der
+schon weit gediehenen Civilisation zu sichern.--BALTISCH, _Politische
+Freiheit_, 9. In einem Volke, welches sich zur b�rgerlichen
+Gesellschaft, �berhaupt zum Bewusstseyn der Unendlichkeit des
+Freien--entwickelt hat, ist nur die constitutionelle Monarchie
+m�glich.--HEGEL'S _Philosophie des Rechts_, � 137, _Hegel und
+Preussen_, 1841, 31. Freiheit ist das h�chste Gut. Alles andere ist
+nur das Mittel dazu: gut falls es ein Mittel dazu ist, �bel falls es
+dieselbe hemmt.--FICHTE, _Werke_, iv. 403. You are not to inquire how
+your trade may be increased, nor how you are to become a great and
+powerful people, but how your liberties can be secured. For liberty
+ought to be the direct end of your government.--PATRICK HENRY, 1788.
+WIRT, _Life of Henry_, 272.
+
+[44] Histori� ipsius pr�ter delectationem utilitas nulla est,
+quam ut religionis Christian� veritas demonstretur, quod aliter quam
+per historiam fieri non potest.--LEIBNIZ, _Opera_, ed. Dutens, vi.
+297. The study of Modern History is, next to Theology itself, and only
+next in so far as Theology rests on a divine revelation, the most
+thoroughly religious training that the mind can receive. It is no
+paradox to say that Modern History, including Medieval History in the
+term, is co-extensive in its field of view, in its habits of
+criticism, in the persons of its most famous students, with
+Ecclesiastical History.--STUBBS, _Lectures_, 9. Je regarde donc
+l'�tude de l'histoire comme l'�tude de la providence.--L'histoire est
+vraiment une seconde philosophie.--Si Dieu ne parle pas toujours, il
+agit toujours en Dieu.--D'AGUESSEAU, _OEuvres_, xv. 34, 31, 35. F�r
+diejenigen, welche das Wesen der menschlichen Freiheit erkannt haben,
+bildet die denkende Betrachtung der Weltgeschichte, besonders des
+christlichen Weltalters, die h�chste, und umfassendste Theodicee.--VATKE,
+_Die Menschliche Freiheit_, 1841, 516. La th�ologie, que l'on regarde
+volontiers comme la plus �troite et la plus st�rile des sciences, en
+est, au contraire, la plus �tendue et la plus f�conde. Elle confine �
+toutes les �tudes et touche � toutes les questions. Elle renferme tous
+les �l�ments d'une instruction lib�rale.--SCHERER, _M�langes_, 522. The
+belief that the course of events and the agency of man are subject to
+the laws of a divine order, which it is alike impossible for any one
+either fully to comprehend or effectually to resist--this belief is the
+ground of all our hope for the future destinies of mankind.--THIRLWALL,
+_Remains_, iii. 282. A true religion must consist of ideas and facts
+both; not of ideas alone without facts, for then it would be mere
+philosophy; nor of facts alone without ideas, of which those facts are
+the symbols, or out of which they are grounded; for then it would be
+mere history.--COLERIDGE, _Table Talk_, 144. It certainly appears
+strange that the men most conversant with the order of the visible
+universe should soonest suspect it empty of directing mind; and, on
+the other hand, that humanistic, moral and historical studies--which
+first open the terrible problems of suffering and grief, and contain
+all the reputed provocatives of denial and despair--should confirm, and
+enlarge rather than disturb, the prepossessions of natural
+piety.--MARTINEAU, _Essays_, i. 122. Die Religion hat nur dann eine
+Bedeutung f�r den Menschen, wenn er in der Geschichte einen Punkt
+findet, dem er sich v�llig unbedingt hingeben kann.--STEFFENS,
+_Christliche Religionsphilosophie_, 440, 1839. Wir erkennen darin nur
+eine Th�tigkeit des zu seinem �chten und wahren Leben, zu seinem
+verlornen, objectiven Selbstverst�ndnisse sich zur�cksehnenden
+christlichen Geistes unserer Zeit, einen Ausdruck f�r das Bed�rfniss
+desselben, sich aus den unwahren und un�chten Verkleidungen, womit ihn
+der moderne, subjective Geschmack der letzten Entwicklungsphase des
+theologischen Bewusstseyns umh�llt hat, zu seiner historischen allein
+wahren und urspr�nglichen Gestalt wiederzugeb�ren, zu derjenigen
+Bedeutung zur�ckzukehren, die ihm in dem Bewusstseyn der Geschichte
+allein zukommt und deren Verst�ndniss in dem wogenden luxuri�sen Leben
+der modernen Theologie l�ngst untergegangen ist.--GEORGII, _Zeitschrift
+f�r Hist. Theologie_, ix. 5, 1839.
+
+[45] Liberty, in fact, means just so far as it is realised,
+the right man in the right place.--SEELEY, _Lectures and Essays_,
+109.
+
+[46] In diesem Sinne ist Freiheit und sich entwickelnde
+moralische Vernunft und Gewissen gleichbedeutend. In diesem Sinne ist
+der Mensch frei, sobald sich das Gewissen in ihm entwickelt.--SCHEIDLER,
+_Ersch und Gruber_, xlix. 20. Aus der unendlichen und ewigen Geltung
+der menschlichen Pers�nlichkeit vor Gott, aus der Vorstellung von der
+in Gott freien Pers�nlichkeit, folgt auch der Anspruch auf das Recht
+derselben in der weltlichen Sph�re, auf b�rgerliche und politische
+Freiheit, auf Gewissen und Religionsfreiheit, auf freie
+wissenschaftliche Forschung u.s.w., und namentlich die Forderung dass
+niemand lediglich zum Mittel f�r andere diene.--MARTENSEN, _Christliche
+Ethik_, i. 50.
+
+[47] Es giebt angeborne Menschenrechte, weil es angeborne
+Menschenpflichten giebt.--WOLFF, _Naturrecht_; LOEPER, _Einleitung
+zu Faust_, lvii.
+
+[48] La constitution de l'�tat reste jusqu'� un certain point
+� notre discr�tion. La constitution de la soci�t� ne d�pend pas de
+nous; elle est donn�e par la force des choses, et si l'on veut �lever
+le langage, elle est l'oeuvre de la Providence.--R�MUSAT, _Revue des
+Deux Mondes_, 1861, v. 795.
+
+[49] Die Freiheit ist bekanntlich kein Geschenk der G�tter,
+sondern ein Gut das jedes Volk sich selbst verdankt und das nur bei
+dem erforderlichen Mass moralischer Kraft und W�rdigkeit
+gedeiht.--IHERING, _Geist des R�mischen Rechts_, ii. 290. Liberty, in
+the very nature of it, absolutely requires and even supposes, that
+people be able to govern themselves in those respects in which they
+are free; otherwise their wickedness will be in proportion to their
+liberty, and this greatest of blessings will become a curse.--BUTLER,
+_Sermons_, 331. In each degree and each variety of public development
+there are corresponding institutions, best answering the public needs;
+and what is meat to one is poison to another. Freedom is for those who
+are fit for it.--PARKMAN, _Canada_, 396. Die Freiheit ist die Wurzel
+einer neuen Sch�pfung in der Sch�pfung.--SEDERHOLM, _Die ewigen
+Thatsachen_, 86.
+
+[50] La libert� politique, qui n'est qu'une complexit� plus
+grande, de plus en plus grande, dans le gouvernement d'un peuple, �
+mesure que le peuple lui-m�me contient un plus grand nombre de forces
+diverses ayant droit et de vivre et de participer � la chose publique,
+est un fait de civilisation qui s'impose lentement � une soci�t�
+organis�e, mais qui n'appara�t point comme un principe � une soci�t�
+qui s'organise.--FAGUET, _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1889, ii. 942.
+
+[51] Il y a bien un droit du plus sage, mais non pas un droit
+du plus fort.--La justice est le droit du plus faible.--JOUBERT,
+_Pens�es_, i. 355, 358.
+
+[52] Nicht durch ein pflanzen�hnliches Wachsthum, nicht aus
+den dunklen Gr�nden der Volksempfindung, sondern durch den m�nnlichen
+Willen, durch die Ueberzeugung, durch die That, durch den Kampf
+entsteht, behauptet, entwickelt sich das Recht. Sein historisches
+Werden ist ein bewusstes, im hellen Mittagslicht der Erkenntniss und
+der Gesetzgebung.--_Rundschau_, Nov. 1893, 313. Nicht das Normale,
+Zahme, sondern das Abnorme, Wilde, bildet �berall die Grundlage und
+den Anfang einer neuen Ordnung.--LASAULX, _Philosophie der
+Geschichte_, 143.
+
+[53] Um den Sieg zu vervollst�ndigen, er�brigte das zweite
+Stadium oder die Aufgabe: die Berechtigung der Mehrheit nach allen
+Seiten hin zur gleichen Berechtigung aller zu erweitern, d.h. bis zur
+Gleichstellung aller Bekenntnisse im Kirchenrecht, aller V�lker im
+V�lkerrecht, aller Staatsb�rger im Staatsrecht und aller socialen
+Interessen im Gesellschaftsrecht fortzuf�hren.--A. SCHMIDT, _Z�richer
+Monatschrift_, i. 68.
+
+[54] Notre histoire ne nous enseignait nullement la libert�.
+Le jour o� la France voulut �tre libre, elle eut tout � cr�er, tout �
+inventer dans cet ordre de faits.--Cependant il faut marcher, l'avenir
+appelle les peuples. Quand on n'a point pour cela l'impulsion du
+pass�, il faut bien se confier � la raison.--DUPONT WHITE, _Revue des
+Deux Mondes_, 1861, vi. 191. Le peuple fran�ais a peu de go�t pour le
+d�veloppement graduel des institutions. Il ignore son histoire, il ne
+s'y reconna�t pas, elle n'a pas laiss� de trace dans sa
+conscience.--SCHERER, _�tudes Critiques_, i. 100. Durch die Revolution
+befreiten sich die Franzosen von ihrer Geschichte.--ROSENKRANZ, _Aus
+einem Tagebuch_, 199.
+
+[55] The discovery of the comparative method in philology, in
+mythology--let me add in politics and history and the whole range of
+human thought--marks a stage in the progress of the human mind at
+least as great and memorable as the revival of Greek and Latin
+learning.--FREEMAN, _Historical Essays_, iv. 301. The diffusion of a
+critical spirit in history and literature is affecting the criticism
+of the Bible in our own day in a manner not unlike the burst of
+intellectual life in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.--JOWETT,
+_Essays and Reviews_, 346. As the revival of literature in the
+sixteenth century produced the Reformation, so the growth of the
+critical spirit, and the change that has come over mental science, and
+the mere increase of knowledge of all kinds, threaten now a revolution
+less external but not less profound.--HADDAN, _Replies_, 348.
+
+[56] In his just contempt and detestation of the crimes and
+follies of the Revolutionists, he suffers himself to forget that the
+revolution itself is a process of the Divine Providence, and that as
+the folly of men is the wisdom of God, so are their iniquities
+instruments of His goodness.--COLERIDGE, _Biographia Literaria_, ii.
+240. In other parts of the world, the idea of revolutions in
+government is, by a mournful and indissoluble association, connected
+with the idea of wars, and all the calamities attendant on wars. But
+happy experience teaches us to view such revolutions in a very
+different light--to consider them only as progressive steps in
+improving the knowledge of government, and increasing the happiness of
+society and mankind.--J. WILSON, November 26, 1787, _Works_, iii. 293.
+La R�volution, c'est-�-dire l'oeuvre des si�cles, ou, si vous
+voulez, le renouvellement progressif de la soci�t�, ou encore, sa
+nouvelle constitution.--R�MUSAT, _Correspondance_, October 11, 1818. A
+ses yeux loin d'avoir rompu le cours naturel des �v�nements, ni la
+R�volution d'Angleterre, ni la n�tre, n'ont rien dit, rien fait, qui
+n'e�t �t� dit, souhait�, fait, ou tent� cent fois avant leur
+explosion. "Il faut en ceci," dit-il, "tout accorder � leurs
+adversaires, les surpasser m�me en s�v�rit�, ne regarder � leurs
+accusations que pour y ajouter, s'ils en oublient; et puis les sommer
+de dresser, � leur tour, le compte des erreurs, des crimes, et des
+maux de ces temps et de ces pouvoirs qu'ils ont pris sous leur
+garde."--_Revue de Paris_, xvi. 303, on Guizot. Quant aux nouveaut�s
+mises en oeuvre par la R�volution Fran�aise on les retrouve une �
+une, en remontant d'�ge en �ge, chez les philosophes du XVIIIe
+si�cle, chez les grands penseurs du XVIe, chez certains P�res
+d'�glise et jusque dans la R�publique de Platon.--En pr�sence de cette
+belle continuit� de l'histoire, qui ne fait pas plus de sauts que la
+nature, devant cette solidarit� n�cessaire des r�volutions avec le
+pass� qu'elles brisent.--KRANTZ, _Revue Politique_, xxxiii. 264.
+L'esprit du XIXe si�cle est de comprendre et de juger les choses du
+pass�. Notre oeuvre est d'expliquer ce que le XVIIIe si�cle avait
+mission de nier.--VACHEROT, _De la D�mocratie_, pref., 28.
+
+[57] La commission recherchera, dans toutes les parties des
+archives pontificales, les pi�ces relatives � l'abus que les papes ont
+fait de leur minist�re spirituel contre l'autorit� des souverains et
+la tranquillit� des peuples.--DAUNOU, _Instructions_, Jan. 3, 1811.
+LABORDE, _Inventaires_, p. cxii.
+
+[58] Aucun des historiens remarquables de cette �poque
+n'avait senti encore le besoin de chercher les faits hors des livres
+imprim�s, aux sources primitives, la plupart in�dites alors, aux
+manuscrits de nos biblioth�ques, aux documents de nos archives.--MICHELET,
+_Histoire de France_, 1869, i. 2.
+
+[59] Doch besteht eine Grenze, wo die Geschichte aufh�rt und
+das Archiv anf�ngt, und die von der Geschichtschreibung nicht
+�berschritten werden sollte. _Unsere Zeit_, 1866, ii. 635. Il faut
+avertir nos jeunes historiens � la fois de la n�cessit� in�luctable du
+document et, d'autre part, du danger qu'il pr�sente.--M. HANOTAUX.
+
+[60] This process consists in determining with documentary
+proofs, and by minute investigations duly set forth, the literal,
+precise, and positive inferences to be drawn at the present day from
+every authentic statement, without regard to commonly received
+notions, to sweeping generalities, or to possible consequences.--HARRISSE,
+_Discovery of America_, 1892, p. vi. Perhaps the time has not yet come
+for synthetic labours in the sphere of History. It may be that the
+student of the Past must still content himself with critical
+inquiries.--_Ib._ p. v. Few scholars are critics, few critics are
+philosophers, and few philosophers look with equal care on both sides
+of a question.--W. S. LANDOR in HOLYOAKE'S _Agitator's Life_, ii. 15.
+Introduire dans l'histoire, et sans tenir compte des passions
+politiques et religieuses, le doute m�thodique que Descartes, le
+premier, appliqua � l'�tude de la philosophie, n'est-ce pas l� une
+excellente m�thode? n'est-ce pas m�me la meilleure?--CHANTELAUZE,
+_Correspondant_, 1883, i. 129. La critique historique ne sera jamais
+populaire. Comme elle est de toutes les sciences la plus d�licate, la plus
+d�li�e, elle n'a de cr�dit qu'aupr�s des esprits cultiv�s.--CHERBULIEZ,
+_Revue des Deux Mondes_, xcvii. 517. Nun liefert aber die Kritik, wenn
+sie rechter Art ist, immer nur einzelne Data, gleichsam die Atome des
+Thatbestandes, und jede Kombination, jede Zusammenfassung und
+Schlussfolgerung, ohne die es doch einmal nicht abgeht, ist ein
+subjektiver Akt des Forschers. Demnach blieb Waitz, bei der eigenen
+Arbeit wie bei jener der anderen, immer h�chst mistrauisch gegen jedes
+R�sum�, jede Definition, jedes abschliessende Wort.--SYBEL,
+_Historische Zeitschrift_, lvi. 484. Mit blosser Kritik wird darin
+nichts ausgerichtet, denn die ist nur eine Vorarbeit, welche da
+aufh�rt wo die echte historische Kunst anf�ngt.--LASAULX, _Philosophie
+der K�nste_, 212.
+
+[61] The only case in which such extraneous matters can be
+fairly called in is when facts are stated resting on testimony; then
+it is not only just, but it is necessary for the sake of truth, to
+inquire into the habits of mind of him by whom they are
+adduced.--BABBAGE, _Bridgewater Treatise_, p. xiv.
+
+[62] There is no part of our knowledge which it is more
+useful to obtain at first hand--to go to the fountain-head for--than
+our knowledge of History.--J. S. MILL, _Inaugural Address_, 34. The
+only sound intellects are those which, in the first instance, set
+their standard of proof high.--J. S. MILL, _Examination of Hamilton's
+Philosophy_, 525.
+
+[63] There are so few men mentally capable of seeing both
+sides of a question; so few with consciences sensitively alive to the
+obligation of seeing both sides; so few placed under conditions either
+of circumstance or temper, which admit of their seeing both
+sides.--GREG, _Political Problems_, 1870, 173. Il n'y a que les
+Allemands qui sachent �tre aussi compl�tement objectifs. Ils se
+d�doublent, pour ainsi dire, en deux hommes, l'un qui a des principes
+tr�s arr�t�s et des passions tr�s vives, l'autre qui sait voir et
+observer comme s'il n'en avait point.--LAVELEYE, _Revue des Deux
+Mondes_, 1868, i. 431. L'�crivain qui penche trop dans le sens o� il
+incline, et qui ne se d�fie pas de ses qualit�s presque autant que ses
+d�fauts, cet �crivain tourne � la mani�re.--SCHERER, _M�langes_, 484.
+Il faut faire volte-face, et vivement, franchement, tourner le dos au
+moyen �ge, � ce pass� morbide, qui, m�me quand il n'agit pas, influe
+terriblement par la contagion de la mort. Il ne faut ni combattre, ni
+critiquer, mais oublier. Oublions et marchons!--MICHELET, _La Bible de
+l'Humanit�_, 483. It has excited surprise that Thucydides should speak
+of Antiphon, the traitor to the democracy, and the employer of assassins,
+as "a man inferior in virtue to none of his contemporaries." But
+neither here nor elsewhere does Thucydides pass moral judgments.--JOWETT,
+_Thucydides_, ii. 501.
+
+[64] Non theologi provinciam suscepimus; scimus enim quantum hoc
+ingenii nostri tenuitatem superet: ideo sufficit nobis [Greek: to
+hoti] fideliter ex antiquis auctoribus retulisse.--MORINUS, _De
+Poenitentia_, ix. 10.--Il faut avouer que la religion chr�tienne a
+quelque chose d'�tonnant! C'est parce que vous y �tes n�, dira-t-on.
+Tant s'en faut, je me roidis contre par cette raison-l� m�me, de peur
+que cette pr�vention ne me suborne.--PASCAL, _Pens�es_, XVI., 7.--I
+was fond of Fleury for a reason which I express in the advertisement;
+because it presented a sort of photograph of ecclesiastical history
+without any comment upon it. In the event, that simple representation
+of the early centuries had a good deal to do with unsettling
+me.--NEWMAN, _Apologia_, 152.--Nur was sich vor dem Richterstuhl einer
+�chten, unbefangenen, nicht durch die Brille einer philosophischen
+oder dogmatischen Schule stehenden Wissenschaft als wahr bew�hrt, kann
+zur Erbauung, Belehrung und Warnung t�chtig seyn.--NEANDER,
+_Kirchengeschichte_, i. p. vii. Wie weit bei katholischen Publicisten
+bei der Annahme der Ansicht von der Staatsanstalt apologetische
+Gesichtspunkte massgebend gewesen sind, mag dahingestellt bleiben. Der
+Historiker darf sich jedoch nie durch apologetische Zwecke leiten
+lassen; sein einziges Ziel soll die Ergr�ndungder Wahrheit
+sein.--PASTOR, _Geschichte der P�bste_, ii. 545. Church history
+falsely written is a school of vainglory, hatred, and uncharitableness;
+truly written, it is a discipline of humility, of charity, of mutual
+love.--SIR W. HAMILTON, _Discussions_, 506. The more trophies and
+crowns of honour the Church of former ages can be shown to have won in
+the service of her adorable head, the more tokens her history can be
+brought to furnish of his powerful presence in her midst, the more
+will we be pleased and rejoice, Protestant though we be.--NEVIN,
+_Mercersburg Review_, 1851, 168. S'il est une chose � laquelle j'ai
+donn� tous mes soins, c'est � ne pas laisser influencer mes jugements
+par les opinions politiques ou religieuses; que si j'ai quelquefois
+p�ch� par quelque exc�s, c'est par la bienveillance pour les oeuvres
+de ceux qui pensent autrement que moi.--MONOD, _R. Hist._, xvi. 184.
+Nous n'avons nul int�r�t � faire parler l'histoire en faveur de nos
+propres opinions. C'est son droit imprescriptible que le narrateur
+reproduise tous les faits sans aucune r�ticence et range toutes les
+�volutions dans leur ordre naturel. Notre r�cit restera compl�tement
+en dehors des pr�occupations de la dogmatique et des d�clamations de
+la pol�mique. Plus les questions auxquelles nous aurons � toucher
+agitent et passionnent de nos jours les esprits, plus il est du devoir
+de l'historien de s'effacer devant les faits qu'il veut faire
+conna�tre.--REUSS, _Nouvelle Revue de Th�ologie_, vi. 193, 1860. To
+love truth for truth's sake is the principal part of human perfection
+in this world, and the seed plot of all other virtues.--LOCKE, _Letter
+to Collins_. Il n'est plus possible aujourd'hui � l'historien d'�tre
+national dans le sens �troit du mot. Son patriotisme � lui c'est
+l'amour de la v�rit�. Il n'est pas l'homme d'une race ou d'un pays, il
+est l'homme de tous les pays, il parle au nom de la civilisation
+g�n�rale.--LANFREY, _Hist. de Nap._, iii. 2, 1870. Juger avec les
+parties de soi-m�me qui sont le moins des formes du temp�rament, et le
+plus des facult�s p�n�tr�es et model�es par l'exp�rience, par l'�tude,
+par l'investigation, par le non-moi.--FAGUET, _R. de Paris_, i. 151.
+Aucun critique n'est aussi impersonnel que lui, aussi libre de parti
+pris et d'opinions pr�con�ues, aussi objectif.--Il ne m�le ou parait
+m�ler � ses appr�ciations ni inclinations personnelles de go�t ou
+d'humeur, ou th�ories d'aucune sorte.--G. MONOD, of Faguet, _Revue
+Historique_, xlii. 417. On dirait qu'il a peur, en g�n�ralisant ses
+observations, en syst�matisant ses connaissances, de m�ler de lui-m�me
+aux choses.--Je lis tout un volume de M. Faguet, sans penser une fois
+� M. Faguet: je ne vois que les originaux qu'il montre.--J'envisage
+toujours une r�alit� objective, jamais l'id�e de M. Faguet, jamais la
+doctrine de M. Faguet.--LANSON, _Revue Politique_, 1894, i. 98.
+
+[65] It should teach us to disentangle principles first from
+parties, and again from one another; first of all as showing how
+imperfectly all parties represent their own principles, and then how
+the principles themselves are a mingled tissue.--ARNOLD, _Modern
+History_, 184. I find it a good rule, when I am contemplating a person
+from whom I want to learn, always to look out for his strength, being
+confident that the weakness will discover itself.--MAURICE, _Essays_,
+305. We may seek for agreement somewhere with our neighbours, using
+that as a point of departure for the sake of argument. It is this
+latter course that I wish here to explain and defend. The method is
+simple enough, though not yet very familiar.--It aims at conciliation;
+it proceeds by making the best of our opponent's case, instead of
+taking him at his worst.--The most interesting part of every disputed
+question only begins to appear when the rival ideals admit each
+other's right to exist.--A. SIDGWICK, _Distinction and the Criticism
+of Beliefs_, 1892, 211. That cruel reticence in the breasts of wise
+men which makes them always hide their deeper thought.--RUSKIN,
+_Sesame and Lilies_, i. 16. Je offener wir die einzelnen Wahrheiten
+des Sozialismus anerkennen, desto erfolgreicher k�nnen wir seine
+fundamentalen Unwahrheiten widerlegen.--ROSCHER, _Deutsche
+Vierteljahrschrift_, 1849, i. 177.
+
+[66] Dann habe ihn die Wahrnehmung, dass manche Angaben in
+den historischen Romanen Walter Scott's, mit den gleichzeitigen
+Quellen im Widerspruch standen, "mit Erstaunen" erf�llt, und ihn zu
+dem Entschlusse gebracht, auf das Gewissenhafteste an der
+Ueberlieferung der Quellen festzuhalten.--SYBEL, _Ged�chtnissrede auf
+Ranke_. _Akad. der Wissenschaften_, 1887, p. 6. Sich frei zu halten
+von allem Widerschein der Gegenwart, sogar, soweit das menschenm�glich,
+von dem der eignen subjectiven Meinung in den Dingen des Staates, der
+Kirche und der Gesellschaft.--A. DOVE, _Im Neuen Reich_, 1875, ii. 967.
+Wir sind durchaus nicht f�r die leblose und schemenartige
+Darstellungsweise der Ranke'schen Schule eingenommen; es wird uns
+immer k�hl bis ans Herz heran, wenn wir derartige Schilderungen der
+Reformation und der Revolution lesen, welche so ganz im k�hlen Element
+des Pragmatismus sich bewegen und dabei so ganz Undinenhaft sind und
+keine Seele haben.--Wir lassen es uns lieber gefallen, dass die M�nner
+der Geschichte hier und dort gehofmeistert werden, als dass sie uns
+mit Glasaugen ansehen, so meisterhaft immer die Kunst sein mag die sie
+ihnen eingesetzt hat.--GOTTSCHALL, _Unsere Zeit_, 1866, ii. 636, 637. A
+vivre avec des diplomates, il leur a pris des qualit�s qui sont un
+d�faut chez un historien. L'historien n'est pas un t�moin, c'est un
+juge; c'est � lui d'accuser et de condamner au nom du pass� opprim� et
+dans l'int�r�t de l'avenir.--LABOULAYE on RANKE. _D�bats_, January 12,
+1852.
+
+[67] Un th�ologien qui a compos� une �loquente histoire de la
+R�formation, rencontrant � Berlin un illustre historien qui, lui
+aussi, a racont� Luther et le XVIe si�cle, l'embrassa avec effusion
+en le traitant de confr�re. "Ah! permettez," lui r�pondit l'autre en
+se d�gageant, "il y a une grande diff�rence entre nous: vous �tes
+avant tout chr�tien, et je suis avant tout historien."--CHERBULIEZ,
+_Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1872, i. 537.
+
+[68] Nackte Wahrheit ohne allen Schmuck; gr�ndliche
+Erforschung des Einzelnen; das Uebrige, Gott befohlen.--_Werke_,
+xxxiv. 24. Ce ne sont pas les th�ories qui doivent nous servir de base
+dans la recherche des faits, mais ce sont les faits qui doivent nous
+servir de base pour la composition des th�ories.--VINCENT, _Nouvelle
+Revue de Th�ologie_, 1859, ii. 252.
+
+[69] Die zwanglose Anordnungs--die leichte und leise
+Andeutungskunst des grossen Historikers voll zu w�rdigen, hinderte ihn
+in fr�herer Zeit sein Bed�rfniss nach scharfer begrifflicher Ordnung
+und Ausf�hrung, sp�ter, und in immer zunehmenden Grade, sein Sinn f�r
+strenge Sachlichkeit, und genaue Erforschung der urs�chlichen
+Zusammenh�nge, noch mehr aber regte sich seine geradherzige Offenheit
+seine m�nnliche Ehrlichkeit, wenn er hinter den fein verstrichenen
+Farben der Rankeschen Erz�hlungsbilder die gedeckte Haltung des klugen
+Diplomaten zu entdecken glaubte.--HAYM, _Duncker's Leben_, 437. The
+ground of criticism is indeed, in my opinion, nothing else but
+distinct attention, which every reader should endeavour to be master
+of.--HARE, _Dec._, 1736, _Warburton's Works_, xiv. 98. Wenn die
+Quellenkritik so verstanden wird, als sei sie der Nachweis, wie ein
+Autor den andern benutzt hat, so ist das nur ein gelegentliches
+Mittel--eins unter anderen--ihre Aufgabe, den Nachweis der Richtigkeit
+zu l�sen oder vorzubereiten.--DROYSEN, _Historik_, 18.
+
+[70] L'esprit scientifique n'est autre en soi que l'instinct
+du travail et de la patience, le sentiment de l'ordre, de la r�alit�
+et de la mesure.--PAPILLON, _R. des Deux Mondes_, 1873, v. 704. Non
+seulement les sciences, mais toutes les institutions humaines s'organisent
+de m�me, et sous l'empire des m�mes id�es r�gulatrices.--COURNOT,
+_Id�es Fondamentales_, i. 4. There is no branch of human work whose
+constant laws have not close analogy with those which govern every
+other mode of man's exertion. But more than this, exactly as we reduce
+to greater simplicity and surety any one group of these practical
+laws, we shall find them passing the mere condition of connection or
+analogy, and becoming the actual expression of some ultimate nerve or
+fibre of the mighty laws which govern the moral world.--RUSKIN, _Seven
+Lamps_, 4. The sum total of all intellectual excellence is good sense
+and method. When these have passed into the instinctive readiness of
+habit, when the wheel revolves so rapidly that we cannot see it
+revolve at all, then we call the combination genius. But in all modes
+alike, and in all professions, the two sole component parts, even of
+genius, are good sense and method.--COLERIDGE, _June_, 1814, _Mem. of
+Coleorton_, ii. 172. Si l'exercice d'un art nous emp�che d'en
+apprendre un autre, il n'en est pas ainsi dans les sciences: la
+connoissance d'une v�rit� nous aide � en decouvrir une autre.--Toutes
+les sciences sont tellement li�es ensemble qu'il est bien plus facile
+de les apprendre toutes � la fois que d'en apprendre une seule en la
+d�tachant des autres.--Il ne doit songer qu'� augmenter les lumi�res
+naturelles de sa raison, non pour r�soudre telle ou telle difficult�
+de l'�cole, mais pour que dans chaque circonstance de la vie son
+intelligence montre d'avance � sa volont� le parti qu'elle doit
+prendre.--DESCARTES, _OEuvres Choisies_, 300, 301. _R�gles pour la
+Direction de l'Esprit._ La connaissance de la m�thode qui a guid�
+l'homme de g�nie n'est pas moins utile au progr�s de la science et
+m�me � sa propre gloire, que ses d�couvertes.--LAPLACE, _Syst�me du
+Monde_, ii. 371. On ne fait rien sans id�es pr�con�ues, il faut avoir
+seulement la sagesse de ne croire � leurs d�ductions qu'autant que
+l'exp�rience les confirme. Les id�es pr�con�ues, soumises au contr�le
+s�v�re de l'exp�rimentation, sont la flamme vivante des sciences
+d'observation; les id�es fixes en sont le danger.--PASTEUR, in
+_Histoire d'un Savant_, 284. Douter des v�rit�s humaines, c'est ouvrir
+la porte aux d�couvertes; en faire des articles de foi, c'est la
+fermer.--DUMAS, _Discours_, i. 123.
+
+[71] We should not only become familiar with the laws of
+phenomena within our own pursuit, but also with the modes of thought
+of men engaged in other discussions and researches, and even with the
+laws of knowledge itself, that highest philosophy.--Above all things,
+know that we call you not here to run your minds into our moulds. We
+call you here on an excursion, on an adventure, on a voyage of
+discovery into space as yet uncharted.--ALLBUTT, _Introductory Address
+at St. George's_, October 1889. Consistency in regard to opinions is
+the slow poison of intellectual life.--DAVY, _Memoirs_, 68.
+
+[72] Ce sont vous autres physiologistes des corps vivants,
+qui avez appris � nous autres physiologistes de la soci�t� (qui est
+aussi un corps vivant) la mani�re de l'observer et de tirer des
+cons�quences de nos observations.--J. B. SAY to DE CANDOLLE, June 1,
+1827.--DE CANDOLLE, _M�moires_, 567.
+
+[73] Success is certain to the pure and true: success to
+falsehood and corruption, tyranny and aggression, is only the prelude
+to a greater and an irremediable fall.--STUBBS, _Seventeen Lectures_,
+20. The Carlylean faith, that the cause we fight for, so far as it is
+true, is sure of victory, is the necessary basis of all effective
+activity for good.--CAIRD, _Evolution of Religion_, ii. 43. It is the
+property of truth to be fearless, and to prove victorious over every
+adversary. Sound reasoning and truth, when adequately communicated,
+must always be victorious over error.--GODWIN, _Political Justice_
+(Conclusion). Vice was obliged to retire and give place to virtue.
+This will always be the consequence when truth has fair play.
+Falsehood only dreads the attack, and cries out for auxiliaries. Truth
+never fears the encounter; she scorns the aid of the secular arm, and
+triumphs by her natural strength.--FRANKLIN, _Works_, ii. 292. It is a
+condition of our race that we must ever wade through error in our
+advance towards truth: and it may even be said that in many cases we
+exhaust almost every variety of error before we attain the desired
+goal.--BABBAGE, _Bridgewater Treatise_, 27. Les hommes ne peuvent, en
+quelque genre que ce soit, arriver � quelque chose de raisonnable
+qu'apr�s avoir, en ce m�me genre, �puis� toutes les sottises
+imaginables. Que de sottises ne dirions-nous pas maintenant, si les
+anciens ne les avaient pas d�j� dites avant nous, et ne nous les
+avaient, pour ainsi dire, enlev�es!--FONTENELLE. Without premature
+generalisations the true generalisation would never be arrived at.--H.
+SPENCER, _Essays_, ii. 57. The more important the subject of
+difference, the greater, not the less, will be the indulgence of him
+who has learned to trace the sources of human error,--of error, that
+has its origin not in our weakness and imperfection merely, but often
+in the most virtuous affections of the heart.--BROWN, _Philosophy of
+the Human Mind_, i. 48, 1824. Parmi les ch�timents du crime qui ne lui
+manquent jamais, � c�t� de celui que lui inflige la conscience,
+l'histoire lui en inflige un autre encore, �clatant et manifeste,
+l'impuissance.--COUSIN, _Phil. Mod._ ii. 24. L'avenir de la science
+est garanti; car dans le grand livre scientifique tout s'ajoute et
+rien ne se perd. L'erreur ne fonde pas; aucune erreur ne dure tr�s
+longtemps.--RENAN, _Feuilles D�tach�es_, xiii. Toutes les fois que
+deux hommes sont d'un avis contraire sur la m�me chose, � coup s�r,
+l'un ou l'autre se trompe; bien plus, aucun ne semble poss�der la
+v�rit�; car si les raisons de l'un �toient certaines et �videntes, il
+pourroit les exposer � l'autre de telle mani�re qu'il finiroit par le
+convaincre �galement.--DESCARTES, _R�gles: OEuvres Choisies_, 302.
+Le premier principe de la critique est qu'une doctrine ne captive ses
+adh�rents que par ce qu'elle a de l�gitime.--RENAN, _Essais de
+Morale_, 184. Was dem Wahn solche Macht giebt ist wirklich nicht er
+selbst, sondern die ihm zu Grunde liegende und darin nur verzerrte
+Wahrheit.--FRANTZ, _Schelling's Philosophie_, i. 62. Quand les hommes
+ont vu une fois la v�rit� dans son �clat, ils ne peuvent plus
+l'oublier. Elle reste debout, et t�t ou tard elle triomphe, parce
+qu'elle est la pens�e de Dieu et le besoin du monde.--MIGNET,
+_Portraits_, ii. 295. C'est toujours le sens commun inaper�u qui fait
+la fortune des hypoth�ses auxquelles il se m�le.--COUSIN, _Fragments
+Phil._ i. 51. Preface of 1826. Wer da sieht wie der Irrthum selbst ein
+Tr�ger mannigfaltigen und bleibenden Fortschritts wird, der wird auch
+nicht so leicht aus dem thats�chlichen Fortschritt der Gegenwart auf
+Unumst�sslichkeit unserer Hypothesen schliessen.--Das richtigste
+Resultat der geschichtlichen Betrachtung ist die akademische Ruhe, mit
+welcher unsere Hypothesen und Theorieen ohne Feindschaft und ohne
+Glauben als das betrachtet werden was sie sind; als Stufen in jener
+unendlichen Ann�herung an die Wahrheit, welche die Bestimmung unserer
+intellectuellen Entwicklung zu sein scheint.--LANGE, _Geschichte des
+Materialismus_, 502, 503. Hominum errores divina providentia reguntur,
+ita ut s�pe male jacta bene cadant.--LEIBNIZ, ed. Klopp, i., p. lii.
+Sainte-Beuve n'�tait m�me pas de la race des lib�raux, c'est-�-dire
+de ceux qui croient que, tout compte fait, et dans un �tat de
+civilisation donn�, le bien triomphe du mal � armes �gales, et la
+v�rit� de l'erreur.--D'HAUSSONVILLE, _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1875, i.
+567. In the progress of the human mind, a period of controversy
+amongst the cultivators of any branch of science must necessarily
+precede the period of unanimity.--TORRENS, _Essay on the Production of
+Wealth_, 1821, p. xiii. Even the spread of an error is part of the
+wide-world process by which we stumble into mere approximations to
+truth.--L. STEPHEN, _Apology of an Agnostic_, 81. Errors, to be
+dangerous, must have a great deal of truth mingled with them; it is
+only from this alliance that they can ever obtain an extensive
+circulation.--S. SMITH, _Moral Philosophy_, 7. The admission of the
+few errors of Newton himself is at least of as much importance to his
+followers in science as the history of the progress of his real
+discoveries.--YOUNG, _Works_, iii. 621. Error is almost always partial
+truth, and so consists in the exaggeration or distortion of one verity
+by the suppression of another, which qualifies and modifies the
+former.--MIVART, _Genesis of Species_, 3. The attainment of scientific
+truth has been effected, to a great extent, by the help of scientific
+errors.--HUXLEY: WARD, _Reign of Victoria_, ii. 337. Jede neue tief
+eingreifende Wahrheit hat meiner Ansicht nach erst das Stadium der
+Einseitigkeit durchzumachen.--IHERING, _Geist des R. Rechts_, ii. 22.
+The more readily we admit the possibility of our own cherished
+convictions being mixed with error, the more vital and helpful
+whatever is right in them will become.--RUSKIN, _Ethics of the Dust_,
+225. They hardly grasp the plain truth unless they examine the error
+which it cancels.--CORY, _Modern English History_, 1880, i. 109. Nur
+durch Irrthum kommen wir, der eine k�rzeren und gl�cklicheren
+Schrittes, als der andere, zur Wahrheit; und die Geschichte darf
+nirgends diese Verirrungen �bergehen, wenn sie Lehrerin und Warnerin
+f�r die nachfolgenden Geschlechter werden will.--_M�nchner Gel.
+Anzeigen_, 1840, i. 737.
+
+[74] Wie die Weltgeschichte das Weltgericht ist, so kann in
+noch allgemeinerem Sinne gesagt werden, dass das gerechte Gericht,
+d.h. die wahre Kritik einer Sache, nur in ihrer Geschichte liegen
+kann. Insbesondere in der Hinsicht lehrt die Geschichte denjenigen,
+der ihr folgt, ihre eigene Methode, dass ihr Fortschritt niemals ein
+reines Vernichten, sondern nur ein Aufheben im philosophischen Sinne
+ist.--STRAUSS, _Hallische Jahrb�cher_, 1839, 120.
+
+[75] Dans tous les livres qu'il lit, et il en d�vore des
+quantit�s, Darwin ne note que les passages qui contrarient ses id�es
+syst�matiques.--Il collectionne les difficult�s, les cas �pineux, les
+critiques possibles.--VERNIER, _Le Temps_, 6 D�cembre, 1887. Je
+demandais � un savant c�l�bre o� il en �tait de ses recherches. "Cela
+ne marche plus," me dit-il, "je ne trouve plus de faits
+contradictoires." Ainsi le savant cherche � se contredire lui-m�me
+pour faire avancer sa pens�e.--JANET, _Journal des Savants_, 1892, 20.
+Ein Umstand, der uns die Selbst�ndigkeit des Ganges der Wissenschaft
+anschaulich machen kann, ist auch der: dass der Irrthum, wenn er nur
+gr�ndlich behandelt wird, fast ebenso f�rdernd ist als das Finden der
+Wahrheit, denn er erzeugt fortgesetzten Widerspruch.--BAER, _Blicke
+auf die Entwicklung der Wissenschaft_, 120. It is only by virtue of
+the opposition which it has surmounted that any truth can stand in the
+human mind.--BISHOP TEMPLE; KINGLAKE, _Crimea_, _Winter Troubles_,
+app. 104. I have for many years found it expedient to lay down a rule
+for my own practice, to confine my reading mainly to those journals
+the general line of opinions in which is adverse to my own.--HARE,
+_Means of Unity_, i. 19. Kant had a harder struggle with himself than
+he could possibly have had with any critic or opponent of his
+philosophy.--CAIRD, _Philosophy of Kant_, 1889, i. p. ix.
+
+[76] The social body is no more liable to arbitrary changes
+than the individual body.--A full perception of the truth that society
+is not a mere aggregate, but an organic growth, that it forms a whole
+the laws of whose growth can be studied apart from those of the
+individual atom, supplies the most characteristic postulate of modern
+speculation.--L. STEPHEN, _Science of Ethics_, 31. Wie in dem Leben
+des Einzelnen Menschen kein Augenblick eines vollkommenen Stillstandes
+wahrgenommen wird, sondern stete organische Entwicklung, so verh�lt es
+sich auch in dem Leben der V�lker, und in jedem einzelnen Element,
+woraus dieses Gesammtleben besteht. So finden wir in der Sprache stete
+Fortbildung und Entwicklung, und auf gleiche Weise in dem Recht. Und
+auch diese Fortbildung steht unter demselben Gesetz der Erzeugung aus
+innerer Kraft und Nothwendigkeit, unabh�ngig von Zufall und
+individueller Willk�r, wie die urspr�ngliche Entstehung.--SAVIGNY,
+_System_, i. 16, 17. Seine eigene Entdeckung, dass auch die geistige
+Produktion, bis in einem gewissen Punkte wenigstens, unter dem Gesetze
+der Kausalit�t steht, dass jedeiner nur geben kann was er hat, nur hat
+was er irgendwoher bekommen, muss auch f�r ihn selber gelten.--BEKKER,
+_Das Recht des Besitzes bei den R�mern_, 3, 1880. Die geschichtliche
+Wandlung des Rechts, in welcher vergangene Jahrhunderte halb ein Spiel
+des Zufalls und halb ein Werk vern�nftelnder Willk�r sahen, als
+gesetzm�ssige Entwickelung zu begreifen, war das unsterbliche
+Verdienst der von M�nnern wie Savigny, Eichhorn und Jacob Grimm
+gef�hrten historischen Rechtsschule.--GIERKE, _Rundschau_, xviii.
+205.
+
+[77] The only effective way of studying what is called the
+philosophy of religion, or the philosophical criticism of religion, is
+to study the history of religion. The true science of war is the
+history of war, the true science of religion is, I believe, the
+history of religion.--M. M�LLER, _Theosophy_, 3, 4. La th�ologie ne
+doit plus �tre que l'histoire des efforts spontan�s tent�s pour
+r�soudre le probl�me divin. L'histoire, en effet, est la forme
+n�cessaire de la science de tout ce qui est soumis aux lois de la vie
+changeante et successive. La science de l'esprit humain, c'est de
+m�me, l'histoire de l'esprit humain.--RENAN, _Averro�s_, Pref. vi.
+
+[78] Political economy is not a science, in any strict sense,
+but a body of systematic knowledge gathered from the study of common
+processes, which have been practised all down the history of the human
+race in the production and distribution of wealth.--BONAMY PRICE,
+_Social Science Congress_, 1878. Such a study is in harmony with the
+best intellectual tendencies of our age, which is, more than anything
+else, characterized by the universal supremacy of the historical
+spirit. To such a degree has this spirit permeated all our modes of
+thinking, that with respect to every branch of knowledge, no less than
+with respect to every institution and every form of human activity, we
+almost instinctively ask, not merely what is its existing condition,
+but what were its earliest discoverable germs, and what has been the
+course of its development.--INGRAM, _History of Political Economy_, 2.
+Wir dagegen stehen keinen Augenblick an, die National�konomie f�r eine
+reine Erfahrungswissenschaft zu erkl�ren, und die Geschichte ist uns
+daher nicht H�lfsmittel, sondern Gegenstand selber.--ROSCHER,
+_Deutsche Vierteljahrschrift_, 1849, i. 182. Der bei weitem gr�sste
+Theil menschlicher Irrth�mer beruhet darauf, dass man zeitlich und
+�rtlich Wahres oder Heilsames f�r absolut wahr oder heilsam ausgiebt.
+F�r jede Stufe der Volksentwickelung passt eine besondere
+Staatsverfassung, die mit allen �brigen Verh�ltnissen des Volks als
+Ursache und Wirkung auf's Innigste verbunden ist; so passt auch f�r jede
+Entwickelungsstufe eine besondere Landwirthschaftsverfassung.--ROSCHER,
+_Archiv f. p. Oek._, viii., 2 Heft 1845. Seitdem vor allen Roscher,
+Hildebrand und Knies den Werth, die Berechtigung und die
+Nothwendigkeit derselben unwiderleglich dargethan, hat sich immer
+allgemeiner der Gedanke Bahn gebrochen dass diese Wissenschaft, die
+bis dahin nur auf die Gegenwart, auf die Erkenntniss der bestehenden
+Verh�ltnisse und die in ihnen sichtbaren Gesetze den Blick gerichtet
+hatte, auch in die Vergangenheit, in die Erforschung der bereits
+hinter uns liegenden wirthschaftlichen Entwicklung der V�lker sich
+vertiefen m�sse.--SCH�NBERG, _Jahrb�cher f. National�konomie und
+Statistik_, Neue Folge, 1867, i. 1. Schmoller, moins dogmatique et
+mettant comme une sorte de coquetterie � �tre incertain, d�montre, par
+les faits, la fausset� ou l'arbitraire de tous ces postulats, et
+laisse l'�conomie politique se dissoudre dans l'histoire.--BRETON, _R.
+de Paris_, ix. 67. Wer die politische Oekonomie Feuerlands unter
+dieselben Gesetze bringen wollte mit der des heutigen Englands, w�rde
+damit augenscheinlich nichts zu Tage f�rdern als den allerbanalsten
+Gemeinplatz. Die politische Oekonomie ist somit wesentlich eine
+historische Wissenschaft. Sie behandelt einen geschichtlichen, das
+heisst einen stets wechselnden Stoff. Sie untersucht zun�chst die
+besondern Gesetze jeder einzelnen Entwicklungsstufe der Produktion und
+des Austausches, und wird erst am Schluss dieser Untersuchung die
+wenigen, f�r Produktion und Austausch �berhaupt geltenden, ganz
+allgemeinen Gesetze aufstellen k�nnen.--ENGELS, _D�hrings Umw�lzung der
+Wissenschaft_, 1878, 121.
+
+[79] History preserves the student from being led astray by a
+too servile adherence to any system.--WOLOWSKI. No system can be
+anything more than a history, not in the order of impression, but in
+the order of arrangement by analogy.--DAVY, _Memoirs_, 68. Avec des
+mat�riaux si nombreux et si importants, il fallait bien du courage
+pour r�sister � la tentation de faire un syst�me. De Saussure eut ce
+courage, et nous en ferons le dernier trait et le trait principal de
+son �loge.--CUVIER, _�loge de Saussure_, 1810.
+
+[80] C'�tait, en 1804, une id�e heureuse et nouvelle,
+d'appeler l'histoire au secours de la science, d'interroger les deux
+grandes �coles rivales au profit de la v�rit�.--COUSIN, _Fragments
+Litt�raires_, 1843, 95, on D�gerando. No branch of philosophical
+doctrine, indeed, can be fairly investigated or apprehended apart from
+its history. All our systems of politics, morals, and metaphysics
+would be different if we knew exactly how they grew up, and what
+transformations they have undergone; if we knew, in short, the true
+history of human ideas.--CLIFFE LESLIE, _Essays in Political and Moral
+Philosophy_, 1879, 149. The history of philosophy must be rational and
+philosophic. It must be philosophy itself, with all its elements, in
+all their relations, and under all their laws represented in striking
+characters by the hands of time and of history, in the manifested
+progress of the human mind.--SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON, _Edin. Rev._ l.
+200, 1829. Il n'est point d'�tude plus instructive, plus utile que
+l'�tude de l'histoire de la philosophie; car on y apprend � se
+d�sabuser des philosophes, et l'on y d�sapprend la fausse science de
+leurs syst�mes.--ROYER COLLARD, _OEuvres de Reid_, iv. 426. On ne
+peut gu�re �chapper � la conviction que toutes les solutions des
+questions philosophiques n'aient �t� d�velopp�es ou indiqu�es avant le
+commencement du dix-neuvi�me si�cle, et que par cons�quent il ne soit
+tr�s difficile, pour ne pas dire impossible, de tomber, en pareille
+mati�re, sur une id�e neuve de quelque importance. Or si cette
+conviction est fond�e, il s'ensuit que la science est faite.--JOUFFROY,
+in DAMIRON, _Philosophie du XIXe Si�cle_, 363. Le but dernier de tous
+mes efforts, l'�me de mes �crits et de tout mon enseignement, c'est
+l'identit� de la philosophie et de son histoire.--COUSIN, _Cours de
+1829_. Ma route est historique, il est vrai, mais mon but est
+dogmatique; je tends � une th�orie, et cette th�orie je la demande �
+l'histoire.--COUSIN, _Ph. du XVIIIe Si�cle_, 15. L'histoire de la
+philosophie est contrainte d'emprunter d'abord � la philosophie la
+lumi�re qu'elle doit lui rendre un jour avec usure.--COUSIN, _Du Vrai_,
+1855, 14. M. Cousin, durant tout son professorat de 1816 � 1829, a
+pens� que l'histoire de la philosophie �tait la source de la
+philosophie m�me. Nous ne croyons pas exag�rer en lui pr�tant cette
+opinion.--B. ST. HILAIRE, _Victor Cousin_, i. 302. Il se h�ta de
+convertir le fait en loi, et proclama que la philosophie, �tant
+identique � son histoire, ne pouvait avoir une loi diff�rente, et
+�tait vou�e � jamais � l'�volution fatale des quatre syst�mes, se
+contredisant toujours, mais se limitant, et se mod�rant, par cela m�me
+de mani�re � maintenir l'equilibre, sinon l'harmonie de la pens�e
+humaine.--VACHEROT, _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1868, iii. 957. Er hat
+�berhaupt das unverg�ngliche Verdienst, zuerst in Frankreich zu der
+Erkenntniss gelangt zu sein, dass die menschliche Vernunft nur durch
+das Studium des Gesetzes ihrer Entwickelungen begriffen werden
+kann.--LAUSER, _Unsere Zeit_, 1868, i. 459. Le philosophe en qu�te du
+vrai en soi, n'est plus r�duit � ses conceptions individuelles; il est
+riche du tr�sor amass� par l'humanit�.--BOUTROUX, _Revue Politique_,
+xxxvii. 802. L'histoire, je veux dire l'histoire de l'esprit humain,
+est en ce sens la vraie philosophie de notre temps.--RENAN, _�tudes de
+Morale_, 83. Die Philosophie wurde eine h�chst bedeutende
+H�lfswissenschaft der Geschichte, sie hat ihre Richtung auf das
+Allgemeine gef�rdert, ihren Blick f�r dasselbe gesch�rft, und sie,
+wenigstens durch ihre Vermittlung, mit Gesichtspuncten, Ideen,
+bereichert die sie aus ihrem eigenen Schoosse sobald noch nicht
+erzeugt haben w�rde. Weit die fruchtbarste darunter war die aus der
+Naturwissenschaft gesch�pfte Idee des organischen Lebens, dieselbe auf
+der die neueste Philosophie selbst beruht. Die seit zwei bis drei
+Jahrzehnten in der Behandlung der Geschichte eingetretene
+durchgreifende Ver�nderung, wie die v�llige Umgestaltung so mancher
+anderen Wissenschaft ... ist der Hauptsache nach ihr Werk.--HAUG,
+_Allgemeine Geschichte_, 1841, i. 22. Eine Geschichte der Philosophie
+in eigentlichen Sinne wurde erst m�glich als man an die Stelle der
+Philosophen deren Systeme setzte, den inneren Zusammenhang zwischen
+diesen feststellte und--wie Dilthey sagt--mitten in Wechsel der
+Philosophien ein siegreiches Fortschreiten zur Wahrheit nachwies. Die
+Gesammtheit der Philosophie stellt sich also dar als eine
+geschichtliche Einheit.--SAUL, _Rundschau_, Feb. 1894, 307. Warum die
+Philosophie eine Geschichte habe und haben m�sse, blieb uner�rtert, ja
+ungeahnt, dass die Philosophie am meisten von allen Wissenschaften
+historisch sei, denn man hatte in der Geschichte den Begriff der
+Entwicklung nicht entdeckt.--MARBACH, _Griechische Philosophie_, 15.
+Was bei oberfl�chlicher Betrachtung nur ein Gewirre einzelner Personen
+und Meinungen zu sein schien, zeigt sich bei genauerer und gr�ndlicherer
+Untersuchung als eine geschichtliche Entwicklung, in der alles, bald
+n�her, bald entfernter, mit allem anderen zusammenh�ngt.--ZELLER,
+_Rundschau_, Feb. 1894, 307. Nur die Philosophie, die an die
+geschichtliche Entwickelung ankn�pft kann auf bleibenden Erfolg auch
+f�r die Zukunft rechnen und fortschreiten zu dem, was in der
+bisherigen philosophischen Entwickelung nur erst unvollkommen erreicht
+oder angestrebt worden ist. Kann sich doch die Philosophie �berhaupt
+und insbesondere die Metaphysik ihrer eigenen geschichtlichen
+Entwickelung nicht entschlagen, sondern hat eine Geschichte der
+Philosophie als eigene und zwar zugleich historische und spekulative
+Disziplin, in deren geschichtlichen Entwickelungsphasen und
+geschichtlich aufeinanderfolgenden Systemen der Philosophen die neuere
+Spekulation seit Schelling and Hegel zugleich die Philosophie selbst
+als ein die verschiedenen geschichtlichen Systeme umfassendes ganzes
+in seiner dialektischen Gliederung erkannt hat.--GLOATZ, _Spekulative
+Theologie_, i. 23. Die heutige Philosophie f�hrt uns auf einen
+Standpunkt von dem aus die philosophische Idee als das innere Wesen
+der Geschichte selbst erscheint. So trat an die Stelle einer abstrakt
+philosophischen Richtung, welche das Geschichtliche verneinte, eine
+abstrakt geschichtliche Richtung welche das Philosophische
+verl�ugnete. Beide Richtungen sind als �berschrittene und besiegte zu
+betrachten.--BERNER, _Strafrecht_, 75. Die Geschichte der Philosophie
+hat uns fast schon die Wissenschaft der Philosophie selbst
+ersetzt.--HERMANN, _Phil. Monatshefte_, ii. 198, 1889.
+
+[81] Le si�cle actuel sera principalement caract�ris� par
+l'irr�vocable pr�pond�rance de l'histoire, en philosophie, en
+politique, et m�me en po�sie.--COMTE, _Politique Positive_, iii. 1.
+
+[82] The historical or comparative method has revolutionized
+not only the sciences of law, mythology, and language, of anthropology
+and sociology, but it has forced its way even into the domain of
+philosophy and natural science. For what is the theory of evolution
+itself, with all its far-reaching consequences, but the achievement of
+the historical method?--PROTHERO, _Inaugural_. _National Review_,
+_Dec._ 1894, 461. To facilitate the advancement of all the branches of
+useful science, two things seem to be principally requisite. The first
+is, an historical account of their rise, progress, and present state.
+Without the former of these helps, a person every way qualified for
+extending the bounds of science labours under great disadvantages;
+wanting the lights which have been struck out by others, and
+perpetually running the risk of losing his labour, and finding himself
+anticipated.--PRIESTLEY, _History of Vision_, 1772, i. Pref. i.
+Cuvier se proposait de montrer l'encha�nement scientifique des
+d�couvertes, leurs relations avec les grands �v�nements historiques,
+et leur influence sur les progr�s et le d�veloppement de la
+civilisation.--DARESTE, _Biographie G�n�rale_, xii. 685. Dans ses
+�loquentes le�ons, l'histoire des sciences est devenue l'histoire m�me
+de l'esprit humain; car, remontant aux causes de leurs progr�s et de
+leurs erreurs, c'est toujours dans les bonnes ou mauvaises routes
+suivies par l'esprit humain, qu'il trouve ces causes.--FLOURENS,
+_�loge de Cuvier_, xxxi. Wie keine fortlaufende Entwickelungsreihe von
+nur Einem Punkte aus vollkommen aufzufassen ist, so wird auch keine
+lebendige Wissenschaft nur aus der Gegenwart begriffen werden
+k�nnen.--Deswegen ist aber eine solche Darstellung doch noch nicht der
+gesammten Wissenschaft ad�quat, und sie birgt, wenn sie damit
+verwechselt wird, starke Gefahren der Einseitigkeit, des Dogmatismus
+und damit der Stagnation in sich. Diesen Gefahren kann wirksam nur
+begegnet werden durch die verst�ndige Betrachtung der Geschichte der
+Wissenschaften, welche diese selbst in stetem Flusse zeigt und die
+Tendenz ihres Fortschreitens in offenbarer und sicherer Weise
+klarlegt.--ROSENBERGER, _Geschichte der Physik_, iii., p. vi. Die
+Continuit�t in der Ausbildung aller Auffassungen tritt um so
+deutlicher hervor, je vollst�ndiger man sich damit, wie sie zu
+verschiedenen Zeiten waren, vertraut macht.--KOPP, _Entwickelung der
+Chemie_, 814.
+
+[83] Die Geschichte und die Politik sind Ein und derselbe
+Janus mit dem Doppelgesicht, das in der Geschichte in die
+Vergangenheit, in der Politik in die Zukunft hinschaut.--G�GLER'S
+_Leben_, ii. 59.
+
+[84] The papers inclosed, which give an account of the
+killing of two men in the county of Londonderry; if they prove to be
+Tories, 'tis very well they are gone.--I think it will not only be
+necessary to grant those a pardon who killed them, but also that they
+have some reward for their own and others' encouragement.--ESSEX,
+_Letters_, 10, _Jan._ 10, 1675. The author of this happened to be
+present. There was a meeting of some honest people in the city, upon
+the occasion of the discovery of some attempt to stifle the evidence
+of the witnesses.--Bedloe said he had letters from Ireland, that there
+were some Tories to be brought over hither, who were privately to
+murder Dr. Oates and the said Bedloe. The doctor, whose zeal was very
+hot, could never after this hear any man talk against the plot, or
+against the witnesses, but he thought he was one of these Tories, and
+called almost every man a Tory that opposed him in discourse; till at
+last the word Tory became popular.--DEFOE, _Edinburgh Review_, l.
+403.
+
+[85] La Espa�a ser� el primer pueblo en donde se encender�
+esta guerra patriotica que solo puede libertar � Europa.--Hemos oido
+esto en Inglaterra � varios de los que estaban alli presentes. Muchas
+veces ha oido lo mismo al duque de Wellington el general Don Miguel de
+Alava, y dicho duque refiri� el suceso en una comida diplomatica que
+di� en Paris el duque de Richelieu en 1816.--TORENO, _Historia del
+Levantamiento de Espa�a_, 1838, i. 508.
+
+[86] Nunquam propter auctoritatem illorum, quamvis magni sint
+nominis (supponimus scilicet semper nos cum eo agere qui scientiam
+historicam vult consequi), sententias quas secuti sunt ipse tamquam
+certas admittet, sed solummodo ob vim testimoniorum et argumentorum
+quibus eas confirmarunt.--DE SMEDT, _Introductio ad historiam critice
+tractandam_, 1866, i. 5.
+
+[87] Hundert schwere Verbrechen wiegen nicht so schwer in der
+Schale der Unsittlichkeit, als ein unsittliches Princip.--_Hallische
+Jahrb�cher_, 1839, 308. Il faut fl�trir les crimes; mais il faut
+aussi, et surtout, fl�trir les doctrines et les syst�mes qui tendent �
+les justifier.--MORTIMER TERNAUX, _Histoire de la Terreur_.
+
+[88] We see how good and evil mingle in the best of men and
+in the best of causes; we learn to see with patience the men whom we
+like best often in the wrong, and the repulsive men often in the
+right; we learn to bear with patience the knowledge that the cause
+which we love best has suffered, from the awkwardness of its
+defenders, so great disparagement, as in strict equity to justify the
+men who were assaulting it.--STUBBS, _Seventeen Lectures_, 97.
+
+[89] Caeteris paribus, on trouvera tousjours que ceux qui ont plus de
+puissance sont sujets � p�cher davantage; et il n'y a point de th�or�me
+de g�om�trie qui soit plus asseur� que cette proposition.--LEIBNIZ,
+1688, ed. Rommel, ii. 197. Il y a toujours eu de la malignit� dans la
+grandeur, et de l'opposition � l'esprit de l'�vangile; mais maintenant
+il y en a plus que jamais, et il semble que comme le monde va � sa
+fin, celui qui est dans l'�l�vation fait tous ses efforts pour dominer
+avec plus de tyrannie, et pour �touffer les maximes du Christianisme et
+le r�gne de J�sus-Christ, voiant qu'il s'approche.--GODEAU, _Lettres_,
+423, March 27, 1667. There is, in fact, an unconquerable tendency in
+all power, save that of knowledge, acting by and through knowledge, to
+injure the mind of him by whom that power is exercised.--WORDSWORTH,
+June 22, 1817. _Letters of Lake Poets_, 369.
+
+[90] I cieli han messo sulla terra due giudici delle umane
+azioni, la coscienza e la storia.--COLLETTA. Wenn gerade die edelsten
+M�nner um des Nachruhmes willen gearbeitet haben, so soll die
+Geschichte ihre Belohnung sein, sie auch die Strafe f�r die
+Schlechten.--LASAULX, _Philosophie der K�nste_, 211. Pour juger ce qui
+est bon et juste dans la vie actuelle ou pass�e, il faut poss�der un
+criterium, qui ne soit pas tir� du pass� ou du pr�sent, mais de la
+nature humaine.--AHRENS, _Cours de Droit Naturel_, i. 67.
+
+[91] L'homme de notre temps! La conscience moderne! Voil�
+encore de ces termes qui nous ram�nent la pr�tendue philosophie de
+l'histoire et la doctrine du progr�s, quand il s'agit de la justice,
+c'est-�-dire de la conscience pure et de l'homme rationnel, que
+d'autres si�cles encore que le n�tre ont connu.--RENOUVIER, _Crit.
+Phil._ 1873, ii. 55.
+
+[92] Il faut pardonner aux grands hommes le marchepied de
+leur grandeur.--COUSIN, in J. SIMON, _Nos Hommes d'�tat_, 1887, 55.
+L'esprit du XVIIIe si�cle n'a pas besoin d'apologie: l'apologie d'un
+si�cle est dans son existence.--COUSIN, _Fragments_, iii. 1826.
+Suspendus aux l�vres �loquentes de M. Cousin, nous l'entend�mes
+s'�crier que la meilleure cause l'emportait toujours, que c'�tait la
+loi de l'histoire, le rhythme immuable du progr�s.--GASPARIN, _La
+Libert� Morale_, ii. 63. Cousin verurtheilen heisst darum nichts
+Anderes als jenen Geist historischer Betrachtung verdammen, durch
+welchen das 19 Jahrhundert die revolution�re Kritik des 18
+Jahrhunderts erg�nzt, durch welchen insbesondere Deutschland die
+geistigen Wohlthaten vergolten hat, welche es im Zeitalter der
+Aufkl�rung von seinen westlichen Nachbarn empfangen.--IODL, _Gesch.
+der Ethik_, ii. 295. Der Gang der Weltgeschichte steht ausserhalb der
+Tugend, des Lasters, und der Gerechtigkeit.--HEGEL, _Werke_, viii.
+425. Die Vermischung des Zuf�lligen im Individuum mit dem an ihm
+Historischen f�hrt zu unz�hligen falschen Ansichten und Urtheilen.
+Hierzu geh�rt namentlich alles Absprechen �ber die moralische
+T�chtigkeit der Individuen, und die Verwunderung, welche his zur
+Verzweiflung an g�ttlicher Gerechtigkeit sich steigert, dass
+historisch grosse Individuen moralisch nichtsw�rdig erscheinen k�nnen.
+Die moralische T�chtigkeit besteht in der Unterordnung alles dessen
+was zuf�llig am Einzelnen unter das an ihm dem Allgemeinen
+Angeh�rige.--MARBACH, _Geschichte der Griechischen Philosophie_, 7.
+Das Sittliche der Neuseel�nder, der Mexikaner ist vielmehr ebenso
+sittlich, wie das der Griechen, der R�mer; und das Sittliche der
+Christen des Mittelalters ist ebenso sittlich, wie das der
+Gegenwart.--KIRCHMANN, _Grundbegriffe des Rechts_, 194. Die
+Geschichtswissenschaft als solche kennt nur ein zeitliches und mithin
+auch nur ein relatives Maass der Dinge. Alle Werthbeurtheilung der
+Geschichte kann daher nur relativ und aus zeitlichen Momenten
+fliessen, und wer sich nicht selbst t�uschen und den Dingen nicht
+Gewalt anthun will, muss ein f�r allemal in dieser Wissenschaft auf
+absolute Werthe verzichten.--LORENZ, _Schlosser_, 80. Only according
+to his faith is each man judged. Committed as this deed has been by a
+pure-minded, pious youth, it is a beautiful sign of the time.--DE
+WETTE to Sand's Mother, CHEYNE, _Founders of Criticism_, 44. The men
+of each age must be judged by the ideal of their own age and country,
+and not by the ideal of ours.--LECKY, _Value of History_, 50.
+
+[93] La dur�e ici-bas, c'est le droit, c'est la sanction de
+Dieu.--GUIRAUD, _Philosophie Catholique de l'Histoire_.
+
+[94] Ceux qui ne sont pas contens de l'ordre des choses ne
+s�auroient se vanter d'aimer Dieu comme il faut.--Il faut toujours
+estre content de l'ordre du pass�, parce qu'il est conforme � la
+volont� de Dieu absolue, qu'on connoit par l'�v�nement. Il faut t�cher
+de rendre l'avenir, autant qu'il d�pend de nous, conforme � la volont�
+de Dieu pr�somptive.--LEIBNIZ, _Werke_, ed. Gerhardt, ii. 136. Ich
+habe damals bekannt und bekenne jetzt, dass die politische Wahrheit
+aus denselben Quellen zu sch�pfen ist, wie alle anderen, aus dem
+g�ttlichen Willen und dessen Kundgebung in der Geschichte des
+Menschengeschlechts.--RADOWITZ, _Neue Gespr�che_, 65.
+
+[95] A man is great as he contends best with the
+circumstances of his age.--FROUDE, _Short Studies_ i. 388. La
+persuasion que l'homme est avant tout une personne morale et libre, et
+qu'ayant con�u seul, dans sa conscience et devant Dieu, la r�gle de sa
+conduite, il doit s'employer tout entier � l'appliquer en lui, hors de
+lui, absolument, obstin�ment, inflexiblement, par une r�sistance
+perp�tuelle oppos�e aux autres; et par une contrainte perp�tuelle
+exerc�e sur soi, voil� la grande id�e anglaise.--TAINE; SOREL,
+_Discours de R�ception_, 24. In jeder Zeit des Christenthums hat es
+einzelne M�nner gegeben, die �ber ihrer Zeit standen und von ihren
+Gegens�tzen nicht ber�hrt wurden.--BACHMANN, _Hengstenberg_, i. 160.
+Eorum enim qui de iisdem rebus mecum aliquid ediderunt, aut solus
+insanio ego, aut solus non insanio; tertium enim non est, nisi (quod
+dicet forte aliquis) insaniamus omnes.--HOBBES, quoted by DE MORGAN,
+June 3, 1858, _Life of Sir W. R. Hamilton_, iii. 552.
+
+[96] I have now to exhibit a rare combination of good
+qualities, and a steady perseverance in good conduct, which raised an
+individual to be an object of admiration and love to all his
+contemporaries, and have made him to be regarded by succeeding
+generations as a model of public and private virtue.--The evidence
+shows that upon this occasion he was not only under the influence of
+the most vulgar credulity, but that he violated the plainest rules of
+justice, and that he really was the murderer of two innocent
+women.--Hale's motives were most laudable.--CAMPBELL'S _Lives of the
+Chief Justices_, i. 512, 561, 566. It was not to be expected of the
+colonists of New England that they should be the first to see through
+a delusion which befooled the whole civilized world, and the gravest
+and most knowing persons in it.--The people of New England believed
+what the wisest men of the world believed at the end of the
+seventeenth century.--PALFREY, _New England_, iv. 127, 129 (also
+speaking of witchcraft). Il est donc bien �trange que sa s�v�rit�
+tardive s'exerce aujourd'hui sur un homme auquel elle n'a d'autre
+reproche � faire que d'avoir trop bien servi l'�tat par des mesures
+politiques, injustes peut-�tre, violentes, mais qui, en aucune
+mani�re, n'avaient l'int�r�t personnel du coupable pour objet.--M.
+Hastings peut sans doute para�tre r�pr�hensible aux yeux des
+�trangers, des particuliers m�me, mais il est assez extraordinaire
+qu'une nation usurpatrice d'une partie de l'Indostan veuille m�ler les
+r�gles de la morale � celles d'une administration forc�e, injuste et
+violente par essence, et � laquelle il faudrait renoncer � jamais pour
+�tre cons�quent.--MALLET DU PAN, _Memories_, ed. Sayous, i. 102.
+
+[97] On parle volontiers de la stabilit� de la constitution
+anglaise. La v�rit� est que cette constitution est toujours en
+mouvement et en oscillation et qu'elle se pr�te merveilleusement au
+jeu de ses diff�rentes parties. Sa solidit� vient de sa souplesse;
+elle plie et ne rompt pas.--BOUTMY, _Nouvelle Revue_, 1878, 49.
+
+[98] This is not an age for a man to follow the strict
+morality of better times, yet sure mankind is not yet so debased but
+that there will ever be found some few men who will scorn to join
+concert with the public voice when it is not well grounded.--_Savile
+Correspondence_, 173.
+
+[99] Cette proposition: L'homme est incomparablement plus
+port� au mal qu'au bien, et il se fait dans le monde incomparablement
+plus de mauvaises actions que de bonnes--est aussi certaine qu'aucun
+principe de m�taphysique. Il est donc incomparablement plus probable
+qu'une action faite par un homme, est mauvaise, qu'il n'est probable
+qu'elle soit bonne. Il est incomparablement plus probable que ces
+secrets ressorts qui l'ont produite sont corrompus, qu'il n'est
+probable qu'ils soient honn�tes. Je vous avertis que je parle d'une
+action qui n'est point mauvaise ext�rieurement.--BAYLE, _OEuvres_,
+ii. 248.
+
+[100] A Christian is bound by his very creed to suspect evil,
+and cannot release himself.--His religion has brought evil to light in
+a way in which it never was before; it has shown its depth, subtlety,
+ubiquity; and a revelation, full of mercy on the one hand, is terrible
+in its exposure of the world's real state on the other. The Gospel
+fastens the sense of evil upon the mind; a Christian is enlightened,
+hardened, sharpened, as to evil; he sees it where others do
+not.--MOZLEY, _Essays_, i. 308. All satirists, of course, work in the
+direction of Christian doctrine, by the support they give to the
+doctrine of original sin, making a sort of meanness and badness a law
+of society.--MOZLEY, _Letters_, 333. Les critiques, m�me malveillants,
+sont plus pr�s de la v�rit� derni�re que les admirateurs.--NISARD,
+_Lit. fr._, Conclusion. Les hommes sup�rieurs doivent n�cessairement
+passer pour m�chants. O� les autres ne voient ni un d�faut, ni un
+ridicule, ni un vice, leur implacable oeil l'aper�oit.--BARBEY
+D'AUREVILLY, _Figaro_, March 31, 1888.
+
+[101] Prenons garde de ne pas trop expliquer, pour ne pas
+fournir des arguments � ceux qui veulent tout excuser.--BROGLIE,
+_R�ception de Sorel_, 46.
+
+[102] The eternal truths and rights of things exist,
+fortunately, independent of our thoughts or wishes, fixed as
+mathematics, inherent in the nature of man and the world. They are no
+more to be trifled with than gravitation.--FROUDE, _Inaugural Lecture
+at St. Andrews_, 1869, 41. What have men to do with interests? There
+is a right way and a wrong way. That is all we need think
+about.--CARLYLE to FROUDE, _Longman's Magazine_, Dec. 1892, 151. As to
+History, it is full of indirect but very effective moral teaching. It
+is not only, as Bolingbroke called it, "Philosophy teaching by
+examples," but it is morality teaching by examples.--It is essentially
+the study which best helps the student to conceive large thoughts.--It
+is impossible to overvalue the moral teaching of History.--FITCH,
+_Lectures on Teaching_, 432. Judging from the past history of our
+race, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, war is a folly and a
+crime.--Where it is so, it is the saddest and the wildest of all
+follies, and the most heinous of all crimes.--GREG, _Essays on
+Political and Social Science_, 1853, i. 562. La volont� de tout un
+peuple ne peut rendre juste ce qui est injuste: les repr�sentants
+d'une nation n'ont pas le droit de faire ce que la nation n'a pas le
+droit de faire elle-m�me.--B. CONSTANT, _Principes de Politique_, i.
+15.
+
+[103] Think not that morality is ambulatory; that vices in
+one age are not vices in another, or that virtues, which are under the
+everlasting seal of right reason, may be stamped by opinion.--SIR
+THOMAS BROWNE, _Works_, iv. 64.
+
+[104] Osons croire qu'il seroit plus � propos de mettre de
+c�t� ces traditions, ces usages, et ces coutumes souvent si
+imparfaites, si contradictoires, si incoh�rentes, ou de ne les
+consulter que pour saisir les inconv�niens et les �viter; et qu'il
+faudroit chercher non-seulement les �l�ments d'une nouvelle
+l�gislation, mais m�me ses derniers d�tails dans une �tude approfondie
+de la morale.--LETROSNE, _R�flexions sur la L�gislation Criminelle_,
+137. M. Renan appartient � cette famille d'esprits qui ne croient pas
+en r�alit� la raison, la conscience, le droit applicables � la
+direction des soci�t�s humaines, et qui demandent � l'histoire, � la
+tradition, non � la morale, les r�gles de la politique. Ces esprits
+sont atteints de la maladie du si�cle, le scepticisme moral.--PILLON,
+_Critique Philosophique_, i. 49.
+
+[105] The subject of modern history is of all others, to my
+mind, the most interesting, inasmuch as it includes all questions of
+the deepest interest relating not to human things only, but to
+divine.--ARNOLD, _Modern History_, 311.
+
+
+
+
+
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+
+Project Gutenberg's A Lecture on the Study of History, by Lord Acton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Lecture on the Study of History
+
+Author: Lord Acton
+
+Release Date: June 7, 2008 [EBook #25720]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Irma Spehar and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
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+
+
+
+
+
+<h1>A LECTURE<br />
+<small>ON</small><br />
+THE STUDY OF HISTORY</h1>
+
+<p class="publisher">MACMILLAN AND CO., <span class="smcap">Limited</span><br />
+
+<span style="font-size: 80%">LONDON . BOMBAY . CALCUTTA</span><br />
+<span style="font-size: 80%">MELBOURNE</span><br /><br />
+
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br />
+
+<span style="font-size: 80%">NEW YORK . BOSTON . CHICAGO</span><br />
+<span style="font-size: 80%">ATLANTA . SAN FRANCISCO</span><br /><br />
+
+THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span><br />
+
+<span style="font-size: 80%">TORONTO</span></p>
+
+<h1>A LECTURE<br />
+<small>ON</small><br />
+THE STUDY OF HISTORY</h1>
+
+<p class="author"><span style="letter-spacing: 0.15ex; font-style: italic">DELIVERED AT CAMBRIDGE,</span><br />
+<span style="letter-spacing: 0.15ex; font-style: italic">JUNE</span> 11, 1895<br />
+
+<small>BY</small><br />
+
+<big>LORD ACTON</big><br />
+LL.D., D.C.L.<br />
+
+<span style="font-size: 80%">REGIUS PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="publisher" style="letter-spacing: 0.15ex">MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED<br />
+ST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON<br />
+1911</p>
+
+<p class="printer"><span class="smcap">Richard Clay and Sons, Limited,</span><br />
+BRUNSWICK STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S.&nbsp;E.,<br />
+AND BUNGAY, SUFFOLK<br /><br />
+
+<i>First Edition, October, 1895.</i><br />
+<i>Second Edition, January, 1896. Reprinted, 1905, 1911.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<p style="text-indent: 0em"><span class="smcap">Fellow Students</span>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">I look</span> back to-day to a time before
+the middle of the century, when I was<span class="sidenote">UNITY OF MODERN HISTORY</span>
+reading at Edinburgh, and fervently wishing
+to come to this University. At three
+colleges I applied for admission, and, as
+things then were, I was refused by all.
+Here, from the first, I vainly fixed my
+hopes, and here, in a happier hour,
+after five-and-forty years, they are at last
+fulfilled.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>I desire first to speak to you of that which
+I may reasonably call the Unity of Modern
+History, as an easy approach to questions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+necessary to be met on the threshold by
+any one occupying this place, which my
+predecessor has made so formidable to me
+by the reflected lustre of his name.</p>
+
+<p>You have often heard it said that
+Modern History is a subject to which
+neither beginning nor end can be assigned.
+No beginning, because the dense web of
+the fortunes of man is woven without a
+void; because, in society as in nature, the
+structure is continuous, and we can trace
+things back uninterruptedly, until we
+dimly descry the Declaration of Independence
+in the forests of Germany. No
+end, because, on the same principle,
+history made and history making are
+scientifically inseparable and separately
+unmeaning.</p>
+
+
+<p>&#8220;Politics,&#8221; said Sir John Seeley, &#8220;are
+vulgar when they are not liberalised by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+history, and history fades into mere literature<span class="sidenote">LINK BETWEEN HISTORY AND POLITICS</span>
+when it loses sight of its relation
+to practical politics.&#8221; Everybody perceives
+the sense in which this is true. For the
+science of politics is the one science that is
+deposited by the stream of history, like
+grains of gold in the sand of a river; and
+the knowledge of the past, the record of
+truths revealed by experience, is eminently
+practical, as an instrument of action, and
+a power that goes to the making of the
+future.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> In France, such is the weight
+attached to the study of our own time,
+that there is an appointed course of contemporary
+history, with appropriate textbooks.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
+That is a chair which, in the
+progressive division of labour by which
+both science and government prosper,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
+may some day be founded in this country.
+Meantime, we do well to acknowledge<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+the points at which the two epochs
+diverge. For the contemporary differs
+from the modern in this, that many of its
+facts cannot by us be definitely ascertained.
+The living do not give up their secrets
+with the candour of the dead; one key
+is always excepted, and a generation
+passes before we can ensure accuracy.
+Common report and outward seeming
+are bad copies of the reality, as the
+initiated know it. Even of a thing
+so memorable as the war of 1870, the
+true cause is still obscure; much that
+we believed has been scattered to the
+winds in the last six months, and further
+revelations by important witnesses are
+about to appear. The use of history turns
+far more on certainty than on abundance
+of acquired information.</p>
+
+<p>Beyond the question of certainty is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+question of detachment. The process by
+which principles are discovered and appropriated
+is other than that by which, in
+practice, they are applied; and our most
+sacred and disinterested convictions ought
+to take shape in the tranquil regions of
+the air, above the tumult and the tempest
+of active life.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> For a man is justly despised
+who has one opinion in history and
+another in politics, one for abroad and
+another at home, one for opposition and
+another for office. History compels us
+to fasten on abiding issues, and rescues
+us from the temporary and transient.
+Politics and history are interwoven,
+but are not commensurate. Ours is a
+domain that reaches farther than affairs of
+state, and is not subject to the jurisdiction
+of governments. It is our function to
+keep in view and to command the movement<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+of ideas, which are not the effect but
+the cause of public events;<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> and even to
+allow some priority to ecclesiastical history
+over civil, since, by reason of the graver
+issues concerned, and the vital consequences
+of error, it opened the way in
+research, and was the first to be treated by
+close reasoners and scholars of the higher
+rank.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>In the same manner, there is wisdom
+and depth in the philosophy which always
+considers the origin and the germ, and<span class="sidenote">NOT GOVERNED BY NATIONAL CAUSES</span>
+glories in history as one consistent epic.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>
+Yet every student ought to know that
+mastery is acquired by resolved limitation.
+And confusion ensues from the theory of
+Montesquieu and of his school, who,
+adapting the same term to things unlike,
+insist that freedom is the primitive condition
+of the race from which we are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+sprung.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> If we are to account mind not
+matter, ideas not force, the spiritual
+property that gives dignity, and grace, and
+intellectual value to history, and its action
+on the ascending life of man, then we shall
+not be prone to explain the universal by
+the national, and civilisation by custom.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>
+A speech of Antigone, a single sentence of
+Socrates, a few lines that were inscribed on
+an Indian rock before the Second Punic
+War, the footsteps of a silent yet prophetic
+people who dwelt by the Dead Sea, and
+perished in the fall of Jerusalem, come
+nearer to our lives than the ancestral
+wisdom of barbarians who fed their swine
+on the Hercynian acorns.</p>
+
+
+<p>For our present purpose, then, I describe
+as modern history that which begins
+four hundred years ago, which is marked<span class="sidenote">MEDI&AElig;VAL LIMIT OF MODERN HISTORY</span>
+off by an evident and intelligible line from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+the time immediately preceding, and displays
+in its course specific and distinctive
+characteristics of its own.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> The modern
+age did not proceed from the medi&aelig;val by
+normal succession, with outward tokens
+of legitimate descent. Unheralded, it
+founded a new order of things, under a
+law of innovation, sapping the ancient
+reign of continuity. In those days
+Columbus subverted the notions of the
+world, and reversed the conditions of production,
+wealth and power; in those days,
+Machiavelli released government from the
+restraint of law; Erasmus diverted the
+current of ancient learning from profane
+into Christian channels; Luther broke the
+chain of authority and tradition at the
+strongest link; and Copernicus erected an
+invincible power that set for ever the mark
+of progress upon the time that was to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+come. There is the same unbound originality
+and disregard for inherited sanctions
+in the rare philosophers as in the discovery
+of Divine Right, and the intruding Imperialism
+of Rome. The like effects are
+visible everywhere, and one generation
+beheld them all. It was an awakening of
+new life; the world revolved in a different
+orbit, determined by influences unknown
+before. After many ages persuaded of
+the headlong decline and impending dissolution
+of society,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> and governed by usage
+and the will of masters who were in their
+graves, the sixteenth century went forth
+armed for untried experience, and ready
+to watch with hopefulness a prospect of
+incalculable change.</p>
+
+<p>That forward movement divides it
+broadly from the older world; and the
+unity of the new is manifest in the universal
+spirit of investigation and discovery<span class="sidenote">INFLUENCE OF KNOWLEDGE ON MODERN HISTORY</span>
+which did not cease to operate, and withstood
+the recurring efforts of reaction,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+until, by the advent of the reign of general
+ideas which we call the Revolution, it at
+length prevailed.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> This successive deliverance
+and gradual passage, for good
+and evil, from subordination to independence
+is a phenomenon of primary
+import to us, because historical science has
+been one of its instruments.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> If the Past
+has been an obstacle and a burden, knowledge
+of the Past is the safest and the
+surest emancipation. And the earnest
+search for it is one of the signs that distinguish
+the four centuries of which I speak
+from those that went before. The middle
+ages, which possessed good writers of
+contemporary narrative, were careless and
+impatient of older fact. They became<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+content to be deceived, to live in a twilight
+of fiction, under clouds of false
+witness, inventing according to convenience,
+and glad to welcome the forger
+and the cheat.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> As time went on,
+the atmosphere of accredited mendacity
+thickened, until, in the Renaissance, the
+art of exposing falsehood dawned upon
+keen Italian minds. It was then that
+history as we understand it began to be
+understood, and the illustrious dynasty of
+scholars arose to whom we still look both
+for method and material. Unlike the
+dreaming prehistoric world, ours knows the
+need and the duty to make itself master of
+the earlier times, and to forfeit nothing
+of their wisdom or their warnings,<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> and
+has devoted its best energy and treasure
+to the sovereign purpose of detecting error
+and vindicating entrusted truth.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p>In this epoch of full-grown history men<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+have not acquiesced in the given conditions
+of their lives. Taking little for<span class="sidenote">INTERNATIONAL IDEAS</span>
+granted they have sought to know the
+ground they stand on, and the road they
+travel, and the reason why. Over them,
+therefore, the historian has obtained an increasing
+ascendancy.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> The law of stability
+was overcome by the power of ideas, constantly
+varied and rapidly renewed;<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> ideas
+that give life and motion, that take wing
+and traverse seas and frontiers, making it
+futile to pursue the consecutive order of
+events in the seclusion of a separate
+nationality.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> They compel us to share the
+existence of societies wider than our own,
+to be familiar with distant and exotic
+types, to hold our march upon the loftier
+summits, along the central range, to live
+in the company of heroes, and saints, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+men of genius, that no single country
+could produce. We cannot afford wantonly<span class="sidenote">MEMORABLE MEN</span>
+to lose sight of great men and
+memorable lives, and are bound to store up
+objects for admiration as far as may be;<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a>
+for the effect of implacable research is constantly
+to reduce their number. No intellectual
+exercise, for instance, can be more
+invigorating than to watch the working of
+the mind of Napoleon, the most entirely
+known as well as the ablest of historic
+men. In another sphere, it is the
+vision of a higher world to be intimate
+with the character of F&eacute;nelon, the
+cherished model of politicians, ecclesiastics,
+and men of letters, the witness against
+one century and precursor of another, the
+advocate of the poor against oppression,
+of liberty in an age of arbitrary
+power, of tolerance in an age of persecution,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+of the humane virtues among men
+accustomed to sacrifice them to authority,<span class="sidenote">INDEPENDENT MINDS</span>
+the man of whom one enemy says that his
+cleverness was enough to strike terror,
+and another, that genius poured in torrents
+from his eyes. For the minds that are
+greatest and best alone furnish the instructive
+examples. A man of ordinary
+proportion or inferior metal knows not
+how to think out the rounded circle of
+his thought, how to divest his will of
+its surroundings and to rise above the
+pressure of time and race and circumstance,<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>
+to choose the star that guides
+his course, to correct, and test, and assay
+his convictions by the light within,<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> and,
+with a resolute conscience and ideal
+courage, to re-model and reconstitute the
+character which birth and education gave
+him.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+<p>For ourselves, if it were not the quest of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+the higher level and the extended horizon,
+international history would be imposed by<span class="sidenote">FOREIGN CONSTITUTIONS</span>
+the exclusive and insular reason that parliamentary
+reporting is younger than parliaments.
+The foreigner has no mystic
+fabric in his government, and no <i>arcanum
+imperii</i>. For him, the foundations have
+been laid bare; every motive and function
+of the mechanism is accounted for as
+distinctly as the works of a watch. But
+with our indigenous constitution, not made
+with hands or written upon paper, but
+claiming to develope by a law of organic
+growth; with our disbelief in the virtue of
+definitions and general principles and our
+reliance on relative truths, we can have
+nothing equivalent to the vivid and prolonged
+debates in which other communities
+have displayed the inmost secrets of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+political science to every man who can
+read. And the discussions of constituent
+assemblies, at Philadelphia, Versailles and
+Paris, at Cadiz and Brussels, at Geneva,
+Frankfort and Berlin, above nearly all,
+those of the most enlightened States in
+the American Union, when they have
+recast their institutions, are paramount
+in the literature of politics, and proffer
+treasures which at home we have never
+enjoyed.</p>
+
+<p>To historians the later part of their
+enormous subject is precious because it is
+inexhaustible. It is the best to know<span class="sidenote">RESOURCES OF MODERN HISTORY</span>
+because it is the best known and the most
+explicit. Earlier scenes stand out from a
+background of obscurity. We soon reach
+the sphere of hopeless ignorance and unprofitable
+doubt. But hundreds and even
+thousands of the moderns have borne<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+testimony against themselves, and may be
+studied in their private correspondence
+and sentenced on their own confession.
+Their deeds are done in the daylight.
+Every country opens its archives and
+invites us to penetrate the mysteries of
+State. When Hallam wrote his chapter
+on James II., France was the only
+Power whose reports were available.
+Rome followed, and the Hague; and then
+came the stores of the Italian States, and
+at last the Prussian and the Austrian
+papers, and partly those of Spain. Where
+Hallam and Lingard were dependent on
+Barillon, their successors consult the
+diplomacy of ten governments. The
+topics indeed are few on which the resources
+have been so employed that we
+can be content with the work done for us,
+and never wish it to be done over again.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+Part of the lives of Luther and Frederic,
+a little of the Thirty Years' War, much
+of the American Revolution and the<span class="sidenote">BEGINNING OF THE DOCUMENTARY AGE</span>
+French Restoration, the early years of
+Richelieu and Mazarin, and a few
+volumes of Mr. Gardiner, show here
+and there like Pacific islands in
+the ocean. I should not even venture
+to claim for Ranke, the real originator
+of the heroic study of records,
+and the most prompt and fortunate of
+European pathfinders, that there is one of
+his seventy volumes that has not been
+overtaken and in part surpassed. It is
+through his accelerating influence mainly
+that our branch of study has become progressive,
+so that the best master is quickly
+distanced by the better pupil.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> The
+Vatican archives alone, now made accessible
+to the world, filled 3,239 cases when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+they were sent to France; and they are not
+the richest. We are still at the beginning
+of the documentary age, which will tend
+to make history independent of historians,
+to develope learning at the expense of
+writing, and to accomplish a revolution
+in other sciences as well.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
+
+<p>To men in general I would justify the
+stress I am laying on modern history,
+neither by urging its varied wealth, nor the<span class="sidenote">MODERN HISTORY</span>
+rupture with precedent, nor the perpetuity
+of change and increase of pace, nor the
+growing predominance of opinion over
+belief, and of knowledge over opinion, but
+by the argument that it is a narrative told
+of ourselves, the record of a life which is
+our own, of efforts not yet abandoned to
+repose, of problems that still entangle the
+feet and vex the hearts of men. Every
+part of it is weighty with inestimable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+lessons that we must learn by experience
+and at a great price, if we know not how
+to profit by the example and teaching of
+those who have gone before us, in a
+society largely resembling the one we live
+in.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> Its study fulfils its purpose even if
+it only makes us wiser, without producing
+books, and gives us the gift of historical
+thinking, which is better than historical
+learning.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> It is a most powerful
+ingredient in the formation of character
+and the training of talent, and our historical
+judgments have as much to do with
+hopes of heaven as public or private conduct.
+Convictions that have been strained
+through the instances and the comparisons
+of modern times differ immeasurably in
+solidity and force from those which every
+new fact perturbs, and which are often little
+better than illusions or unsifted prejudice.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<p>The first of human concerns is religion,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+and it is the salient feature of the
+modern centuries. They are signalised as<span class="sidenote">A SCHOOL OF OPINION</span>
+the scene of Protestant developments.
+Starting from a time of extreme indifference,
+ignorance, and decline, they were at
+once occupied with that conflict which was
+to rage so long, and of which no man
+could imagine the infinite consequences.
+Dogmatic conviction&mdash;for I shun to speak
+of faith in connection with many characters
+of those days&mdash;dogmatic conviction rose
+to be the centre of universal interest, and
+remained down to Cromwell the supreme
+influence and motive of public policy. A
+time came when the intensity of prolonged
+conflict, when even the energy of antagonistic
+assurance, abated somewhat, and the
+controversial spirit began to make room
+for the scientific; and as the storm subsided,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+and the area of settled questions
+emerged, much of the dispute was abandoned
+to the serene and soothing touch<span class="sidenote">INFLUENCE OF THE RELIGIOUS ELEMENT</span>
+of historians, invested as they are with
+the prerogative of redeeming the cause
+of religion from many unjust reproaches,
+and from the graver evil of reproaches
+that are just. Ranke used to say that
+Church interests prevailed in politics until
+the Seven Years' War, and marked a
+phase of society that ended when the
+hosts of Brandenburg went into action
+at Leuthen, chanting their Lutheran
+hymns.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> That bold proposition would be
+disputed even if applied to the present
+age. After Sir Robert Peel had broken up
+his party, the leaders who followed him declared
+that no-popery was the only basis
+on which it could be reconstructed.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> On
+the other side may be urged that, in July<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+1870, at the outbreak of the French war,
+the only government that insisted on the
+abolition of the temporal power was
+Austria; and since then we have witnessed
+the fall of Castelar, because he attempted
+to reconcile Spain with Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after 1850 several of the most
+intelligent men in France, struck by the
+arrested increase of their own population<span class="sidenote">RELIGION</span>
+and by the telling statistics from
+Further Britain, foretold the coming preponderance
+of the English race. They
+did not foretell, what none could then
+foresee, the still more sudden growth
+of Prussia, or that the three most
+important countries of the globe would,
+by the end of the century, be those
+that chiefly belonged to the conquests of
+the Reformation. So that in Religion, as
+in so many things, the product of these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+centuries has favoured the new elements;
+and the centre of gravity, moving from the
+Mediterranean nations to the Oceanic, from
+the Latin to the Teuton, has also passed
+from the Catholic to the Protestant.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
+
+<p>Out of these controversies proceeded
+political as well as historical science. It
+was in the Puritan phase, before the restoration<span class="sidenote">THE CAUSE OF LIBERTY</span>
+of the Stuarts, that theology, blending
+with politics, effected a fundamental
+change. The essentially English reformation
+of the seventeenth century was less
+a struggle between churches than between
+sects, often subdivided by questions of
+discipline and self-regulation rather than
+by dogma. The sectaries cherished no
+purpose or prospect of prevailing over the
+nations; and they were concerned with
+the individual more than with the congregation,
+with conventicles, not with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+state-churches. Their view was narrowed,
+but their sight was sharpened. It appeared
+to them that governments and
+institutions are made to pass away, like
+things of earth, whilst souls are immortal;
+that there is no more proportion between
+liberty and power than between eternity
+and time; that, therefore, the sphere of
+enforced command ought to be restricted
+within fixed limits, and that which had
+been done by authority, and outward discipline,
+and organised violence, should
+be attempted by division of power, and
+committed to the intellect and the conscience
+of free men.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> Thus was exchanged
+the dominion of will over will for the
+dominion of reason over reason. The
+true apostles of toleration are not those
+who sought protection for their own beliefs,
+or who had none to protect; but men<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+to whom, irrespective of their cause, it
+was a political, a moral, and a theological<span class="sidenote">REVOLUTION</span>
+dogma, a question of conscience, involving
+both religion and policy.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> Such a man
+was Socinus; and others arose in the
+smaller sects&mdash;the Independent founder of
+the colony of Rhode Island, and the
+Quaker patriarch of Pennsylvania. Much
+of the energy and zeal which had laboured
+for authority of doctrine was employed for
+liberty of prophesying. The air was filled
+with the enthusiasm of a new cry; but the
+cause was still the same. It became a
+boast that religion was the mother of
+freedom, that freedom was the lawful off
+spring of religion; and this transmutation,
+this subversion of established forms of
+political life by the development of religious
+thought, brings us to the heart of my
+subject, to the significant and central<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+feature of the historic cycle before us.
+Beginning with the strongest religious<span class="sidenote">THE MODE OF LIBERTY</span>
+movement and the most refined despotism
+ever known, it has led to the superiority
+of politics over divinity in the life of
+nations, and terminates in the equal claim
+of every man to be unhindered by man in
+the fulfilment of duty to God<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a>&mdash;a doctrine
+laden with storm and havoc, which is
+the secret essence of the Rights of Man,
+and the indestructible soul of Revolution.</p>
+
+<p>When we consider what the adverse
+forces were, their sustained resistance,
+their frequent recovery, the critical moments
+when the struggle seemed for ever
+desperate, in 1685, in 1772, in 1808, it is no
+hyperbole to say that the progress of the
+world towards self-government would have
+been arrested but for the strength afforded
+by the religious motive in the seventeenth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+century. And this constancy of<span class="sidenote">PROGRESS</span>
+progress, of progress in the direction
+of organised and assured freedom, is
+the characteristic fact of modern history,
+and its tribute to the theory, of
+Providence.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> Many persons, I am well
+assured, would detect that this is a
+very old story, and a trivial commonplace,
+and would challenge proof that
+the world is making progress in aught
+but intellect, that it is gaining in freedom,
+or that increase in freedom is either a
+progress or a gain. Ranke, who was my
+own master, rejected the view that I
+have stated;<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> Comte, the master of better
+men, believed that we drag a lengthening
+chain under the gathered weight of the
+dead hand;<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> and many of our recent
+classics, Carlyle, Newman, Froude, were
+persuaded that there is no progress<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+justifying the ways of God to man, and
+that the mere consolidation of liberty is<span class="sidenote">THE MARK OF PROVIDENCE</span>
+like the motion of creatures whose advance
+is in the direction of their tails. They
+deem that anxious precaution against bad
+government is an obstruction to good,
+and degrades morality and mind by
+placing the capable at the mercy of the
+incapable, dethroning enlightened virtue
+for the benefit of the average man. They
+hold that great and salutary things are
+done for mankind by power concentrated,
+not by power balanced and cancelled
+and dispersed, and that the whig theory,
+sprung from decomposing sects, the theory
+that authority is legitimate only by virtue
+of its checks, and that the sovereign
+is dependent on the subject, is rebellion
+against the divine will manifested all
+down the stream of time.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>I state the objection not that we may
+plunge into the crucial controversy of a
+science that is not identical with ours,<span class="sidenote">CERTAINTY</span>
+but in order to make my drift clear by
+the defining aid of express contradiction.
+No political dogma is as serviceable to
+my purpose here as the historian's maxim
+to do the best he can for the other side,
+and to avoid pertinacity or emphasis on his
+own. Like the economic precept <i>Laissez-faire</i><a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a>
+which the eighteenth century
+derived from Colbert, it has been an
+important, if not a final step in the making
+of method. The strongest and most
+impressive personalities, it is true, like
+Macaulay, Thiers, and the two greatest of
+living writers, Mommsen and Treitschke,
+project their own broad shadow upon their
+pages. This is a practice proper to great
+men, and a great man may be worth several<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+immaculate historians. Otherwise there is
+virtue in the saying that a historian is seen
+at his best when he does not appear.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a>
+Better for us is the example of the Bishop<span class="sidenote">DEPENDENT ON RESERVE</span>
+of Oxford, who never lets us know what
+he thinks of anything but the matter
+before him; and of his illustrious French
+rival, Fustel de Coulanges, who said to
+an excited audience: &#8220;Do not imagine
+you are listening to me; it is history
+itself that speaks.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> We can found no
+philosophy on the observation of four
+hundred years, excluding three thousand.
+It would be an imperfect and a fallacious
+induction. But I hope that even this
+narrow and disedifying section of history
+will aid you to see that the action of
+Christ who is risen on mankind whom he
+redeemed fails not, but increases;<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> that
+the wisdom of divine rule appears not in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+the perfection but in the improvement
+of the world;<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> and that achieved liberty
+is the one ethical result that rests on
+the converging and combined conditions
+of advancing civilisation.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> Then you will
+understand what a famous philosopher said,
+that History is the true demonstration of
+Religion.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p>
+
+<p>But what do people mean who proclaim
+that liberty is the palm, and the prize,
+and the crown, seeing that it is an idea of<span class="sidenote">MEANING OF LIBERTY</span>
+which there are two hundred definitions,
+and that this wealth of interpretation has
+caused more bloodshed than anything,
+except theology? Is it Democracy as in
+France, or Federalism as in America, or
+the national independence which bounds
+the Italian view, or the reign of the fittest,
+which is the ideal of Germans?<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> I know
+not whether it will ever fall within my<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+sphere of duty to trace the slow progress
+of that idea through the chequered scenes
+of our history, and to describe how subtle
+speculations touching the nature of conscience
+promoted a nobler and more
+spiritual conception of the liberty that
+protects it,<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> until the guardian of rights
+developed into the guardian of duties
+which are the cause of rights,<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> and that
+which had been prized as the material
+safeguard for treasures of earth became
+sacred as security for things that are divine.
+All that we require is a workday key to
+history, and our present need can be
+supplied without pausing to satisfy philosophers.
+Without inquiring how far
+Sarasa or Butler, Kant or Vinet, is right
+as to the infallible voice of God in man,
+we may easily agree in this, that where
+absolutism reigned, by irresistible arms, concentrated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+possessions, auxiliary churches,<span class="sidenote">THE GROWTH OF REVOLUTION</span>
+and inhuman laws, it reigns no more; that
+commerce having risen against land,
+labour against wealth, the state against the
+forces dominant in society,<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> the division
+of power against the state, the thought of
+individuals against the practice of ages,
+neither authorities, nor minorities, nor
+majorities can command implicit obedience;
+and, where there has been long and
+arduous experience, a rampart of tried
+conviction and accumulated knowledge,<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a>
+where there is a fair level of general
+morality, education, courage, and self-restraint,
+there, if there only, a society
+may be found that exhibits the condition
+of life towards which, by elimination of
+failures, the world has been moving
+through the allotted space.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> You will
+know it by outward signs: Representation,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+the extinction of slavery, the reign of
+opinion, and the like; better still by less
+apparent evidences: the security of the
+weaker groups<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> and the liberty of conscience,
+which, effectually secured, secures
+the rest.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<p>Here we reach a point at which my
+argument threatens to abut on a contradiction.
+If the supreme conquests of
+society are won more often by violence
+than by lenient arts, if the trend and
+drift of things is towards convulsions and
+catastrophes,<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> if the world owes religious
+liberty to the Dutch Revolution, constitutional
+government to the English,
+federal republicanism to the American,
+political equality to the French and its
+successors,<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> what is to become of us,
+docile and attentive students of the absorbing
+Past? The triumph of the Revolutionist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+annuls the historian.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> By its
+authentic exponents, Jefferson and Siey&egrave;s,
+the Revolution of the last century repudiates<span class="sidenote">RENOVATION OF HISTORY BY REVOLUTION</span>
+history. Their followers renounced
+acquaintance with it, and were ready to
+destroy its records and to abolish its inoffensive
+professors. But the unexpected
+truth, stranger than fiction, is that this was
+not the ruin but the renovation of history.
+Directly and indirectly, by process of development
+and by process of reaction,
+an impulse was given which made it
+infinitely more effectual as a factor of
+civilisation than ever before, and a movement
+began in the world of minds which
+was deeper and more serious than the
+revival of ancient learning.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> The dispensation
+under which we live and labour
+consists first in the recoil from the
+negative spirit that rejected the law of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+growth, and partly in the endeavour to
+classify and adjust the revolution, and to
+account for it by the natural working
+of historic causes. The Conservative
+line of writers, under the name of the
+Romantic or Historical School, had its
+seat in Germany, looked upon the Revolution
+as an alien episode, the error of
+an age, a disease to be treated by the investigation
+of its origin, and strove to
+unite the broken threads and to restore the
+normal conditions of organic evolution.
+The Liberal School, whose home was
+France, explained and justified the Revolution
+as a true development, and the ripened
+fruit of all history.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> These are the two
+main arguments of the generation to
+which we owe the notion and the
+scientific methods that make history so
+unlike what it was to the survivors of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+last century. Severally, the innovators<span class="sidenote">USE OF UNPUBLISHED SOURCES</span>
+were not superior to the men of old.
+Muratori was as widely read, Tillemont as
+accurate, Leibniz as able, Fr&eacute;ret as acute,
+Gibbon as masterly in the craft of composite
+construction. Nevertheless, in the
+second quarter of this century, a new era
+began for historians.</p>
+
+<p>I would point to three things in particular,
+out of many, which constitute the
+amended order. Of the incessant deluge<span class="sidenote">INSUFFICIENCY OF BOOKS</span>
+of new and unsuspected matter I need
+say little. For some years, the secret
+archives of the papacy were accessible
+at Paris; but the time was not ripe,
+and almost the only man whom they
+availed was the archivist himself.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a>
+Towards 1830 the documentary studies
+began on a large scale, Austria leading the
+way. Michelet, who claims, towards 1836,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+to have been the pioneer,<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> was preceded
+by such rivals as Mackintosh, Bucholtz,
+and Mignet. A new and more productive
+period began thirty years later, when the
+war of 1859 laid open the spoils of Italy.
+Every country in succession has now
+allowed the exploration of its records, and
+there is more fear of drowning than of
+drought. The result has been that a
+lifetime spent in the largest collection
+of printed books would not suffice to train
+a real master of modern history. After he
+had turned from literature to sources, from
+Burnet to Pocock, from Macaulay to
+Madame Campana, from Thiers to the
+interminable correspondence of the Bonapartes,
+he would still feel instant need of
+inquiry at Venice or Naples, in the Ossuna
+library or at the Hermitage.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p>
+
+<p>These matters do not now concern us.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+For our purpose, the main thing to learn
+is not the art of accumulating material,<span class="sidenote">HISTORY RENEWED BY CRITICISM</span>
+but the sublimer art of investigating it,
+of discerning truth from falsehood, and
+certainty from doubt. It is by solidity
+of criticism more than by the plenitude
+of erudition, that the study of history
+strengthens, and straightens, and extends
+the mind.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> And the accession of the
+critic in the place of the indefatigable compiler,
+of the artist in coloured narrative,
+the skilled limner of character, the persuasive
+advocate of good, or other, causes,
+amounts to a transfer of government, to a
+change of dynasty, in the historic realm.
+For the critic is one who, when he lights
+on an interesting statement, begins by
+suspecting it. He remains in suspense
+until he has subjected his authority to
+three operations. First, he asks whether<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+he has read the passage as the author
+wrote it. For the transcriber, and the
+editor, and the official or officious censor
+on the top of the editor, have played
+strange tricks, and have much to answer
+for. And if they are not to blame, it may
+turn out that the author wrote his book
+twice over, that you can discover the first
+jet, the progressive variations, things
+added, and things struck out. Next is the
+question where the writer got his information.
+If from a previous writer, it can be
+ascertained, and the inquiry has to be repeated.
+If from unpublished papers, they
+must be traced, and when the fountain
+head is reached, or the track disappears,
+the question of veracity arises. The responsible
+writer's character, his position,
+antecedents, and probable motives have
+to be examined into; and this is what,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+in a different and adapted sense of the
+word, may be called the higher criticism,<span class="sidenote">CRITICAL STUDY OF EARLIER TIMES</span>
+in comparison with the servile and often
+mechanical work of pursuing statements
+to their root. For a historian has to be
+treated as a witness, and not believed unless
+his sincerity is established.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> The maxim
+that a man must be presumed to be innocent
+until his guilt is proved, was not made
+for him.</p>
+
+<p>For us then the estimate of authorities,
+the weighing of testimony, is more
+meritorious than the potential discovery
+of new matter.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> And modern history,
+which is the widest field of application,
+is not the best to learn our business in;
+for it is too wide, and the harvest has
+not been winnowed as in antiquity, and
+further on to the Crusades. It is better
+to examine what has been done for questions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+that are compact and circumscribed,
+such as the sources of Plutarch's <i>Pericles</i>,
+the two tracts on Athenian government,
+the origin of the epistle to Diognetus, the
+date of the life of St. Antony; and to
+learn from Schwegler how this analytical
+work began. More satisfying because
+more decisive has been the critical treatment
+of the medi&aelig;val writers, parallel
+with the new editions, on which incredible
+labour has been lavished, and of which we
+have no better examples than the prefaces
+of Bishop Stubbs. An important event in
+this series was the attack on Dino Compagni,
+which, for the sake of Dante,
+roused the best Italian scholars to a not
+unequal contest. When we are told that
+England is behind the Continent in
+critical faculty, we must admit that this is
+true as to quantity, not as to quality of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+work. As they are no longer living, I will<span class="sidenote">DEGREES OF IMPARTIALITY</span>
+say of two Cambridge professors, Lightfoot
+and Hort, that they were critical scholars
+whom neither Frenchman nor German has
+surpassed.</p>
+
+<p>The third distinctive note of the generation
+of writers who dug so deep a trench
+between history as known to our grandfathers
+and as it appears to us, is their
+dogma of impartiality. To an ordinary
+man the word means no more than
+justice. He considers that he may proclaim
+the merits of his own religion, of
+his prosperous and enlightened country, of
+his political persuasion, whether democracy,
+or liberal monarchy, or historic conservatism,
+without transgression or offence,
+so long as he is fair to the relative, though
+inferior merits of others, and never treats
+men as saints or as rogues for the side they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+take. There is no impartiality, he would
+say, like that of a hanging judge. The men
+who, with the compass of criticism in their
+hands, sailed the uncharted sea of original
+research, proposed a different view. History,
+to be above evasion or dispute, must stand
+on documents, not on opinions. They had
+their own notion of truthfulness, based on
+the exceeding difficulty of finding truth,
+and the still greater difficulty of impressing
+it when found. They thought it possible
+to write, with so much scruple, and
+simplicity, and insight, as to carry along
+with them every man of good will, and,
+whatever his feelings, to compel his assent.
+Ideas which, in religion and in politics,
+are truths, in history are forces. They
+must be respected; they must not be
+affirmed. By dint of a supreme reserve,
+by much self-control, by a timely and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+discreet indifference, by secrecy in the
+matter of the black cap, history might be
+lifted above contention, and made an
+accepted tribunal, and the same for all.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a>
+If men were truly sincere, and delivered<span class="sidenote">MORALITY THE SOLE RULE OF JUDGMENT</span>
+judgment by no canons but those of
+evident morality, then Julian would be described
+in the same terms by Christian and
+pagan, Luther by Catholic and Protestant,
+Washington by Whig and Tory, Napoleon
+by patriotic Frenchman and patriotic
+German.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p>
+
+<p>I speak of this school with reverence, for
+the good it has done, by the assertion of
+historic truth and of its legitimate authority
+over the minds of men. It provides a discipline
+which every one of us does well to
+undergo, and perhaps also well to relinquish.
+For it is not the whole truth. Lanfrey's
+essay on Carnot, Chuquet's wars of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+Revolution, Ropes's military histories,
+Roget's Geneva in the time of Calvin, will
+supply you with examples of a more robust
+impartiality than I have described. Renan
+calls it the luxury of an opulent and
+aristocratic society, doomed to vanish in
+an age of fierce and sordid striving. In
+our universities it has a magnificent and
+appointed refuge; and to serve its cause,
+which is sacred, because it is the cause of
+truth and honour, we may import a profitable
+lesson from the highly unscientific
+region of public life. There a man does
+not take long to find out that he is
+opposed by some who are abler and
+better than himself. And, in order to
+understand the cosmic force and the
+true connection of ideas, it is a source
+of power, and an excellent school of principle,
+not to rest until, by excluding the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+fallacies, the prejudices, the exaggerations
+which perpetual contention and the consequent<span class="sidenote">EXAMPLE OF RANKE</span>
+precautions breed, we have made out
+for our opponents a stronger and more
+impressive case than they present themselves.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a>
+Excepting one to which we are
+coming before I release you, there is
+no precept less faithfully observed by
+historians.</p>
+
+<p>Ranke is the representative of the age
+which instituted the modern study of
+history. He taught it to be critical, to be
+colourless, and to be new. We meet him
+at every step, and he has done more for us
+than any other man. There are stronger
+books than any one of his, and some may
+have surpassed him in political, religious,
+philosophic insight, in vividness of the
+creative imagination, in originality, elevation,
+and depth of thought; but by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+extent of important work well executed, by<span class="sidenote">SUPPRESSION OF OPINION</span>
+his influence on able men, and by the
+amount of knowledge which mankind
+receives and employs with the stamp
+of his mind upon it, he stands without a
+rival. I saw him last in 1877, when he
+was feeble, sunken, and almost blind, and
+scarcely able to read or write. He uttered
+his farewell with kindly emotion, and I
+feared that the next I should hear of him
+would be the news of his death. Two
+years later he began a Universal History
+which is not without traces of weakness,
+but which, composed after the age of
+eighty-three, and carried, in seventeen
+volumes, far into the Middle Ages, brings
+to a close the most astonishing career in
+literature.</p>
+
+<p>His course had been determined, in
+early life, by <i>Quentin Durward</i>. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+shock of the discovery that Scott's Lewis
+the Eleventh was inconsistent with the
+original in Commynes made him resolve
+that his object thenceforth should be above
+all things to follow, without swerving, and
+in stern subordination and surrender, the
+lead of his authorities. He decided
+effectually to repress the poet, the patriot,
+the religious or political partisan, to
+sustain no cause, to banish himself from
+his books, and to write nothing that would
+gratify his own feelings or disclose his
+private convictions.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> When a strenuous
+divine who, like him, had written on the
+Reformation, hailed him as a comrade,
+Ranke repelled his advances. &#8220;You,&#8221; he
+said, &#8220;are in the first place a Christian: I am
+in the first place a historian. There is a
+gulf between us.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> He was the first eminent
+writer who exhibited what Michelet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+calls <i>le d&eacute;sint&eacute;ressement des morts</i>. It
+was a moral triumph for him when he
+could refrain from judging, show that
+much might be said on both sides, and
+leave the rest to Providence.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> He would
+have felt sympathy with the two famous
+London physicians of our day, of whom<span class="sidenote">CRITICISM OF MODERN SOURCES</span>
+it is told that they could not make up
+their minds on a case and reported
+dubiously. The head of the family insisted
+on a positive opinion. They
+answered that they were unable to give
+one, but he might easily find fifty doctors
+who could.</p>
+
+<p>Niebuhr had pointed out that chroniclers
+who wrote before the invention
+of printing generally copied one predecessor
+at a time, and knew little
+about sifting or combining authorities.
+The suggestion became luminous in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+Ranke's hands, and with his light and dexterous
+touch he scrutinised and dissected
+the principal historians, from Machiavelli
+to the <i>M&eacute;moires d'un Homme d'&Eacute;tat</i>, with
+a rigour never before applied to moderns.
+But whilst Niebuhr dismissed the traditional
+story, replacing it with a construction
+of his own, it was Ranke's mission to
+preserve, not to undermine, and to set up
+masters whom, in their proper sphere, he
+could obey. The many excellent dissertations
+in which he displayed this art,
+though his successors in the next generation
+matched his skill and did still more
+thorough work, are the best introduction
+from which we can learn the technical
+process by which within living memory
+the study of modern history has been
+renewed. Ranke's contemporaries, weary
+of his neutrality and suspense, and of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+the useful but subordinate work that
+was done by beginners who borrowed his<span class="sidenote">METHOD TO BE LEARNT FROM SCIENCES</span>
+wand, thought that too much was made
+of these obscure preliminaries which a
+man may accomplish for himself, in the
+silence of his chamber, with less demand
+on the attention of the public.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> That may
+be reasonable in men who are practised in
+these fundamental technicalities. We who
+have to learn them, must immerse ourselves
+in the study of the great examples.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from what is technical, method is
+only the reduplication of common sense,
+and is best acquired by observing its use
+by the ablest men in every variety of intellectual
+employment.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> Bentham acknowledged
+that he learned less from his own
+profession than from writers like Linn&aelig;us
+and Cullen; and Brougham advised the
+student of Law to begin with Dante.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+Liebig described his <i>Organic Chemistry</i>
+as an application of ideas found in Mill's
+<i>Logic</i>, and a distinguished physician, not
+to be named lest he should overhear me,
+read three books to enlarge his medical
+mind; and they were Gibbon, Grote, and
+Mill. He goes on to say, &#8220;An educated
+man cannot become so on one study alone,
+but must be brought under the influence
+of natural, civil, and moral modes of
+thought.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> I quote my colleague's golden
+words in order to reciprocate them. If men
+of science owe anything to us, we may learn
+much from them that is essential.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> For
+they can show how to test proof, how to
+secure fulness and soundness in induction,
+how to restrain and to employ with safety
+hypothesis and analogy. It is they who
+hold the secret of the mysterious property
+of the mind by which error ministers to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+truth, and truth slowly but irrevocably prevails.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a>
+Theirs is the logic of discovery,<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a>
+the demonstration of the advance of knowledge
+and the development of ideas, which
+as the earthly wants and passions of men
+remain almost unchanged, are the charter
+of progress, and the vital spark in history.
+And they often give us invaluable counsel
+when they attend to their own subjects
+and address their own people. Remember
+Darwin, taking note only of those passages
+that raised difficulties in his way; the
+French philosopher complaining that his
+work stood still, because he found no more
+contradicting facts; Baer, who thinks error
+treated thoroughly, nearly as remunerative
+as truth, by the discovery of new objections;
+for, as Sir Robert Ball warns us,
+it is by considering objections that we
+often learn.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> Faraday declares that &#8220;in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+knowledge, that man only is to be condemned
+and despised who is not in a
+state of transition.&#8221; And John Hunter
+spoke for all of us, when he said: &#8220;Never
+ask me what I have said or what I have
+written; but if you will ask me what my
+present opinions are, I will tell you.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>From the first years of the century we
+have been quickened and enriched by
+contributors from every quarter. The<span class="sidenote">ALL ADOPT THE HISTORIC METHOD</span>
+jurists brought us that law of continuous
+growth which has transformed history
+from a chronicle of casual occurrences
+into the likeness of something organic.<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a>
+Towards 1820 divines began to recast
+their doctrines on the lines of development,
+of which Newman said, long after,
+that evolution had come to confirm it.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a>
+Even the Economists, who were practical
+men, dissolved their science into liquid<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+history, affirming that it is not an auxiliary,
+but the actual subject-matter of their inquiry.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a>
+Philosophers claim that, as early
+as 1804, they began to bow the metaphysical
+neck beneath the historical yoke.
+They taught that philosophy is only the
+amended sum of all philosophies, that
+systems pass with the age whose impress
+they bear,<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> that the problem is to focus
+the rays of wandering but extant truth,
+and that history is the source of philosophy,
+if not quite a substitute for it.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a>
+Comte begins a volume with the words
+that the preponderance of history over
+philosophy was the characteristic of the
+time he lived in.<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> Since Cuvier first
+recognised the conjunction between the
+course of inductive discovery and the
+course of civilization,<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> science had its share
+in saturating the age with historic ways<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+of thought, and subjecting all things to
+that influence for which the depressing<span class="sidenote">DANGER OF OBLIVION</span>
+names historicism and historical-mindedness
+have been devised.</p>
+
+<p>There are certain faults which are corrigible
+mental defects on which I ought
+to say a few denouncing words, because
+they are common to us all. First: the
+want of an energetic understanding of
+the sequence and real significance of
+events, which would be fatal to a practical
+politician, is ruin to a student of history
+who is the politician with his face turned
+backwards.<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> It is playing at study, to
+see nothing but the unmeaning and unsuggestive
+surface, as we generally do.
+Then we have a curious proclivity to
+neglect, and by degrees to forget, what
+has been certainly known. An instance
+or two will explain my idea. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+most popular English writer relates how
+it happened in his presence that the title
+of Tory was conferred upon the Conservative
+party. For it was an opprobrious
+name at the time, applied to men for whom
+the Irish Government offered head-money;
+so that if I have made too sure of progress,
+I may at least complacently point
+to this instance of our mended manners.
+One day, Titus Oates lost his temper
+with the men who refused to believe
+him, and after looking about for a scorching
+imprecation, he began to call them
+Tories.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> The name remained; but its
+origin, attested by Defoe, dropped out
+of common memory, as if one party were
+ashamed of their godfather, and the other
+did not care to be identified with his cause
+and character. You all know, I am sure,
+the story of the news of Trafalgar, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+how, two days after it had arrived, Mr.
+Pitt, drawn by an enthusiastic crowd, went<span class="sidenote">PROPHECY OF PITT</span>
+to dine in the city. When they drank the
+health of the minister who had saved his
+country, he declined the praise. &#8220;England,&#8221;
+he said, &#8220;has saved herself by her
+own energy; and I hope that after having
+saved herself by her energy, she will save
+Europe by her example.&#8221; In 1814, when
+this hope had been realised, the last speech
+of the great orator was remembered, and
+a medal was struck upon which the
+whole sentence was engraved, in four
+words of compressed Latin: &#8220;<i>Seipsam
+virtute, Europam exemplo.</i>&#8221; Now it
+was just at the time of his last appearance
+in public that Mr. Pitt heard of the
+overwhelming success of the French in
+Germany, and of the Austrian surrender
+at Ulm. His friends concluded that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+contest on land was hopeless, and that
+it was time to abandon the Continent to
+the conqueror, and to fall back upon our
+new empire of the sea. Pitt did not
+agree with them. He said that Napoleon
+would meet with a check whenever he
+encountered a national resistance; and
+he declared that Spain was the place for
+it, and that then England would intervene.<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a>
+General Wellesley, fresh from
+India, was present. Ten years later,
+when he had accomplished that which
+Pitt had seen in the lucid prescience of
+his last days, he related at Paris what
+I scarcely hesitate to call the most astounding
+and profound prediction in all
+political history, where such things have
+not been rare.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>I shall never again enjoy the opportunity
+of speaking my thoughts to such an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+audience as this, and on so privileged an
+occasion a lecturer may well be tempted to
+bethink himself whether he knows of any<span class="sidenote">RULES FOR THE STUDY OF HISTORY</span>
+neglected truth, any cardinal proposition,
+that might serve as his selected epigraph,
+as a last signal, perhaps even as a target.
+I am not thinking of those shining precepts
+which are the registered property
+of every school; that is to say&mdash;Learn
+as much by writing as by reading; be
+not content with the best book; seek sidelights
+from the others; have no favourites;
+keep men and things apart; guard
+against the prestige of great names;<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a>
+see that your judgments are your own,
+and do not shrink from disagreement;
+no trusting without testing; be more
+severe to ideas than to actions;<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> do not
+overlook the strength of the bad cause
+or the weakness of the good;<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> never be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+surprised by the crumbling of an idol or
+the disclosure of a skeleton; judge talent
+at its best and character at its worst;
+suspect power more than vice,<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> and study
+problems in preference to periods; for
+instance: the derivation of Luther, the
+scientific influence of Bacon, the predecessors
+of Adam Smith, the medi&aelig;val
+masters of Rousseau, the consistency of
+Burke, the identity of the first Whig.
+Most of this, I suppose, is undisputed, and
+calls for no enlargement. But the weight
+of opinion is against me when I exhort
+you never to debase the moral currency or
+to lower the standard of rectitude, but to
+try others by the final maxim that governs
+your own lives, and to suffer no man and no
+cause to escape the undying penalty which
+history has the power to inflict on wrong.<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a>
+The plea in extenuation of guilt and mitigation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+of punishment is perpetual. At every
+step we are met by arguments which go to<span class="sidenote">JUSTIFICATION OF THE PAST</span>
+excuse, to palliate, to confound right and
+wrong, and reduce the just man to the
+level of the reprobate. The men who plot
+to baffle and resist us are, first of all,
+those who made history what it has become.
+They set up the principle that
+only a foolish Conservative judges the
+present time with the ideas of the Past;
+that only a foolish Liberal judges the
+Past with the ideas of the Present.<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a></p>
+
+<p>The mission of that school was to
+make distant times, and especially the
+middle ages, then most distant of all,
+intelligible and acceptable to a society
+issuing from the eighteenth century.
+There were difficulties in the way; and
+among others this, that, in the first
+fervour of the Crusades, the men who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+took the Cross, after receiving communion,
+heartily devoted the day to the extermination
+of Jews. To judge them by a
+fixed standard, to call them sacrilegious
+fanatics or furious hypocrites, was to
+yield a gratuitous victory to Voltaire.
+It became a rule of policy to praise the
+spirit when you could not defend the deed.
+So that we have no common code;
+our moral notions are always fluid; and
+you must consider the times, the class
+from which men sprang, the surrounding
+influences, the masters in their schools,
+the preachers in their pulpits, the
+movement they obscurely obeyed, and
+so on, until responsibility is merged in
+numbers, and not a culprit is left for
+execution.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> A murderer was no criminal
+if he followed local custom, if neighbours
+approved, if he was encouraged by official<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+advisers or prompted by just authority, if
+he acted for the reason of state or the pure
+love of religion, or if he sheltered himself
+behind the complicity of the Law. The
+depression of morality was flagrant; but
+the motives were those which have
+enabled us to contemplate with distressing<span class="sidenote">PHILOSOPHIES OF HISTORY</span>
+complacency the secret of unhallowed
+lives. The code that is greatly modified
+by time and place, will vary according to
+the cause. The amnesty is an artifice that
+enables us to make exceptions, to tamper
+with weights and measures, to deal unequal
+justice to friends and enemies.</p>
+
+<p>It is associated with that philosophy
+which Cato attributes to the gods. For
+we have a theory which justifies Providence
+by the event, and holds nothing so
+deserving as success, to which there
+can be no victory in a bad cause, prescription<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+and duration legitimate,<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> and
+whatever exists is right and reasonable;
+and as God manifests His will by
+that which He tolerates, we must conform
+to the divine decree by living to
+shape the Future after the ratified image
+of the Past.<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> Another theory, less confidently
+urged, regards History as our
+guide, as much by showing errors to evade
+as examples to pursue. It is suspicious
+of illusions in success, and, though there
+may be hope of ultimate triumph for what
+is true, if not by its own attraction, by the
+gradual exhaustion of error, it admits no
+corresponding promise for what is ethically
+right. It deems the canonisation of the
+historic Past more perilous than ignorance
+or denial, because it would perpetuate the
+reign of sin and acknowledge the sovereignty
+of wrong, and conceives it the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+part of real greatness to know how to
+stand and fall alone, stemming, for a lifetime,
+the contemporary flood.<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p>
+
+<p>Ranke relates, without adornment, that
+William III. ordered the extirpation of a
+Catholic clan, and scouts the faltering<span class="sidenote">DEBASING THE CURRENCY</span>
+excuse of his defenders. But when he
+comes to the death and character of the
+international deliverer, Glencoe is forgotten,
+the imputation of murder drops, like
+a thing unworthy of notice.<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> Johannes
+Mueller, a great Swiss celebrity, writes
+that the British Constitution occurred to
+somebody, perhaps to Halifax. This artless
+statement might not be approved
+by rigid lawyers as a faithful and
+felicitous indication of the manner of
+that mysterious growth of ages, from
+occult beginnings, that was never profaned
+by the invading wit of man;<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+it is less grotesque than it appears. Lord
+Halifax was the most original writer of
+political tracts in the pamphleteering crowd
+between Harrington and Bolingbroke; and
+in the Exclusion struggle he produced
+a scheme of limitations which, in substance,
+if not in form, foreshadowed the position
+of the monarchy in the later Hanoverian
+reigns. Although Halifax did not believe
+in the Plot,<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> he insisted that innocent
+victims should be sacrificed to content the
+multitude. Sir William Temple writes:&mdash;&#8220;We
+only disagreed in one point, which
+was the leaving some priests to the law
+upon the accusation of being priests only,
+as the House of Commons had desired;
+which I thought wholly unjust. Upon this
+point Lord Halifax and I had so sharp
+a debate at Lord Sunderland's lodgings,
+that he told me, if I would not concur in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+points which were so necessary for the
+people's satisfaction, he would tell everybody
+I was a Papist. And upon his
+affirming that the plot must be handled as
+if it were true, whether it were so or no,
+in those points that were so generally believed.&#8221;
+In spite of this accusing passage<span class="sidenote">SINFULNESS OF HISTORY</span>
+Macaulay, who prefers Halifax to all the
+statesmen of his age, praises him for his
+mercy: &#8220;His dislike of extremes, and a
+forgiving and compassionate temper which
+seems to have been natural to him, preserved
+him from all participation in the
+worst crimes of his time.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>If, in our uncertainty, we must often err,
+it may be sometimes better to risk excess in
+rigour than in indulgence, for then at least
+we do no injury by loss of principle. As
+Bayle has said, it is more probable that the
+secret motives of an indifferent action are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+bad than good;<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> and this discouraging
+conclusion does not depend upon theology,
+for James Mozley supports the sceptic
+from the other flank, with all the artillery
+of Tractarian Oxford. &#8220;A Christian,&#8221; he
+says, &#8220;is bound by his very creed to suspect
+evil, and cannot release himself....
+He sees it where others do not; his instinct
+is divinely strengthened; his eye is supernaturally
+keen; he has a spiritual insight,
+and senses exercised to discern.... He
+owns the doctrine of original sin; that doctrine
+puts him necessarily on his guard
+against appearances, sustains his apprehension
+under perplexity, and prepares
+him for recognising anywhere what he
+knows to be everywhere.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> There is
+a popular saying of Madame de Sta&euml;l,
+that we forgive whatever we really
+understand. The paradox has been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+judiciously pruned by her descendant,
+the Duke de Broglie, in the words:<span class="sidenote">SOVEREIGNTY OF THE MORAL CODE</span>
+&#8220;Beware of too much explaining, lest we
+end by too much excusing.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> History,
+says Froude, does teach that right and
+wrong are real distinctions. Opinions
+alter, manners change, creeds rise and
+fall, but the moral law is written on the
+tablets of eternity.<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> And if there are
+moments when we may resist the teaching
+of Froude, we have seldom the chance of
+resisting when he is supported by Mr.
+Goldwin Smith: &#8220;A sound historical
+morality will sanction strong measures in
+evil times; selfish ambition, treachery,
+murder, perjury, it will never sanction in
+the worst of times, for these are the things
+that make times evil.&mdash;Justice has been
+justice, mercy has been mercy, honour
+has been honour, good faith has been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+good faith, truthfulness has been truthfulness
+from the beginning.&#8221; The
+doctrine that, as Sir Thomas Browne
+says, morality is not ambulatory,<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> is expressed
+as follows by Burke, who, when
+true to himself, is the most intelligent of our
+instructors: &#8220;My principles enable me to
+form my judgment upon men and actions
+in history, just as they do in common life;
+and are not formed out of events and
+characters, either present or past. History
+is a preceptor of prudence, not of principles.
+The principles of true politics are those
+of morality enlarged; and I neither now
+do, nor ever will admit of any other.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p>
+
+<p>Whatever a man's notions of these later
+centuries are, such, in the main, the man
+himself will be. Under the name of History,
+they cover the articles of his philosophic,
+his religious, and his political<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+creed.<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> They give his measure; they
+denote his character: and, as praise is the
+shipwreck of historians, his preferences<span class="sidenote">HISTORY AND CHARACTER</span>
+betray him more than his aversions.
+Modern history touches us so nearly, it
+is so deep a question of life and death,
+that we are bound to find our own way
+through it, and to owe our insight to
+ourselves. The historians of former ages,
+unapproachable for us in knowledge and
+in talent, cannot be our limit. We have
+the power to be more rigidly impersonal,
+disinterested and just than they; and to
+learn from undisguised and genuine records
+to look with remorse upon the past,
+and to the future with assured hope of
+better things; bearing this in mind, that
+if we lower our standard in history, we
+cannot uphold it in Church or State.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="NOTES" id="NOTES"></a>NOTES</h2>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> No political conclusions of any value for practice
+can be arrived at by direct experience. All true
+political science is, in one sense of the phrase, <i>a priori</i>,
+being deduced from the tendencies of things, tendencies
+known either through our general experience
+of human nature, or as the result of an analysis of the
+course of history, considered as a progressive evolution.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Mill</span>,
+<i>Inaugural Address</i>, 51.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Contemporary history is, in Dr. Arnold's opinion,
+more important than either ancient or modern; and
+in fact superior to it by all the superiority of the end
+to the means.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Seeley</span>, <i>Lectures and Essays</i>, 306.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The law of all progress is one and the same, the
+evolution of the simple into the complex by successive
+differentiations.&mdash;<i>Edinburgh Review</i>, clvii. 428. Die
+Entwickelung der V&ouml;lker vollzieht sich nach zwei
+Gesetzen. Das erste Gesetz ist das der Differenzierung.
+Die primitiven Einrichtungen sind einfach und einheitlich,
+die der Civilisation zusammengesetzt und
+geteilt, und die Arbeitsteilung nimmt best&auml;ndig zu.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Sickel</span>,
+<i>Goettingen Gelehrte Anzeigen</i>, 1890, 563.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Nous risquons toujours d'&ecirc;tre influenc&eacute;s par les<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+pr&eacute;jug&eacute;s de notre &eacute;poque; mais nous sommes libres
+des pr&eacute;jug&eacute;s particuliers aux &eacute;poques ant&eacute;rieures.&mdash;<span class="smcap">E.
+Naville</span>, <i>Christianisme de F&eacute;nelon</i>, 9.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> La nature n'est qu'un &eacute;cho de l'esprit. L'id&eacute;e
+est la m&egrave;re du fait, elle fa&ccedil;onne graduellement le
+monde &agrave; son image.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Feuchtersleben</span>, <i>in</i> <span class="smcap">Caro</span>,
+<i>Nouvelles &Eacute;tudes Morales</i>, 132. Il n'est pas d'&eacute;tude
+morale qui vaille l'histoire d'une id&eacute;e.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Laboulaye</span>,
+<i>Libert&eacute; Religieuse</i>, 25.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Il y a des savants qui raillent le sentiment religieux.
+Ils ne savent pas que c'est &agrave; ce sentiment, et
+par son moyen, que la science historique doit d'avoir
+pu sortir de l'enfance.... Depuis des si&egrave;cles les &acirc;mes
+ind&eacute;pendantes discutaient les textes et les traditions
+de l'&eacute;glise, quand les lettr&eacute;s n'avaient pas encore eu
+l'id&eacute;e de porter un regard critique sur les textes de
+l'antiquit&eacute; mondaine.&mdash;<i>La France Protestante</i>, ii. 17.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> In our own history, above all, every step in advance
+has been at the same time a step backwards.
+It has often been shown how our latest constitution
+is, amidst all external differences, essentially the same
+as our earliest, how every struggle for right and freedom,
+from the thirteenth century onwards, has simply
+been a struggle for recovering something old.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Freeman</span>,
+<i>Historical Essays</i>, iv. 253. Nothing but a
+thorough knowledge of the social system, based
+upon a regular study of its growth, can give us the
+power we require to affect it.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Harrison</span>, <i>Meaning of
+History</i>, 19. Eine Sache wird nur v&ouml;llig auf dem
+Wege verstanden, wie sie selbst entsteht.&mdash;In dem
+genetischen Verfahren sind die Gr&uuml;nde der Sache,
+auch die Gr&uuml;nde des Erkennens.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Trendelenburg</span>,
+<i>Logische Untersuchungen</i>, ii. 395, 388.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Une telle libert&eacute; ... n'a rien de commun avec
+le savant syst&egrave;me de garanties qui fait libres les peuples
+modernes.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Boutmy</span>, <i>Annales des Sciences Politiques</i>,
+i. 157. Les trois grandes r&eacute;formes qui ont renouvel&eacute;
+l'Angleterre, la libert&eacute; religieuse, la r&eacute;forme parlementaire,
+et la libert&eacute; &eacute;conomique, ont &eacute;t&eacute; obtenues
+sous la pression des organisations extra-constitutionnelles.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ostrogorski</span>,
+<i>Revue Historique</i>, lii. 272.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> The question which is at the bottom of all
+constitutional struggles, the question between the
+national will and the national law.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Gardiner</span>,
+<i>Documents</i>, xviii. Religion, considered simply as the
+principle which balances the power of human opinion,
+which takes man out of the grasp of custom and
+fashion, and teaches him to refer himself to a higher
+tribunal, is an infinite aid to moral strength and
+elevation.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Channing</span>, <i>Works</i>, iv. 83. Je tiens que
+le pass&eacute; ne suffit jamais au pr&eacute;sent. Personne n'est
+plus dispos&eacute; que moi &agrave; profiter de ses le&ccedil;ons; mais
+en m&ecirc;me temps, je le demande, le pr&eacute;sent ne fournit-il
+pas toujours les indications qui lui sont propres?&mdash;<span class="smcap">Mol&eacute;</span>,
+<i>in</i> <span class="smcap">Falloux</span>, <i>&Eacute;tudes et Souvenirs</i>, 130. Admirons
+la sagesse de nos p&egrave;res, et tachons de l'imiter, en
+faisant ce qui convient &agrave; notre si&egrave;cle.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Galiani</span>,
+<i>Dialogues</i>, 40.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Ceterum in legendis Historiis malim te ductum
+animi, quam anxias leges sequi. Nullae sunt, quae
+non magnas habeant utilitates; et melius haerent,
+quae libenter legimus. In universum tamen, non
+incipere ab antiquissimis, sed ab his, quae nostris
+temporibus nostraeque notitiae propius cohaerent, ac
+paulatim deinde in remotiora eniti, magis &egrave; re arbitror.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Grotius</span>,
+<i>Epistol&aelig;</i>, 18.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> The older idea of a law of degeneracy, of a &#8220;fatal
+drift towards the worse,&#8221; is as obsolete as astrology or
+the belief in witchcraft. The human race has become
+hopeful, sanguine.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Seeley</span>, <i>Rede Lecture</i>, 1887.
+<i>Fortnightly Review</i>, July, 1887, 124.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Formuler des id&eacute;es g&eacute;n&eacute;rales, c'est changer le
+salp&ecirc;tre en poudre.&mdash;<span class="smcap">A. de Musset</span>, <i>Confessions d'un
+Enfant du Si&egrave;cle</i>, 15. Les r&eacute;volutions c'est l'av&egrave;nement
+des id&eacute;es lib&eacute;rales. C'est presque toujours par les
+r&eacute;volutions qu'elles pr&eacute;valent et se fondent, et quand
+les id&eacute;es lib&eacute;rales en sont v&eacute;ritablement le principe et
+le but, quand elles leur ont donn&eacute; naissance, et quand
+elles les couronnent &agrave; leur dernier jour, alors ces
+r&eacute;volutions sont l&eacute;gitimes.&mdash;<span class="smcap">R&eacute;musat</span>, 1839, in
+<i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, 1875, vi. 335. Il y a m&ecirc;me
+des personnes de pi&eacute;t&eacute; qui prouvent par raison
+qu'il faut renoncer &agrave; la raison; que ce n'est point
+la lumi&egrave;re, mais la foi seule qui doit nous conduire,
+et que l'ob&eacute;issance aveugle est la principale vertu des
+chr&eacute;tiens. La paresse des inf&eacute;rieurs et leur esprit
+flatteur s'accommode souvent de cette vertu pr&eacute;tendue,
+et l'orgueil de ceux qui commandent en est
+toujours tr&egrave;s content. De sorte qu'il se trouvera peut-&ecirc;tre
+des gens qui seront scandalis&eacute;s que je fasse cet
+honneur &agrave; la raison, de l'&eacute;lever au-dessus de toutes les
+puissances, et qui s'imagineront que je me r&eacute;volte contre
+les autorit&eacute;s l&eacute;gitimes &agrave; cause que je prends son parti et
+que je soutiens que c'est &agrave; elle &agrave; d&eacute;cider et &agrave; regner.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Malebranche</span>,
+<i>Morale</i>, i. 2, 13. That great statesman
+(Mr. Pitt) distinctly avowed that the application of
+philosophy to politics was at that time an innovation,
+and that it was an innovation worthy to be adopted.
+He was ready to make the same avowal in the present
+day which Mr. Pitt had made in 1792.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Canning</span>,
+June 1, 1827. <i>Parliamentary Review</i>, 1828, 71.
+American history knows but one avenue of success in
+American legislation, freedom from ancient prejudice.
+The best lawgivers in our colonies first became as
+little children.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Bancroft</span>, <i>History of the United
+States</i>, i. 494.&mdash;Every American, from Jefferson and
+Gallatin down to the poorest squatter, seemed to
+nourish an idea that he was doing what he could to
+overthrow the tyranny which the past had fastened
+on the human mind.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Adams</span>, <i>History of the United
+States</i>, i. 175.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> The greatest changes of which we have had
+experience as yet are due to our increasing knowledge
+of history and nature. They have been produced by
+a few minds appearing in three or four favoured
+nations, in comparatively a short period of time.
+May we be allowed to imagine the minds of men
+everywhere working together during many ages for the
+completion of our knowledge? May not the increase
+of knowledge transfigure the world?&mdash;<span class="smcap">Jowett</span>,
+<i>Plato</i>, i. 414. Nothing, I believe, is so likely to beget
+in us a spirit of enlightened liberality, of Christian
+forbearance, of large-hearted moderation, as the
+careful study of the history of doctrine and the
+history of interpretation.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Perowne</span>, <i>Psalms</i>, i. p. xxxi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Ce n'est gu&egrave;re avant la seconde moiti&eacute; du XVII<sup>e</sup>
+si&egrave;cle qu'il devint impossible de soutenir l'authenticit&eacute;
+des fausses d&eacute;cr&eacute;tales, des Constitutions apostoliques,
+des R&eacute;cognitions Cl&eacute;mentines, du faux Ignace, du
+pseudo-Dionys, et de l'immense fatras d'&oelig;uvres
+anonymes ou pseudonymes qui grossissait souvent
+du tiers ou de la moiti&eacute; l'h&eacute;ritage litt&eacute;raire des
+auteurs les plus consid&eacute;rables.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Duchesne</span>, <i>T&eacute;moins
+ant&eacute;nic&eacute;ens de la Trinit&eacute;</i>, 1883, 36.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> A man who does not know what has been thought
+by those who have gone before him is sure to set an
+undue value upon his own ideas.&mdash;<span class="smcap">M. Pattison</span>,
+<i>Memoirs</i>, 78.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Travailler &agrave; discerner, dans cette discipline, le
+solide d'avec le frivole, le vrai d'avec le vraisemblable,
+la science d'avec l'opinion, ce qui forme le jugement
+d'avec ce qui ne fait que charger la m&eacute;moire.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lamy</span>,
+<i>Connoissance de soi-m&ecirc;me</i>, v. 459.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> All our hopes of the future depend on a sound
+understanding of the past.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Harrison</span>, <i>The Meaning
+of History</i>, 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> The real history of mankind is that of the slow
+advance of resolved deed following laboriously just
+thought; and all the greatest men live in their purpose
+and effort more than it is possible for them to
+live in reality.&mdash;The things that actually happened
+were of small consequence&mdash;the thoughts that were
+developed are of infinite consequence.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ruskin</span>.
+Facts are the mere dross of history. It is from the
+abstract truth which interpenetrates them, and lies
+latent among them like gold in the ore, that the
+mass derives its value.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Macaulay</span>, <i>Works</i>, v. 131.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Die Gesetze der Geschichte sind eben die
+Gesetze der ganzen Menschheit, gehen nicht in die
+Geschicke eines Volkes, einer Generation oder gar
+eines Einzelnen auf. Individuen und Geschlechter,
+Staaten und Nationen, k&ouml;nnen zerst&auml;uben, die Menschheit
+bleibt.&mdash;<span class="smcap">A. Schmidt</span>, <i>Z&uuml;richer Monatschrift</i>.
+i. 45.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Le grand p&eacute;ril des &acirc;ges d&eacute;mocratiques, soyez-en
+s&ucirc;r, c'est la destruction ou l'affaiblissement excessif
+des parties du corps social en pr&eacute;sence du tout.
+Tout ce qui rel&egrave;ve de nos jours l'id&eacute;e de l'individu est
+sain.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Tocqueville</span>, Jan. 3, 1840, <i>&OElig;uvres</i>, vii. 97.
+En France, il n'y a plus d'hommes. On a syst&eacute;matiquement
+tu&eacute; l'homme au profit du peuple, des masses,
+comme disent nos l&eacute;gislateurs &eacute;cervel&eacute;s. Puis un
+beau jour, on s'est aper&ccedil;u que ce peuple n'avait
+jamais exist&eacute; qu'en projet, que ces masses &eacute;taient un
+troupeau mi-partie de moutons et de tigres. C'est une
+triste histoire. Nous avons &agrave; relever l'&acirc;me humaine
+contre l'aveugle et brutale tyrannie des multitudes.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lanfrey</span>,
+March 23, 1855. <span class="smcap">M. du Camp</span>, <i>Souvenirs
+Litt&eacute;raires</i>, ii. 273. C'est le propre de la vertu d'&ecirc;tre
+invisible, m&ecirc;me dans l'histoire, &agrave; tout autre &oelig;il que
+celui de la conscience.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Vacherot</span>, <i>Comptes Rendus
+de l'Institut</i>, lxix. 319. Dans l'histoire o&ugrave; la bont&eacute;
+est la perle rare, qui a &eacute;t&eacute; bon passe presque avant
+qui a &eacute;t&eacute; grand.&mdash;<span class="smcap">V. Hugo</span>, <i>Les Mis&eacute;rables</i>, vii.
+46. Grosser Maenner Leben und Tod der Wahrheit
+gemaess mit Liebe zu schildern, ist zu allen Zeiten
+herzerhebend; am meisten aber dann, wenn im
+Kreislauf der irdischen Dinge die Sterne wieder
+aehnlich stehen wie damals als sie unter uns lebten.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lasaulx</span>,
+<i>Sokrates</i>, 3. Instead of saying that the
+history of mankind is the history of the masses, it
+would be much more true to say that the history of
+mankind is the history of its great men.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Kingsley</span>,
+<i>Lectures</i>, 329.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Le g&eacute;nie n'est que la plus compl&egrave;te &eacute;mancipation
+de toutes les influences de temps, de m&oelig;urs, et de
+pays.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Nisard</span>, <i>Souvenirs</i>, ii. 43.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Meine kritische Richtung zieht mich in der
+Wissenschaft durchaus zur Kritik meiner eigenen
+Gedanken hin, nicht zu der der Gedanken Anderer.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Rothe</span>,
+<i>Ethik</i>, i., p. xi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> When you are in young years the whole mind is,
+as it were, fluid, and is capable of forming itself into
+any shape that the owner of the mind pleases to order it
+to form itself into.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Carlyle</span>, <i>On the Choice of Books</i>,
+131. Nach allem erscheint es somit unzweifelhaft
+als eine der psychologischen Voraussetzungen des
+Strafrechts, ohne welche der Zurechnungsbegriff nicht
+haltbar w&auml;re, dass der Mensch f&uuml;r seinen Charakter
+verantwortlich ist und ihn muss ab&auml;ndern k&ouml;nnen.&mdash;<span class="smcap">R&uuml;melin</span>,
+<i>Reden und Aufs&auml;tze</i>, ii., 60. An der tiefen
+und verborgenen Quelle, woraus der Wille entspringt,
+an diesem Punkt, nur hier steht die Freiheit, und
+f&uuml;hrt das Steuer und lenkt den Willen. Wer nicht
+bis zu dieser Tiefe in sich einkehren und seinen
+nat&uuml;rlichen Charakter von hier aus bemeistern kann,
+der hat nicht den Gebrauch seiner Freiheit, der ist
+nicht frei, sondern unterworfen dem Triebwerk seiner
+Interessen, und dadurch in der Gewalt des Weltlaufs,
+worin jede Begebenheit und jede Handlung eine
+nothwendige Folge ist aller vorhergehenden.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Fischer</span>,
+<i>Problem der Freiheit</i>, 27.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> I must regard the main duty of a Professor to
+consist, not simply in communicating information, but
+in doing this in such a manner, and with such an
+accompaniment of subsidiary means, that the information
+he conveys may be the occasion of awakening
+his pupils to a vigorous and varied exertion of
+their faculties.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Sir W. Hamilton</span>, <i>Lectures</i>, i. 14.
+No great man really does his work by imposing his
+maxims on his disciples, he evokes their life. The
+pupil may become much wiser than his instructor, he
+may not accept his conclusions, but he will own, &#8220;You
+awakened me to be myself, for that I thank you.&#8221;&mdash;<span class="smcap">Maurice</span>,
+<i>The Conscience</i>, 7, 8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Ich sehe die Zeit kommen, wo wir die neuere
+Geschichte nicht mehr auf die Berichte selbst nicht
+der gleichzeitigen Historiker, ausser in so weit
+ihnen neue originale Kenntniss beiwohnte, geschweige
+denn auf die weiter abgeleiteten Bearbeitungen zu
+gr&uuml;nden haben, sondern aus den Relationen der
+Augenzeugen und der &auml;chten und unmittelbarsten Urkunden
+aufbauen werden.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ranke</span>, <i>Reformation</i>,
+<i>Preface</i>, 1838. Ce qu'on a trouv&eacute; et mis en &oelig;uvre est
+consid&eacute;rable en soi: c'est peu de chose au prix de ce
+qui reste &agrave; trouver et &agrave; mettre en &oelig;uvre.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Aulard</span>,
+<i>&Eacute;tudes sur la R&eacute;volution</i>, 21.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> N'attendez donc pas les le&ccedil;ons de l'exp&eacute;rience;
+elles co&ucirc;tent trop cher aux nations.&mdash;<span class="smcap">O. Barrot</span>,
+<i>M&eacute;moires</i>, ii. 435. Il y a des le&ccedil;ons dans tous les temps,
+pour tous les temps; et celles qu'on emprunte &agrave; des
+ennemis ne sont pas les moins pr&eacute;cieuses.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lanfrey</span>,
+<i>Napol&eacute;on</i>, v. p. ii. Old facts may always be fresh,
+and may give out a fresh meaning for each generation.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Maurice</span>,
+<i>Lectures</i>, 62. The object is to lead the
+student to attend to them; to make him take interest in
+history not as a mere narrative, but as a chain of causes
+and effects still unwinding itself before our eyes, and full
+of momentous consequences to himself and his
+descendants&mdash;an unremitting conflict between good
+and evil powers, of which every act done by any one of
+us, insignificant as we are, forms one of the incidents;
+a conflict in which even the smallest of us cannot
+escape from taking part, in which whoever does
+not help the right side is helping the wrong.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Mill</span>,
+<i>Inaugural Address</i>, 59.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> I hold that the degree in which Poets dwell in
+sympathy with the Past, marks exactly the degree of
+their poetical faculty.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Wordsworth</span> in <span class="smcap">C. Fox</span>,
+<i>Memoirs</i>, June, 1842. In all political, all social, all
+human questions whatever, history is the main resource
+of the inquirer.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Harrison</span>, <i>Meaning of History</i>, 15.
+There are no truths which more readily gain the assent
+of mankind, or are more firmly retained by them, than
+those of an historical nature, depending upon the
+testimony of others.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Priestley</span>, <i>Letters to French
+Philosophers</i>, 9. Improvement consists in bringing our
+opinions into nearer agreement with facts; and we
+shall not be likely to do this while we look at facts
+only through glasses coloured by those very opinions.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Mill</span>,
+<i>Inaugural Address</i>, 25.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> He who has learnt to understand the true character
+and tendency of many succeeding ages is not likely
+to go very far wrong in estimating his own.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lecky</span>,
+<i>Value of History</i>, 21. C'est &agrave; l'histoire qu'il faut se
+prendre, c'est le fait que nous devons interroger, quand
+l'id&eacute;e vacille et fuit &agrave; nos yeux.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Michelet</span>, <i>Disc.
+d'Ouverture</i>, 263. C'est la loi des faits telle qu'elle
+se manifeste dans leur succession. C'est la r&egrave;gle de
+conduite donn&eacute;e par la nature humaine et indiqu&eacute;e par
+l'histoire. C'est la logique, mais cette logique qui ne
+fait qu'un avec l'encha&icirc;nement des choses. C'est
+l'enseignement de l'exp&eacute;rience.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Scherer</span>, <i>M&eacute;langes</i>,
+558. Wer seine Vergangenheit nicht als seine
+Geschichte hat und weiss wird und ist characterlos
+Wem ein Ereigniss sein Sonst pl&ouml;tzlich abreisst von
+seinem Jetzt wird leicht wurzellos.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Kliefoth</span>,
+<i>Rheinwalds Repertorium</i>, xliv. 20. La politique
+est une des meilleures &eacute;coles pour l'esprit. Elle force
+&agrave; chercher la raison de toutes choses, et ne permet pas
+cependant de la chercher hors des faits.&mdash;<span class="smcap">R&eacute;musat</span>,
+<i>Le Temps Pass&eacute;</i>, i. 31. It is an unsafe partition that
+divides opinions without principle from unprincipled
+opinions.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Coleridge</span>, <i>Lay Sermon</i>, 373.
+</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Wer nicht von drei tausend Jahren sich weiss Rechenschaft zu geben,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Bleib' im Dunkeln unerfahren, mag von Tag zu Tage leben!<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Goethe</span>.</p>
+
+<p>What can be rationally required of the student of
+philosophy is not a preliminary and absolute, but a
+gradual and progressive, abrogation of prejudices.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Sir
+W. Hamilton</span>, <i>Lectures</i>, iv. 92.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Die Schlacht bei Leuthen ist wohl die letzte, in
+welcher diese religi&ouml;sen Gegens&auml;tze entscheidend eingewirkt
+haben.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ranke</span>, <i>Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie</i>,
+vii. 70.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> The only real cry in the country is the proper
+and just old No Popery cry.&mdash;<i>Major Beresford</i>, July,
+1847. Unfortunately the strongest bond of union
+amongst them is an apprehension of Popery.&mdash;<i>Stanley</i>,
+September 12, 1847. The great Protectionist party
+having degenerated into a No Popery, No Jew Party,
+I am still more unfit now than I was in 1846 to lead
+it.&mdash;<i>G. Bentinck</i>, December 26, 1847. <i>Croker's
+Memoirs</i>, iii. 116, 132, 157.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> In the case of Protestantism, this constitutional
+instability is now a simple matter of fact, which has
+become too plain to be denied. The system is not
+fixed, but in motion; and the motion is for the time in
+the direction of complete self-dissolution.&mdash;We take it
+for a transitory scheme, whose breaking up is to make
+room in due time for another and far more perfect
+state of the Church.&mdash;The new order in which Protestantism
+is to become thus complete cannot be
+reached without the co-operation and help of
+Romanism.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Nevin</span>, <i>Mercersburg Review</i>, iv. 48.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Diese Heiligen waren es, die aus dem unmittelbaren
+Glaubensleben und den Grundgedanken der
+christlichen Freiheit zuerst die Idee allgemeiner
+Menschenrechte abgeleitet und rein von Selbstsucht
+vertheidigt haben.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Weingarten</span>, <i>Revolutionskirchen</i>,
+447. Wie selbst die Idee allgemeiner Menschenrechte,
+die in dem gemeinsamen Character der Ebenbildlichkeit
+Gottes gegr&uuml;ndet sind, erst durch das Christenthum
+zum Bewusstsein gebracht werden, w&auml;hrend jeder
+andere Eifer f&uuml;r politische Freiheit als ein mehr oder
+weniger selbsts&uuml;chtiger und beschr&auml;nkter sich erwiesen
+hat.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Neander</span>, <i>Pref. to Uhden's Wilberforce</i>, p. v.
+The rights of individuals and the justice due to them
+are as dear and precious as those of states; indeed
+the latter are founded on the former, and the great
+end and object of them must be to secure and support
+the rights of individuals, or else vain is government.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cushing</span>
+in <span class="smcap">Conway</span>, <i>Life of Paine</i>, i. 217. As it
+is owned the whole scheme of Scripture is not yet
+understood; so, if it ever comes to be understood,
+before the restitution of all things, and without miraculous
+interpositions, it must be in the same way as
+natural knowledge is come at&mdash;by the continuance
+and progress of learning and liberty.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Butler</span>,
+<i>Analogy</i>, ii. 3.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Comme les lois elles-m&ecirc;mes sont faillibles, et qu'il
+peut y avoir une autre justice que la justice &eacute;crite,
+les soci&eacute;t&eacute;s modernes ont voulu garantir les droits de
+la conscience &agrave; la poursuite d'une justice meilleure que
+celle qui existe; et l&agrave; est le fondement de ce qu'on
+appelle libert&eacute; de conscience, libert&eacute; d'&eacute;crire, libert&eacute;
+de pens&eacute;e.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Janet</span>, <i>Philosophie Contemporaine</i>, 308.
+Si la force mat&eacute;rielle a toujours fini par c&eacute;der &agrave;
+l'opinion, combien plus ne sera-t-elle pas contrainte de
+c&eacute;der &agrave; la conscience? Car la conscience, c'est l'opinion
+renforc&eacute;e par le sentiment de l'obligation.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Vinet</span>,
+<i>Libert&eacute; Religieuse</i>, 3.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Apr&egrave;s la volont&eacute; d'un homme, la raison d'&eacute;tat;
+apr&egrave;s la raison d'&eacute;tat, la religion; apr&egrave;s la religion, la
+libert&eacute;. Voil&agrave; toute la philosophie de l'histoire.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Flottes</span>,
+<i>La Souverainet&eacute; du Peuple</i>, 1851, 192. La
+r&eacute;partition plus &eacute;gale des biens et des droits dans ce
+monde est le plus grand objet que doivent se proposer
+ceux qui m&egrave;nent les affaires humaines. Je veux seulement
+que l'&eacute;galit&eacute; en politique consiste &agrave; &ecirc;tre &eacute;galement
+libre.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Tocqueville</span>, September 10, 1856. <i>M<sup>me</sup>.
+Swetchine</i>, i. 455. On peut concevoir une l&eacute;gislation
+tr&egrave;s simple, lorsqu'on voudra en &eacute;carter tout ce
+qui est arbitraire, ne consulter que les deux premi&egrave;res
+lois de la libert&eacute; et de la propri&eacute;t&eacute;, et ne point admettre
+de lois positives qui ne tirent leur raison de
+ces deux lois souveraines de la justice essentielle et
+absolue.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Letrosne</span>, <i>Vues sur la Justice Criminelle</i>, 16.
+Summa enim libertas est, ad optimum recta ratione
+cogi.&mdash;Nemo optat sibi hanc libertatem, volendi quae
+velit, sed potius volendi optima.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Leibniz</span>, <i>De Fato</i>.
+<span class="smcap">Trendelenburg</span>, <i>Beitr&auml;ge zur Philosophie</i>, ii. 190.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> All the world is, by the very law of its creation,
+in eternal progress; and the cause of all the evils of
+the world may be traced to that natural, but most
+deadly error of human indolence and corruption, that
+our business is to preserve and not to improve.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Arnold</span>,
+<i>Life</i>, i. 259. In whatever state of knowledge
+we may conceive man to be placed, his progress
+towards a yet higher state need never fear a check,
+but must continue till the last existence of society.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Herschel</span>,
+<i>Prel. Dis.</i>, 360. It is in the development
+of thought as in every other development; the
+present suffers from the past, and the future struggles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+hard in escaping from the present.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Max M&uuml;ller</span>,
+<i>Science of Thought</i>, 617. Most of the great positive
+evils of the world are in themselves removable, and
+will, if human affairs continue to improve, be in the
+end reduced within narrow limits. Poverty in any
+sense implying suffering may be completely extinguished
+by the wisdom of society combined with the
+good sense and providence of individuals.&mdash;All the
+grand sources, in short, of human suffering are in a
+great degree, many of them almost entirely, conquerable
+by human care and effort.&mdash;<span class="smcap">J.&nbsp;S. Mill</span>, <i>Utilitarianism</i>,
+21, 22. The ultimate standard of worth is
+personal worth, and the only progress that is worth
+striving after, the only acquisition that is truly good
+and enduring, is the growth of the soul.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Bixby</span>,
+<i>Crisis of Morals</i>, 210. La science, et l'industrie
+qu'elle produit, ont, parmi tous les autres enfants du
+g&eacute;nie de l'homme, ce privil&egrave;ge particulier, que leur vol
+non-seulement ne peut pas s'interrompre, mais qu'il
+s'acc&eacute;l&egrave;re sans cesse.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cuvier</span>, <i>Discours sur la Marche
+des Sciences</i>, 24 Avril, 1816. Aucune id&eacute;e parmi celles
+qui se r&eacute;f&egrave;rent &agrave; l'ordre des faits naturels, ne tient de
+plus pr&egrave;s &agrave; la famille des id&eacute;es religieuses que l'id&eacute;e
+du progr&egrave;s, et n'est plus propre &agrave; devenir le principe
+d'une sorte de foi religieuse pour ceux qui n'en ont
+pas d'autres. Elle a, comme la foi religieuse, la
+vertu de relever les &acirc;mes et les caract&egrave;res.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cournot</span>,
+<i>Marche des Id&eacute;es</i>, ii. 425. Dans le spectacle de
+l'humanit&eacute; errante, souffrante et travaillant toujours
+&agrave; mieux voir, &agrave; mieux penser, &agrave; mieux agir, &agrave;
+diminuer l'infirmit&eacute; de l'&ecirc;tre humain, &agrave; apaiser<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+l'inqui&eacute;tude de son c&oelig;ur, la science d&eacute;couvre une
+direction et un progr&egrave;s.&mdash;<span class="smcap">A. Sorel</span>, <i>Discours de
+R&eacute;ception</i>, 14. Le jeune homme qui commence son
+&eacute;ducation quinze ans apr&egrave;s son p&egrave;re, &agrave; une &eacute;poque
+o&ugrave; celui-ci, engag&eacute; dans une profession sp&eacute;ciale et
+active, ne peut que suivre les anciens principes,
+acquiert une sup&eacute;riorit&eacute; th&eacute;orique dont on doit
+tenir compte dans la hi&eacute;rarchie sociale. Le plus
+souvent le p&egrave;re n'est-il pas p&eacute;n&eacute;tr&eacute; de l'esprit de
+routine, tandis que le fils repr&eacute;sente et d&eacute;fend la
+science progressive? En diminuant l'&eacute;cart qui existait
+entre l'influence des jeunes g&eacute;n&eacute;rations et celle de la
+vieillesse ou de l'&acirc;ge m&ucirc;r, les peuples modernes
+n'auraient donc fait que reproduire dans leur ordre
+social un changement de rapports qui s'&eacute;tait d&eacute;j&agrave;
+accompli dans la nature intime des choses.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Boutmy</span>,
+<i>Revue Nationale</i>, xxi. 393. Il y a dans
+l'homme individuel des principes de progr&egrave;s viager;
+il y a, en toute soci&eacute;t&eacute;, des causes constantes qui
+transforment ce progr&egrave;s viager en progr&egrave;s h&eacute;r&eacute;ditaire.
+Une soci&eacute;t&eacute; quelconque tend &agrave; progresser tant que
+les circonstances ne touchent pas aux causes de
+progr&egrave;s que nous avons reconnues, l'imitation des
+d&eacute;vanciers par les successeurs, des &eacute;trangers par les
+indig&egrave;nes.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lacombe</span>, <i>L'Histoire comme Science</i>, 292.
+Veram creat&aelig; mentis beatitudinem consistere in non
+impedito progressu ad bona majora.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Leibniz</span> to <span class="smcap">Wolf</span>,
+February 21, 1705. In cumulum etiam pulchritudinis
+perfectionisque universalis operum divinorum progressus
+quidam perpetuus liberrimusque totius universi
+est agnoscendus, ita ut ad majorem semper cultum<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+procedat.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Leibniz</span> ed. Erdmann, 150<i>a</i>. Der Creaturen
+und also auch unsere Vollkommenheit bestehet in
+einem ungehinderten starken Forttrieb zu neuen und
+neuen Vollkommenheiten.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Leibniz</span>, <i>Deutsche Schriften</i>,
+ii. 36. Hegel, welcher annahm, der Fortschritt
+der Neuzeit gegen das Mittelalter sei dieser, dass die
+Principien der Tugend und des Christenthums,
+welche im Mittelalter sich allein im Privatleben und
+der Kirche zur Geltung gebracht h&auml;tten, nun auch
+anfingen, das politische Leben zu durchdringen.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Fortlage</span>,
+<i>Allg. Monatschrift</i>, 1853, 777. Wir
+Slawen wissen, dass die Geister einzelner Menschen
+und ganzer V&ouml;lker sich nur durch die Stufe ihrer
+Entwicklung unterscheiden.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Mickiewicz</span>, <i>Slawische
+Literatur</i>, ii. 436. Le progr&egrave;s ne disparait jamais,
+mais il se d&eacute;place souvent. Il va des gouvernants
+aux gouvern&eacute;s. La tendance des r&eacute;volutions est de
+le ramener toujours parmi les gouvernants. Lorsqu'il
+est &agrave; la t&ecirc;te des soci&eacute;t&eacute;s, il marche hardiment, car il
+conduit. Lorsqu'il est dans la masse, il marche &agrave;
+pas lents, car il lutte.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Napoleon III.</span>, <i>Des Id&eacute;es
+Napol&eacute;oniennes</i>. La loi du progr&egrave;s avait jadis
+l'inexorable rigueur du destin; elle prend maintenant
+de jour en jour la douce puissance de la Providence.
+C'est l'erreur, c'est l'iniquit&eacute;, c'est le vice, que la
+civilisation tend &agrave; emporter dans sa marche irr&eacute;sistible;
+mais la vie des individus et des peuples est
+devenue pour elle une chose sacr&eacute;e. Elle transforme
+plut&ocirc;t qu'elle ne d&eacute;truit les choses qui s'opposent &agrave;
+son d&eacute;veloppement; elle proc&egrave;de par absorption
+graduelle plut&ocirc;t que par brusque ex&eacute;cution; elle aime<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+&agrave; conqu&eacute;rir par l'influence des id&eacute;es plut&ocirc;t que par la
+force des armes, un peuple, une classe, une institution
+qui r&eacute;siste au progr&egrave;s.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Vacherot</span>, <i>Essais de
+Philosophie Critique</i>, 443. Peu &agrave; peu l'homme intellectuel
+finit par effacer l'homme physique.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Quetelet</span>,
+<i>De l'Homme</i>, ii. 285. In dem Fortschritt
+der ethischen Anschauungen liegt daher der Kern des
+geschichtlichen Fortschritts &uuml;berhaupt.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Sch&auml;fer</span>,
+<i>Arbeitsgebiet der Geschichte</i>, 24. Si l'homme a plus
+de devoirs &agrave; mesure qu'il avance en &acirc;ge, ce qui est
+m&eacute;lancolique, mais ce qui est vrai, de m&ecirc;me aussi
+l'humanit&eacute; est tenue d'avoir une morale plus s&eacute;v&egrave;re &agrave;
+mesure qu'elle prend plus de si&egrave;cles.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Faguet</span>, <i>Revue
+des Deux Mondes</i>, 1894, iii. 871. Si donc il y a une loi
+de progr&egrave;s, elle se confond avec la loi morale, et la
+condition fondamentale du progr&egrave;s, c'est la pratique
+de cette loi.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Carrau</span>, <i>Ib.</i>, 1875, v. 585. L'id&eacute;e du
+progr&egrave;s, du d&eacute;veloppement, me para&icirc;t &ecirc;tre l'id&eacute;e
+fondamentale contenue sous le mot de civilisation.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Guizot</span>,
+<i>Cours d'Histoire</i>, 1828, 15. Le progr&egrave;s n'est
+sous un autre nom, que la libert&eacute; en action.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Broglie</span>,
+<i>Journal des D&eacute;bats</i>, January 28, 1869. Le progr&egrave;s
+social est continu. Il a ses p&eacute;riodes de fi&egrave;vre ou
+d'atonie, de surexcitation ou de l&eacute;thargie; il a ses
+soubresauts et ses haltes, mais il avance toujours.&mdash;<span class="smcap">De
+Decker</span>, <i>La Providence</i>, 174. Ce n'est pas au
+bonheur seul, c'est au perfectionnement que notre
+destin nous appelle; et la libert&eacute; politique est le plus
+puissant, le plus &eacute;nergique moyen de perfectionnement
+que le ciel nous ait donn&eacute;.&mdash;<span class="smcap">B. Constant</span>,
+<i>Cours de Politique</i>, ii. 559. To explode error, on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+whichever side it lies, is certainly to secure progress.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Martineau</span>,
+<i>Essays</i>, i. 114. Die s&auml;mmtlichen
+Freiheitsrechte, welche der heutigen Menschheit so
+theuer sind, sind im Grunde nur Anwendungen des
+Rechts der Entwickelung.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Bluntschli</span>, <i>Kleine
+Schriften</i>, i. 51. Geistiges Leben ist auf Freiheit beruhende
+Entwicklung, mit Freiheit vollzogene That und
+geschichtlicher Fortschritt.&mdash;<i>M&uuml;nchner Gel. Anzeigen</i>
+1849, ii. 83. Wie das Denken erst nach und nach reift, so
+wird auch der freie Wille nicht fertig geboren, sondern
+in der Entwickelung erworben.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Trendelenburg</span>,
+<i>Logische Untersuchungen</i>, ii. 94. Das Liberum Arbitrium
+im vollen Sinne (die vollst&auml;ndig aktuelle Macht
+der Selbstbestimmung) l&auml;sst sich seinem Begriff
+zufolge schlechterdings nicht unmittelbar geben; es
+kann nur erworben werden durch das Subjekt selbst,
+in sich moralisch hervorgebracht werden kraft seiner
+eigenen Entwickelung.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Rothe</span>, <i>Ethik</i>, i. 360. So
+gewaltig sei der Andrang der Erfindungen und
+Entdeckungen, dass &#8220;Entwicklungsperioden, die in
+fr&uuml;heren Zeiten erst in Jahrhunderten durchlaufen
+wurden, die im Beginn unserer Zeitperiode noch der
+Jahrzehnte bedurften, sich heute in Jahren volienden,
+h&auml;ufig schon in voller Ausbildung ins Dasein treten.&#8221;&mdash;<span class="smcap">Philippovich</span>,
+<i>Fortschritt und Kulturentwicklung</i>,
+1892, i. quoting <span class="smcap">Siemens</span>, 1886. Wir erkennen dass
+dem Menschen die schwere k&ouml;rperliche Arbeit, von
+der er in seinem Kampfe um's Dasein stets schwer
+niedergedr&uuml;ckt war und grossenteils noch ist, mehr
+und mehr durch die wachsende Benutzung der
+Naturkr&auml;fte zur mechanischen Arbeitsleistung abgenommen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+wird, dass die ihm zufallende Arbeit immer
+mehr eine intellektuelle wird.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Siemens</span>, 1886, <i>Ib.</i> 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Once, however, he wrote:&mdash;Darin k&ouml;nnte man
+den idealen Kern der Geschichte des menschlichen
+Geschlechtes &uuml;berhaupt sehen, dass in den K&auml;mpfen,
+die sich in den gegenseitigen Interessen der Staaten
+und V&ouml;lker vollziehen, doch immer h&ouml;here Potenzen
+emporkommen, die das Allgemeine demgem&auml;ss umgestalten
+und ihm wieder einen anderen Charakter
+verleihen.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ranke</span>, <i>Weltgeschichte</i>, iii. 1, 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Toujours et partout, les hommes furent de plus
+en plus domin&eacute;s par l'ensemble de leurs pr&eacute;d&eacute;cesseurs,
+dont ils purent seulement modifier l'empire n&eacute;cessaire.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Comte</span>,
+<i>Politique Positive</i>, iii. 621.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> La libert&eacute; est l'&acirc;me du commerce.&mdash;Il faut
+laisser faire les hommes qui s'appliquent sans peine
+&agrave; ce qui convient le mieux; c'est ce qui apporte le
+plus d'avantage.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Colbert</span>, in <i>Comptes Rendus de
+l'Institut</i>, xxxix. 93.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Il n'y a que les choses humaines expos&eacute;es dans
+leur v&eacute;rit&eacute;, c'est-&agrave;-dire avec leur grandeur, leur
+vari&eacute;t&eacute;, leur in&eacute;puisable f&eacute;condit&eacute;, qui aient le droit
+de retenir le lecteur et qui le retiennent en effet. Si
+l'&eacute;crivain para&icirc;t une fois, il ennuie ou fait sourire de
+piti&eacute; les lecteurs s&eacute;rieux.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Thiers</span> to <span class="smcap">Ste. Beuve</span>,
+<i>Lundis</i>, iii. 195. Comme l'a dit Taine, la disparition
+du style, c'est la perfection du style.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Faguet</span>, <i>Revue
+Politique</i>, lii. 67.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Ne m'applaudissez pas; ce n'est pas moi qui
+vous parle; c'est l'histoire qui parle par ma bouche.&mdash;<i>Revue
+Historique</i>, xli. 278.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Das Evangelium trat als Geschichte in die Welt,
+nicht als Dogma&mdash;wurde als Geschichte in der christlichen
+Kirche deponirt.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Rothe</span>, <i>Kirchengeschichte</i>,
+ii. p. x. Das Christenthum ist nicht der Herr
+Christus, sondern dieser macht es. Es ist sein Werk,
+und zwar ein Werk das er stets unter der Arbeit hat.&mdash;Er
+selbst, Christus der Herr, bleibt der er ist in alle
+Zukunft, dagegen liegt es ausdr&uuml;cklich im Begriffe
+seines Werks, des Christenthums, dass es nicht so bleibt
+wie es anhebt.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Rothe</span>, <i>Allgemeine kirchliche Zeitschrift</i>,
+1864, 299. Diess Werk, weil es dem Wesen
+der Geschichte zufolge eine Entwickelung ist, muss
+&uuml;ber Stufen hinweggehen, die einander abl&ouml;sen, und
+von denen jede folgende neue immer nur unter der
+Zertr&uuml;mmerung der ihr vorangehenden Platz greifen
+kann.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Rothe</span>, <i>Ib.</i> April 19, 1865. Je gr&ouml;sser ein
+geschichtliches Princip ist, desto langsamer und &uuml;ber
+mehr Stufen hinweg entfaltet es seinen Gehalt; desto
+langlebiger ist es aber ebendeshalb auch in diesen
+seinen unaufh&ouml;rlichen Abwandelungen.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Rothe</span>,
+<i>Stille Stunden</i>, 301. Der christliche Glaube geht nicht
+von der Anerkennung abstracter Lehrwahrheiten aus,
+sondern von der Anerkennung einer Reihe von
+Thatsachen, die in der Erscheinung Jesu ihren Mittelpunkt
+haben.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Nitzsch</span>, <i>Dogmengeschichte</i>, i. 17.
+Der Gedankengang der evangelischen Erz&auml;hlung gibt
+darum auch eine vollst&auml;ndige Darstellung der christlichen
+Lehre in ihren wesentlichen Grundz&uuml;gen; aber
+er gibt sie im allseitigen lebendigen Zusammenhange
+mit der Geschichte der christlichen Offenbarung, und
+nicht in einer theoretisch zusammenh&auml;ngenden Folgenreihe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+von ethischen und dogmatischen Lehrs&auml;tzen.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Deutinger</span>,
+<i>Reich Gottes</i>, i. p. v.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> L'Univers ne doit pas estre consid&eacute;r&eacute; seulement
+dans ce qu'il est; pour le bien conno&icirc;tre, il faut le
+voir aussi dans ce qu'il doit estre. C'est cet avenir
+surtout qui a &eacute;t&eacute; le grand objet de Dieu dans la
+cr&eacute;ation, et c'est pour cet avenir seul que le pr&eacute;sent
+existe.&mdash;<span class="smcap">D'Houteville</span>, <i>Essai sur la Providence</i>, 273.
+La Providence emploie les si&egrave;cles &agrave; &eacute;lever toujours un
+plus grand nombre de familles et d'individus &agrave; ces
+biens de la libert&eacute; et de l'&eacute;galit&eacute; l&eacute;gitimes que, dans
+l'enfance des soci&eacute;t&eacute;s, la force avait rendus le privil&egrave;ge
+de quelques-uns.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Guizot</span>, <i>Gouvernement de la France</i>,
+1820, 9. La marche de la Providence n'est pas
+assujettie &agrave; d'&eacute;troites limites; elle ne s'inqui&egrave;te pas de
+tirer aujourd'hui la cons&eacute;quence du principe qu'elle a
+pos&eacute; hier; elle la tirera dans des si&egrave;cles, quand l'heure
+sera venue; et pour raisonner lentement selon nous, sa
+logique n'est pas moins s&ucirc;re.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Guizot</span>, <i>Histoire de la
+Civilisation</i>, 20. Der Keim fortschreitender Entwicklung
+ist, auch auf g&ouml;ttlichem Geheisse, der Menschheit
+eingepflanzt. Die Weltgeschichte ist der blosse
+Ausdruck einer vorbestimmten Entwicklung.&mdash;<span class="smcap">A.
+Humboldt</span>, January 2, 1842, <i>Im Neuen Reich</i>, 1872,
+i. 197. Das historisch grosse ist religi&ouml;s gross; es ist
+die Gottheit selbst, die sich offenbart.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Raumer</span>,
+April 1807, <i>Erinnerungen</i>, i. 85.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Je suis arriv&eacute; &agrave; l'&acirc;ge o&ugrave; je suis, &agrave; travers bien
+des &eacute;v&egrave;nements diff&eacute;rents, mais avec une seule cause,
+celle de la libert&eacute; r&eacute;guli&egrave;re.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Tocqueville</span>, May 1,
+1852, <i>&OElig;uvres In&eacute;dites</i>, ii. 185. Me trouvant dans un<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+pays o&ugrave; la religion et le lib&eacute;ralisme sont d'accord,
+j'avais respir&eacute;.&mdash;J'exprimais ce sentiment, il y a plus
+de vingt ans, dans l'avant-propos de la <i>D&eacute;mocratie</i>.
+Je l'&eacute;prouve aujourd'hui aussi vivement que si j'&eacute;tais
+encore jeune, et je ne sais s'il y a une seule pens&eacute;e
+qui ait &eacute;t&eacute; plus constamment pr&eacute;sente &agrave; mon esprit.&mdash;August
+5, 1857, <i>&OElig;uvres</i>, vi. 395. Il n'y a que la
+libert&eacute; (j'entends la mod&eacute;r&eacute;e et la r&eacute;guli&egrave;re) et la
+religion, qui, par un effort combin&eacute;, puissent soulever
+les hommes au-dessus du bourbier o&ugrave; l'&eacute;galit&eacute; d&eacute;mocratique
+les plonge naturellement.&mdash;December 1, 1852,
+<i>&OElig;uvres</i>, vii. 295. L'un de mes r&ecirc;ves, le principal en
+entrant dans la vie politique, &eacute;tait de travailler &agrave;
+concilier l'esprit lib&eacute;ral et l'esprit de religion, la
+soci&eacute;t&eacute; nouvelle et l'&eacute;glise.&mdash;November 15, 1843,
+<i>&OElig;uvres In&eacute;dites</i>, ii. 121. La v&eacute;ritable grandeur de
+l'homme n'est que dans l'accord du sentiment lib&eacute;ral
+et du sentiment religieux.&mdash;September 17, 1853,
+<i>&OElig;uvres In&eacute;dites</i>, ii. 228. Qui cherche dans la libert&eacute;
+autre chose qu'elle-m&ecirc;me est fait pour servir.&mdash;<i>Ancien
+R&eacute;gime</i>, 248. Je regarde, ainsi que je l'ai toujours
+fait, la libert&eacute; comme le premier des biens; je vois
+toujours en elle l'une des sources les plus f&eacute;condes
+des vertus m&acirc;les et des actions grandes. Il n'y a pas
+de tranquillit&eacute; ni de bien-&ecirc;tre qui puisse me tenir
+lieu d'elle.&mdash;January 7, 1856, <i>M<sup>me</sup>. Swetchine</i>, i. 452.
+La libert&eacute; a un faux air d'aristocratie; en donnant
+pleine carri&egrave;re aux facult&eacute;s humaines, en encourageant
+le travail et l'&eacute;conomie, elle fait ressortir les
+sup&eacute;riorit&eacute;s naturelles ou acquises.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Laboulaye</span>, <i>L'&Eacute;tat
+et ses Limites</i>, 154. Dire que la libert&eacute; n'est point<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+par elle-m&ecirc;me, qu'elle d&eacute;pend d'une situation, d'une
+opportunit&eacute;, c'est lui assigner une valeur n&eacute;gative. La
+libert&eacute; n'est pas d&egrave;s qu'on la subordonne. Elle n'est
+pas un principe purement n&eacute;gatif, un simple &eacute;l&eacute;ment de
+contr&ocirc;le et de critique. Elle est le principe actif,
+cr&eacute;ateur organisateur par excellence. Elle est le
+moteur et la r&egrave;gle, la source de toute vie, et le principe
+de l'ordre. Elle est, en un mot, le nom que prend
+la conscience souveraine, lorsque, se posant en face
+du monde social et politique, elle &eacute;merge du moi pour
+modeler les soci&eacute;t&eacute;s sur les donn&eacute;es de la raison.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Brisson</span>,
+<i>Revue Nationale</i>, xxiii. 214. Le droit, dans
+l'histoire, est le d&eacute;veloppement progressif de la libert&eacute;,
+sous la loi de la raison.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lerminier</span>, <i>Philosophie du
+Droit</i>, i. 211. En prouvant par les le&ccedil;ons de l'histoire
+que la libert&eacute; fait vivre les peuples et que le
+despotisme les tue, en montrant que l'expiation suit
+la faute et que la fortune finit d'ordinaire par se
+ranger du c&ocirc;t&eacute; de la vertu, Montesquieu n'est ni
+moins moral ni moins religieux que Bossuet.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Laboulaye</span>,
+<i>&OElig;uvres de Montesquieu</i>, ii. 109. Je ne comprendrais
+pas qu'une nation ne pla&ccedil;&acirc;t pas les libert&eacute;s
+politiques au premier rang, parce que c'est des libert&eacute;s
+politiques que doivent d&eacute;couler toutes les autres.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Thiers</span>,
+<i>Discours</i>, x. 8, <i>March</i> 28, 1865. Nous
+sommes arriv&eacute;s &agrave; une &eacute;poque o&ugrave; la libert&eacute; est
+le but s&eacute;rieux de tous, o&ugrave; le reste n'est plus
+qu'une question de moyens.&mdash;<span class="smcap">J. Lebeau</span>, <i>Observations
+sur le Pouvoir Royal</i>: Li&eacute;ge, 1830, p. 10.
+Le lib&eacute;ralisme, ayant la pr&eacute;tention de se fonder
+uniquement sur les principes de la raison, croit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+d'ordinaire n'avoir pas besoin de tradition. L&agrave; est son
+erreur. L'erreur de l'&eacute;cole lib&eacute;rale est d'avoir trop
+cru qu'il est facile de cr&eacute;er la libert&eacute; par la r&eacute;flexion,
+et de n'avoir pas vu qu'un &eacute;tablissement n'est solide
+que quand il a des racines historiques.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Renan</span>,
+1858, <i>Nouvelle Revue</i>, lxxix. 596. Le respect des
+individus et des droits existants est autant au-dessus
+du bonheur de tous, qu'un int&eacute;r&ecirc;t moral surpasse
+un int&eacute;r&ecirc;t purement temporel.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Renan</span>, 1858,
+<i>Ib.</i> lxxix. 597. Die Rechte gelten nichts, wo
+es sich handelt um das Recht, und das Recht der
+Freiheit kann nie verj&auml;hren, weil es die Quelle alles
+Rechtes selbst ist.&mdash;<span class="smcap">C. Frantz</span>, <i>Ueber die Freiheit</i>,
+110. Wir erfahren hienieden nie die ganze Wahrheit:
+wir geniessen nie die ganze Freiheit.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Reuss</span>,
+<i>Reden</i>, 56. Le gouvernement constitutionnel, comme
+tout gouvernement libre, pr&eacute;sente et doit pr&eacute;senter
+un &eacute;tat de lutte permanent. La libert&eacute; est la perp&eacute;tuit&eacute;
+de la lutte.&mdash;<span class="smcap">De Serre.</span> <span class="smcap">Broglie</span>, <i>Nouvelles
+&Eacute;tudes</i>, 243. The experiment of free government is
+not one which can be tried once for all. Every generation
+must try it for itself. As each new generation
+starts up to the responsibilities of manhood, there is,
+as it were, a new launch of Liberty, and its voyage
+of experiment begins afresh.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Winthrop</span>, <i>Addresses</i>,
+163. L'histoire perd son v&eacute;ritable caract&egrave;re du
+moment que la libert&eacute; en a disparu; elle devient
+une sorte de physique sociale. C'est l'&eacute;l&eacute;ment personnel
+de l'histoire qui en fait la r&eacute;alit&eacute;.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Vacherot</span>,
+<i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, 1869, iv. 215. Demander la
+libert&eacute; pour soi et la refuser aux autres, c'est la d&eacute;finition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+du despotisme.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Laboulaye</span>, December 4, 1874. Les
+causes justes profitent de tout, des bonnes intentions
+comme des mauvaises, des calculs personnels comme
+des d&eacute;vouemens courageux, de la d&eacute;mence, enfin,
+comme de la raison.&mdash;<span class="smcap">B. Constant</span>, <i>Les Cent Jours</i>,
+ii. 29. Sie ist die Kunst, das Gute der schon weit
+gediehenen Civilisation zu sichern.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Baltisch</span>, <i>Politische
+Freiheit</i>, 9. In einem Volke, welches sich zur
+b&uuml;rgerlichen Gesellschaft, &uuml;berhaupt zum Bewusstseyn
+der Unendlichkeit des Freien&mdash;entwickelt hat, ist
+nur die constitutionelle Monarchie m&ouml;glich.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Hegel's</span>
+<i>Philosophie des Rechts</i>, &sect; 137, <i>Hegel und Preussen</i>,
+1841, 31. Freiheit ist das h&ouml;chste Gut. Alles
+andere ist nur das Mittel dazu: gut falls es ein
+Mittel dazu ist, &uuml;bel falls es dieselbe hemmt.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Fichte</span>,
+<i>Werke</i>, iv. 403. You are not to inquire
+how your trade may be increased, nor how you are to
+become a great and powerful people, but how your
+liberties can be secured. For liberty ought to be the
+direct end of your government.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Patrick Henry</span>,
+1788. <span class="smcap">Wirt</span>, <i>Life of Henry</i>, 272.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Histori&aelig; ipsius pr&aelig;ter delectationem utilitas
+nulla est, quam ut religionis Christian&aelig; veritas demonstretur,
+quod aliter quam per historiam fieri non
+potest.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Leibniz</span>, <i>Opera</i>, ed. Dutens, vi. 297. The
+study of Modern History is, next to Theology itself,
+and only next in so far as Theology rests on a divine
+revelation, the most thoroughly religious training that
+the mind can receive. It is no paradox to say that
+Modern History, including Medieval History in the
+term, is co-extensive in its field of view, in its habits<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+of criticism, in the persons of its most famous students,
+with Ecclesiastical History.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Stubbs</span>, <i>Lectures</i>,
+9. Je regarde donc l'&eacute;tude de l'histoire comme l'&eacute;tude
+de la providence.&mdash;L'histoire est vraiment une seconde
+philosophie.&mdash;Si Dieu ne parle pas toujours, il agit
+toujours en Dieu.&mdash;<span class="smcap">D'Aguesseau</span>, <i>&OElig;uvres</i>, xv. 34, 31,
+35. F&uuml;r diejenigen, welche das Wesen der menschlichen
+Freiheit erkannt haben, bildet die denkende Betrachtung
+der Weltgeschichte, besonders des christlichen
+Weltalters, die h&ouml;chste, und umfassendste Theodicee.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Vatke</span>,
+<i>Die Menschliche Freiheit</i>, 1841, 516. La
+th&eacute;ologie, que l'on regarde volontiers comme la plus
+&eacute;troite et la plus st&eacute;rile des sciences, en est, au contraire,
+la plus &eacute;tendue et la plus f&eacute;conde. Elle confine
+&agrave; toutes les &eacute;tudes et touche &agrave; toutes les questions.
+Elle renferme tous les &eacute;l&eacute;ments d'une instruction
+lib&eacute;rale.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Scherer</span>, <i>M&eacute;langes</i>, 522. The belief that
+the course of events and the agency of man are subject
+to the laws of a divine order, which it is alike
+impossible for any one either fully to comprehend or
+effectually to resist&mdash;this belief is the ground of all
+our hope for the future destinies of mankind.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Thirlwall</span>,
+<i>Remains</i>, iii. 282. A true religion must
+consist of ideas and facts both; not of ideas alone
+without facts, for then it would be mere philosophy;
+nor of facts alone without ideas, of which those facts
+are the symbols, or out of which they are grounded;
+for then it would be mere history.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Coleridge</span>, <i>Table
+Talk</i>, 144. It certainly appears strange that the men
+most conversant with the order of the visible universe
+should soonest suspect it empty of directing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+mind; and, on the other hand, that humanistic, moral
+and historical studies&mdash;which first open the terrible
+problems of suffering and grief, and contain all the
+reputed provocatives of denial and despair&mdash;should
+confirm, and enlarge rather than disturb, the prepossessions
+of natural piety.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Martineau</span>, <i>Essays</i>, i. 122.
+Die Religion hat nur dann eine Bedeutung f&uuml;r den
+Menschen, wenn er in der Geschichte einen Punkt
+findet, dem er sich v&ouml;llig unbedingt hingeben kann.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Steffens</span>,
+<i>Christliche Religionsphilosophie</i>, 440, 1839.
+Wir erkennen darin nur eine Th&auml;tigkeit des zu seinem
+&auml;chten und wahren Leben, zu seinem verlornen,
+objectiven Selbstverst&auml;ndnisse sich zur&uuml;cksehnenden
+christlichen Geistes unserer Zeit, einen Ausdruck f&uuml;r
+das Bed&uuml;rfniss desselben, sich aus den unwahren
+und un&auml;chten Verkleidungen, womit ihn der moderne,
+subjective Geschmack der letzten Entwicklungsphase
+des theologischen Bewusstseyns umh&uuml;llt hat, zu seiner
+historischen allein wahren und urspr&uuml;nglichen Gestalt
+wiederzugeb&auml;ren, zu derjenigen Bedeutung zur&uuml;ckzukehren,
+die ihm in dem Bewusstseyn der Geschichte
+allein zukommt und deren Verst&auml;ndniss in dem
+wogenden luxuri&ouml;sen Leben der modernen Theologie
+l&auml;ngst untergegangen ist.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Georgii</span>, <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r
+Hist. Theologie</i>, ix. 5, 1839.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Liberty, in fact, means just so far as it is realised,
+the right man in the right place.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Seeley</span>, <i>Lectures
+and Essays</i>, 109.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> In diesem Sinne ist Freiheit und sich entwickelnde
+moralische Vernunft und Gewissen gleichbedeutend.
+In diesem Sinne ist der Mensch frei, sobald sich das<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+Gewissen in ihm entwickelt.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Scheidler</span>, <i>Ersch und
+Gruber</i>, xlix. 20. Aus der unendlichen und ewigen
+Geltung der menschlichen Pers&ouml;nlichkeit vor Gott,
+aus der Vorstellung von der in Gott freien Pers&ouml;nlichkeit,
+folgt auch der Anspruch auf das Recht
+derselben in der weltlichen Sph&auml;re, auf b&uuml;rgerliche
+und politische Freiheit, auf Gewissen und Religionsfreiheit,
+auf freie wissenschaftliche Forschung u.s.w.,
+und namentlich die Forderung dass niemand lediglich
+zum Mittel f&uuml;r andere diene.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Martensen</span>, <i>Christliche
+Ethik</i>, i. 50.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Es giebt angeborne Menschenrechte, weil es
+angeborne Menschenpflichten giebt.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Wolff</span>, <i>Naturrecht</i>;
+<span class="smcap">L&oelig;per</span>, <i>Einleitung zu Faust</i>, lvii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> La constitution de l'&eacute;tat reste jusqu'&agrave; un certain
+point &agrave; notre discr&eacute;tion. La constitution de la soci&eacute;t&eacute;
+ne d&eacute;pend pas de nous; elle est donn&eacute;e par la force
+des choses, et si l'on veut &eacute;lever le langage, elle
+est l'&oelig;uvre de la Providence.&mdash;<span class="smcap">R&eacute;musat</span>, <i>Revue des
+Deux Mondes</i>, 1861, v. 795.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Die Freiheit ist bekanntlich kein Geschenk der
+G&ouml;tter, sondern ein Gut das jedes Volk sich selbst
+verdankt und das nur bei dem erforderlichen Mass
+moralischer Kraft und W&uuml;rdigkeit gedeiht.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ihering</span>,
+<i>Geist des R&ouml;mischen Rechts</i>, ii. 290. Liberty, in the
+very nature of it, absolutely requires and even supposes,
+that people be able to govern themselves in
+those respects in which they are free; otherwise their
+wickedness will be in proportion to their liberty, and
+this greatest of blessings will become a curse.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Butler</span>,
+<i>Sermons</i>, 331. In each degree and each<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+variety of public development there are corresponding
+institutions, best answering the public needs; and
+what is meat to one is poison to another. Freedom
+is for those who are fit for it.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Parkman</span>, <i>Canada</i>,
+396. Die Freiheit ist die Wurzel einer neuen Sch&ouml;pfung
+in der Sch&ouml;pfung.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Sederholm</span>, <i>Die ewigen
+Thatsachen</i>, 86.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> La libert&eacute; politique, qui n'est qu'une complexit&eacute;
+plus grande, de plus en plus grande, dans le gouvernement
+d'un peuple, &agrave; mesure que le peuple lui-m&ecirc;me
+contient un plus grand nombre de forces diverses
+ayant droit et de vivre et de participer &agrave; la chose
+publique, est un fait de civilisation qui s'impose lentement
+&agrave; une soci&eacute;t&eacute; organis&eacute;e, mais qui n'appara&icirc;t point
+comme un principe &agrave; une soci&eacute;t&eacute; qui s'organise.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Faguet</span>,
+<i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, 1889, ii. 942.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Il y a bien un droit du plus sage, mais non pas
+un droit du plus fort.&mdash;La justice est le droit du plus
+faible.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Joubert</span>, <i>Pens&eacute;es</i>, i. 355, 358.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Nicht durch ein pflanzen&auml;hnliches Wachsthum,
+nicht aus den dunklen Gr&uuml;nden der Volksempfindung,
+sondern durch den m&auml;nnlichen Willen, durch die
+Ueberzeugung, durch die That, durch den Kampf
+entsteht, behauptet, entwickelt sich das Recht. Sein
+historisches Werden ist ein bewusstes, im hellen
+Mittagslicht der Erkenntniss und der Gesetzgebung.&mdash;<i>Rundschau</i>,
+Nov. 1893, 313. Nicht das Normale,
+Zahme, sondern das Abnorme, Wilde, bildet &uuml;berall die
+Grundlage und den Anfang einer neuen Ordnung.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lasaulx</span>,
+<i>Philosophie der Geschichte</i>, 143.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Um den Sieg zu vervollst&auml;ndigen, er&uuml;brigte das<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+zweite Stadium oder die Aufgabe: die Berechtigung
+der Mehrheit nach allen Seiten hin zur gleichen
+Berechtigung aller zu erweitern, d.h. bis zur Gleichstellung
+aller Bekenntnisse im Kirchenrecht, aller V&ouml;lker
+im V&ouml;lkerrecht, aller Staatsb&uuml;rger im Staatsrecht und
+aller socialen Interessen im Gesellschaftsrecht fortzuf&uuml;hren.&mdash;<span class="smcap">A.
+Schmidt</span>, <i>Z&uuml;richer Monatschrift</i>, i. 68.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Notre histoire ne nous enseignait nullement la
+libert&eacute;. Le jour o&ugrave; la France voulut &ecirc;tre libre, elle
+eut tout &agrave; cr&eacute;er, tout &agrave; inventer dans cet ordre de
+faits.&mdash;Cependant il faut marcher, l'avenir appelle les
+peuples. Quand on n'a point pour cela l'impulsion
+du pass&eacute;, il faut bien se confier &agrave; la raison.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Dupont
+White</span>, <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, 1861, vi. 191. Le
+peuple fran&ccedil;ais a peu de go&ucirc;t pour le d&eacute;veloppement
+graduel des institutions. Il ignore son histoire, il
+ne s'y reconna&icirc;t pas, elle n'a pas laiss&eacute; de trace dans
+sa conscience.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Scherer</span>, <i>&Eacute;tudes Critiques</i>, i. 100.
+Durch die Revolution befreiten sich die Franzosen
+von ihrer Geschichte.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Rosenkranz</span>, <i>Aus einem
+Tagebuch</i>, 199.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> The discovery of the comparative method in
+philology, in mythology&mdash;let me add in politics and
+history and the whole range of human thought&mdash;marks
+a stage in the progress of the human mind at least
+as great and memorable as the revival of Greek and
+Latin learning.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Freeman</span>, <i>Historical Essays</i>, iv. 301.
+The diffusion of a critical spirit in history and literature
+is affecting the criticism of the Bible in our own day
+in a manner not unlike the burst of intellectual life in
+the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Jowett</span>, <i>Essays<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+and Reviews</i>, 346. As the revival of literature in the
+sixteenth century produced the Reformation, so the
+growth of the critical spirit, and the change that has
+come over mental science, and the mere increase of
+knowledge of all kinds, threaten now a revolution less
+external but not less profound.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Haddan</span>, <i>Replies</i>,
+348.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> In his just contempt and detestation of the
+crimes and follies of the Revolutionists, he suffers
+himself to forget that the revolution itself is a process
+of the Divine Providence, and that as the folly of men
+is the wisdom of God, so are their iniquities instruments
+of His goodness.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Coleridge</span>, <i>Biographia
+Literaria</i>, ii. 240. In other parts of the world, the
+idea of revolutions in government is, by a mournful
+and indissoluble association, connected with the idea
+of wars, and all the calamities attendant on wars.
+But happy experience teaches us to view such revolutions
+in a very different light&mdash;to consider them
+only as progressive steps in improving the knowledge
+of government, and increasing the happiness of
+society and mankind.&mdash;<span class="smcap">J. Wilson</span>, November 26,
+1787, <i>Works</i>, iii. 293. La R&eacute;volution, c'est-&agrave;-dire
+l'&oelig;uvre des si&egrave;cles, ou, si vous voulez, le renouvellement
+progressif de la soci&eacute;t&eacute;, ou encore, sa nouvelle constitution.&mdash;<span class="smcap">R&eacute;musat</span>,
+<i>Correspondance</i>, October 11, 1818.
+A ses yeux loin d'avoir rompu le cours naturel des
+&eacute;v&egrave;nements, ni la R&eacute;volution d'Angleterre, ni la n&ocirc;tre,
+n'ont rien dit, rien fait, qui n'e&ucirc;t &eacute;t&eacute; dit, souhait&eacute;, fait,
+ou tent&eacute; cent fois avant leur explosion. &#8220;Il faut en
+ceci,&#8221; dit-il, &#8220;tout accorder &agrave; leurs adversaires, les surpasser<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+m&ecirc;me en s&eacute;v&eacute;rit&eacute;, ne regarder &agrave; leurs accusations
+que pour y ajouter, s'ils en oublient; et puis les sommer
+de dresser, &agrave; leur tour, le compte des erreurs, des crimes,
+et des maux de ces temps et de ces pouvoirs qu'ils ont
+pris sous leur garde.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Revue de Paris</i>, xvi. 303, on
+Guizot. Quant aux nouveaut&eacute;s mises en &oelig;uvre par
+la R&eacute;volution Fran&ccedil;aise on les retrouve une &agrave; une,
+en remontant d'&acirc;ge en &acirc;ge, chez les philosophes du
+XVIII<sup>e</sup> si&egrave;cle, chez les grands penseurs du XVI<sup>e</sup>, chez
+certains P&egrave;res d'&Eacute;glise et jusque dans la R&eacute;publique de
+Platon.&mdash;En pr&eacute;sence de cette belle continuit&eacute; de
+l'histoire, qui ne fait pas plus de sauts que la nature,
+devant cette solidarit&eacute; n&eacute;cessaire des r&eacute;volutions avec
+le pass&eacute; qu'elles brisent.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Krantz</span>, <i>Revue Politique</i>,
+xxxiii. 264. L'esprit du XIX<sup>e</sup> si&egrave;cle est de comprendre et
+de juger les choses du pass&eacute;. Notre &oelig;uvre est d'expliquer
+ce que le XVIII<sup>e</sup> si&egrave;cle avait mission de nier.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Vacherot</span>,
+<i>De la D&eacute;mocratie</i>, pref., 28.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> La commission recherchera, dans toutes les parties
+des archives pontificales, les pi&egrave;ces relatives &agrave; l'abus
+que les papes ont fait de leur minist&egrave;re spirituel contre
+l'autorit&eacute; des souverains et la tranquillit&eacute; des peuples.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Daunou</span>,
+<i>Instructions</i>, Jan. 3, 1811. <span class="smcap">Laborde</span>,
+<i>Inventaires</i>, p. cxii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Aucun des historiens remarquables de cette
+&eacute;poque n'avait senti encore le besoin de chercher les
+faits hors des livres imprim&eacute;s, aux sources primitives,
+la plupart in&eacute;dites alors, aux manuscrits de nos
+biblioth&egrave;ques, aux documents de nos archives.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Michelet</span>,
+<i>Histoire de France</i>, 1869, i. 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Doch besteht eine Grenze, wo die Geschichte<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+aufh&ouml;rt und das Archiv anf&auml;ngt, und die von der
+Geschichtschreibung nicht &uuml;berschritten werden sollte.
+<i>Unsere Zeit</i>, 1866, ii. 635. Il faut avertir nos jeunes
+historiens &agrave; la fois de la n&eacute;cessit&eacute; in&eacute;luctable du
+document et, d'autre part, du danger qu'il pr&eacute;sente.&mdash;<span class="smcap">M.
+Hanotaux</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> This process consists in determining with documentary
+proofs, and by minute investigations duly set
+forth, the literal, precise, and positive inferences to
+be drawn at the present day from every authentic
+statement, without regard to commonly received
+notions, to sweeping generalities, or to possible consequences.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Harrisse</span>,
+<i>Discovery of America</i>, 1892,
+p. vi. Perhaps the time has not yet come for synthetic
+labours in the sphere of History. It may be that the
+student of the Past must still content himself with critical
+inquiries.&mdash;<i>Ib.</i> p. v. Few scholars are critics, few
+critics are philosophers, and few philosophers look with
+equal care on both sides of a question.&mdash;<span class="smcap">W.&nbsp;S. Landor</span>
+in <span class="smcap">Holyoake's</span> <i>Agitator's Life</i>, ii. 15. Introduire dans
+l'histoire, et sans tenir compte des passions politiques
+et religieuses, le doute m&eacute;thodique que Descartes, le
+premier, appliqua &agrave; l'&eacute;tude de la philosophie, n'est-ce
+pas l&agrave; une excellente m&eacute;thode? n'est-ce pas m&ecirc;me
+la meilleure?&mdash;<span class="smcap">Chantelauze</span>, <i>Correspondant</i>, 1883, i.
+129. La critique historique ne sera jamais populaire.
+Comme elle est de toutes les sciences la plus d&eacute;licate,
+la plus d&eacute;li&eacute;e, elle n'a de cr&eacute;dit qu'aupr&egrave;s des esprits
+cultiv&eacute;s.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cherbuliez</span>, <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, xcvii.
+517. Nun liefert aber die Kritik, wenn sie rechter
+Art ist, immer nur einzelne Data, gleichsam die Atome<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+des Thatbestandes, und jede Kombination, jede Zusammenfassung
+und Schlussfolgerung, ohne die es
+doch einmal nicht abgeht, ist ein subjektiver Akt des
+Forschers. Demnach blieb Waitz, bei der eigenen
+Arbeit wie bei jener der anderen, immer h&ouml;chst mistrauisch
+gegen jedes R&eacute;sum&eacute;, jede Definition, jedes
+abschliessende Wort.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Sybel</span>, <i>Historische Zeitschrift</i>,
+lvi. 484. Mit blosser Kritik wird darin nichts ausgerichtet,
+denn die ist nur eine Vorarbeit, welche da
+aufh&ouml;rt wo die echte historische Kunst anf&auml;ngt.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lasaulx</span>,
+<i>Philosophie der K&uuml;nste</i>, 212.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> The only case in which such extraneous matters
+can be fairly called in is when facts are stated resting
+on testimony; then it is not only just, but it is
+necessary for the sake of truth, to inquire into the
+habits of mind of him by whom they are adduced.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Babbage</span>,
+<i>Bridgewater Treatise</i>, p. xiv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> There is no part of our knowledge which it is
+more useful to obtain at first hand&mdash;to go to the
+fountain-head for&mdash;than our knowledge of History.&mdash;<span class="smcap">J.&nbsp;S.
+Mill</span>, <i>Inaugural Address</i>, 34. The only sound
+intellects are those which, in the first instance, set their
+standard of proof high.&mdash;<span class="smcap">J.&nbsp;S. Mill</span>, <i>Examination of
+Hamilton's Philosophy</i>, 525.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> There are so few men mentally capable of seeing
+both sides of a question; so few with consciences
+sensitively alive to the obligation of seeing both sides;
+so few placed under conditions either of circumstance
+or temper, which admit of their seeing both sides.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Greg</span>,
+<i>Political Problems</i>, 1870, 173. Il n'y a que les
+Allemands qui sachent &ecirc;tre aussi compl&egrave;tement objectifs.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+Ils se d&eacute;doublent, pour ainsi dire, en deux hommes,
+l'un qui a des principes tr&egrave;s arr&ecirc;t&eacute;s et des passions tr&egrave;s
+vives, l'autre qui sait voir et observer comme s'il n'en
+avait point.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Laveleye</span>, <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, 1868,
+i. 431. L'&eacute;crivain qui penche trop dans le sens o&ugrave;
+il incline, et qui ne se d&eacute;fie pas de ses qualit&eacute;s
+presque autant que ses d&eacute;fauts, cet &eacute;crivain tourne &agrave; la
+mani&egrave;re.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Scherer</span>, <i>M&eacute;langes</i>, 484. Il faut faire volte-face,
+et vivement, franchement, tourner le dos au
+moyen &acirc;ge, &agrave; ce pass&eacute; morbide, qui, m&ecirc;me quand il
+n'agit pas, influe terriblement par la contagion de la
+mort. Il ne faut ni combattre, ni critiquer, mais
+oublier. Oublions et marchons!&mdash;<span class="smcap">Michelet</span>, <i>La
+Bible de l'Humanit&eacute;</i>, 483. It has excited surprise
+that Thucydides should speak of Antiphon, the traitor
+to the democracy, and the employer of assassins, as &#8220;a
+man inferior in virtue to none of his contemporaries.&#8221;
+But neither here nor elsewhere does Thucydides pass
+moral judgments.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Jowett</span>, <i>Thucydides</i>, ii. 501.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Non theologi provinciam suscepimus; scimus
+enim quantum hoc ingenii nostri tenuitatem superet:
+ideo sufficit nobis &#964;&#8056; &#8005;&#964;&#953; fideliter ex antiquis auctoribus
+retulisse.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Morinus</span>, <i>De P&oelig;nitentia</i>, ix. 10.&mdash;Il
+faut avouer que la religion chr&eacute;tienne a quelque chose
+d'&eacute;tonnant! C'est parce que vous y &ecirc;tes n&eacute;, dira-t-on.
+Tant s'en faut, je me roidis contre par cette
+raison-l&agrave; m&ecirc;me, de peur que cette pr&eacute;vention ne me
+suborne.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Pascal</span>, <i>Pens&eacute;es</i>, XVI., 7.&mdash;I was fond of
+Fleury for a reason which I express in the advertisement;
+because it presented a sort of photograph of
+ecclesiastical history without any comment upon it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+In the event, that simple representation of the early
+centuries had a good deal to do with unsettling me.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Newman</span>,
+<i>Apologia</i>, 152.&mdash;Nur was sich vor dem
+Richterstuhl einer &auml;chten, unbefangenen, nicht durch
+die Brille einer philosophischen oder dogmatischen
+Schule stehenden Wissenschaft als wahr bew&auml;hrt, kann
+zur Erbauung, Belehrung und Warnung t&uuml;chtig seyn.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Neander</span>,
+<i>Kirchengeschichte</i>, i. p. vii. Wie weit bei
+katholischen Publicisten bei der Annahme der Ansicht
+von der Staatsanstalt apologetische Gesichtspunkte
+massgebend gewesen sind, mag dahingestellt bleiben.
+Der Historiker darf sich jedoch nie durch apologetische
+Zwecke leiten lassen; sein einziges Ziel soll
+die Ergr&uuml;ndungder Wahrheit sein.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Pastor</span>, <i>Geschichte
+der P&auml;bste</i>, ii. 545. Church history falsely written is
+a school of vainglory, hatred, and uncharitableness;
+truly written, it is a discipline of humility, of charity,
+of mutual love.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Sir W. Hamilton</span>, <i>Discussions</i>, 506.
+The more trophies and crowns of honour the Church
+of former ages can be shown to have won in the service
+of her adorable head, the more tokens her history
+can be brought to furnish of his powerful presence in
+her midst, the more will we be pleased and rejoice,
+Protestant though we be.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Nevin</span>, <i>Mercersburg Review</i>,
+1851, 168. S'il est une chose &agrave; laquelle j'ai donn&eacute;
+tous mes soins, c'est &agrave; ne pas laisser influencer mes
+jugements par les opinions politiques ou religieuses;
+que si j'ai quelquefois p&eacute;ch&eacute; par quelque exc&egrave;s, c'est
+par la bienveillance pour les &oelig;uvres de ceux qui
+pensent autrement que moi.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Monod</span>, <i>R. Hist.</i>, xvi.
+184. Nous n'avons nul int&eacute;r&ecirc;t &agrave; faire parler l'histoire<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+en faveur de nos propres opinions. C'est son droit
+imprescriptible que le narrateur reproduise tous les
+faits sans aucune r&eacute;ticence et range toutes les &eacute;volutions
+dans leur ordre naturel. Notre r&eacute;cit restera
+compl&egrave;tement en dehors des pr&eacute;occupations de la dogmatique
+et des d&eacute;clamations de la pol&eacute;mique. Plus
+les questions auxquelles nous aurons &agrave; toucher agitent
+et passionnent de nos jours les esprits, plus il est du
+devoir de l'historien de s'effacer devant les faits qu'il
+veut faire conna&icirc;tre.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Reuss</span>, <i>Nouvelle Revue de Th&eacute;ologie</i>,
+vi. 193, 1860. To love truth for truth's sake is
+the principal part of human perfection in this world,
+and the seed plot of all other virtues.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Locke</span>, <i>Letter to
+Collins</i>. Il n'est plus possible aujourd'hui &agrave; l'historien
+d'&ecirc;tre national dans le sens &eacute;troit du mot. Son patriotisme
+&agrave; lui c'est l'amour de la v&eacute;rit&eacute;. Il n'est pas
+l'homme d'une race ou d'un pays, il est l'homme de
+tous les pays, il parle au nom de la civilisation g&eacute;n&eacute;rale.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lanfrey</span>,
+<i>Hist. de Nap.</i>, iii. 2, 1870. Juger avec
+les parties de soi-m&ecirc;me qui sont le moins des formes du
+temp&eacute;rament, et le plus des facult&eacute;s p&eacute;n&eacute;tr&eacute;es et model&eacute;es
+par l'exp&eacute;rience, par l'&eacute;tude, par l'investigation,
+par le non-moi.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Faguet</span>, <i>R. de Paris</i>, i. 151. Aucun
+critique n'est aussi impersonnel que lui, aussi libre
+de parti pris et d'opinions pr&eacute;con&ccedil;ues, aussi objectif.&mdash;Il
+ne m&ecirc;le ou parait m&ecirc;ler &agrave; ses appr&eacute;ciations ni inclinations
+personnelles de go&ucirc;t ou d'humeur, ou th&eacute;ories d'aucune
+sorte.&mdash;<span class="smcap">G. Monod</span>, of Faguet, <i>Revue Historique</i>,
+xlii. 417. On dirait qu'il a peur, en g&eacute;n&eacute;ralisant ses
+observations, en syst&eacute;matisant ses connaissances, de
+m&ecirc;ler de lui-m&ecirc;me aux choses.&mdash;Je lis tout un volume<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+de M. Faguet, sans penser une fois &agrave; M. Faguet: je
+ne vois que les originaux qu'il montre.&mdash;J'envisage
+toujours une r&eacute;alit&eacute; objective, jamais l'id&eacute;e de M.
+Faguet, jamais la doctrine de M. Faguet.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lanson</span>,
+<i>Revue Politique</i>, 1894, i. 98.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> It should teach us to disentangle principles first
+from parties, and again from one another; first of all
+as showing how imperfectly all parties represent their
+own principles, and then how the principles themselves
+are a mingled tissue.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Arnold</span>, <i>Modern History</i>,
+184. I find it a good rule, when I am contemplating
+a person from whom I want to learn,
+always to look out for his strength, being confident
+that the weakness will discover itself.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Maurice</span>,
+<i>Essays</i>, 305. We may seek for agreement somewhere
+with our neighbours, using that as a point of
+departure for the sake of argument. It is this latter
+course that I wish here to explain and defend. The
+method is simple enough, though not yet very familiar.&mdash;It
+aims at conciliation; it proceeds by making the
+best of our opponent's case, instead of taking him at
+his worst.&mdash;The most interesting part of every disputed
+question only begins to appear when the rival ideals
+admit each other's right to exist.&mdash;<span class="smcap">A. Sidgwick</span>, <i>Distinction
+and the Criticism of Beliefs</i>, 1892, 211. That cruel
+reticence in the breasts of wise men which makes them
+always hide their deeper thought.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ruskin</span>, <i>Sesame and
+Lilies</i>, i. 16. Je offener wir die einzelnen Wahrheiten
+des Sozialismus anerkennen, desto erfolgreicher k&ouml;nnen
+wir seine fundamentalen Unwahrheiten widerlegen.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Roscher</span>,
+<i>Deutsche Vierteljahrschrift</i>, 1849, i. 177.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Dann habe ihn die Wahrnehmung, dass manche
+Angaben in den historischen Romanen Walter Scott's,
+mit den gleichzeitigen Quellen im Widerspruch
+standen, &#8220;mit Erstaunen&#8221; erf&uuml;llt, und ihn zu dem
+Entschlusse gebracht, auf das Gewissenhafteste an
+der Ueberlieferung der Quellen festzuhalten.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Sybel</span>,
+<i>Ged&auml;chtnissrede auf Ranke</i>. <i>Akad. der Wissenschaften</i>,
+1887, p. 6. Sich frei zu halten von allem Widerschein
+der Gegenwart, sogar, soweit das menschenm&ouml;glich,
+von dem der eignen subjectiven Meinung
+in den Dingen des Staates, der Kirche und der
+Gesellschaft.&mdash;<span class="smcap">A. Dove</span>, <i>Im Neuen Reich</i>, 1875, ii.
+967. Wir sind durchaus nicht f&uuml;r die leblose und
+schemenartige Darstellungsweise der Ranke'schen
+Schule eingenommen; es wird uns immer k&uuml;hl bis
+ans Herz heran, wenn wir derartige Schilderungen
+der Reformation und der Revolution lesen, welche
+so ganz im k&uuml;hlen Element des Pragmatismus sich
+bewegen und dabei so ganz Undinenhaft sind und
+keine Seele haben.&mdash;Wir lassen es uns lieber gefallen,
+dass die M&auml;nner der Geschichte hier und dort gehofmeistert
+werden, als dass sie uns mit Glasaugen
+ansehen, so meisterhaft immer die Kunst sein mag
+die sie ihnen eingesetzt hat.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Gottschall</span>, <i>Unsere
+Zeit</i>, 1866, ii. 636, 637. A vivre avec des diplomates,
+il leur a pris des qualit&eacute;s qui sont un d&eacute;faut chez
+un historien. L'historien n'est pas un t&eacute;moin, c'est
+un juge; c'est &agrave; lui d'accuser et de condamner au
+nom du pass&eacute; opprim&eacute; et dans l'int&eacute;r&ecirc;t de l'avenir.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Laboulaye</span>
+on <span class="smcap">Ranke</span>. <i>D&eacute;bats</i>, January 12,
+1852.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Un th&eacute;ologien qui a compos&eacute; une &eacute;loquente
+histoire de la R&eacute;formation, rencontrant &agrave; Berlin un
+illustre historien qui, lui aussi, a racont&eacute; Luther et le
+XVI<sup>e</sup> si&egrave;cle, l'embrassa avec effusion en le traitant
+de confr&egrave;re. &#8220;Ah! permettez,&#8221; lui r&eacute;pondit l'autre
+en se d&eacute;gageant, &#8220;il y a une grande diff&eacute;rence entre
+nous: vous &ecirc;tes avant tout chr&eacute;tien, et je suis avant
+tout historien.&#8221;&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cherbuliez</span>, <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>,
+1872, i. 537.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Nackte Wahrheit ohne allen Schmuck; gr&uuml;ndliche
+Erforschung des Einzelnen; das Uebrige, Gott befohlen.&mdash;<i>Werke</i>,
+xxxiv. 24. Ce ne sont pas les th&eacute;ories qui
+doivent nous servir de base dans la recherche des
+faits, mais ce sont les faits qui doivent nous servir de
+base pour la composition des th&eacute;ories.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Vincent</span>,
+<i>Nouvelle Revue de Th&eacute;ologie</i>, 1859, ii. 252.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Die zwanglose Anordnungs&mdash;die leichte und
+leise Andeutungskunst des grossen Historikers voll
+zu w&uuml;rdigen, hinderte ihn in fr&uuml;herer Zeit sein
+Bed&uuml;rfniss nach scharfer begrifflicher Ordnung und
+Ausf&uuml;hrung, sp&auml;ter, und in immer zunehmenden
+Grade, sein Sinn f&uuml;r strenge Sachlichkeit, und genaue
+Erforschung der urs&auml;chlichen Zusammenh&auml;nge, noch
+mehr aber regte sich seine geradherzige Offenheit
+seine m&auml;nnliche Ehrlichkeit, wenn er hinter den fein
+verstrichenen Farben der Rankeschen Erz&auml;hlungsbilder
+die gedeckte Haltung des klugen Diplomaten
+zu entdecken glaubte.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Haym</span>, <i>Duncker's Leben</i>, 437.
+The ground of criticism is indeed, in my opinion,
+nothing else but distinct attention, which every reader
+should endeavour to be master of.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Hare</span>, <i>Dec.</i>, 1736,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+<i>Warburton's Works</i>, xiv. 98. Wenn die Quellenkritik
+so verstanden wird, als sei sie der Nachweis, wie ein
+Autor den andern benutzt hat, so ist das nur ein
+gelegentliches Mittel&mdash;eins unter anderen&mdash;ihre
+Aufgabe, den Nachweis der Richtigkeit zu l&ouml;sen oder
+vorzubereiten.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Droysen</span>, <i>Historik</i>, 18.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> L'esprit scientifique n'est autre en soi que l'instinct
+du travail et de la patience, le sentiment de l'ordre,
+de la r&eacute;alit&eacute; et de la mesure.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Papillon</span>, <i>R. des Deux
+Mondes</i>, 1873, v. 704. Non seulement les sciences,
+mais toutes les institutions humaines s'organisent de
+m&ecirc;me, et sous l'empire des m&ecirc;mes id&eacute;es r&eacute;gulatrices.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cournot</span>,
+<i>Id&eacute;es Fondamentales</i>, i. 4. There is no
+branch of human work whose constant laws have not
+close analogy with those which govern every other
+mode of man's exertion. But more than this, exactly
+as we reduce to greater simplicity and surety any one
+group of these practical laws, we shall find them
+passing the mere condition of connection or analogy,
+and becoming the actual expression of some ultimate
+nerve or fibre of the mighty laws which govern the
+moral world.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ruskin</span>, <i>Seven Lamps</i>, 4. The sum
+total of all intellectual excellence is good sense and
+method. When these have passed into the instinctive
+readiness of habit, when the wheel revolves so
+rapidly that we cannot see it revolve at all, then we
+call the combination genius. But in all modes alike,
+and in all professions, the two sole component parts,
+even of genius, are good sense and method.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Coleridge</span>,
+<i>June</i>, 1814, <i>Mem. of Coleorton</i>, ii. 172. Si
+l'exercice d'un art nous emp&ecirc;che d'en apprendre un<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+autre, il n'en est pas ainsi dans les sciences: la connoissance
+d'une v&eacute;rit&eacute; nous aide &agrave; en decouvrir une
+autre.&mdash;Toutes les sciences sont tellement li&eacute;es
+ensemble qu'il est bien plus facile de les apprendre
+toutes &agrave; la fois que d'en apprendre une seule en la
+d&eacute;tachant des autres.&mdash;Il ne doit songer qu'&agrave; augmenter
+les lumi&egrave;res naturelles de sa raison, non pour r&eacute;soudre
+telle ou telle difficult&eacute; de l'&eacute;cole, mais pour que dans
+chaque circonstance de la vie son intelligence montre
+d'avance &agrave; sa volont&eacute; le parti qu'elle doit prendre.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Descartes</span>,
+<i>&OElig;uvres Choisies</i>, 300, 301. <i>R&egrave;gles pour
+la Direction de l'Esprit.</i> La connaissance de la m&eacute;thode
+qui a guid&eacute; l'homme de g&eacute;nie n'est pas moins utile au
+progr&egrave;s de la science et m&ecirc;me &agrave; sa propre gloire, que
+ses d&eacute;couvertes.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Laplace</span>, <i>Syst&egrave;me du Monde</i>, ii. 371.
+On ne fait rien sans id&eacute;es pr&eacute;con&ccedil;ues, il faut avoir
+seulement la sagesse de ne croire &agrave; leurs d&eacute;ductions
+qu'autant que l'exp&eacute;rience les confirme. Les id&eacute;es
+pr&eacute;con&ccedil;ues, soumises au contr&ocirc;le s&eacute;v&egrave;re de l'exp&eacute;rimentation,
+sont la flamme vivante des sciences d'observation;
+les id&eacute;es fixes en sont le danger.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Pasteur</span>,
+in <i>Histoire d'un Savant</i>, 284. Douter des v&eacute;rit&eacute;s
+humaines, c'est ouvrir la porte aux d&eacute;couvertes; en
+faire des articles de foi, c'est la fermer.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Dumas</span>,
+<i>Discours</i>, i. 123.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> We should not only become familiar with the laws
+of phenomena within our own pursuit, but also with
+the modes of thought of men engaged in other discussions
+and researches, and even with the laws of
+knowledge itself, that highest philosophy.&mdash;Above all
+things, know that we call you not here to run your minds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+into our moulds. We call you here on an excursion,
+on an adventure, on a voyage of discovery into space
+as yet uncharted.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Allbutt</span>, <i>Introductory Address at
+St. George's</i>, October 1889. Consistency in regard to
+opinions is the slow poison of intellectual life.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Davy</span>,
+<i>Memoirs</i>, 68.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> Ce sont vous autres physiologistes des corps
+vivants, qui avez appris &agrave; nous autres physiologistes
+de la soci&eacute;t&eacute; (qui est aussi un corps vivant) la mani&egrave;re
+de l'observer et de tirer des cons&eacute;quences de nos
+observations.&mdash;<span class="smcap">J.&nbsp;B. Say</span> to <span class="smcap">De Candolle</span>, June 1,
+1827.&mdash;<span class="smcap">De Candolle</span>, <i>M&eacute;moires</i>, 567.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Success is certain to the pure and true: success
+to falsehood and corruption, tyranny and aggression,
+is only the prelude to a greater and an irremediable
+fall.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Stubbs</span>, <i>Seventeen Lectures</i>, 20. The Carlylean
+faith, that the cause we fight for, so far as it is true, is
+sure of victory, is the necessary basis of all effective
+activity for good.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Caird</span>, <i>Evolution of Religion</i>, ii. 43.
+It is the property of truth to be fearless, and to
+prove victorious over every adversary. Sound reasoning
+and truth, when adequately communicated, must
+always be victorious over error.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Godwin</span>, <i>Political
+Justice</i> (Conclusion). Vice was obliged to retire and
+give place to virtue. This will always be the consequence
+when truth has fair play. Falsehood only
+dreads the attack, and cries out for auxiliaries. Truth
+never fears the encounter; she scorns the aid of the
+secular arm, and triumphs by her natural strength.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Franklin</span>,
+<i>Works</i>, ii. 292. It is a condition of our race
+that we must ever wade through error in our advance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+towards truth: and it may even be said that in many
+cases we exhaust almost every variety of error before
+we attain the desired goal.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Babbage</span>, <i>Bridgewater
+Treatise</i>, 27. Les hommes ne peuvent, en quelque
+genre que ce soit, arriver &agrave; quelque chose de raisonnable
+qu'apr&egrave;s avoir, en ce m&ecirc;me genre, &eacute;puis&eacute; toutes
+les sottises imaginables. Que de sottises ne dirions-nous
+pas maintenant, si les anciens ne les avaient pas
+d&eacute;j&agrave; dites avant nous, et ne nous les avaient, pour
+ainsi dire, enlev&eacute;es!&mdash;<span class="smcap">Fontenelle</span>. Without premature
+generalisations the true generalisation would
+never be arrived at.&mdash;<span class="smcap">H. Spencer</span>, <i>Essays</i>, ii. 57.
+The more important the subject of difference, the
+greater, not the less, will be the indulgence of him
+who has learned to trace the sources of human error,&mdash;of
+error, that has its origin not in our weakness and
+imperfection merely, but often in the most virtuous
+affections of the heart.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Brown</span>, <i>Philosophy of the
+Human Mind</i>, i. 48, 1824. Parmi les ch&acirc;timents du
+crime qui ne lui manquent jamais, &agrave; c&ocirc;t&eacute; de celui que
+lui inflige la conscience, l'histoire lui en inflige un
+autre encore, &eacute;clatant et manifeste, l'impuissance.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cousin</span>,
+<i>Phil. Mod.</i> ii. 24. L'avenir de la science est
+garanti; car dans le grand livre scientifique tout
+s'ajoute et rien ne se perd. L'erreur ne fonde pas;
+aucune erreur ne dure tr&egrave;s longtemps.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Renan</span>,
+<i>Feuilles D&eacute;tach&eacute;es</i>, xiii. Toutes les fois que deux
+hommes sont d'un avis contraire sur la m&ecirc;me chose, &agrave;
+coup s&ucirc;r, l'un ou l'autre se trompe; bien plus, aucun
+ne semble poss&eacute;der la v&eacute;rit&eacute;; car si les raisons de
+l'un &eacute;toient certaines et &eacute;videntes, il pourroit les<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+exposer &agrave; l'autre de telle mani&egrave;re qu'il finiroit par le
+convaincre &eacute;galement.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Descartes</span>, <i>R&egrave;gles: &OElig;uvres
+Choisies</i>, 302. Le premier principe de la critique est
+qu'une doctrine ne captive ses adh&eacute;rents que par ce
+qu'elle a de l&eacute;gitime.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Renan</span>, <i>Essais de Morale</i>, 184.
+Was dem Wahn solche Macht giebt ist wirklich nicht
+er selbst, sondern die ihm zu Grunde liegende und
+darin nur verzerrte Wahrheit.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Frantz</span>, <i>Schelling's
+Philosophie</i>, i. 62. Quand les hommes ont vu une fois la
+v&eacute;rit&eacute; dans son &eacute;clat, ils ne peuvent plus l'oublier. Elle
+reste debout, et t&ocirc;t ou tard elle triomphe, parce
+qu'elle est la pens&eacute;e de Dieu et le besoin du monde.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Mignet</span>,
+<i>Portraits</i>, ii. 295. C'est toujours le sens
+commun inaper&ccedil;u qui fait la fortune des hypoth&egrave;ses
+auxquelles il se m&ecirc;le.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cousin</span>, <i>Fragments Phil.</i> i. 51.
+Preface of 1826. Wer da sieht wie der Irrthum selbst
+ein Tr&auml;ger mannigfaltigen und bleibenden Fortschritts
+wird, der wird auch nicht so leicht aus dem thats&auml;chlichen
+Fortschritt der Gegenwart auf Unumst&ouml;sslichkeit
+unserer Hypothesen schliessen.&mdash;Das
+richtigste Resultat der geschichtlichen Betrachtung
+ist die akademische Ruhe, mit welcher unsere Hypothesen
+und Theorieen ohne Feindschaft und ohne
+Glauben als das betrachtet werden was sie sind; als
+Stufen in jener unendlichen Ann&auml;herung an die
+Wahrheit, welche die Bestimmung unserer intellectuellen
+Entwicklung zu sein scheint.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lange</span>,
+<i>Geschichte des Materialismus</i>, 502, 503.
+Hominum errores divina providentia reguntur, ita ut
+s&aelig;pe male jacta bene cadant.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Leibniz</span>, ed. Klopp, i.,
+p. lii. Sainte-Beuve n'&eacute;tait m&ecirc;me pas de la race des<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+lib&eacute;raux, c'est-&agrave;-dire de ceux qui croient que, tout
+compte fait, et dans un &eacute;tat de civilisation donn&eacute;, le
+bien triomphe du mal &agrave; armes &eacute;gales, et la v&eacute;rit&eacute; de
+l'erreur.&mdash;<span class="smcap">D'Haussonville</span>, <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>,
+1875, i. 567. In the progress of the human mind,
+a period of controversy amongst the cultivators of any
+branch of science must necessarily precede the period
+of unanimity.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Torrens</span>, <i>Essay on the Production of
+Wealth</i>, 1821, p. xiii. Even the spread of an error is
+part of the wide-world process by which we stumble
+into mere approximations to truth.&mdash;<span class="smcap">L. Stephen</span>,
+<i>Apology of an Agnostic</i>, 81. Errors, to be dangerous,
+must have a great deal of truth mingled with them;
+it is only from this alliance that they can ever obtain
+an extensive circulation.&mdash;<span class="smcap">S. Smith</span>, <i>Moral Philosophy</i>,
+7. The admission of the few errors of Newton himself
+is at least of as much importance to his followers in
+science as the history of the progress of his real discoveries.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Young</span>,
+<i>Works</i>, iii. 621. Error is almost
+always partial truth, and so consists in the exaggeration
+or distortion of one verity by the suppression of
+another, which qualifies and modifies the former.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Mivart</span>,
+<i>Genesis of Species</i>, 3. The attainment of
+scientific truth has been effected, to a great extent,
+by the help of scientific errors.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Huxley: Ward</span>,
+<i>Reign of Victoria</i>, ii. 337. Jede neue tief eingreifende
+Wahrheit hat meiner Ansicht nach erst das Stadium
+der Einseitigkeit durchzumachen.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ihering</span>, <i>Geist des
+R. Rechts</i>, ii. 22. The more readily we admit the
+possibility of our own cherished convictions being
+mixed with error, the more vital and helpful whatever<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+is right in them will become.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ruskin</span>, <i>Ethics of the
+Dust</i>, 225. They hardly grasp the plain truth unless
+they examine the error which it cancels.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cory</span>,
+<i>Modern English History</i>, 1880, i. 109. Nur durch
+Irrthum kommen wir, der eine k&uuml;rzeren und gl&uuml;cklicheren
+Schrittes, als der andere, zur Wahrheit;
+und die Geschichte darf nirgends diese Verirrungen
+&uuml;bergehen, wenn sie Lehrerin und Warnerin f&uuml;r die
+nachfolgenden Geschlechter werden will.&mdash;<i>M&uuml;nchner
+Gel. Anzeigen</i>, 1840, i. 737.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Wie die Weltgeschichte das Weltgericht ist, so
+kann in noch allgemeinerem Sinne gesagt werden, dass
+das gerechte Gericht, d.h. die wahre Kritik einer Sache,
+nur in ihrer Geschichte liegen kann. Insbesondere
+in der Hinsicht lehrt die Geschichte denjenigen, der
+ihr folgt, ihre eigene Methode, dass ihr Fortschritt
+niemals ein reines Vernichten, sondern nur ein Aufheben
+im philosophischen Sinne ist.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Strauss</span>, <i>Hallische
+Jahrb&uuml;cher</i>, 1839, 120.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Dans tous les livres qu'il lit, et il en d&eacute;vore des
+quantit&eacute;s, Darwin ne note que les passages qui contrarient
+ses id&eacute;es syst&eacute;matiques.&mdash;Il collectionne les
+difficult&eacute;s, les cas &eacute;pineux, les critiques possibles.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Vernier</span>,
+<i>Le Temps</i>, 6 D&eacute;cembre, 1887. Je demandais
+&agrave; un savant c&eacute;l&egrave;bre o&ugrave; il en &eacute;tait de ses recherches.
+&#8220;Cela ne marche plus,&#8221; me dit-il, &#8220;je ne trouve plus
+de faits contradictoires.&#8221; Ainsi le savant cherche &agrave; se
+contredire lui-m&ecirc;me pour faire avancer sa pens&eacute;e.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Janet</span>,
+<i>Journal des Savants</i>, 1892, 20. Ein Umstand,
+der uns die Selbst&auml;ndigkeit des Ganges der Wissenschaft
+anschaulich machen kann, ist auch der: dass<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+der Irrthum, wenn er nur gr&uuml;ndlich behandelt wird,
+fast ebenso f&ouml;rdernd ist als das Finden der Wahrheit,
+denn er erzeugt fortgesetzten Widerspruch.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Baer</span>,
+<i>Blicke auf die Entwicklung der Wissenschaft</i>, 120. It
+is only by virtue of the opposition which it has surmounted
+that any truth can stand in the human mind.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Bishop
+Temple; Kinglake</span>, <i>Crimea</i>, <i>Winter Troubles</i>,
+app. 104. I have for many years found it expedient
+to lay down a rule for my own practice, to confine my
+reading mainly to those journals the general line of
+opinions in which is adverse to my own.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Hare</span>,
+<i>Means of Unity</i>, i. 19. Kant had a harder struggle
+with himself than he could possibly have had with any
+critic or opponent of his philosophy.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Caird</span>, <i>Philosophy
+of Kant</i>, 1889, i. p. ix.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> The social body is no more liable to arbitrary
+changes than the individual body.&mdash;A full perception
+of the truth that society is not a mere aggregate, but
+an organic growth, that it forms a whole the laws of
+whose growth can be studied apart from those of the
+individual atom, supplies the most characteristic postulate
+of modern speculation.&mdash;<span class="smcap">L. Stephen</span>, <i>Science of
+Ethics</i>, 31. Wie in dem Leben des Einzelnen Menschen
+kein Augenblick eines vollkommenen Stillstandes
+wahrgenommen wird, sondern stete organische Entwicklung,
+so verh&auml;lt es sich auch in dem Leben
+der V&ouml;lker, und in jedem einzelnen Element, woraus
+dieses Gesammtleben besteht. So finden wir in der
+Sprache stete Fortbildung und Entwicklung, und auf
+gleiche Weise in dem Recht. Und auch diese
+Fortbildung steht unter demselben Gesetz der<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+Erzeugung aus innerer Kraft und Nothwendigkeit,
+unabh&auml;ngig von Zufall und individueller Willk&uuml;r,
+wie die urspr&uuml;ngliche Entstehung.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Savigny</span>, <i>System</i>,
+i. 16, 17. Seine eigene Entdeckung, dass auch die
+geistige Produktion, bis in einem gewissen Punkte
+wenigstens, unter dem Gesetze der Kausalit&auml;t steht,
+dass jedeiner nur geben kann was er hat, nur hat was
+er irgendwoher bekommen, muss auch f&uuml;r ihn selber
+gelten.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Bekker</span>, <i>Das Recht des Besitzes bei den
+R&ouml;mern</i>, 3, 1880. Die geschichtliche Wandlung des
+Rechts, in welcher vergangene Jahrhunderte halb ein
+Spiel des Zufalls und halb ein Werk vern&uuml;nftelnder
+Willk&uuml;r sahen, als gesetzm&auml;ssige Entwickelung zu begreifen,
+war das unsterbliche Verdienst der von M&auml;nnern
+wie Savigny, Eichhorn und Jacob Grimm gef&uuml;hrten
+historischen Rechtsschule.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Gierke</span>, <i>Rundschau</i>,
+xviii. 205.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> The only effective way of studying what is called
+the philosophy of religion, or the philosophical criticism
+of religion, is to study the history of religion.
+The true science of war is the history of war, the true
+science of religion is, I believe, the history of religion.&mdash;<span class="smcap">M.
+M&uuml;ller</span>, <i>Theosophy</i>, 3, 4. La th&eacute;ologie ne doit
+plus &ecirc;tre que l'histoire des efforts spontan&eacute;s tent&eacute;s
+pour r&eacute;soudre le probl&egrave;me divin. L'histoire, en effet,
+est la forme n&eacute;cessaire de la science de tout ce qui
+est soumis aux lois de la vie changeante et successive.
+La science de l'esprit humain, c'est de m&ecirc;me, l'histoire
+de l'esprit humain.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Renan</span>, <i>Averro&euml;s</i>, Pref. vi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Political economy is not a science, in any strict
+sense, but a body of systematic knowledge gathered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+from the study of common processes, which have
+been practised all down the history of the human
+race in the production and distribution of wealth.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Bonamy
+Price</span>, <i>Social Science Congress</i>, 1878. Such
+a study is in harmony with the best intellectual
+tendencies of our age, which is, more than anything
+else, characterized by the universal supremacy of the
+historical spirit. To such a degree has this spirit
+permeated all our modes of thinking, that with respect
+to every branch of knowledge, no less than with
+respect to every institution and every form of human
+activity, we almost instinctively ask, not merely what
+is its existing condition, but what were its earliest
+discoverable germs, and what has been the course
+of its development.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ingram</span>, <i>History of Political
+Economy</i>, 2. Wir dagegen stehen keinen Augenblick an,
+die National&ouml;konomie f&uuml;r eine reine Erfahrungswissenschaft
+zu erkl&auml;ren, und die Geschichte ist uns
+daher nicht H&uuml;lfsmittel, sondern Gegenstand selber.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Roscher</span>,
+<i>Deutsche Vierteljahrschrift</i>, 1849, i. 182.
+Der bei weitem gr&ouml;sste Theil menschlicher Irrth&uuml;mer
+beruhet darauf, dass man zeitlich und &ouml;rtlich Wahres
+oder Heilsames f&uuml;r absolut wahr oder heilsam ausgiebt.
+F&uuml;r jede Stufe der Volksentwickelung passt
+eine besondere Staatsverfassung, die mit allen &uuml;brigen
+Verh&auml;ltnissen des Volks als Ursache und Wirkung auf's
+Innigste verbunden ist; so passt auch f&uuml;r jede
+Entwickelungsstufe eine besondere Landwirthschaftsverfassung.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Roscher</span>,
+<i>Archiv f. p. Oek.</i>, viii., 2 Heft
+1845. Seitdem vor allen Roscher, Hildebrand und
+Knies den Werth, die Berechtigung und die Nothwendigkeit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+derselben unwiderleglich dargethan, hat sich
+immer allgemeiner der Gedanke Bahn gebrochen
+dass diese Wissenschaft, die bis dahin nur auf die
+Gegenwart, auf die Erkenntniss der bestehenden
+Verh&auml;ltnisse und die in ihnen sichtbaren Gesetze den
+Blick gerichtet hatte, auch in die Vergangenheit, in die
+Erforschung der bereits hinter uns liegenden wirthschaftlichen
+Entwicklung der V&ouml;lker sich vertiefen m&uuml;sse.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Sch&ouml;nberg</span>,
+<i>Jahrb&uuml;cher f. National&ouml;konomie und Statistik</i>,
+Neue Folge, 1867, i. 1. Schmoller, moins dogmatique
+et mettant comme une sorte de coquetterie &agrave;
+&ecirc;tre incertain, d&eacute;montre, par les faits, la fausset&eacute; ou
+l'arbitraire de tous ces postulats, et laisse l'&eacute;conomie
+politique se dissoudre dans l'histoire.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Breton</span>, <i>R. de
+Paris</i>, ix. 67. Wer die politische Oekonomie Feuerlands
+unter dieselben Gesetze bringen wollte mit der
+des heutigen Englands, w&uuml;rde damit augenscheinlich
+nichts zu Tage f&ouml;rdern als den allerbanalsten Gemeinplatz.
+Die politische Oekonomie ist somit wesentlich
+eine historische Wissenschaft. Sie behandelt einen
+geschichtlichen, das heisst einen stets wechselnden
+Stoff. Sie untersucht zun&auml;chst die besondern Gesetze
+jeder einzelnen Entwicklungsstufe der Produktion und
+des Austausches, und wird erst am Schluss dieser
+Untersuchung die wenigen, f&uuml;r Produktion und
+Austausch &uuml;berhaupt geltenden, ganz allgemeinen
+Gesetze aufstellen k&ouml;nnen.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Engels</span>, <i>D&uuml;hrings
+Umw&auml;lzung der Wissenschaft</i>, 1878, 121.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> History preserves the student from being led
+astray by a too servile adherence to any system.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Wolowski</span>.
+No system can be anything more than a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+history, not in the order of impression, but in the order
+of arrangement by analogy.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Davy</span>, <i>Memoirs</i>, 68.
+Avec des mat&eacute;riaux si nombreux et si importants, il
+fallait bien du courage pour r&eacute;sister &agrave; la tentation de
+faire un syst&egrave;me. De Saussure eut ce courage, et
+nous en ferons le dernier trait et le trait principal de
+son &eacute;loge.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cuvier</span>, <i>&Eacute;loge de Saussure</i>, 1810.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> C'&eacute;tait, en 1804, une id&eacute;e heureuse et nouvelle,
+d'appeler l'histoire au secours de la science, d'interroger
+les deux grandes &eacute;coles rivales au profit de
+la v&eacute;rit&eacute;.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cousin</span>, <i>Fragments Litt&eacute;raires</i>, 1843, 95,
+on D&eacute;gerando. No branch of philosophical doctrine,
+indeed, can be fairly investigated or apprehended
+apart from its history. All our systems of politics,
+morals, and metaphysics would be different if we knew
+exactly how they grew up, and what transformations
+they have undergone; if we knew, in short, the true
+history of human ideas.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cliffe Leslie</span>, <i>Essays in
+Political and Moral Philosophy</i>, 1879, 149. The
+history of philosophy must be rational and philosophic.
+It must be philosophy itself, with all its elements, in
+all their relations, and under all their laws represented
+in striking characters by the hands of time and of history,
+in the manifested progress of the human mind.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Sir
+William Hamilton</span>, <i>Edin. Rev.</i> l. 200, 1829.
+Il n'est point d'&eacute;tude plus instructive, plus utile que
+l'&eacute;tude de l'histoire de la philosophie; car on y
+apprend &agrave; se d&eacute;sabuser des philosophes, et l'on y d&eacute;sapprend
+la fausse science de leurs syst&egrave;mes.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Royer
+Collard</span>, <i>&OElig;uvres de Reid</i>, iv. 426. On ne peut
+gu&egrave;re &eacute;chapper &agrave; la conviction que toutes les solutions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+des questions philosophiques n'aient &eacute;t&eacute; d&eacute;velopp&eacute;es
+ou indiqu&eacute;es avant le commencement du dix-neuvi&egrave;me
+si&egrave;cle, et que par cons&eacute;quent il ne soit tr&egrave;s difficile, pour
+ne pas dire impossible, de tomber, en pareille mati&egrave;re, sur
+une id&eacute;e neuve de quelque importance. Or si cette conviction
+est fond&eacute;e, il s'ensuit que la science est faite.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Jouffroy</span>,
+in <span class="smcap">Damiron</span>, <i>Philosophie du XIX<sup>e</sup> Si&egrave;cle</i>, 363.
+Le but dernier de tous mes efforts, l'&acirc;me de mes &eacute;crits et
+de tout mon enseignement, c'est l'identit&eacute; de la philosophie
+et de son histoire.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cousin</span>, <i>Cours de 1829</i>.
+Ma route est historique, il est vrai, mais mon but est
+dogmatique; je tends &agrave; une th&eacute;orie, et cette th&eacute;orie je
+la demande &agrave; l'histoire.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cousin</span>, <i>Ph. du XVIII<sup>e</sup>
+Si&egrave;cle</i>, 15. L'histoire de la philosophie est contrainte
+d'emprunter d'abord &agrave; la philosophie la lumi&egrave;re qu'elle
+doit lui rendre un jour avec usure.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cousin</span>, <i>Du Vrai</i>,
+1855, 14. M. Cousin, durant tout son professorat
+de 1816 &agrave; 1829, a pens&eacute; que l'histoire de la philosophie
+&eacute;tait la source de la philosophie m&ecirc;me. Nous
+ne croyons pas exag&eacute;rer en lui pr&ecirc;tant cette opinion.&mdash;<span class="smcap">B.
+St. Hilaire</span>, <i>Victor Cousin</i>, i. 302. Il se h&acirc;ta de
+convertir le fait en loi, et proclama que la philosophie,
+&eacute;tant identique &agrave; son histoire, ne pouvait avoir une loi
+diff&eacute;rente, et &eacute;tait vou&eacute;e &agrave; jamais &agrave; l'&eacute;volution fatale
+des quatre syst&egrave;mes, se contredisant toujours, mais se
+limitant, et se mod&eacute;rant, par cela m&ecirc;me de mani&egrave;re &agrave;
+maintenir l'equilibre, sinon l'harmonie de la pens&eacute;e
+humaine.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Vacherot</span>, <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, 1868,
+iii. 957. Er hat &uuml;berhaupt das unverg&auml;ngliche Verdienst,
+zuerst in Frankreich zu der Erkenntniss gelangt zu
+sein, dass die menschliche Vernunft nur durch das<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+Studium des Gesetzes ihrer Entwickelungen begriffen
+werden kann.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lauser</span>, <i>Unsere Zeit</i>, 1868, i.
+459. Le philosophe en qu&ecirc;te du vrai en soi,
+n'est plus r&eacute;duit &agrave; ses conceptions individuelles;
+il est riche du tr&eacute;sor amass&eacute; par l'humanit&eacute;.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Boutroux</span>,
+<i>Revue Politique</i>, xxxvii. 802. L'histoire,
+je veux dire l'histoire de l'esprit humain, est en
+ce sens la vraie philosophie de notre temps.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Renan</span>,
+<i>&Eacute;tudes de Morale</i>, 83. Die Philosophie wurde
+eine h&ouml;chst bedeutende H&uuml;lfswissenschaft der Geschichte,
+sie hat ihre Richtung auf das Allgemeine gef&ouml;rdert,
+ihren Blick f&uuml;r dasselbe gesch&auml;rft, und sie, wenigstens
+durch ihre Vermittlung, mit Gesichtspuncten,
+Ideen, bereichert die sie aus ihrem eigenen Schoosse
+sobald noch nicht erzeugt haben w&uuml;rde. Weit die
+fruchtbarste darunter war die aus der Naturwissenschaft
+gesch&ouml;pfte Idee des organischen Lebens, dieselbe auf
+der die neueste Philosophie selbst beruht. Die seit zwei
+bis drei Jahrzehnten in der Behandlung der Geschichte
+eingetretene durchgreifende Ver&auml;nderung, wie die
+v&ouml;llige Umgestaltung so mancher anderen Wissenschaft
+... ist der Hauptsache nach ihr Werk.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Haug</span>, <i>Allgemeine
+Geschichte</i>, 1841, i. 22. Eine Geschichte der Philosophie
+in eigentlichen Sinne wurde erst m&ouml;glich als
+man an die Stelle der Philosophen deren Systeme
+setzte, den inneren Zusammenhang zwischen diesen
+feststellte und&mdash;wie Dilthey sagt&mdash;mitten in
+Wechsel der Philosophien ein siegreiches Fortschreiten
+zur Wahrheit nachwies. Die Gesammtheit
+der Philosophie stellt sich also dar als eine geschichtliche
+Einheit.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Saul</span>, <i>Rundschau</i>, Feb. 1894, 307.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+Warum die Philosophie eine Geschichte habe und
+haben m&uuml;sse, blieb uner&ouml;rtert, ja ungeahnt, dass die
+Philosophie am meisten von allen Wissenschaften
+historisch sei, denn man hatte in der Geschichte den
+Begriff der Entwicklung nicht entdeckt.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Marbach</span>,
+<i>Griechische Philosophie</i>, 15. Was bei oberfl&auml;chlicher
+Betrachtung nur ein Gewirre einzelner Personen und
+Meinungen zu sein schien, zeigt sich bei genauerer
+und gr&uuml;ndlicherer Untersuchung als eine geschichtliche
+Entwicklung, in der alles, bald n&auml;her, bald
+entfernter, mit allem anderen zusammenh&auml;ngt.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Zeller</span>,
+<i>Rundschau</i>, Feb. 1894, 307. Nur die
+Philosophie, die an die geschichtliche Entwickelung
+ankn&uuml;pft kann auf bleibenden Erfolg auch f&uuml;r die
+Zukunft rechnen und fortschreiten zu dem, was in der
+bisherigen philosophischen Entwickelung nur erst
+unvollkommen erreicht oder angestrebt worden ist.
+Kann sich doch die Philosophie &uuml;berhaupt und
+insbesondere die Metaphysik ihrer eigenen geschichtlichen
+Entwickelung nicht entschlagen, sondern hat
+eine Geschichte der Philosophie als eigene und zwar
+zugleich historische und spekulative Disziplin, in deren
+geschichtlichen Entwickelungsphasen und geschichtlich
+aufeinanderfolgenden Systemen der Philosophen
+die neuere Spekulation seit Schelling and Hegel zugleich
+die Philosophie selbst als ein die verschiedenen
+geschichtlichen Systeme umfassendes ganzes in seiner
+dialektischen Gliederung erkannt hat.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Gloatz</span>,
+<i>Spekulative Theologie</i>, i. 23. Die heutige Philosophie
+f&uuml;hrt uns auf einen Standpunkt von dem aus die
+philosophische Idee als das innere Wesen der Geschichte<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+selbst erscheint. So trat an die Stelle einer
+abstrakt philosophischen Richtung, welche das Geschichtliche
+verneinte, eine abstrakt geschichtliche
+Richtung welche das Philosophische verl&auml;ugnete.
+Beide Richtungen sind als &uuml;berschrittene und besiegte
+zu betrachten.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Berner</span>, <i>Strafrecht</i>, 75. Die Geschichte
+der Philosophie hat uns fast schon die Wissenschaft
+der Philosophie selbst ersetzt.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Hermann</span>, <i>Phil.
+Monatshefte</i>, ii. 198, 1889.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Le si&egrave;cle actuel sera principalement caract&eacute;ris&eacute;
+par l'irr&eacute;vocable pr&eacute;pond&eacute;rance de l'histoire, en philosophie,
+en politique, et m&ecirc;me en po&eacute;sie.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Comte</span>,
+<i>Politique Positive</i>, iii. 1.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> The historical or comparative method has revolutionized
+not only the sciences of law, mythology, and
+language, of anthropology and sociology, but it has
+forced its way even into the domain of philosophy
+and natural science. For what is the theory of evolution
+itself, with all its far-reaching consequences,
+but the achievement of the historical method?&mdash;<span class="smcap">Prothero</span>,
+<i>Inaugural</i>. <i>National Review</i>, <i>Dec.</i> 1894,
+461. To facilitate the advancement of all the
+branches of useful science, two things seem to be
+principally requisite. The first is, an historical
+account of their rise, progress, and present state.
+Without the former of these helps, a person every
+way qualified for extending the bounds of science
+labours under great disadvantages; wanting the lights
+which have been struck out by others, and perpetually
+running the risk of losing his labour, and finding himself
+anticipated.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Priestley</span>, <i>History of Vision</i>, 1772,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+i. Pref. i. Cuvier se proposait de montrer l'encha&icirc;nement
+scientifique des d&eacute;couvertes, leurs relations avec
+les grands &eacute;v&egrave;nements historiques, et leur influence
+sur les progr&egrave;s et le d&eacute;veloppement de la civilisation.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Dareste</span>,
+<i>Biographie G&eacute;n&eacute;rale</i>, xii. 685.
+Dans ses &eacute;loquentes le&ccedil;ons, l'histoire des sciences est
+devenue l'histoire m&ecirc;me de l'esprit humain; car,
+remontant aux causes de leurs progr&egrave;s et de leurs
+erreurs, c'est toujours dans les bonnes ou mauvaises
+routes suivies par l'esprit humain, qu'il trouve ces
+causes.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Flourens</span>, <i>&Eacute;loge de Cuvier</i>, xxxi. Wie
+keine fortlaufende Entwickelungsreihe von nur Einem
+Punkte aus vollkommen aufzufassen ist, so wird auch
+keine lebendige Wissenschaft nur aus der Gegenwart
+begriffen werden k&ouml;nnen.&mdash;Deswegen ist aber eine
+solche Darstellung doch noch nicht der gesammten
+Wissenschaft ad&auml;quat, und sie birgt, wenn sie damit
+verwechselt wird, starke Gefahren der Einseitigkeit, des
+Dogmatismus und damit der Stagnation in sich.
+Diesen Gefahren kann wirksam nur begegnet werden
+durch die verst&auml;ndige Betrachtung der Geschichte der
+Wissenschaften, welche diese selbst in stetem Flusse
+zeigt und die Tendenz ihres Fortschreitens in offenbarer
+und sicherer Weise klarlegt.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Rosenberger</span>,
+<i>Geschichte der Physik</i>, iii., p. vi. Die Continuit&auml;t in
+der Ausbildung aller Auffassungen tritt um so deutlicher
+hervor, je vollst&auml;ndiger man sich damit, wie sie zu
+verschiedenen Zeiten waren, vertraut macht.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Kopp</span>,
+<i>Entwickelung der Chemie</i>, 814.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Die Geschichte und die Politik sind Ein und
+derselbe Janus mit dem Doppelgesicht, das in der<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+Geschichte in die Vergangenheit, in der Politik in die
+Zukunft hinschaut.&mdash;<span class="smcap">G&uuml;gler's</span> <i>Leben</i>, ii. 59.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> The papers inclosed, which give an account of
+the killing of two men in the county of Londonderry;
+if they prove to be Tories, 'tis very well they are gone.&mdash;I
+think it will not only be necessary to grant those a
+pardon who killed them, but also that they have some
+reward for their own and others' encouragement.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Essex</span>,
+<i>Letters</i>, 10, <i>Jan.</i> 10, 1675. The author of
+this happened to be present. There was a meeting
+of some honest people in the city, upon the occasion
+of the discovery of some attempt to stifle the evidence
+of the witnesses.&mdash;Bedloe said he had letters from
+Ireland, that there were some Tories to be brought
+over hither, who were privately to murder Dr. Oates
+and the said Bedloe. The doctor, whose zeal was
+very hot, could never after this hear any man talk
+against the plot, or against the witnesses, but he
+thought he was one of these Tories, and called almost
+every man a Tory that opposed him in discourse; till
+at last the word Tory became popular.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Defoe</span>,
+<i>Edinburgh Review</i>, l. 403.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> La Espa&ntilde;a ser&aacute; el primer pueblo en donde se
+encender&aacute; esta guerra patriotica que solo puede
+libertar &aacute; Europa.&mdash;Hemos oido esto en Inglaterra &aacute;
+varios de los que estaban alli presentes. Muchas
+veces ha oido lo mismo al duque de Wellington el
+general Don Miguel de Alava, y dicho duque refiri&oacute;
+el suceso en una comida diplomatica que di&oacute; en Paris
+el duque de Richelieu en 1816.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Toreno</span>, <i>Historia
+del Levantamiento de Espa&ntilde;a</i>, 1838, i. 508.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> Nunquam propter auctoritatem illorum, quamvis
+magni sint nominis (supponimus scilicet semper nos
+cum eo agere qui scientiam historicam vult consequi),
+sententias quas secuti sunt ipse tamquam certas
+admittet, sed solummodo ob vim testimoniorum et
+argumentorum quibus eas confirmarunt.&mdash;<span class="smcap">De Smedt</span>,
+<i>Introductio ad historiam critice tractandam</i>, 1866, i. 5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Hundert schwere Verbrechen wiegen nicht so
+schwer in der Schale der Unsittlichkeit, als ein
+unsittliches Princip.&mdash;<i>Hallische Jahrb&uuml;cher</i>, 1839, 308.
+Il faut fl&eacute;trir les crimes; mais il faut aussi, et
+surtout, fl&eacute;trir les doctrines et les syst&egrave;mes qui tendent
+&agrave; les justifier.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Mortimer Ternaux</span>, <i>Histoire de la
+Terreur</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> We see how good and evil mingle in the best of
+men and in the best of causes; we learn to see with
+patience the men whom we like best often in the
+wrong, and the repulsive men often in the right; we
+learn to bear with patience the knowledge that the
+cause which we love best has suffered, from the
+awkwardness of its defenders, so great disparagement,
+as in strict equity to justify the men who were assaulting
+it.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Stubbs</span>, <i>Seventeen Lectures</i>, 97.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Caeteris paribus, on trouvera tousjours que ceux
+qui ont plus de puissance sont sujets &agrave; p&eacute;cher
+davantage; et il n'y a point de th&eacute;or&egrave;me de g&eacute;om&eacute;trie
+qui soit plus asseur&eacute; que cette proposition.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Leibniz</span>,
+1688, ed. Rommel, ii. 197. Il y a toujours eu de la
+malignit&eacute; dans la grandeur, et de l'opposition &agrave; l'esprit
+de l'&Eacute;vangile; mais maintenant il y en a plus que
+jamais, et il semble que comme le monde va &agrave; sa fin,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+celui qui est dans l'&eacute;l&eacute;vation fait tous ses efforts pour
+dominer avec plus de tyrannie, et pour &eacute;touffer les
+maximes du Christianisme et le r&egrave;gne de J&eacute;sus-Christ,
+voiant qu'il s'approche.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Godeau</span>, <i>Lettres</i>, 423,
+March 27, 1667. There is, in fact, an unconquerable
+tendency in all power, save that of knowledge, acting
+by and through knowledge, to injure the mind of him
+by whom that power is exercised.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Wordsworth</span>,
+June 22, 1817. <i>Letters of Lake Poets</i>, 369.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> I cieli han messo sulla terra due giudici delle
+umane azioni, la coscienza e la storia.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Colletta</span>.
+Wenn gerade die edelsten M&auml;nner um des Nachruhmes
+willen gearbeitet haben, so soll die Geschichte ihre
+Belohnung sein, sie auch die Strafe f&uuml;r die Schlechten.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lasaulx</span>,
+<i>Philosophie der K&uuml;nste</i>, 211. Pour juger
+ce qui est bon et juste dans la vie actuelle ou pass&eacute;e,
+il faut poss&eacute;der un criterium, qui ne soit pas tir&eacute; du
+pass&eacute; ou du pr&eacute;sent, mais de la nature humaine.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ahrens</span>,
+<i>Cours de Droit Naturel</i>, i. 67.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> L'homme de notre temps! La conscience
+moderne! Voil&agrave; encore de ces termes qui nous
+ram&egrave;nent la pr&eacute;tendue philosophie de l'histoire et la
+doctrine du progr&egrave;s, quand il s'agit de la justice, c'est-&agrave;-dire
+de la conscience pure et de l'homme rationnel,
+que d'autres si&egrave;cles encore que le n&ocirc;tre ont connu.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Renouvier</span>,
+<i>Crit. Phil.</i> 1873, ii. 55.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> Il faut pardonner aux grands hommes le marchepied
+de leur grandeur.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cousin</span>, in <span class="smcap">J. Simon</span>, <i>Nos
+Hommes d'&Eacute;tat</i>, 1887, 55. L'esprit du XVIII<sup>e</sup> si&egrave;cle
+n'a pas besoin d'apologie: l'apologie d'un si&egrave;cle est
+dans son existence.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cousin</span>, <i>Fragments</i>, iii. 1826.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+Suspendus aux l&egrave;vres &eacute;loquentes de M. Cousin, nous
+l'entend&icirc;mes s'&eacute;crier que la meilleure cause l'emportait
+toujours, que c'&eacute;tait la loi de l'histoire, le rhythme
+immuable du progr&egrave;s.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Gasparin</span>, <i>La Libert&eacute; Morale</i>,
+ii. 63. Cousin verurtheilen heisst darum nichts
+Anderes als jenen Geist historischer Betrachtung
+verdammen, durch welchen das 19 Jahrhundert die
+revolution&auml;re Kritik des 18 Jahrhunderts erg&auml;nzt,
+durch welchen insbesondere Deutschland die geistigen
+Wohlthaten vergolten hat, welche es im Zeitalter der
+Aufkl&auml;rung von seinen westlichen Nachbarn empfangen.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Iodl</span>,
+<i>Gesch. der Ethik</i>, ii. 295. Der Gang der
+Weltgeschichte steht ausserhalb der Tugend, des
+Lasters, und der Gerechtigkeit.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Hegel</span>, <i>Werke</i>, viii.
+425. Die Vermischung des Zuf&auml;lligen im Individuum
+mit dem an ihm Historischen f&uuml;hrt zu
+unz&auml;hligen falschen Ansichten und Urtheilen. Hierzu
+geh&ouml;rt namentlich alles Absprechen &uuml;ber die moralische
+T&uuml;chtigkeit der Individuen, und die Verwunderung,
+welche his zur Verzweiflung an g&ouml;ttlicher Gerechtigkeit
+sich steigert, dass historisch grosse Individuen
+moralisch nichtsw&uuml;rdig erscheinen k&ouml;nnen. Die
+moralische T&uuml;chtigkeit besteht in der Unterordnung
+alles dessen was zuf&auml;llig am Einzelnen unter das an
+ihm dem Allgemeinen Angeh&ouml;rige.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Marbach</span>,
+<i>Geschichte der Griechischen Philosophie</i>, 7. Das Sittliche
+der Neuseel&auml;nder, der Mexikaner ist vielmehr ebenso
+sittlich, wie das der Griechen, der R&ouml;mer; und das
+Sittliche der Christen des Mittelalters ist ebenso
+sittlich, wie das der Gegenwart.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Kirchmann</span>,
+<i>Grundbegriffe des Rechts</i>, 194. Die Geschichtswissenschaft<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+als solche kennt nur ein zeitliches und mithin
+auch nur ein relatives Maass der Dinge. Alle Werthbeurtheilung
+der Geschichte kann daher nur relativ
+und aus zeitlichen Momenten fliessen, und wer sich
+nicht selbst t&auml;uschen und den Dingen nicht Gewalt
+anthun will, muss ein f&uuml;r allemal in dieser Wissenschaft
+auf absolute Werthe verzichten.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lorenz</span>,
+<i>Schlosser</i>, 80. Only according to his faith is each man
+judged. Committed as this deed has been by a pure-minded,
+pious youth, it is a beautiful sign of the time.&mdash;<span class="smcap">De
+Wette</span> to Sand's Mother, <span class="smcap">Cheyne</span>, <i>Founders of
+Criticism</i>, 44. The men of each age must be judged
+by the ideal of their own age and country, and not
+by the ideal of ours.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lecky</span>, <i>Value of History</i>, 50.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> La dur&eacute;e ici-bas, c'est le droit, c'est la sanction de
+Dieu.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Guiraud</span>, <i>Philosophie Catholique de l'Histoire</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> Ceux qui ne sont pas contens de l'ordre des
+choses ne s&ccedil;auroient se vanter d'aimer Dieu comme
+il faut.&mdash;Il faut toujours estre content de l'ordre du
+pass&eacute;, parce qu'il est conforme &agrave; la volont&eacute; de Dieu
+absolue, qu'on connoit par l'&eacute;v&egrave;nement. Il faut
+t&acirc;cher de rendre l'avenir, autant qu'il d&eacute;pend de nous,
+conforme &agrave; la volont&eacute; de Dieu pr&eacute;somptive.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Leibniz</span>,
+<i>Werke</i>, ed. Gerhardt, ii. 136. Ich habe damals bekannt
+und bekenne jetzt, dass die politische Wahrheit
+aus denselben Quellen zu sch&ouml;pfen ist, wie alle anderen,
+aus dem g&ouml;ttlichen Willen und dessen Kundgebung
+in der Geschichte des Menschengeschlechts.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Radowitz</span>,
+<i>Neue Gespr&auml;che</i>, 65.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> A man is great as he contends best with the
+circumstances of his age.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Froude</span>, <i>Short Studies</i> i.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+388. La persuasion que l'homme est avant tout une
+personne morale et libre, et qu'ayant con&ccedil;u seul, dans
+sa conscience et devant Dieu, la r&egrave;gle de sa conduite,
+il doit s'employer tout entier &agrave; l'appliquer en lui, hors
+de lui, absolument, obstin&eacute;ment, inflexiblement, par une
+r&eacute;sistance perp&eacute;tuelle oppos&eacute;e aux autres; et par une
+contrainte perp&eacute;tuelle exerc&eacute;e sur soi, voil&agrave; la grande
+id&eacute;e anglaise.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Taine; Sorel</span>, <i>Discours de R&eacute;ception</i>,
+24. In jeder Zeit des Christenthums hat es einzelne
+M&auml;nner gegeben, die &uuml;ber ihrer Zeit standen und von
+ihren Gegens&auml;tzen nicht ber&uuml;hrt wurden.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Bachmann</span>,
+<i>Hengstenberg</i>, i. 160. Eorum enim qui de iisdem
+rebus mecum aliquid ediderunt, aut solus insanio ego,
+aut solus non insanio; tertium enim non est, nisi
+(quod dicet forte aliquis) insaniamus omnes.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Hobbes</span>,
+quoted by <span class="smcap">De Morgan</span>, June 3, 1858, <i>Life of Sir
+W.&nbsp;R. Hamilton</i>, iii. 552.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> I have now to exhibit a rare combination of good
+qualities, and a steady perseverance in good conduct,
+which raised an individual to be an object of admiration
+and love to all his contemporaries, and have
+made him to be regarded by succeeding generations as
+a model of public and private virtue.&mdash;The evidence
+shows that upon this occasion he was not only under
+the influence of the most vulgar credulity, but that
+he violated the plainest rules of justice, and that
+he really was the murderer of two innocent women.&mdash;Hale's
+motives were most laudable.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Campbell's</span>
+<i>Lives of the Chief Justices</i>, i. 512, 561, 566. It was
+not to be expected of the colonists of New England
+that they should be the first to see through a delusion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+which befooled the whole civilized world, and the
+gravest and most knowing persons in it.&mdash;The people
+of New England believed what the wisest men of the
+world believed at the end of the seventeenth century.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Palfrey</span>,
+<i>New England</i>, iv. 127, 129 (also speaking
+of witchcraft). Il est donc bien &eacute;trange que sa
+s&eacute;v&eacute;rit&eacute; tardive s'exerce aujourd'hui sur un homme
+auquel elle n'a d'autre reproche &agrave; faire que d'avoir
+trop bien servi l'&eacute;tat par des mesures politiques,
+injustes peut-&ecirc;tre, violentes, mais qui, en aucune
+mani&egrave;re, n'avaient l'int&eacute;r&ecirc;t personnel du coupable
+pour objet.&mdash;M. Hastings peut sans doute para&icirc;tre
+r&eacute;pr&eacute;hensible aux yeux des &eacute;trangers, des particuliers
+m&ecirc;me, mais il est assez extraordinaire qu'une nation
+usurpatrice d'une partie de l'Indostan veuille m&ecirc;ler
+les r&egrave;gles de la morale &agrave; celles d'une administration
+forc&eacute;e, injuste et violente par essence, et &agrave; laquelle il
+faudrait renoncer &agrave; jamais pour &ecirc;tre cons&eacute;quent.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Mallet
+du Pan</span>, <i>Memories</i>, ed. Sayous, i. 102.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> On parle volontiers de la stabilit&eacute; de la constitution
+anglaise. La v&eacute;rit&eacute; est que cette constitution est
+toujours en mouvement et en oscillation et qu'elle se
+pr&ecirc;te merveilleusement au jeu de ses diff&eacute;rentes parties.
+Sa solidit&eacute; vient de sa souplesse; elle plie et ne rompt
+pas.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Boutmy</span>, <i>Nouvelle Revue</i>, 1878, 49.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> This is not an age for a man to follow the strict
+morality of better times, yet sure mankind is not yet
+so debased but that there will ever be found some few
+men who will scorn to join concert with the public
+voice when it is not well grounded.&mdash;<i>Savile Correspondence</i>,
+173.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> Cette proposition: L'homme est incomparablement
+plus port&eacute; au mal qu'au bien, et il se fait dans
+le monde incomparablement plus de mauvaises actions
+que de bonnes&mdash;est aussi certaine qu'aucun principe de
+m&eacute;taphysique. Il est donc incomparablement plus
+probable qu'une action faite par un homme, est
+mauvaise, qu'il n'est probable qu'elle soit bonne.
+Il est incomparablement plus probable que ces
+secrets ressorts qui l'ont produite sont corrompus,
+qu'il n'est probable qu'ils soient honn&ecirc;tes.
+Je vous avertis que je parle d'une action qui n'est
+point mauvaise ext&eacute;rieurement.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Bayle</span>, <i>&OElig;uvres</i>,
+ii. 248.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> A Christian is bound by his very creed to suspect
+evil, and cannot release himself.&mdash;His religion
+has brought evil to light in a way in which it never
+was before; it has shown its depth, subtlety, ubiquity;
+and a revelation, full of mercy on the one hand, is
+terrible in its exposure of the world's real state on the
+other. The Gospel fastens the sense of evil upon the
+mind; a Christian is enlightened, hardened, sharpened,
+as to evil; he sees it where others do not.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Mozley</span>,
+<i>Essays</i>, i. 308. All satirists, of course, work in the
+direction of Christian doctrine, by the support they
+give to the doctrine of original sin, making a sort of
+meanness and badness a law of society.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Mozley</span>,
+<i>Letters</i>, 333. Les critiques, m&ecirc;me malveillants, sont
+plus pr&egrave;s de la v&eacute;rit&eacute; derni&egrave;re que les admirateurs.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Nisard</span>,
+<i>Lit. fr.</i>, Conclusion. Les hommes sup&eacute;rieurs
+doivent n&eacute;cessairement passer pour m&eacute;chants. O&ugrave;
+les autres ne voient ni un d&eacute;faut, ni un ridicule,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+ni un vice, leur implacable &oelig;il l'aper&ccedil;oit.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Barbey
+d'Aurevilly</span>, <i>Figaro</i>, March 31, 1888.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Prenons garde de ne pas trop expliquer, pour
+ne pas fournir des arguments &agrave; ceux qui veulent tout
+excuser.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Broglie</span>, <i>R&eacute;ception de Sorel</i>, 46.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> The eternal truths and rights of things exist,
+fortunately, independent of our thoughts or wishes,
+fixed as mathematics, inherent in the nature of man
+and the world. They are no more to be trifled
+with than gravitation.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Froude</span>, <i>Inaugural Lecture at
+St. Andrews</i>, 1869, 41. What have men to do with
+interests? There is a right way and a wrong way.
+That is all we need think about.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Carlyle</span> to
+<span class="smcap">Froude</span>, <i>Longman's Magazine</i>, Dec. 1892, 151. As
+to History, it is full of indirect but very effective
+moral teaching. It is not only, as Bolingbroke called
+it, &#8220;Philosophy teaching by examples,&#8221; but it is
+morality teaching by examples.&mdash;It is essentially the
+study which best helps the student to conceive large
+thoughts.&mdash;It is impossible to overvalue the moral
+teaching of History.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Fitch</span>, <i>Lectures on Teaching</i>,
+432. Judging from the past history of our race, in
+ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, war is a folly and
+a crime.&mdash;Where it is so, it is the saddest and the
+wildest of all follies, and the most heinous of all
+crimes.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Greg</span>, <i>Essays on Political and Social Science</i>,
+1853, i. 562. La volont&eacute; de tout un peuple ne peut
+rendre juste ce qui est injuste: les repr&eacute;sentants
+d'une nation n'ont pas le droit de faire ce que la
+nation n'a pas le droit de faire elle-m&ecirc;me.&mdash;<span class="smcap">B.
+Constant</span>, <i>Principes de Politique</i>, i. 15.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Think not that morality is ambulatory; that
+vices in one age are not vices in another, or that
+virtues, which are under the everlasting seal of right
+reason, may be stamped by opinion.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Sir Thomas
+Browne</span>, <i>Works</i>, iv. 64.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> Osons croire qu'il seroit plus &agrave; propos de mettre
+de c&ocirc;t&eacute; ces traditions, ces usages, et ces coutumes
+souvent si imparfaites, si contradictoires, si incoh&eacute;rentes,
+ou de ne les consulter que pour saisir les inconv&eacute;niens
+et les &eacute;viter; et qu'il faudroit chercher
+non-seulement les &eacute;l&eacute;ments d'une nouvelle l&eacute;gislation,
+mais m&ecirc;me ses derniers d&eacute;tails dans une &eacute;tude approfondie
+de la morale.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Letrosne</span>, <i>R&eacute;flexions sur la
+L&eacute;gislation Criminelle</i>, 137. M. Renan appartient &agrave;
+cette famille d'esprits qui ne croient pas en r&eacute;alit&eacute; la
+raison, la conscience, le droit applicables &agrave; la direction
+des soci&eacute;t&eacute;s humaines, et qui demandent &agrave; l'histoire,
+&agrave; la tradition, non &agrave; la morale, les r&egrave;gles de la politique.
+Ces esprits sont atteints de la maladie du
+si&egrave;cle, le scepticisme moral.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Pillon</span>, <i>Critique Philosophique</i>,
+i. 49.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> The subject of modern history is of all others,
+to my mind, the most interesting, inasmuch as it
+includes all questions of the deepest interest relating
+not to human things only, but to divine.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Arnold</span>,
+<i>Modern History</i>, 311.</p></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+Project Gutenberg's A Lecture on the Study of History, by Lord Acton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Lecture on the Study of History
+
+Author: Lord Acton
+
+Release Date: June 7, 2008 [EBook #25720]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Irma Spehar and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+                   A LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF HISTORY
+
+
+                      MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
+                      LONDON . BOMBAY . CALCUTTA
+                               MELBOURNE
+
+                         THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+                      NEW YORK . BOSTON . CHICAGO
+                        ATLANTA . SAN FRANCISCO
+
+                   THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
+                                TORONTO
+
+
+
+
+                               A LECTURE
+                                  ON
+                         THE STUDY OF HISTORY
+
+                       _DELIVERED AT CAMBRIDGE,
+                            JUNE 11, 1895_
+
+                                  BY
+
+                              LORD ACTON
+                             LL.D., D.C.L.
+                  REGIUS PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY
+
+
+                      MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
+                      ST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON
+                                 1911
+
+
+                    RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED,
+               BRUNSWICK STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S. E.,
+                          AND BUNGAY, SUFFOLK
+
+                    _First Edition, October, 1895.
+                    Second Edition, January, 1896.
+                        Reprinted, 1905, 1911._
+
+
+
+
+FELLOW STUDENTS,
+
+I look back to-day to a time before the middle of the century, when I
+was reading at Edinburgh, and fervently wishing to come to this
+University. At three colleges I applied for admission, and, as things
+then were, I was refused by all. Here, from the first, I vainly fixed
+my hopes, and here, in a happier hour, after five-and-forty years,
+they are at last fulfilled.
+
+[Sidenote: UNITY OF MODERN HISTORY]
+
+I desire first to speak to you of that which I may reasonably call the
+Unity of Modern History, as an easy approach to questions necessary
+to be met on the threshold by any one occupying this place, which my
+predecessor has made so formidable to me by the reflected lustre of
+his name.
+
+You have often heard it said that Modern History is a subject to which
+neither beginning nor end can be assigned. No beginning, because the
+dense web of the fortunes of man is woven without a void; because, in
+society as in nature, the structure is continuous, and we can trace
+things back uninterruptedly, until we dimly descry the Declaration of
+Independence in the forests of Germany. No end, because, on the same
+principle, history made and history making are scientifically
+inseparable and separately unmeaning.
+
+[Sidenote: LINK BETWEEN HISTORY AND POLITICS]
+
+"Politics," said Sir John Seeley, "are vulgar when they are not
+liberalised by history, and history fades into mere literature when
+it loses sight of its relation to practical politics." Everybody
+perceives the sense in which this is true. For the science of politics
+is the one science that is deposited by the stream of history, like
+grains of gold in the sand of a river; and the knowledge of the past,
+the record of truths revealed by experience, is eminently practical,
+as an instrument of action, and a power that goes to the making of the
+future.[1] In France, such is the weight attached to the study of our
+own time, that there is an appointed course of contemporary history,
+with appropriate textbooks.[2] That is a chair which, in the
+progressive division of labour by which both science and government
+prosper,[3] may some day be founded in this country. Meantime, we do
+well to acknowledge the points at which the two epochs diverge. For
+the contemporary differs from the modern in this, that many of its
+facts cannot by us be definitely ascertained. The living do not give
+up their secrets with the candour of the dead; one key is always
+excepted, and a generation passes before we can ensure accuracy.
+Common report and outward seeming are bad copies of the reality, as
+the initiated know it. Even of a thing so memorable as the war of
+1870, the true cause is still obscure; much that we believed has been
+scattered to the winds in the last six months, and further revelations
+by important witnesses are about to appear. The use of history turns
+far more on certainty than on abundance of acquired information.
+
+Beyond the question of certainty is the question of detachment. The
+process by which principles are discovered and appropriated is other
+than that by which, in practice, they are applied; and our most sacred
+and disinterested convictions ought to take shape in the tranquil
+regions of the air, above the tumult and the tempest of active
+life.[4] For a man is justly despised who has one opinion in history
+and another in politics, one for abroad and another at home, one for
+opposition and another for office. History compels us to fasten on
+abiding issues, and rescues us from the temporary and transient.
+Politics and history are interwoven, but are not commensurate. Ours is
+a domain that reaches farther than affairs of state, and is not
+subject to the jurisdiction of governments. It is our function to keep
+in view and to command the movement of ideas, which are not the
+effect but the cause of public events;[5] and even to allow some
+priority to ecclesiastical history over civil, since, by reason of the
+graver issues concerned, and the vital consequences of error, it
+opened the way in research, and was the first to be treated by close
+reasoners and scholars of the higher rank.[6]
+
+[Sidenote: NOT GOVERNED BY NATIONAL CAUSES]
+
+In the same manner, there is wisdom and depth in the philosophy which
+always considers the origin and the germ, and glories in history as
+one consistent epic.[7] Yet every student ought to know that mastery
+is acquired by resolved limitation. And confusion ensues from the
+theory of Montesquieu and of his school, who, adapting the same term
+to things unlike, insist that freedom is the primitive condition of
+the race from which we are sprung.[8] If we are to account mind not
+matter, ideas not force, the spiritual property that gives dignity,
+and grace, and intellectual value to history, and its action on the
+ascending life of man, then we shall not be prone to explain the
+universal by the national, and civilisation by custom.[9] A speech of
+Antigone, a single sentence of Socrates, a few lines that were
+inscribed on an Indian rock before the Second Punic War, the footsteps
+of a silent yet prophetic people who dwelt by the Dead Sea, and
+perished in the fall of Jerusalem, come nearer to our lives than the
+ancestral wisdom of barbarians who fed their swine on the Hercynian
+acorns.
+
+[Sidenote: MEDIAEVAL LIMIT OF MODERN HISTORY]
+
+For our present purpose, then, I describe as modern history that which
+begins four hundred years ago, which is marked off by an evident and
+intelligible line from the time immediately preceding, and displays
+in its course specific and distinctive characteristics of its own.[10]
+The modern age did not proceed from the mediaeval by normal succession,
+with outward tokens of legitimate descent. Unheralded, it founded a
+new order of things, under a law of innovation, sapping the ancient
+reign of continuity. In those days Columbus subverted the notions of
+the world, and reversed the conditions of production, wealth and
+power; in those days, Machiavelli released government from the
+restraint of law; Erasmus diverted the current of ancient learning
+from profane into Christian channels; Luther broke the chain of
+authority and tradition at the strongest link; and Copernicus erected
+an invincible power that set for ever the mark of progress upon the
+time that was to come. There is the same unbound originality and
+disregard for inherited sanctions in the rare philosophers as in the
+discovery of Divine Right, and the intruding Imperialism of Rome. The
+like effects are visible everywhere, and one generation beheld them
+all. It was an awakening of new life; the world revolved in a
+different orbit, determined by influences unknown before. After many
+ages persuaded of the headlong decline and impending dissolution of
+society,[11] and governed by usage and the will of masters who were in
+their graves, the sixteenth century went forth armed for untried
+experience, and ready to watch with hopefulness a prospect of
+incalculable change.
+
+[Sidenote: INFLUENCE OF KNOWLEDGE ON MODERN HISTORY]
+
+That forward movement divides it broadly from the older world; and the
+unity of the new is manifest in the universal spirit of investigation
+and discovery which did not cease to operate, and withstood the
+recurring efforts of reaction, until, by the advent of the reign of
+general ideas which we call the Revolution, it at length
+prevailed.[12] This successive deliverance and gradual passage, for
+good and evil, from subordination to independence is a phenomenon of
+primary import to us, because historical science has been one of its
+instruments.[13] If the Past has been an obstacle and a burden,
+knowledge of the Past is the safest and the surest emancipation. And
+the earnest search for it is one of the signs that distinguish the
+four centuries of which I speak from those that went before. The
+middle ages, which possessed good writers of contemporary narrative,
+were careless and impatient of older fact. They became content to be
+deceived, to live in a twilight of fiction, under clouds of false
+witness, inventing according to convenience, and glad to welcome the
+forger and the cheat.[14] As time went on, the atmosphere of
+accredited mendacity thickened, until, in the Renaissance, the art of
+exposing falsehood dawned upon keen Italian minds. It was then that
+history as we understand it began to be understood, and the
+illustrious dynasty of scholars arose to whom we still look both for
+method and material. Unlike the dreaming prehistoric world, ours knows
+the need and the duty to make itself master of the earlier times, and
+to forfeit nothing of their wisdom or their warnings,[15] and has
+devoted its best energy and treasure to the sovereign purpose of
+detecting error and vindicating entrusted truth.[16]
+
+[Sidenote: INTERNATIONAL IDEAS]
+
+[Sidenote: MEMORABLE MEN]
+
+[Sidenote: INDEPENDENT MINDS]
+
+In this epoch of full-grown history men have not acquiesced in the
+given conditions of their lives. Taking little for granted they have
+sought to know the ground they stand on, and the road they travel, and
+the reason why. Over them, therefore, the historian has obtained an
+increasing ascendancy.[17] The law of stability was overcome by the
+power of ideas, constantly varied and rapidly renewed;[18] ideas that
+give life and motion, that take wing and traverse seas and frontiers,
+making it futile to pursue the consecutive order of events in the
+seclusion of a separate nationality.[19] They compel us to share the
+existence of societies wider than our own, to be familiar with distant
+and exotic types, to hold our march upon the loftier summits, along
+the central range, to live in the company of heroes, and saints, and
+men of genius, that no single country could produce. We cannot afford
+wantonly to lose sight of great men and memorable lives, and are bound
+to store up objects for admiration as far as may be;[20] for the
+effect of implacable research is constantly to reduce their number. No
+intellectual exercise, for instance, can be more invigorating than to
+watch the working of the mind of Napoleon, the most entirely known as
+well as the ablest of historic men. In another sphere, it is the
+vision of a higher world to be intimate with the character of Fenelon,
+the cherished model of politicians, ecclesiastics, and men of letters,
+the witness against one century and precursor of another, the advocate
+of the poor against oppression, of liberty in an age of arbitrary
+power, of tolerance in an age of persecution, of the humane virtues
+among men accustomed to sacrifice them to authority, the man of whom
+one enemy says that his cleverness was enough to strike terror, and
+another, that genius poured in torrents from his eyes. For the minds
+that are greatest and best alone furnish the instructive examples. A
+man of ordinary proportion or inferior metal knows not how to think
+out the rounded circle of his thought, how to divest his will of its
+surroundings and to rise above the pressure of time and race and
+circumstance,[21] to choose the star that guides his course, to
+correct, and test, and assay his convictions by the light within,[22]
+and, with a resolute conscience and ideal courage, to re-model and
+reconstitute the character which birth and education gave him.[23]
+
+[Sidenote: FOREIGN CONSTITUTIONS]
+
+For ourselves, if it were not the quest of the higher level and the
+extended horizon, international history would be imposed by the
+exclusive and insular reason that parliamentary reporting is younger
+than parliaments. The foreigner has no mystic fabric in his
+government, and no _arcanum imperii_. For him, the foundations have
+been laid bare; every motive and function of the mechanism is
+accounted for as distinctly as the works of a watch. But with our
+indigenous constitution, not made with hands or written upon paper,
+but claiming to develope by a law of organic growth; with our
+disbelief in the virtue of definitions and general principles and our
+reliance on relative truths, we can have nothing equivalent to the
+vivid and prolonged debates in which other communities have displayed
+the inmost secrets of political science to every man who can read.
+And the discussions of constituent assemblies, at Philadelphia,
+Versailles and Paris, at Cadiz and Brussels, at Geneva, Frankfort and
+Berlin, above nearly all, those of the most enlightened States in the
+American Union, when they have recast their institutions, are
+paramount in the literature of politics, and proffer treasures which
+at home we have never enjoyed.
+
+[Sidenote: RESOURCES OF MODERN HISTORY]
+
+[Sidenote: BEGINNING OF THE DOCUMENTARY AGE]
+
+To historians the later part of their enormous subject is precious
+because it is inexhaustible. It is the best to know because it is the
+best known and the most explicit. Earlier scenes stand out from a
+background of obscurity. We soon reach the sphere of hopeless
+ignorance and unprofitable doubt. But hundreds and even thousands of
+the moderns have borne testimony against themselves, and may be
+studied in their private correspondence and sentenced on their own
+confession. Their deeds are done in the daylight. Every country opens
+its archives and invites us to penetrate the mysteries of State. When
+Hallam wrote his chapter on James II., France was the only Power whose
+reports were available. Rome followed, and the Hague; and then came
+the stores of the Italian States, and at last the Prussian and the
+Austrian papers, and partly those of Spain. Where Hallam and Lingard
+were dependent on Barillon, their successors consult the diplomacy of
+ten governments. The topics indeed are few on which the resources have
+been so employed that we can be content with the work done for us, and
+never wish it to be done over again. Part of the lives of Luther and
+Frederic, a little of the Thirty Years' War, much of the American
+Revolution and the French Restoration, the early years of Richelieu
+and Mazarin, and a few volumes of Mr. Gardiner, show here and there
+like Pacific islands in the ocean. I should not even venture to claim
+for Ranke, the real originator of the heroic study of records, and the
+most prompt and fortunate of European pathfinders, that there is one
+of his seventy volumes that has not been overtaken and in part
+surpassed. It is through his accelerating influence mainly that our
+branch of study has become progressive, so that the best master is
+quickly distanced by the better pupil.[24] The Vatican archives alone,
+now made accessible to the world, filled 3,239 cases when they were
+sent to France; and they are not the richest. We are still at the
+beginning of the documentary age, which will tend to make history
+independent of historians, to develope learning at the expense of
+writing, and to accomplish a revolution in other sciences as well.[25]
+
+[Sidenote: MODERN HISTORY]
+
+To men in general I would justify the stress I am laying on modern
+history, neither by urging its varied wealth, nor the rupture with
+precedent, nor the perpetuity of change and increase of pace, nor the
+growing predominance of opinion over belief, and of knowledge over
+opinion, but by the argument that it is a narrative told of ourselves,
+the record of a life which is our own, of efforts not yet abandoned to
+repose, of problems that still entangle the feet and vex the hearts of
+men. Every part of it is weighty with inestimable lessons that we
+must learn by experience and at a great price, if we know not how to
+profit by the example and teaching of those who have gone before us,
+in a society largely resembling the one we live in.[26] Its study
+fulfils its purpose even if it only makes us wiser, without producing
+books, and gives us the gift of historical thinking, which is better
+than historical learning.[27] It is a most powerful ingredient in the
+formation of character and the training of talent, and our historical
+judgments have as much to do with hopes of heaven as public or private
+conduct. Convictions that have been strained through the instances and
+the comparisons of modern times differ immeasurably in solidity and
+force from those which every new fact perturbs, and which are often
+little better than illusions or unsifted prejudice.[28]
+
+[Sidenote: A SCHOOL OF OPINION]
+
+[Sidenote: INFLUENCE OF THE RELIGIOUS ELEMENT]
+
+The first of human concerns is religion, and it is the salient feature
+of the modern centuries. They are signalised as the scene of
+Protestant developments. Starting from a time of extreme indifference,
+ignorance, and decline, they were at once occupied with that conflict
+which was to rage so long, and of which no man could imagine the
+infinite consequences. Dogmatic conviction--for I shun to speak of
+faith in connection with many characters of those days--dogmatic
+conviction rose to be the centre of universal interest, and remained
+down to Cromwell the supreme influence and motive of public policy. A
+time came when the intensity of prolonged conflict, when even the
+energy of antagonistic assurance, abated somewhat, and the
+controversial spirit began to make room for the scientific; and as the
+storm subsided, and the area of settled questions emerged, much of
+the dispute was abandoned to the serene and soothing touch of
+historians, invested as they are with the prerogative of redeeming the
+cause of religion from many unjust reproaches, and from the graver
+evil of reproaches that are just. Ranke used to say that Church
+interests prevailed in politics until the Seven Years' War, and marked
+a phase of society that ended when the hosts of Brandenburg went into
+action at Leuthen, chanting their Lutheran hymns.[29] That bold
+proposition would be disputed even if applied to the present age.
+After Sir Robert Peel had broken up his party, the leaders who
+followed him declared that no-popery was the only basis on which it
+could be reconstructed.[30] On the other side may be urged that, in
+July 1870, at the outbreak of the French war, the only government
+that insisted on the abolition of the temporal power was Austria; and
+since then we have witnessed the fall of Castelar, because he
+attempted to reconcile Spain with Rome.
+
+[Sidenote: RELIGION]
+
+Soon after 1850 several of the most intelligent men in France, struck
+by the arrested increase of their own population and by the telling
+statistics from Further Britain, foretold the coming preponderance of
+the English race. They did not foretell, what none could then foresee,
+the still more sudden growth of Prussia, or that the three most
+important countries of the globe would, by the end of the century, be
+those that chiefly belonged to the conquests of the Reformation. So
+that in Religion, as in so many things, the product of these
+centuries has favoured the new elements; and the centre of gravity,
+moving from the Mediterranean nations to the Oceanic, from the Latin
+to the Teuton, has also passed from the Catholic to the
+Protestant.[31]
+
+[Sidenote: THE CAUSE OF LIBERTY]
+
+[Sidenote: REVOLUTION]
+
+Out of these controversies proceeded political as well as historical
+science. It was in the Puritan phase, before the restoration of the
+Stuarts, that theology, blending with politics, effected a fundamental
+change. The essentially English reformation of the seventeenth century
+was less a struggle between churches than between sects, often
+subdivided by questions of discipline and self-regulation rather than
+by dogma. The sectaries cherished no purpose or prospect of prevailing
+over the nations; and they were concerned with the individual more
+than with the congregation, with conventicles, not with
+state-churches. Their view was narrowed, but their sight was
+sharpened. It appeared to them that governments and institutions are
+made to pass away, like things of earth, whilst souls are immortal;
+that there is no more proportion between liberty and power than
+between eternity and time; that, therefore, the sphere of enforced
+command ought to be restricted within fixed limits, and that which had
+been done by authority, and outward discipline, and organised
+violence, should be attempted by division of power, and committed to
+the intellect and the conscience of free men.[32] Thus was exchanged
+the dominion of will over will for the dominion of reason over reason.
+The true apostles of toleration are not those who sought protection
+for their own beliefs, or who had none to protect; but men to whom,
+irrespective of their cause, it was a political, a moral, and a
+theological dogma, a question of conscience, involving both religion
+and policy.[33] Such a man was Socinus; and others arose in the
+smaller sects--the Independent founder of the colony of Rhode Island,
+and the Quaker patriarch of Pennsylvania. Much of the energy and zeal
+which had laboured for authority of doctrine was employed for liberty
+of prophesying. The air was filled with the enthusiasm of a new cry;
+but the cause was still the same. It became a boast that religion was
+the mother of freedom, that freedom was the lawful off spring of
+religion; and this transmutation, this subversion of established forms
+of political life by the development of religious thought, brings us
+to the heart of my subject, to the significant and central feature of
+the historic cycle before us. Beginning with the strongest religious
+movement and the most refined despotism ever known, it has led to the
+superiority of politics over divinity in the life of nations, and
+terminates in the equal claim of every man to be unhindered by man in
+the fulfilment of duty to God[34]--a doctrine laden with storm and
+havoc, which is the secret essence of the Rights of Man, and the
+indestructible soul of Revolution.
+
+[Sidenote: THE MODE OF LIBERTY]
+
+[Sidenote: PROGRESS]
+
+[Sidenote: THE MARK OF PROVIDENCE]
+
+When we consider what the adverse forces were, their sustained
+resistance, their frequent recovery, the critical moments when the
+struggle seemed for ever desperate, in 1685, in 1772, in 1808, it is
+no hyperbole to say that the progress of the world towards
+self-government would have been arrested but for the strength afforded
+by the religious motive in the seventeenth century. And this
+constancy of progress, of progress in the direction of organised and
+assured freedom, is the characteristic fact of modern history, and its
+tribute to the theory, of Providence.[35] Many persons, I am well
+assured, would detect that this is a very old story, and a trivial
+commonplace, and would challenge proof that the world is making
+progress in aught but intellect, that it is gaining in freedom, or
+that increase in freedom is either a progress or a gain. Ranke, who
+was my own master, rejected the view that I have stated;[36] Comte,
+the master of better men, believed that we drag a lengthening chain
+under the gathered weight of the dead hand;[37] and many of our recent
+classics, Carlyle, Newman, Froude, were persuaded that there is no
+progress justifying the ways of God to man, and that the mere
+consolidation of liberty is like the motion of creatures whose advance
+is in the direction of their tails. They deem that anxious precaution
+against bad government is an obstruction to good, and degrades
+morality and mind by placing the capable at the mercy of the
+incapable, dethroning enlightened virtue for the benefit of the
+average man. They hold that great and salutary things are done for
+mankind by power concentrated, not by power balanced and cancelled and
+dispersed, and that the whig theory, sprung from decomposing sects,
+the theory that authority is legitimate only by virtue of its checks,
+and that the sovereign is dependent on the subject, is rebellion
+against the divine will manifested all down the stream of time.
+
+[Sidenote: CERTAINTY]
+
+[Sidenote: DEPENDENT ON RESERVE]
+
+I state the objection not that we may plunge into the crucial
+controversy of a science that is not identical with ours, but in order
+to make my drift clear by the defining aid of express contradiction.
+No political dogma is as serviceable to my purpose here as the
+historian's maxim to do the best he can for the other side, and to
+avoid pertinacity or emphasis on his own. Like the economic precept
+_Laissez-faire_[38] which the eighteenth century derived from Colbert,
+it has been an important, if not a final step in the making of method.
+The strongest and most impressive personalities, it is true, like
+Macaulay, Thiers, and the two greatest of living writers, Mommsen and
+Treitschke, project their own broad shadow upon their pages. This is a
+practice proper to great men, and a great man may be worth several
+immaculate historians. Otherwise there is virtue in the saying that a
+historian is seen at his best when he does not appear.[39] Better for
+us is the example of the Bishop of Oxford, who never lets us know what
+he thinks of anything but the matter before him; and of his
+illustrious French rival, Fustel de Coulanges, who said to an excited
+audience: "Do not imagine you are listening to me; it is history
+itself that speaks."[40] We can found no philosophy on the observation
+of four hundred years, excluding three thousand. It would be an
+imperfect and a fallacious induction. But I hope that even this narrow
+and disedifying section of history will aid you to see that the action
+of Christ who is risen on mankind whom he redeemed fails not, but
+increases;[41] that the wisdom of divine rule appears not in the
+perfection but in the improvement of the world;[42] and that achieved
+liberty is the one ethical result that rests on the converging and
+combined conditions of advancing civilisation.[43] Then you will
+understand what a famous philosopher said, that History is the true
+demonstration of Religion.[44]
+
+[Sidenote: MEANING OF LIBERTY]
+
+But what do people mean who proclaim that liberty is the palm, and the
+prize, and the crown, seeing that it is an idea of which there are two
+hundred definitions, and that this wealth of interpretation has caused
+more bloodshed than anything, except theology? Is it Democracy as in
+France, or Federalism as in America, or the national independence
+which bounds the Italian view, or the reign of the fittest, which is
+the ideal of Germans?[45] I know not whether it will ever fall within
+my sphere of duty to trace the slow progress of that idea through the
+chequered scenes of our history, and to describe how subtle
+speculations touching the nature of conscience promoted a nobler and
+more spiritual conception of the liberty that protects it,[46] until
+the guardian of rights developed into the guardian of duties which are
+the cause of rights,[47] and that which had been prized as the
+material safeguard for treasures of earth became sacred as security
+for things that are divine. All that we require is a workday key to
+history, and our present need can be supplied without pausing to
+satisfy philosophers. Without inquiring how far Sarasa or Butler, Kant
+or Vinet, is right as to the infallible voice of God in man, we may
+easily agree in this, that where absolutism reigned, by irresistible
+arms, concentrated possessions, auxiliary churches, and inhuman laws,
+it reigns no more; that commerce having risen against land, labour
+against wealth, the state against the forces dominant in society,[48]
+the division of power against the state, the thought of individuals
+against the practice of ages, neither authorities, nor minorities, nor
+majorities can command implicit obedience; and, where there has been
+long and arduous experience, a rampart of tried conviction and
+accumulated knowledge,[49] where there is a fair level of general
+morality, education, courage, and self-restraint, there, if there
+only, a society may be found that exhibits the condition of life
+towards which, by elimination of failures, the world has been moving
+through the allotted space.[50] You will know it by outward signs:
+Representation, the extinction of slavery, the reign of opinion, and
+the like; better still by less apparent evidences: the security of the
+weaker groups[51] and the liberty of conscience, which, effectually
+secured, secures the rest.
+
+[Sidenote: THE GROWTH OF REVOLUTION]
+
+[Sidenote: RENOVATION OF HISTORY BY REVOLUTION]
+
+Here we reach a point at which my argument threatens to abut on a
+contradiction. If the supreme conquests of society are won more often
+by violence than by lenient arts, if the trend and drift of things is
+towards convulsions and catastrophes,[52] if the world owes religious
+liberty to the Dutch Revolution, constitutional government to the
+English, federal republicanism to the American, political equality to
+the French and its successors,[53] what is to become of us, docile and
+attentive students of the absorbing Past? The triumph of the
+Revolutionist annuls the historian.[54] By its authentic exponents,
+Jefferson and Sieyes, the Revolution of the last century repudiates
+history. Their followers renounced acquaintance with it, and were
+ready to destroy its records and to abolish its inoffensive
+professors. But the unexpected truth, stranger than fiction, is that
+this was not the ruin but the renovation of history. Directly and
+indirectly, by process of development and by process of reaction, an
+impulse was given which made it infinitely more effectual as a factor
+of civilisation than ever before, and a movement began in the world of
+minds which was deeper and more serious than the revival of ancient
+learning.[55] The dispensation under which we live and labour consists
+first in the recoil from the negative spirit that rejected the law of
+growth, and partly in the endeavour to classify and adjust the
+revolution, and to account for it by the natural working of historic
+causes. The Conservative line of writers, under the name of the
+Romantic or Historical School, had its seat in Germany, looked upon
+the Revolution as an alien episode, the error of an age, a disease to
+be treated by the investigation of its origin, and strove to unite the
+broken threads and to restore the normal conditions of organic
+evolution. The Liberal School, whose home was France, explained and
+justified the Revolution as a true development, and the ripened fruit
+of all history.[56] These are the two main arguments of the generation
+to which we owe the notion and the scientific methods that make
+history so unlike what it was to the survivors of the last century.
+Severally, the innovators were not superior to the men of old.
+Muratori was as widely read, Tillemont as accurate, Leibniz as able,
+Freret as acute, Gibbon as masterly in the craft of composite
+construction. Nevertheless, in the second quarter of this century, a
+new era began for historians.
+
+[Sidenote: USE OF UNPUBLISHED SOURCES]
+
+[Sidenote: INSUFFICIENCY OF BOOKS]
+
+I would point to three things in particular, out of many, which
+constitute the amended order. Of the incessant deluge of new and
+unsuspected matter I need say little. For some years, the secret
+archives of the papacy were accessible at Paris; but the time was not
+ripe, and almost the only man whom they availed was the archivist
+himself.[57] Towards 1830 the documentary studies began on a large
+scale, Austria leading the way. Michelet, who claims, towards 1836,
+to have been the pioneer,[58] was preceded by such rivals as
+Mackintosh, Bucholtz, and Mignet. A new and more productive period
+began thirty years later, when the war of 1859 laid open the spoils of
+Italy. Every country in succession has now allowed the exploration of
+its records, and there is more fear of drowning than of drought. The
+result has been that a lifetime spent in the largest collection of
+printed books would not suffice to train a real master of modern
+history. After he had turned from literature to sources, from Burnet
+to Pocock, from Macaulay to Madame Campana, from Thiers to the
+interminable correspondence of the Bonapartes, he would still feel
+instant need of inquiry at Venice or Naples, in the Ossuna library or
+at the Hermitage.[59]
+
+[Sidenote: HISTORY RENEWED BY CRITICISM]
+
+These matters do not now concern us. For our purpose, the main thing
+to learn is not the art of accumulating material, but the sublimer art
+of investigating it, of discerning truth from falsehood, and certainty
+from doubt. It is by solidity of criticism more than by the plenitude
+of erudition, that the study of history strengthens, and straightens,
+and extends the mind.[60] And the accession of the critic in the place
+of the indefatigable compiler, of the artist in coloured narrative,
+the skilled limner of character, the persuasive advocate of good, or
+other, causes, amounts to a transfer of government, to a change of
+dynasty, in the historic realm. For the critic is one who, when he
+lights on an interesting statement, begins by suspecting it. He
+remains in suspense until he has subjected his authority to three
+operations. First, he asks whether he has read the passage as the
+author wrote it. For the transcriber, and the editor, and the official
+or officious censor on the top of the editor, have played strange
+tricks, and have much to answer for. And if they are not to blame, it
+may turn out that the author wrote his book twice over, that you can
+discover the first jet, the progressive variations, things added, and
+things struck out. Next is the question where the writer got his
+information. If from a previous writer, it can be ascertained, and the
+inquiry has to be repeated. If from unpublished papers, they must be
+traced, and when the fountain head is reached, or the track
+disappears, the question of veracity arises. The responsible writer's
+character, his position, antecedents, and probable motives have to be
+examined into; and this is what, in a different and adapted sense of
+the word, may be called the higher criticism, in comparison with the
+servile and often mechanical work of pursuing statements to their
+root. For a historian has to be treated as a witness, and not believed
+unless his sincerity is established.[61] The maxim that a man must be
+presumed to be innocent until his guilt is proved, was not made for
+him.
+
+[Sidenote: CRITICAL STUDY OF EARLIER TIMES]
+
+For us then the estimate of authorities, the weighing of testimony, is
+more meritorious than the potential discovery of new matter.[62] And
+modern history, which is the widest field of application, is not the
+best to learn our business in; for it is too wide, and the harvest has
+not been winnowed as in antiquity, and further on to the Crusades. It
+is better to examine what has been done for questions that are
+compact and circumscribed, such as the sources of Plutarch's
+_Pericles_, the two tracts on Athenian government, the origin of the
+epistle to Diognetus, the date of the life of St. Antony; and to learn
+from Schwegler how this analytical work began. More satisfying because
+more decisive has been the critical treatment of the mediaeval writers,
+parallel with the new editions, on which incredible labour has been
+lavished, and of which we have no better examples than the prefaces of
+Bishop Stubbs. An important event in this series was the attack on
+Dino Compagni, which, for the sake of Dante, roused the best Italian
+scholars to a not unequal contest. When we are told that England is
+behind the Continent in critical faculty, we must admit that this is
+true as to quantity, not as to quality of work. As they are no longer
+living, I will say of two Cambridge professors, Lightfoot and Hort,
+that they were critical scholars whom neither Frenchman nor German has
+surpassed.
+
+[Sidenote: DEGREES OF IMPARTIALITY]
+
+The third distinctive note of the generation of writers who dug so
+deep a trench between history as known to our grandfathers and as it
+appears to us, is their dogma of impartiality. To an ordinary man the
+word means no more than justice. He considers that he may proclaim the
+merits of his own religion, of his prosperous and enlightened country,
+of his political persuasion, whether democracy, or liberal monarchy,
+or historic conservatism, without transgression or offence, so long as
+he is fair to the relative, though inferior merits of others, and
+never treats men as saints or as rogues for the side they take. There
+is no impartiality, he would say, like that of a hanging judge. The
+men who, with the compass of criticism in their hands, sailed the
+uncharted sea of original research, proposed a different view.
+History, to be above evasion or dispute, must stand on documents, not
+on opinions. They had their own notion of truthfulness, based on the
+exceeding difficulty of finding truth, and the still greater
+difficulty of impressing it when found. They thought it possible to
+write, with so much scruple, and simplicity, and insight, as to carry
+along with them every man of good will, and, whatever his feelings, to
+compel his assent. Ideas which, in religion and in politics, are
+truths, in history are forces. They must be respected; they must not
+be affirmed. By dint of a supreme reserve, by much self-control, by a
+timely and discreet indifference, by secrecy in the matter of the
+black cap, history might be lifted above contention, and made an
+accepted tribunal, and the same for all.[63] If men were truly
+sincere, and delivered judgment by no canons but those of evident
+morality, then Julian would be described in the same terms by
+Christian and pagan, Luther by Catholic and Protestant, Washington by
+Whig and Tory, Napoleon by patriotic Frenchman and patriotic
+German.[64]
+
+[Sidenote: MORALITY THE SOLE RULE OF JUDGMENT]
+
+I speak of this school with reverence, for the good it has done, by
+the assertion of historic truth and of its legitimate authority over
+the minds of men. It provides a discipline which every one of us does
+well to undergo, and perhaps also well to relinquish. For it is not
+the whole truth. Lanfrey's essay on Carnot, Chuquet's wars of the
+Revolution, Ropes's military histories, Roget's Geneva in the time of
+Calvin, will supply you with examples of a more robust impartiality
+than I have described. Renan calls it the luxury of an opulent and
+aristocratic society, doomed to vanish in an age of fierce and sordid
+striving. In our universities it has a magnificent and appointed
+refuge; and to serve its cause, which is sacred, because it is the
+cause of truth and honour, we may import a profitable lesson from the
+highly unscientific region of public life. There a man does not take
+long to find out that he is opposed by some who are abler and better
+than himself. And, in order to understand the cosmic force and the
+true connection of ideas, it is a source of power, and an excellent
+school of principle, not to rest until, by excluding the fallacies,
+the prejudices, the exaggerations which perpetual contention and the
+consequent precautions breed, we have made out for our opponents a
+stronger and more impressive case than they present themselves.[65]
+Excepting one to which we are coming before I release you, there is no
+precept less faithfully observed by historians.
+
+[Sidenote: EXAMPLE OF RANKE]
+
+Ranke is the representative of the age which instituted the modern
+study of history. He taught it to be critical, to be colourless, and
+to be new. We meet him at every step, and he has done more for us than
+any other man. There are stronger books than any one of his, and some
+may have surpassed him in political, religious, philosophic insight,
+in vividness of the creative imagination, in originality, elevation,
+and depth of thought; but by the extent of important work well
+executed, by his influence on able men, and by the amount of knowledge
+which mankind receives and employs with the stamp of his mind upon it,
+he stands without a rival. I saw him last in 1877, when he was feeble,
+sunken, and almost blind, and scarcely able to read or write. He
+uttered his farewell with kindly emotion, and I feared that the next I
+should hear of him would be the news of his death. Two years later he
+began a Universal History which is not without traces of weakness, but
+which, composed after the age of eighty-three, and carried, in
+seventeen volumes, far into the Middle Ages, brings to a close the
+most astonishing career in literature.
+
+[Sidenote: SUPPRESSION OF OPINION]
+
+His course had been determined, in early life, by _Quentin Durward_.
+The shock of the discovery that Scott's Lewis the Eleventh was
+inconsistent with the original in Commynes made him resolve that his
+object thenceforth should be above all things to follow, without
+swerving, and in stern subordination and surrender, the lead of his
+authorities. He decided effectually to repress the poet, the patriot,
+the religious or political partisan, to sustain no cause, to banish
+himself from his books, and to write nothing that would gratify his
+own feelings or disclose his private convictions.[66] When a strenuous
+divine who, like him, had written on the Reformation, hailed him as a
+comrade, Ranke repelled his advances. "You," he said, "are in the
+first place a Christian: I am in the first place a historian. There is
+a gulf between us."[67] He was the first eminent writer who exhibited
+what Michelet calls _le desinteressement des morts_. It was a moral
+triumph for him when he could refrain from judging, show that much
+might be said on both sides, and leave the rest to Providence.[68] He
+would have felt sympathy with the two famous London physicians of our
+day, of whom it is told that they could not make up their minds on a
+case and reported dubiously. The head of the family insisted on a
+positive opinion. They answered that they were unable to give one, but
+he might easily find fifty doctors who could.
+
+[Sidenote: CRITICISM OF MODERN SOURCES]
+
+Niebuhr had pointed out that chroniclers who wrote before the
+invention of printing generally copied one predecessor at a time, and
+knew little about sifting or combining authorities. The suggestion
+became luminous in Ranke's hands, and with his light and dexterous
+touch he scrutinised and dissected the principal historians, from
+Machiavelli to the _Memoires d'un Homme d'Etat_, with a rigour never
+before applied to moderns. But whilst Niebuhr dismissed the
+traditional story, replacing it with a construction of his own, it was
+Ranke's mission to preserve, not to undermine, and to set up masters
+whom, in their proper sphere, he could obey. The many excellent
+dissertations in which he displayed this art, though his successors in
+the next generation matched his skill and did still more thorough
+work, are the best introduction from which we can learn the technical
+process by which within living memory the study of modern history has
+been renewed. Ranke's contemporaries, weary of his neutrality and
+suspense, and of the useful but subordinate work that was done by
+beginners who borrowed his wand, thought that too much was made of
+these obscure preliminaries which a man may accomplish for himself, in
+the silence of his chamber, with less demand on the attention of the
+public.[69] That may be reasonable in men who are practised in these
+fundamental technicalities. We who have to learn them, must immerse
+ourselves in the study of the great examples.
+
+[Sidenote: METHOD TO BE LEARNT FROM SCIENCES]
+
+Apart from what is technical, method is only the reduplication of
+common sense, and is best acquired by observing its use by the ablest
+men in every variety of intellectual employment.[70] Bentham
+acknowledged that he learned less from his own profession than from
+writers like Linnaeus and Cullen; and Brougham advised the student of
+Law to begin with Dante. Liebig described his _Organic Chemistry_ as
+an application of ideas found in Mill's _Logic_, and a distinguished
+physician, not to be named lest he should overhear me, read three
+books to enlarge his medical mind; and they were Gibbon, Grote, and
+Mill. He goes on to say, "An educated man cannot become so on one
+study alone, but must be brought under the influence of natural,
+civil, and moral modes of thought."[71] I quote my colleague's golden
+words in order to reciprocate them. If men of science owe anything to
+us, we may learn much from them that is essential.[72] For they can
+show how to test proof, how to secure fulness and soundness in
+induction, how to restrain and to employ with safety hypothesis and
+analogy. It is they who hold the secret of the mysterious property of
+the mind by which error ministers to truth, and truth slowly but
+irrevocably prevails.[73] Theirs is the logic of discovery,[74] the
+demonstration of the advance of knowledge and the development of
+ideas, which as the earthly wants and passions of men remain almost
+unchanged, are the charter of progress, and the vital spark in
+history. And they often give us invaluable counsel when they attend to
+their own subjects and address their own people. Remember Darwin,
+taking note only of those passages that raised difficulties in his
+way; the French philosopher complaining that his work stood still,
+because he found no more contradicting facts; Baer, who thinks error
+treated thoroughly, nearly as remunerative as truth, by the discovery
+of new objections; for, as Sir Robert Ball warns us, it is by
+considering objections that we often learn.[75] Faraday declares that
+"in knowledge, that man only is to be condemned and despised who is
+not in a state of transition." And John Hunter spoke for all of us,
+when he said: "Never ask me what I have said or what I have written;
+but if you will ask me what my present opinions are, I will tell you."
+
+[Sidenote: ALL ADOPT THE HISTORIC METHOD]
+
+From the first years of the century we have been quickened and
+enriched by contributors from every quarter. The jurists brought us
+that law of continuous growth which has transformed history from a
+chronicle of casual occurrences into the likeness of something
+organic.[76] Towards 1820 divines began to recast their doctrines on
+the lines of development, of which Newman said, long after, that
+evolution had come to confirm it.[77] Even the Economists, who were
+practical men, dissolved their science into liquid history, affirming
+that it is not an auxiliary, but the actual subject-matter of their
+inquiry.[78] Philosophers claim that, as early as 1804, they began to
+bow the metaphysical neck beneath the historical yoke. They taught
+that philosophy is only the amended sum of all philosophies, that
+systems pass with the age whose impress they bear,[79] that the
+problem is to focus the rays of wandering but extant truth, and that
+history is the source of philosophy, if not quite a substitute for
+it.[80] Comte begins a volume with the words that the preponderance of
+history over philosophy was the characteristic of the time he lived
+in.[81] Since Cuvier first recognised the conjunction between the
+course of inductive discovery and the course of civilization,[82]
+science had its share in saturating the age with historic ways of
+thought, and subjecting all things to that influence for which the
+depressing names historicism and historical-mindedness have been
+devised.
+
+[Sidenote: DANGER OF OBLIVION]
+
+[Sidenote: PROPHECY OF PITT]
+
+There are certain faults which are corrigible mental defects on which
+I ought to say a few denouncing words, because they are common to us
+all. First: the want of an energetic understanding of the sequence and
+real significance of events, which would be fatal to a practical
+politician, is ruin to a student of history who is the politician with
+his face turned backwards.[83] It is playing at study, to see nothing
+but the unmeaning and unsuggestive surface, as we generally do. Then
+we have a curious proclivity to neglect, and by degrees to forget,
+what has been certainly known. An instance or two will explain my
+idea. The most popular English writer relates how it happened in his
+presence that the title of Tory was conferred upon the Conservative
+party. For it was an opprobrious name at the time, applied to men for
+whom the Irish Government offered head-money; so that if I have made
+too sure of progress, I may at least complacently point to this
+instance of our mended manners. One day, Titus Oates lost his temper
+with the men who refused to believe him, and after looking about for a
+scorching imprecation, he began to call them Tories.[84] The name
+remained; but its origin, attested by Defoe, dropped out of common
+memory, as if one party were ashamed of their godfather, and the other
+did not care to be identified with his cause and character. You all
+know, I am sure, the story of the news of Trafalgar, and how, two
+days after it had arrived, Mr. Pitt, drawn by an enthusiastic crowd,
+went to dine in the city. When they drank the health of the minister
+who had saved his country, he declined the praise. "England," he said,
+"has saved herself by her own energy; and I hope that after having
+saved herself by her energy, she will save Europe by her example." In
+1814, when this hope had been realised, the last speech of the great
+orator was remembered, and a medal was struck upon which the whole
+sentence was engraved, in four words of compressed Latin: "_Seipsam
+virtute, Europam exemplo._" Now it was just at the time of his last
+appearance in public that Mr. Pitt heard of the overwhelming success
+of the French in Germany, and of the Austrian surrender at Ulm. His
+friends concluded that the contest on land was hopeless, and that it
+was time to abandon the Continent to the conqueror, and to fall back
+upon our new empire of the sea. Pitt did not agree with them. He said
+that Napoleon would meet with a check whenever he encountered a
+national resistance; and he declared that Spain was the place for it,
+and that then England would intervene.[85] General Wellesley, fresh
+from India, was present. Ten years later, when he had accomplished
+that which Pitt had seen in the lucid prescience of his last days, he
+related at Paris what I scarcely hesitate to call the most astounding
+and profound prediction in all political history, where such things
+have not been rare.
+
+[Sidenote: RULES FOR THE STUDY OF HISTORY]
+
+I shall never again enjoy the opportunity of speaking my thoughts to
+such an audience as this, and on so privileged an occasion a lecturer
+may well be tempted to bethink himself whether he knows of any
+neglected truth, any cardinal proposition, that might serve as his
+selected epigraph, as a last signal, perhaps even as a target. I am
+not thinking of those shining precepts which are the registered
+property of every school; that is to say--Learn as much by writing as
+by reading; be not content with the best book; seek sidelights from
+the others; have no favourites; keep men and things apart; guard
+against the prestige of great names;[86] see that your judgments are
+your own, and do not shrink from disagreement; no trusting without
+testing; be more severe to ideas than to actions;[87] do not overlook
+the strength of the bad cause or the weakness of the good;[88] never
+be surprised by the crumbling of an idol or the disclosure of a
+skeleton; judge talent at its best and character at its worst; suspect
+power more than vice,[89] and study problems in preference to periods;
+for instance: the derivation of Luther, the scientific influence of
+Bacon, the predecessors of Adam Smith, the mediaeval masters of
+Rousseau, the consistency of Burke, the identity of the first Whig.
+Most of this, I suppose, is undisputed, and calls for no enlargement.
+But the weight of opinion is against me when I exhort you never to
+debase the moral currency or to lower the standard of rectitude, but
+to try others by the final maxim that governs your own lives, and to
+suffer no man and no cause to escape the undying penalty which history
+has the power to inflict on wrong.[90] The plea in extenuation of
+guilt and mitigation of punishment is perpetual. At every step we are
+met by arguments which go to excuse, to palliate, to confound right
+and wrong, and reduce the just man to the level of the reprobate. The
+men who plot to baffle and resist us are, first of all, those who made
+history what it has become. They set up the principle that only a
+foolish Conservative judges the present time with the ideas of the
+Past; that only a foolish Liberal judges the Past with the ideas of
+the Present.[91]
+
+[Sidenote: JUSTIFICATION OF THE PAST]
+
+The mission of that school was to make distant times, and especially
+the middle ages, then most distant of all, intelligible and acceptable
+to a society issuing from the eighteenth century. There were
+difficulties in the way; and among others this, that, in the first
+fervour of the Crusades, the men who took the Cross, after receiving
+communion, heartily devoted the day to the extermination of Jews. To
+judge them by a fixed standard, to call them sacrilegious fanatics or
+furious hypocrites, was to yield a gratuitous victory to Voltaire. It
+became a rule of policy to praise the spirit when you could not defend
+the deed. So that we have no common code; our moral notions are always
+fluid; and you must consider the times, the class from which men
+sprang, the surrounding influences, the masters in their schools, the
+preachers in their pulpits, the movement they obscurely obeyed, and so
+on, until responsibility is merged in numbers, and not a culprit is
+left for execution.[92] A murderer was no criminal if he followed
+local custom, if neighbours approved, if he was encouraged by
+official advisers or prompted by just authority, if he acted for the
+reason of state or the pure love of religion, or if he sheltered
+himself behind the complicity of the Law. The depression of morality
+was flagrant; but the motives were those which have enabled us to
+contemplate with distressing complacency the secret of unhallowed
+lives. The code that is greatly modified by time and place, will vary
+according to the cause. The amnesty is an artifice that enables us to
+make exceptions, to tamper with weights and measures, to deal unequal
+justice to friends and enemies.
+
+[Sidenote: PHILOSOPHIES OF HISTORY]
+
+It is associated with that philosophy which Cato attributes to the
+gods. For we have a theory which justifies Providence by the event,
+and holds nothing so deserving as success, to which there can be no
+victory in a bad cause, prescription and duration legitimate,[93] and
+whatever exists is right and reasonable; and as God manifests His will
+by that which He tolerates, we must conform to the divine decree by
+living to shape the Future after the ratified image of the Past.[94]
+Another theory, less confidently urged, regards History as our guide,
+as much by showing errors to evade as examples to pursue. It is
+suspicious of illusions in success, and, though there may be hope of
+ultimate triumph for what is true, if not by its own attraction, by
+the gradual exhaustion of error, it admits no corresponding promise
+for what is ethically right. It deems the canonisation of the historic
+Past more perilous than ignorance or denial, because it would
+perpetuate the reign of sin and acknowledge the sovereignty of wrong,
+and conceives it the part of real greatness to know how to stand and
+fall alone, stemming, for a lifetime, the contemporary flood.[95]
+
+[Sidenote: DEBASING THE CURRENCY]
+
+Ranke relates, without adornment, that William III. ordered the
+extirpation of a Catholic clan, and scouts the faltering excuse of his
+defenders. But when he comes to the death and character of the
+international deliverer, Glencoe is forgotten, the imputation of
+murder drops, like a thing unworthy of notice.[96] Johannes Mueller, a
+great Swiss celebrity, writes that the British Constitution occurred
+to somebody, perhaps to Halifax. This artless statement might not be
+approved by rigid lawyers as a faithful and felicitous indication of
+the manner of that mysterious growth of ages, from occult beginnings,
+that was never profaned by the invading wit of man;[97] but it is
+less grotesque than it appears. Lord Halifax was the most original
+writer of political tracts in the pamphleteering crowd between
+Harrington and Bolingbroke; and in the Exclusion struggle he produced
+a scheme of limitations which, in substance, if not in form,
+foreshadowed the position of the monarchy in the later Hanoverian
+reigns. Although Halifax did not believe in the Plot,[98] he insisted
+that innocent victims should be sacrificed to content the multitude.
+Sir William Temple writes:--"We only disagreed in one point, which was
+the leaving some priests to the law upon the accusation of being
+priests only, as the House of Commons had desired; which I thought
+wholly unjust. Upon this point Lord Halifax and I had so sharp a
+debate at Lord Sunderland's lodgings, that he told me, if I would not
+concur in points which were so necessary for the people's
+satisfaction, he would tell everybody I was a Papist. And upon his
+affirming that the plot must be handled as if it were true, whether it
+were so or no, in those points that were so generally believed." In
+spite of this accusing passage Macaulay, who prefers Halifax to all
+the statesmen of his age, praises him for his mercy: "His dislike of
+extremes, and a forgiving and compassionate temper which seems to have
+been natural to him, preserved him from all participation in the worst
+crimes of his time."
+
+[Sidenote: SINFULNESS OF HISTORY]
+
+[Sidenote: SOVEREIGNTY OF THE MORAL CODE]
+
+If, in our uncertainty, we must often err, it may be sometimes better
+to risk excess in rigour than in indulgence, for then at least we do
+no injury by loss of principle. As Bayle has said, it is more probable
+that the secret motives of an indifferent action are bad than
+good;[99] and this discouraging conclusion does not depend upon
+theology, for James Mozley supports the sceptic from the other flank,
+with all the artillery of Tractarian Oxford. "A Christian," he says,
+"is bound by his very creed to suspect evil, and cannot release
+himself.... He sees it where others do not; his instinct is divinely
+strengthened; his eye is supernaturally keen; he has a spiritual
+insight, and senses exercised to discern.... He owns the doctrine of
+original sin; that doctrine puts him necessarily on his guard against
+appearances, sustains his apprehension under perplexity, and prepares
+him for recognising anywhere what he knows to be everywhere."[100]
+There is a popular saying of Madame de Stael, that we forgive whatever
+we really understand. The paradox has been judiciously pruned by her
+descendant, the Duke de Broglie, in the words: "Beware of too much
+explaining, lest we end by too much excusing."[101] History, says
+Froude, does teach that right and wrong are real distinctions.
+Opinions alter, manners change, creeds rise and fall, but the moral
+law is written on the tablets of eternity.[102] And if there are
+moments when we may resist the teaching of Froude, we have seldom the
+chance of resisting when he is supported by Mr. Goldwin Smith: "A
+sound historical morality will sanction strong measures in evil times;
+selfish ambition, treachery, murder, perjury, it will never sanction
+in the worst of times, for these are the things that make times
+evil.--Justice has been justice, mercy has been mercy, honour has been
+honour, good faith has been good faith, truthfulness has been
+truthfulness from the beginning." The doctrine that, as Sir Thomas
+Browne says, morality is not ambulatory,[103] is expressed as follows
+by Burke, who, when true to himself, is the most intelligent of our
+instructors: "My principles enable me to form my judgment upon men and
+actions in history, just as they do in common life; and are not formed
+out of events and characters, either present or past. History is a
+preceptor of prudence, not of principles. The principles of true
+politics are those of morality enlarged; and I neither now do, nor
+ever will admit of any other."[104]
+
+[Sidenote: HISTORY AND CHARACTER]
+
+Whatever a man's notions of these later centuries are, such, in the
+main, the man himself will be. Under the name of History, they cover
+the articles of his philosophic, his religious, and his political
+creed.[105] They give his measure; they denote his character: and, as
+praise is the shipwreck of historians, his preferences betray him more
+than his aversions. Modern history touches us so nearly, it is so deep
+a question of life and death, that we are bound to find our own way
+through it, and to owe our insight to ourselves. The historians of
+former ages, unapproachable for us in knowledge and in talent, cannot
+be our limit. We have the power to be more rigidly impersonal,
+disinterested and just than they; and to learn from undisguised and
+genuine records to look with remorse upon the past, and to the future
+with assured hope of better things; bearing this in mind, that if we
+lower our standard in history, we cannot uphold it in Church or
+State.
+
+
+
+
+                                 NOTES
+
+
+[1] No political conclusions of any value for practice can be
+arrived at by direct experience. All true political science is, in one
+sense of the phrase, _a priori_, being deduced from the tendencies of
+things, tendencies known either through our general experience of
+human nature, or as the result of an analysis of the course of
+history, considered as a progressive evolution.--MILL, _Inaugural
+Address_, 51.
+
+[2] Contemporary history is, in Dr. Arnold's opinion, more
+important than either ancient or modern; and in fact superior to it by
+all the superiority of the end to the means.--SEELEY, _Lectures and
+Essays_, 306.
+
+[3] The law of all progress is one and the same, the
+evolution of the simple into the complex by successive
+differentiations.--_Edinburgh Review_, clvii. 428. Die Entwickelung
+der Voelker vollzieht sich nach zwei Gesetzen. Das erste Gesetz ist das
+der Differenzierung. Die primitiven Einrichtungen sind einfach und
+einheitlich, die der Civilisation zusammengesetzt und geteilt, und die
+Arbeitsteilung nimmt bestaendig zu.--SICKEL, _Goettingen Gelehrte
+Anzeigen_, 1890, 563.
+
+[4] Nous risquons toujours d'etre influences par les
+prejuges de notre epoque; mais nous sommes libres des prejuges
+particuliers aux epoques anterieures.--E. NAVILLE, _Christianisme de
+Fenelon_, 9.
+
+[5] La nature n'est qu'un echo de l'esprit. L'idee est la
+mere du fait, elle faconne graduellement le monde a son
+image.--FEUCHTERSLEBEN, _in_ CARO, _Nouvelles Etudes Morales_, 132. Il
+n'est pas d'etude morale qui vaille l'histoire d'une idee.--LABOULAYE,
+_Liberte Religieuse_, 25.
+
+[6] Il y a des savants qui raillent le sentiment religieux.
+Ils ne savent pas que c'est a ce sentiment, et par son moyen, que la
+science historique doit d'avoir pu sortir de l'enfance.... Depuis des
+siecles les ames independantes discutaient les textes et les
+traditions de l'eglise, quand les lettres n'avaient pas encore eu
+l'idee de porter un regard critique sur les textes de l'antiquite
+mondaine.--_La France Protestante_, ii. 17.
+
+[7] In our own history, above all, every step in advance has
+been at the same time a step backwards. It has often been shown how
+our latest constitution is, amidst all external differences,
+essentially the same as our earliest, how every struggle for right and
+freedom, from the thirteenth century onwards, has simply been a
+struggle for recovering something old.--FREEMAN, _Historical Essays_,
+iv. 253. Nothing but a thorough knowledge of the social system, based
+upon a regular study of its growth, can give us the power we require
+to affect it.--HARRISON, _Meaning of History_, 19. Eine Sache wird nur
+voellig auf dem Wege verstanden, wie sie selbst entsteht.--In dem
+genetischen Verfahren sind die Gruende der Sache, auch die Gruende des
+Erkennens.--TRENDELENBURG, _Logische Untersuchungen_, ii. 395, 388.
+
+[8] Une telle liberte ... n'a rien de commun avec le savant
+systeme de garanties qui fait libres les peuples modernes.--BOUTMY,
+_Annales des Sciences Politiques_, i. 157. Les trois grandes reformes
+qui ont renouvele l'Angleterre, la liberte religieuse, la reforme
+parlementaire, et la liberte economique, ont ete obtenues sous la
+pression des organisations extra-constitutionnelles.--OSTROGORSKI,
+_Revue Historique_, lii. 272.
+
+[9] The question which is at the bottom of all constitutional
+struggles, the question between the national will and the national
+law.--GARDINER, _Documents_, xviii. Religion, considered simply as the
+principle which balances the power of human opinion, which takes man
+out of the grasp of custom and fashion, and teaches him to refer
+himself to a higher tribunal, is an infinite aid to moral strength and
+elevation.--CHANNING, _Works_, iv. 83. Je tiens que le passe ne suffit
+jamais au present. Personne n'est plus dispose que moi a profiter de
+ses lecons; mais en meme temps, je le demande, le present ne
+fournit-il pas toujours les indications qui lui sont propres?--MOLE,
+_in_ FALLOUX, _Etudes et Souvenirs_, 130. Admirons la sagesse de nos
+peres, et tachons de l'imiter, en faisant ce qui convient a notre
+siecle.--GALIANI, _Dialogues_, 40.
+
+[10] Ceterum in legendis Historiis malim te ductum animi,
+quam anxias leges sequi. Nullae sunt, quae non magnas habeant
+utilitates; et melius haerent, quae libenter legimus. In universum
+tamen, non incipere ab antiquissimis, sed ab his, quae nostris
+temporibus nostraeque notitiae propius cohaerent, ac paulatim deinde
+in remotiora eniti, magis e re arbitror.--GROTIUS, _Epistolae_, 18.
+
+[11] The older idea of a law of degeneracy, of a "fatal drift
+towards the worse," is as obsolete as astrology or the belief in
+witchcraft. The human race has become hopeful, sanguine.--SEELEY,
+_Rede Lecture_, 1887. _Fortnightly Review_, July, 1887, 124.
+
+[12] Formuler des idees generales, c'est changer le salpetre
+en poudre.--A. DE MUSSET, _Confessions d'un Enfant du Siecle_, 15. Les
+revolutions c'est l'avenement des idees liberales. C'est presque
+toujours par les revolutions qu'elles prevalent et se fondent, et
+quand les idees liberales en sont veritablement le principe et le but,
+quand elles leur ont donne naissance, et quand elles les couronnent a
+leur dernier jour, alors ces revolutions sont legitimes.--REMUSAT,
+1839, in _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1875, vi. 335. Il y a meme des
+personnes de piete qui prouvent par raison qu'il faut renoncer a la
+raison; que ce n'est point la lumiere, mais la foi seule qui doit nous
+conduire, et que l'obeissance aveugle est la principale vertu des
+chretiens. La paresse des inferieurs et leur esprit flatteur
+s'accommode souvent de cette vertu pretendue, et l'orgueil de ceux qui
+commandent en est toujours tres content. De sorte qu'il se trouvera
+peut-etre des gens qui seront scandalises que je fasse cet honneur a
+la raison, de l'elever au-dessus de toutes les puissances, et qui
+s'imagineront que je me revolte contre les autorites legitimes a cause
+que je prends son parti et que je soutiens que c'est a elle a decider
+et a regner.--MALEBRANCHE, _Morale_, i. 2, 13. That great statesman
+(Mr. Pitt) distinctly avowed that the application of philosophy to
+politics was at that time an innovation, and that it was an innovation
+worthy to be adopted. He was ready to make the same avowal in the
+present day which Mr. Pitt had made in 1792.--CANNING, June 1, 1827.
+_Parliamentary Review_, 1828, 71. American history knows but one
+avenue of success in American legislation, freedom from ancient
+prejudice. The best lawgivers in our colonies first became as little
+children.--BANCROFT, _History of the United States_, i. 494.--Every
+American, from Jefferson and Gallatin down to the poorest squatter,
+seemed to nourish an idea that he was doing what he could to overthrow
+the tyranny which the past had fastened on the human mind.--ADAMS,
+_History of the United States_, i. 175.
+
+[13] The greatest changes of which we have had experience as
+yet are due to our increasing knowledge of history and nature. They
+have been produced by a few minds appearing in three or four favoured
+nations, in comparatively a short period of time. May we be allowed to
+imagine the minds of men everywhere working together during many ages
+for the completion of our knowledge? May not the increase of knowledge
+transfigure the world?--JOWETT, _Plato_, i. 414. Nothing, I believe,
+is so likely to beget in us a spirit of enlightened liberality, of
+Christian forbearance, of large-hearted moderation, as the careful study
+of the history of doctrine and the history of interpretation.--PEROWNE,
+_Psalms_, i. p. xxxi.
+
+[14] Ce n'est guere avant la seconde moitie du XVIIe siecle
+qu'il devint impossible de soutenir l'authenticite des fausses
+decretales, des Constitutions apostoliques, des Recognitions
+Clementines, du faux Ignace, du pseudo-Dionys, et de l'immense fatras
+d'oeuvres anonymes ou pseudonymes qui grossissait souvent du tiers
+ou de la moitie l'heritage litteraire des auteurs les plus
+considerables.--DUCHESNE, _Temoins anteniceens de la Trinite_, 1883,
+36.
+
+[15] A man who does not know what has been thought by those
+who have gone before him is sure to set an undue value upon his own
+ideas.--M. PATTISON, _Memoirs_, 78.
+
+[16] Travailler a discerner, dans cette discipline, le solide
+d'avec le frivole, le vrai d'avec le vraisemblable, la science d'avec
+l'opinion, ce qui forme le jugement d'avec ce qui ne fait que charger
+la memoire.--LAMY, _Connoissance de soi-meme_, v. 459.
+
+[17] All our hopes of the future depend on a sound
+understanding of the past.--HARRISON, _The Meaning of History_, 6.
+
+[18] The real history of mankind is that of the slow advance
+of resolved deed following laboriously just thought; and all the
+greatest men live in their purpose and effort more than it is possible
+for them to live in reality.--The things that actually happened were
+of small consequence--the thoughts that were developed are of infinite
+consequence.--RUSKIN. Facts are the mere dross of history. It is from
+the abstract truth which interpenetrates them, and lies latent among
+them like gold in the ore, that the mass derives its value.--MACAULAY,
+_Works_, v. 131.
+
+[19] Die Gesetze der Geschichte sind eben die Gesetze der
+ganzen Menschheit, gehen nicht in die Geschicke eines Volkes, einer
+Generation oder gar eines Einzelnen auf. Individuen und Geschlechter,
+Staaten und Nationen, koennen zerstaeuben, die Menschheit bleibt.--A.
+SCHMIDT, _Zuericher Monatschrift_. i. 45.
+
+[20] Le grand peril des ages democratiques, soyez-en sur,
+c'est la destruction ou l'affaiblissement excessif des parties du
+corps social en presence du tout. Tout ce qui releve de nos jours
+l'idee de l'individu est sain.--TOCQUEVILLE, Jan. 3, 1840,
+_OEuvres_, vii. 97. En France, il n'y a plus d'hommes. On a
+systematiquement tue l'homme au profit du peuple, des masses, comme
+disent nos legislateurs ecerveles. Puis un beau jour, on s'est apercu
+que ce peuple n'avait jamais existe qu'en projet, que ces masses
+etaient un troupeau mi-partie de moutons et de tigres. C'est une
+triste histoire. Nous avons a relever l'ame humaine contre l'aveugle
+et brutale tyrannie des multitudes.--LANFREY, March 23, 1855. M. DU
+CAMP, _Souvenirs Litteraires_, ii. 273. C'est le propre de la vertu
+d'etre invisible, meme dans l'histoire, a tout autre oeil que celui
+de la conscience.--VACHEROT, _Comptes Rendus de l'Institut_, lxix.
+319. Dans l'histoire ou la bonte est la perle rare, qui a ete bon
+passe presque avant qui a ete grand.--V. HUGO, _Les Miserables_, vii.
+46. Grosser Maenner Leben und Tod der Wahrheit gemaess mit Liebe zu
+schildern, ist zu allen Zeiten herzerhebend; am meisten aber dann,
+wenn im Kreislauf der irdischen Dinge die Sterne wieder aehnlich
+stehen wie damals als sie unter uns lebten.--LASAULX, _Sokrates_, 3.
+Instead of saying that the history of mankind is the history of the
+masses, it would be much more true to say that the history of mankind
+is the history of its great men.--KINGSLEY, _Lectures_, 329.
+
+[21] Le genie n'est que la plus complete emancipation de
+toutes les influences de temps, de moeurs, et de pays.--NISARD,
+_Souvenirs_, ii. 43.
+
+[22] Meine kritische Richtung zieht mich in der Wissenschaft
+durchaus zur Kritik meiner eigenen Gedanken hin, nicht zu der der
+Gedanken Anderer.--ROTHE, _Ethik_, i., p. xi.
+
+[23] When you are in young years the whole mind is, as it
+were, fluid, and is capable of forming itself into any shape that the
+owner of the mind pleases to order it to form itself into.--CARLYLE,
+_On the Choice of Books_, 131. Nach allem erscheint es somit
+unzweifelhaft als eine der psychologischen Voraussetzungen des
+Strafrechts, ohne welche der Zurechnungsbegriff nicht haltbar waere,
+dass der Mensch fuer seinen Charakter verantwortlich ist und ihn muss
+abaendern koennen.--RUeMELIN, _Reden und Aufsaetze_, ii., 60. An der
+tiefen und verborgenen Quelle, woraus der Wille entspringt, an diesem
+Punkt, nur hier steht die Freiheit, und fuehrt das Steuer und lenkt den
+Willen. Wer nicht bis zu dieser Tiefe in sich einkehren und seinen
+natuerlichen Charakter von hier aus bemeistern kann, der hat nicht den
+Gebrauch seiner Freiheit, der ist nicht frei, sondern unterworfen dem
+Triebwerk seiner Interessen, und dadurch in der Gewalt des Weltlaufs,
+worin jede Begebenheit und jede Handlung eine nothwendige Folge ist
+aller vorhergehenden.--FISCHER, _Problem der Freiheit_, 27.
+
+[24] I must regard the main duty of a Professor to consist,
+not simply in communicating information, but in doing this in such a
+manner, and with such an accompaniment of subsidiary means, that the
+information he conveys may be the occasion of awakening his pupils to
+a vigorous and varied exertion of their faculties.--SIR W. HAMILTON,
+_Lectures_, i. 14. No great man really does his work by imposing his
+maxims on his disciples, he evokes their life. The pupil may become
+much wiser than his instructor, he may not accept his conclusions, but
+he will own, "You awakened me to be myself, for that I thank
+you."--MAURICE, _The Conscience_, 7, 8.
+
+[25] Ich sehe die Zeit kommen, wo wir die neuere Geschichte
+nicht mehr auf die Berichte selbst nicht der gleichzeitigen
+Historiker, ausser in so weit ihnen neue originale Kenntniss
+beiwohnte, geschweige denn auf die weiter abgeleiteten Bearbeitungen
+zu gruenden haben, sondern aus den Relationen der Augenzeugen und der
+aechten und unmittelbarsten Urkunden aufbauen werden.--RANKE,
+_Reformation_, _Preface_, 1838. Ce qu'on a trouve et mis en oeuvre
+est considerable en soi: c'est peu de chose au prix de ce qui reste a
+trouver et a mettre en oeuvre.--AULARD, _Etudes sur la Revolution_,
+21.
+
+[26] N'attendez donc pas les lecons de l'experience; elles
+coutent trop cher aux nations.--O. BARROT, _Memoires_, ii. 435. Il y a
+des lecons dans tous les temps, pour tous les temps; et celles qu'on
+emprunte a des ennemis ne sont pas les moins precieuses.--LANFREY,
+_Napoleon_, v. p. ii. Old facts may always be fresh, and may give out
+a fresh meaning for each generation.--MAURICE, _Lectures_, 62. The
+object is to lead the student to attend to them; to make him take
+interest in history not as a mere narrative, but as a chain of causes
+and effects still unwinding itself before our eyes, and full of
+momentous consequences to himself and his descendants--an unremitting
+conflict between good and evil powers, of which every act done by any
+one of us, insignificant as we are, forms one of the incidents; a
+conflict in which even the smallest of us cannot escape from taking
+part, in which whoever does not help the right side is helping the
+wrong.--MILL, _Inaugural Address_, 59.
+
+[27] I hold that the degree in which Poets dwell in sympathy
+with the Past, marks exactly the degree of their poetical
+faculty.--WORDSWORTH in C. FOX, _Memoirs_, June, 1842. In all
+political, all social, all human questions whatever, history is the
+main resource of the inquirer.--HARRISON, _Meaning of History_, 15.
+There are no truths which more readily gain the assent of mankind, or
+are more firmly retained by them, than those of an historical nature,
+depending upon the testimony of others.--PRIESTLEY, _Letters to French
+Philosophers_, 9. Improvement consists in bringing our opinions into
+nearer agreement with facts; and we shall not be likely to do this
+while we look at facts only through glasses coloured by those very
+opinions.--MILL, _Inaugural Address_, 25.
+
+[28] He who has learnt to understand the true character and
+tendency of many succeeding ages is not likely to go very far wrong in
+estimating his own.--LECKY, _Value of History_, 21. C'est a l'histoire
+qu'il faut se prendre, c'est le fait que nous devons interroger, quand
+l'idee vacille et fuit a nos yeux.--MICHELET, _Disc. d'Ouverture_,
+263. C'est la loi des faits telle qu'elle se manifeste dans leur
+succession. C'est la regle de conduite donnee par la nature humaine et
+indiquee par l'histoire. C'est la logique, mais cette logique qui ne
+fait qu'un avec l'enchainement des choses. C'est l'enseignement de
+l'experience.--SCHERER, _Melanges_, 558. Wer seine Vergangenheit nicht
+als seine Geschichte hat und weiss wird und ist characterlos Wem ein
+Ereigniss sein Sonst ploetzlich abreisst von seinem Jetzt wird leicht
+wurzellos.--KLIEFOTH, _Rheinwalds Repertorium_, xliv. 20. La politique
+est une des meilleures ecoles pour l'esprit. Elle force a chercher la
+raison de toutes choses, et ne permet pas cependant de la chercher
+hors des faits.--REMUSAT, _Le Temps Passe_, i. 31. It is an unsafe
+partition that divides opinions without principle from unprincipled
+opinions.--COLERIDGE, _Lay Sermon_, 373.
+
+    Wer nicht von drei tausend Jahren sich weiss Rechenschaft zu geben,
+    Bleib' im Dunkeln unerfahren, mag von Tag zu Tage leben!
+
+                                                          GOETHE.
+
+What can be rationally required of the student of philosophy is not a
+preliminary and absolute, but a gradual and progressive, abrogation of
+prejudices.--SIR W. HAMILTON, _Lectures_, iv. 92.
+
+[29] Die Schlacht bei Leuthen ist wohl die letzte, in welcher
+diese religioesen Gegensaetze entscheidend eingewirkt haben.--RANKE,
+_Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie_, vii. 70.
+
+[30] The only real cry in the country is the proper and just
+old No Popery cry.--_Major Beresford_, July, 1847. Unfortunately the
+strongest bond of union amongst them is an apprehension of
+Popery.--_Stanley_, September 12, 1847. The great Protectionist party
+having degenerated into a No Popery, No Jew Party, I am still more
+unfit now than I was in 1846 to lead it.--_G. Bentinck_, December 26,
+1847. _Croker's Memoirs_, iii. 116, 132, 157.
+
+[31] In the case of Protestantism, this constitutional
+instability is now a simple matter of fact, which has become too plain
+to be denied. The system is not fixed, but in motion; and the motion
+is for the time in the direction of complete self-dissolution.--We
+take it for a transitory scheme, whose breaking up is to make room in
+due time for another and far more perfect state of the Church.--The
+new order in which Protestantism is to become thus complete cannot be
+reached without the co-operation and help of Romanism.--NEVIN,
+_Mercersburg Review_, iv. 48.
+
+[32] Diese Heiligen waren es, die aus dem unmittelbaren
+Glaubensleben und den Grundgedanken der christlichen Freiheit zuerst
+die Idee allgemeiner Menschenrechte abgeleitet und rein von
+Selbstsucht vertheidigt haben.--WEINGARTEN, _Revolutionskirchen_, 447.
+Wie selbst die Idee allgemeiner Menschenrechte, die in dem gemeinsamen
+Character der Ebenbildlichkeit Gottes gegruendet sind, erst durch das
+Christenthum zum Bewusstsein gebracht werden, waehrend jeder andere
+Eifer fuer politische Freiheit als ein mehr oder weniger
+selbstsuechtiger und beschraenkter sich erwiesen hat.--NEANDER, _Pref.
+to Uhden's Wilberforce_, p. v. The rights of individuals and the
+justice due to them are as dear and precious as those of states;
+indeed the latter are founded on the former, and the great end and
+object of them must be to secure and support the rights of
+individuals, or else vain is government.--CUSHING in CONWAY, _Life of
+Paine_, i. 217. As it is owned the whole scheme of Scripture is not
+yet understood; so, if it ever comes to be understood, before the
+restitution of all things, and without miraculous interpositions, it
+must be in the same way as natural knowledge is come at--by the
+continuance and progress of learning and liberty.--BUTLER, _Analogy_,
+ii. 3.
+
+[33] Comme les lois elles-memes sont faillibles, et qu'il
+peut y avoir une autre justice que la justice ecrite, les societes
+modernes ont voulu garantir les droits de la conscience a la poursuite
+d'une justice meilleure que celle qui existe; et la est le fondement
+de ce qu'on appelle liberte de conscience, liberte d'ecrire, liberte
+de pensee.--JANET, _Philosophie Contemporaine_, 308. Si la force
+materielle a toujours fini par ceder a l'opinion, combien plus ne
+sera-t-elle pas contrainte de ceder a la conscience? Car la
+conscience, c'est l'opinion renforcee par le sentiment de
+l'obligation.--VINET, _Liberte Religieuse_, 3.
+
+[34] Apres la volonte d'un homme, la raison d'etat; apres la
+raison d'etat, la religion; apres la religion, la liberte. Voila toute
+la philosophie de l'histoire.--FLOTTES, _La Souverainete du Peuple_,
+1851, 192. La repartition plus egale des biens et des droits dans ce
+monde est le plus grand objet que doivent se proposer ceux qui menent
+les affaires humaines. Je veux seulement que l'egalite en politique
+consiste a etre egalement libre.--TOCQUEVILLE, September 10, 1856.
+_Mme. Swetchine_, i. 455. On peut concevoir une legislation tres
+simple, lorsqu'on voudra en ecarter tout ce qui est arbitraire, ne
+consulter que les deux premieres lois de la liberte et de la
+propriete, et ne point admettre de lois positives qui ne tirent leur
+raison de ces deux lois souveraines de la justice essentielle et
+absolue.--LETROSNE, _Vues sur la Justice Criminelle_, 16. Summa enim
+libertas est, ad optimum recta ratione cogi.--Nemo optat sibi hanc
+libertatem, volendi quae velit, sed potius volendi optima.--LEIBNIZ,
+_De Fato_. TRENDELENBURG, _Beitraege zur Philosophie_, ii. 190.
+
+[35] All the world is, by the very law of its creation, in
+eternal progress; and the cause of all the evils of the world may be
+traced to that natural, but most deadly error of human indolence and
+corruption, that our business is to preserve and not to
+improve.--ARNOLD, _Life_, i. 259. In whatever state of knowledge we
+may conceive man to be placed, his progress towards a yet higher state
+need never fear a check, but must continue till the last existence of
+society.--HERSCHEL, _Prel. Dis._, 360. It is in the development of
+thought as in every other development; the present suffers from the
+past, and the future struggles hard in escaping from the
+present.--MAX MUeLLER, _Science of Thought_, 617. Most of the great
+positive evils of the world are in themselves removable, and will, if
+human affairs continue to improve, be in the end reduced within narrow
+limits. Poverty in any sense implying suffering may be completely
+extinguished by the wisdom of society combined with the good sense and
+providence of individuals.--All the grand sources, in short, of human
+suffering are in a great degree, many of them almost entirely,
+conquerable by human care and effort.--J. S. MILL, _Utilitarianism_,
+21, 22. The ultimate standard of worth is personal worth, and the only
+progress that is worth striving after, the only acquisition that is
+truly good and enduring, is the growth of the soul.--BIXBY, _Crisis of
+Morals_, 210. La science, et l'industrie qu'elle produit, ont, parmi
+tous les autres enfants du genie de l'homme, ce privilege particulier,
+que leur vol non-seulement ne peut pas s'interrompre, mais qu'il
+s'accelere sans cesse.--CUVIER, _Discours sur la Marche des Sciences_,
+24 Avril, 1816. Aucune idee parmi celles qui se referent a l'ordre des
+faits naturels, ne tient de plus pres a la famille des idees
+religieuses que l'idee du progres, et n'est plus propre a devenir le
+principe d'une sorte de foi religieuse pour ceux qui n'en ont pas
+d'autres. Elle a, comme la foi religieuse, la vertu de relever les
+ames et les caracteres.--COURNOT, _Marche des Idees_, ii. 425. Dans le
+spectacle de l'humanite errante, souffrante et travaillant toujours a
+mieux voir, a mieux penser, a mieux agir, a diminuer l'infirmite de
+l'etre humain, a apaiser l'inquietude de son coeur, la science
+decouvre une direction et un progres.--A. SOREL, _Discours de
+Reception_, 14. Le jeune homme qui commence son education quinze ans
+apres son pere, a une epoque ou celui-ci, engage dans une profession
+speciale et active, ne peut que suivre les anciens principes, acquiert
+une superiorite theorique dont on doit tenir compte dans la hierarchie
+sociale. Le plus souvent le pere n'est-il pas penetre de l'esprit de
+routine, tandis que le fils represente et defend la science
+progressive? En diminuant l'ecart qui existait entre l'influence des
+jeunes generations et celle de la vieillesse ou de l'age mur, les
+peuples modernes n'auraient donc fait que reproduire dans leur ordre
+social un changement de rapports qui s'etait deja accompli dans la
+nature intime des choses.--BOUTMY, _Revue Nationale_, xxi. 393. Il y a
+dans l'homme individuel des principes de progres viager; il y a, en
+toute societe, des causes constantes qui transforment ce progres
+viager en progres hereditaire. Une societe quelconque tend a
+progresser tant que les circonstances ne touchent pas aux causes de
+progres que nous avons reconnues, l'imitation des devanciers par les
+successeurs, des etrangers par les indigenes.--LACOMBE, _L'Histoire
+comme Science_, 292. Veram creatae mentis beatitudinem consistere in
+non impedito progressu ad bona majora.--LEIBNIZ to WOLF, February 21,
+1705. In cumulum etiam pulchritudinis perfectionisque universalis
+operum divinorum progressus quidam perpetuus liberrimusque totius
+universi est agnoscendus, ita ut ad majorem semper cultum
+procedat.--LEIBNIZ ed. Erdmann, 150_a_. Der Creaturen und also auch
+unsere Vollkommenheit bestehet in einem ungehinderten starken
+Forttrieb zu neuen und neuen Vollkommenheiten.--LEIBNIZ, _Deutsche
+Schriften_, ii. 36. Hegel, welcher annahm, der Fortschritt der Neuzeit
+gegen das Mittelalter sei dieser, dass die Principien der Tugend und
+des Christenthums, welche im Mittelalter sich allein im Privatleben
+und der Kirche zur Geltung gebracht haetten, nun auch anfingen, das
+politische Leben zu durchdringen.--FORTLAGE, _Allg. Monatschrift_,
+1853, 777. Wir Slawen wissen, dass die Geister einzelner Menschen und
+ganzer Voelker sich nur durch die Stufe ihrer Entwicklung
+unterscheiden.--MICKIEWICZ, _Slawische Literatur_, ii. 436. Le progres
+ne disparait jamais, mais il se deplace souvent. Il va des gouvernants
+aux gouvernes. La tendance des revolutions est de le ramener toujours
+parmi les gouvernants. Lorsqu'il est a la tete des societes, il marche
+hardiment, car il conduit. Lorsqu'il est dans la masse, il marche a
+pas lents, car il lutte.--NAPOLEON III., _Des Idees Napoleoniennes_.
+La loi du progres avait jadis l'inexorable rigueur du destin; elle
+prend maintenant de jour en jour la douce puissance de la Providence.
+C'est l'erreur, c'est l'iniquite, c'est le vice, que la civilisation
+tend a emporter dans sa marche irresistible; mais la vie des individus
+et des peuples est devenue pour elle une chose sacree. Elle transforme
+plutot qu'elle ne detruit les choses qui s'opposent a son
+developpement; elle procede par absorption graduelle plutot que par
+brusque execution; elle aime a conquerir par l'influence des idees
+plutot que par la force des armes, un peuple, une classe, une
+institution qui resiste au progres.--VACHEROT, _Essais de Philosophie
+Critique_, 443. Peu a peu l'homme intellectuel finit par effacer
+l'homme physique.--QUETELET, _De l'Homme_, ii. 285. In dem Fortschritt
+der ethischen Anschauungen liegt daher der Kern des geschichtlichen
+Fortschritts ueberhaupt.--SCHAeFER, _Arbeitsgebiet der Geschichte_, 24.
+Si l'homme a plus de devoirs a mesure qu'il avance en age, ce qui est
+melancolique, mais ce qui est vrai, de meme aussi l'humanite est tenue
+d'avoir une morale plus severe a mesure qu'elle prend plus de
+siecles.--FAGUET, _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1894, iii. 871. Si donc il
+y a une loi de progres, elle se confond avec la loi morale, et la
+condition fondamentale du progres, c'est la pratique de cette
+loi.--CARRAU, _Ib._, 1875, v. 585. L'idee du progres, du
+developpement, me parait etre l'idee fondamentale contenue sous le mot
+de civilisation.--GUIZOT, _Cours d'Histoire_, 1828, 15. Le progres
+n'est sous un autre nom, que la liberte en action.--BROGLIE, _Journal
+des Debats_, January 28, 1869. Le progres social est continu. Il a ses
+periodes de fievre ou d'atonie, de surexcitation ou de lethargie; il a
+ses soubresauts et ses haltes, mais il avance toujours.--DE DECKER,
+_La Providence_, 174. Ce n'est pas au bonheur seul, c'est au
+perfectionnement que notre destin nous appelle; et la liberte
+politique est le plus puissant, le plus energique moyen de
+perfectionnement que le ciel nous ait donne.--B. CONSTANT, _Cours de
+Politique_, ii. 559. To explode error, on whichever side it lies, is
+certainly to secure progress.--MARTINEAU, _Essays_, i. 114. Die
+saemmtlichen Freiheitsrechte, welche der heutigen Menschheit so theuer sind,
+sind im Grunde nur Anwendungen des Rechts der Entwickelung.--BLUNTSCHLI,
+_Kleine Schriften_, i. 51. Geistiges Leben ist auf Freiheit beruhende
+Entwicklung, mit Freiheit vollzogene That und geschichtlicher
+Fortschritt.--_Muenchner Gel. Anzeigen_ 1849, ii. 83. Wie das Denken
+erst nach und nach reift, so wird auch der freie Wille nicht fertig
+geboren, sondern in der Entwickelung erworben.--TRENDELENBURG,
+_Logische Untersuchungen_, ii. 94. Das Liberum Arbitrium im vollen
+Sinne (die vollstaendig aktuelle Macht der Selbstbestimmung) laesst sich
+seinem Begriff zufolge schlechterdings nicht unmittelbar geben; es
+kann nur erworben werden durch das Subjekt selbst, in sich moralisch
+hervorgebracht werden kraft seiner eigenen Entwickelung.--ROTHE,
+_Ethik_, i. 360. So gewaltig sei der Andrang der Erfindungen und
+Entdeckungen, dass "Entwicklungsperioden, die in frueheren Zeiten erst
+in Jahrhunderten durchlaufen wurden, die im Beginn unserer Zeitperiode
+noch der Jahrzehnte bedurften, sich heute in Jahren volienden, haeufig
+schon in voller Ausbildung ins Dasein treten."--PHILIPPOVICH,
+_Fortschritt und Kulturentwicklung_, 1892, i. quoting SIEMENS, 1886.
+Wir erkennen dass dem Menschen die schwere koerperliche Arbeit, von der
+er in seinem Kampfe um's Dasein stets schwer niedergedrueckt war und
+grossenteils noch ist, mehr und mehr durch die wachsende Benutzung der
+Naturkraefte zur mechanischen Arbeitsleistung abgenommen wird, dass
+die ihm zufallende Arbeit immer mehr eine intellektuelle
+wird.--SIEMENS, 1886, _Ib._ 6.
+
+[36] Once, however, he wrote:--Darin koennte man den idealen
+Kern der Geschichte des menschlichen Geschlechtes ueberhaupt sehen,
+dass in den Kaempfen, die sich in den gegenseitigen Interessen der
+Staaten und Voelker vollziehen, doch immer hoehere Potenzen emporkommen,
+die das Allgemeine demgemaess umgestalten und ihm wieder einen anderen
+Charakter verleihen.--RANKE, _Weltgeschichte_, iii. 1, 6.
+
+[37] Toujours et partout, les hommes furent de plus en plus
+domines par l'ensemble de leurs predecesseurs, dont ils purent
+seulement modifier l'empire necessaire.--COMTE, _Politique Positive_,
+iii. 621.
+
+[38] La liberte est l'ame du commerce.--Il faut laisser faire
+les hommes qui s'appliquent sans peine a ce qui convient le mieux;
+c'est ce qui apporte le plus d'avantage.--COLBERT, in _Comptes Rendus
+de l'Institut_, xxxix. 93.
+
+[39] Il n'y a que les choses humaines exposees dans leur
+verite, c'est-a-dire avec leur grandeur, leur variete, leur
+inepuisable fecondite, qui aient le droit de retenir le lecteur et qui
+le retiennent en effet. Si l'ecrivain parait une fois, il ennuie ou
+fait sourire de pitie les lecteurs serieux.--THIERS to STE. BEUVE,
+_Lundis_, iii. 195. Comme l'a dit Taine, la disparition du style,
+c'est la perfection du style.--FAGUET, _Revue Politique_, lii. 67.
+
+[40] Ne m'applaudissez pas; ce n'est pas moi qui vous parle;
+c'est l'histoire qui parle par ma bouche.--_Revue Historique_, xli.
+278.
+
+[41] Das Evangelium trat als Geschichte in die Welt, nicht
+als Dogma--wurde als Geschichte in der christlichen Kirche
+deponirt.--ROTHE, _Kirchengeschichte_, ii. p. x. Das Christenthum ist
+nicht der Herr Christus, sondern dieser macht es. Es ist sein Werk,
+und zwar ein Werk das er stets unter der Arbeit hat.--Er selbst,
+Christus der Herr, bleibt der er ist in alle Zukunft, dagegen liegt es
+ausdruecklich im Begriffe seines Werks, des Christenthums, dass es
+nicht so bleibt wie es anhebt.--ROTHE, _Allgemeine kirchliche
+Zeitschrift_, 1864, 299. Diess Werk, weil es dem Wesen der Geschichte
+zufolge eine Entwickelung ist, muss ueber Stufen hinweggehen, die
+einander abloesen, und von denen jede folgende neue immer nur unter der
+Zertruemmerung der ihr vorangehenden Platz greifen kann.--ROTHE, _Ib._
+April 19, 1865. Je groesser ein geschichtliches Princip ist, desto
+langsamer und ueber mehr Stufen hinweg entfaltet es seinen Gehalt;
+desto langlebiger ist es aber ebendeshalb auch in diesen seinen
+unaufhoerlichen Abwandelungen.--ROTHE, _Stille Stunden_, 301. Der
+christliche Glaube geht nicht von der Anerkennung abstracter
+Lehrwahrheiten aus, sondern von der Anerkennung einer Reihe von
+Thatsachen, die in der Erscheinung Jesu ihren Mittelpunkt
+haben.--NITZSCH, _Dogmengeschichte_, i. 17. Der Gedankengang der
+evangelischen Erzaehlung gibt darum auch eine vollstaendige Darstellung
+der christlichen Lehre in ihren wesentlichen Grundzuegen; aber er gibt
+sie im allseitigen lebendigen Zusammenhange mit der Geschichte der
+christlichen Offenbarung, und nicht in einer theoretisch
+zusammenhaengenden Folgenreihe von ethischen und dogmatischen
+Lehrsaetzen.--DEUTINGER, _Reich Gottes_, i. p. v.
+
+[42] L'Univers ne doit pas estre considere seulement dans ce
+qu'il est; pour le bien connoitre, il faut le voir aussi dans ce qu'il
+doit estre. C'est cet avenir surtout qui a ete le grand objet de Dieu
+dans la creation, et c'est pour cet avenir seul que le present
+existe.--D'HOUTEVILLE, _Essai sur la Providence_, 273. La Providence
+emploie les siecles a elever toujours un plus grand nombre de familles
+et d'individus a ces biens de la liberte et de l'egalite legitimes
+que, dans l'enfance des societes, la force avait rendus le privilege
+de quelques-uns.--GUIZOT, _Gouvernement de la France_, 1820, 9. La
+marche de la Providence n'est pas assujettie a d'etroites limites;
+elle ne s'inquiete pas de tirer aujourd'hui la consequence du principe
+qu'elle a pose hier; elle la tirera dans des siecles, quand l'heure
+sera venue; et pour raisonner lentement selon nous, sa logique n'est
+pas moins sure.--GUIZOT, _Histoire de la Civilisation_, 20. Der Keim
+fortschreitender Entwicklung ist, auch auf goettlichem Geheisse, der
+Menschheit eingepflanzt. Die Weltgeschichte ist der blosse Ausdruck
+einer vorbestimmten Entwicklung.--A. HUMBOLDT, January 2, 1842, _Im
+Neuen Reich_, 1872, i. 197. Das historisch grosse ist religioes gross;
+es ist die Gottheit selbst, die sich offenbart.--RAUMER, April 1807,
+_Erinnerungen_, i. 85.
+
+[43] Je suis arrive a l'age ou je suis, a travers bien des
+evenements differents, mais avec une seule cause, celle de la liberte
+reguliere.--TOCQUEVILLE, May 1, 1852, _OEuvres Inedites_, ii. 185.
+Me trouvant dans un pays ou la religion et le liberalisme sont
+d'accord, j'avais respire.--J'exprimais ce sentiment, il y a plus de
+vingt ans, dans l'avant-propos de la _Democratie_. Je l'eprouve
+aujourd'hui aussi vivement que si j'etais encore jeune, et je ne sais
+s'il y a une seule pensee qui ait ete plus constamment presente a mon
+esprit.--August 5, 1857, _OEuvres_, vi. 395. Il n'y a que la liberte
+(j'entends la moderee et la reguliere) et la religion, qui, par un
+effort combine, puissent soulever les hommes au-dessus du bourbier ou
+l'egalite democratique les plonge naturellement.--December 1, 1852,
+_OEuvres_, vii. 295. L'un de mes reves, le principal en entrant dans
+la vie politique, etait de travailler a concilier l'esprit liberal et
+l'esprit de religion, la societe nouvelle et l'eglise.--November 15,
+1843, _OEuvres Inedites_, ii. 121. La veritable grandeur de l'homme
+n'est que dans l'accord du sentiment liberal et du sentiment
+religieux.--September 17, 1853, _OEuvres Inedites_, ii. 228. Qui
+cherche dans la liberte autre chose qu'elle-meme est fait pour
+servir.--_Ancien Regime_, 248. Je regarde, ainsi que je l'ai toujours
+fait, la liberte comme le premier des biens; je vois toujours en elle
+l'une des sources les plus fecondes des vertus males et des actions
+grandes. Il n'y a pas de tranquillite ni de bien-etre qui puisse me
+tenir lieu d'elle.--January 7, 1856, _Mme. Swetchine_, i. 452. La
+liberte a un faux air d'aristocratie; en donnant pleine carriere aux
+facultes humaines, en encourageant le travail et l'economie, elle fait
+ressortir les superiorites naturelles ou acquises.--LABOULAYE, _L'Etat
+et ses Limites_, 154. Dire que la liberte n'est point par elle-meme,
+qu'elle depend d'une situation, d'une opportunite, c'est lui assigner
+une valeur negative. La liberte n'est pas des qu'on la subordonne.
+Elle n'est pas un principe purement negatif, un simple element de
+controle et de critique. Elle est le principe actif, createur
+organisateur par excellence. Elle est le moteur et la regle, la source
+de toute vie, et le principe de l'ordre. Elle est, en un mot, le nom
+que prend la conscience souveraine, lorsque, se posant en face du
+monde social et politique, elle emerge du moi pour modeler les
+societes sur les donnees de la raison.--BRISSON, _Revue Nationale_,
+xxiii. 214. Le droit, dans l'histoire, est le developpement progressif
+de la liberte, sous la loi de la raison.--LERMINIER, _Philosophie du
+Droit_, i. 211. En prouvant par les lecons de l'histoire que la
+liberte fait vivre les peuples et que le despotisme les tue, en
+montrant que l'expiation suit la faute et que la fortune finit
+d'ordinaire par se ranger du cote de la vertu, Montesquieu n'est ni
+moins moral ni moins religieux que Bossuet.--LABOULAYE, _OEuvres de
+Montesquieu_, ii. 109. Je ne comprendrais pas qu'une nation ne placat
+pas les libertes politiques au premier rang, parce que c'est des
+libertes politiques que doivent decouler toutes les autres.--THIERS,
+_Discours_, x. 8, _March_ 28, 1865. Nous sommes arrives a une epoque
+ou la liberte est le but serieux de tous, ou le reste n'est plus
+qu'une question de moyens.--J. LEBEAU, _Observations sur le Pouvoir
+Royal_: Liege, 1830, p. 10. Le liberalisme, ayant la pretention de se
+fonder uniquement sur les principes de la raison, croit d'ordinaire
+n'avoir pas besoin de tradition. La est son erreur. L'erreur de
+l'ecole liberale est d'avoir trop cru qu'il est facile de creer la
+liberte par la reflexion, et de n'avoir pas vu qu'un etablissement
+n'est solide que quand il a des racines historiques.--RENAN, 1858,
+_Nouvelle Revue_, lxxix. 596. Le respect des individus et des droits
+existants est autant au-dessus du bonheur de tous, qu'un interet moral
+surpasse un interet purement temporel.--RENAN, 1858, _Ib._ lxxix. 597.
+Die Rechte gelten nichts, wo es sich handelt um das Recht, und das
+Recht der Freiheit kann nie verjaehren, weil es die Quelle alles
+Rechtes selbst ist.--C. FRANTZ, _Ueber die Freiheit_, 110. Wir
+erfahren hienieden nie die ganze Wahrheit: wir geniessen nie die ganze
+Freiheit.--REUSS, _Reden_, 56. Le gouvernement constitutionnel, comme
+tout gouvernement libre, presente et doit presenter un etat de lutte
+permanent. La liberte est la perpetuite de la lutte.--DE SERRE.
+BROGLIE, _Nouvelles Etudes_, 243. The experiment of free government is
+not one which can be tried once for all. Every generation must try it
+for itself. As each new generation starts up to the responsibilities
+of manhood, there is, as it were, a new launch of Liberty, and its
+voyage of experiment begins afresh.--WINTHROP, _Addresses_, 163.
+L'histoire perd son veritable caractere du moment que la liberte en a
+disparu; elle devient une sorte de physique sociale. C'est l'element
+personnel de l'histoire qui en fait la realite.--VACHEROT, _Revue des
+Deux Mondes_, 1869, iv. 215. Demander la liberte pour soi et la
+refuser aux autres, c'est la definition du despotisme.--LABOULAYE,
+December 4, 1874. Les causes justes profitent de tout, des bonnes
+intentions comme des mauvaises, des calculs personnels comme des
+devouemens courageux, de la demence, enfin, comme de la raison.--B.
+CONSTANT, _Les Cent Jours_, ii. 29. Sie ist die Kunst, das Gute der
+schon weit gediehenen Civilisation zu sichern.--BALTISCH, _Politische
+Freiheit_, 9. In einem Volke, welches sich zur buergerlichen
+Gesellschaft, ueberhaupt zum Bewusstseyn der Unendlichkeit des
+Freien--entwickelt hat, ist nur die constitutionelle Monarchie
+moeglich.--HEGEL'S _Philosophie des Rechts_, Sec. 137, _Hegel und
+Preussen_, 1841, 31. Freiheit ist das hoechste Gut. Alles andere ist
+nur das Mittel dazu: gut falls es ein Mittel dazu ist, uebel falls es
+dieselbe hemmt.--FICHTE, _Werke_, iv. 403. You are not to inquire how
+your trade may be increased, nor how you are to become a great and
+powerful people, but how your liberties can be secured. For liberty
+ought to be the direct end of your government.--PATRICK HENRY, 1788.
+WIRT, _Life of Henry_, 272.
+
+[44] Historiae ipsius praeter delectationem utilitas nulla est,
+quam ut religionis Christianae veritas demonstretur, quod aliter quam
+per historiam fieri non potest.--LEIBNIZ, _Opera_, ed. Dutens, vi.
+297. The study of Modern History is, next to Theology itself, and only
+next in so far as Theology rests on a divine revelation, the most
+thoroughly religious training that the mind can receive. It is no
+paradox to say that Modern History, including Medieval History in the
+term, is co-extensive in its field of view, in its habits of
+criticism, in the persons of its most famous students, with
+Ecclesiastical History.--STUBBS, _Lectures_, 9. Je regarde donc
+l'etude de l'histoire comme l'etude de la providence.--L'histoire est
+vraiment une seconde philosophie.--Si Dieu ne parle pas toujours, il
+agit toujours en Dieu.--D'AGUESSEAU, _OEuvres_, xv. 34, 31, 35. Fuer
+diejenigen, welche das Wesen der menschlichen Freiheit erkannt haben,
+bildet die denkende Betrachtung der Weltgeschichte, besonders des
+christlichen Weltalters, die hoechste, und umfassendste Theodicee.--VATKE,
+_Die Menschliche Freiheit_, 1841, 516. La theologie, que l'on regarde
+volontiers comme la plus etroite et la plus sterile des sciences, en
+est, au contraire, la plus etendue et la plus feconde. Elle confine a
+toutes les etudes et touche a toutes les questions. Elle renferme tous
+les elements d'une instruction liberale.--SCHERER, _Melanges_, 522. The
+belief that the course of events and the agency of man are subject to
+the laws of a divine order, which it is alike impossible for any one
+either fully to comprehend or effectually to resist--this belief is the
+ground of all our hope for the future destinies of mankind.--THIRLWALL,
+_Remains_, iii. 282. A true religion must consist of ideas and facts
+both; not of ideas alone without facts, for then it would be mere
+philosophy; nor of facts alone without ideas, of which those facts are
+the symbols, or out of which they are grounded; for then it would be
+mere history.--COLERIDGE, _Table Talk_, 144. It certainly appears
+strange that the men most conversant with the order of the visible
+universe should soonest suspect it empty of directing mind; and, on
+the other hand, that humanistic, moral and historical studies--which
+first open the terrible problems of suffering and grief, and contain
+all the reputed provocatives of denial and despair--should confirm, and
+enlarge rather than disturb, the prepossessions of natural
+piety.--MARTINEAU, _Essays_, i. 122. Die Religion hat nur dann eine
+Bedeutung fuer den Menschen, wenn er in der Geschichte einen Punkt
+findet, dem er sich voellig unbedingt hingeben kann.--STEFFENS,
+_Christliche Religionsphilosophie_, 440, 1839. Wir erkennen darin nur
+eine Thaetigkeit des zu seinem aechten und wahren Leben, zu seinem
+verlornen, objectiven Selbstverstaendnisse sich zuruecksehnenden
+christlichen Geistes unserer Zeit, einen Ausdruck fuer das Beduerfniss
+desselben, sich aus den unwahren und unaechten Verkleidungen, womit ihn
+der moderne, subjective Geschmack der letzten Entwicklungsphase des
+theologischen Bewusstseyns umhuellt hat, zu seiner historischen allein
+wahren und urspruenglichen Gestalt wiederzugebaeren, zu derjenigen
+Bedeutung zurueckzukehren, die ihm in dem Bewusstseyn der Geschichte
+allein zukommt und deren Verstaendniss in dem wogenden luxurioesen Leben
+der modernen Theologie laengst untergegangen ist.--GEORGII, _Zeitschrift
+fuer Hist. Theologie_, ix. 5, 1839.
+
+[45] Liberty, in fact, means just so far as it is realised,
+the right man in the right place.--SEELEY, _Lectures and Essays_,
+109.
+
+[46] In diesem Sinne ist Freiheit und sich entwickelnde
+moralische Vernunft und Gewissen gleichbedeutend. In diesem Sinne ist
+der Mensch frei, sobald sich das Gewissen in ihm entwickelt.--SCHEIDLER,
+_Ersch und Gruber_, xlix. 20. Aus der unendlichen und ewigen Geltung
+der menschlichen Persoenlichkeit vor Gott, aus der Vorstellung von der
+in Gott freien Persoenlichkeit, folgt auch der Anspruch auf das Recht
+derselben in der weltlichen Sphaere, auf buergerliche und politische
+Freiheit, auf Gewissen und Religionsfreiheit, auf freie
+wissenschaftliche Forschung u.s.w., und namentlich die Forderung dass
+niemand lediglich zum Mittel fuer andere diene.--MARTENSEN, _Christliche
+Ethik_, i. 50.
+
+[47] Es giebt angeborne Menschenrechte, weil es angeborne
+Menschenpflichten giebt.--WOLFF, _Naturrecht_; LOEPER, _Einleitung
+zu Faust_, lvii.
+
+[48] La constitution de l'etat reste jusqu'a un certain point
+a notre discretion. La constitution de la societe ne depend pas de
+nous; elle est donnee par la force des choses, et si l'on veut elever
+le langage, elle est l'oeuvre de la Providence.--REMUSAT, _Revue des
+Deux Mondes_, 1861, v. 795.
+
+[49] Die Freiheit ist bekanntlich kein Geschenk der Goetter,
+sondern ein Gut das jedes Volk sich selbst verdankt und das nur bei
+dem erforderlichen Mass moralischer Kraft und Wuerdigkeit
+gedeiht.--IHERING, _Geist des Roemischen Rechts_, ii. 290. Liberty, in
+the very nature of it, absolutely requires and even supposes, that
+people be able to govern themselves in those respects in which they
+are free; otherwise their wickedness will be in proportion to their
+liberty, and this greatest of blessings will become a curse.--BUTLER,
+_Sermons_, 331. In each degree and each variety of public development
+there are corresponding institutions, best answering the public needs;
+and what is meat to one is poison to another. Freedom is for those who
+are fit for it.--PARKMAN, _Canada_, 396. Die Freiheit ist die Wurzel
+einer neuen Schoepfung in der Schoepfung.--SEDERHOLM, _Die ewigen
+Thatsachen_, 86.
+
+[50] La liberte politique, qui n'est qu'une complexite plus
+grande, de plus en plus grande, dans le gouvernement d'un peuple, a
+mesure que le peuple lui-meme contient un plus grand nombre de forces
+diverses ayant droit et de vivre et de participer a la chose publique,
+est un fait de civilisation qui s'impose lentement a une societe
+organisee, mais qui n'apparait point comme un principe a une societe
+qui s'organise.--FAGUET, _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1889, ii. 942.
+
+[51] Il y a bien un droit du plus sage, mais non pas un droit
+du plus fort.--La justice est le droit du plus faible.--JOUBERT,
+_Pensees_, i. 355, 358.
+
+[52] Nicht durch ein pflanzenaehnliches Wachsthum, nicht aus
+den dunklen Gruenden der Volksempfindung, sondern durch den maennlichen
+Willen, durch die Ueberzeugung, durch die That, durch den Kampf
+entsteht, behauptet, entwickelt sich das Recht. Sein historisches
+Werden ist ein bewusstes, im hellen Mittagslicht der Erkenntniss und
+der Gesetzgebung.--_Rundschau_, Nov. 1893, 313. Nicht das Normale,
+Zahme, sondern das Abnorme, Wilde, bildet ueberall die Grundlage und
+den Anfang einer neuen Ordnung.--LASAULX, _Philosophie der
+Geschichte_, 143.
+
+[53] Um den Sieg zu vervollstaendigen, eruebrigte das zweite
+Stadium oder die Aufgabe: die Berechtigung der Mehrheit nach allen
+Seiten hin zur gleichen Berechtigung aller zu erweitern, d.h. bis zur
+Gleichstellung aller Bekenntnisse im Kirchenrecht, aller Voelker im
+Voelkerrecht, aller Staatsbuerger im Staatsrecht und aller socialen
+Interessen im Gesellschaftsrecht fortzufuehren.--A. SCHMIDT, _Zuericher
+Monatschrift_, i. 68.
+
+[54] Notre histoire ne nous enseignait nullement la liberte.
+Le jour ou la France voulut etre libre, elle eut tout a creer, tout a
+inventer dans cet ordre de faits.--Cependant il faut marcher, l'avenir
+appelle les peuples. Quand on n'a point pour cela l'impulsion du
+passe, il faut bien se confier a la raison.--DUPONT WHITE, _Revue des
+Deux Mondes_, 1861, vi. 191. Le peuple francais a peu de gout pour le
+developpement graduel des institutions. Il ignore son histoire, il ne
+s'y reconnait pas, elle n'a pas laisse de trace dans sa
+conscience.--SCHERER, _Etudes Critiques_, i. 100. Durch die Revolution
+befreiten sich die Franzosen von ihrer Geschichte.--ROSENKRANZ, _Aus
+einem Tagebuch_, 199.
+
+[55] The discovery of the comparative method in philology, in
+mythology--let me add in politics and history and the whole range of
+human thought--marks a stage in the progress of the human mind at
+least as great and memorable as the revival of Greek and Latin
+learning.--FREEMAN, _Historical Essays_, iv. 301. The diffusion of a
+critical spirit in history and literature is affecting the criticism
+of the Bible in our own day in a manner not unlike the burst of
+intellectual life in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.--JOWETT,
+_Essays and Reviews_, 346. As the revival of literature in the
+sixteenth century produced the Reformation, so the growth of the
+critical spirit, and the change that has come over mental science, and
+the mere increase of knowledge of all kinds, threaten now a revolution
+less external but not less profound.--HADDAN, _Replies_, 348.
+
+[56] In his just contempt and detestation of the crimes and
+follies of the Revolutionists, he suffers himself to forget that the
+revolution itself is a process of the Divine Providence, and that as
+the folly of men is the wisdom of God, so are their iniquities
+instruments of His goodness.--COLERIDGE, _Biographia Literaria_, ii.
+240. In other parts of the world, the idea of revolutions in
+government is, by a mournful and indissoluble association, connected
+with the idea of wars, and all the calamities attendant on wars. But
+happy experience teaches us to view such revolutions in a very
+different light--to consider them only as progressive steps in
+improving the knowledge of government, and increasing the happiness of
+society and mankind.--J. WILSON, November 26, 1787, _Works_, iii. 293.
+La Revolution, c'est-a-dire l'oeuvre des siecles, ou, si vous
+voulez, le renouvellement progressif de la societe, ou encore, sa
+nouvelle constitution.--REMUSAT, _Correspondance_, October 11, 1818. A
+ses yeux loin d'avoir rompu le cours naturel des evenements, ni la
+Revolution d'Angleterre, ni la notre, n'ont rien dit, rien fait, qui
+n'eut ete dit, souhaite, fait, ou tente cent fois avant leur
+explosion. "Il faut en ceci," dit-il, "tout accorder a leurs
+adversaires, les surpasser meme en severite, ne regarder a leurs
+accusations que pour y ajouter, s'ils en oublient; et puis les sommer
+de dresser, a leur tour, le compte des erreurs, des crimes, et des
+maux de ces temps et de ces pouvoirs qu'ils ont pris sous leur
+garde."--_Revue de Paris_, xvi. 303, on Guizot. Quant aux nouveautes
+mises en oeuvre par la Revolution Francaise on les retrouve une a
+une, en remontant d'age en age, chez les philosophes du XVIIIe
+siecle, chez les grands penseurs du XVIe, chez certains Peres
+d'Eglise et jusque dans la Republique de Platon.--En presence de cette
+belle continuite de l'histoire, qui ne fait pas plus de sauts que la
+nature, devant cette solidarite necessaire des revolutions avec le
+passe qu'elles brisent.--KRANTZ, _Revue Politique_, xxxiii. 264.
+L'esprit du XIXe siecle est de comprendre et de juger les choses du
+passe. Notre oeuvre est d'expliquer ce que le XVIIIe siecle avait
+mission de nier.--VACHEROT, _De la Democratie_, pref., 28.
+
+[57] La commission recherchera, dans toutes les parties des
+archives pontificales, les pieces relatives a l'abus que les papes ont
+fait de leur ministere spirituel contre l'autorite des souverains et
+la tranquillite des peuples.--DAUNOU, _Instructions_, Jan. 3, 1811.
+LABORDE, _Inventaires_, p. cxii.
+
+[58] Aucun des historiens remarquables de cette epoque
+n'avait senti encore le besoin de chercher les faits hors des livres
+imprimes, aux sources primitives, la plupart inedites alors, aux
+manuscrits de nos bibliotheques, aux documents de nos archives.--MICHELET,
+_Histoire de France_, 1869, i. 2.
+
+[59] Doch besteht eine Grenze, wo die Geschichte aufhoert und
+das Archiv anfaengt, und die von der Geschichtschreibung nicht
+ueberschritten werden sollte. _Unsere Zeit_, 1866, ii. 635. Il faut
+avertir nos jeunes historiens a la fois de la necessite ineluctable du
+document et, d'autre part, du danger qu'il presente.--M. HANOTAUX.
+
+[60] This process consists in determining with documentary
+proofs, and by minute investigations duly set forth, the literal,
+precise, and positive inferences to be drawn at the present day from
+every authentic statement, without regard to commonly received
+notions, to sweeping generalities, or to possible consequences.--HARRISSE,
+_Discovery of America_, 1892, p. vi. Perhaps the time has not yet come
+for synthetic labours in the sphere of History. It may be that the
+student of the Past must still content himself with critical
+inquiries.--_Ib._ p. v. Few scholars are critics, few critics are
+philosophers, and few philosophers look with equal care on both sides
+of a question.--W. S. LANDOR in HOLYOAKE'S _Agitator's Life_, ii. 15.
+Introduire dans l'histoire, et sans tenir compte des passions
+politiques et religieuses, le doute methodique que Descartes, le
+premier, appliqua a l'etude de la philosophie, n'est-ce pas la une
+excellente methode? n'est-ce pas meme la meilleure?--CHANTELAUZE,
+_Correspondant_, 1883, i. 129. La critique historique ne sera jamais
+populaire. Comme elle est de toutes les sciences la plus delicate, la plus
+deliee, elle n'a de credit qu'aupres des esprits cultives.--CHERBULIEZ,
+_Revue des Deux Mondes_, xcvii. 517. Nun liefert aber die Kritik, wenn
+sie rechter Art ist, immer nur einzelne Data, gleichsam die Atome des
+Thatbestandes, und jede Kombination, jede Zusammenfassung und
+Schlussfolgerung, ohne die es doch einmal nicht abgeht, ist ein
+subjektiver Akt des Forschers. Demnach blieb Waitz, bei der eigenen
+Arbeit wie bei jener der anderen, immer hoechst mistrauisch gegen jedes
+Resume, jede Definition, jedes abschliessende Wort.--SYBEL,
+_Historische Zeitschrift_, lvi. 484. Mit blosser Kritik wird darin
+nichts ausgerichtet, denn die ist nur eine Vorarbeit, welche da
+aufhoert wo die echte historische Kunst anfaengt.--LASAULX, _Philosophie
+der Kuenste_, 212.
+
+[61] The only case in which such extraneous matters can be
+fairly called in is when facts are stated resting on testimony; then
+it is not only just, but it is necessary for the sake of truth, to
+inquire into the habits of mind of him by whom they are
+adduced.--BABBAGE, _Bridgewater Treatise_, p. xiv.
+
+[62] There is no part of our knowledge which it is more
+useful to obtain at first hand--to go to the fountain-head for--than
+our knowledge of History.--J. S. MILL, _Inaugural Address_, 34. The
+only sound intellects are those which, in the first instance, set
+their standard of proof high.--J. S. MILL, _Examination of Hamilton's
+Philosophy_, 525.
+
+[63] There are so few men mentally capable of seeing both
+sides of a question; so few with consciences sensitively alive to the
+obligation of seeing both sides; so few placed under conditions either
+of circumstance or temper, which admit of their seeing both
+sides.--GREG, _Political Problems_, 1870, 173. Il n'y a que les
+Allemands qui sachent etre aussi completement objectifs. Ils se
+dedoublent, pour ainsi dire, en deux hommes, l'un qui a des principes
+tres arretes et des passions tres vives, l'autre qui sait voir et
+observer comme s'il n'en avait point.--LAVELEYE, _Revue des Deux
+Mondes_, 1868, i. 431. L'ecrivain qui penche trop dans le sens ou il
+incline, et qui ne se defie pas de ses qualites presque autant que ses
+defauts, cet ecrivain tourne a la maniere.--SCHERER, _Melanges_, 484.
+Il faut faire volte-face, et vivement, franchement, tourner le dos au
+moyen age, a ce passe morbide, qui, meme quand il n'agit pas, influe
+terriblement par la contagion de la mort. Il ne faut ni combattre, ni
+critiquer, mais oublier. Oublions et marchons!--MICHELET, _La Bible de
+l'Humanite_, 483. It has excited surprise that Thucydides should speak
+of Antiphon, the traitor to the democracy, and the employer of assassins,
+as "a man inferior in virtue to none of his contemporaries." But
+neither here nor elsewhere does Thucydides pass moral judgments.--JOWETT,
+_Thucydides_, ii. 501.
+
+[64] Non theologi provinciam suscepimus; scimus enim quantum hoc
+ingenii nostri tenuitatem superet: ideo sufficit nobis [Greek: to
+hoti] fideliter ex antiquis auctoribus retulisse.--MORINUS, _De
+Poenitentia_, ix. 10.--Il faut avouer que la religion chretienne a
+quelque chose d'etonnant! C'est parce que vous y etes ne, dira-t-on.
+Tant s'en faut, je me roidis contre par cette raison-la meme, de peur
+que cette prevention ne me suborne.--PASCAL, _Pensees_, XVI., 7.--I
+was fond of Fleury for a reason which I express in the advertisement;
+because it presented a sort of photograph of ecclesiastical history
+without any comment upon it. In the event, that simple representation
+of the early centuries had a good deal to do with unsettling
+me.--NEWMAN, _Apologia_, 152.--Nur was sich vor dem Richterstuhl einer
+aechten, unbefangenen, nicht durch die Brille einer philosophischen
+oder dogmatischen Schule stehenden Wissenschaft als wahr bewaehrt, kann
+zur Erbauung, Belehrung und Warnung tuechtig seyn.--NEANDER,
+_Kirchengeschichte_, i. p. vii. Wie weit bei katholischen Publicisten
+bei der Annahme der Ansicht von der Staatsanstalt apologetische
+Gesichtspunkte massgebend gewesen sind, mag dahingestellt bleiben. Der
+Historiker darf sich jedoch nie durch apologetische Zwecke leiten
+lassen; sein einziges Ziel soll die Ergruendungder Wahrheit
+sein.--PASTOR, _Geschichte der Paebste_, ii. 545. Church history
+falsely written is a school of vainglory, hatred, and uncharitableness;
+truly written, it is a discipline of humility, of charity, of mutual
+love.--SIR W. HAMILTON, _Discussions_, 506. The more trophies and
+crowns of honour the Church of former ages can be shown to have won in
+the service of her adorable head, the more tokens her history can be
+brought to furnish of his powerful presence in her midst, the more
+will we be pleased and rejoice, Protestant though we be.--NEVIN,
+_Mercersburg Review_, 1851, 168. S'il est une chose a laquelle j'ai
+donne tous mes soins, c'est a ne pas laisser influencer mes jugements
+par les opinions politiques ou religieuses; que si j'ai quelquefois
+peche par quelque exces, c'est par la bienveillance pour les oeuvres
+de ceux qui pensent autrement que moi.--MONOD, _R. Hist._, xvi. 184.
+Nous n'avons nul interet a faire parler l'histoire en faveur de nos
+propres opinions. C'est son droit imprescriptible que le narrateur
+reproduise tous les faits sans aucune reticence et range toutes les
+evolutions dans leur ordre naturel. Notre recit restera completement
+en dehors des preoccupations de la dogmatique et des declamations de
+la polemique. Plus les questions auxquelles nous aurons a toucher
+agitent et passionnent de nos jours les esprits, plus il est du devoir
+de l'historien de s'effacer devant les faits qu'il veut faire
+connaitre.--REUSS, _Nouvelle Revue de Theologie_, vi. 193, 1860. To
+love truth for truth's sake is the principal part of human perfection
+in this world, and the seed plot of all other virtues.--LOCKE, _Letter
+to Collins_. Il n'est plus possible aujourd'hui a l'historien d'etre
+national dans le sens etroit du mot. Son patriotisme a lui c'est
+l'amour de la verite. Il n'est pas l'homme d'une race ou d'un pays, il
+est l'homme de tous les pays, il parle au nom de la civilisation
+generale.--LANFREY, _Hist. de Nap._, iii. 2, 1870. Juger avec les
+parties de soi-meme qui sont le moins des formes du temperament, et le
+plus des facultes penetrees et modelees par l'experience, par l'etude,
+par l'investigation, par le non-moi.--FAGUET, _R. de Paris_, i. 151.
+Aucun critique n'est aussi impersonnel que lui, aussi libre de parti
+pris et d'opinions preconcues, aussi objectif.--Il ne mele ou parait
+meler a ses appreciations ni inclinations personnelles de gout ou
+d'humeur, ou theories d'aucune sorte.--G. MONOD, of Faguet, _Revue
+Historique_, xlii. 417. On dirait qu'il a peur, en generalisant ses
+observations, en systematisant ses connaissances, de meler de lui-meme
+aux choses.--Je lis tout un volume de M. Faguet, sans penser une fois
+a M. Faguet: je ne vois que les originaux qu'il montre.--J'envisage
+toujours une realite objective, jamais l'idee de M. Faguet, jamais la
+doctrine de M. Faguet.--LANSON, _Revue Politique_, 1894, i. 98.
+
+[65] It should teach us to disentangle principles first from
+parties, and again from one another; first of all as showing how
+imperfectly all parties represent their own principles, and then how
+the principles themselves are a mingled tissue.--ARNOLD, _Modern
+History_, 184. I find it a good rule, when I am contemplating a person
+from whom I want to learn, always to look out for his strength, being
+confident that the weakness will discover itself.--MAURICE, _Essays_,
+305. We may seek for agreement somewhere with our neighbours, using
+that as a point of departure for the sake of argument. It is this
+latter course that I wish here to explain and defend. The method is
+simple enough, though not yet very familiar.--It aims at conciliation;
+it proceeds by making the best of our opponent's case, instead of
+taking him at his worst.--The most interesting part of every disputed
+question only begins to appear when the rival ideals admit each
+other's right to exist.--A. SIDGWICK, _Distinction and the Criticism
+of Beliefs_, 1892, 211. That cruel reticence in the breasts of wise
+men which makes them always hide their deeper thought.--RUSKIN,
+_Sesame and Lilies_, i. 16. Je offener wir die einzelnen Wahrheiten
+des Sozialismus anerkennen, desto erfolgreicher koennen wir seine
+fundamentalen Unwahrheiten widerlegen.--ROSCHER, _Deutsche
+Vierteljahrschrift_, 1849, i. 177.
+
+[66] Dann habe ihn die Wahrnehmung, dass manche Angaben in
+den historischen Romanen Walter Scott's, mit den gleichzeitigen
+Quellen im Widerspruch standen, "mit Erstaunen" erfuellt, und ihn zu
+dem Entschlusse gebracht, auf das Gewissenhafteste an der
+Ueberlieferung der Quellen festzuhalten.--SYBEL, _Gedaechtnissrede auf
+Ranke_. _Akad. der Wissenschaften_, 1887, p. 6. Sich frei zu halten
+von allem Widerschein der Gegenwart, sogar, soweit das menschenmoeglich,
+von dem der eignen subjectiven Meinung in den Dingen des Staates, der
+Kirche und der Gesellschaft.--A. DOVE, _Im Neuen Reich_, 1875, ii. 967.
+Wir sind durchaus nicht fuer die leblose und schemenartige
+Darstellungsweise der Ranke'schen Schule eingenommen; es wird uns
+immer kuehl bis ans Herz heran, wenn wir derartige Schilderungen der
+Reformation und der Revolution lesen, welche so ganz im kuehlen Element
+des Pragmatismus sich bewegen und dabei so ganz Undinenhaft sind und
+keine Seele haben.--Wir lassen es uns lieber gefallen, dass die Maenner
+der Geschichte hier und dort gehofmeistert werden, als dass sie uns
+mit Glasaugen ansehen, so meisterhaft immer die Kunst sein mag die sie
+ihnen eingesetzt hat.--GOTTSCHALL, _Unsere Zeit_, 1866, ii. 636, 637. A
+vivre avec des diplomates, il leur a pris des qualites qui sont un
+defaut chez un historien. L'historien n'est pas un temoin, c'est un
+juge; c'est a lui d'accuser et de condamner au nom du passe opprime et
+dans l'interet de l'avenir.--LABOULAYE on RANKE. _Debats_, January 12,
+1852.
+
+[67] Un theologien qui a compose une eloquente histoire de la
+Reformation, rencontrant a Berlin un illustre historien qui, lui
+aussi, a raconte Luther et le XVIe siecle, l'embrassa avec effusion
+en le traitant de confrere. "Ah! permettez," lui repondit l'autre en
+se degageant, "il y a une grande difference entre nous: vous etes
+avant tout chretien, et je suis avant tout historien."--CHERBULIEZ,
+_Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1872, i. 537.
+
+[68] Nackte Wahrheit ohne allen Schmuck; gruendliche
+Erforschung des Einzelnen; das Uebrige, Gott befohlen.--_Werke_,
+xxxiv. 24. Ce ne sont pas les theories qui doivent nous servir de base
+dans la recherche des faits, mais ce sont les faits qui doivent nous
+servir de base pour la composition des theories.--VINCENT, _Nouvelle
+Revue de Theologie_, 1859, ii. 252.
+
+[69] Die zwanglose Anordnungs--die leichte und leise
+Andeutungskunst des grossen Historikers voll zu wuerdigen, hinderte ihn
+in frueherer Zeit sein Beduerfniss nach scharfer begrifflicher Ordnung
+und Ausfuehrung, spaeter, und in immer zunehmenden Grade, sein Sinn fuer
+strenge Sachlichkeit, und genaue Erforschung der ursaechlichen
+Zusammenhaenge, noch mehr aber regte sich seine geradherzige Offenheit
+seine maennliche Ehrlichkeit, wenn er hinter den fein verstrichenen
+Farben der Rankeschen Erzaehlungsbilder die gedeckte Haltung des klugen
+Diplomaten zu entdecken glaubte.--HAYM, _Duncker's Leben_, 437. The
+ground of criticism is indeed, in my opinion, nothing else but
+distinct attention, which every reader should endeavour to be master
+of.--HARE, _Dec._, 1736, _Warburton's Works_, xiv. 98. Wenn die
+Quellenkritik so verstanden wird, als sei sie der Nachweis, wie ein
+Autor den andern benutzt hat, so ist das nur ein gelegentliches
+Mittel--eins unter anderen--ihre Aufgabe, den Nachweis der Richtigkeit
+zu loesen oder vorzubereiten.--DROYSEN, _Historik_, 18.
+
+[70] L'esprit scientifique n'est autre en soi que l'instinct
+du travail et de la patience, le sentiment de l'ordre, de la realite
+et de la mesure.--PAPILLON, _R. des Deux Mondes_, 1873, v. 704. Non
+seulement les sciences, mais toutes les institutions humaines s'organisent
+de meme, et sous l'empire des memes idees regulatrices.--COURNOT,
+_Idees Fondamentales_, i. 4. There is no branch of human work whose
+constant laws have not close analogy with those which govern every
+other mode of man's exertion. But more than this, exactly as we reduce
+to greater simplicity and surety any one group of these practical
+laws, we shall find them passing the mere condition of connection or
+analogy, and becoming the actual expression of some ultimate nerve or
+fibre of the mighty laws which govern the moral world.--RUSKIN, _Seven
+Lamps_, 4. The sum total of all intellectual excellence is good sense
+and method. When these have passed into the instinctive readiness of
+habit, when the wheel revolves so rapidly that we cannot see it
+revolve at all, then we call the combination genius. But in all modes
+alike, and in all professions, the two sole component parts, even of
+genius, are good sense and method.--COLERIDGE, _June_, 1814, _Mem. of
+Coleorton_, ii. 172. Si l'exercice d'un art nous empeche d'en
+apprendre un autre, il n'en est pas ainsi dans les sciences: la
+connoissance d'une verite nous aide a en decouvrir une autre.--Toutes
+les sciences sont tellement liees ensemble qu'il est bien plus facile
+de les apprendre toutes a la fois que d'en apprendre une seule en la
+detachant des autres.--Il ne doit songer qu'a augmenter les lumieres
+naturelles de sa raison, non pour resoudre telle ou telle difficulte
+de l'ecole, mais pour que dans chaque circonstance de la vie son
+intelligence montre d'avance a sa volonte le parti qu'elle doit
+prendre.--DESCARTES, _OEuvres Choisies_, 300, 301. _Regles pour la
+Direction de l'Esprit._ La connaissance de la methode qui a guide
+l'homme de genie n'est pas moins utile au progres de la science et
+meme a sa propre gloire, que ses decouvertes.--LAPLACE, _Systeme du
+Monde_, ii. 371. On ne fait rien sans idees preconcues, il faut avoir
+seulement la sagesse de ne croire a leurs deductions qu'autant que
+l'experience les confirme. Les idees preconcues, soumises au controle
+severe de l'experimentation, sont la flamme vivante des sciences
+d'observation; les idees fixes en sont le danger.--PASTEUR, in
+_Histoire d'un Savant_, 284. Douter des verites humaines, c'est ouvrir
+la porte aux decouvertes; en faire des articles de foi, c'est la
+fermer.--DUMAS, _Discours_, i. 123.
+
+[71] We should not only become familiar with the laws of
+phenomena within our own pursuit, but also with the modes of thought
+of men engaged in other discussions and researches, and even with the
+laws of knowledge itself, that highest philosophy.--Above all things,
+know that we call you not here to run your minds into our moulds. We
+call you here on an excursion, on an adventure, on a voyage of
+discovery into space as yet uncharted.--ALLBUTT, _Introductory Address
+at St. George's_, October 1889. Consistency in regard to opinions is
+the slow poison of intellectual life.--DAVY, _Memoirs_, 68.
+
+[72] Ce sont vous autres physiologistes des corps vivants,
+qui avez appris a nous autres physiologistes de la societe (qui est
+aussi un corps vivant) la maniere de l'observer et de tirer des
+consequences de nos observations.--J. B. SAY to DE CANDOLLE, June 1,
+1827.--DE CANDOLLE, _Memoires_, 567.
+
+[73] Success is certain to the pure and true: success to
+falsehood and corruption, tyranny and aggression, is only the prelude
+to a greater and an irremediable fall.--STUBBS, _Seventeen Lectures_,
+20. The Carlylean faith, that the cause we fight for, so far as it is
+true, is sure of victory, is the necessary basis of all effective
+activity for good.--CAIRD, _Evolution of Religion_, ii. 43. It is the
+property of truth to be fearless, and to prove victorious over every
+adversary. Sound reasoning and truth, when adequately communicated,
+must always be victorious over error.--GODWIN, _Political Justice_
+(Conclusion). Vice was obliged to retire and give place to virtue.
+This will always be the consequence when truth has fair play.
+Falsehood only dreads the attack, and cries out for auxiliaries. Truth
+never fears the encounter; she scorns the aid of the secular arm, and
+triumphs by her natural strength.--FRANKLIN, _Works_, ii. 292. It is a
+condition of our race that we must ever wade through error in our
+advance towards truth: and it may even be said that in many cases we
+exhaust almost every variety of error before we attain the desired
+goal.--BABBAGE, _Bridgewater Treatise_, 27. Les hommes ne peuvent, en
+quelque genre que ce soit, arriver a quelque chose de raisonnable
+qu'apres avoir, en ce meme genre, epuise toutes les sottises
+imaginables. Que de sottises ne dirions-nous pas maintenant, si les
+anciens ne les avaient pas deja dites avant nous, et ne nous les
+avaient, pour ainsi dire, enlevees!--FONTENELLE. Without premature
+generalisations the true generalisation would never be arrived at.--H.
+SPENCER, _Essays_, ii. 57. The more important the subject of
+difference, the greater, not the less, will be the indulgence of him
+who has learned to trace the sources of human error,--of error, that
+has its origin not in our weakness and imperfection merely, but often
+in the most virtuous affections of the heart.--BROWN, _Philosophy of
+the Human Mind_, i. 48, 1824. Parmi les chatiments du crime qui ne lui
+manquent jamais, a cote de celui que lui inflige la conscience,
+l'histoire lui en inflige un autre encore, eclatant et manifeste,
+l'impuissance.--COUSIN, _Phil. Mod._ ii. 24. L'avenir de la science
+est garanti; car dans le grand livre scientifique tout s'ajoute et
+rien ne se perd. L'erreur ne fonde pas; aucune erreur ne dure tres
+longtemps.--RENAN, _Feuilles Detachees_, xiii. Toutes les fois que
+deux hommes sont d'un avis contraire sur la meme chose, a coup sur,
+l'un ou l'autre se trompe; bien plus, aucun ne semble posseder la
+verite; car si les raisons de l'un etoient certaines et evidentes, il
+pourroit les exposer a l'autre de telle maniere qu'il finiroit par le
+convaincre egalement.--DESCARTES, _Regles: OEuvres Choisies_, 302.
+Le premier principe de la critique est qu'une doctrine ne captive ses
+adherents que par ce qu'elle a de legitime.--RENAN, _Essais de
+Morale_, 184. Was dem Wahn solche Macht giebt ist wirklich nicht er
+selbst, sondern die ihm zu Grunde liegende und darin nur verzerrte
+Wahrheit.--FRANTZ, _Schelling's Philosophie_, i. 62. Quand les hommes
+ont vu une fois la verite dans son eclat, ils ne peuvent plus
+l'oublier. Elle reste debout, et tot ou tard elle triomphe, parce
+qu'elle est la pensee de Dieu et le besoin du monde.--MIGNET,
+_Portraits_, ii. 295. C'est toujours le sens commun inapercu qui fait
+la fortune des hypotheses auxquelles il se mele.--COUSIN, _Fragments
+Phil._ i. 51. Preface of 1826. Wer da sieht wie der Irrthum selbst ein
+Traeger mannigfaltigen und bleibenden Fortschritts wird, der wird auch
+nicht so leicht aus dem thatsaechlichen Fortschritt der Gegenwart auf
+Unumstoesslichkeit unserer Hypothesen schliessen.--Das richtigste
+Resultat der geschichtlichen Betrachtung ist die akademische Ruhe, mit
+welcher unsere Hypothesen und Theorieen ohne Feindschaft und ohne
+Glauben als das betrachtet werden was sie sind; als Stufen in jener
+unendlichen Annaeherung an die Wahrheit, welche die Bestimmung unserer
+intellectuellen Entwicklung zu sein scheint.--LANGE, _Geschichte des
+Materialismus_, 502, 503. Hominum errores divina providentia reguntur,
+ita ut saepe male jacta bene cadant.--LEIBNIZ, ed. Klopp, i., p. lii.
+Sainte-Beuve n'etait meme pas de la race des liberaux, c'est-a-dire
+de ceux qui croient que, tout compte fait, et dans un etat de
+civilisation donne, le bien triomphe du mal a armes egales, et la
+verite de l'erreur.--D'HAUSSONVILLE, _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1875, i.
+567. In the progress of the human mind, a period of controversy
+amongst the cultivators of any branch of science must necessarily
+precede the period of unanimity.--TORRENS, _Essay on the Production of
+Wealth_, 1821, p. xiii. Even the spread of an error is part of the
+wide-world process by which we stumble into mere approximations to
+truth.--L. STEPHEN, _Apology of an Agnostic_, 81. Errors, to be
+dangerous, must have a great deal of truth mingled with them; it is
+only from this alliance that they can ever obtain an extensive
+circulation.--S. SMITH, _Moral Philosophy_, 7. The admission of the
+few errors of Newton himself is at least of as much importance to his
+followers in science as the history of the progress of his real
+discoveries.--YOUNG, _Works_, iii. 621. Error is almost always partial
+truth, and so consists in the exaggeration or distortion of one verity
+by the suppression of another, which qualifies and modifies the
+former.--MIVART, _Genesis of Species_, 3. The attainment of scientific
+truth has been effected, to a great extent, by the help of scientific
+errors.--HUXLEY: WARD, _Reign of Victoria_, ii. 337. Jede neue tief
+eingreifende Wahrheit hat meiner Ansicht nach erst das Stadium der
+Einseitigkeit durchzumachen.--IHERING, _Geist des R. Rechts_, ii. 22.
+The more readily we admit the possibility of our own cherished
+convictions being mixed with error, the more vital and helpful
+whatever is right in them will become.--RUSKIN, _Ethics of the Dust_,
+225. They hardly grasp the plain truth unless they examine the error
+which it cancels.--CORY, _Modern English History_, 1880, i. 109. Nur
+durch Irrthum kommen wir, der eine kuerzeren und gluecklicheren
+Schrittes, als der andere, zur Wahrheit; und die Geschichte darf
+nirgends diese Verirrungen uebergehen, wenn sie Lehrerin und Warnerin
+fuer die nachfolgenden Geschlechter werden will.--_Muenchner Gel.
+Anzeigen_, 1840, i. 737.
+
+[74] Wie die Weltgeschichte das Weltgericht ist, so kann in
+noch allgemeinerem Sinne gesagt werden, dass das gerechte Gericht,
+d.h. die wahre Kritik einer Sache, nur in ihrer Geschichte liegen
+kann. Insbesondere in der Hinsicht lehrt die Geschichte denjenigen,
+der ihr folgt, ihre eigene Methode, dass ihr Fortschritt niemals ein
+reines Vernichten, sondern nur ein Aufheben im philosophischen Sinne
+ist.--STRAUSS, _Hallische Jahrbuecher_, 1839, 120.
+
+[75] Dans tous les livres qu'il lit, et il en devore des
+quantites, Darwin ne note que les passages qui contrarient ses idees
+systematiques.--Il collectionne les difficultes, les cas epineux, les
+critiques possibles.--VERNIER, _Le Temps_, 6 Decembre, 1887. Je
+demandais a un savant celebre ou il en etait de ses recherches. "Cela
+ne marche plus," me dit-il, "je ne trouve plus de faits
+contradictoires." Ainsi le savant cherche a se contredire lui-meme
+pour faire avancer sa pensee.--JANET, _Journal des Savants_, 1892, 20.
+Ein Umstand, der uns die Selbstaendigkeit des Ganges der Wissenschaft
+anschaulich machen kann, ist auch der: dass der Irrthum, wenn er nur
+gruendlich behandelt wird, fast ebenso foerdernd ist als das Finden der
+Wahrheit, denn er erzeugt fortgesetzten Widerspruch.--BAER, _Blicke
+auf die Entwicklung der Wissenschaft_, 120. It is only by virtue of
+the opposition which it has surmounted that any truth can stand in the
+human mind.--BISHOP TEMPLE; KINGLAKE, _Crimea_, _Winter Troubles_,
+app. 104. I have for many years found it expedient to lay down a rule
+for my own practice, to confine my reading mainly to those journals
+the general line of opinions in which is adverse to my own.--HARE,
+_Means of Unity_, i. 19. Kant had a harder struggle with himself than
+he could possibly have had with any critic or opponent of his
+philosophy.--CAIRD, _Philosophy of Kant_, 1889, i. p. ix.
+
+[76] The social body is no more liable to arbitrary changes
+than the individual body.--A full perception of the truth that society
+is not a mere aggregate, but an organic growth, that it forms a whole
+the laws of whose growth can be studied apart from those of the
+individual atom, supplies the most characteristic postulate of modern
+speculation.--L. STEPHEN, _Science of Ethics_, 31. Wie in dem Leben
+des Einzelnen Menschen kein Augenblick eines vollkommenen Stillstandes
+wahrgenommen wird, sondern stete organische Entwicklung, so verhaelt es
+sich auch in dem Leben der Voelker, und in jedem einzelnen Element,
+woraus dieses Gesammtleben besteht. So finden wir in der Sprache stete
+Fortbildung und Entwicklung, und auf gleiche Weise in dem Recht. Und
+auch diese Fortbildung steht unter demselben Gesetz der Erzeugung aus
+innerer Kraft und Nothwendigkeit, unabhaengig von Zufall und
+individueller Willkuer, wie die urspruengliche Entstehung.--SAVIGNY,
+_System_, i. 16, 17. Seine eigene Entdeckung, dass auch die geistige
+Produktion, bis in einem gewissen Punkte wenigstens, unter dem Gesetze
+der Kausalitaet steht, dass jedeiner nur geben kann was er hat, nur hat
+was er irgendwoher bekommen, muss auch fuer ihn selber gelten.--BEKKER,
+_Das Recht des Besitzes bei den Roemern_, 3, 1880. Die geschichtliche
+Wandlung des Rechts, in welcher vergangene Jahrhunderte halb ein Spiel
+des Zufalls und halb ein Werk vernuenftelnder Willkuer sahen, als
+gesetzmaessige Entwickelung zu begreifen, war das unsterbliche
+Verdienst der von Maennern wie Savigny, Eichhorn und Jacob Grimm
+gefuehrten historischen Rechtsschule.--GIERKE, _Rundschau_, xviii.
+205.
+
+[77] The only effective way of studying what is called the
+philosophy of religion, or the philosophical criticism of religion, is
+to study the history of religion. The true science of war is the
+history of war, the true science of religion is, I believe, the
+history of religion.--M. MUeLLER, _Theosophy_, 3, 4. La theologie ne
+doit plus etre que l'histoire des efforts spontanes tentes pour
+resoudre le probleme divin. L'histoire, en effet, est la forme
+necessaire de la science de tout ce qui est soumis aux lois de la vie
+changeante et successive. La science de l'esprit humain, c'est de
+meme, l'histoire de l'esprit humain.--RENAN, _Averroes_, Pref. vi.
+
+[78] Political economy is not a science, in any strict sense,
+but a body of systematic knowledge gathered from the study of common
+processes, which have been practised all down the history of the human
+race in the production and distribution of wealth.--BONAMY PRICE,
+_Social Science Congress_, 1878. Such a study is in harmony with the
+best intellectual tendencies of our age, which is, more than anything
+else, characterized by the universal supremacy of the historical
+spirit. To such a degree has this spirit permeated all our modes of
+thinking, that with respect to every branch of knowledge, no less than
+with respect to every institution and every form of human activity, we
+almost instinctively ask, not merely what is its existing condition,
+but what were its earliest discoverable germs, and what has been the
+course of its development.--INGRAM, _History of Political Economy_, 2.
+Wir dagegen stehen keinen Augenblick an, die Nationaloekonomie fuer eine
+reine Erfahrungswissenschaft zu erklaeren, und die Geschichte ist uns
+daher nicht Huelfsmittel, sondern Gegenstand selber.--ROSCHER,
+_Deutsche Vierteljahrschrift_, 1849, i. 182. Der bei weitem groesste
+Theil menschlicher Irrthuemer beruhet darauf, dass man zeitlich und
+oertlich Wahres oder Heilsames fuer absolut wahr oder heilsam ausgiebt.
+Fuer jede Stufe der Volksentwickelung passt eine besondere
+Staatsverfassung, die mit allen uebrigen Verhaeltnissen des Volks als
+Ursache und Wirkung auf's Innigste verbunden ist; so passt auch fuer jede
+Entwickelungsstufe eine besondere Landwirthschaftsverfassung.--ROSCHER,
+_Archiv f. p. Oek._, viii., 2 Heft 1845. Seitdem vor allen Roscher,
+Hildebrand und Knies den Werth, die Berechtigung und die
+Nothwendigkeit derselben unwiderleglich dargethan, hat sich immer
+allgemeiner der Gedanke Bahn gebrochen dass diese Wissenschaft, die
+bis dahin nur auf die Gegenwart, auf die Erkenntniss der bestehenden
+Verhaeltnisse und die in ihnen sichtbaren Gesetze den Blick gerichtet
+hatte, auch in die Vergangenheit, in die Erforschung der bereits
+hinter uns liegenden wirthschaftlichen Entwicklung der Voelker sich
+vertiefen muesse.--SCHOeNBERG, _Jahrbuecher f. Nationaloekonomie und
+Statistik_, Neue Folge, 1867, i. 1. Schmoller, moins dogmatique et
+mettant comme une sorte de coquetterie a etre incertain, demontre, par
+les faits, la faussete ou l'arbitraire de tous ces postulats, et
+laisse l'economie politique se dissoudre dans l'histoire.--BRETON, _R.
+de Paris_, ix. 67. Wer die politische Oekonomie Feuerlands unter
+dieselben Gesetze bringen wollte mit der des heutigen Englands, wuerde
+damit augenscheinlich nichts zu Tage foerdern als den allerbanalsten
+Gemeinplatz. Die politische Oekonomie ist somit wesentlich eine
+historische Wissenschaft. Sie behandelt einen geschichtlichen, das
+heisst einen stets wechselnden Stoff. Sie untersucht zunaechst die
+besondern Gesetze jeder einzelnen Entwicklungsstufe der Produktion und
+des Austausches, und wird erst am Schluss dieser Untersuchung die
+wenigen, fuer Produktion und Austausch ueberhaupt geltenden, ganz
+allgemeinen Gesetze aufstellen koennen.--ENGELS, _Duehrings Umwaelzung der
+Wissenschaft_, 1878, 121.
+
+[79] History preserves the student from being led astray by a
+too servile adherence to any system.--WOLOWSKI. No system can be
+anything more than a history, not in the order of impression, but in
+the order of arrangement by analogy.--DAVY, _Memoirs_, 68. Avec des
+materiaux si nombreux et si importants, il fallait bien du courage
+pour resister a la tentation de faire un systeme. De Saussure eut ce
+courage, et nous en ferons le dernier trait et le trait principal de
+son eloge.--CUVIER, _Eloge de Saussure_, 1810.
+
+[80] C'etait, en 1804, une idee heureuse et nouvelle,
+d'appeler l'histoire au secours de la science, d'interroger les deux
+grandes ecoles rivales au profit de la verite.--COUSIN, _Fragments
+Litteraires_, 1843, 95, on Degerando. No branch of philosophical
+doctrine, indeed, can be fairly investigated or apprehended apart from
+its history. All our systems of politics, morals, and metaphysics
+would be different if we knew exactly how they grew up, and what
+transformations they have undergone; if we knew, in short, the true
+history of human ideas.--CLIFFE LESLIE, _Essays in Political and Moral
+Philosophy_, 1879, 149. The history of philosophy must be rational and
+philosophic. It must be philosophy itself, with all its elements, in
+all their relations, and under all their laws represented in striking
+characters by the hands of time and of history, in the manifested
+progress of the human mind.--SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON, _Edin. Rev._ l.
+200, 1829. Il n'est point d'etude plus instructive, plus utile que
+l'etude de l'histoire de la philosophie; car on y apprend a se
+desabuser des philosophes, et l'on y desapprend la fausse science de
+leurs systemes.--ROYER COLLARD, _OEuvres de Reid_, iv. 426. On ne
+peut guere echapper a la conviction que toutes les solutions des
+questions philosophiques n'aient ete developpees ou indiquees avant le
+commencement du dix-neuvieme siecle, et que par consequent il ne soit
+tres difficile, pour ne pas dire impossible, de tomber, en pareille
+matiere, sur une idee neuve de quelque importance. Or si cette
+conviction est fondee, il s'ensuit que la science est faite.--JOUFFROY,
+in DAMIRON, _Philosophie du XIXe Siecle_, 363. Le but dernier de tous
+mes efforts, l'ame de mes ecrits et de tout mon enseignement, c'est
+l'identite de la philosophie et de son histoire.--COUSIN, _Cours de
+1829_. Ma route est historique, il est vrai, mais mon but est
+dogmatique; je tends a une theorie, et cette theorie je la demande a
+l'histoire.--COUSIN, _Ph. du XVIIIe Siecle_, 15. L'histoire de la
+philosophie est contrainte d'emprunter d'abord a la philosophie la
+lumiere qu'elle doit lui rendre un jour avec usure.--COUSIN, _Du Vrai_,
+1855, 14. M. Cousin, durant tout son professorat de 1816 a 1829, a
+pense que l'histoire de la philosophie etait la source de la
+philosophie meme. Nous ne croyons pas exagerer en lui pretant cette
+opinion.--B. ST. HILAIRE, _Victor Cousin_, i. 302. Il se hata de
+convertir le fait en loi, et proclama que la philosophie, etant
+identique a son histoire, ne pouvait avoir une loi differente, et
+etait vouee a jamais a l'evolution fatale des quatre systemes, se
+contredisant toujours, mais se limitant, et se moderant, par cela meme
+de maniere a maintenir l'equilibre, sinon l'harmonie de la pensee
+humaine.--VACHEROT, _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1868, iii. 957. Er hat
+ueberhaupt das unvergaengliche Verdienst, zuerst in Frankreich zu der
+Erkenntniss gelangt zu sein, dass die menschliche Vernunft nur durch
+das Studium des Gesetzes ihrer Entwickelungen begriffen werden
+kann.--LAUSER, _Unsere Zeit_, 1868, i. 459. Le philosophe en quete du
+vrai en soi, n'est plus reduit a ses conceptions individuelles; il est
+riche du tresor amasse par l'humanite.--BOUTROUX, _Revue Politique_,
+xxxvii. 802. L'histoire, je veux dire l'histoire de l'esprit humain,
+est en ce sens la vraie philosophie de notre temps.--RENAN, _Etudes de
+Morale_, 83. Die Philosophie wurde eine hoechst bedeutende
+Huelfswissenschaft der Geschichte, sie hat ihre Richtung auf das
+Allgemeine gefoerdert, ihren Blick fuer dasselbe geschaerft, und sie,
+wenigstens durch ihre Vermittlung, mit Gesichtspuncten, Ideen,
+bereichert die sie aus ihrem eigenen Schoosse sobald noch nicht
+erzeugt haben wuerde. Weit die fruchtbarste darunter war die aus der
+Naturwissenschaft geschoepfte Idee des organischen Lebens, dieselbe auf
+der die neueste Philosophie selbst beruht. Die seit zwei bis drei
+Jahrzehnten in der Behandlung der Geschichte eingetretene
+durchgreifende Veraenderung, wie die voellige Umgestaltung so mancher
+anderen Wissenschaft ... ist der Hauptsache nach ihr Werk.--HAUG,
+_Allgemeine Geschichte_, 1841, i. 22. Eine Geschichte der Philosophie
+in eigentlichen Sinne wurde erst moeglich als man an die Stelle der
+Philosophen deren Systeme setzte, den inneren Zusammenhang zwischen
+diesen feststellte und--wie Dilthey sagt--mitten in Wechsel der
+Philosophien ein siegreiches Fortschreiten zur Wahrheit nachwies. Die
+Gesammtheit der Philosophie stellt sich also dar als eine
+geschichtliche Einheit.--SAUL, _Rundschau_, Feb. 1894, 307. Warum die
+Philosophie eine Geschichte habe und haben muesse, blieb uneroertert, ja
+ungeahnt, dass die Philosophie am meisten von allen Wissenschaften
+historisch sei, denn man hatte in der Geschichte den Begriff der
+Entwicklung nicht entdeckt.--MARBACH, _Griechische Philosophie_, 15.
+Was bei oberflaechlicher Betrachtung nur ein Gewirre einzelner Personen
+und Meinungen zu sein schien, zeigt sich bei genauerer und gruendlicherer
+Untersuchung als eine geschichtliche Entwicklung, in der alles, bald
+naeher, bald entfernter, mit allem anderen zusammenhaengt.--ZELLER,
+_Rundschau_, Feb. 1894, 307. Nur die Philosophie, die an die
+geschichtliche Entwickelung anknuepft kann auf bleibenden Erfolg auch
+fuer die Zukunft rechnen und fortschreiten zu dem, was in der
+bisherigen philosophischen Entwickelung nur erst unvollkommen erreicht
+oder angestrebt worden ist. Kann sich doch die Philosophie ueberhaupt
+und insbesondere die Metaphysik ihrer eigenen geschichtlichen
+Entwickelung nicht entschlagen, sondern hat eine Geschichte der
+Philosophie als eigene und zwar zugleich historische und spekulative
+Disziplin, in deren geschichtlichen Entwickelungsphasen und
+geschichtlich aufeinanderfolgenden Systemen der Philosophen die neuere
+Spekulation seit Schelling and Hegel zugleich die Philosophie selbst
+als ein die verschiedenen geschichtlichen Systeme umfassendes ganzes
+in seiner dialektischen Gliederung erkannt hat.--GLOATZ, _Spekulative
+Theologie_, i. 23. Die heutige Philosophie fuehrt uns auf einen
+Standpunkt von dem aus die philosophische Idee als das innere Wesen
+der Geschichte selbst erscheint. So trat an die Stelle einer abstrakt
+philosophischen Richtung, welche das Geschichtliche verneinte, eine
+abstrakt geschichtliche Richtung welche das Philosophische
+verlaeugnete. Beide Richtungen sind als ueberschrittene und besiegte zu
+betrachten.--BERNER, _Strafrecht_, 75. Die Geschichte der Philosophie
+hat uns fast schon die Wissenschaft der Philosophie selbst
+ersetzt.--HERMANN, _Phil. Monatshefte_, ii. 198, 1889.
+
+[81] Le siecle actuel sera principalement caracterise par
+l'irrevocable preponderance de l'histoire, en philosophie, en
+politique, et meme en poesie.--COMTE, _Politique Positive_, iii. 1.
+
+[82] The historical or comparative method has revolutionized
+not only the sciences of law, mythology, and language, of anthropology
+and sociology, but it has forced its way even into the domain of
+philosophy and natural science. For what is the theory of evolution
+itself, with all its far-reaching consequences, but the achievement of
+the historical method?--PROTHERO, _Inaugural_. _National Review_,
+_Dec._ 1894, 461. To facilitate the advancement of all the branches of
+useful science, two things seem to be principally requisite. The first
+is, an historical account of their rise, progress, and present state.
+Without the former of these helps, a person every way qualified for
+extending the bounds of science labours under great disadvantages;
+wanting the lights which have been struck out by others, and
+perpetually running the risk of losing his labour, and finding himself
+anticipated.--PRIESTLEY, _History of Vision_, 1772, i. Pref. i.
+Cuvier se proposait de montrer l'enchainement scientifique des
+decouvertes, leurs relations avec les grands evenements historiques,
+et leur influence sur les progres et le developpement de la
+civilisation.--DARESTE, _Biographie Generale_, xii. 685. Dans ses
+eloquentes lecons, l'histoire des sciences est devenue l'histoire meme
+de l'esprit humain; car, remontant aux causes de leurs progres et de
+leurs erreurs, c'est toujours dans les bonnes ou mauvaises routes
+suivies par l'esprit humain, qu'il trouve ces causes.--FLOURENS,
+_Eloge de Cuvier_, xxxi. Wie keine fortlaufende Entwickelungsreihe von
+nur Einem Punkte aus vollkommen aufzufassen ist, so wird auch keine
+lebendige Wissenschaft nur aus der Gegenwart begriffen werden
+koennen.--Deswegen ist aber eine solche Darstellung doch noch nicht der
+gesammten Wissenschaft adaequat, und sie birgt, wenn sie damit
+verwechselt wird, starke Gefahren der Einseitigkeit, des Dogmatismus
+und damit der Stagnation in sich. Diesen Gefahren kann wirksam nur
+begegnet werden durch die verstaendige Betrachtung der Geschichte der
+Wissenschaften, welche diese selbst in stetem Flusse zeigt und die
+Tendenz ihres Fortschreitens in offenbarer und sicherer Weise
+klarlegt.--ROSENBERGER, _Geschichte der Physik_, iii., p. vi. Die
+Continuitaet in der Ausbildung aller Auffassungen tritt um so
+deutlicher hervor, je vollstaendiger man sich damit, wie sie zu
+verschiedenen Zeiten waren, vertraut macht.--KOPP, _Entwickelung der
+Chemie_, 814.
+
+[83] Die Geschichte und die Politik sind Ein und derselbe
+Janus mit dem Doppelgesicht, das in der Geschichte in die
+Vergangenheit, in der Politik in die Zukunft hinschaut.--GUeGLER'S
+_Leben_, ii. 59.
+
+[84] The papers inclosed, which give an account of the
+killing of two men in the county of Londonderry; if they prove to be
+Tories, 'tis very well they are gone.--I think it will not only be
+necessary to grant those a pardon who killed them, but also that they
+have some reward for their own and others' encouragement.--ESSEX,
+_Letters_, 10, _Jan._ 10, 1675. The author of this happened to be
+present. There was a meeting of some honest people in the city, upon
+the occasion of the discovery of some attempt to stifle the evidence
+of the witnesses.--Bedloe said he had letters from Ireland, that there
+were some Tories to be brought over hither, who were privately to
+murder Dr. Oates and the said Bedloe. The doctor, whose zeal was very
+hot, could never after this hear any man talk against the plot, or
+against the witnesses, but he thought he was one of these Tories, and
+called almost every man a Tory that opposed him in discourse; till at
+last the word Tory became popular.--DEFOE, _Edinburgh Review_, l.
+403.
+
+[85] La Espana sera el primer pueblo en donde se encendera
+esta guerra patriotica que solo puede libertar a Europa.--Hemos oido
+esto en Inglaterra a varios de los que estaban alli presentes. Muchas
+veces ha oido lo mismo al duque de Wellington el general Don Miguel de
+Alava, y dicho duque refirio el suceso en una comida diplomatica que
+dio en Paris el duque de Richelieu en 1816.--TORENO, _Historia del
+Levantamiento de Espana_, 1838, i. 508.
+
+[86] Nunquam propter auctoritatem illorum, quamvis magni sint
+nominis (supponimus scilicet semper nos cum eo agere qui scientiam
+historicam vult consequi), sententias quas secuti sunt ipse tamquam
+certas admittet, sed solummodo ob vim testimoniorum et argumentorum
+quibus eas confirmarunt.--DE SMEDT, _Introductio ad historiam critice
+tractandam_, 1866, i. 5.
+
+[87] Hundert schwere Verbrechen wiegen nicht so schwer in der
+Schale der Unsittlichkeit, als ein unsittliches Princip.--_Hallische
+Jahrbuecher_, 1839, 308. Il faut fletrir les crimes; mais il faut
+aussi, et surtout, fletrir les doctrines et les systemes qui tendent a
+les justifier.--MORTIMER TERNAUX, _Histoire de la Terreur_.
+
+[88] We see how good and evil mingle in the best of men and
+in the best of causes; we learn to see with patience the men whom we
+like best often in the wrong, and the repulsive men often in the
+right; we learn to bear with patience the knowledge that the cause
+which we love best has suffered, from the awkwardness of its
+defenders, so great disparagement, as in strict equity to justify the
+men who were assaulting it.--STUBBS, _Seventeen Lectures_, 97.
+
+[89] Caeteris paribus, on trouvera tousjours que ceux qui ont plus de
+puissance sont sujets a pecher davantage; et il n'y a point de theoreme
+de geometrie qui soit plus asseure que cette proposition.--LEIBNIZ,
+1688, ed. Rommel, ii. 197. Il y a toujours eu de la malignite dans la
+grandeur, et de l'opposition a l'esprit de l'Evangile; mais maintenant
+il y en a plus que jamais, et il semble que comme le monde va a sa
+fin, celui qui est dans l'elevation fait tous ses efforts pour dominer
+avec plus de tyrannie, et pour etouffer les maximes du Christianisme et
+le regne de Jesus-Christ, voiant qu'il s'approche.--GODEAU, _Lettres_,
+423, March 27, 1667. There is, in fact, an unconquerable tendency in
+all power, save that of knowledge, acting by and through knowledge, to
+injure the mind of him by whom that power is exercised.--WORDSWORTH,
+June 22, 1817. _Letters of Lake Poets_, 369.
+
+[90] I cieli han messo sulla terra due giudici delle umane
+azioni, la coscienza e la storia.--COLLETTA. Wenn gerade die edelsten
+Maenner um des Nachruhmes willen gearbeitet haben, so soll die
+Geschichte ihre Belohnung sein, sie auch die Strafe fuer die
+Schlechten.--LASAULX, _Philosophie der Kuenste_, 211. Pour juger ce qui
+est bon et juste dans la vie actuelle ou passee, il faut posseder un
+criterium, qui ne soit pas tire du passe ou du present, mais de la
+nature humaine.--AHRENS, _Cours de Droit Naturel_, i. 67.
+
+[91] L'homme de notre temps! La conscience moderne! Voila
+encore de ces termes qui nous ramenent la pretendue philosophie de
+l'histoire et la doctrine du progres, quand il s'agit de la justice,
+c'est-a-dire de la conscience pure et de l'homme rationnel, que
+d'autres siecles encore que le notre ont connu.--RENOUVIER, _Crit.
+Phil._ 1873, ii. 55.
+
+[92] Il faut pardonner aux grands hommes le marchepied de
+leur grandeur.--COUSIN, in J. SIMON, _Nos Hommes d'Etat_, 1887, 55.
+L'esprit du XVIIIe siecle n'a pas besoin d'apologie: l'apologie d'un
+siecle est dans son existence.--COUSIN, _Fragments_, iii. 1826.
+Suspendus aux levres eloquentes de M. Cousin, nous l'entendimes
+s'ecrier que la meilleure cause l'emportait toujours, que c'etait la
+loi de l'histoire, le rhythme immuable du progres.--GASPARIN, _La
+Liberte Morale_, ii. 63. Cousin verurtheilen heisst darum nichts
+Anderes als jenen Geist historischer Betrachtung verdammen, durch
+welchen das 19 Jahrhundert die revolutionaere Kritik des 18
+Jahrhunderts ergaenzt, durch welchen insbesondere Deutschland die
+geistigen Wohlthaten vergolten hat, welche es im Zeitalter der
+Aufklaerung von seinen westlichen Nachbarn empfangen.--IODL, _Gesch.
+der Ethik_, ii. 295. Der Gang der Weltgeschichte steht ausserhalb der
+Tugend, des Lasters, und der Gerechtigkeit.--HEGEL, _Werke_, viii.
+425. Die Vermischung des Zufaelligen im Individuum mit dem an ihm
+Historischen fuehrt zu unzaehligen falschen Ansichten und Urtheilen.
+Hierzu gehoert namentlich alles Absprechen ueber die moralische
+Tuechtigkeit der Individuen, und die Verwunderung, welche his zur
+Verzweiflung an goettlicher Gerechtigkeit sich steigert, dass
+historisch grosse Individuen moralisch nichtswuerdig erscheinen koennen.
+Die moralische Tuechtigkeit besteht in der Unterordnung alles dessen
+was zufaellig am Einzelnen unter das an ihm dem Allgemeinen
+Angehoerige.--MARBACH, _Geschichte der Griechischen Philosophie_, 7.
+Das Sittliche der Neuseelaender, der Mexikaner ist vielmehr ebenso
+sittlich, wie das der Griechen, der Roemer; und das Sittliche der
+Christen des Mittelalters ist ebenso sittlich, wie das der
+Gegenwart.--KIRCHMANN, _Grundbegriffe des Rechts_, 194. Die
+Geschichtswissenschaft als solche kennt nur ein zeitliches und mithin
+auch nur ein relatives Maass der Dinge. Alle Werthbeurtheilung der
+Geschichte kann daher nur relativ und aus zeitlichen Momenten
+fliessen, und wer sich nicht selbst taeuschen und den Dingen nicht
+Gewalt anthun will, muss ein fuer allemal in dieser Wissenschaft auf
+absolute Werthe verzichten.--LORENZ, _Schlosser_, 80. Only according
+to his faith is each man judged. Committed as this deed has been by a
+pure-minded, pious youth, it is a beautiful sign of the time.--DE
+WETTE to Sand's Mother, CHEYNE, _Founders of Criticism_, 44. The men
+of each age must be judged by the ideal of their own age and country,
+and not by the ideal of ours.--LECKY, _Value of History_, 50.
+
+[93] La duree ici-bas, c'est le droit, c'est la sanction de
+Dieu.--GUIRAUD, _Philosophie Catholique de l'Histoire_.
+
+[94] Ceux qui ne sont pas contens de l'ordre des choses ne
+scauroient se vanter d'aimer Dieu comme il faut.--Il faut toujours
+estre content de l'ordre du passe, parce qu'il est conforme a la
+volonte de Dieu absolue, qu'on connoit par l'evenement. Il faut tacher
+de rendre l'avenir, autant qu'il depend de nous, conforme a la volonte
+de Dieu presomptive.--LEIBNIZ, _Werke_, ed. Gerhardt, ii. 136. Ich
+habe damals bekannt und bekenne jetzt, dass die politische Wahrheit
+aus denselben Quellen zu schoepfen ist, wie alle anderen, aus dem
+goettlichen Willen und dessen Kundgebung in der Geschichte des
+Menschengeschlechts.--RADOWITZ, _Neue Gespraeche_, 65.
+
+[95] A man is great as he contends best with the
+circumstances of his age.--FROUDE, _Short Studies_ i. 388. La
+persuasion que l'homme est avant tout une personne morale et libre, et
+qu'ayant concu seul, dans sa conscience et devant Dieu, la regle de sa
+conduite, il doit s'employer tout entier a l'appliquer en lui, hors de
+lui, absolument, obstinement, inflexiblement, par une resistance
+perpetuelle opposee aux autres; et par une contrainte perpetuelle
+exercee sur soi, voila la grande idee anglaise.--TAINE; SOREL,
+_Discours de Reception_, 24. In jeder Zeit des Christenthums hat es
+einzelne Maenner gegeben, die ueber ihrer Zeit standen und von ihren
+Gegensaetzen nicht beruehrt wurden.--BACHMANN, _Hengstenberg_, i. 160.
+Eorum enim qui de iisdem rebus mecum aliquid ediderunt, aut solus
+insanio ego, aut solus non insanio; tertium enim non est, nisi (quod
+dicet forte aliquis) insaniamus omnes.--HOBBES, quoted by DE MORGAN,
+June 3, 1858, _Life of Sir W. R. Hamilton_, iii. 552.
+
+[96] I have now to exhibit a rare combination of good
+qualities, and a steady perseverance in good conduct, which raised an
+individual to be an object of admiration and love to all his
+contemporaries, and have made him to be regarded by succeeding
+generations as a model of public and private virtue.--The evidence
+shows that upon this occasion he was not only under the influence of
+the most vulgar credulity, but that he violated the plainest rules of
+justice, and that he really was the murderer of two innocent
+women.--Hale's motives were most laudable.--CAMPBELL'S _Lives of the
+Chief Justices_, i. 512, 561, 566. It was not to be expected of the
+colonists of New England that they should be the first to see through
+a delusion which befooled the whole civilized world, and the gravest
+and most knowing persons in it.--The people of New England believed
+what the wisest men of the world believed at the end of the
+seventeenth century.--PALFREY, _New England_, iv. 127, 129 (also
+speaking of witchcraft). Il est donc bien etrange que sa severite
+tardive s'exerce aujourd'hui sur un homme auquel elle n'a d'autre
+reproche a faire que d'avoir trop bien servi l'etat par des mesures
+politiques, injustes peut-etre, violentes, mais qui, en aucune
+maniere, n'avaient l'interet personnel du coupable pour objet.--M.
+Hastings peut sans doute paraitre reprehensible aux yeux des
+etrangers, des particuliers meme, mais il est assez extraordinaire
+qu'une nation usurpatrice d'une partie de l'Indostan veuille meler les
+regles de la morale a celles d'une administration forcee, injuste et
+violente par essence, et a laquelle il faudrait renoncer a jamais pour
+etre consequent.--MALLET DU PAN, _Memories_, ed. Sayous, i. 102.
+
+[97] On parle volontiers de la stabilite de la constitution
+anglaise. La verite est que cette constitution est toujours en
+mouvement et en oscillation et qu'elle se prete merveilleusement au
+jeu de ses differentes parties. Sa solidite vient de sa souplesse;
+elle plie et ne rompt pas.--BOUTMY, _Nouvelle Revue_, 1878, 49.
+
+[98] This is not an age for a man to follow the strict
+morality of better times, yet sure mankind is not yet so debased but
+that there will ever be found some few men who will scorn to join
+concert with the public voice when it is not well grounded.--_Savile
+Correspondence_, 173.
+
+[99] Cette proposition: L'homme est incomparablement plus
+porte au mal qu'au bien, et il se fait dans le monde incomparablement
+plus de mauvaises actions que de bonnes--est aussi certaine qu'aucun
+principe de metaphysique. Il est donc incomparablement plus probable
+qu'une action faite par un homme, est mauvaise, qu'il n'est probable
+qu'elle soit bonne. Il est incomparablement plus probable que ces
+secrets ressorts qui l'ont produite sont corrompus, qu'il n'est
+probable qu'ils soient honnetes. Je vous avertis que je parle d'une
+action qui n'est point mauvaise exterieurement.--BAYLE, _OEuvres_,
+ii. 248.
+
+[100] A Christian is bound by his very creed to suspect evil,
+and cannot release himself.--His religion has brought evil to light in
+a way in which it never was before; it has shown its depth, subtlety,
+ubiquity; and a revelation, full of mercy on the one hand, is terrible
+in its exposure of the world's real state on the other. The Gospel
+fastens the sense of evil upon the mind; a Christian is enlightened,
+hardened, sharpened, as to evil; he sees it where others do
+not.--MOZLEY, _Essays_, i. 308. All satirists, of course, work in the
+direction of Christian doctrine, by the support they give to the
+doctrine of original sin, making a sort of meanness and badness a law
+of society.--MOZLEY, _Letters_, 333. Les critiques, meme malveillants,
+sont plus pres de la verite derniere que les admirateurs.--NISARD,
+_Lit. fr._, Conclusion. Les hommes superieurs doivent necessairement
+passer pour mechants. Ou les autres ne voient ni un defaut, ni un
+ridicule, ni un vice, leur implacable oeil l'apercoit.--BARBEY
+D'AUREVILLY, _Figaro_, March 31, 1888.
+
+[101] Prenons garde de ne pas trop expliquer, pour ne pas
+fournir des arguments a ceux qui veulent tout excuser.--BROGLIE,
+_Reception de Sorel_, 46.
+
+[102] The eternal truths and rights of things exist,
+fortunately, independent of our thoughts or wishes, fixed as
+mathematics, inherent in the nature of man and the world. They are no
+more to be trifled with than gravitation.--FROUDE, _Inaugural Lecture
+at St. Andrews_, 1869, 41. What have men to do with interests? There
+is a right way and a wrong way. That is all we need think
+about.--CARLYLE to FROUDE, _Longman's Magazine_, Dec. 1892, 151. As to
+History, it is full of indirect but very effective moral teaching. It
+is not only, as Bolingbroke called it, "Philosophy teaching by
+examples," but it is morality teaching by examples.--It is essentially
+the study which best helps the student to conceive large thoughts.--It
+is impossible to overvalue the moral teaching of History.--FITCH,
+_Lectures on Teaching_, 432. Judging from the past history of our
+race, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, war is a folly and a
+crime.--Where it is so, it is the saddest and the wildest of all
+follies, and the most heinous of all crimes.--GREG, _Essays on
+Political and Social Science_, 1853, i. 562. La volonte de tout un
+peuple ne peut rendre juste ce qui est injuste: les representants
+d'une nation n'ont pas le droit de faire ce que la nation n'a pas le
+droit de faire elle-meme.--B. CONSTANT, _Principes de Politique_, i.
+15.
+
+[103] Think not that morality is ambulatory; that vices in
+one age are not vices in another, or that virtues, which are under the
+everlasting seal of right reason, may be stamped by opinion.--SIR
+THOMAS BROWNE, _Works_, iv. 64.
+
+[104] Osons croire qu'il seroit plus a propos de mettre de
+cote ces traditions, ces usages, et ces coutumes souvent si
+imparfaites, si contradictoires, si incoherentes, ou de ne les
+consulter que pour saisir les inconveniens et les eviter; et qu'il
+faudroit chercher non-seulement les elements d'une nouvelle
+legislation, mais meme ses derniers details dans une etude approfondie
+de la morale.--LETROSNE, _Reflexions sur la Legislation Criminelle_,
+137. M. Renan appartient a cette famille d'esprits qui ne croient pas
+en realite la raison, la conscience, le droit applicables a la
+direction des societes humaines, et qui demandent a l'histoire, a la
+tradition, non a la morale, les regles de la politique. Ces esprits
+sont atteints de la maladie du siecle, le scepticisme moral.--PILLON,
+_Critique Philosophique_, i. 49.
+
+[105] The subject of modern history is of all others, to my
+mind, the most interesting, inasmuch as it includes all questions of
+the deepest interest relating not to human things only, but to
+divine.--ARNOLD, _Modern History_, 311.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's A Lecture on the Study of History, by Lord Acton
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