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diff --git a/25532-h/25532-h.htm b/25532-h/25532-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..403e547 --- /dev/null +++ b/25532-h/25532-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,3469 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Detection of Forgery, by Douglas Blackburn and Waithman Caddell + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em;} + h1,h2 {text-align: center; clear: both; font-weight: normal;} + h3 {text-align: center; clear: both; font-weight: normal; font-variant: small-caps;} + hr {width: 65%; margin: 2em auto; clear: both;} + .min {width: 45%; margin: 1em auto;} + table {margin: 1em auto;} + .td1 {text-align: left; font-variant: small-caps; padding-right: 6em;} + .td2 {text-align: right;} + .tr1 td {padding-top: .5em;} + .tr2 td {border-top: solid black 1px;} + .tr3 td {border-top: solid black 1px; border-bottom: solid black 1px;} + .td3 {text-align: center; border-right: solid black 1px; width: 2.5em;} + .td4 {text-align: right; border-right: solid black 1px;} + .td5 {text-align: center; border-right: double black 3px; width: 2.5em;} + .td6 {text-align: center; border-right: double black 3px;} + .td7 {text-align: center; border-right: solid black 1px;} + .td8 {text-align: center; border-left: solid black 1px;} + .td9 {text-align: left; border-left: solid black 1px;} + body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .pagenum {position: absolute; right: 1%; font-size: small; font-style: normal; text-align: right; text-indent: 0em;} + .blockquot {margin: 1em 10%;} + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; padding: 0; width: 296px;} + .trn {border: solid 1px; margin: 3em 15% 1em; padding: 1em; text-align: justify;} + img {border: none;} + a:link {text-decoration:none;} + a:visited {text-decoration:none;} + p.cap:first-letter {font-size: 200%; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: .7em;} + .dcap {text-transform: uppercase;} + .fsm {font-size: medium;} + .fsxs {font-size: x-small;} + .fsxxs {font-size: xx-small;} + .fsl {font-size: large;} + .ind {margin-left: 2em; font-variant: small-caps;} + .hd1 {text-align: center; margin-top: 4em; line-height: 1.5em;} + .hd2 {text-align: center; line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-size: x-large;} + .hd3 {text-align: center; line-height: 2em; font-size: small;} + .bk1 p {padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; font-size: .9em;} + ul {list-style-type: none; font-size: .9em;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Detection of Forgery, by +Douglas Blackburn and Waithman Caddell + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Detection of Forgery + A Practical Handbook for the Use of Bankers, Solicitors, + Magistrates' Clerks, and All Handling Suspected Documents + +Author: Douglas Blackburn + Waithman Caddell + +Release Date: May 20, 2008 [EBook #25532] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DETECTION OF FORGERY *** + + + + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<h1><span class="fsm">THE</span><br /> +<span class="smcap"><big>Detection of Forgery</big></span>.</h1> + +<p class="hd1"><big>A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK</big><br /> +<span class="fsxs">FOR THE USE OF</span><br /> +BANKERS, SOLICITORS, MAGISTRATES' CLERKS,<br /> +<small>AND ALL HANDLING SUSPECTED DOCUMENTS.</small></p> + +<p class="hd1"><span class="fsxs">BY</span><br /> +<big>DOUGLAS BLACKBURN</big><br /> +<span class="fsxxs">(<i>Late Expert to the Natal Criminal Investigation Department, and the Transvaal Republic</i>)</span><br /> +<span class="fsxs">AND</span><br /> +<big><span class="smcap">Captain</span> WAITHMAN CADDELL.</big></p> + +<p class="hd1"><small>LONDON:</small><br /> +CHARLES & EDWIN LAYTON,<br /> +<small>FARRINGDON STREET, E.C.</small></p> +<p class="center"><small>1909.</small></p> + +<hr /> +<div class="blockquot"><p class="center"><b>ERRATUM. (<i>Page <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</i>)</b></p> + +<p>Owing to the averages given in the table on page 15 +being printed from some incomplete manuscript they are +incorrect. It is obvious that the proper averages are—</p></div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr class="tr3"><td class="td3">7¼</td><td class="td3">6½</td><td class="td3">5¾</td><td class="td5">7½</td><td class="td3">16¼</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">20¾</td><td class="center">20¾</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="trn"><b>Transcriber's Note:</b> +The corrections in the above erratum have been applied. +The handwritten pages entitled '<a href="#Page_17">Terminology</a>' and '<a href="#Page_24">Alphabet Variants</a>' have been +moved to the beginning of their relevant chapters. +Hyphenation and punctuation have been standardised.</div> + +<hr /> +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="td2"><small>CHAPTER</small></td><td class="td2" colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><small>Page</small></span></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2"> </td><td class="td1">Introduction</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">I.—</td><td class="td1">The Principles of Handwriting Analysis</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">II.—</td><td class="td1">Measurement and its Appliances</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">III.—</td><td class="td1">Terminology</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">IV.—</td><td class="td1">Classes of Handwriting</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">V.—</td><td class="td1">How to Examine a Writing</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">VI.—</td><td class="td1">The Alphabet in Detail</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">VII.—</td><td class="td1">The Capitals</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">VIII.—</td><td class="td1">Punctuation</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">IX.—</td><td class="td1">Paper and Watermarks</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">X.—</td><td class="td1">Inks</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">XI.—</td><td class="td1">Erasures</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">XII.—</td><td class="td1">Pencils and Stylographs</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">XIII.—</td><td class="td1">Anonymous Letters and Disguised Hands</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">XIV.—</td><td class="td1">Forged Literary Autographs</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">XV.—</td><td class="td1">Forged Signatures</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">XVI.—</td><td class="td1">The Expert in the Witness-box</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">XVII.—</td><td class="td1">Handwriting and Expression</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">XVIII.—</td><td class="td1">Bibliography of Handwriting</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p> +<h2>INTRODUCTION.</h2> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">The</span> object of this little work is to assist those who may +occasionally be called upon to form an opinion as to the +genuineness of signatures, alterations in cheques, and the +varied doubtful documents that demand the serious consideration +of business men by way of a preliminary to +"taking further steps."</p> + +<p>It is the first attempt published in England to explain +the principles upon which the comparison and examination +of handwriting are conducted by experts. It is, and can +only be, an outline of suggestions how to begin, for no two +experts follow precisely the same methods, any more than +two painters work on the same lines. Both agree in recognising +certain rules and general principles, but each strives +for his objective point by the employment of those means +which experience, temperament, taste and opportunity +suggest. The study of the elementary rules of their art +puts them upon the road for perfecting it, after which +success can only be attained by rightly reading the signs +that lead to the ultimate goal.</p> + +<p>In reading these chapters the student should begin by +practising that self-help which is essential to success. +<i>He must read with pen and notebook.</i> It is with the +object of compelling this valuable habit that no illustrative +examples are given in the text. It would have been easy +to fill many pages with script illustrations, but experience +shows that a much greater impression is made upon the +memory by the hand forming the outlines described than if +they were provided in pictorial form. In other words, the +student should supply this purposeful omission by himself +constructing the illustrations from the description. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +trifling extra time and trouble thus demanded will be amply +repaid by the ease and rapidity with which the various +points will be fixed in the memory. Nor is this the only +advantage to be gained. The act of reproducing the illustration +cited will emphasise and render clear technical and +mechanical features that would require many words to +explain, with the attendant risk of confusing the mind by +mere verbiage.</p> + +<p>The material and opportunity for practising and studying +the comparison of handwritings are abundant. Every letter +written or read affords a subject, and in a surprisingly short +space of time the student will find himself instinctively noting +and analysing peculiarities in handwriting that probably +never arrested his attention before. The principles of the +art are exceedingly simple and free from complexity, and +many a person who takes up the study will find that he +possesses powers of analysis and observation unguessed +before. The most successful expert is he who observes +most closely and accurately, and the faculty needs only the +spur of an objective point for it to be developed.</p> + +<p>After a little practice, experience will suggest many +methods of examination and test not dealt with here. For +example, photographic enlargements can be and are utilised +with great advantage by bringing out minute details, +especially in signatures, erasures and alterations. Interesting +experiments can be made with a view to discovering the +effect of different kinds of ink—important in settling the +question whether the whole of a particular writing was done +with one fluid, and at the same time, or at intervals.</p> + +<p>The study of erasures and alterations of figures or +characters also comes within the scope of developments of +the art which it is not deemed necessary to deal with at +length in these pages, for after experience will suggest their +use and the best methods of procedure. For the beginner +the instructions given in the chapters that follow will be +found amply sufficient to direct him how to take up a +fascinating and practical accomplishment, and this, with +no further aid than his own judgment, perseverance and +powers of observation and deduction.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2> + +<h3>The Principles of Handwriting Analysis.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">The</span> principle on which experts claim to be able to detect +variations and to differentiate between handwritings is based +on the well-established axiom that there is no such thing as +a perfect pair in nature; that, however close the apparent +similarity between two things, a careful examination and +comparison will reveal marked differences to those trained to +detect them.</p> + +<p>This is especially true of everything that is produced by +human agency. Everyone knows how difficult it is to keep +check upon and eradicate certain physical habits, such as +gestures, style of walking, moving the hands, arms, &c., +tricks of speech, or tone of voice. These mannerisms, being +mechanical and automatic, or the result of long habit, are +performed unconsciously, and there is probably no person +who is entirely free from some marked peculiarity of manner, +which he is ignorant of possessing. It is a well-known fact +that the subject of caricature or mimicry rarely admits the +accuracy or justness of the imitation, although the peculiarities +so emphasised are plainly apparent to others. Even +actors, who are supposed to make a careful study of their +every tone and gesture, are constantly criticised for faults +or mannerisms plain to the observer, but undetected by +themselves.</p> + +<p>It is easy, therefore, to understand how a trick or a +gesture may become a fixed and unconscious habit through +long custom, especially when, as in the case of a peculiarity +of style in handwriting, there has been neither criticism on +it, nor special reason for abandoning it.</p> + +<p>Every person whose handwriting is developed and permanently +formed has adopted certain more or less distinctive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +peculiarities in the formation of letters of which he is +generally unaware.</p> + +<p>The act of writing is much less a matter of control than +may be supposed. The pen follows the thoughts mechanically, +and few ready and habitual writers could, if suddenly called +upon to do so, say what peculiarities their writing possessed. +For example, how many could say off-hand how they dotted +an <i>i</i>—whether with a round dot, a tick or a dash—whether +the tick was vertical, horizontal or sloping; what was the +proportional distance of the dot from the top of the <i>i</i>. +Again, ask a practised writer how he crosses the letter <i>t</i>—whether +with a horizontal, up or down stroke? It is safe to +assume that not one in a thousand could give an accurate +answer, for the reason that the dotting of an <i>i</i> and crossing +of a <i>t</i> have become mechanical acts, done without thought or +premeditation, but as the result of a long-formed habit.</p> + +<p>It is these unconscious hand-gestures and mechanical +tricks of style that the handwriting expert learns to distinguish +and recognise,—the unconsidered trifles that the writer +has probably never devoted a minute's thought to, and which +come upon him as a surprise when they are pointed out to him. +Their detection is rendered the more easy when one knows +what to look for from the fact that they are, unlike gestures +and tricks of voice, permanent. A mannerism may not strike +two observers in the same way, nor is it easy to compare, for +it is fleeting, and the memory has to be relied upon to recall a +former gesture in order to compare it with the last. It is not +so with a hand-gesture in writing. The sign remains side by +side with its repetition, for careful and deliberate comparison; +and if the writing be a long one, the expert has the +advantage of being in possession of ample material on which +to base his judgment.</p> + +<p><i>A Popular Fallacy.</i>—One of the most frequent objections +offered by the casual critic when the subject of expert +testimony is discussed is to the effect that people write +different hands with different pens, and he probably believes +this to be true. A very slight acquaintance with the +principles on which the expert works would satisfy this +spontaneous critic of the fallacy of his objection. A person +who habitually writes a fine, small hand, sloping from right<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +to left, may believe that he has altered the character of his +hand by using a thick, soft quill, reversing the slope to what +is called a backhand, and doubling the size of the letters. +All he has done is to put on a different suit of clothes; the +same man is in them. The use of a thick pen does not make +him put a dot over the <i>i</i> where before he made an horizontal +dash; it does not turn a straight, barred <i>t</i> into a curved loop, +neither does it alter the proportionate distance between the +letters and lines. It does not make him form loops where +before he habitually made bars, or <i>vice versâ</i>, and if he +formerly made a <i>u</i> with an angle like a <i>v</i> he will not write +the <i>u</i> with a rounded hook. Neither will it cause him to drop +his habit of adding a spur to his initial letters or curtail the +ends and tails that he was wont to make long. In short, the +points to which the expert devotes his investigation are those +least affected by any variation in the character of the pen +used and the hand-gestures which have, by constant usage, +become as much part of the writer's style as his walk and the +tone of his voice.</p> + +<p>It follows, therefore, that the work of the handwriting +experts consists in learning how to detect and recognize +those unconscious or mechanical signs, characteristics or hand-gestures +that are a feature in the handwriting of every +person, no matter how closely any two hands may approximate +in general appearance. However similar two hands may +seem to the casual and untrained observer, very distinct and +unmistakable differences become apparent when the student +has been taught what to look for. There is no more certain +thing than the fact that there has not yet been discovered +two handwritings by separate persons so closely allied that +a difference cannot be detected by the trained observer. +Every schoolmaster knows that in a class of pupils taught +writing from the same model, and kept strictly to it, no two +hands are alike, although in the early and rudimentary stage, +before the hand has attained freedom and approached a +settled character, the differences are less marked. So soon +as the child has been freed from the restraint of the set copy +and the criticism of the teacher, he begins to manifest distinct +characteristics, which become more marked and fixed with +practice and usage.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p> + +<p>There is no writing so uniform as the regulation hand +used, and wisely insisted upon, in the Civil Service, and +familiar to the general public in telegrams and official letters. +Yet it is safe to say that there is not a telegraph or post office +clerk in England who would not be able to pick out the +writing of any colleague with which he was at all acquainted.</p> + +<p><i>Duplicates non-existent.</i>—But the best and most decisive +answer to the objection that writings may be exactly similar +lies in the notorious fact that during half a century experts +have failed to discover two complete writings by different +hands, so much alike that a difference could not be detected. +Had such existed, they would long ere this have been produced +for the confuting of the expert in the witness-box; +particularly when we bear in mind that the liberty, and even +the life of a person, have depended upon the identification of +handwriting. That there are many cases of extraordinary +similarity between different handwritings is a fact; if there +were not, there would be very little occasion for the services +of the expert, but it is equally a fact that the fancied +resemblance becomes less apparent as soon as the writing is +examined by a capable and painstaking expert. It should +not be forgotten that it is not every person who undertakes +the comparison of handwritings who is qualified for the task, +any more than every doctor who diagnoses a case can be +depended upon to arrive at an accurate conclusion. But if +the tried and accepted principles of the art be acted upon, +there should be no possibility of error, always assuming that +the person undertaking the examination has a sufficiency of +material for comparison. An expert who valued his reputation +would, for example, be very cautious about giving an +emphatic opinion if the only material at his disposal were +two or three words or letters. It is quite possible that a +clever mimic might reproduce the voice of another person so +accurately as to deceive those who knew the subject of the +imitation; but let him carry on a conversation in the assumed +voice for a few minutes, and detection is certain. In like +manner, while a few characters and tricks of style in writing +may be fairly well imitated, it is impossible to carry the +deception over a number of words. Sooner or later the +forger lapses into some trick of his own, and it is here<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +the trained observer catches him. The expert, like the +caricaturist, lays himself out to note the peculiarities of his +subject, knowing that these are practically beyond the control +of the writer, and that the probabilities are that he is not +even aware of them. Peculiarities in handwriting, like +unchecked habits in children, become, in time, crystallised +into a mannerism so fixed as to be part of the nature, and +consequently are difficult of eradication. As a matter of fact +a peculiarity in handwriting is more often cultivated than +controlled, many writers regarding a departure from orthodox +copybook form as an evidence of an "educated hand."</p> + +<p><i>The Law of Probabilities.</i>—In examining a writing for +comparison with another the expert notes all peculiarities, +which he labels, for distinctive reference, "tricks." When +he has recorded as many as possible he looks for them in the +writing which he has to compare. Suppose that he has +taken note of a dozen tricks, and finds them all repeated in +the suspected writing. The law of probabilities points to a +common authorship for both writings, for it is asking too +much to expect one to believe that there should exist two +different persons, probably strangers, who possess precisely +the same peculiarities in penmanship.</p> + +<p>This principle of the law of probabilities is applied in the +case of the identification of persons "wanted" by the police. +For example, the official description of an absconding forger +runs as follows:—"He has a habit of rubbing his right +thumb against the middle finger as if turning a ring. He +frequently strokes his right eyebrow with right forefinger +when engaged in writing; when perplexed, he bites his +lower lip and clenches and unclenches his fingers."</p> + +<p>Now there are, probably, thousands of people who do +every one of these things singly, but the chances are millions +to one against there being two people who do them all as +described in the official placard. In like manner there may +be a multitude of writers who form an <i>f</i> or <i>k</i> with a peculiar +exaggerated buckle. Thousands more may make certain +letters in the same way, but to assume that there are two +persons who possess equally the whole twelve characteristics +noted by the expert is to strain coincidence to the breaking-point +of absurdity.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p> + +<p>Therefore, it follows that it is the weight of cumulative +evidence of similarity in the production of unusual tricks of +style that proclaims a common authorship for two apparently +different writings.</p> + +<p>It may be, and often is, the case that the peculiarities or +tricks in the original have been imitated in the suspected +writing. As the result of his experience in knowing what to +look for in a copied document, the expert is not deceived. +However good the copy, there are always apparent to the +trained eye evidences that prove another and stranger hand, +plain as the difference between the firm, clear line of the +drawing master and the broken saw-edged effort of the pupil. +Habitual observation trains the eye to an extent that would +scarcely be credited unless proved by experiment. The art +of observation cannot be taught; it must be the outcome of +practice. The most the teacher can do is to indicate the +lines on which the study should be carried out, and offer hints +and suggestions as to what to look for. The rest is in the +hands of the student.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2> + +<h3>Measurement and its Appliances.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">The</span> appliances necessary for the work of examination are, +a good magnifying or reading glass of the greatest power +obtainable, a pair of fine compasses or dividers, a horn or +celluloid protractor for measuring angles of slope, and a +clearly marked scale rule. Suitable articles will generally be +found in an ordinary case of mathematical instruments.</p> + +<p>A simpler and equally accurate method of taking +measurements of handwriting is by the aid of the transparent +paper known as foreign letter paper. It is usually of quarto +size, very thin and transparent, and is ruled horizontally and +vertically, dividing the sheet into tiny squares. It is laid +over the writing to be examined, and the various measurement +marks are made with a finely pointed lead pencil. The +lines and squares are used for measurement as the parallels +of latitude and longitude are used on a chart. For example, +a letter is said to be so many lines high, so many lines wide. +One of the tiny squares should be carefully divided into two, +or, if possible, four parts, so as to ensure finer and more +accurate measurement. A letter may then be measured in +parts of a line, being described, for example, as, height 6¾ +lines, breadth 2½ lines. It is of course important that the +same gauge of ruled paper be used uniformly, otherwise the +measurements will vary. If the student has had practice in +the use of the dividers and scale rule, he may prefer to +employ these, but the ruled paper and a finely pointed lead +pencil will be found sufficient for most purposes. A paper +specially prepared for surveyors, ruled in squares of one-eighth +of an inch may be obtained. For measuring the +slopes of letters a transparent protractor is necessary. The +letters measured are all topped and tailed small letters, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +all capitals having a shank. Letters like <i>O</i>, <i>C</i>, <i>Q</i>, <i>S</i>, and <i>X</i> +can only be measured approximately.</p> + +<p>The method of applying the measurements of heights and +angles of slope is shown in the case illustrated by the table +on page <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</p> + +<p>The subject of enquiry was a signature containing the +letters <i>B</i>, <i>l</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>b</i>.</p> + +<p>The measurements of these letters in the forgery are +given at the top of the table, and show the height in lines and +angle of slope in degrees.</p> + +<p>The measurements of the corresponding letters in twelve +genuine signatures are shown in the table as Examples 1 to +12.</p> + +<p>The total is averaged by dividing by twelve.</p> + +<p>The presumption in favour of the suspected signature +being a forgery is strongly supported by the arithmetical +result.</p> + +<p>A difference of more than 2 per cent. in angle of slope, +and 3 per cent. in height may be safely relied upon as +ground for suspicion, for it is rarely that a man's signature +varies so greatly within a brief period. In the absence of +the explanation provided by illness, intentional change in +style or other abnormal circumstances, such a difference as is +shown in this example will justify a belief that the suspected +signature is by another hand.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr class="tr2"><td class="td4" style="border-left: solid black 1px;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"> </td><td class="td6" colspan="4">Height in lines.</td><td class="td7" colspan="4">Angle of slope.</td></tr> +<tr class="tr2"><td class="td3"><i>B.</i></td><td class="td3"><i>l.</i></td><td class="td3"><i>k.</i></td><td class="td5"><i>b.</i></td> +<td class="td3"><i>B.</i></td><td class="td3"><i>l.</i></td><td class="td3"><i>k.</i></td><td class="td3"><i>b.</i></td></tr> +<tr class="tr2"><td class="td9">Forgery</td><td class="td4">...</td><td class="td3">7</td><td class="td3">7</td><td class="td3">6</td> +<td class="td5">7¼</td><td class="td3">15</td><td class="td3">20</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">21</td></tr> +<tr class="tr2"><td class="td9">Example</td><td class="td4">1</td><td class="td3">7¼</td><td class="td3">6½</td><td class="td3">5½</td> +<td class="td5">7½</td><td class="td3">16</td><td class="td3">22</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">2</td><td class="td3">7¼</td><td class="td3">6¼</td> +<td class="td3">6</td><td class="td5">7¼</td><td class="td3">17</td> +<td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">20</td><td class="td3">20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">3</td><td class="td3">7¼</td><td class="td3">6</td> +<td class="td3">5¾</td><td class="td5">7¾</td><td class="td3">16</td> +<td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">20</td><td class="td3">21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">4</td><td class="td3">7</td><td class="td3">6¼</td><td class="td3">5¾</td><td class="td5">7½</td><td class="td3">16</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">20</td><td class="td3">21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">5</td><td class="td3">7</td><td class="td3">6¾</td><td class="td3">5¾</td><td class="td5">7½</td><td class="td3">17</td><td class="td3">22</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">6</td><td class="td3">7½</td><td class="td3">6¾</td><td class="td3">5</td><td class="td5">7½</td><td class="td3">16</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">20</td><td class="td3">21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">7</td><td class="td3">7½</td><td class="td3">6</td><td class="td3">6</td><td class="td5">7¼</td><td class="td3">17</td><td class="td3">20</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">8</td><td class="td3">7½</td><td class="td3">6½</td><td class="td3">5¾</td><td class="td5">7½</td><td class="td3">16</td><td class="td3">22</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">9</td><td class="td3">7¼</td><td class="td3">6½</td><td class="td3">5½</td><td class="td5">7</td><td class="td3">16</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">10</td><td class="td3">6¾</td><td class="td3">6½</td><td class="td3">5¾</td><td class="td5">7¼</td><td class="td3">16</td><td class="td3">20</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">11</td><td class="td3">7¼</td><td class="td3">6¾</td><td class="td3">5¾</td><td class="td5">7½</td><td class="td3">16</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">22</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">12</td><td class="td3">7</td><td class="td3">6¼</td><td class="td3">5¾</td><td class="td5">7½</td><td class="td3">16</td><td class="td3">20</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">21</td></tr> +<tr class="tr3"><td class="td9">Average</td><td class="td4">...</td><td class="td3">7¼</td><td class="td3">6½</td><td class="td3">5¾</td><td class="td5">7½</td><td class="td3">16¼</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">20¾</td><td class="td3">20¾</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2> + +<h3>Terminology.</h3> + +<div class="figright"> +<img src="images/001.png" width="296" height="500" alt="TERMINOLOGY" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">In</span> order to render the description of a writing perfectly +clear, a system of terminology is adopted which is invariable. +That is, the same terms are always employed in indicating +the same parts of a letter. These are simple, and for the +most part self-explanatory, so that no effort is required to +commit them to memory.</p> + +<p>Every part of a letter has a distinctive name, so that it +would be possible to reproduce a script character very closely +by a verbal description.</p> + +<p>The following are the terms used in describing a letter:—</p> + +<p><i>Letter</i> means the whole of any script character, capital +or small. For the sake of brevity in notes and reports capital +is written Cp.; small, Sm.</p> + +<p><i>Arc.</i>—An arc is the curve formed <i>inside</i> the top loop or +curve, as in <i>f</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>o</i>. In <i>o</i>, the inside top half of the letter +is the arc; the inside bottom half is the hook.</p> + +<p><i>Buckle.</i>—The buckle is the separate stroke added to such +letters as <i>k</i>, <i>f</i>, and capitals <i>A</i>, <i>F</i>, <i>H</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Beard.</i>—The beard is the preliminary stroke that often +appears in capital letters.</p> + +<p><i>Body.</i>—The body of a letter is that portion of it which +rests on the line and could be contained in a small circle. +For example, in a small <i>d</i> the body consists of the circle and +the final upward curve or toe. In a small <i>g</i> the body is the +circle minus the tail.</p> + +<p><i>Eye</i> is the small circle formed by the continuation of a +stroke as in the shoulder <i>r</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Finals.</i>—A final is the finishing stroke not carried beyond +the shank in capitals, and in a few smalls like <i>y</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>z</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Foot.</i>—The foot of a letter is that portion of it that rests +on the line. Small <i>m</i> has three feet, <i>h</i> has two, etc.</p> + +<p><i>Hook.</i>—The hook is the inside of a bottom curve. It is +the opposite of the arc.</p> + +<p><i>Link.</i>—The link is that portion of the stroke which +connects two letters.</p> + +<p><i>Broken link.</i>—A broken link is a disconnection in the link +joining two letters.</p> + +<p><i>Loop.</i>—A loop is that portion of a letter which forms the +top or tail. Unlooped tops and tails are called "barred." +For example, small <i>f</i> has two loops, top and bottom; <i>f</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>l</i> +have one top loop; <i>g</i>, <i>y</i>, <i>z</i> have one bottom loop.</p> + +<p><i>Shank.</i>—The shank of a letter is the principal long downstroke +that forms the backbone.</p> + +<p><i>Shoulder.</i>—The shoulder is the outside of the top of the +curve as seen in small <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>h</i>. Small <i>m</i> has three shoulders, +<i>n</i> two, <i>h</i> one.</p> + +<p><i>Spur.</i>—The spur is to the small letter what the beard is to +the capital. It is the initial stroke.</p> + +<p><i>Tick.</i>—A tick is a small stroke generally at the beginning +of a letter, sometimes at the end.</p> + +<p><i>Toe.</i>—The toe is the concluding upward stroke of a letter, +as seen in small <i>e</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>h</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Whirl.</i>—The whirl is the upstroke in all looped letters. +It is a continuation of the spur in <i>b</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>l</i>, and is always an +upstroke.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2> + +<h3>Classes of Handwriting.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">For</span> convenience in differentiation, handwritings are divided +into the following classes. Practically every type of writing +can be placed in one of them.</p> + +<p><i>Vertical Hand.</i>—A vertical hand is one in which the tops +and tails of letters form as nearly as possible a perpendicular +with the horizontal line. The best example of this class of +handwriting is that known as the Civil Service hand, familiar +to the general public through telegrams and official +documents.</p> + +<p><i>Back Hand</i> is a hand in which the general slope of the +characters is from right to left.</p> + +<p><i>Italian Hand</i> is the reverse of a back hand, the slope +being at an acute angle from left to right. It is a style fast +going out of fashion, and is almost invariably the handwriting +used by elderly ladies. Its most pronounced characteristic is +its sharp angles and absence of curves.</p> + +<p><i>Open Hand.</i>—An open hand is one that generally +approximates to the vertical, its distinguishing feature being +the wide space between the letters. The best example of it +is that known as the Cusack style of writing.</p> + +<p><i>Closed Hand.</i>—A closed hand is the opposite of an open +hand, the letters being crowded together and generally long +and narrow, with the slope from left to right.</p> + +<p><i>Greek Hand.</i>—This is the name given to a type of writing +that closely approximates to the printed character. Many +letters, both capital and small, are formed to imitate print, +particularly the capitals <i>T</i>, <i>X</i>, <i>Y</i>, <i>R</i>, <i>B</i>, <i>D</i>, and the smalls +<i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>j</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>p</i>, <i>r</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>v</i>, <i>w</i>, <i>x</i>, <i>y</i>, <i>z</i>. It is a hand frequently +found in the writings of classical scholars, literary men +engaged in work entailing careful research, and often is an +evidence of short sight.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p> + +<p>The <i>Wavy Hand</i> is generally vertical. Its characteristic +is an undulating serpentine waviness. Little or no distinction +is made between barred or looped letters. There are no +rounded shoulders to the <i>m</i> and <i>n</i> and the word minnie would +be written by five small <i>u</i>'s. In round-bodied letters like +<i>a</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>g</i>, the circle is rarely completed, but is left open, so that +small <i>a</i> becomes <i>u</i>, and small <i>d</i> may be mistaken for <i>it</i>, with +the <i>i</i> undotted and <i>t</i> uncrossed. Despite its geometrical and +caligraphic inaccuracy in detail, this hand is generally +written with great regularity, that is, the characters, though +incomplete, are always uniform in their irregularity. The <i>e</i> +is never open, but is an undotted <i>i</i>, and <i>n</i> is <i>u</i>, but when the +peculiarities of the writer become familiar this hand is often +very legible.</p> + +<p><i>Flat Hand.</i>—A flat hand is a type of handwriting in +which the characters have an oblate or flattened appearance, +the <i>o</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>g</i>, &c., being horizontal ovals, like the minim and +breve in music. The tails and tops are generally short, with +wide loops. It is nearly always a vertical hand.</p> + +<p>An <i>Eccentric Hand</i> is one that presents various marked +peculiarities and departures from standard rules in the +formation of certain letters, and cannot be placed in any +recognised class, though it may approximate to one more than +to another.</p> + +<p>The <i>Round</i> or <i>Clerical Hand</i> is a writing that preserves a +close affinity for the round regular hand of the average +school-boy, with the difference that while the characters are +formed on regular copybook model, the hand is written with +considerable fluency and firmness. It is generally only a +little out of the perpendicular, sloping slightly towards the +right.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER V.</h2> + +<h3>How to Examine a Writing.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">The</span> examination of a writing generally consists in making +a careful comparison between it and another or others, the +object being to determine whether all are by the same hand.</p> + +<p>The writing which is in a known hand or as to the authorship +of which there is no doubt, is usually called the Original, +and is always referred to by this name. The writing which +has to be compared with it, and which practically forms the +subject of the enquiry, is called the Suspect. The Suspects +should be marked A, B, C, D, &c., and put away without +examination until the Original has been thoroughly mastered. +This is more important than may appear at first sight, for the +confusing effect of having the two types of writing in the +eye and mind before one type is made familiar is highly +prejudicial. Any inclination to look at the Suspects first +should be firmly resisted.</p> + +<p>Let us assume that the object of the examination is to +discover the writer of an anonymous letter—one of the +most frequent tasks of the handwriting expert. The +material in hand is the anonymous letter, which in such a +case may be called the Original, and half-a-dozen specimens +of the writing of suspected persons. These Suspects are +numbered from 1 to 6, or marked A, B, C, &c., and put aside +until the Original has been thoroughly studied.</p> + +<p>The first thing is to examine the paper and envelope, noting +its quality, watermark, size, and any feature that may afford +a clue. It is always safe to presume that the paper is in +every respect unlike that commonly used by the writer, just +as it is equally safe to take it for granted that the writing it +contains will, so far as its general appearance goes, be the +reverse of the normal hand of the author. That is, if it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +be a heavy back hand, the writer probably uses a hand +approximating to the Italian, though too much weight must +not be attached to this theory.</p> + +<p>Next, note the general style of the document as a whole, +whether the margin between top, bottom, and sides is large +or small. A writer who habitually begins at the top left-hand +corner very near to the edge of the paper will often +betray himself by repeating the habit. It is a very common +sign of an economical disposition. Note whether he crowds +his words and letters near the ends of lines or leaves a good +margin. Clerks and those engaged in official work rarely +crowd their final words, preferring rather to leave a wide +space and go on to the next line.</p> + +<p>Note whether the hyphen is used to divide words. Many +writers never divide a word, others do it frequently, with or +without the hyphen.</p> + +<p>Measure the average distance between lines, if unruled +paper be used, and make a note of the average distance.</p> + +<p>Measure the distance between words and strike an average, +noting if words are connected without lifting the pen. It +may be found that this joining is only done when certain +letters form the final of the first word joined and the initial +of the word connected. Look carefully for such.</p> + +<p>Note particularly the slope of the topped and tailed +letters.</p> + +<p>Note the punctuation, whether frequent and accurate or +otherwise.</p> + +<p>Determine the class to which the writing belongs.</p> + +<p>Read the document carefully, noting any peculiarities +of language, errors, or Americanisms in spelling, such as +"favor" for "favour," "color" for "colour," &c.; the +substitution of "<i>z</i>" for "<i>s</i>" in such words as "advertise," +&c. Examine with the glass any words that may have been +crossed out or rewritten, noting particularly letters that have +been mended or touched up.</p> + +<p>Note whether the horizontal lines have a tendency to +slope up or down.</p> + +<p>Note particularly letters with two or more feet, like <i>a</i>, <i>d</i>, +<i>h</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, &c. It will be found that a certain regularity in +formation exists in most writings. If the <i>a</i> be formed like<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +an <i>o</i>, the toe not touching the line, or an <i>n</i> with the second +foot high up like a bearded <i>r</i>, these peculiarities should be +carefully noted. Some writers go to the other extreme, and +carry the second foot below the line, so that <i>a</i> becomes a +small <i>q</i>. Too much time cannot be devoted to this aspect of +handwriting, as it presents features of which the writer is +probably quite unconscious, and, therefore, affords valuable +evidence.</p> + +<p>Next study the topped and tailed letters, noting whether +they are looped or barred, that is, formed by a single stroke. +It will be often found that certain letters are always looped, +others barred. Take careful note of such. If both barred +and looped letters appear to be used indiscriminately, count +and average them. In any case, a characteristic will be +revealed. Examine and classify the loops. Note whether +they are long or short, rounded or angular, wide or narrow. +Devote special attention to the arc, shoulder and hook. Note, +also, any difference of thickness between the up and down +stroke; test the degree of clearness and sharpness of stroke +by means of the glass, and carefully look for the serrated or +ragged edge, which will assist in determining the angle at +which the pen is held.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2> + +<h3>The Alphabet in Detail.</h3> + +<div class="figright"> +<img src="images/002.png" width="296" height="500" alt="ALPHABET VARIANTS." title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">If</span> the instructions so far given have been acted upon, the +student will have familiarised himself with the general +character of the writing under examination. He should now +proceed with a detailed examination of each letter, beginning +with the smalls, and taking them in alphabetical order.</p> + +<p>Take a sheet of tracing paper and trace each small <i>a</i>, +letting them follow each other on the line, with about a +quarter inch of space between each letter. During the +process of tracing, the eye must be on the alert for +peculiarities, notably the roundness or otherwise of the +circle as a whole, the curve or angle of the arc and hook, +the relative position of the toe. Note the shank, whether +looped or barred, whether the top of it is above or below the +body of the circle, whether it is vertical or sloping from right +or left. Having compared all the <i>a</i>'s, count them, and decide +which form most frequently recurs. This may be taken as +the normal <i>a</i> of the writer.</p> + +<p>The following are the principal points to be considered in +examining succeeding letters.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i>—Note the spur, its length, how far up the shank it +meets it; whether the shank is barred or looped; the +character of the loop. Note particularly the toe, which also +forms the link. This is a very significant hand-gesture. It +may be low down, making the <i>b</i> literally <i>li</i>, or it may be a +horizontal bar, an angle, or a neat semicircle. Its formation +offers large scope for variation, and should be very carefully +studied. Compare the toe with the corresponding stroke in +<i>f</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>v</i>, <i>w</i>. Note whether it is joined with an eye, and observe +its average distance from the bottom on base line.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i>—This letter, when an initial, is frequently begun with +a spur, often with a dot or tick. When connected with a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +preceding letter, the link may make the <i>c</i> into an <i>e</i>. It is +sometimes disconnected from the preceding letter. Note +whether this is characteristic.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i>—Apply the same tests as in examining small <i>a</i>, noting +whether the shank is barred or looped.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i>—Examine the spur in initials; closely observe the loop. +Look for any recurrence of the Greek ε. Examine and +compare the specimens given in the examples. Many writers +have a habit of forming an <i>e</i> as an <i>i</i> and adding the loop. +Look out for this with assistance of the glass.</p> + +<p><i>f.</i>—This is an important letter, giving scope for numerous +varieties of form. Examine and classify the loops, noting +which is the longer—the top or bottom; whether one or both +are barred. The eye and toe are pregnant with material for +observation. Examine the various forms of this letter given +in the examples.</p> + +<p><i>g.</i>—Like the preceding letter, this one has many varieties +of form, and will repay careful study.</p> + +<p><i>h.</i>—The characteristic portion of this letter is the hook +forming its body. Note how it is joined to the shank—whether +it starts from the line or high up; whether the +shoulder is rounded or angular, whether the foot touches the +line or remains above it; whether the shank is looped or +barred.</p> + +<p><i>i.</i>—This is an important letter because of the dot, which +is made mechanically. After noting whether the shank is +spurred as an initial, special attention must be devoted to the +dot. Dots are of various forms. They may be a wedge-shaped +stroke sloping in any direction, a horizontal dash, a +tiny circle or semicircle, a small <i>v</i>, or a perfect dot. Examine +them all through the glass, and compare them with the +comma, which often partakes of the same character as the +dot. Note also its relative position to the shank, whether +vertical, to the right or left, and its average height and +distance from the shank. Much may be learned from a +careful examination of the dot, and its every variation and +characteristic should be most carefully noted and classified.</p> + +<p><i>j</i> is important for the same reason that makes the <i>i</i> +significant. There are several forms of it, but the dotting +offers the most valuable evidence.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>k.</i>—This is the most significant and valuable of the small +letters, as it offers scope for so much originality and +irregularity in its formation. The characteristic features of +the small <i>k</i> lie mainly in the body. Few writers form a <i>k</i> +alike. Although it may belong to the same class, the number +of variations that can be rung on the body is surprisingly +large, ranging from the regulation copybook model to the +eccentric patterns shown in the examples. Special attention +should be devoted to the eye and buckle, for it is at this +junction of the two strokes forming the body that most +writers exhibit their peculiarities.</p> + +<p><i>l.</i>—The same principles of examination apply to this letter +as to the small <i>e</i>. Note carefully the character of the loop +and examine the position of the spur.</p> + +<p><i>m</i> and <i>n</i> offer ample material for examination. As an +initial the first stroke is sometimes exaggerated, approximating +the letter to the capital <i>M</i> or <i>N</i>. Note the formation of the +shoulders and their relative heights and width; also, by +means of a line touching the tops of the shoulders, note carefully +and compare the last shoulder with the first. This +letter presents great extremes in formation. The shoulders +may be high and well rounded, or even horizontal, or they +may be sharp angles, turning the <i>m</i> into <i>in</i>, and the <i>n</i> into <i>u</i>. +Note the distance between the shanks and observe whether it +is uniform.</p> + +<p><i>o.</i>—This letter owes its main importance to its connecting +link. Note whether it is carried low down, making the letter +like an <i>a</i>, whether it is joined to the body by an eye, and if the +toe is curved or angular. Note, also, the general conformation +of the circular body and compare the toe with that in <i>b</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>v</i>, +and <i>w</i>.</p> + +<p><i>p.</i>—There are several forms of this letter, and a writer +who affects one of them generally repeats it often. The +shank may be barred or looped, wholly or in part, especially +when used as an initial. The body generally offers ample +material for examination.</p> + +<p><i>q</i> is also a letter with which great liberties are taken, and +is the subject of several variations. Some writers make no +distinction between <i>g</i> and <i>q</i>, and the final stroke often supplies +the main characteristic of this letter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>r.</i>—This important letter has two forms—the square, or +eyed, and the hooked. Many variants are employed in +forming it, as the specimens in the examples show. Many +writers unconsciously form a habit of using both <i>r</i>'s, but with +a certain degree of system. For example, one may use the +hook <i>r</i> always as a final, and the eyed <i>r</i> as an initial. The +formation of the eye should be specially studied, with the +shoulder, which may be formed as a semicircle, an arc, a +straight bar or an angular <i>v</i>. The hooked <i>r</i> is equally +rich in varying forms, and the letter forms an interesting +study.</p> + +<p><i>s.</i>—This is a letter of such frequent recurrence in the +English language that it not unnaturally has become the +subject of a variety of forms, and this despite the fact that its +regulation shape is exceedingly simple and rudimentary. +The majority of writers have one favourite form of the letter, +which, like the <i>k</i>, becomes characteristic.</p> + +<p><i>t.</i>—This letter is important because of its frequent recurrence, +and on account of the variations of form, the bar or +crossing being the most fruitful in material for observation. +There are two usual forms of the <i>t</i>, the hooked and +crossed, and the barred, and they are equally valuable and +characteristic. The crossing of a hooked <i>t</i>, like the dotting +of an <i>i</i>, is so mechanical an act that it often reveals important +evidence. The cross stroke when closely examined will be +found to present many variations. It may be a fine horizontal +line, a curve, a heavy short dash; it may be ticked or dotted +at either end or both—in short, there is scarcely an end +to the numerous forms this important hand-gesture may +assume. Then its relative position to the shank tells much. +It may be high up, not touching the shank; low down, neatly +struck at right angles to the shank, or it may be omitted +altogether. In some circumstances a <i>t</i> is crossed, in others +left uncrossed; for example, the <i>t</i> at the beginning of a word +may be invariably uncrossed, but the final <i>t</i> never. These +are the peculiarities and characteristics the student has to +keep a watchful eye for. The other form of the <i>t</i> is known +as the bar <i>t</i>. It is generally uncrossed, and often the buckle +is an important feature. A careful examination of the +examples will suggest the lines on which the analysis of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +letter <i>t</i> should be conducted and at the same time reveal the +richness of material at the disposal of the student.</p> + +<p><i>u.</i>—Note whether the two shanks are uniform, whether +the letter is spurred as an initial. Average the distance +between the shanks, and observe the conformation of the +hook, whether rounded or <i>v</i>-shaped.</p> + +<p><i>v.</i>—The important feature of this letter is the toe. Its +formation must be carefully noted as in <i>f</i>, <i>o</i>, hooked <i>r</i> and <i>w</i>.</p> + +<p><i>w.</i>—Apply the same test as to <i>u</i> and <i>v</i>. Note the uniformity +or otherwise of the shanks and hooks, and study the varied +forms given in the examples.</p> + +<p><i>x.</i>—This letter lends itself to tricks and variations, and +few letters depart more from the orthodox copybook form in +actual practice, as is shown in the examples.</p> + +<p><i>y.</i>—Note the spur and its relative position to the shank. +Note the tail and its average length.</p> + +<p><i>z.</i>—This letter offers good material for study and the +detection of mannerisms. Its body is the most significant +part, as it is capable of so many variations. It may be +angular or well curved; the eye may be large or exaggerated +or merely suggested. Like <i>k</i> and <i>x</i>, the form once adopted +by a writer is not usually departed from to any great extent.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VII.</h2> + +<h3>The Capitals.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">Owing</span> to their large size and more complex form the +capital letters offer much more material for tests than the +smalls. They yield more scope for tricks and eccentricity, +though, at the same time, their extra prominence, and the +clearness with which their outlines strike the eye of the writer +render it more likely that he will detect glaring departures from +the orthodox model. In other words, a writer would probably +pay more attention to accuracy in forming, and particularly +in copying, a capital than a small letter. This is generally +found to be the case in signature forgeries, the capitals being, +as a rule, much nearer the original than the small letters. +But there is this great advantage in favour of the student in +examining capitals—the strokes being more expansive supply +a larger field and material for examination. For example, a +ragged or diamond stroke in a much flourished capital like +<i>M</i>, <i>W</i>, <i>R</i> or <i>B</i> would be more apparent than the same kind of +stroke in a small letter.</p> + +<p>There is no need to take the capital letters seriatim, as +was the case with the smalls, for the same principles and +rules for examination apply in both cases. The same care is +necessary in examining the arcs, hooks and shoulders of +loops, with their general conformation. The angle of slope +is more noticeable in capitals, and they reveal the characteristics +of the writer more than small letters. Persons who +profess to delineate character from handwriting always pay +great attention to the capitals, doubtless with good reason, +and as the result of long experience.</p> + +<p>An examination will show that about ten capitals can be +formed with two disconnected strokes. They are <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, <i>F</i>, <i>H</i>, +<i>K</i>, <i>P</i>, <i>Q</i>, <i>R</i>, <i>T</i> and <i>X</i>. These are known as double capitals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +These doubles should be carefully looked for, and the +frequency, or otherwise, of their recurrence noted, as it is +probable they will be found to be nearly always used under +the same circumstances; that is, a writer may have a habit of +beginning with a double capital when possible, but revert to +the single form of the same letter in the body of the writing. +Another writer will almost invariably disconnect the capitals +from the rest of the word, while a third as regularly connects +them. Some writers affect the more simple form, approximating +to the printed character. Others again indulge in +inordinate flourishes, particularly in their signatures. Such +writers prove easy prey to the forger.</p> + +<p>A feature very easy of detection in capitals is the "diamond." +It is formed by a sudden thickening of the downstroke. It is +particularly noticeable in the writing of those who have been +instructed in the old-fashioned school, where a distinction +between the heavy downstroke and the light upstroke was +insisted upon. The diamond habit once formed is very +difficult to eradicate, and traces of it always remain in the +writing of persons thus taught.</p> + +<p>An important and significant part of a capital letter is the +beard. It is an automatic trick, and always repays careful +examination. It may be a spurred, ticked or dotted beard, +but in any case the initial stroke must be carefully examined, +whatever form it may assume, for the oft-emphasized reason +that it belongs so essentially to the clue-providing class of +unguarded and unpremeditated automatic strokes that are +overlooked by the writer.</p> + +<p>Variations in the form of a capital must be noted, and a +record kept, for, however great the variety, it will be found +that one particular form is more used than another, and may +be regarded as the normal type of the writer.</p> + +<p>A peculiarity of some writers is the use of an enlarged +form of the small letter for a capital. The letters so made +to serve a double purpose are generally <i>A</i>, <i>C</i>, <i>E</i>, <i>G</i>, <i>M</i>, <i>N</i>, <i>O</i>, +<i>P</i>, <i>Q</i>, <i>S</i>, <i>U</i>, <i>V</i> and <i>W</i>. They are referred to as small +capitals.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VIII.</h2> + +<h3>Punctuation.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">The</span> ampersand (&) is a symbol that provides excellent +material for clues to tricks and mannerisms. It varies in +form from a mere <i>v</i>-shaped tick of almost indeterminate +character to an ornate thing of loops and flourishes. It is +very sparingly employed by illiterate persons, and some +educated writers avoid its use under the impression that, like +the abbreviation of words, it is vulgar. In a few high-class +ladies' schools its use is sternly repressed, and there are many +fluent and habitual writers who never employ this sign. This +in itself supplies a useful clue to characterisation. Others, +again, only employ it in such combinations as "& Co.," "&c.," +though this latter abbreviation is, as often as not, written +"etc." by many persons.</p> + +<p>The dash (—) occurs very largely in many writings, and +particularly in those of ladies, who regard it as a universal +punctuation mark, and employ it indiscriminately as comma +and full stop. Many persons of both sexes invariably make +a dash below the address on an envelope, using it as a kind +of final flourish. A close examination of the samples provided +in such a writing will reveal many valuable idiosyncrasies. +It may be a bold, firm horizontal line, a curve with a tick at +either end, or both; a wavy line or even an upward or +downward line. Note, also, the ragged edge, as it affords an +important clue to the style of holding the pen. The dash is +so essentially an unpremeditated and mechanically-formed +hand-gesture that it often betrays more of the character of +the writer than any other letter. Cases have been known in +which the writer of an anonymous letter has successfully<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +concealed all his characteristics, but in putting the final +stroke in the form of a dash he has so far forgotten himself +as to produce, quite unconsciously, what was probably one of +his most pronounced hand-gestures, thus providing a clue +which led to ultimate conviction.</p> + +<p>Punctuation is rarely a marked feature of English handwriting. +It is said that many of our leading literary men +practically leave this important phase of their work to the +printer's proof-reader. An examination of a hundred private +letters by different hands will show a marvellous scarcity of +punctuation marks, and few correspondents use or appear to +know the use of any stop other than the comma and full +point, the dash being made to do service for all else. The +mark of interrogation is fairly often used, and its formation +gives scope and material for careful examination. The +examples offer suggestions of the form and direction +eccentricity sometimes takes.</p> + +<p>The colon and semicolon are very little used by average +writers, and when they are, it is generally inaccurately, but +nearly always under the same circumstances, which should be +carefully noted. The quotation marks (" ") are still more +rarely employed, and it will be found on examination that +most people form them wrongly. The accurate style is this, +“ ”, but as often as not the initial quotation has the dot at +the top instead of the bottom.</p> + +<p>Another almost universal omission is that of the full point +after initials to a name, after "Esq.," and in the initials of +postal districts, as E.C., W.C. The addressing of an envelope +affords interesting and valuable material for clues, for it will +generally be found that a writer who uses punctuation marks +at all will do so with automatic regularity under the same +circumstances.</p> + +<p>The shape and general formation of stops and marks must +be carefully examined and classified, for they belong to the +significant unpremeditated class of hand-gestures, and are, +therefore, valuable as clues to peculiarities.</p> + +<p>The "Esq." that generally follows a man's name on a +letter addressed to him partakes much of the character of a +symbol like the "?" or "!", and, being automatic through +usage, is therefore valuable. Most writers use a uniform style<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +in shaping it, and the three letters that go to make up the +abbreviation are fortunately of a kind that lend themselves +to characterisation.</p> + +<p>Notice, also, the position of the possessive sign in such +words as "men's," "writer's." If accurately placed, the +writer may be presumed to understand punctuation, and +will give evidence of it in a long writing.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER IX.</h2> + +<h3>Paper and Watermarks.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">The</span> brownish tint of old age which paper needs to help +out a fraud is obtained in various ways—sometimes by +steeping in a weak solution of coffee, but in other cases by +holding it before a bright hot fire. This latter device is, +fortunately, not easy of accomplishment, considerable care, +judgment and even luck being needed to ensure a satisfactory +result. In our own case we have failed persistently +in the attempt, the paper becoming tinted so unequally as to +excite remark at first sight.</p> + +<p>All the old pattern of letter paper was almost uniform in +size—post quarto, and the watermark is invariably very +distinct, explainable by the fact that the art of close weaving +the wire mould was not then brought to its present state of +perfection.</p> + +<p>The watermarks are very fairly imitated by means of a +pointed stick dipped in a solution of spermaceti and linseed +oil melted in water and stirred till cold; or, equal quantities +of turpentine and Canada balsam shaken together. The +same result may be obtained by the use of megilp, a mixture +employed by artists.</p> + +<p>The detection of this watermark fraud is simple and +infallible. If the suspected document be moistened with +lukewarm water the spurious watermark disappears +immediately, but if genuine, it becomes plainer.</p> + +<p>The worn and dingy appearance inseparable from age in +a letter is accentuated by rubbing it lightly with a dirty +duster. The effect is usually obvious under a strong glass, +the passage of the dirty cloth revealing itself in minute +parallel lines.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p> + +<p>Very little care is needed to distinguish between paper +that has been taken from books and the genuine letter paper +of the period. To begin with, such letters are always on +single sheets. In genuine cases, the sheet is as often as not +a folio of four pages. In the majority of cases the bogus +sheet is of no recognised size. If taken from a book larger +than post quarto, it has had to be cut to conceal the tear. +This operation has made an irregular sized sheet—too small +for post quarto, too large for the next size. In the genuine +writing paper, all four edges are usually rough like those +of a bank note. If the sheet has been abstracted from a +book, one edge must have been cut or trimmed.</p> + +<p>Again, such paper is of unequal thickness, the writing +paper of the period being much smoother and finer than the +printing paper, while in parts it is almost certain the ink has +run, as it does on a coarse, absorbent paper. This is a sure +sign that the paper is printing and not writing.</p> + +<p>Further, such paper is certain to show signs of wear at +the bottom edges where they have been handled and exposed, +while that part of the page which has been closest to the +inside edge of the cover is generally cleaner, and shows less +sign of wear. In many cases the impression of the book +binding is plainly visible.</p> + +<p>A careful examination and comparison of a few sheets of +genuine letter paper of the seventeenth and eighteenth +centuries with the blank leaves found in printed books will +reveal differences so marked that mistake is scarcely possible +afterwards.</p> + +<p>It often occurs that grease marks interrupt the forger. +Knowing that he cannot write over them, and that they are +hardly likely to have existed on the paper when it was new, +and when the letter was supposed to be written, he avoids +them. The result becomes apparent in unequal spacing of +words and even letters.</p> + +<p>On one occasion a really excellent forgery, which had +successfully withstood all the tests we had applied, had its +real character revealed by a curious oversight on the part of +the forger.</p> + +<p>It was an early seventeenth century document, and our +attention was arrested by a peculiar uniform smudgy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +appearance, such as results from blotting with a hard, +unabsorbent, much-worn sheet of blotting paper. At the +period of the presumed date of this document blotting paper +was unknown, writings being dried by means of a specially +prepared fine powder called pounce, sand, or a powder +containing fine crystals of metal intended to give an +ornamental gloss to the ink. Close examination under the +microscope revealed the truth. There were no signs of +pounce or any other drying powder, the crystals of which +are usually plain to the unassisted eye, but there were +distinct signs of the fibre of the blotting paper left in +the ink.</p> + +<p>Another forgery we discovered through the presence in +the centre of the sheet of paper of a very faint square outline +which enclosed a slight discolouration. The sheet had, as +usual, been removed from a book, and the square outline was +a faint impression of a book-plate which had been affixed to +the opposite page. The discolouration was caused by the ink +on the book-plate.</p> + +<p>It should be superfluous to have to remind intelligent and +educated persons that it is necessary for a collector of old +documents to make himself familiar with the peculiarities, +habits and customs of the period in whose literary curiosities +he is dealing. Yet fact compels the admission that extraordinary +laxity and even ignorance exist on these points. +We are acquainted with a collector, by no means uneducated, +who gave a good price for a letter purporting to be by +Sir Humphrey Davy, the inventor of the miners' safety lamp, +enclosed in an envelope. He was ignorant of the fact that +envelopes were unknown until 1840, thirty years later than +the date of this particular letter. Envelopes supposed to +have been addressed by Dickens have been offered for sale +and purchased, bearing postage stamps not in circulation at +the period.</p> + +<p>One would imagine that a forger would pay sufficient +attention to his materials to be on his guard against the +blunder which earned the perpetrator of the Whalley Will +Forgery penal servitude. He put forward a will dated 1862, +written on paper bearing in a plain watermark the date +1870! Another indiscreet person asked the Court to accept<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +a will written and signed with an aniline copying pencil, +but dated years before that instrument had been invented.</p> + +<p>Both the works by Dr. Scott and Mr. Davies, given in the +list, show samples of watermarks of the various periods +affected by forgers of literary documents.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER X.</h2> + +<h3>Inks.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">Examination</span> for determining whether a writing has +been done at one time, or added to later, necessitates some +acquaintance with the nature and qualities of ink. In the +ordinary case the assistance of a chemist is necessary, but an +enlarged photograph shows up minute differences with +amazing accuracy.</p> + +<p>In the majority of instances alterations are made some +time after the original has been written, in which case a +difference in the shade of the ink will be perceptible, even to +the unassisted eye. This is particularly true when the now +almost universal blue-black ink is used.</p> + +<p>The period required for an addition to become as black as +the older writing depends very much upon the character of +the paper. If this be smooth and hard, and the writing has +not been dried with blotting paper, but allowed to dry +naturally and slowly, it will become black much quicker than +if the paper be rough and of an absorbent nature.</p> + +<p>A fairly reliable test is to touch a thick stroke of the +suspected addition with a drop of diluted muriatic acid—as +much as will cling to the point of a pin. Apply the drop to +the suspected addition and to the older writing at the same +moment, and carefully watch the result. The newer writing +will become faint and watery, with a bluish tinge almost +instantly, but the change will be slower in the case of the +older writing, taking ten or even twenty seconds. The +longer the period required for the change, the older the +writing.</p> + +<p>This same acid test is applied to prove whether a writing +is in ordinary ink, or has been lithographed or photographed. +If the two latter, the acid will have no effect.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span></p> + +<p>On more than one occasion collectors have purchased as +original autographs of celebrities which proved to have been +lithographed or photographed, but the persons so deceived +have generally been inexperienced amateurs.</p> + +<p>When the difference between a written and printed +signature has been once noticed it is hardly likely that an +observant person will be deceived. It is, however, as well to +be carefully on guard against this contingency, for modern +photography and process printing have been brought to such a +degree of imitative perfection that it is easy for a not too +keen-eyed person to experience great difficulty in forming an +opinion in the absence of the acid test. Fortunately that is +infallible.</p> + +<p>It must, however, be admitted that up to the present no +great success has attended efforts to determine how long an +interval has passed between the writing of the original and +the suspected addition. Broadly speaking, the most that the +expert can hope to gain from an examination of ink under +these circumstances are hints, clues and suggestions rather +than definite, reliable facts. Fortunately it often occurs that +a suggestion so obtained proves of immense value to the +trained or careful observer, though it might convey no conviction +to others.</p> + +<p>As in the case of nearly all deductive reasoning the handwriting +expert becomes sensitive to slight suggestions. If +called upon, as he sometimes is, to explain to others how and +why one of these slight and almost imperceptible signs fit in +with his theory, he fails. Therefore the cautious expert, like +a good judge, is careful in giving reasons for his judgment +only to cite those which are self-evident.</p> + +<p>Many an expert has made a poor exhibition in the witness-box +by failing to convey to a jury the impression produced +on his own mind by a slight piece of evidence, the proper +understanding and interpretation of which can only be +grasped by those who have learned how to recognize faint +signs.</p> + +<p>The process of chemically testing inks for the purpose of +ascertaining the points mentioned is quite simple, and is +distinctly interesting. In a very important case the services +of a qualified chemist will probably be requisitioned, but the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +cost of the necessary material and the time required to make +oneself proficient as a capable tester are so slight that even +the small fee that would be charged by a chemist is scarcely +worth paying.</p> + +<p>The materials necessary are a few test tubes, some bottles +of lime water, diluted muriatic acid, a solution of nitrate of +silver in distilled water, in the proportion of ten grains to the +ounce, some camel hair pencils, and clean white blotting and +litmus paper. The whole need not cost more than half-a-crown.</p> + +<p>The method of using these materials is best illustrated +by describing a test often needed by autograph collectors.</p> + +<p>A very common method employed by forgers to give an +appearance of age to the ink used in spurious old documents +is to mix with ordinary ink, muriatic acid, oxalic acid, or +binoxalate of potash. The presence of these colouring agents +can be detected in the following manner.</p> + +<p>In the first place, washing the letter with cold water will +make the ink become darker if acid has been used to brown +the ink, but the following test will settle the point beyond +dispute:</p> + +<p>With a camel's-hair brush wash the letter over with warm +water. If, as sometimes happens, a sort of paint or coloured +indian ink has been used, this will be immediately washed +away and disappear, leaving a rusty smudge. If not, apply +the litmus paper to the wetted ink, and the presence of acid +will be shown in the usual way by the litmus paper changing +colour. If genuine, wetting makes no difference.</p> + +<p>Next, pour a drop or two of the water from the writing +into a test tube from off the letter, add a little distilled water +and one or two drops of the nitrate of silver solution.</p> + +<p>If muriatic acid has been used to colour the ink, a thick +white precipitate will be seen in the tube immediately.</p> + +<p>If not, pour a few more drops of the water which has +been washed over the writing into a second test tube, add a +little distilled water and a few drops of lime water. A white +precipitate will be seen in the tube if either oxalic acid or +binoxalate of potash has been employed.</p> + +<p>In many cases it will be sufficient to place the tip of the +tongue to a thick stroke. An unmistakable acid taste will be +noticed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p> + +<p>Further and fuller particulars of the methods resorted to +by forgers to simulate ancient documents will be given in the +chapter on Autographs.</p> + +<p>It is sometimes important to know whether a stroke has +been made over another, as in the famous case in which +the real issue turned on the question whether an apparent +alteration in a signature was really a pen-mark made to +indicate where the signatory should sign. It was obvious +that if the mark was made first the signature would be over +it; if, as was suggested, the mark was added in an attempt +to alter or touch up the signature, it must have been written +over the signature.</p> + +<p>In cases of this kind an enlarged photograph leaves no +room for doubt. The ink is seen lying over the lower stroke +as plainly as a layer of paint in a picture can be seen +overlying the stroke beneath.</p> + +<p>This is one of those apparently difficult points which +become marvellously simple when dealt with in a practical +manner.</p> + +<p>Pages might be needed to explain what a very simple +experiment will reveal at a glance.</p> + +<p>Take a word which has been written long enough for the +ink to have become dry, and make a stroke across it. For +example, make a letter <i>t</i> without the bar, then, after a lapse +of an hour or two, add the cross bar. When this is quite +dry and has become as dark as the first mark, examine it +with a good glass. The ink of the added bar will be seen +plainly overlaying the vertical stroke, but any doubt can be +promptly removed by taking an enlarged photograph.</p> + +<p>Even when the second stroke is added while the ink on +the first is still wet the upper stroke can be distinguished, +though not so clearly as if the first stroke had been allowed +to dry first.</p> + +<p>By practising and examining such strokes, the student +will soon learn to distinguish important signs which leave no +doubt as to which stroke was first made.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XI.</h2> + +<h3>Erasures.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">The</span> alteration of the figures and amount written on a +cheque is generally effected by erasure. At one time +chemicals were used for this purpose, but fortunately the +modern cheque is forgery-proof in this respect. No means +are known to chemists by which ordinary writing can be +removed from a cheque without leaving a sign too pronounced +to escape detection.</p> + +<p>But even erasure on a cheque is extremely difficult, and +the experienced eye of the average bank teller can detect it +in the vast majority of cases. Frauds perpetrated by this +means are very rare, and are usually the result of gross carelessness +on the part of the person accepting the document so +altered.</p> + +<p>The more frequent form of cheque fraud is effected by +adding to such words as six, seven, eight and nine. The +addition of <i>ty</i> and <i>y</i> is all that is necessary. But the +ordinarily careful business man never leaves sufficient blank +space between his words to admit of this addition, while there +are few bank tellers who do not carefully scrutinise a cheque +made out for these larger amounts.</p> + +<p>It may be accepted as a satisfactory fact that cheque +forgery is not only extremely difficult, but rarely successful. +Great frauds are usually perpetrated by means of other +instruments, such as bills of exchange, credit notes, &c.</p> + +<p>An erasure is the easiest thing to detect if looked for. +To begin with it is only necessary to hold a scratched +document to the light to have the alteration revealed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p> + +<p>Erasing must of necessity remove part of the surface of +the paper which is made noticeably thinner at the spot +erased.</p> + +<p>In nearly every case the writing that has been added to +the erasure is blurred, owing to the rough and absorbent +character of the paper. Expert forgers have devised means +of counteracting this by rubbing in some substance which +partially restores the original smoothness and mitigates the +blurred appearance. But such devices ought not to be +successful for they are so easily detected.</p> + +<p>As a matter of fact the only chance the forger of an erased +cheque has lies in the carelessness of the teller. Any crowding +of words and unequal spacing in the filling up of a cheque +ought to excite suspicion and provoke careful and closer +scrutiny, and, it may be added, it generally does.</p> + +<p>The addition of letters intended to increase the value of a +number, such as the adding of <i>ty</i> to six or seven, is easy of +detection if properly looked for.</p> + +<p>It is safe to assume that the addition has been made long +after the original word was written, and the point of junction +can be detected by the aid of a good glass.</p> + +<p>Had the word been originally written sixty, the chances +are that there would be no perceptible break between the +<i>x</i> and the <i>t</i>. Few persons write such short words in a +disconnected manner. On placing the word under an ordinary +glass the point of junction will be plainly apparent, and a +microscope, or an enlarged photograph, cannot fail to reveal +the fraud. Of course these latter tests will not be possible +under the ordinary circumstances attending the paying out +of a cheque over the counter, but when once the peculiarities +of such alterations have been studied, it is marvellous how +quick the eye becomes in recognizing them at a glance.</p> + +<p>Erasure in writings on stout thick paper is not quite so +readily noticed as those on thin paper such as cheques; but +the same methods of examination will apply—holding the +document to the light, or level with and horizontal to the +eye. A very effective application of the latter test is to bend +or curve the paper, making an arch. The bending has a +tendency to stretch and widen the erased part, and if any +smoothing substance such as starch or wax has been added<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +to restore the gloss of the scraped portion, it will usually +reveal itself by separating and coming away in dust or tiny +flakes. This process may be accentuated by drawing the +suspected document over a ruler, or, better still, a pencil, +repeating the motion several times.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XII.</h2> + +<h3>Pencils and Stylographs.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">It</span> is obvious that writing executed with a pencil or the now +much-used stylograph will differ in many respects from that +performed by an ordinary pen. It is not too much to say +that their use will eliminate many features and introduce new +ones. This change is mainly brought about by the different +way in which a pencil or stylograph is held in comparison +with a pen. There is a much greater sense of freedom. The +pencil can be, and is, turned and twisted in the process of +making a stroke as a pen cannot be, and the signs of this +freedom become apparent in a more rounded stroke. Even +a writer whose characters are acutely angular shows a +tendency to a more graceful outline. As a matter of fact, +it is comparatively rare to meet a pencilled writing that is +pronouncedly angular.</p> + +<p>The same remarks apply with only little modification to +writing produced by the stylograph, and for the same reason—the +ease and freedom with which the instrument is held.</p> + +<p>There is no possibility of mistaking writing produced by +a stylograph for that of an ordinary steel nib. The strokes +are absolutely uniform in thickness. No nib-formed writing +can be so, for it is impossible for a writer, however careful, +to avoid putting pressure on his pen at some point; and the +opening of the nib, however slight, must produce an apparent +thickening.</p> + +<p>Therefore, recognising these facts, the expert is always +extremely careful in giving an opinion upon a writing +produced by pencil or stylo unless he have ample specimens +of the writer's productions done with these instruments.</p> + +<p>At the same time, although an absence of characteristics +present in pen writing would be noticeable, the main features +would exist: for example, the space between words and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +letters would be the same; the dot over the <i>i</i> would be in its +customary position; the bar of the <i>t</i> would be of the same +type as heretofore. The principal changes would be in the +direction of a more uniform stroke with a tendency to greater +rotundity.</p> + +<p>Persons who habitually employ the stylo very frequently +develop an unconscious habit of twisting the pen at certain +points so as to form a deep, rounded dot. This occurs +principally at the ends of words and strokes. A magnifying-glass +reveals this peculiarity at once, and, when discovered, +notice should be taken of the circumstances under which this +twisting is usually done. It will be found, most probably, +that the trick is uniform; that is, certain letters or strokes +are mostly finished with the dot.</p> + +<p>There is a well-known public character who for years has +employed no other writing instrument but the stylo. His +writing possesses one peculiarity which is so habitual that in +four hundred examples examined it was absent in only five. +He forms this twist dot at the end of the last letter at the +end of every line. The inference and explanation is that, in +raising the pen to travel back to the next line, he twists it +with a backward motion in harmony with the back movement. +Another trick is to make the same dot in words on which he +appears to have halted or hesitated before writing the next. +In every such case there is an extra wide space between the +word ended by a dot and that which follows. It would +appear as if the writer mechanically made the dot while +pausing to choose the next word. This is a striking example +of the unconscious hand-gesture.</p> + +<p>Something akin to it occurs in the handwriting of a +famous lawyer. Here and there in his letters will be noticed +a faint, sloping, vertical stroke, like a figure <i>1</i>. Those who +have seen him write explain it thus. While hesitating in the +choice of a word he moves his pen up and down over the +paper, and unintentionally touches it. It is such slips as +these which often supply the expert with valuable clues +to identity. When they occur they should be carefully +examined, for in the majority of cases a reason will be +found for their presence.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XIII.</h2> + +<h3>Anonymous Letters and Disguised Hands.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">That</span> mischievous and cowardly form of secret attack, the +anonymous letter, demands, unfortunately, a large amount of +attention from the handwriting expert. One of the most +pleasant rewards that can attend the conscientious and painstaking +student of handwriting lies in the knowledge that his +art may sometimes enable him to bring to deserved punishment +the assassin of reputation and domestic happiness.</p> + +<p>It is a moot point, which has been discussed by legal +authorities, as to whether the handwriting expert is justified +in tendering evidence and opinions of a kind that may be said +to belong by right to the criminal investigator. By this is +meant that the expert should not be allowed to point out to a +jury such pieces of circumstantial evidence as the similarity +of the paper used by the suspected person with other found +in his possession; that he ought not to direct attention to +postmarks, coincidence of dates, similarity of ink used, the +employment of certain words and phrases, and other external +and indirect clues that point to the authorship. It is urged +that the whole duty of the expert is to say whether in his +opinion two or more writings are by the same hand or not, +and any expression of opinion outside this question is <i>ultra +vires</i>.</p> + +<p>The obvious answer to this objection is that it is impossible +to limit the expert in the selection of those points which +appeal to and assist him in forming an opinion. It is +impossible to say what may or may not suggest a valuable +clue to a keen observer; and as the expert is often called +upon to give reasons for his opinion he is quite justified in +indicating the steps by which he arrived at it.</p> + +<p>These circumstances arise more often in connection with +anonymous letters than with ordinary signature forgeries,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +for the field of exploration and the material examined are so +much larger. Details become invaluable. The quality and +make of the paper used, or a peculiar method of folding and +placing it in the envelope may afford a clue that will put the +expert on the high road to an important discovery. It is +impossible to say how or where a clue may lurk. The torn +edge of a postage stamp once supplied a hint that was +followed up successfully. A smudge on the envelope, that +matched a similar one on a packet of envelopes in the writing +case of a person quite unsuspected, led to conviction, as did a +number of an address that was crossed out and rewritten, the +anonymous writer having, by force of habit, begun with the +number he was in the habit of writing—his own.</p> + +<p>In short, the expert has, <i>nolens volens</i>, to assume many of +the functions of the crime investigator in dealing with +apparent trifles, and even if they do not always help him in +reaching his goal, they provide material for exercising the +useful art of observation. Strictly speaking the expert +should, perhaps, ignore all outside suggestions as to the +authorship, and confine himself to saying whether or not the +specimens submitted are in the same handwriting; but in +practice this will be found extremely difficult, if not impossible, +for the student cannot shut his eyes to the accidental clues +that invariably arise in the examination of the evidence, and +almost before he realizes it, the most cautious expert finds +himself trespassing upon ground that by right should be the +preserve of the detective.</p> + +<p>The points raised here may, however, be safely left to be +dealt with by the judgment of the student as they arise. In +the early stages of study they will probably not present +themselves with the same force and frequency as later on, +when they will be appreciated as providing useful private +pointers for guidance; and though at times they may put the +inexperienced student upon a false scent, he will have no +difficulty in detecting his error if, when in doubt, he follows +the principles laid down for the comparison of handwriting.</p> + +<p>The first step to the examination of the anonymous +letter consists in procuring as many suspects as possible, +which, as before advised, should be lettered or numbered +and put aside, until the original, which in this case is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +anonymous letter, has been studied and mastered. The +external evidence of which so much has already been said +may or may not be looked for.</p> + +<p>Next proceed with the examination and comparison of the +writings. It is presumed that the student has prepared his +notes of the peculiarities of the original; he has now to +search for them in the suspects. Suppose he begins with the +spurs and beards, having found them well marked in the +original. He will take any one of the suspects and examine +it for a repetition of the same signs. He may follow on with +the rest of the suspects, taking advantage of his memory +being fresh on this point, or he may prefer to exhaust one +suspect of all its evidences before proceeding with another; +but practice and experience will decide the best course in +this matter, and influence the line of procedure.</p> + +<p>Whatever method is pursued, all have the same object—the +discovery of the peculiarities of the original in one or +more of the suspects, and the student will be wise if he +follow accurately the course laid down in the chapter on +"How to Examine a Writing."</p> + +<p>It is generally safe to take it for granted that the writing +in an anonymous letter is disguised. There are occasions +when the author persuades another person to write for him, +but only rarely; for the perpetrator of a contemptible act is +not usually brazen and indiscreet enough to expose himself +to others. The same reasons lend strength to the presumption +that the writing will, so far as its general appearance goes, +be as much the opposite of the author's usual style as his +ingenuity can make it. The extreme back hand occurs very +frequently. It seems to be the first impulse of the anonymous +writer to avoid the right slope. Even when the normal hand +is a vertical, with a tendency to back hand, the extreme left +slope is often chosen. Fortunately, the assumed back hand +is one of the most transparent of disguises. If the student +has practised it, he will not need to be reminded how difficult +it is for a writer to conceal his mannerisms. By altering the +slope he has only stretched and lengthened his outlines, and +the expert soon learns to recognise them in their new form.</p> + +<p>Another common disguise is the illiterate hand. This is +quite as easy of detection. It is no easier for the practised<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +and fluent writer to reproduce the shaky, irregular outlines +of the illiterate, than it is for the speaker of pure and cultured +English to imitate the coarse accent of the vulgar. However +good the copy it always breaks down early, and the sudden +and unconscious firm, clear and geometrically accurate stroke +reveals the practised writer beneath the mask. Sometimes +an accurately placed punctuation mark supplies the necessary +clue, for when once the art of proper punctuation has been +acquired it becomes almost automatic. Even experienced +novelists are caught this way occasionally. They will +introduce a letter, supposed to be the work of an illiterate +character. The grammar and orthography suggest the idea, +but the more difficult details of punctuation will be attended +to, even to the apostrophe that marks the elided <i>g</i> in such +words as "talkin'," "comin'," &c.</p> + +<p>Very difficult and troublesome is the letter written +throughout in imitation printed characters. The expert +has to rely upon the curved lines, accidental punctuation +marks and unpremeditated flourishes and hand-gestures; +but, broadly speaking, such a letter is beyond the skill of the +expert if unaided by accidental betrayal. If, as sometimes +happens, the writer is ingenious enough to adopt an alphabet +formed completely of straight lines and angles—an easy task—he +may boast of having produced a detection-proof writing; +that is, if characters formed with the aid of a rule can be +called writing, for it defies detection, because there are none +of the signs essential for comparison, and is less easy of +identification than an incomplete skeleton. In the absence +of external clues, an expert would refuse to do more than +offer a very guarded opinion, and it would be wiser to decline +to offer any comment whatever.</p> + +<p>Another trick that has been resorted to by some persons +is writing with the hand constricted by a tight-fitting glove. +This produces a very effective disguise; but if the student +will practise with the same impediment, he will discover +many useful rules for guiding him on the road to penetrating +this entanglement.</p> + +<p>It should be remembered that the less control a writer +has over his pen, the more likely is he unintentionally to +revert to those forms to which he is habituated, for, left by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +itself, the hand steers the more familiar course. Disguise, +alteration and variation on customary forms are the result of +premeditation. When the mind is occupied more with the +subject than the formation of characters, the latter naturally +assume that shape to which the force of custom has bent +them.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XIV.</h2> + +<h3>Forged Literary Autographs.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">The</span> collection of autographs, letters, and documents of +literary and historical interest has for many years been a +prominent feature in the collecting world, but at no time was +the quest more keen or conducted on more systematic lines +than to-day. The records of the leading sale rooms often +supply matter for surprise, the prices asked and obtained for +rare and choice specimens being such as to excite both +wonder and amazement, sometimes tempered with scepticism.</p> + +<p>It is, therefore, not surprising that this profitable and +growing market should have attracted the fraudulent, for the +prizes when won are generally of a substantial character, and +amply repay the misapplied effort and ingenuity demanded.</p> + +<p>The success which has attended too many of these frauds +may be largely accounted for by the fact that in many cases +the enthusiasm of the collector has outrun his caution.</p> + +<p>Many a man famous for his astuteness in the pursuit of +his ordinary business has allowed himself to fall an easy +victim to the forger, thus exemplifying the familiar adage +that we are easily persuaded to believe what we want to +believe.</p> + +<p>The recorded stories of some of the frauds perpetrated +upon ardent and presumably judicious collectors read like +the tales told so often of the triumph of the confidence +trickster, and one marvels how a person of ordinary power of +observation, to say nothing of experience, could fall a victim +to a fraud requiring little perception to detect. The +explanation doubtless lies in the direction indicated—the +ardour of the pursuit, the pride and joy of possessing +something that is absolutely unique.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p> + +<p>The leading case—to use an expressive legal term—is +that known as the Vrain-Lucas fraud, the principal victim of +which was Mons. Chasles, probably the greatest of modern +French geometricians, and one of the few foreign savants +entitled to append the distinguishing mark of a F.R.S. of +England.</p> + +<p>Lucas was a half-educated frequenter, and nominal +reading student of the great Parisian library, and for some +years had dealt in autographs in a small way, the specimens +he offered being undoubtedly genuine. Inspired by the +collecting ardour and the apparent blind faith placed in him +by M. Chasles, Lucas embarked upon a series of deceptions +so impudent, that it is easy to sympathise with the defence +put forward by his advocate at the trial, namely, that the +fraud was so transparent that it could only be regarded as a +freak.</p> + +<p>In the period between the years 1861 and 1869, Lucas +sold to his dupe the enormous number of 27,000 documents, +every one a glaring fraud. They comprised letters purporting +to have been written by such improbable authors as Abelard, +Alcibiades, Alexander the Great to Aristotle, Cicero, +Cleopatra, Joan of Arc, Sappho, Anacreon, Pliny, Plutarch, +St. Jerome, Diocletian, Juvenal, Socrates, Pompey, and—most +stupendous joke of all—Lazarus after his resurrection.</p> + +<p>It is hard to believe, and but for the irrefutable records +of the Court, few would credit the fact that every one of +these letters was in the French language! And the dupe a +highly educated mathematician of European repute.</p> + +<p>In the face of such incredible gullibility one is disposed to +regard the sentence of two years' imprisonment and a fine of +500 francs as extravagantly severe, even despite the fact that +Lucas received in all over 140,000 francs from M. Chasles.</p> + +<p>The Chatterton and Ireland forgeries are familiar to all +educated persons. These, however, hardly come under the +head of the class of fraud with which the ordinary forger is +associated. In each of these cases the motive of the +deception was not so much to make money as a literary +reputation. In both cases presumably competent judges were +deceived. But the standard by which they gauged the +genuineness of the productions was not caligraphic, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +literary. In neither instance was there occasion or opportunity +for the handwriting expert to exercise his skill, for the +sufficient reason that there existed no material with which +the writings could be compared. What the literary expert +had to do was to examine and compare the style of the +compositions—a test in which the idiosyncrasies and +predilections of the judge played a leading part.</p> + +<p>Probably the greatest, and for a short time the most +successful autograph fraud perpetrated in Great Britain was +that known as the case of the Rillbank MSS., the detection +and exposure of which were mainly attributable to one of the +authors of this work (Capt. W. W. Caddell).</p> + +<p>Just before, and up till 1891, there was in Edinburgh a +young man named Alexander Howland Smith, who claimed +to be the son of a reputable Scottish law official, and a +descendant of Sir Walter Scott.</p> + +<p>On the strength of his presumed connection with the +great novelist, he had no difficulty in disposing of, to an +Edinburgh bookseller, for prices whose smallness alone +should have excited suspicion, letters purporting to be in the +handwriting of Sir Walter Scott. Emboldened by success, +he embarked upon a wholesale manufacture of spurious +letters bearing the signatures of Burns, Edmund Burke, Sir +Walter Scott, Grattan and Thackeray. His principal victim +was an Edinburgh chemist, Mr. James Mackenzie, who, when +the fraud was not only suspected, but proved, distinguished +himself by a stubborn and courageous defence of the +genuineness of the documents.</p> + +<p>Smith's <i>modus operandi</i> consisted in purchasing large-sized +volumes of the period of the subjects of his forgeries, +and using the blank leaves for the purpose of fabricating the +letters. In May, 1891, a number of alleged Burns' letters +were put up for sale by public auction at Edinburgh, fetching +the surprising paltry price of from twenty to thirty shillings +apiece.</p> + +<p>It was a feature of all Smith's productions that the letters +were extremely brief—a feature common to literary forgeries. +The circumstance which first gave rise to suspicion was that +the letters attributed to Scott, Burke, Burns, General +Abercrombie, Grattan and Thackeray all began and ended<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +with the same words. Those signed by Sir Walter Scott all +began "I have your letter," and ended "I remain," a form +of phraseology the reputed writer never used, but which, +according to Smith, was common to all the distinguished men +whose handwriting he had counterfeited with considerable +success.</p> + +<p>On the strength of the partial guarantee provided by the +sale of some of these documents at a reputable auction room, +Captain Caddell purchased a parcel of alleged Scott letters +without prior inspection. A brief examination disclosed their +fraudulent nature, and Smith was arrested. The Edinburgh +police took the matter up, and the impostor was convicted in +June, 1893, and sentenced to eighteen months' imprisonment.</p> + +<p>Thackeray and Dickens are favourite subjects with most +literary forgers, Washington and Benjamin Franklin running +them very close for favouriteship. American collectors are +particularly keen on procuring specimens of the last two-named, +and there is grave reason to believe that many fall +easy victims.</p> + +<p>Fortunately the facilities for comparing and testing the +genuineness of the autographs of every distinguished person +whose holographs are most in favour with the forger, are +numerous. In addition to the splendid collection of specimens +extant at the British Museum Library, there are many +facsimiles available.</p> + +<p>The excellent work on Autograph Collecting by Dr. Henry +T. Scott (Upcott Gill, London) is indispensable to the collector. +It contains some hundreds of specimens, specially selected for +the purposes of comparison, and gives besides many very +valuable rules and hints for detecting the real from the sham.</p> + +<p>Dr. Scott, writing of the autographic letters of his +distinguished namesake, says:</p> + +<p>"Of Sir Walter Scott's autographs it may be observed (1) +the paper is generally letter size, gilt edged, with a soft, +firm feeling to the touch, and an unglazed surface. (2) The +date and residence are placed on the top and right hand, +with a good space before the 'My Dear Sir,' uniform +margins on the left side of the paper of a quarter of an inch, +but on the right side no margin at all, the writing being +carried close to the edge. The folding is done with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +precision of a man of business, forming the space for the +address into a nice oblong almost in the centre of the sheet, +and the first line of the address is written nearly in the +centre of the space with the remainder below.</p> + +<p>"The watermarks found on the paper are one of the +following: Valleyfield, 1809; C. Wilmott, 1815; J. Dickinson +and Co., 1813; J. Dickinson, 1816; J. Dickinson (without +date); J. Whatman, 1814; J. Whatman (without date); +Turkey Mill, 1819; Turkey Mill (without date); +G. C. & Co., 1828."</p> + +<p>The paper used by Burns for his correspondence was always +large in size, rough in surface, never glossy, and all four +edges had the rough edge that is the peculiarity of a Bank of +England note.</p> + +<p>It is worthy of remark that in the case of the A. H. Smith +Burns forgeries, suspicion was first excited by a simple but +significant matter. The paper contained several worm holes. +These had been carefully avoided by the writer, he knowing +that if his pen touched them the result would be a spluttering +and spreading of the ink.</p> + +<p>Now it is safe to assume that these worm holes, being the +effect of age, did not exist at the time the letter—if genuine—was +written; as the worm did its work long afterwards, it +must be regarded as a fortunate circumstance that in +perforating the paper it refrained from destroying the +writing, carefully selecting the wider spaces that the poet +had, with commendable foresight, left for the insect's +depredations.</p> + +<p>The letters of Thackeray are in two styles of handwriting, +the earlier sloping slightly, the latter vertical, round, neat and +print-like, the capital <i>I</i> being invariably a simple vertical +stroke. His is the most neat and uniformly readable hand of +all the great literary characters. It is somewhat unfortunate +that he was not anything like so uniform in his choice of +paper. Letters are in existence on an extraordinary variety +of material, from a quarto sheet to a scrap torn from half a +sheet of note paper. On many of these letters is neither +address nor date, but when once the characteristics of the +charming handscript have been mastered, they are never +forgotten, and are recognisable amid the closest imitations.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p> + +<p>There are extant a number of forged Thackeray's. Their +distinguishing features are that they are invariably very short, +as if the forger feared to provide sufficient matter to supply +material for comparison; most are on single half sheets of +note paper, many on quarto sheets of varying texture and +quality, and the characteristic vertical <i>I</i>, Thackeray's trade +mark, always occurs. It is shaky and often out of the +perpendicular, as the genuine rarely is. In the forgeries we +have seen and suspect to be the work of A. H. Smith, a very +significant sign is a sudden thickening of the downstrokes of +tailed letters like <i>y</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, producing a tiny diamond-shaped +excrescence in the middle of the letter. The glass reveals +that ragged-edged stroke which is inseparable from the +writing of the nervous copyist.</p> + +<p>It is generally safe to be cautious about very short letters. +The forger well knows how difficult is the task of maintaining +an assumed character. Just as the mimic may +succeed in reproducing the tone and manner of a person with +sufficient closeness to deceive even the most intimate +acquaintances of the subject, yet fail to carry the deception +beyond a few words or phrases, so the literary forger +invariably breaks down when he attempts to simulate +handwriting over many sentences. So conscious is he of this +great difficulty that he often avoids it by boldly copying some +genuine letter. We have had offered to us "guaranteed" +Thackeray letters which we immediately recognised as such. +In one particularly glaring case the forger had copied the +original letter very fairly so far as the penmanship was +concerned, but while the original was written on a half sheet +of note paper, the forgery was on a different size paper, and +the writing across the length of the paper instead of the +breadth. This naturally disarranged the spacing between the +words, which in all Thackeray's writings is a pronouncedly +regular feature, and this variation was in itself sufficient to +excite suspicion.</p> + +<p>The popularity of Dickens among collectors grows +steadily. Despite the fact that he was an industrious +correspondent, and that a very large number of his letters +appear from time to time in the market, the demand is ever +in excess of the supply. As a consequence he has suffered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +perhaps more than any of the literary immortals at the hands +of the forger. Yet it is safe to say that there should be no +writer so safe from fraudulent imitation, for there is a +peculiar distinctiveness about his caligraphic productions that +once seen and noted should never be forgotten. Specimens +are easily available. The catalogues of dealers are constantly +presenting them, and most public libraries possess examples, +either in the original holograph or in some form of +reproduction.</p> + +<p>Probably no writer preserved his style with such little +change as Dickens. His signature in later years varied +somewhat from that of his literary youth, but the body of his +handscript retained throughout the same characteristics. It +was always a free, fluent, graceful hand, legible as that of +Thackeray when its leading peculiarities have been mastered, +but less formal and studied than his. It was always +remarkably free from corrections or interlineations. He +wrote with the easy freedom of the stenographer; indeed it is +easy to recognise in the delicate gracefully formed letters the +effect of years of training in the most difficult and exacting +form of handscript.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the leading peculiarities in the Dickens holograph +are these:—</p> + +<p>The date of the month is never expressed in figures, but +always written in full; in fact, abbreviation in any form he +never countenanced.</p> + +<p>The letter <i>y</i>, both as a capital and a small letter is a +figure 7 except in the affix "ly," when the two letters become +an <i>f</i> or long stroke <i>s</i>.</p> + +<p>The letter <i>t</i> is crossed by the firm downward bar, which +the character readers claim as a sign of great resolution.</p> + +<p>Letter <i>g</i> is invariable in form.</p> + +<p>Capital <i>E</i> consists of a downstroke with a bar in the centre.</p> + +<p>The hook of many final letters has a tendency to turn +backwards.</p> + +<p>New paragraphs are marked by beginning the line about +an inch from the left-hand margin.</p> + +<p>A very marked peculiarity noticeable in many letters is +that the left-hand margin gradually grows wider as the +lines approach the bottom of the page. The narrowing is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +wondrously regular, a line drawn from the first letter on the +first line to the corresponding position on the last will touch +nearly every other line. This peculiarity appears to have +escaped every forger whose work we have examined.</p> + +<p>If the signs relied upon by the readers of character in +handwriting are to be accepted, self-esteem was a pronounced +characteristic of the great novelist. His writing abounds with +those subtle symptoms of the prevalence of that weakness.</p> + +<p>His signature is perhaps the best known of any with +which the British public are familiar. It is remarkably +uniform, and remained precisely the same from the time he +adopted it after the Pickwick period until his death. That +which he used in youth was less striking, but none the less +self-conscious.</p> + +<p>After the Pickwick period Dickens adopted the use of +blue paper and blue ink. Letters in black ink, if undated, +may safely be attributed to the earlier period.</p> + +<p>His note paper was in later years of the regulation note +size. The address, Gads' Hill Place, Higham by Rochester, +Kent, was in embossed black old English letter. His paper +was hand-made, and of good quality. The envelopes were +blue, of the same quality paper, but without crest, monogram +or distinctive mark. Dickens' vanity expressed itself in the +habit of franking envelopes, <i>i.e.</i>, by writing his name in the +left-hand bottom corner, after the fashion in vogue when +Peers and M.P.'s enjoyed the privilege of free postage.</p> + +<p>His letters of the pre-envelope period—before 1842—were +on quarto sheets. These are exceedingly rare.</p> + +<p>There is one feature about autographic forgery which +may always be relied upon to assist greatly in the work of +detection. As a general rule there is sufficient matter in +a literary forgery to supply the necessary material for +comparison. It must of necessity be a copy, if not of an +existing original, at least of the general style. The process +of imitation must be slow and cautious, and the signs remain +in shaky, broken lines, and a ruggedness entirely absent from +the writing of the real author, which is fluent and free. +Even the shakiness of age noticeable in a few distinguished +handwritings is different to the shakiness of the forger's +uncertainty.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XV.</h2> + +<h3>Forged Signatures.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">The</span> most difficult phase of the art of the handwriting +expert consists in the detection of forgery in signatures. It +will be obvious to the student who has followed the instructions +and illustrations already given that this difficulty is +brought about by two principal causes: first, by the paucity +of material for comparison; secondly, because of the very +important fact that a forgery must, by its nature, be a good +and close copy of an original. This means that the unconscious +tricks and irregularities that often abound in a long letter, +written in a more or less disguised hand, are almost entirely +absent from a forged signature. It follows, therefore, that +the student must have some other clues and rules to guide +him, for he cannot rely upon the chance of a slip or +accidental trick occurring in a signature that contains at +most perhaps a dozen letters.</p> + +<p>The first step in the examination of a suspected signature +is to master thoroughly the various characteristics of the +genuine signature. These must be studied in every possible +relation, and from as many specimens as can be obtained. +The magnifying glass must be in constant use and the eye +alert to detect the angle at which the pen is habitually held, +the class of pen used, and the degree of pressure and speed +employed. These last-named points can only be discovered +as the result of practice and observation, and though at first +sight it may appear impossible to form a correct estimate of +the pace at which a pen has travelled, the student will, if +observant, soon learn to detect the difference between a +swiftly formed stroke and one written with slowness and +deliberation. By making a number of each kind of stroke +and carefully examining them through a glass, the student +will learn in an hour more than can be taught by means of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +verbal description. The study of the genuine signatures +must be continued until every stroke and its peculiarities are +as familiar as the features of a well-known face, for until one +is thoroughly impregnated with the original it will be useless +to proceed with the examination of the suspects.</p> + +<p>At first sight the student will probably perceive very little, +if any, difference between the original and the suspect. It +would be a very clumsy forgery if he could. Gradually +the points of dissimilarity will become clear to him, and with +each fresh examination they grow plainer, until he is surprised +that they did not sooner strike him; they are so obvious that +the eye cannot avoid them; they stand out as plainly as the +hidden figure, after it has been detected, in the well-known +picture puzzles. There are few faculties capable of such +rapid and accurate development as that of observation. +Thousands of persons go through life unconscious of the +existence of certain common things until the occasion arises +for noticing them, or accident forces them upon the attention; +then they marvel that the thing should have escaped observation. +This is a truism, no doubt, but the force of every +platitude does not always present itself to every one. The +comparison of handwritings is so essentially a matter of +cultivating the powers of observation, that even if turned to +no more practical account than that of a hobby its value as a +mental exercise is great.</p> + +<p>There are two principal methods by which a signature +may be forged: first, by carefully copying the original as +one would copy a drawing; secondly, by tracing it.</p> + +<p>The first process is referred to as copied. The forger will, +most probably, have practised the signature before affixing it +to the cheque or other document, thereby attaining a certain +degree of fluency. But however well executed, close examination +with the aid of the magnifying glass will reveal those +signs of hesitancy and irregularity that one may reasonably +expect to find in a copy.</p> + +<p>There is no part of a person's handwriting so fluent and +free as his signature. Even the most illiterate persons show +more freedom and continuity of outline in their signature +than in the body of their writing. This is explicable on the +ground of usage. A writer may feel a degree of momentary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +uncertainty in forming a word that he does not write +frequently, but his signature he is more sure about. He +strikes it off without hesitancy, and in the majority of cases +appends some meaningless flourish, which may be described +as a superfluous stroke or strokes added for the purpose of +ornamentation, for adding distinctiveness, or, in some cases, +and particularly with business men, with the idea that the +flourishes help to secure the signature from forgery. Such +writers will probably be surprised to learn that there is no +form of signature so easy to forge as that involved and +complicated by a maze of superfluous lines and meaningless +flourishes. The most difficult signature for the forger is the +clear, plain, copybook-modelled autograph. A little thought +and examination will make the reason for this clear.</p> + +<p>Let a signature be enveloped in a web of curves and +flourishes, making it look like a complicated script monogram. +The lines are so numerous that the eye cannot take them all +in at a glance, and, if copied, any slight irregularity or +departure from the original is more likely to pass undetected +amid the confusing network of interlaced lines. If, on the +other hand, the signature be simple and free from the +bewildering effects of flourishes, the entire autograph lies +revealed, a clear and regular outline, and the slightest +variation from the accustomed figure stands out naked and +plain. Most of the successful forgeries will be found to be +on signatures of the complicated order. Their apparent +impregnability has tempted the facile penman to essay the +task of harmless imitation; his success has surprised and +flattered him, and the easy possibilities of forgery opened up. +More than one forger has admitted that his initiatory lessons +were prompted by an innocent challenge to imitate a +particularly complicated "forgery-proof" signature.</p> + +<p>It must be remembered that the eye of the casual observer +takes in a word as a whole rather than in detail. This +explains why an author can rarely be trusted to correct his +own proofs. He knows what the word should be, and in +reading his work in print he notices only the general expected +effect of a word. It needs the trained eye of the proof-reader +to detect the small <i>c</i> that has taken the place of the <i>e</i>, the +battered <i>l</i> that is masquerading as an <i>i</i>. So long as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +general outline of the word is not distorted the wrong letters +are often passed; and it is much the same with a signature +with which one is fairly familiar. The trained examiner of +handwriting, like the proof-reader, knows what to look for, +and discovers irregularities that would escape the notice of +the untrained eye.</p> + +<p>The first part of a genuine signature that should be +examined is the flourish, which includes all fancy strokes +appended to it, and any superfluous addition to the body of +the letters. A close scrutiny through the glass will show +that the lines forming the tail-flourish are generally clear, +firm and sharp in outline, being formed, not only without +hesitation, but with a dash and decided sweep that are +strongly at variance with the broken, saw-edged, unsteady +line of the copy. It will also generally be found to follow +an almost fixed rule in the matter of its proportionate +conformation: that is, supposing the writer finishes up with +a horizontal line under his signature, it will be seen, on +averaging a dozen or so of them, that the distance of the +line from the feet of the letters is proportionately uniform. +If the line be begun with a spur or curved inward hook, that +feature will be repeated. The end of the flourish or final +stroke, at the point where the pen leaves the paper, should +be very carefully examined. One writer finishes with an +almost imperceptible dot, as if the pen had been stabbed into +the paper; another finishes with a curve, either upward or +downward; a third with a hook turned upward, either a +curve or an angle; while a fourth continues the line till it +becomes finer and sharper to vanishing point. Some writers +are fond of concluding with a more or less bold and expansive +underline running horizontally with the signature. A close +examination will show a variation in the degrees of thickness +of such a line, which should be carefully noted and looked +for in other genuine signatures.</p> + +<p>In this connection it will be found extremely useful and +instructive to study strokes, either horizontal or vertical, with +a view to discovering whether they were struck from right to +left, top to bottom, or <i>vice versâ</i>. The glass will render it +easy to detect beginning from end after a few failures, which, +by the way, should not be allowed to discourage, for every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +minute devoted to the study of handwriting is so much gain +in experience, and represents so much more learned, which +will never be forgotten.</p> + +<p>The flourishes that occur on and about the signature +proper must be treated as exaggerated loops, and their +shoulders, arcs, hooks and toes carefully measured and noted. +For this purpose an average genuine signature should be +selected and gauged, which is done in this way: Place over +it a sheet of transfer paper. With the scale-rule and a fine +pencil draw horizontal lines that will touch the tops and +bottoms of the bodies of the letters, lines that touch the tops +and bottoms of the tailed and topped letters, and vertical +lines that follow the shanks of every topped or tailed letter, +including the capitals. The gauge, when completed, will +represent a framework fitting the signature, and its use is +twofold. It helps the eye to detect the variations in the +general contour of the signature, and, when placed over +another, brings out the points of difference. Due allowance +must be made for proportion. It is obvious that the distance +of letters will be greater in a signature written larger than +another, but the proportionate distances will be preserved. +The difference in the size of a letter is not very important, +except that it offers more scope for examination. For +example, a looped <i>l</i> may be very small or half an inch +long; but, if made by the same writer, the proportionate +width at top, bottom and middle will be preserved, and +compare with the same measurements in the smaller letter. +Signatures of the same writer do not often vary much in +size, though they may be thicker or finer according to the +character of the pen used; but observation will show that +the difference in a handwriting caused by the use of different +pens is much more imaginary than real.</p> + +<p>The traced signature is produced by placing the paper +over the genuine autograph, holding it to the light, generally +on a sheet of glass, and tracing it with a fine point. Such +forgeries are often more easily detected than the copied +signature, for the reason that signs of the tracing process can +generally be found by careful examination. The fine, hard +point used to trace the autograph leaves a smooth hollow, +which can be seen through the glass on examining the back<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +of the cheque or document. If the paper be held in a line +with the eye in a strong light, the ridge will be more clearly +perceived. The difference between a mark made by a hard +point and a pen can be tested by experiment. The hard +point must of necessity be pressed with a degree of force to +make the desired impression on the paper, and the result is a +smooth hollow. But if a pen be pressed hard, it produces two +parallel lines, and, instead of a hollow, a ridge is formed +between the parallels. Of course, it will be so slight as to be +hardly perceptible, except through a strong glass, but it will be +there nevertheless, and knowing what to look for, the expert +will generally have no difficulty in satisfying himself whether +the forgery has been traced or copied, a very valuable piece +of evidence when once settled, for it is within the bounds of +probability that the genuine signature from which the tracing +was made may be discovered. It is possible, and has often +occurred, that the writer of the original may have some +recollection of having written to the suspected person, or in +many ways a clue may be suggested. There is a well-known +case of a forgery being brought home to the perpetrator +through the accuracy of the tracing. It is a fact easily +proved, that no man can write a word twice, so exactly, that +if the two are overlaid they fit. If two such signatures be +produced, it is safe to assume that one has been traced or +otherwise mechanically produced. In the case mentioned a +signature on a cheque was pronounced a forgery by the +person supposed to have signed it. In examining specimens +of the genuine autograph, the experts came upon one which, +when placed upon that on the cheque, proved a perfect +replica, down to the most minute detail, showing beyond +question that it had been used to trace the forgery from. +It was further proved that the original had been in the +possession of the supposed forger, and the jury were asked to +decide whether it was probable that a man could reproduce +his signature in exact facsimile after a lapse of time, and +without the original before him. As the chances against such +a contingency are many millions to one—a fact the student +can verify—the jury decided against the forger.</p> + +<p>At the risk of appearing tautological to a tiresome degree +it is necessary to accentuate the fact that the comparison of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +handwriting, and more particularly of signatures, is essentially +dependent on cultivating the faculty of observation. This +art cannot be taught; it can only be acquired by practice and +experience, like swimming or riding. The teacher can at +most indicate the method of study and some of the leading +principles of conducting an investigation. Most men are not +naturally observant, and the habit can be best fostered by +having an object; but when once a person has been taught +what to look for he almost instinctively notices details that +previously never struck him. This is specially true of the +study of handwriting.</p> + +<p>The best method of practice that can be adopted by the +student is to begin by making a careful study of his own +signature and writing. He will be surprised at the number +of facts hitherto unsuspected that will be revealed to him. +The value of using his own handwriting as a subject of +examination lies in this, that the student can satisfy himself +how and why certain strokes are made. This he can only +guess at in the writing of others.</p> + +<p>The preliminary exercise should consist in studying the +effect produced by the different methods of holding the pen. +The signature supplies excellent material for this class of +practice. Begin by holding the pen with the top end pointed +well towards the left shoulder, in the absurd and unnatural +position taught by the old school of writing masters. Repeat +the signature with the pen held a trifle less acutely angular, +and go on till six or eight signatures have been written at a +decreasing angle—until the top of the penholder points well +to the right, producing what is known as a backhand. The +effect of these angles must be carefully noted, and in a short +time it will be found possible to arrive at a very accurate +opinion as to how the writer of a particular signature +habitually holds his pen—an important and valuable piece +of knowledge. The practice should be extended to long +sentences, and a frequent repetition of all the letters, capital +and small, the magnifying glass being always used to examine +the effect of the various and varying strokes.</p> + +<p>In examining a signature for comparing it with a +suspected forgery it should be copied very frequently, as the +clues and suggestions the experiments will produce are of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +much greater service than will at first appear, and of more +practical value than pages of theory, as the how and why +will be revealed for much that would be obscure without this +assistance. As experience grows, it will not be necessary to +adopt this copying process so often, for the eye soon becomes +alert at detecting slight shades of difference in strokes, and a +glance will convey more than could be explained in many +pages.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XVI.</h2> + +<h3>The Expert in the Witness-box.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">When</span> the expert has been called upon to give an opinion +upon the genuineness of writings he embodies his conclusions +in a report of which the following may be taken as a fair +example:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>To the Chief of Police.</p> +<p class="ind">Sir,</p> + +<p class="center">REX <i>versus</i> JONES.</p> + +<p>In accordance with your instructions dated —— +I beg leave to inform you that I have made a careful +examination of the document marked <i>A</i>, and attached +hereto, and compared it with the documents marked +<i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>, <i>E</i> and <i>F</i>, also attached.</p> + +<p>I have arrived at the conclusion that the document <i>A</i> +was written by the same hand as produced <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>, +<i>E</i> and <i>F</i>.</p> + +<p>The main reasons which have led me to form this +opinion are these:—</p> + +<p>First, although the writing in <i>A</i> bears at first sight +no resemblance to that of the other documents, the +difference is only such as experience leads me to expect +in a writing which has been purposely disguised, as I +believe this has been.</p> + +<p>The writing on the five documents <i>B</i> to <i>F</i> I take to +be the normal hand of the author, and that on <i>A</i> to be +the same writer's hand altered so as to present a different +appearance. I will call the specimens <i>B</i> to <i>F</i> the +genuine examples, and <i>A</i> the disguised.</p> + +<p>Experience shows that the person who writes an +anonymous letter generally seeks to disguise his hand by +departing as much as he deems possible from his normal +writing. The usual hand of the writer of the genuine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +document is a free rounded hand sloping upwards +towards the right. The writing of <i>A</i> presents exactly +the features I would expect to find when, as appears to +be the case here, the writer has adopted the familiar +trick of sloping his writing in a direction opposite to his +normal hand. While the result of this change is to +alter the apparent style and general appearance of the +writing, the alteration does not extend to certain tricks and +characteristics which are plainly obvious in the genuine +letters and are repeated in the anonymous letter <i>A</i>.</p> + +<p>The writing in the genuine letters contains fourteen +very distinctive peculiarities, or tricks of hand, which I +find repeated in the anonymous letter <i>A</i>.</p> + +<p class="center">(Here describe them, as for example.)</p> + +<p>1. The figure 4 in the dates is always made like the +print form of that figure.</p> + +<p>2. The small <i>e</i> is always of the Greek form.</p> + +<p>3. The small <i>t</i> is always crossed by a bar thick at the +beginning, tapering to a point, with its longest part +behind the shank of the <i>t</i> [and so on].</p></div> + +<p>The various points of resemblance are set out in detail, a +separate paragraph for each, and each paragraph numbered.</p> + +<p>It is extremely important that a report should be fully +descriptive and written in plain, non-technical language, +easily understood by the jury, who will have to decide +whether the resemblance has been made out.</p> + +<p>Too many handwriting experts spoil the effect of their +evidence by employing technical language and presuming on +the part of the jury an acquaintance with the methods of +comparing handwritings.</p> + +<p>Do not be satisfied by saying that certain letters resemble +each other. Show by an enlarged diagram how and where, +indicating the parts to which attention is called by arrows. +Place the single letters to be compared in parallel columns, +headed with the alphabetical letter distinguishing the document +in which the particular letter occurs. Use foolscap +paper, and write on one side of the paper only.</p> + +<p>The usual method of dealing with the handwriting expert +in the witness-box is shown in the following extract from a +report of an actual case.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span></p> + +<p>Mr. D. B—— was called by counsel for the prosecution +and duly sworn.</p> + +<p>Q.—You have had considerable experience in examining +handwriting.</p> + +<p>A.—Over twenty years.</p> + +<p>Q.—Look at these documents. (Hands documents to +witness.) Have you seen and examined these?</p> + +<p>A.—I have.</p> + +<p>Q.—Have you formed any opinion upon them?</p> + +<p>A.—I have, and have prepared a report.</p> + +<p>In some cases the expert is allowed to read his report in +full. In others he is requested to give a verbal report, but +if the point be insisted upon, the judge generally permits the +report to be read, either by the expert or by counsel. A +copy of the report, together with the documents in dispute +are then usually handed to the jury for examination. The +expert may proceed to illustrate his point with the aid of a +blackboard and chalk, but much depends upon the attitude +taken by the judge and counsel. Some judges insist that the +expert shall confine himself to expressing his opinion, leaving +counsel to deal with the explanation and comparison; others +give the expert every opportunity of showing how he has +arrived at his opinions.</p> + +<p>The examination in chief is usually a very simple matter. +The trouble for the expert begins when counsel for the +other side gets up to cross-examine.</p> + +<p>In nearly every case the object of the cross-examining +counsel is to ridicule the art and get the expert to admit the +possibility of other writers possessing the same peculiarities +which are said to distinguish the letters before the Court.</p> + +<p>Counsel's favourite trick is to select some letter and ask +the expert if he is prepared to swear that he has never seen +something just like it in some other person's writing. The +expert who knows his business will insist on keeping well to +the front the bedrock basis of handwriting comparison, which +is the application of the law of probability to cumulative +evidence. It is not a question whether some other person +may be in the habit of making a <i>t</i> or a <i>k</i> similar to those cited +as evidences of common origin, but whether it is probable +that two persons should make a dozen or more letters in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +precisely the same way under similar conditions and exhibit +precisely the same peculiarities of style. He should reply +with the unanswerable postulate that millions of persons +possess red hair, snub noses, a scar on the face, blue eyes, +bent fingers and a stammer; but it is millions to one against +any two persons possessing all six of those peculiarities.</p> + +<p>In the course of his replies the expert may justifiably help +his own case by repeating, when opportunity occurs, such +irrefutable axioms as, No writer can say off-hand what +peculiarities he may exhibit; that there are scores of ways of +dotting an <i>i</i>, or crossing a <i>t</i>, and that few persons know which +form they mostly affect. Fifty such points may be gathered +from this little volume alone, while acquaintance with the +works of other writers on caligraphy will supply ample +ammunition for meeting and repelling the customary form of +attack on the handwriting expert.</p> + +<p>Another method of discrediting a witness is to remind him +that experts have differed, the Dreyfus case being usually +cited. The answer is obvious. First it is essential to be +assured that those experts were all competent, for there are +degrees of competency in judging handwriting as in every +other subject on which opinion may be called. It is a +notorious fact that in the Dreyfus case the most competent +experts testified that the Henry letters were forgeries, the +authorities called on the other side being in most cases +unknown men or amateurs of no standing. A number of +these self-styled experts possessed no other qualification than +presumed familiarity with the handwriting of Dreyfus. It is +also worthy of note that several of the experts on both sides +proved most inefficient witnesses, obscuring their explanations +by the employment of technical phraseology which conveyed +little meaning to the lay mind.</p> + +<p>Exactitude and regularity in the choice of the words used +in describing the parts of letters should be strictly observed +by the student. The rules given in the chapter on "Terminology" +should be mastered and adhered to. In most cases +the terms there applied to letter-analysis will be found to be +self-explanatory.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XVII.</h2> + +<h3>Handwriting and Expression.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">No</span> work dealing with the study of handwriting would be +complete unless it recognised that phase of it which touches +on the delineation of character by an examination of the +caligraphy.</p> + +<p>That many valuable clues can be picked up by the expert +who applies the principles on which the graphologist works +is indisputable, nor is it necessary to accept all the theories +claimed as reliable by those who practice this interesting +branch of the art of writing-analysis.</p> + +<p>There is no doubt that many persons have attained a +remarkable degree of proficiency in deducing from the hand-gestures +of an unknown person a very accurate estimate of +his or her character, and this fact should prove that the +principles of the art of graphology are based on scientific +grounds, or at least that the rules on which the student +works are regular and not, as some suggest, mere guess-work +or coincidence.</p> + +<p>The elder d'Israeli, in his fascinating work, the "Curiosities +of Literature," devotes considerable space to the subject. +Among other things, he says:—</p> + +<p>"Assuredly nature would prompt every individual to +have a distinct sort of writing, as she has given a peculiar +countenance, a voice, and a manner. The flexibility of the +muscles differs with every individual, and the hand will +follow the direction of the thoughts, and the emotions and +the habits of the writers.</p> + +<p>"The phlegmatic will portray his words with signs of +labour and deliberation, while the playful haste of the +volatile will scarcely sketch them; the slovenly will blot +and efface and scrawl, while the neat and orderly-minded +will view themselves in the paper before their eyes. The +merchant's clerk will not write like the lawyer or the poet.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> +Even nations are distinguished by their writing; the +vivacity and variableness of the Frenchman, and the +delicacy and suppleness of the Italian, are perceptibly +distinct from the slowness and strength of pen discoverable +in the phlegmatic German, Dane, and Swede.</p> + +<p>"When we are in grief we do not write as we should in +joy. The elegant and correct mind, which has acquired +the fortunate habit of a fixity of attention, will write with +scarcely an erasure on the page, as Fenelon and Gibbon; +while we find in Pope's manuscripts the perpetual struggle +of correction, and the eager and rapid interlineations +struck off in heat. Lavater's notion of handwriting is by +no means chimerical; nor was General Paoli fanciful when +he told Mr. Northcote he had decided on the character and +disposition of a man from his letters and the handwriting.</p> + +<p>"Long before the days of Lavater, Shenstone in one of +his letters said, 'I want to see Mrs. Jago's writing that I +may judge of her temper.'</p> + +<p>"One great truth must, however, be conceded to the +opponents of the physiognomy of handwriting. General +rules only can be laid down. Yet the vital principle must +be true that the handwriting bears an analogy to the +character of the writer, as all voluntary actions are +characteristic of the individual."</p> + +<hr class="min" /> + +<p>Professor Foli, in his very useful work, "Handwriting as +an Index to Character" (London: C. A. Pearson, Ltd.), says:</p> + +<p>"The changes which handwriting undergoes as maturity +is reached prove how directly it is influenced by the nervous +condition of the writer.</p> + +<p>"The writing proper to childhood is large, round and +accompanied by a laboured pen movement; whereas that +which is normal as manhood or womanhood is attained is +smaller, and turned off by a more rapid and fluent motion of +the hand.</p> + +<p>"Illness, again, affects the writing. As the hand is +charged with more or less of the nerve fluid, so the writing +is stronger or weaker, firmer or feebler, as the case may be.</p> + +<p>"This goes to show the important influence which the +nerve current exerts in fashioning the handwriting. Small<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +wonder that our handwriting alters day by day. Yet it does +not alter either. So far as its general appearance is concerned +I grant it <i>seems</i> to do so. But look at the really significant +points of the writing written at different times. Give a +glance at the height at which the '<i>i</i>' is dotted, the way in +which the '<i>t</i>' is barred, the manner in which the letters +are, or are not, connected and finished off. These things will +crop up with unerring uniformity time after time.</p> + +<p>"You do, of course, get a studied handwriting now and +then, just as you sometimes meet with a formed facial +expression. But that does not express the true character, +simply because the control over the feelings or the power of +disguising what is felt is a salient point in the character; +and this very fact will serve to show that there is truth in +graphology.</p> + +<p>"That the pen, whether it be a fine or a broad pointed +nib, plays a certain part in determining the thickness or +thinness of the strokes, I am willing to allow, but here again +we have no argument against graphology, for most people +have their favourite nib—just as they prefer one occupation +to another—and this is the one which will best serve to +define their characteristics. The same with the surface of +the paper upon which they write; some will select a smooth, +others a rough kind, but whatever that may be which is +adopted with comfort, it will be typical of the writer."</p> + +<p>The following are some of the more marked signs of the +character they indicate. For a fuller exposition of their +application it would be well to study the work of Foli, before +mentioned, and of Rosa Baughan (Upcott Gill, London, 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>), +with the scholarly work of J. Crépieux-Jainin, entitled, "Handwriting +and Expression," translated by J. Holt Schooling.</p> + +<hr class="min" /> + +<p><i>General Characteristic.</i>—The fineness of an organism will +be revealed by a fine light penstroke. Coarse, low natures +make heavy blurred entangled lines.</p> + +<p><i>Activity</i> is denoted by the length of the letters. Where it +is feeble the letters will be widely spaced and rounded.</p> + +<p><i>Excitability</i> is shown by sharp strokes and stops. The +more acute and irregular the pen-strokes the greater the +intensity of feeling.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Aggression</i>, which is the inclination to attack, the +destructive force, is indicated by the final strokes of letters +and the cross-bars of <i>t</i>'s advancing well forward, the dots of +the <i>i</i>'s placed well forward. In such a word as "time" the +dot would probably be between the <i>m</i> and <i>e</i>. The style is +angular and well and evenly spaced, altogether a forward, +"go-ahead" writing.</p> + +<p><i>Economy</i>, or acquisitiveness, is shown by the finishing +strokes being turned backwards, and inwards; by a cramped +hand, a disposition to curtail strokes, particularly the endings +of letters, as if the expenditure of ink was begrudged.</p> + +<p><i>Secretiveness</i>, or extra caution, has its sign in the narrow, +tightly-closed form of the body of the letters <i>a</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>q</i>, the +<i>a</i> and <i>o</i> often being merely a narrow <i>v</i>. The general tendency +of the writing is to compression, the final strokes being very +short. When very marked, the letters dwindle into an +indistinct unformed condition. The substitution of dashes for +punctuation is another symptom.</p> + +<p><i>Insincerity.</i>—Beware of the man or woman whose writing +is a fine, wavy line, upright, with short, stumpy and indistinct +tops and tails, words running at their end to an almost +straight line, the letters merely indicated. The flatter, finer +and more perpendicular this writing, the greater the +insincerity. Such a writer would probably be a polite, +pleasing and plausible person, but double-faced as Janus.</p> + +<p><i>Love of praise</i>, glory, ambition are shown by a tendency +to write upwards, the lines of writing trending towards the +right-hand corner of the paper. The signature will usually +have a curved line below it, with a degree of flourish.</p> + +<p><i>Self-esteem</i>, to which is allied conceit and ostentation, +shows itself in proportion to the size of the writing, the taller +and more flourished the upstrokes and the longer the downstrokes, +the greater the self-assertiveness. The flourish +beneath the signature will be very pronounced, often an +elaborate spider's web of interlaced lines. The writing is +more or less angular with the finals turned backwards and +inwards.</p> + +<p><i>Will power</i> is shown by firm bars to the <i>t</i>, with a tendency +to descend from left to right, bludgeon-like downstrokes to +tailed letters, writing rather angular than rounded, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +final strokes finished by a heavy pressure. Straight, firm, +downward strokes take the place of the tails to <i>y</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>q</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Sympathy</i>, good nature, kindness of heart are shown by a +flowing open hand, the finals of the letters being extended and +thrown out with an expansive movement. The tailed letters +are long and looped, and often turned up the right side of +the letter. The letters are well apart but not necessarily +unconnected, and the style is curved. As a general rule hard +matter-of-fact natures incline to an angular style; the +artistic and softer nature affects rounded, gracefully curved +strokes, and avoids straight perpendiculars or horizontals.</p> + +<p><i>Constructiveness</i>, which implies the ability to combine and +connect words and phrases, is shown by joining the words +together, several being written without lifting the pen from +the paper. The more simple and ingenuous the method of +attaching the words, the greater will be the ability. When +this joining of words is carried to extremes, it may be taken +as a sign of good deductive judgment.</p> + +<p><i>Observation</i>, by which is implied the keen, penetrating, +inquiring mind (which in excess becomes curiosity), is marked +by angularity of the strokes and finals; a small, generally +neat, handwriting, with the letters disconnected.</p> + +<p><i>Punctuation</i> affords a very valuable clue to character-reading, +for reasons set out in the chapter "How to Study +a Handwriting." They are the most mechanical and +unpremeditated of hand-gestures, and are, therefore, the +more valuable.</p> + +<p>When, for example, a dot is thick and heavy, we infer +that the pen has been driven across the paper with a strong, +decided movement of the hand, which would be consistent +with extreme energy and will power; whereas, when the dot +is light and faintly indicated we may be certain that only a +moderate force has been expended upon its production, which +would be compatible with less resistance and endurance in +the character.</p> + +<p>Again, a dot whose outlines were blurred would show a +certain sensuousness of character—strong passions and a want +of restraint over the lower propensities; whereas, a dot whose +edges were sharply defined would tell of refinement and a +loathing against all that was coarse or vulgar.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p> + +<p>Careful attention to punctuation indicates neatness, order, +method and love of arrangement; nor is it necessary that the +punctuation should be strictly correct, for the art is but +imperfectly mastered by most people, even the best educated.</p> + +<p>Stops that partake of the appearance of a comma indicate +a degree of impetuosity; well rounded stops imply calmness +and tranquility of temperament. When the full stops are +fashioned after the form of a comma and droop towards the +right hand they indicate a tendency to sulkiness. When +they are merely angular we may infer impatience and a +"peppery" disposition.</p> + +<p>Flourishes are always indicative of a certain amount of +assertiveness. The simpler the flourish the less artificial this +self-insistence; the more elaborate, the greater the desire to +seem what one is not.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p> +<h2>BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HANDWRITING.</h2> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">Most</span> of the works in this list relate to that aspect of the +study of graphology which is supposed to bear upon the +manifestations of character. But there is not one which the +student of handwriting can afford to ignore, since, apart from +the debatable question of character reading, they all contain +numerous hints and observations of extreme value to the +student whose objective is the acquisition of aptitude in the +more practical art of detecting forgery.</p> + +<div class="bk1"><p><b>AUTOGRAPH COLLECTING</b>: A practical manual for Amateurs and Historical +Students. By <span class="smcap">Henry T. Scott</span>, M.D. London: Upcott Gill. Price 5<i>s.</i></p> + +<p><b>A GUIDE TO THE COLLECTION OF HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS, LITERARY +MSS. AND AUTOGRAPH LETTERS, &c.</b> By Rev. <span class="smcap">H. T. Scott</span> and +<span class="smcap">Samuel Davey</span>. (Out of print.) May be seen in British Museum and +many public libraries.</p> + +<p><b>THE AUTOGRAPHIC MIRROR</b>: A monthly journal now defunct, but procurable +at second hand.</p> + +<p><b>HANDWRITING AND EXPRESSION.</b> Translated and edited by <span class="smcap">John Holt +Schooling</span>, from the third French edition of "L'Escriture et le +Caractere," par <span class="smcap">J. Crépieux-Jainin</span>. Kegan, Paul and Trench.</p> + +<p><b>CHARACTER INDICATED BY HANDWRITING.</b> By <span class="smcap">Rosa Baughan</span>. Upcott +Gill. Price 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p><b>THE PHILOSOPHY OF HANDWRITING.</b> By <span class="smcap">Don Felix de Salamanca</span>. +Macmillan.</p> + +<p><b>HOW TO READ CHARACTER IN HANDWRITING.</b> By <span class="smcap">Henry Frith</span>. +Ward Lock. Price 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<p><b>HANDWRITING AS AN INDEX TO CHARACTER.</b> By Professor <span class="smcap">Foli</span>. +C. A. Pearson. Price 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<p><b>A SYSTEM OF GRAPHOLOGY.</b> By the <span class="smcap">Abbé Michon</span>. In French; no English +translation. A valuable work.</p> + +<p><b>A HISTORY OF HANDWRITING.</b> Same Author.</p> + +<p><b>A METHOD OF GRAPHOLOGIC STUDY.</b> Same Author.</p> + +<p><b>A MEMOIR UPON THE FAULTY METHODS USED BY EXPERTS IN +HANDWRITING.</b> Same Author.</p> + +<p><b>A DICTIONARY OF THE NOTABILITIES OF FRANCE JUDGED FROM THE +HANDWRITING.</b> Same Author.</p> + +<p><b>THE HANDWRITING OF THE FRENCH PEOPLE SINCE THE MEROVINGIAN +EPOCH.</b> Same Author.</p> + +<p><b>LES MYSTÉRES DE L'ÉCRITURE.</b> Preface by Desbarrolles. Same Author.</p> + +<p><b>THE HANDWRITING OF JUNIUS PROFESSIONALLY EXAMINED BY +CHABOT.</b> Edited by the Hon. <span class="smcap">E. Twistleton</span>. John Murray. 1871.</p></div> + +<p>This work is the only one hitherto published in England +explaining the methods of the handwriting expert. Mons. +Chabot, for many years the leading English expert, was +commissioned by Mr. Twistleton to examine the handwriting +of "Junius" with a view to deciding the authorship of the +famous letters. The result was an exhaustive volume in +which the process of handwriting analysis is illustrated by +thousands of examples. The conclusion arrived at was that +the writer of the "Junius" letters was Sir Philip Francis.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="hd2"><i>Literary and Historical<br /> +Autograph Letters and Manuscripts<br /> +Purchased.</i></p> + +<p class="hd2"><span class="fsm">OPINIONS GIVEN AS TO</span><br /> +GENUINENESS OF DOCUMENTS.<br /> +<span class="fsxs">ALSO ON</span><br /> +SUSPECTED FORGERIES<br /> +<span class="fsxs">AND</span><br /> +ANONYMOUS LETTERS.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="fsxs">BY</span></p> +<p class="hd3"><span class="fsl">BLACKBURN & CADDELL,</span><br /> +19, CHARLWOOD PLACE,<br /> +LONDON, S.W.</p> + +<hr /> +<div class="trn"><b>Transcriber's Note:</b> +Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note, whilst more +significant amendments have been listed below. + +<ul><li>Page <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, 'analine' amended to <i>aniline</i>.</li> + +<li>Page <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, 'Alcebiades' amended to <i>Alcibiades</i>.</li> + +<li>Page <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, 'correspence' amended to <i>correspondence</i>.</li> + +<li>Page <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, 'addresss' amended to <i>address</i>.</li> + +<li>Page <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, 'four documents' amended to <i>five documents</i>.</li> + +<li>Page <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, 'MERORINGIAN' amended to <i>MEROVINGIAN</i>.</li></ul> + +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Detection of Forgery, by +Douglas Blackburn and Waithman Caddell + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DETECTION OF FORGERY *** + +***** This file should be named 25532-h.htm or 25532-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/5/3/25532/ + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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