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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/25532-0.txt b/25532-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e8a93f3 --- /dev/null +++ b/25532-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3151 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Detection of Forgery, by +Douglas Blackburn and Waithman Caddell + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Detection of Forgery + A Practical Handbook for the Use of Bankers, Solicitors, + Magistrates' Clerks, and All Handling Suspected Documents + +Author: Douglas Blackburn + Waithman Caddell + +Release Date: May 20, 2008 [EBook #25532] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DETECTION OF FORGERY *** + + + + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + + THE + DETECTION OF FORGERY. + + + A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK + FOR THE USE OF + BANKERS, SOLICITORS, MAGISTRATES' CLERKS, + AND ALL HANDLING SUSPECTED DOCUMENTS. + + + BY + DOUGLAS BLACKBURN + (_Late Expert to the Natal Criminal Investigation Department, + and the Transvaal Republic_) + + AND + CAPTAIN WAITHMAN CADDELL. + + + LONDON: + CHARLES & EDWIN LAYTON, + FARRINGDON STREET, E.C. + 1909. + + + + +ERRATUM. (_Page 15._) + +Owing to the averages given in the table on page 15 being printed from +some incomplete manuscript they are incorrect. It is obvious that the +proper averages are-- + + | 7-1/4 | 6-1/2 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16-1/4 | 21 | 20-3/4 | 20-3/4 + + +Transcriber's Note: + + The corrections in the above erratum have been applied. The + handwritten pages entitled 'Terminology' and 'Alphabet Variants' + have been moved to the beginning of their relevant chapters. + Hyphenation and punctuation have been standardised. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + CHAPTER PAGE + + INTRODUCTION 5 + + I.--THE PRINCIPLES OF HANDWRITING ANALYSIS 7 + + II.--MEASUREMENT AND ITS APPLIANCES 13 + + III.--TERMINOLOGY 17 + + IV.--CLASSES OF HANDWRITING 19 + + V.--HOW TO EXAMINE A WRITING 21 + + VI.--THE ALPHABET IN DETAIL 24 + + VII.--THE CAPITALS 29 + + VIII.--PUNCTUATION 31 + + IX.--PAPER AND WATERMARKS 34 + + X.--INKS 38 + + XI.--ERASURES 42 + + XII.--PENCILS AND STYLOGRAPHS 45 + + XIII.--ANONYMOUS LETTERS AND DISGUISED HANDS 47 + + XIV.--FORGED LITERARY AUTOGRAPHS 52 + + XV.--FORGED SIGNATURES 60 + + XVI.--THE EXPERT IN THE WITNESS-BOX 68 + + XVII.--HANDWRITING AND EXPRESSION 72 + + XVIII.--BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HANDWRITING 78 + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +The object of this little work is to assist those who may occasionally +be called upon to form an opinion as to the genuineness of signatures, +alterations in cheques, and the varied doubtful documents that demand +the serious consideration of business men by way of a preliminary to +"taking further steps." + +It is the first attempt published in England to explain the principles +upon which the comparison and examination of handwriting are conducted +by experts. It is, and can only be, an outline of suggestions how to +begin, for no two experts follow precisely the same methods, any more +than two painters work on the same lines. Both agree in recognising +certain rules and general principles, but each strives for his objective +point by the employment of those means which experience, temperament, +taste and opportunity suggest. The study of the elementary rules of +their art puts them upon the road for perfecting it, after which success +can only be attained by rightly reading the signs that lead to the +ultimate goal. + +In reading these chapters the student should begin by practising that +self-help which is essential to success. _He must read with pen and +notebook._ It is with the object of compelling this valuable habit that +no illustrative examples are given in the text. It would have been easy +to fill many pages with script illustrations, but experience shows that +a much greater impression is made upon the memory by the hand forming +the outlines described than if they were provided in pictorial form. In +other words, the student should supply this purposeful omission by +himself constructing the illustrations from the description. The +trifling extra time and trouble thus demanded will be amply repaid by +the ease and rapidity with which the various points will be fixed in the +memory. Nor is this the only advantage to be gained. The act of +reproducing the illustration cited will emphasise and render clear +technical and mechanical features that would require many words to +explain, with the attendant risk of confusing the mind by mere verbiage. + +The material and opportunity for practising and studying the comparison +of handwritings are abundant. Every letter written or read affords a +subject, and in a surprisingly short space of time the student will find +himself instinctively noting and analysing peculiarities in handwriting +that probably never arrested his attention before. The principles of the +art are exceedingly simple and free from complexity, and many a person +who takes up the study will find that he possesses powers of analysis +and observation unguessed before. The most successful expert is he who +observes most closely and accurately, and the faculty needs only the +spur of an objective point for it to be developed. + +After a little practice, experience will suggest many methods of +examination and test not dealt with here. For example, photographic +enlargements can be and are utilised with great advantage by bringing +out minute details, especially in signatures, erasures and alterations. +Interesting experiments can be made with a view to discovering the +effect of different kinds of ink--important in settling the question +whether the whole of a particular writing was done with one fluid, and +at the same time, or at intervals. + +The study of erasures and alterations of figures or characters also +comes within the scope of developments of the art which it is not deemed +necessary to deal with at length in these pages, for after experience +will suggest their use and the best methods of procedure. For the +beginner the instructions given in the chapters that follow will be +found amply sufficient to direct him how to take up a fascinating and +practical accomplishment, and this, with no further aid than his own +judgment, perseverance and powers of observation and deduction. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +THE PRINCIPLES OF HANDWRITING ANALYSIS. + + +The principle on which experts claim to be able to detect variations and +to differentiate between handwritings is based on the well-established +axiom that there is no such thing as a perfect pair in nature; that, +however close the apparent similarity between two things, a careful +examination and comparison will reveal marked differences to those +trained to detect them. + +This is especially true of everything that is produced by human agency. +Everyone knows how difficult it is to keep check upon and eradicate +certain physical habits, such as gestures, style of walking, moving the +hands, arms, &c., tricks of speech, or tone of voice. These mannerisms, +being mechanical and automatic, or the result of long habit, are +performed unconsciously, and there is probably no person who is entirely +free from some marked peculiarity of manner, which he is ignorant of +possessing. It is a well-known fact that the subject of caricature or +mimicry rarely admits the accuracy or justness of the imitation, +although the peculiarities so emphasised are plainly apparent to others. +Even actors, who are supposed to make a careful study of their every +tone and gesture, are constantly criticised for faults or mannerisms +plain to the observer, but undetected by themselves. + +It is easy, therefore, to understand how a trick or a gesture may become +a fixed and unconscious habit through long custom, especially when, as +in the case of a peculiarity of style in handwriting, there has been +neither criticism on it, nor special reason for abandoning it. + +Every person whose handwriting is developed and permanently formed has +adopted certain more or less distinctive peculiarities in the formation +of letters of which he is generally unaware. + +The act of writing is much less a matter of control than may be +supposed. The pen follows the thoughts mechanically, and few ready and +habitual writers could, if suddenly called upon to do so, say what +peculiarities their writing possessed. For example, how many could say +off-hand how they dotted an _i_--whether with a round dot, a tick or a +dash--whether the tick was vertical, horizontal or sloping; what was the +proportional distance of the dot from the top of the _i_. Again, ask a +practised writer how he crosses the letter _t_--whether with a +horizontal, up or down stroke? It is safe to assume that not one in a +thousand could give an accurate answer, for the reason that the dotting +of an _i_ and crossing of a _t_ have become mechanical acts, done +without thought or premeditation, but as the result of a long-formed +habit. + +It is these unconscious hand-gestures and mechanical tricks of style +that the handwriting expert learns to distinguish and recognise,--the +unconsidered trifles that the writer has probably never devoted a +minute's thought to, and which come upon him as a surprise when they are +pointed out to him. Their detection is rendered the more easy when one +knows what to look for from the fact that they are, unlike gestures and +tricks of voice, permanent. A mannerism may not strike two observers in +the same way, nor is it easy to compare, for it is fleeting, and the +memory has to be relied upon to recall a former gesture in order to +compare it with the last. It is not so with a hand-gesture in writing. +The sign remains side by side with its repetition, for careful and +deliberate comparison; and if the writing be a long one, the expert has +the advantage of being in possession of ample material on which to base +his judgment. + +_A Popular Fallacy._--One of the most frequent objections offered by the +casual critic when the subject of expert testimony is discussed is to +the effect that people write different hands with different pens, and he +probably believes this to be true. A very slight acquaintance with the +principles on which the expert works would satisfy this spontaneous +critic of the fallacy of his objection. A person who habitually writes a +fine, small hand, sloping from right to left, may believe that he has +altered the character of his hand by using a thick, soft quill, +reversing the slope to what is called a backhand, and doubling the size +of the letters. All he has done is to put on a different suit of +clothes; the same man is in them. The use of a thick pen does not make +him put a dot over the _i_ where before he made an horizontal dash; it +does not turn a straight, barred _t_ into a curved loop, neither does it +alter the proportionate distance between the letters and lines. It does +not make him form loops where before he habitually made bars, or _vice +versâ_, and if he formerly made a _u_ with an angle like a _v_ he will +not write the _u_ with a rounded hook. Neither will it cause him to drop +his habit of adding a spur to his initial letters or curtail the ends +and tails that he was wont to make long. In short, the points to which +the expert devotes his investigation are those least affected by any +variation in the character of the pen used and the hand-gestures which +have, by constant usage, become as much part of the writer's style as +his walk and the tone of his voice. + +It follows, therefore, that the work of the handwriting experts consists +in learning how to detect and recognize those unconscious or mechanical +signs, characteristics or hand-gestures that are a feature in the +handwriting of every person, no matter how closely any two hands may +approximate in general appearance. However similar two hands may seem to +the casual and untrained observer, very distinct and unmistakable +differences become apparent when the student has been taught what to +look for. There is no more certain thing than the fact that there has +not yet been discovered two handwritings by separate persons so closely +allied that a difference cannot be detected by the trained observer. +Every schoolmaster knows that in a class of pupils taught writing from +the same model, and kept strictly to it, no two hands are alike, +although in the early and rudimentary stage, before the hand has +attained freedom and approached a settled character, the differences are +less marked. So soon as the child has been freed from the restraint of +the set copy and the criticism of the teacher, he begins to manifest +distinct characteristics, which become more marked and fixed with +practice and usage. + +There is no writing so uniform as the regulation hand used, and wisely +insisted upon, in the Civil Service, and familiar to the general public +in telegrams and official letters. Yet it is safe to say that there is +not a telegraph or post office clerk in England who would not be able to +pick out the writing of any colleague with which he was at all +acquainted. + +_Duplicates non-existent._--But the best and most decisive answer to the +objection that writings may be exactly similar lies in the notorious +fact that during half a century experts have failed to discover two +complete writings by different hands, so much alike that a difference +could not be detected. Had such existed, they would long ere this have +been produced for the confuting of the expert in the witness-box; +particularly when we bear in mind that the liberty, and even the life of +a person, have depended upon the identification of handwriting. That +there are many cases of extraordinary similarity between different +handwritings is a fact; if there were not, there would be very little +occasion for the services of the expert, but it is equally a fact that +the fancied resemblance becomes less apparent as soon as the writing is +examined by a capable and painstaking expert. It should not be forgotten +that it is not every person who undertakes the comparison of +handwritings who is qualified for the task, any more than every doctor +who diagnoses a case can be depended upon to arrive at an accurate +conclusion. But if the tried and accepted principles of the art be acted +upon, there should be no possibility of error, always assuming that the +person undertaking the examination has a sufficiency of material for +comparison. An expert who valued his reputation would, for example, be +very cautious about giving an emphatic opinion if the only material at +his disposal were two or three words or letters. It is quite possible +that a clever mimic might reproduce the voice of another person so +accurately as to deceive those who knew the subject of the imitation; +but let him carry on a conversation in the assumed voice for a few +minutes, and detection is certain. In like manner, while a few +characters and tricks of style in writing may be fairly well imitated, +it is impossible to carry the deception over a number of words. Sooner +or later the forger lapses into some trick of his own, and it is here +the trained observer catches him. The expert, like the caricaturist, +lays himself out to note the peculiarities of his subject, knowing that +these are practically beyond the control of the writer, and that the +probabilities are that he is not even aware of them. Peculiarities in +handwriting, like unchecked habits in children, become, in time, +crystallised into a mannerism so fixed as to be part of the nature, and +consequently are difficult of eradication. As a matter of fact a +peculiarity in handwriting is more often cultivated than controlled, +many writers regarding a departure from orthodox copybook form as an +evidence of an "educated hand." + +_The Law of Probabilities._--In examining a writing for comparison with +another the expert notes all peculiarities, which he labels, for +distinctive reference, "tricks." When he has recorded as many as +possible he looks for them in the writing which he has to compare. +Suppose that he has taken note of a dozen tricks, and finds them all +repeated in the suspected writing. The law of probabilities points to a +common authorship for both writings, for it is asking too much to expect +one to believe that there should exist two different persons, probably +strangers, who possess precisely the same peculiarities in penmanship. + +This principle of the law of probabilities is applied in the case of the +identification of persons "wanted" by the police. For example, the +official description of an absconding forger runs as follows:--"He has a +habit of rubbing his right thumb against the middle finger as if turning +a ring. He frequently strokes his right eyebrow with right forefinger +when engaged in writing; when perplexed, he bites his lower lip and +clenches and unclenches his fingers." + +Now there are, probably, thousands of people who do every one of these +things singly, but the chances are millions to one against there being +two people who do them all as described in the official placard. In like +manner there may be a multitude of writers who form an _f_ or _k_ with a +peculiar exaggerated buckle. Thousands more may make certain letters in +the same way, but to assume that there are two persons who possess +equally the whole twelve characteristics noted by the expert is to +strain coincidence to the breaking-point of absurdity. + +Therefore, it follows that it is the weight of cumulative evidence of +similarity in the production of unusual tricks of style that proclaims a +common authorship for two apparently different writings. + +It may be, and often is, the case that the peculiarities or tricks in +the original have been imitated in the suspected writing. As the result +of his experience in knowing what to look for in a copied document, the +expert is not deceived. However good the copy, there are always apparent +to the trained eye evidences that prove another and stranger hand, plain +as the difference between the firm, clear line of the drawing master and +the broken saw-edged effort of the pupil. Habitual observation trains +the eye to an extent that would scarcely be credited unless proved by +experiment. The art of observation cannot be taught; it must be the +outcome of practice. The most the teacher can do is to indicate the +lines on which the study should be carried out, and offer hints and +suggestions as to what to look for. The rest is in the hands of the +student. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +MEASUREMENT AND ITS APPLIANCES. + + +The appliances necessary for the work of examination are, a good +magnifying or reading glass of the greatest power obtainable, a pair of +fine compasses or dividers, a horn or celluloid protractor for measuring +angles of slope, and a clearly marked scale rule. Suitable articles will +generally be found in an ordinary case of mathematical instruments. + +A simpler and equally accurate method of taking measurements of +handwriting is by the aid of the transparent paper known as foreign +letter paper. It is usually of quarto size, very thin and transparent, +and is ruled horizontally and vertically, dividing the sheet into tiny +squares. It is laid over the writing to be examined, and the various +measurement marks are made with a finely pointed lead pencil. The lines +and squares are used for measurement as the parallels of latitude and +longitude are used on a chart. For example, a letter is said to be so +many lines high, so many lines wide. One of the tiny squares should be +carefully divided into two, or, if possible, four parts, so as to ensure +finer and more accurate measurement. A letter may then be measured in +parts of a line, being described, for example, as, height 6-3/4 lines, +breadth 2-1/2 lines. It is of course important that the same gauge of +ruled paper be used uniformly, otherwise the measurements will vary. If +the student has had practice in the use of the dividers and scale rule, +he may prefer to employ these, but the ruled paper and a finely pointed +lead pencil will be found sufficient for most purposes. A paper +specially prepared for surveyors, ruled in squares of one-eighth of an +inch may be obtained. For measuring the slopes of letters a transparent +protractor is necessary. The letters measured are all topped and tailed +small letters, and all capitals having a shank. Letters like _O_, _C_, +_Q_, _S_, and _X_ can only be measured approximately. + +The method of applying the measurements of heights and angles of slope +is shown in the case illustrated by the table on page 15. + +The subject of enquiry was a signature containing the letters _B_, _l_, +_k_, _b_. + +The measurements of these letters in the forgery are given at the top of +the table, and show the height in lines and angle of slope in degrees. + +The measurements of the corresponding letters in twelve genuine +signatures are shown in the table as Examples 1 to 12. + +The total is averaged by dividing by twelve. + +The presumption in favour of the suspected signature being a forgery is +strongly supported by the arithmetical result. + +A difference of more than 2 per cent. in angle of slope, and 3 per cent. +in height may be safely relied upon as ground for suspicion, for it is +rarely that a man's signature varies so greatly within a brief period. +In the absence of the explanation provided by illness, intentional +change in style or other abnormal circumstances, such a difference as is +shown in this example will justify a belief that the suspected signature +is by another hand. + + ---------+-------------------------------++------------------------------- + | Height in lines. || Angle of slope. + +-------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+------- + | _B._ | _l._ | _k._ | _b._ || _B._ | _l._ | _k._ | _b._ + ---------+-------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+------- + Forgery | 7 | 7 | 6 | 7-1/4 || 15 | 20 | 21 | 21 + ---------+-------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+------- + Example 1| 7-1/4 | 6-1/2 | 5-1/2 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 22 | 21 | 20 + | | | | || | | | + " 2| 7-1/4 | 6-1/4 | 6 | 7-1/4 || 17 | 21 | 20 | 20 + | | | | || | | | + " 3| 7-1/4 | 6 | 5-3/4 | 7-3/4 || 16 | 21 | 20 | 21 + | | | | || | | | + " 4| 7 | 6-1/4 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 21 | 20 | 21 + | | | | || | | | + " 5| 7 | 6-3/4 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 17 | 22 | 21 | 20 + | | | | || | | | + " 6| 7-1/2 | 6-3/4 | 5 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 21 | 20 | 21 + | | | | || | | | + " 7| 7-1/2 | 6 | 6 | 7-1/4 || 17 | 20 | 21 | 21 + | | | | || | | | + " 8| 7-1/2 | 6-1/2 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 22 | 21 | 21 + | | | | || | | | + " 9| 7-1/4 | 6-1/2 | 5-1/2 | 7 || 16 | 21 | 21 | 21 + | | | | || | | | + " 10| 6-3/4 | 6-1/2 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/4 || 16 | 20 | 21 | 21 + | | | | || | | | + " 11| 7-1/4 | 6-3/4 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 21 | 21 | 22 + | | | | || | | | + " 12| 7 | 6-1/4 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 20 | 21 | 21 + ---------+-------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+------- + Average | 7-1/4 | 6-1/2 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16-1/4| 21 | 20-3/4| 20-3/4 + ---------+-------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+------- + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +TERMINOLOGY. + + +[Illustration: TERMINOLOGY.] + +In order to render the description of a writing perfectly clear, a +system of terminology is adopted which is invariable. That is, the same +terms are always employed in indicating the same parts of a letter. +These are simple, and for the most part self-explanatory, so that no +effort is required to commit them to memory. + +Every part of a letter has a distinctive name, so that it would be +possible to reproduce a script character very closely by a verbal +description. + +The following are the terms used in describing a letter:-- + +_Letter_ means the whole of any script character, capital or small. For +the sake of brevity in notes and reports capital is written Cp.; small, +Sm. + +_Arc._--An arc is the curve formed _inside_ the top loop or curve, as in +_f_, _m_, _h_, _o_. In _o_, the inside top half of the letter is the +arc; the inside bottom half is the hook. + +_Buckle._--The buckle is the separate stroke added to such letters as +_k_, _f_, and capitals _A_, _F_, _H_. + +_Beard._--The beard is the preliminary stroke that often appears in +capital letters. + +_Body._--The body of a letter is that portion of it which rests on the +line and could be contained in a small circle. For example, in a small +_d_ the body consists of the circle and the final upward curve or toe. +In a small _g_ the body is the circle minus the tail. + +_Eye_ is the small circle formed by the continuation of a stroke as in +the shoulder _r_. + +_Finals._--A final is the finishing stroke not carried beyond the shank +in capitals, and in a few smalls like _y_, _g_, _z_. + +_Foot._--The foot of a letter is that portion of it that rests on the +line. Small _m_ has three feet, _h_ has two, etc. + +_Hook._--The hook is the inside of a bottom curve. It is the opposite of +the arc. + +_Link._--The link is that portion of the stroke which connects two +letters. + +_Broken link._--A broken link is a disconnection in the link joining two +letters. + +_Loop._--A loop is that portion of a letter which forms the top or tail. +Unlooped tops and tails are called "barred." For example, small _f_ has +two loops, top and bottom; _f_, _h_, _l_ have one top loop; _g_, _y_, +_z_ have one bottom loop. + +_Shank._--The shank of a letter is the principal long downstroke that +forms the backbone. + +_Shoulder._--The shoulder is the outside of the top of the curve as seen +in small _m_, _n_, _o_, _h_. Small _m_ has three shoulders, _n_ two, _h_ +one. + +_Spur._--The spur is to the small letter what the beard is to the +capital. It is the initial stroke. + +_Tick._--A tick is a small stroke generally at the beginning of a +letter, sometimes at the end. + +_Toe._--The toe is the concluding upward stroke of a letter, as seen in +small _e_, _n_, _h_, &c. + +_Whirl._--The whirl is the upstroke in all looped letters. It is a +continuation of the spur in _b_, _h_, _f_, _l_, and is always an +upstroke. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +CLASSES OF HANDWRITING. + + +For convenience in differentiation, handwritings are divided into the +following classes. Practically every type of writing can be placed in +one of them. + +_Vertical Hand._--A vertical hand is one in which the tops and tails of +letters form as nearly as possible a perpendicular with the horizontal +line. The best example of this class of handwriting is that known as the +Civil Service hand, familiar to the general public through telegrams and +official documents. + +_Back Hand_ is a hand in which the general slope of the characters is +from right to left. + +_Italian Hand_ is the reverse of a back hand, the slope being at an +acute angle from left to right. It is a style fast going out of fashion, +and is almost invariably the handwriting used by elderly ladies. Its +most pronounced characteristic is its sharp angles and absence of +curves. + +_Open Hand._--An open hand is one that generally approximates to the +vertical, its distinguishing feature being the wide space between the +letters. The best example of it is that known as the Cusack style of +writing. + +_Closed Hand._--A closed hand is the opposite of an open hand, the +letters being crowded together and generally long and narrow, with the +slope from left to right. + +_Greek Hand._--This is the name given to a type of writing that closely +approximates to the printed character. Many letters, both capital and +small, are formed to imitate print, particularly the capitals _T_, _X_, +_Y_, _R_, _B_, _D_, and the smalls _e_, _f_, _g_, _h_, _j_, _k_, _p_, +_r_, _t_, _v_, _w_, _x_, _y_, _z_. It is a hand frequently found in the +writings of classical scholars, literary men engaged in work entailing +careful research, and often is an evidence of short sight. + +The _Wavy Hand_ is generally vertical. Its characteristic is an +undulating serpentine waviness. Little or no distinction is made between +barred or looped letters. There are no rounded shoulders to the _m_ and +_n_ and the word minnie would be written by five small _u_'s. In +round-bodied letters like _a_, _d_, _g_, the circle is rarely completed, +but is left open, so that small _a_ becomes _u_, and small _d_ may be +mistaken for _it_, with the _i_ undotted and _t_ uncrossed. Despite its +geometrical and caligraphic inaccuracy in detail, this hand is generally +written with great regularity, that is, the characters, though +incomplete, are always uniform in their irregularity. The _e_ is never +open, but is an undotted _i_, and _n_ is _u_, but when the peculiarities +of the writer become familiar this hand is often very legible. + +_Flat Hand._--A flat hand is a type of handwriting in which the +characters have an oblate or flattened appearance, the _o_, _a_, _g_, +&c., being horizontal ovals, like the minim and breve in music. The +tails and tops are generally short, with wide loops. It is nearly always +a vertical hand. + +An _Eccentric Hand_ is one that presents various marked peculiarities +and departures from standard rules in the formation of certain letters, +and cannot be placed in any recognised class, though it may approximate +to one more than to another. + +The _Round_ or _Clerical Hand_ is a writing that preserves a close +affinity for the round regular hand of the average school-boy, with the +difference that while the characters are formed on regular copybook +model, the hand is written with considerable fluency and firmness. It is +generally only a little out of the perpendicular, sloping slightly +towards the right. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +HOW TO EXAMINE A WRITING. + + +The examination of a writing generally consists in making a careful +comparison between it and another or others, the object being to +determine whether all are by the same hand. + +The writing which is in a known hand or as to the authorship of which +there is no doubt, is usually called the Original, and is always +referred to by this name. The writing which has to be compared with it, +and which practically forms the subject of the enquiry, is called the +Suspect. The Suspects should be marked A, B, C, D, &c., and put away +without examination until the Original has been thoroughly mastered. +This is more important than may appear at first sight, for the confusing +effect of having the two types of writing in the eye and mind before one +type is made familiar is highly prejudicial. Any inclination to look at +the Suspects first should be firmly resisted. + +Let us assume that the object of the examination is to discover the +writer of an anonymous letter--one of the most frequent tasks of the +handwriting expert. The material in hand is the anonymous letter, which +in such a case may be called the Original, and half-a-dozen specimens of +the writing of suspected persons. These Suspects are numbered from 1 to +6, or marked A, B, C, &c., and put aside until the Original has been +thoroughly studied. + +The first thing is to examine the paper and envelope, noting its +quality, watermark, size, and any feature that may afford a clue. It is +always safe to presume that the paper is in every respect unlike that +commonly used by the writer, just as it is equally safe to take it for +granted that the writing it contains will, so far as its general +appearance goes, be the reverse of the normal hand of the author. That +is, if it be a heavy back hand, the writer probably uses a hand +approximating to the Italian, though too much weight must not be +attached to this theory. + +Next, note the general style of the document as a whole, whether the +margin between top, bottom, and sides is large or small. A writer who +habitually begins at the top left-hand corner very near to the edge of +the paper will often betray himself by repeating the habit. It is a very +common sign of an economical disposition. Note whether he crowds his +words and letters near the ends of lines or leaves a good margin. Clerks +and those engaged in official work rarely crowd their final words, +preferring rather to leave a wide space and go on to the next line. + +Note whether the hyphen is used to divide words. Many writers never +divide a word, others do it frequently, with or without the hyphen. + +Measure the average distance between lines, if unruled paper be used, +and make a note of the average distance. + +Measure the distance between words and strike an average, noting if +words are connected without lifting the pen. It may be found that this +joining is only done when certain letters form the final of the first +word joined and the initial of the word connected. Look carefully for +such. + +Note particularly the slope of the topped and tailed letters. + +Note the punctuation, whether frequent and accurate or otherwise. + +Determine the class to which the writing belongs. + +Read the document carefully, noting any peculiarities of language, +errors, or Americanisms in spelling, such as "favor" for "favour," +"color" for "colour," &c.; the substitution of "_z_" for "_s_" in such +words as "advertise," &c. Examine with the glass any words that may have +been crossed out or rewritten, noting particularly letters that have +been mended or touched up. + +Note whether the horizontal lines have a tendency to slope up or down. + +Note particularly letters with two or more feet, like _a_, _d_, _h_, +_k_, _m_, _n_, &c. It will be found that a certain regularity in +formation exists in most writings. If the _a_ be formed like an _o_, +the toe not touching the line, or an _n_ with the second foot high up +like a bearded _r_, these peculiarities should be carefully noted. Some +writers go to the other extreme, and carry the second foot below the +line, so that _a_ becomes a small _q_. Too much time cannot be devoted +to this aspect of handwriting, as it presents features of which the +writer is probably quite unconscious, and, therefore, affords valuable +evidence. + +Next study the topped and tailed letters, noting whether they are looped +or barred, that is, formed by a single stroke. It will be often found +that certain letters are always looped, others barred. Take careful note +of such. If both barred and looped letters appear to be used +indiscriminately, count and average them. In any case, a characteristic +will be revealed. Examine and classify the loops. Note whether they are +long or short, rounded or angular, wide or narrow. Devote special +attention to the arc, shoulder and hook. Note, also, any difference of +thickness between the up and down stroke; test the degree of clearness +and sharpness of stroke by means of the glass, and carefully look for +the serrated or ragged edge, which will assist in determining the angle +at which the pen is held. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE ALPHABET IN DETAIL. + + +[Illustration: ALPHABET VARIANTS.] + +If the instructions so far given have been acted upon, the student will +have familiarised himself with the general character of the writing +under examination. He should now proceed with a detailed examination of +each letter, beginning with the smalls, and taking them in alphabetical +order. + +Take a sheet of tracing paper and trace each small _a_, letting them +follow each other on the line, with about a quarter inch of space +between each letter. During the process of tracing, the eye must be on +the alert for peculiarities, notably the roundness or otherwise of the +circle as a whole, the curve or angle of the arc and hook, the relative +position of the toe. Note the shank, whether looped or barred, whether +the top of it is above or below the body of the circle, whether it is +vertical or sloping from right or left. Having compared all the _a_'s, +count them, and decide which form most frequently recurs. This may be +taken as the normal _a_ of the writer. + +The following are the principal points to be considered in examining +succeeding letters. + +_b._--Note the spur, its length, how far up the shank it meets it; +whether the shank is barred or looped; the character of the loop. Note +particularly the toe, which also forms the link. This is a very +significant hand-gesture. It may be low down, making the _b_ literally +_li_, or it may be a horizontal bar, an angle, or a neat semicircle. Its +formation offers large scope for variation, and should be very carefully +studied. Compare the toe with the corresponding stroke in _f_, _o_, _v_, +_w_. Note whether it is joined with an eye, and observe its average +distance from the bottom on base line. + +_c._--This letter, when an initial, is frequently begun with a spur, +often with a dot or tick. When connected with a preceding letter, the +link may make the _c_ into an _e_. It is sometimes disconnected from the +preceding letter. Note whether this is characteristic. + +_d._--Apply the same tests as in examining small _a_, noting whether the +shank is barred or looped. + +_e._--Examine the spur in initials; closely observe the loop. Look for +any recurrence of the Greek ε. Examine and compare the specimens given +in the examples. Many writers have a habit of forming an _e_ as an _i_ +and adding the loop. Look out for this with assistance of the glass. + +_f._--This is an important letter, giving scope for numerous varieties +of form. Examine and classify the loops, noting which is the longer--the +top or bottom; whether one or both are barred. The eye and toe are +pregnant with material for observation. Examine the various forms of +this letter given in the examples. + +_g._--Like the preceding letter, this one has many varieties of form, +and will repay careful study. + +_h._--The characteristic portion of this letter is the hook forming its +body. Note how it is joined to the shank--whether it starts from the +line or high up; whether the shoulder is rounded or angular, whether the +foot touches the line or remains above it; whether the shank is looped +or barred. + +_i._--This is an important letter because of the dot, which is made +mechanically. After noting whether the shank is spurred as an initial, +special attention must be devoted to the dot. Dots are of various forms. +They may be a wedge-shaped stroke sloping in any direction, a horizontal +dash, a tiny circle or semicircle, a small _v_, or a perfect dot. +Examine them all through the glass, and compare them with the comma, +which often partakes of the same character as the dot. Note also its +relative position to the shank, whether vertical, to the right or left, +and its average height and distance from the shank. Much may be learned +from a careful examination of the dot, and its every variation and +characteristic should be most carefully noted and classified. + +_j_ is important for the same reason that makes the _i_ significant. +There are several forms of it, but the dotting offers the most valuable +evidence. + +_k._--This is the most significant and valuable of the small letters, as +it offers scope for so much originality and irregularity in its +formation. The characteristic features of the small _k_ lie mainly in +the body. Few writers form a _k_ alike. Although it may belong to the +same class, the number of variations that can be rung on the body is +surprisingly large, ranging from the regulation copybook model to the +eccentric patterns shown in the examples. Special attention should be +devoted to the eye and buckle, for it is at this junction of the two +strokes forming the body that most writers exhibit their peculiarities. + +_l._--The same principles of examination apply to this letter as to the +small _e_. Note carefully the character of the loop and examine the +position of the spur. + +_m_ and _n_ offer ample material for examination. As an initial the +first stroke is sometimes exaggerated, approximating the letter to the +capital _M_ or _N_. Note the formation of the shoulders and their +relative heights and width; also, by means of a line touching the tops +of the shoulders, note carefully and compare the last shoulder with the +first. This letter presents great extremes in formation. The shoulders +may be high and well rounded, or even horizontal, or they may be sharp +angles, turning the _m_ into _in_, and the _n_ into _u_. Note the +distance between the shanks and observe whether it is uniform. + +_o._--This letter owes its main importance to its connecting link. Note +whether it is carried low down, making the letter like an _a_, whether +it is joined to the body by an eye, and if the toe is curved or angular. +Note, also, the general conformation of the circular body and compare +the toe with that in _b_, _f_, _v_, and _w_. + +_p._--There are several forms of this letter, and a writer who affects +one of them generally repeats it often. The shank may be barred or +looped, wholly or in part, especially when used as an initial. The body +generally offers ample material for examination. + +_q_ is also a letter with which great liberties are taken, and is the +subject of several variations. Some writers make no distinction between +_g_ and _q_, and the final stroke often supplies the main characteristic +of this letter. + +_r._--This important letter has two forms--the square, or eyed, and the +hooked. Many variants are employed in forming it, as the specimens in +the examples show. Many writers unconsciously form a habit of using both +_r_'s, but with a certain degree of system. For example, one may use the +hook _r_ always as a final, and the eyed _r_ as an initial. The +formation of the eye should be specially studied, with the shoulder, +which may be formed as a semicircle, an arc, a straight bar or an +angular _v_. The hooked _r_ is equally rich in varying forms, and the +letter forms an interesting study. + +_s._--This is a letter of such frequent recurrence in the English +language that it not unnaturally has become the subject of a variety of +forms, and this despite the fact that its regulation shape is +exceedingly simple and rudimentary. The majority of writers have one +favourite form of the letter, which, like the _k_, becomes +characteristic. + +_t._--This letter is important because of its frequent recurrence, and +on account of the variations of form, the bar or crossing being the most +fruitful in material for observation. There are two usual forms of the +_t_, the hooked and crossed, and the barred, and they are equally +valuable and characteristic. The crossing of a hooked _t_, like the +dotting of an _i_, is so mechanical an act that it often reveals +important evidence. The cross stroke when closely examined will be found +to present many variations. It may be a fine horizontal line, a curve, a +heavy short dash; it may be ticked or dotted at either end or both--in +short, there is scarcely an end to the numerous forms this important +hand-gesture may assume. Then its relative position to the shank tells +much. It may be high up, not touching the shank; low down, neatly struck +at right angles to the shank, or it may be omitted altogether. In some +circumstances a _t_ is crossed, in others left uncrossed; for example, +the _t_ at the beginning of a word may be invariably uncrossed, but the +final _t_ never. These are the peculiarities and characteristics the +student has to keep a watchful eye for. The other form of the _t_ is +known as the bar _t_. It is generally uncrossed, and often the buckle is +an important feature. A careful examination of the examples will suggest +the lines on which the analysis of the letter _t_ should be conducted +and at the same time reveal the richness of material at the disposal of +the student. + +_u._--Note whether the two shanks are uniform, whether the letter is +spurred as an initial. Average the distance between the shanks, and +observe the conformation of the hook, whether rounded or _v_-shaped. + +_v._--The important feature of this letter is the toe. Its formation +must be carefully noted as in _f_, _o_, hooked _r_ and _w_. + +_w._--Apply the same test as to _u_ and _v_. Note the uniformity or +otherwise of the shanks and hooks, and study the varied forms given in +the examples. + +_x._--This letter lends itself to tricks and variations, and few letters +depart more from the orthodox copybook form in actual practice, as is +shown in the examples. + +_y._--Note the spur and its relative position to the shank. Note the +tail and its average length. + +_z._--This letter offers good material for study and the detection of +mannerisms. Its body is the most significant part, as it is capable of +so many variations. It may be angular or well curved; the eye may be +large or exaggerated or merely suggested. Like _k_ and _x_, the form +once adopted by a writer is not usually departed from to any great +extent. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +THE CAPITALS. + + +Owing to their large size and more complex form the capital letters +offer much more material for tests than the smalls. They yield more +scope for tricks and eccentricity, though, at the same time, their extra +prominence, and the clearness with which their outlines strike the eye +of the writer render it more likely that he will detect glaring +departures from the orthodox model. In other words, a writer would +probably pay more attention to accuracy in forming, and particularly in +copying, a capital than a small letter. This is generally found to be +the case in signature forgeries, the capitals being, as a rule, much +nearer the original than the small letters. But there is this great +advantage in favour of the student in examining capitals--the strokes +being more expansive supply a larger field and material for examination. +For example, a ragged or diamond stroke in a much flourished capital +like _M_, _W_, _R_ or _B_ would be more apparent than the same kind of +stroke in a small letter. + +There is no need to take the capital letters seriatim, as was the case +with the smalls, for the same principles and rules for examination apply +in both cases. The same care is necessary in examining the arcs, hooks +and shoulders of loops, with their general conformation. The angle of +slope is more noticeable in capitals, and they reveal the +characteristics of the writer more than small letters. Persons who +profess to delineate character from handwriting always pay great +attention to the capitals, doubtless with good reason, and as the result +of long experience. + +An examination will show that about ten capitals can be formed with two +disconnected strokes. They are _A_, _B_, _F_, _H_, _K_, _P_, _Q_, _R_, +_T_ and _X_. These are known as double capitals. These doubles should +be carefully looked for, and the frequency, or otherwise, of their +recurrence noted, as it is probable they will be found to be nearly +always used under the same circumstances; that is, a writer may have a +habit of beginning with a double capital when possible, but revert to +the single form of the same letter in the body of the writing. Another +writer will almost invariably disconnect the capitals from the rest of +the word, while a third as regularly connects them. Some writers affect +the more simple form, approximating to the printed character. Others +again indulge in inordinate flourishes, particularly in their +signatures. Such writers prove easy prey to the forger. + +A feature very easy of detection in capitals is the "diamond." It is +formed by a sudden thickening of the downstroke. It is particularly +noticeable in the writing of those who have been instructed in the +old-fashioned school, where a distinction between the heavy downstroke +and the light upstroke was insisted upon. The diamond habit once formed +is very difficult to eradicate, and traces of it always remain in the +writing of persons thus taught. + +An important and significant part of a capital letter is the beard. It +is an automatic trick, and always repays careful examination. It may be +a spurred, ticked or dotted beard, but in any case the initial stroke +must be carefully examined, whatever form it may assume, for the +oft-emphasized reason that it belongs so essentially to the +clue-providing class of unguarded and unpremeditated automatic strokes +that are overlooked by the writer. + +Variations in the form of a capital must be noted, and a record kept, +for, however great the variety, it will be found that one particular +form is more used than another, and may be regarded as the normal type +of the writer. + +A peculiarity of some writers is the use of an enlarged form of the +small letter for a capital. The letters so made to serve a double +purpose are generally _A_, _C_, _E_, _G_, _M_, _N_, _O_, _P_, _Q_, _S_, +_U_, _V_ and _W_. They are referred to as small capitals. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +PUNCTUATION. + + +The ampersand (&) is a symbol that provides excellent material for clues +to tricks and mannerisms. It varies in form from a mere _v_-shaped tick +of almost indeterminate character to an ornate thing of loops and +flourishes. It is very sparingly employed by illiterate persons, and +some educated writers avoid its use under the impression that, like the +abbreviation of words, it is vulgar. In a few high-class ladies' schools +its use is sternly repressed, and there are many fluent and habitual +writers who never employ this sign. This in itself supplies a useful +clue to characterisation. Others, again, only employ it in such +combinations as "& Co.," "&c.," though this latter abbreviation is, as +often as not, written "etc." by many persons. + +The dash (--) occurs very largely in many writings, and particularly in +those of ladies, who regard it as a universal punctuation mark, and +employ it indiscriminately as comma and full stop. Many persons of both +sexes invariably make a dash below the address on an envelope, using it +as a kind of final flourish. A close examination of the samples provided +in such a writing will reveal many valuable idiosyncrasies. It may be a +bold, firm horizontal line, a curve with a tick at either end, or both; +a wavy line or even an upward or downward line. Note, also, the ragged +edge, as it affords an important clue to the style of holding the pen. +The dash is so essentially an unpremeditated and mechanically-formed +hand-gesture that it often betrays more of the character of the writer +than any other letter. Cases have been known in which the writer of an +anonymous letter has successfully concealed all his characteristics, +but in putting the final stroke in the form of a dash he has so far +forgotten himself as to produce, quite unconsciously, what was probably +one of his most pronounced hand-gestures, thus providing a clue which +led to ultimate conviction. + +Punctuation is rarely a marked feature of English handwriting. It is +said that many of our leading literary men practically leave this +important phase of their work to the printer's proof-reader. An +examination of a hundred private letters by different hands will show a +marvellous scarcity of punctuation marks, and few correspondents use or +appear to know the use of any stop other than the comma and full point, +the dash being made to do service for all else. The mark of +interrogation is fairly often used, and its formation gives scope and +material for careful examination. The examples offer suggestions of the +form and direction eccentricity sometimes takes. + +The colon and semicolon are very little used by average writers, and +when they are, it is generally inaccurately, but nearly always under the +same circumstances, which should be carefully noted. The quotation marks +(" ") are still more rarely employed, and it will be found on +examination that most people form them wrongly. The accurate style is +this, “ ”, but as often as not the initial quotation has the dot at the +top instead of the bottom. + +Another almost universal omission is that of the full point after +initials to a name, after "Esq.," and in the initials of postal +districts, as E.C., W.C. The addressing of an envelope affords +interesting and valuable material for clues, for it will generally be +found that a writer who uses punctuation marks at all will do so with +automatic regularity under the same circumstances. + +The shape and general formation of stops and marks must be carefully +examined and classified, for they belong to the significant +unpremeditated class of hand-gestures, and are, therefore, valuable as +clues to peculiarities. + +The "Esq." that generally follows a man's name on a letter addressed to +him partakes much of the character of a symbol like the "?" or "!", and, +being automatic through usage, is therefore valuable. Most writers use a +uniform style in shaping it, and the three letters that go to make up +the abbreviation are fortunately of a kind that lend themselves to +characterisation. + +Notice, also, the position of the possessive sign in such words as +"men's," "writer's." If accurately placed, the writer may be presumed to +understand punctuation, and will give evidence of it in a long writing. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +PAPER AND WATERMARKS. + + +The brownish tint of old age which paper needs to help out a fraud is +obtained in various ways--sometimes by steeping in a weak solution of +coffee, but in other cases by holding it before a bright hot fire. This +latter device is, fortunately, not easy of accomplishment, considerable +care, judgment and even luck being needed to ensure a satisfactory +result. In our own case we have failed persistently in the attempt, the +paper becoming tinted so unequally as to excite remark at first sight. + +All the old pattern of letter paper was almost uniform in size--post +quarto, and the watermark is invariably very distinct, explainable by +the fact that the art of close weaving the wire mould was not then +brought to its present state of perfection. + +The watermarks are very fairly imitated by means of a pointed stick +dipped in a solution of spermaceti and linseed oil melted in water and +stirred till cold; or, equal quantities of turpentine and Canada balsam +shaken together. The same result may be obtained by the use of megilp, a +mixture employed by artists. + +The detection of this watermark fraud is simple and infallible. If the +suspected document be moistened with lukewarm water the spurious +watermark disappears immediately, but if genuine, it becomes plainer. + +The worn and dingy appearance inseparable from age in a letter is +accentuated by rubbing it lightly with a dirty duster. The effect is +usually obvious under a strong glass, the passage of the dirty cloth +revealing itself in minute parallel lines. + +Very little care is needed to distinguish between paper that has been +taken from books and the genuine letter paper of the period. To begin +with, such letters are always on single sheets. In genuine cases, the +sheet is as often as not a folio of four pages. In the majority of cases +the bogus sheet is of no recognised size. If taken from a book larger +than post quarto, it has had to be cut to conceal the tear. This +operation has made an irregular sized sheet--too small for post quarto, +too large for the next size. In the genuine writing paper, all four +edges are usually rough like those of a bank note. If the sheet has been +abstracted from a book, one edge must have been cut or trimmed. + +Again, such paper is of unequal thickness, the writing paper of the +period being much smoother and finer than the printing paper, while in +parts it is almost certain the ink has run, as it does on a coarse, +absorbent paper. This is a sure sign that the paper is printing and not +writing. + +Further, such paper is certain to show signs of wear at the bottom edges +where they have been handled and exposed, while that part of the page +which has been closest to the inside edge of the cover is generally +cleaner, and shows less sign of wear. In many cases the impression of +the book binding is plainly visible. + +A careful examination and comparison of a few sheets of genuine letter +paper of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries with the blank leaves +found in printed books will reveal differences so marked that mistake is +scarcely possible afterwards. + +It often occurs that grease marks interrupt the forger. Knowing that he +cannot write over them, and that they are hardly likely to have existed +on the paper when it was new, and when the letter was supposed to be +written, he avoids them. The result becomes apparent in unequal spacing +of words and even letters. + +On one occasion a really excellent forgery, which had successfully +withstood all the tests we had applied, had its real character revealed +by a curious oversight on the part of the forger. + +It was an early seventeenth century document, and our attention was +arrested by a peculiar uniform smudgy appearance, such as results from +blotting with a hard, unabsorbent, much-worn sheet of blotting paper. At +the period of the presumed date of this document blotting paper was +unknown, writings being dried by means of a specially prepared fine +powder called pounce, sand, or a powder containing fine crystals of +metal intended to give an ornamental gloss to the ink. Close examination +under the microscope revealed the truth. There were no signs of pounce +or any other drying powder, the crystals of which are usually plain to +the unassisted eye, but there were distinct signs of the fibre of the +blotting paper left in the ink. + +Another forgery we discovered through the presence in the centre of the +sheet of paper of a very faint square outline which enclosed a slight +discolouration. The sheet had, as usual, been removed from a book, and +the square outline was a faint impression of a book-plate which had been +affixed to the opposite page. The discolouration was caused by the ink +on the book-plate. + +It should be superfluous to have to remind intelligent and educated +persons that it is necessary for a collector of old documents to make +himself familiar with the peculiarities, habits and customs of the +period in whose literary curiosities he is dealing. Yet fact compels the +admission that extraordinary laxity and even ignorance exist on these +points. We are acquainted with a collector, by no means uneducated, who +gave a good price for a letter purporting to be by Sir Humphrey Davy, +the inventor of the miners' safety lamp, enclosed in an envelope. He was +ignorant of the fact that envelopes were unknown until 1840, thirty +years later than the date of this particular letter. Envelopes supposed +to have been addressed by Dickens have been offered for sale and +purchased, bearing postage stamps not in circulation at the period. + +One would imagine that a forger would pay sufficient attention to his +materials to be on his guard against the blunder which earned the +perpetrator of the Whalley Will Forgery penal servitude. He put forward +a will dated 1862, written on paper bearing in a plain watermark the +date 1870! Another indiscreet person asked the Court to accept a will +written and signed with an aniline copying pencil, but dated years +before that instrument had been invented. + +Both the works by Dr. Scott and Mr. Davies, given in the list, show +samples of watermarks of the various periods affected by forgers of +literary documents. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +INKS. + + +Examination for determining whether a writing has been done at one time, +or added to later, necessitates some acquaintance with the nature and +qualities of ink. In the ordinary case the assistance of a chemist is +necessary, but an enlarged photograph shows up minute differences with +amazing accuracy. + +In the majority of instances alterations are made some time after the +original has been written, in which case a difference in the shade of +the ink will be perceptible, even to the unassisted eye. This is +particularly true when the now almost universal blue-black ink is used. + +The period required for an addition to become as black as the older +writing depends very much upon the character of the paper. If this be +smooth and hard, and the writing has not been dried with blotting paper, +but allowed to dry naturally and slowly, it will become black much +quicker than if the paper be rough and of an absorbent nature. + +A fairly reliable test is to touch a thick stroke of the suspected +addition with a drop of diluted muriatic acid--as much as will cling to +the point of a pin. Apply the drop to the suspected addition and to the +older writing at the same moment, and carefully watch the result. The +newer writing will become faint and watery, with a bluish tinge almost +instantly, but the change will be slower in the case of the older +writing, taking ten or even twenty seconds. The longer the period +required for the change, the older the writing. + +This same acid test is applied to prove whether a writing is in ordinary +ink, or has been lithographed or photographed. If the two latter, the +acid will have no effect. + +On more than one occasion collectors have purchased as original +autographs of celebrities which proved to have been lithographed or +photographed, but the persons so deceived have generally been +inexperienced amateurs. + +When the difference between a written and printed signature has been +once noticed it is hardly likely that an observant person will be +deceived. It is, however, as well to be carefully on guard against this +contingency, for modern photography and process printing have been +brought to such a degree of imitative perfection that it is easy for a +not too keen-eyed person to experience great difficulty in forming an +opinion in the absence of the acid test. Fortunately that is infallible. + +It must, however, be admitted that up to the present no great success +has attended efforts to determine how long an interval has passed +between the writing of the original and the suspected addition. Broadly +speaking, the most that the expert can hope to gain from an examination +of ink under these circumstances are hints, clues and suggestions rather +than definite, reliable facts. Fortunately it often occurs that a +suggestion so obtained proves of immense value to the trained or careful +observer, though it might convey no conviction to others. + +As in the case of nearly all deductive reasoning the handwriting expert +becomes sensitive to slight suggestions. If called upon, as he sometimes +is, to explain to others how and why one of these slight and almost +imperceptible signs fit in with his theory, he fails. Therefore the +cautious expert, like a good judge, is careful in giving reasons for his +judgment only to cite those which are self-evident. + +Many an expert has made a poor exhibition in the witness-box by failing +to convey to a jury the impression produced on his own mind by a slight +piece of evidence, the proper understanding and interpretation of which +can only be grasped by those who have learned how to recognize faint +signs. + +The process of chemically testing inks for the purpose of ascertaining +the points mentioned is quite simple, and is distinctly interesting. In +a very important case the services of a qualified chemist will probably +be requisitioned, but the cost of the necessary material and the time +required to make oneself proficient as a capable tester are so slight +that even the small fee that would be charged by a chemist is scarcely +worth paying. + +The materials necessary are a few test tubes, some bottles of lime +water, diluted muriatic acid, a solution of nitrate of silver in +distilled water, in the proportion of ten grains to the ounce, some +camel hair pencils, and clean white blotting and litmus paper. The whole +need not cost more than half-a-crown. + +The method of using these materials is best illustrated by describing a +test often needed by autograph collectors. + +A very common method employed by forgers to give an appearance of age to +the ink used in spurious old documents is to mix with ordinary ink, +muriatic acid, oxalic acid, or binoxalate of potash. The presence of +these colouring agents can be detected in the following manner. + +In the first place, washing the letter with cold water will make the ink +become darker if acid has been used to brown the ink, but the following +test will settle the point beyond dispute: + +With a camel's-hair brush wash the letter over with warm water. If, as +sometimes happens, a sort of paint or coloured indian ink has been used, +this will be immediately washed away and disappear, leaving a rusty +smudge. If not, apply the litmus paper to the wetted ink, and the +presence of acid will be shown in the usual way by the litmus paper +changing colour. If genuine, wetting makes no difference. + +Next, pour a drop or two of the water from the writing into a test tube +from off the letter, add a little distilled water and one or two drops +of the nitrate of silver solution. + +If muriatic acid has been used to colour the ink, a thick white +precipitate will be seen in the tube immediately. + +If not, pour a few more drops of the water which has been washed over +the writing into a second test tube, add a little distilled water and a +few drops of lime water. A white precipitate will be seen in the tube if +either oxalic acid or binoxalate of potash has been employed. + +In many cases it will be sufficient to place the tip of the tongue to a +thick stroke. An unmistakable acid taste will be noticed. + +Further and fuller particulars of the methods resorted to by forgers to +simulate ancient documents will be given in the chapter on Autographs. + +It is sometimes important to know whether a stroke has been made over +another, as in the famous case in which the real issue turned on the +question whether an apparent alteration in a signature was really a +pen-mark made to indicate where the signatory should sign. It was +obvious that if the mark was made first the signature would be over it; +if, as was suggested, the mark was added in an attempt to alter or touch +up the signature, it must have been written over the signature. + +In cases of this kind an enlarged photograph leaves no room for doubt. +The ink is seen lying over the lower stroke as plainly as a layer of +paint in a picture can be seen overlying the stroke beneath. + +This is one of those apparently difficult points which become +marvellously simple when dealt with in a practical manner. + +Pages might be needed to explain what a very simple experiment will +reveal at a glance. + +Take a word which has been written long enough for the ink to have +become dry, and make a stroke across it. For example, make a letter _t_ +without the bar, then, after a lapse of an hour or two, add the cross +bar. When this is quite dry and has become as dark as the first mark, +examine it with a good glass. The ink of the added bar will be seen +plainly overlaying the vertical stroke, but any doubt can be promptly +removed by taking an enlarged photograph. + +Even when the second stroke is added while the ink on the first is still +wet the upper stroke can be distinguished, though not so clearly as if +the first stroke had been allowed to dry first. + +By practising and examining such strokes, the student will soon learn to +distinguish important signs which leave no doubt as to which stroke was +first made. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +ERASURES. + + +The alteration of the figures and amount written on a cheque is +generally effected by erasure. At one time chemicals were used for this +purpose, but fortunately the modern cheque is forgery-proof in this +respect. No means are known to chemists by which ordinary writing can be +removed from a cheque without leaving a sign too pronounced to escape +detection. + +But even erasure on a cheque is extremely difficult, and the experienced +eye of the average bank teller can detect it in the vast majority of +cases. Frauds perpetrated by this means are very rare, and are usually +the result of gross carelessness on the part of the person accepting the +document so altered. + +The more frequent form of cheque fraud is effected by adding to such +words as six, seven, eight and nine. The addition of _ty_ and _y_ is all +that is necessary. But the ordinarily careful business man never leaves +sufficient blank space between his words to admit of this addition, +while there are few bank tellers who do not carefully scrutinise a +cheque made out for these larger amounts. + +It may be accepted as a satisfactory fact that cheque forgery is not +only extremely difficult, but rarely successful. Great frauds are +usually perpetrated by means of other instruments, such as bills of +exchange, credit notes, &c. + +An erasure is the easiest thing to detect if looked for. To begin with +it is only necessary to hold a scratched document to the light to have +the alteration revealed. + +Erasing must of necessity remove part of the surface of the paper which +is made noticeably thinner at the spot erased. + +In nearly every case the writing that has been added to the erasure is +blurred, owing to the rough and absorbent character of the paper. Expert +forgers have devised means of counteracting this by rubbing in some +substance which partially restores the original smoothness and mitigates +the blurred appearance. But such devices ought not to be successful for +they are so easily detected. + +As a matter of fact the only chance the forger of an erased cheque has +lies in the carelessness of the teller. Any crowding of words and +unequal spacing in the filling up of a cheque ought to excite suspicion +and provoke careful and closer scrutiny, and, it may be added, it +generally does. + +The addition of letters intended to increase the value of a number, such +as the adding of _ty_ to six or seven, is easy of detection if properly +looked for. + +It is safe to assume that the addition has been made long after the +original word was written, and the point of junction can be detected by +the aid of a good glass. + +Had the word been originally written sixty, the chances are that there +would be no perceptible break between the _x_ and the _t_. Few persons +write such short words in a disconnected manner. On placing the word +under an ordinary glass the point of junction will be plainly apparent, +and a microscope, or an enlarged photograph, cannot fail to reveal the +fraud. Of course these latter tests will not be possible under the +ordinary circumstances attending the paying out of a cheque over the +counter, but when once the peculiarities of such alterations have been +studied, it is marvellous how quick the eye becomes in recognizing them +at a glance. + +Erasure in writings on stout thick paper is not quite so readily noticed +as those on thin paper such as cheques; but the same methods of +examination will apply--holding the document to the light, or level with +and horizontal to the eye. A very effective application of the latter +test is to bend or curve the paper, making an arch. The bending has a +tendency to stretch and widen the erased part, and if any smoothing +substance such as starch or wax has been added to restore the gloss of +the scraped portion, it will usually reveal itself by separating and +coming away in dust or tiny flakes. This process may be accentuated by +drawing the suspected document over a ruler, or, better still, a pencil, +repeating the motion several times. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +PENCILS AND STYLOGRAPHS. + + +It is obvious that writing executed with a pencil or the now much-used +stylograph will differ in many respects from that performed by an +ordinary pen. It is not too much to say that their use will eliminate +many features and introduce new ones. This change is mainly brought +about by the different way in which a pencil or stylograph is held in +comparison with a pen. There is a much greater sense of freedom. The +pencil can be, and is, turned and twisted in the process of making a +stroke as a pen cannot be, and the signs of this freedom become apparent +in a more rounded stroke. Even a writer whose characters are acutely +angular shows a tendency to a more graceful outline. As a matter of +fact, it is comparatively rare to meet a pencilled writing that is +pronouncedly angular. + +The same remarks apply with only little modification to writing produced +by the stylograph, and for the same reason--the ease and freedom with +which the instrument is held. + +There is no possibility of mistaking writing produced by a stylograph +for that of an ordinary steel nib. The strokes are absolutely uniform in +thickness. No nib-formed writing can be so, for it is impossible for a +writer, however careful, to avoid putting pressure on his pen at some +point; and the opening of the nib, however slight, must produce an +apparent thickening. + +Therefore, recognising these facts, the expert is always extremely +careful in giving an opinion upon a writing produced by pencil or stylo +unless he have ample specimens of the writer's productions done with +these instruments. + +At the same time, although an absence of characteristics present in pen +writing would be noticeable, the main features would exist: for example, +the space between words and letters would be the same; the dot over the +_i_ would be in its customary position; the bar of the _t_ would be of +the same type as heretofore. The principal changes would be in the +direction of a more uniform stroke with a tendency to greater rotundity. + +Persons who habitually employ the stylo very frequently develop an +unconscious habit of twisting the pen at certain points so as to form a +deep, rounded dot. This occurs principally at the ends of words and +strokes. A magnifying-glass reveals this peculiarity at once, and, when +discovered, notice should be taken of the circumstances under which this +twisting is usually done. It will be found, most probably, that the +trick is uniform; that is, certain letters or strokes are mostly +finished with the dot. + +There is a well-known public character who for years has employed no +other writing instrument but the stylo. His writing possesses one +peculiarity which is so habitual that in four hundred examples examined +it was absent in only five. He forms this twist dot at the end of the +last letter at the end of every line. The inference and explanation is +that, in raising the pen to travel back to the next line, he twists it +with a backward motion in harmony with the back movement. Another trick +is to make the same dot in words on which he appears to have halted or +hesitated before writing the next. In every such case there is an extra +wide space between the word ended by a dot and that which follows. It +would appear as if the writer mechanically made the dot while pausing to +choose the next word. This is a striking example of the unconscious +hand-gesture. + +Something akin to it occurs in the handwriting of a famous lawyer. Here +and there in his letters will be noticed a faint, sloping, vertical +stroke, like a figure _1_. Those who have seen him write explain it +thus. While hesitating in the choice of a word he moves his pen up and +down over the paper, and unintentionally touches it. It is such slips as +these which often supply the expert with valuable clues to identity. +When they occur they should be carefully examined, for in the majority +of cases a reason will be found for their presence. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +ANONYMOUS LETTERS AND DISGUISED HANDS. + + +That mischievous and cowardly form of secret attack, the anonymous +letter, demands, unfortunately, a large amount of attention from the +handwriting expert. One of the most pleasant rewards that can attend the +conscientious and painstaking student of handwriting lies in the +knowledge that his art may sometimes enable him to bring to deserved +punishment the assassin of reputation and domestic happiness. + +It is a moot point, which has been discussed by legal authorities, as to +whether the handwriting expert is justified in tendering evidence and +opinions of a kind that may be said to belong by right to the criminal +investigator. By this is meant that the expert should not be allowed to +point out to a jury such pieces of circumstantial evidence as the +similarity of the paper used by the suspected person with other found in +his possession; that he ought not to direct attention to postmarks, +coincidence of dates, similarity of ink used, the employment of certain +words and phrases, and other external and indirect clues that point to +the authorship. It is urged that the whole duty of the expert is to say +whether in his opinion two or more writings are by the same hand or not, +and any expression of opinion outside this question is _ultra vires_. + +The obvious answer to this objection is that it is impossible to limit +the expert in the selection of those points which appeal to and assist +him in forming an opinion. It is impossible to say what may or may not +suggest a valuable clue to a keen observer; and as the expert is often +called upon to give reasons for his opinion he is quite justified in +indicating the steps by which he arrived at it. + +These circumstances arise more often in connection with anonymous +letters than with ordinary signature forgeries, for the field of +exploration and the material examined are so much larger. Details become +invaluable. The quality and make of the paper used, or a peculiar method +of folding and placing it in the envelope may afford a clue that will +put the expert on the high road to an important discovery. It is +impossible to say how or where a clue may lurk. The torn edge of a +postage stamp once supplied a hint that was followed up successfully. A +smudge on the envelope, that matched a similar one on a packet of +envelopes in the writing case of a person quite unsuspected, led to +conviction, as did a number of an address that was crossed out and +rewritten, the anonymous writer having, by force of habit, begun with +the number he was in the habit of writing--his own. + +In short, the expert has, _nolens volens_, to assume many of the +functions of the crime investigator in dealing with apparent trifles, +and even if they do not always help him in reaching his goal, they +provide material for exercising the useful art of observation. Strictly +speaking the expert should, perhaps, ignore all outside suggestions as +to the authorship, and confine himself to saying whether or not the +specimens submitted are in the same handwriting; but in practice this +will be found extremely difficult, if not impossible, for the student +cannot shut his eyes to the accidental clues that invariably arise in +the examination of the evidence, and almost before he realizes it, the +most cautious expert finds himself trespassing upon ground that by right +should be the preserve of the detective. + +The points raised here may, however, be safely left to be dealt with by +the judgment of the student as they arise. In the early stages of study +they will probably not present themselves with the same force and +frequency as later on, when they will be appreciated as providing useful +private pointers for guidance; and though at times they may put the +inexperienced student upon a false scent, he will have no difficulty in +detecting his error if, when in doubt, he follows the principles laid +down for the comparison of handwriting. + +The first step to the examination of the anonymous letter consists in +procuring as many suspects as possible, which, as before advised, should +be lettered or numbered and put aside, until the original, which in this +case is the anonymous letter, has been studied and mastered. The +external evidence of which so much has already been said may or may not +be looked for. + +Next proceed with the examination and comparison of the writings. It is +presumed that the student has prepared his notes of the peculiarities of +the original; he has now to search for them in the suspects. Suppose he +begins with the spurs and beards, having found them well marked in the +original. He will take any one of the suspects and examine it for a +repetition of the same signs. He may follow on with the rest of the +suspects, taking advantage of his memory being fresh on this point, or +he may prefer to exhaust one suspect of all its evidences before +proceeding with another; but practice and experience will decide the +best course in this matter, and influence the line of procedure. + +Whatever method is pursued, all have the same object--the discovery of +the peculiarities of the original in one or more of the suspects, and +the student will be wise if he follow accurately the course laid down in +the chapter on "How to Examine a Writing." + +It is generally safe to take it for granted that the writing in an +anonymous letter is disguised. There are occasions when the author +persuades another person to write for him, but only rarely; for the +perpetrator of a contemptible act is not usually brazen and indiscreet +enough to expose himself to others. The same reasons lend strength to +the presumption that the writing will, so far as its general appearance +goes, be as much the opposite of the author's usual style as his +ingenuity can make it. The extreme back hand occurs very frequently. It +seems to be the first impulse of the anonymous writer to avoid the right +slope. Even when the normal hand is a vertical, with a tendency to back +hand, the extreme left slope is often chosen. Fortunately, the assumed +back hand is one of the most transparent of disguises. If the student +has practised it, he will not need to be reminded how difficult it is +for a writer to conceal his mannerisms. By altering the slope he has +only stretched and lengthened his outlines, and the expert soon learns +to recognise them in their new form. + +Another common disguise is the illiterate hand. This is quite as easy of +detection. It is no easier for the practised and fluent writer to +reproduce the shaky, irregular outlines of the illiterate, than it is +for the speaker of pure and cultured English to imitate the coarse +accent of the vulgar. However good the copy it always breaks down early, +and the sudden and unconscious firm, clear and geometrically accurate +stroke reveals the practised writer beneath the mask. Sometimes an +accurately placed punctuation mark supplies the necessary clue, for when +once the art of proper punctuation has been acquired it becomes almost +automatic. Even experienced novelists are caught this way occasionally. +They will introduce a letter, supposed to be the work of an illiterate +character. The grammar and orthography suggest the idea, but the more +difficult details of punctuation will be attended to, even to the +apostrophe that marks the elided _g_ in such words as "talkin'," +"comin'," &c. + +Very difficult and troublesome is the letter written throughout in +imitation printed characters. The expert has to rely upon the curved +lines, accidental punctuation marks and unpremeditated flourishes and +hand-gestures; but, broadly speaking, such a letter is beyond the skill +of the expert if unaided by accidental betrayal. If, as sometimes +happens, the writer is ingenious enough to adopt an alphabet formed +completely of straight lines and angles--an easy task--he may boast of +having produced a detection-proof writing; that is, if characters formed +with the aid of a rule can be called writing, for it defies detection, +because there are none of the signs essential for comparison, and is +less easy of identification than an incomplete skeleton. In the absence +of external clues, an expert would refuse to do more than offer a very +guarded opinion, and it would be wiser to decline to offer any comment +whatever. + +Another trick that has been resorted to by some persons is writing with +the hand constricted by a tight-fitting glove. This produces a very +effective disguise; but if the student will practise with the same +impediment, he will discover many useful rules for guiding him on the +road to penetrating this entanglement. + +It should be remembered that the less control a writer has over his pen, +the more likely is he unintentionally to revert to those forms to which +he is habituated, for, left by itself, the hand steers the more +familiar course. Disguise, alteration and variation on customary forms +are the result of premeditation. When the mind is occupied more with the +subject than the formation of characters, the latter naturally assume +that shape to which the force of custom has bent them. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +FORGED LITERARY AUTOGRAPHS. + + +The collection of autographs, letters, and documents of literary and +historical interest has for many years been a prominent feature in the +collecting world, but at no time was the quest more keen or conducted on +more systematic lines than to-day. The records of the leading sale rooms +often supply matter for surprise, the prices asked and obtained for rare +and choice specimens being such as to excite both wonder and amazement, +sometimes tempered with scepticism. + +It is, therefore, not surprising that this profitable and growing market +should have attracted the fraudulent, for the prizes when won are +generally of a substantial character, and amply repay the misapplied +effort and ingenuity demanded. + +The success which has attended too many of these frauds may be largely +accounted for by the fact that in many cases the enthusiasm of the +collector has outrun his caution. + +Many a man famous for his astuteness in the pursuit of his ordinary +business has allowed himself to fall an easy victim to the forger, thus +exemplifying the familiar adage that we are easily persuaded to believe +what we want to believe. + +The recorded stories of some of the frauds perpetrated upon ardent and +presumably judicious collectors read like the tales told so often of the +triumph of the confidence trickster, and one marvels how a person of +ordinary power of observation, to say nothing of experience, could fall +a victim to a fraud requiring little perception to detect. The +explanation doubtless lies in the direction indicated--the ardour of the +pursuit, the pride and joy of possessing something that is absolutely +unique. + +The leading case--to use an expressive legal term--is that known as the +Vrain-Lucas fraud, the principal victim of which was Mons. Chasles, +probably the greatest of modern French geometricians, and one of the few +foreign savants entitled to append the distinguishing mark of a F.R.S. +of England. + +Lucas was a half-educated frequenter, and nominal reading student of the +great Parisian library, and for some years had dealt in autographs in a +small way, the specimens he offered being undoubtedly genuine. Inspired +by the collecting ardour and the apparent blind faith placed in him by +M. Chasles, Lucas embarked upon a series of deceptions so impudent, that +it is easy to sympathise with the defence put forward by his advocate at +the trial, namely, that the fraud was so transparent that it could only +be regarded as a freak. + +In the period between the years 1861 and 1869, Lucas sold to his dupe +the enormous number of 27,000 documents, every one a glaring fraud. They +comprised letters purporting to have been written by such improbable +authors as Abelard, Alcibiades, Alexander the Great to Aristotle, +Cicero, Cleopatra, Joan of Arc, Sappho, Anacreon, Pliny, Plutarch, St. +Jerome, Diocletian, Juvenal, Socrates, Pompey, and--most stupendous joke +of all--Lazarus after his resurrection. + +It is hard to believe, and but for the irrefutable records of the Court, +few would credit the fact that every one of these letters was in the +French language! And the dupe a highly educated mathematician of +European repute. + +In the face of such incredible gullibility one is disposed to regard the +sentence of two years' imprisonment and a fine of 500 francs as +extravagantly severe, even despite the fact that Lucas received in all +over 140,000 francs from M. Chasles. + +The Chatterton and Ireland forgeries are familiar to all educated +persons. These, however, hardly come under the head of the class of +fraud with which the ordinary forger is associated. In each of these +cases the motive of the deception was not so much to make money as a +literary reputation. In both cases presumably competent judges were +deceived. But the standard by which they gauged the genuineness of the +productions was not caligraphic, but literary. In neither instance was +there occasion or opportunity for the handwriting expert to exercise his +skill, for the sufficient reason that there existed no material with +which the writings could be compared. What the literary expert had to do +was to examine and compare the style of the compositions--a test in +which the idiosyncrasies and predilections of the judge played a leading +part. + +Probably the greatest, and for a short time the most successful +autograph fraud perpetrated in Great Britain was that known as the case +of the Rillbank MSS., the detection and exposure of which were mainly +attributable to one of the authors of this work (Capt. W. W. Caddell). + +Just before, and up till 1891, there was in Edinburgh a young man named +Alexander Howland Smith, who claimed to be the son of a reputable +Scottish law official, and a descendant of Sir Walter Scott. + +On the strength of his presumed connection with the great novelist, he +had no difficulty in disposing of, to an Edinburgh bookseller, for +prices whose smallness alone should have excited suspicion, letters +purporting to be in the handwriting of Sir Walter Scott. Emboldened by +success, he embarked upon a wholesale manufacture of spurious letters +bearing the signatures of Burns, Edmund Burke, Sir Walter Scott, Grattan +and Thackeray. His principal victim was an Edinburgh chemist, Mr. James +Mackenzie, who, when the fraud was not only suspected, but proved, +distinguished himself by a stubborn and courageous defence of the +genuineness of the documents. + +Smith's _modus operandi_ consisted in purchasing large-sized volumes of +the period of the subjects of his forgeries, and using the blank leaves +for the purpose of fabricating the letters. In May, 1891, a number of +alleged Burns' letters were put up for sale by public auction at +Edinburgh, fetching the surprising paltry price of from twenty to thirty +shillings apiece. + +It was a feature of all Smith's productions that the letters were +extremely brief--a feature common to literary forgeries. The +circumstance which first gave rise to suspicion was that the letters +attributed to Scott, Burke, Burns, General Abercrombie, Grattan and +Thackeray all began and ended with the same words. Those signed by Sir +Walter Scott all began "I have your letter," and ended "I remain," a +form of phraseology the reputed writer never used, but which, according +to Smith, was common to all the distinguished men whose handwriting he +had counterfeited with considerable success. + +On the strength of the partial guarantee provided by the sale of some of +these documents at a reputable auction room, Captain Caddell purchased a +parcel of alleged Scott letters without prior inspection. A brief +examination disclosed their fraudulent nature, and Smith was arrested. +The Edinburgh police took the matter up, and the impostor was convicted +in June, 1893, and sentenced to eighteen months' imprisonment. + +Thackeray and Dickens are favourite subjects with most literary forgers, +Washington and Benjamin Franklin running them very close for +favouriteship. American collectors are particularly keen on procuring +specimens of the last two-named, and there is grave reason to believe +that many fall easy victims. + +Fortunately the facilities for comparing and testing the genuineness of +the autographs of every distinguished person whose holographs are most +in favour with the forger, are numerous. In addition to the splendid +collection of specimens extant at the British Museum Library, there are +many facsimiles available. + +The excellent work on Autograph Collecting by Dr. Henry T. Scott (Upcott +Gill, London) is indispensable to the collector. It contains some +hundreds of specimens, specially selected for the purposes of +comparison, and gives besides many very valuable rules and hints for +detecting the real from the sham. + +Dr. Scott, writing of the autographic letters of his distinguished +namesake, says: + +"Of Sir Walter Scott's autographs it may be observed (1) the paper is +generally letter size, gilt edged, with a soft, firm feeling to the +touch, and an unglazed surface. (2) The date and residence are placed on +the top and right hand, with a good space before the 'My Dear Sir,' +uniform margins on the left side of the paper of a quarter of an inch, +but on the right side no margin at all, the writing being carried close +to the edge. The folding is done with the precision of a man of +business, forming the space for the address into a nice oblong almost in +the centre of the sheet, and the first line of the address is written +nearly in the centre of the space with the remainder below. + +"The watermarks found on the paper are one of the following: +Valleyfield, 1809; C. Wilmott, 1815; J. Dickinson and Co., 1813; J. +Dickinson, 1816; J. Dickinson (without date); J. Whatman, 1814; J. +Whatman (without date); Turkey Mill, 1819; Turkey Mill (without date); +G. C. & Co., 1828." + +The paper used by Burns for his correspondence was always large in size, +rough in surface, never glossy, and all four edges had the rough edge +that is the peculiarity of a Bank of England note. + +It is worthy of remark that in the case of the A. H. Smith Burns +forgeries, suspicion was first excited by a simple but significant +matter. The paper contained several worm holes. These had been carefully +avoided by the writer, he knowing that if his pen touched them the +result would be a spluttering and spreading of the ink. + +Now it is safe to assume that these worm holes, being the effect of age, +did not exist at the time the letter--if genuine--was written; as the +worm did its work long afterwards, it must be regarded as a fortunate +circumstance that in perforating the paper it refrained from destroying +the writing, carefully selecting the wider spaces that the poet had, +with commendable foresight, left for the insect's depredations. + +The letters of Thackeray are in two styles of handwriting, the earlier +sloping slightly, the latter vertical, round, neat and print-like, the +capital _I_ being invariably a simple vertical stroke. His is the most +neat and uniformly readable hand of all the great literary characters. +It is somewhat unfortunate that he was not anything like so uniform in +his choice of paper. Letters are in existence on an extraordinary +variety of material, from a quarto sheet to a scrap torn from half a +sheet of note paper. On many of these letters is neither address nor +date, but when once the characteristics of the charming handscript have +been mastered, they are never forgotten, and are recognisable amid the +closest imitations. + +There are extant a number of forged Thackeray's. Their distinguishing +features are that they are invariably very short, as if the forger +feared to provide sufficient matter to supply material for comparison; +most are on single half sheets of note paper, many on quarto sheets of +varying texture and quality, and the characteristic vertical _I_, +Thackeray's trade mark, always occurs. It is shaky and often out of the +perpendicular, as the genuine rarely is. In the forgeries we have seen +and suspect to be the work of A. H. Smith, a very significant sign is a +sudden thickening of the downstrokes of tailed letters like _y_, _f_, +_g_, producing a tiny diamond-shaped excrescence in the middle of the +letter. The glass reveals that ragged-edged stroke which is inseparable +from the writing of the nervous copyist. + +It is generally safe to be cautious about very short letters. The forger +well knows how difficult is the task of maintaining an assumed +character. Just as the mimic may succeed in reproducing the tone and +manner of a person with sufficient closeness to deceive even the most +intimate acquaintances of the subject, yet fail to carry the deception +beyond a few words or phrases, so the literary forger invariably breaks +down when he attempts to simulate handwriting over many sentences. So +conscious is he of this great difficulty that he often avoids it by +boldly copying some genuine letter. We have had offered to us +"guaranteed" Thackeray letters which we immediately recognised as such. +In one particularly glaring case the forger had copied the original +letter very fairly so far as the penmanship was concerned, but while the +original was written on a half sheet of note paper, the forgery was on a +different size paper, and the writing across the length of the paper +instead of the breadth. This naturally disarranged the spacing between +the words, which in all Thackeray's writings is a pronouncedly regular +feature, and this variation was in itself sufficient to excite +suspicion. + +The popularity of Dickens among collectors grows steadily. Despite the +fact that he was an industrious correspondent, and that a very large +number of his letters appear from time to time in the market, the demand +is ever in excess of the supply. As a consequence he has suffered +perhaps more than any of the literary immortals at the hands of the +forger. Yet it is safe to say that there should be no writer so safe +from fraudulent imitation, for there is a peculiar distinctiveness about +his caligraphic productions that once seen and noted should never be +forgotten. Specimens are easily available. The catalogues of dealers are +constantly presenting them, and most public libraries possess examples, +either in the original holograph or in some form of reproduction. + +Probably no writer preserved his style with such little change as +Dickens. His signature in later years varied somewhat from that of his +literary youth, but the body of his handscript retained throughout the +same characteristics. It was always a free, fluent, graceful hand, +legible as that of Thackeray when its leading peculiarities have been +mastered, but less formal and studied than his. It was always remarkably +free from corrections or interlineations. He wrote with the easy freedom +of the stenographer; indeed it is easy to recognise in the delicate +gracefully formed letters the effect of years of training in the most +difficult and exacting form of handscript. + +Perhaps the leading peculiarities in the Dickens holograph are these:-- + +The date of the month is never expressed in figures, but always written +in full; in fact, abbreviation in any form he never countenanced. + +The letter _y_, both as a capital and a small letter is a figure 7 +except in the affix "ly," when the two letters become an _f_ or long +stroke _s_. + +The letter _t_ is crossed by the firm downward bar, which the character +readers claim as a sign of great resolution. + +Letter _g_ is invariable in form. + +Capital _E_ consists of a downstroke with a bar in the centre. + +The hook of many final letters has a tendency to turn backwards. + +New paragraphs are marked by beginning the line about an inch from the +left-hand margin. + +A very marked peculiarity noticeable in many letters is that the +left-hand margin gradually grows wider as the lines approach the bottom +of the page. The narrowing is wondrously regular, a line drawn from the +first letter on the first line to the corresponding position on the last +will touch nearly every other line. This peculiarity appears to have +escaped every forger whose work we have examined. + +If the signs relied upon by the readers of character in handwriting are +to be accepted, self-esteem was a pronounced characteristic of the great +novelist. His writing abounds with those subtle symptoms of the +prevalence of that weakness. + +His signature is perhaps the best known of any with which the British +public are familiar. It is remarkably uniform, and remained precisely +the same from the time he adopted it after the Pickwick period until his +death. That which he used in youth was less striking, but none the less +self-conscious. + +After the Pickwick period Dickens adopted the use of blue paper and blue +ink. Letters in black ink, if undated, may safely be attributed to the +earlier period. + +His note paper was in later years of the regulation note size. The +address, Gads' Hill Place, Higham by Rochester, Kent, was in embossed +black old English letter. His paper was hand-made, and of good quality. +The envelopes were blue, of the same quality paper, but without crest, +monogram or distinctive mark. Dickens' vanity expressed itself in the +habit of franking envelopes, _i.e._, by writing his name in the +left-hand bottom corner, after the fashion in vogue when Peers and +M.P.'s enjoyed the privilege of free postage. + +His letters of the pre-envelope period--before 1842--were on quarto +sheets. These are exceedingly rare. + +There is one feature about autographic forgery which may always be +relied upon to assist greatly in the work of detection. As a general +rule there is sufficient matter in a literary forgery to supply the +necessary material for comparison. It must of necessity be a copy, if +not of an existing original, at least of the general style. The process +of imitation must be slow and cautious, and the signs remain in shaky, +broken lines, and a ruggedness entirely absent from the writing of the +real author, which is fluent and free. Even the shakiness of age +noticeable in a few distinguished handwritings is different to the +shakiness of the forger's uncertainty. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +FORGED SIGNATURES. + + +The most difficult phase of the art of the handwriting expert consists +in the detection of forgery in signatures. It will be obvious to the +student who has followed the instructions and illustrations already +given that this difficulty is brought about by two principal causes: +first, by the paucity of material for comparison; secondly, because of +the very important fact that a forgery must, by its nature, be a good +and close copy of an original. This means that the unconscious tricks +and irregularities that often abound in a long letter, written in a more +or less disguised hand, are almost entirely absent from a forged +signature. It follows, therefore, that the student must have some other +clues and rules to guide him, for he cannot rely upon the chance of a +slip or accidental trick occurring in a signature that contains at most +perhaps a dozen letters. + +The first step in the examination of a suspected signature is to master +thoroughly the various characteristics of the genuine signature. These +must be studied in every possible relation, and from as many specimens +as can be obtained. The magnifying glass must be in constant use and the +eye alert to detect the angle at which the pen is habitually held, the +class of pen used, and the degree of pressure and speed employed. These +last-named points can only be discovered as the result of practice and +observation, and though at first sight it may appear impossible to form +a correct estimate of the pace at which a pen has travelled, the student +will, if observant, soon learn to detect the difference between a +swiftly formed stroke and one written with slowness and deliberation. By +making a number of each kind of stroke and carefully examining them +through a glass, the student will learn in an hour more than can be +taught by means of verbal description. The study of the genuine +signatures must be continued until every stroke and its peculiarities +are as familiar as the features of a well-known face, for until one is +thoroughly impregnated with the original it will be useless to proceed +with the examination of the suspects. + +At first sight the student will probably perceive very little, if any, +difference between the original and the suspect. It would be a very +clumsy forgery if he could. Gradually the points of dissimilarity will +become clear to him, and with each fresh examination they grow plainer, +until he is surprised that they did not sooner strike him; they are so +obvious that the eye cannot avoid them; they stand out as plainly as the +hidden figure, after it has been detected, in the well-known picture +puzzles. There are few faculties capable of such rapid and accurate +development as that of observation. Thousands of persons go through life +unconscious of the existence of certain common things until the occasion +arises for noticing them, or accident forces them upon the attention; +then they marvel that the thing should have escaped observation. This is +a truism, no doubt, but the force of every platitude does not always +present itself to every one. The comparison of handwritings is so +essentially a matter of cultivating the powers of observation, that even +if turned to no more practical account than that of a hobby its value as +a mental exercise is great. + +There are two principal methods by which a signature may be forged: +first, by carefully copying the original as one would copy a drawing; +secondly, by tracing it. + +The first process is referred to as copied. The forger will, most +probably, have practised the signature before affixing it to the cheque +or other document, thereby attaining a certain degree of fluency. But +however well executed, close examination with the aid of the magnifying +glass will reveal those signs of hesitancy and irregularity that one may +reasonably expect to find in a copy. + +There is no part of a person's handwriting so fluent and free as his +signature. Even the most illiterate persons show more freedom and +continuity of outline in their signature than in the body of their +writing. This is explicable on the ground of usage. A writer may feel a +degree of momentary uncertainty in forming a word that he does not +write frequently, but his signature he is more sure about. He strikes it +off without hesitancy, and in the majority of cases appends some +meaningless flourish, which may be described as a superfluous stroke or +strokes added for the purpose of ornamentation, for adding +distinctiveness, or, in some cases, and particularly with business men, +with the idea that the flourishes help to secure the signature from +forgery. Such writers will probably be surprised to learn that there is +no form of signature so easy to forge as that involved and complicated +by a maze of superfluous lines and meaningless flourishes. The most +difficult signature for the forger is the clear, plain, +copybook-modelled autograph. A little thought and examination will make +the reason for this clear. + +Let a signature be enveloped in a web of curves and flourishes, making +it look like a complicated script monogram. The lines are so numerous +that the eye cannot take them all in at a glance, and, if copied, any +slight irregularity or departure from the original is more likely to +pass undetected amid the confusing network of interlaced lines. If, on +the other hand, the signature be simple and free from the bewildering +effects of flourishes, the entire autograph lies revealed, a clear and +regular outline, and the slightest variation from the accustomed figure +stands out naked and plain. Most of the successful forgeries will be +found to be on signatures of the complicated order. Their apparent +impregnability has tempted the facile penman to essay the task of +harmless imitation; his success has surprised and flattered him, and the +easy possibilities of forgery opened up. More than one forger has +admitted that his initiatory lessons were prompted by an innocent +challenge to imitate a particularly complicated "forgery-proof" +signature. + +It must be remembered that the eye of the casual observer takes in a +word as a whole rather than in detail. This explains why an author can +rarely be trusted to correct his own proofs. He knows what the word +should be, and in reading his work in print he notices only the general +expected effect of a word. It needs the trained eye of the proof-reader +to detect the small _c_ that has taken the place of the _e_, the +battered _l_ that is masquerading as an _i_. So long as the general +outline of the word is not distorted the wrong letters are often passed; +and it is much the same with a signature with which one is fairly +familiar. The trained examiner of handwriting, like the proof-reader, +knows what to look for, and discovers irregularities that would escape +the notice of the untrained eye. + +The first part of a genuine signature that should be examined is the +flourish, which includes all fancy strokes appended to it, and any +superfluous addition to the body of the letters. A close scrutiny +through the glass will show that the lines forming the tail-flourish are +generally clear, firm and sharp in outline, being formed, not only +without hesitation, but with a dash and decided sweep that are strongly +at variance with the broken, saw-edged, unsteady line of the copy. It +will also generally be found to follow an almost fixed rule in the +matter of its proportionate conformation: that is, supposing the writer +finishes up with a horizontal line under his signature, it will be seen, +on averaging a dozen or so of them, that the distance of the line from +the feet of the letters is proportionately uniform. If the line be begun +with a spur or curved inward hook, that feature will be repeated. The +end of the flourish or final stroke, at the point where the pen leaves +the paper, should be very carefully examined. One writer finishes with +an almost imperceptible dot, as if the pen had been stabbed into the +paper; another finishes with a curve, either upward or downward; a third +with a hook turned upward, either a curve or an angle; while a fourth +continues the line till it becomes finer and sharper to vanishing point. +Some writers are fond of concluding with a more or less bold and +expansive underline running horizontally with the signature. A close +examination will show a variation in the degrees of thickness of such a +line, which should be carefully noted and looked for in other genuine +signatures. + +In this connection it will be found extremely useful and instructive to +study strokes, either horizontal or vertical, with a view to discovering +whether they were struck from right to left, top to bottom, or _vice +versâ_. The glass will render it easy to detect beginning from end after +a few failures, which, by the way, should not be allowed to discourage, +for every minute devoted to the study of handwriting is so much gain in +experience, and represents so much more learned, which will never be +forgotten. + +The flourishes that occur on and about the signature proper must be +treated as exaggerated loops, and their shoulders, arcs, hooks and toes +carefully measured and noted. For this purpose an average genuine +signature should be selected and gauged, which is done in this way: +Place over it a sheet of transfer paper. With the scale-rule and a fine +pencil draw horizontal lines that will touch the tops and bottoms of the +bodies of the letters, lines that touch the tops and bottoms of the +tailed and topped letters, and vertical lines that follow the shanks of +every topped or tailed letter, including the capitals. The gauge, when +completed, will represent a framework fitting the signature, and its use +is twofold. It helps the eye to detect the variations in the general +contour of the signature, and, when placed over another, brings out the +points of difference. Due allowance must be made for proportion. It is +obvious that the distance of letters will be greater in a signature +written larger than another, but the proportionate distances will be +preserved. The difference in the size of a letter is not very important, +except that it offers more scope for examination. For example, a looped +_l_ may be very small or half an inch long; but, if made by the same +writer, the proportionate width at top, bottom and middle will be +preserved, and compare with the same measurements in the smaller letter. +Signatures of the same writer do not often vary much in size, though +they may be thicker or finer according to the character of the pen used; +but observation will show that the difference in a handwriting caused by +the use of different pens is much more imaginary than real. + +The traced signature is produced by placing the paper over the genuine +autograph, holding it to the light, generally on a sheet of glass, and +tracing it with a fine point. Such forgeries are often more easily +detected than the copied signature, for the reason that signs of the +tracing process can generally be found by careful examination. The fine, +hard point used to trace the autograph leaves a smooth hollow, which can +be seen through the glass on examining the back of the cheque or +document. If the paper be held in a line with the eye in a strong light, +the ridge will be more clearly perceived. The difference between a mark +made by a hard point and a pen can be tested by experiment. The hard +point must of necessity be pressed with a degree of force to make the +desired impression on the paper, and the result is a smooth hollow. But +if a pen be pressed hard, it produces two parallel lines, and, instead +of a hollow, a ridge is formed between the parallels. Of course, it will +be so slight as to be hardly perceptible, except through a strong glass, +but it will be there nevertheless, and knowing what to look for, the +expert will generally have no difficulty in satisfying himself whether +the forgery has been traced or copied, a very valuable piece of evidence +when once settled, for it is within the bounds of probability that the +genuine signature from which the tracing was made may be discovered. It +is possible, and has often occurred, that the writer of the original may +have some recollection of having written to the suspected person, or in +many ways a clue may be suggested. There is a well-known case of a +forgery being brought home to the perpetrator through the accuracy of +the tracing. It is a fact easily proved, that no man can write a word +twice, so exactly, that if the two are overlaid they fit. If two such +signatures be produced, it is safe to assume that one has been traced or +otherwise mechanically produced. In the case mentioned a signature on a +cheque was pronounced a forgery by the person supposed to have signed +it. In examining specimens of the genuine autograph, the experts came +upon one which, when placed upon that on the cheque, proved a perfect +replica, down to the most minute detail, showing beyond question that it +had been used to trace the forgery from. It was further proved that the +original had been in the possession of the supposed forger, and the jury +were asked to decide whether it was probable that a man could reproduce +his signature in exact facsimile after a lapse of time, and without the +original before him. As the chances against such a contingency are many +millions to one--a fact the student can verify--the jury decided against +the forger. + +At the risk of appearing tautological to a tiresome degree it is +necessary to accentuate the fact that the comparison of handwriting, +and more particularly of signatures, is essentially dependent on +cultivating the faculty of observation. This art cannot be taught; it +can only be acquired by practice and experience, like swimming or +riding. The teacher can at most indicate the method of study and some of +the leading principles of conducting an investigation. Most men are not +naturally observant, and the habit can be best fostered by having an +object; but when once a person has been taught what to look for he +almost instinctively notices details that previously never struck him. +This is specially true of the study of handwriting. + +The best method of practice that can be adopted by the student is to +begin by making a careful study of his own signature and writing. He +will be surprised at the number of facts hitherto unsuspected that will +be revealed to him. The value of using his own handwriting as a subject +of examination lies in this, that the student can satisfy himself how +and why certain strokes are made. This he can only guess at in the +writing of others. + +The preliminary exercise should consist in studying the effect produced +by the different methods of holding the pen. The signature supplies +excellent material for this class of practice. Begin by holding the pen +with the top end pointed well towards the left shoulder, in the absurd +and unnatural position taught by the old school of writing masters. +Repeat the signature with the pen held a trifle less acutely angular, +and go on till six or eight signatures have been written at a decreasing +angle--until the top of the penholder points well to the right, +producing what is known as a backhand. The effect of these angles must +be carefully noted, and in a short time it will be found possible to +arrive at a very accurate opinion as to how the writer of a particular +signature habitually holds his pen--an important and valuable piece of +knowledge. The practice should be extended to long sentences, and a +frequent repetition of all the letters, capital and small, the +magnifying glass being always used to examine the effect of the various +and varying strokes. + +In examining a signature for comparing it with a suspected forgery it +should be copied very frequently, as the clues and suggestions the +experiments will produce are of much greater service than will at first +appear, and of more practical value than pages of theory, as the how and +why will be revealed for much that would be obscure without this +assistance. As experience grows, it will not be necessary to adopt this +copying process so often, for the eye soon becomes alert at detecting +slight shades of difference in strokes, and a glance will convey more +than could be explained in many pages. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +THE EXPERT IN THE WITNESS-BOX. + + +When the expert has been called upon to give an opinion upon the +genuineness of writings he embodies his conclusions in a report of which +the following may be taken as a fair example:-- + + To the Chief of Police. + + SIR, + + REX _versus_ JONES. + + In accordance with your instructions dated ---- I beg leave to + inform you that I have made a careful examination of the document + marked _A_, and attached hereto, and compared it with the documents + marked _B_, _C_, _D_, _E_ and _F_, also attached. + + I have arrived at the conclusion that the document _A_ was written + by the same hand as produced _B_, _C_, _D_, _E_ and _F_. + + The main reasons which have led me to form this opinion are these:-- + + First, although the writing in _A_ bears at first sight no + resemblance to that of the other documents, the difference is only + such as experience leads me to expect in a writing which has been + purposely disguised, as I believe this has been. + + The writing on the five documents _B_ to _F_ I take to be the normal + hand of the author, and that on _A_ to be the same writer's hand + altered so as to present a different appearance. I will call the + specimens _B_ to _F_ the genuine examples, and _A_ the disguised. + + Experience shows that the person who writes an anonymous letter + generally seeks to disguise his hand by departing as much as he + deems possible from his normal writing. The usual hand of the writer + of the genuine document is a free rounded hand sloping upwards + towards the right. The writing of _A_ presents exactly the features + I would expect to find when, as appears to be the case here, the + writer has adopted the familiar trick of sloping his writing in a + direction opposite to his normal hand. While the result of this + change is to alter the apparent style and general appearance of the + writing, the alteration does not extend to certain tricks and + characteristics which are plainly obvious in the genuine letters and + are repeated in the anonymous letter _A_. + + The writing in the genuine letters contains fourteen very + distinctive peculiarities, or tricks of hand, which I find repeated + in the anonymous letter _A_. + + (Here describe them, as for example.) + + 1. The figure 4 in the dates is always made like the print form of + that figure. + + 2. The small _e_ is always of the Greek form. + + 3. The small _t_ is always crossed by a bar thick at the beginning, + tapering to a point, with its longest part behind the shank of + the _t_ [and so on]. + +The various points of resemblance are set out in detail, a separate +paragraph for each, and each paragraph numbered. + +It is extremely important that a report should be fully descriptive and +written in plain, non-technical language, easily understood by the jury, +who will have to decide whether the resemblance has been made out. + +Too many handwriting experts spoil the effect of their evidence by +employing technical language and presuming on the part of the jury an +acquaintance with the methods of comparing handwritings. + +Do not be satisfied by saying that certain letters resemble each other. +Show by an enlarged diagram how and where, indicating the parts to which +attention is called by arrows. Place the single letters to be compared +in parallel columns, headed with the alphabetical letter distinguishing +the document in which the particular letter occurs. Use foolscap paper, +and write on one side of the paper only. + +The usual method of dealing with the handwriting expert in the +witness-box is shown in the following extract from a report of an actual +case. + +Mr. D. B---- was called by counsel for the prosecution and duly sworn. + +Q.--You have had considerable experience in examining handwriting. + +A.--Over twenty years. + +Q.--Look at these documents. (Hands documents to witness.) Have you seen +and examined these? + +A.--I have. + +Q.--Have you formed any opinion upon them? + +A.--I have, and have prepared a report. + +In some cases the expert is allowed to read his report in full. In +others he is requested to give a verbal report, but if the point be +insisted upon, the judge generally permits the report to be read, either +by the expert or by counsel. A copy of the report, together with the +documents in dispute are then usually handed to the jury for +examination. The expert may proceed to illustrate his point with the aid +of a blackboard and chalk, but much depends upon the attitude taken by +the judge and counsel. Some judges insist that the expert shall confine +himself to expressing his opinion, leaving counsel to deal with the +explanation and comparison; others give the expert every opportunity of +showing how he has arrived at his opinions. + +The examination in chief is usually a very simple matter. The trouble +for the expert begins when counsel for the other side gets up to +cross-examine. + +In nearly every case the object of the cross-examining counsel is to +ridicule the art and get the expert to admit the possibility of other +writers possessing the same peculiarities which are said to distinguish +the letters before the Court. + +Counsel's favourite trick is to select some letter and ask the expert if +he is prepared to swear that he has never seen something just like it in +some other person's writing. The expert who knows his business will +insist on keeping well to the front the bedrock basis of handwriting +comparison, which is the application of the law of probability to +cumulative evidence. It is not a question whether some other person may +be in the habit of making a _t_ or a _k_ similar to those cited as +evidences of common origin, but whether it is probable that two persons +should make a dozen or more letters in precisely the same way under +similar conditions and exhibit precisely the same peculiarities of +style. He should reply with the unanswerable postulate that millions of +persons possess red hair, snub noses, a scar on the face, blue eyes, +bent fingers and a stammer; but it is millions to one against any two +persons possessing all six of those peculiarities. + +In the course of his replies the expert may justifiably help his own +case by repeating, when opportunity occurs, such irrefutable axioms as, +No writer can say off-hand what peculiarities he may exhibit; that there +are scores of ways of dotting an _i_, or crossing a _t_, and that few +persons know which form they mostly affect. Fifty such points may be +gathered from this little volume alone, while acquaintance with the +works of other writers on caligraphy will supply ample ammunition for +meeting and repelling the customary form of attack on the handwriting +expert. + +Another method of discrediting a witness is to remind him that experts +have differed, the Dreyfus case being usually cited. The answer is +obvious. First it is essential to be assured that those experts were all +competent, for there are degrees of competency in judging handwriting as +in every other subject on which opinion may be called. It is a notorious +fact that in the Dreyfus case the most competent experts testified that +the Henry letters were forgeries, the authorities called on the other +side being in most cases unknown men or amateurs of no standing. A +number of these self-styled experts possessed no other qualification +than presumed familiarity with the handwriting of Dreyfus. It is also +worthy of note that several of the experts on both sides proved most +inefficient witnesses, obscuring their explanations by the employment of +technical phraseology which conveyed little meaning to the lay mind. + +Exactitude and regularity in the choice of the words used in describing +the parts of letters should be strictly observed by the student. The +rules given in the chapter on "Terminology" should be mastered and +adhered to. In most cases the terms there applied to letter-analysis +will be found to be self-explanatory. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +HANDWRITING AND EXPRESSION. + + +No work dealing with the study of handwriting would be complete unless +it recognised that phase of it which touches on the delineation of +character by an examination of the caligraphy. + +That many valuable clues can be picked up by the expert who applies the +principles on which the graphologist works is indisputable, nor is it +necessary to accept all the theories claimed as reliable by those who +practice this interesting branch of the art of writing-analysis. + +There is no doubt that many persons have attained a remarkable degree of +proficiency in deducing from the hand-gestures of an unknown person a +very accurate estimate of his or her character, and this fact should +prove that the principles of the art of graphology are based on +scientific grounds, or at least that the rules on which the student +works are regular and not, as some suggest, mere guess-work or +coincidence. + +The elder d'Israeli, in his fascinating work, the "Curiosities of +Literature," devotes considerable space to the subject. Among other +things, he says:-- + +"Assuredly nature would prompt every individual to have a distinct sort +of writing, as she has given a peculiar countenance, a voice, and a +manner. The flexibility of the muscles differs with every individual, +and the hand will follow the direction of the thoughts, and the emotions +and the habits of the writers. + +"The phlegmatic will portray his words with signs of labour and +deliberation, while the playful haste of the volatile will scarcely +sketch them; the slovenly will blot and efface and scrawl, while the +neat and orderly-minded will view themselves in the paper before their +eyes. The merchant's clerk will not write like the lawyer or the poet. +Even nations are distinguished by their writing; the vivacity and +variableness of the Frenchman, and the delicacy and suppleness of the +Italian, are perceptibly distinct from the slowness and strength of pen +discoverable in the phlegmatic German, Dane, and Swede. + +"When we are in grief we do not write as we should in joy. The elegant +and correct mind, which has acquired the fortunate habit of a fixity of +attention, will write with scarcely an erasure on the page, as Fenelon +and Gibbon; while we find in Pope's manuscripts the perpetual struggle +of correction, and the eager and rapid interlineations struck off in +heat. Lavater's notion of handwriting is by no means chimerical; nor was +General Paoli fanciful when he told Mr. Northcote he had decided on the +character and disposition of a man from his letters and the handwriting. + +"Long before the days of Lavater, Shenstone in one of his letters said, +'I want to see Mrs. Jago's writing that I may judge of her temper.' + +"One great truth must, however, be conceded to the opponents of the +physiognomy of handwriting. General rules only can be laid down. Yet the +vital principle must be true that the handwriting bears an analogy to +the character of the writer, as all voluntary actions are characteristic +of the individual." + + * * * * * + +Professor Foli, in his very useful work, "Handwriting as an Index to +Character" (London: C. A. Pearson, Ltd.), says: + +"The changes which handwriting undergoes as maturity is reached prove +how directly it is influenced by the nervous condition of the writer. + +"The writing proper to childhood is large, round and accompanied by a +laboured pen movement; whereas that which is normal as manhood or +womanhood is attained is smaller, and turned off by a more rapid and +fluent motion of the hand. + +"Illness, again, affects the writing. As the hand is charged with more +or less of the nerve fluid, so the writing is stronger or weaker, firmer +or feebler, as the case may be. + +"This goes to show the important influence which the nerve current +exerts in fashioning the handwriting. Small wonder that our handwriting +alters day by day. Yet it does not alter either. So far as its general +appearance is concerned I grant it _seems_ to do so. But look at the +really significant points of the writing written at different times. +Give a glance at the height at which the '_i_' is dotted, the way in +which the '_t_' is barred, the manner in which the letters are, or are +not, connected and finished off. These things will crop up with unerring +uniformity time after time. + +"You do, of course, get a studied handwriting now and then, just as you +sometimes meet with a formed facial expression. But that does not +express the true character, simply because the control over the feelings +or the power of disguising what is felt is a salient point in the +character; and this very fact will serve to show that there is truth in +graphology. + +"That the pen, whether it be a fine or a broad pointed nib, plays a +certain part in determining the thickness or thinness of the strokes, I +am willing to allow, but here again we have no argument against +graphology, for most people have their favourite nib--just as they +prefer one occupation to another--and this is the one which will best +serve to define their characteristics. The same with the surface of the +paper upon which they write; some will select a smooth, others a rough +kind, but whatever that may be which is adopted with comfort, it will be +typical of the writer." + +The following are some of the more marked signs of the character they +indicate. For a fuller exposition of their application it would be well +to study the work of Foli, before mentioned, and of Rosa Baughan (Upcott +Gill, London, 2_s._ 6_d._), with the scholarly work of J. +Crépieux-Jainin, entitled, "Handwriting and Expression," translated by +J. Holt Schooling. + + * * * * * + +_General Characteristic._--The fineness of an organism will be revealed +by a fine light penstroke. Coarse, low natures make heavy blurred +entangled lines. + +_Activity_ is denoted by the length of the letters. Where it is feeble +the letters will be widely spaced and rounded. + +_Excitability_ is shown by sharp strokes and stops. The more acute and +irregular the pen-strokes the greater the intensity of feeling. + +_Aggression_, which is the inclination to attack, the destructive force, +is indicated by the final strokes of letters and the cross-bars of _t_'s +advancing well forward, the dots of the _i_'s placed well forward. In +such a word as "time" the dot would probably be between the _m_ and _e_. +The style is angular and well and evenly spaced, altogether a forward, +"go-ahead" writing. + +_Economy_, or acquisitiveness, is shown by the finishing strokes being +turned backwards, and inwards; by a cramped hand, a disposition to +curtail strokes, particularly the endings of letters, as if the +expenditure of ink was begrudged. + +_Secretiveness_, or extra caution, has its sign in the narrow, +tightly-closed form of the body of the letters _a_, _d_, _g_, _o_, _q_, +the _a_ and _o_ often being merely a narrow _v_. The general tendency of +the writing is to compression, the final strokes being very short. When +very marked, the letters dwindle into an indistinct unformed condition. +The substitution of dashes for punctuation is another symptom. + +_Insincerity._--Beware of the man or woman whose writing is a fine, wavy +line, upright, with short, stumpy and indistinct tops and tails, words +running at their end to an almost straight line, the letters merely +indicated. The flatter, finer and more perpendicular this writing, the +greater the insincerity. Such a writer would probably be a polite, +pleasing and plausible person, but double-faced as Janus. + +_Love of praise_, glory, ambition are shown by a tendency to write +upwards, the lines of writing trending towards the right-hand corner of +the paper. The signature will usually have a curved line below it, with +a degree of flourish. + +_Self-esteem_, to which is allied conceit and ostentation, shows itself +in proportion to the size of the writing, the taller and more flourished +the upstrokes and the longer the downstrokes, the greater the +self-assertiveness. The flourish beneath the signature will be very +pronounced, often an elaborate spider's web of interlaced lines. The +writing is more or less angular with the finals turned backwards and +inwards. + +_Will power_ is shown by firm bars to the _t_, with a tendency to +descend from left to right, bludgeon-like downstrokes to tailed letters, +writing rather angular than rounded, and the final strokes finished by +a heavy pressure. Straight, firm, downward strokes take the place of the +tails to _y_, _g_, _f_, _q_. + +_Sympathy_, good nature, kindness of heart are shown by a flowing open +hand, the finals of the letters being extended and thrown out with an +expansive movement. The tailed letters are long and looped, and often +turned up the right side of the letter. The letters are well apart but +not necessarily unconnected, and the style is curved. As a general rule +hard matter-of-fact natures incline to an angular style; the artistic +and softer nature affects rounded, gracefully curved strokes, and avoids +straight perpendiculars or horizontals. + +_Constructiveness_, which implies the ability to combine and connect +words and phrases, is shown by joining the words together, several being +written without lifting the pen from the paper. The more simple and +ingenuous the method of attaching the words, the greater will be the +ability. When this joining of words is carried to extremes, it may be +taken as a sign of good deductive judgment. + +_Observation_, by which is implied the keen, penetrating, inquiring mind +(which in excess becomes curiosity), is marked by angularity of the +strokes and finals; a small, generally neat, handwriting, with the +letters disconnected. + +_Punctuation_ affords a very valuable clue to character-reading, for +reasons set out in the chapter "How to Study a Handwriting." They are +the most mechanical and unpremeditated of hand-gestures, and are, +therefore, the more valuable. + +When, for example, a dot is thick and heavy, we infer that the pen has +been driven across the paper with a strong, decided movement of the +hand, which would be consistent with extreme energy and will power; +whereas, when the dot is light and faintly indicated we may be certain +that only a moderate force has been expended upon its production, which +would be compatible with less resistance and endurance in the character. + +Again, a dot whose outlines were blurred would show a certain +sensuousness of character--strong passions and a want of restraint over +the lower propensities; whereas, a dot whose edges were sharply defined +would tell of refinement and a loathing against all that was coarse or +vulgar. + +Careful attention to punctuation indicates neatness, order, method and +love of arrangement; nor is it necessary that the punctuation should be +strictly correct, for the art is but imperfectly mastered by most +people, even the best educated. + +Stops that partake of the appearance of a comma indicate a degree of +impetuosity; well rounded stops imply calmness and tranquility of +temperament. When the full stops are fashioned after the form of a comma +and droop towards the right hand they indicate a tendency to sulkiness. +When they are merely angular we may infer impatience and a "peppery" +disposition. + +Flourishes are always indicative of a certain amount of assertiveness. +The simpler the flourish the less artificial this self-insistence; the +more elaborate, the greater the desire to seem what one is not. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HANDWRITING. + + +Most of the works in this list relate to that aspect of the study of +graphology which is supposed to bear upon the manifestations of +character. But there is not one which the student of handwriting can +afford to ignore, since, apart from the debatable question of character +reading, they all contain numerous hints and observations of extreme +value to the student whose objective is the acquisition of aptitude in +the more practical art of detecting forgery. + + AUTOGRAPH COLLECTING: A practical manual for Amateurs and + Historical Students. By HENRY T. SCOTT, M.D. London: Upcott Gill. + Price 5_s._ + + A GUIDE TO THE COLLECTION OF HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS, LITERARY MSS. AND + AUTOGRAPH LETTERS, &c. By Rev. H. T. SCOTT and SAMUEL DAVEY. (Out + of print.) May be seen in British Museum and many public + libraries. + + THE AUTOGRAPHIC MIRROR: A monthly journal now defunct, but + procurable at second hand. + + HANDWRITING AND EXPRESSION. Translated and edited by JOHN HOLT + SCHOOLING, from the third French edition of "L'Escriture et le + Caractere," par J. CRÉPIEUX-JAININ. Kegan, Paul and Trench. + + CHARACTER INDICATED BY HANDWRITING. By ROSA BAUGHAN. Upcott Gill. + Price 2_s._ 6_d._ + + THE PHILOSOPHY OF HANDWRITING. By DON FELIX DE SALAMANCA. Macmillan. + + HOW TO READ CHARACTER IN HANDWRITING. By HENRY FRITH. Ward Lock. + Price 1_s._ + + HANDWRITING AS AN INDEX TO CHARACTER. By Professor FOLI. C. A. + Pearson. Price 1_s._ + + A SYSTEM OF GRAPHOLOGY. By the ABBÉ MICHON. In French; no English + translation. A valuable work. + + A HISTORY OF HANDWRITING. Same Author. + + A METHOD OF GRAPHOLOGIC STUDY. Same Author. + + A MEMOIR UPON THE FAULTY METHODS USED BY EXPERTS IN HANDWRITING. + Same Author. + + A DICTIONARY OF THE NOTABILITIES OF FRANCE JUDGED FROM THE + HANDWRITING. Same Author. + + THE HANDWRITING OF THE FRENCH PEOPLE SINCE THE MEROVINGIAN EPOCH. + Same Author. + + LES MYSTÉRES DE L'ÉCRITURE. Preface by Desbarrolles. Same Author. + + THE HANDWRITING OF JUNIUS PROFESSIONALLY EXAMINED BY CHABOT. Edited + by the Hon. E. TWISTLETON. John Murray. 1871. + +This work is the only one hitherto published in England explaining the +methods of the handwriting expert. Mons. Chabot, for many years the +leading English expert, was commissioned by Mr. Twistleton to examine +the handwriting of "Junius" with a view to deciding the authorship of +the famous letters. The result was an exhaustive volume in which the +process of handwriting analysis is illustrated by thousands of examples. +The conclusion arrived at was that the writer of the "Junius" letters +was Sir Philip Francis. + + + + + _Literary and Historical + Autograph Letters and Manuscripts + Purchased._ + + + OPINIONS GIVEN AS TO + + GENUINENESS OF DOCUMENTS. + + ALSO ON + + SUSPECTED FORGERIES + + AND + + ANONYMOUS LETTERS. + + + BY + + BLACKBURN & CADDELL, + 19, CHARLWOOD PLACE, + LONDON, S.W. + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + + Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note, whilst + more significant amendments have been listed below. + + Page 37, 'analine' amended to _aniline_. + Page 53, 'Alcebiades' amended to _Alcibiades_. + Page 56, 'correspence' amended to _correspondence_. + Page 56, 'addresss' amended to _address_. + Page 68, 'four documents' amended to _five documents_. + Page 78, 'MERORINGIAN' amended to _MEROVINGIAN_. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Detection of Forgery, by +Douglas Blackburn and Waithman Caddell + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DETECTION OF FORGERY *** + +***** This file should be named 25532-0.txt or 25532-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/5/3/25532/ + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Detection of Forgery + A Practical Handbook for the Use of Bankers, Solicitors, + Magistrates' Clerks, and All Handling Suspected Documents + +Author: Douglas Blackburn + Waithman Caddell + +Release Date: May 20, 2008 [EBook #25532] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DETECTION OF FORGERY *** + + + + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + + THE + DETECTION OF FORGERY. + + + A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK + FOR THE USE OF + BANKERS, SOLICITORS, MAGISTRATES' CLERKS, + AND ALL HANDLING SUSPECTED DOCUMENTS. + + + BY + DOUGLAS BLACKBURN + (_Late Expert to the Natal Criminal Investigation Department, + and the Transvaal Republic_) + + AND + CAPTAIN WAITHMAN CADDELL. + + + LONDON: + CHARLES & EDWIN LAYTON, + FARRINGDON STREET, E.C. + 1909. + + + + +ERRATUM. (_Page 15._) + +Owing to the averages given in the table on page 15 being printed from +some incomplete manuscript they are incorrect. It is obvious that the +proper averages are-- + + | 7-1/4 | 6-1/2 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16-1/4 | 21 | 20-3/4 | 20-3/4 + + +Transcriber's Note: + + The corrections in the above erratum have been applied. The + handwritten pages entitled 'Terminology' and 'Alphabet Variants' + have been moved to the beginning of their relevant chapters. Greek + text has been transliterated and is shown between {braces}. + Hyphenation and punctuation have been standardised. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + CHAPTER PAGE + + INTRODUCTION 5 + + I.--THE PRINCIPLES OF HANDWRITING ANALYSIS 7 + + II.--MEASUREMENT AND ITS APPLIANCES 13 + + III.--TERMINOLOGY 17 + + IV.--CLASSES OF HANDWRITING 19 + + V.--HOW TO EXAMINE A WRITING 21 + + VI.--THE ALPHABET IN DETAIL 24 + + VII.--THE CAPITALS 29 + + VIII.--PUNCTUATION 31 + + IX.--PAPER AND WATERMARKS 34 + + X.--INKS 38 + + XI.--ERASURES 42 + + XII.--PENCILS AND STYLOGRAPHS 45 + + XIII.--ANONYMOUS LETTERS AND DISGUISED HANDS 47 + + XIV.--FORGED LITERARY AUTOGRAPHS 52 + + XV.--FORGED SIGNATURES 60 + + XVI.--THE EXPERT IN THE WITNESS-BOX 68 + + XVII.--HANDWRITING AND EXPRESSION 72 + + XVIII.--BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HANDWRITING 78 + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +The object of this little work is to assist those who may occasionally +be called upon to form an opinion as to the genuineness of signatures, +alterations in cheques, and the varied doubtful documents that demand +the serious consideration of business men by way of a preliminary to +"taking further steps." + +It is the first attempt published in England to explain the principles +upon which the comparison and examination of handwriting are conducted +by experts. It is, and can only be, an outline of suggestions how to +begin, for no two experts follow precisely the same methods, any more +than two painters work on the same lines. Both agree in recognising +certain rules and general principles, but each strives for his objective +point by the employment of those means which experience, temperament, +taste and opportunity suggest. The study of the elementary rules of +their art puts them upon the road for perfecting it, after which success +can only be attained by rightly reading the signs that lead to the +ultimate goal. + +In reading these chapters the student should begin by practising that +self-help which is essential to success. _He must read with pen and +notebook._ It is with the object of compelling this valuable habit that +no illustrative examples are given in the text. It would have been easy +to fill many pages with script illustrations, but experience shows that +a much greater impression is made upon the memory by the hand forming +the outlines described than if they were provided in pictorial form. In +other words, the student should supply this purposeful omission by +himself constructing the illustrations from the description. The +trifling extra time and trouble thus demanded will be amply repaid by +the ease and rapidity with which the various points will be fixed in the +memory. Nor is this the only advantage to be gained. The act of +reproducing the illustration cited will emphasise and render clear +technical and mechanical features that would require many words to +explain, with the attendant risk of confusing the mind by mere verbiage. + +The material and opportunity for practising and studying the comparison +of handwritings are abundant. Every letter written or read affords a +subject, and in a surprisingly short space of time the student will find +himself instinctively noting and analysing peculiarities in handwriting +that probably never arrested his attention before. The principles of the +art are exceedingly simple and free from complexity, and many a person +who takes up the study will find that he possesses powers of analysis +and observation unguessed before. The most successful expert is he who +observes most closely and accurately, and the faculty needs only the +spur of an objective point for it to be developed. + +After a little practice, experience will suggest many methods of +examination and test not dealt with here. For example, photographic +enlargements can be and are utilised with great advantage by bringing +out minute details, especially in signatures, erasures and alterations. +Interesting experiments can be made with a view to discovering the +effect of different kinds of ink--important in settling the question +whether the whole of a particular writing was done with one fluid, and +at the same time, or at intervals. + +The study of erasures and alterations of figures or characters also +comes within the scope of developments of the art which it is not deemed +necessary to deal with at length in these pages, for after experience +will suggest their use and the best methods of procedure. For the +beginner the instructions given in the chapters that follow will be +found amply sufficient to direct him how to take up a fascinating and +practical accomplishment, and this, with no further aid than his own +judgment, perseverance and powers of observation and deduction. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +THE PRINCIPLES OF HANDWRITING ANALYSIS. + + +The principle on which experts claim to be able to detect variations and +to differentiate between handwritings is based on the well-established +axiom that there is no such thing as a perfect pair in nature; that, +however close the apparent similarity between two things, a careful +examination and comparison will reveal marked differences to those +trained to detect them. + +This is especially true of everything that is produced by human agency. +Everyone knows how difficult it is to keep check upon and eradicate +certain physical habits, such as gestures, style of walking, moving the +hands, arms, &c., tricks of speech, or tone of voice. These mannerisms, +being mechanical and automatic, or the result of long habit, are +performed unconsciously, and there is probably no person who is entirely +free from some marked peculiarity of manner, which he is ignorant of +possessing. It is a well-known fact that the subject of caricature or +mimicry rarely admits the accuracy or justness of the imitation, +although the peculiarities so emphasised are plainly apparent to others. +Even actors, who are supposed to make a careful study of their every +tone and gesture, are constantly criticised for faults or mannerisms +plain to the observer, but undetected by themselves. + +It is easy, therefore, to understand how a trick or a gesture may become +a fixed and unconscious habit through long custom, especially when, as +in the case of a peculiarity of style in handwriting, there has been +neither criticism on it, nor special reason for abandoning it. + +Every person whose handwriting is developed and permanently formed has +adopted certain more or less distinctive peculiarities in the formation +of letters of which he is generally unaware. + +The act of writing is much less a matter of control than may be +supposed. The pen follows the thoughts mechanically, and few ready and +habitual writers could, if suddenly called upon to do so, say what +peculiarities their writing possessed. For example, how many could say +off-hand how they dotted an _i_--whether with a round dot, a tick or a +dash--whether the tick was vertical, horizontal or sloping; what was the +proportional distance of the dot from the top of the _i_. Again, ask a +practised writer how he crosses the letter _t_--whether with a +horizontal, up or down stroke? It is safe to assume that not one in a +thousand could give an accurate answer, for the reason that the dotting +of an _i_ and crossing of a _t_ have become mechanical acts, done +without thought or premeditation, but as the result of a long-formed +habit. + +It is these unconscious hand-gestures and mechanical tricks of style +that the handwriting expert learns to distinguish and recognise,--the +unconsidered trifles that the writer has probably never devoted a +minute's thought to, and which come upon him as a surprise when they are +pointed out to him. Their detection is rendered the more easy when one +knows what to look for from the fact that they are, unlike gestures and +tricks of voice, permanent. A mannerism may not strike two observers in +the same way, nor is it easy to compare, for it is fleeting, and the +memory has to be relied upon to recall a former gesture in order to +compare it with the last. It is not so with a hand-gesture in writing. +The sign remains side by side with its repetition, for careful and +deliberate comparison; and if the writing be a long one, the expert has +the advantage of being in possession of ample material on which to base +his judgment. + +_A Popular Fallacy._--One of the most frequent objections offered by the +casual critic when the subject of expert testimony is discussed is to +the effect that people write different hands with different pens, and he +probably believes this to be true. A very slight acquaintance with the +principles on which the expert works would satisfy this spontaneous +critic of the fallacy of his objection. A person who habitually writes a +fine, small hand, sloping from right to left, may believe that he has +altered the character of his hand by using a thick, soft quill, +reversing the slope to what is called a backhand, and doubling the size +of the letters. All he has done is to put on a different suit of +clothes; the same man is in them. The use of a thick pen does not make +him put a dot over the _i_ where before he made an horizontal dash; it +does not turn a straight, barred _t_ into a curved loop, neither does it +alter the proportionate distance between the letters and lines. It does +not make him form loops where before he habitually made bars, or _vice +vers_, and if he formerly made a _u_ with an angle like a _v_ he will +not write the _u_ with a rounded hook. Neither will it cause him to drop +his habit of adding a spur to his initial letters or curtail the ends +and tails that he was wont to make long. In short, the points to which +the expert devotes his investigation are those least affected by any +variation in the character of the pen used and the hand-gestures which +have, by constant usage, become as much part of the writer's style as +his walk and the tone of his voice. + +It follows, therefore, that the work of the handwriting experts consists +in learning how to detect and recognize those unconscious or mechanical +signs, characteristics or hand-gestures that are a feature in the +handwriting of every person, no matter how closely any two hands may +approximate in general appearance. However similar two hands may seem to +the casual and untrained observer, very distinct and unmistakable +differences become apparent when the student has been taught what to +look for. There is no more certain thing than the fact that there has +not yet been discovered two handwritings by separate persons so closely +allied that a difference cannot be detected by the trained observer. +Every schoolmaster knows that in a class of pupils taught writing from +the same model, and kept strictly to it, no two hands are alike, +although in the early and rudimentary stage, before the hand has +attained freedom and approached a settled character, the differences are +less marked. So soon as the child has been freed from the restraint of +the set copy and the criticism of the teacher, he begins to manifest +distinct characteristics, which become more marked and fixed with +practice and usage. + +There is no writing so uniform as the regulation hand used, and wisely +insisted upon, in the Civil Service, and familiar to the general public +in telegrams and official letters. Yet it is safe to say that there is +not a telegraph or post office clerk in England who would not be able to +pick out the writing of any colleague with which he was at all +acquainted. + +_Duplicates non-existent._--But the best and most decisive answer to the +objection that writings may be exactly similar lies in the notorious +fact that during half a century experts have failed to discover two +complete writings by different hands, so much alike that a difference +could not be detected. Had such existed, they would long ere this have +been produced for the confuting of the expert in the witness-box; +particularly when we bear in mind that the liberty, and even the life of +a person, have depended upon the identification of handwriting. That +there are many cases of extraordinary similarity between different +handwritings is a fact; if there were not, there would be very little +occasion for the services of the expert, but it is equally a fact that +the fancied resemblance becomes less apparent as soon as the writing is +examined by a capable and painstaking expert. It should not be forgotten +that it is not every person who undertakes the comparison of +handwritings who is qualified for the task, any more than every doctor +who diagnoses a case can be depended upon to arrive at an accurate +conclusion. But if the tried and accepted principles of the art be acted +upon, there should be no possibility of error, always assuming that the +person undertaking the examination has a sufficiency of material for +comparison. An expert who valued his reputation would, for example, be +very cautious about giving an emphatic opinion if the only material at +his disposal were two or three words or letters. It is quite possible +that a clever mimic might reproduce the voice of another person so +accurately as to deceive those who knew the subject of the imitation; +but let him carry on a conversation in the assumed voice for a few +minutes, and detection is certain. In like manner, while a few +characters and tricks of style in writing may be fairly well imitated, +it is impossible to carry the deception over a number of words. Sooner +or later the forger lapses into some trick of his own, and it is here +the trained observer catches him. The expert, like the caricaturist, +lays himself out to note the peculiarities of his subject, knowing that +these are practically beyond the control of the writer, and that the +probabilities are that he is not even aware of them. Peculiarities in +handwriting, like unchecked habits in children, become, in time, +crystallised into a mannerism so fixed as to be part of the nature, and +consequently are difficult of eradication. As a matter of fact a +peculiarity in handwriting is more often cultivated than controlled, +many writers regarding a departure from orthodox copybook form as an +evidence of an "educated hand." + +_The Law of Probabilities._--In examining a writing for comparison with +another the expert notes all peculiarities, which he labels, for +distinctive reference, "tricks." When he has recorded as many as +possible he looks for them in the writing which he has to compare. +Suppose that he has taken note of a dozen tricks, and finds them all +repeated in the suspected writing. The law of probabilities points to a +common authorship for both writings, for it is asking too much to expect +one to believe that there should exist two different persons, probably +strangers, who possess precisely the same peculiarities in penmanship. + +This principle of the law of probabilities is applied in the case of the +identification of persons "wanted" by the police. For example, the +official description of an absconding forger runs as follows:--"He has a +habit of rubbing his right thumb against the middle finger as if turning +a ring. He frequently strokes his right eyebrow with right forefinger +when engaged in writing; when perplexed, he bites his lower lip and +clenches and unclenches his fingers." + +Now there are, probably, thousands of people who do every one of these +things singly, but the chances are millions to one against there being +two people who do them all as described in the official placard. In like +manner there may be a multitude of writers who form an _f_ or _k_ with a +peculiar exaggerated buckle. Thousands more may make certain letters in +the same way, but to assume that there are two persons who possess +equally the whole twelve characteristics noted by the expert is to +strain coincidence to the breaking-point of absurdity. + +Therefore, it follows that it is the weight of cumulative evidence of +similarity in the production of unusual tricks of style that proclaims a +common authorship for two apparently different writings. + +It may be, and often is, the case that the peculiarities or tricks in +the original have been imitated in the suspected writing. As the result +of his experience in knowing what to look for in a copied document, the +expert is not deceived. However good the copy, there are always apparent +to the trained eye evidences that prove another and stranger hand, plain +as the difference between the firm, clear line of the drawing master and +the broken saw-edged effort of the pupil. Habitual observation trains +the eye to an extent that would scarcely be credited unless proved by +experiment. The art of observation cannot be taught; it must be the +outcome of practice. The most the teacher can do is to indicate the +lines on which the study should be carried out, and offer hints and +suggestions as to what to look for. The rest is in the hands of the +student. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +MEASUREMENT AND ITS APPLIANCES. + + +The appliances necessary for the work of examination are, a good +magnifying or reading glass of the greatest power obtainable, a pair of +fine compasses or dividers, a horn or celluloid protractor for measuring +angles of slope, and a clearly marked scale rule. Suitable articles will +generally be found in an ordinary case of mathematical instruments. + +A simpler and equally accurate method of taking measurements of +handwriting is by the aid of the transparent paper known as foreign +letter paper. It is usually of quarto size, very thin and transparent, +and is ruled horizontally and vertically, dividing the sheet into tiny +squares. It is laid over the writing to be examined, and the various +measurement marks are made with a finely pointed lead pencil. The lines +and squares are used for measurement as the parallels of latitude and +longitude are used on a chart. For example, a letter is said to be so +many lines high, so many lines wide. One of the tiny squares should be +carefully divided into two, or, if possible, four parts, so as to ensure +finer and more accurate measurement. A letter may then be measured in +parts of a line, being described, for example, as, height 6-3/4 lines, +breadth 2-1/2 lines. It is of course important that the same gauge of +ruled paper be used uniformly, otherwise the measurements will vary. If +the student has had practice in the use of the dividers and scale rule, +he may prefer to employ these, but the ruled paper and a finely pointed +lead pencil will be found sufficient for most purposes. A paper +specially prepared for surveyors, ruled in squares of one-eighth of an +inch may be obtained. For measuring the slopes of letters a transparent +protractor is necessary. The letters measured are all topped and tailed +small letters, and all capitals having a shank. Letters like _O_, _C_, +_Q_, _S_, and _X_ can only be measured approximately. + +The method of applying the measurements of heights and angles of slope +is shown in the case illustrated by the table on page 15. + +The subject of enquiry was a signature containing the letters _B_, _l_, +_k_, _b_. + +The measurements of these letters in the forgery are given at the top of +the table, and show the height in lines and angle of slope in degrees. + +The measurements of the corresponding letters in twelve genuine +signatures are shown in the table as Examples 1 to 12. + +The total is averaged by dividing by twelve. + +The presumption in favour of the suspected signature being a forgery is +strongly supported by the arithmetical result. + +A difference of more than 2 per cent. in angle of slope, and 3 per cent. +in height may be safely relied upon as ground for suspicion, for it is +rarely that a man's signature varies so greatly within a brief period. +In the absence of the explanation provided by illness, intentional +change in style or other abnormal circumstances, such a difference as is +shown in this example will justify a belief that the suspected signature +is by another hand. + + ---------+-------------------------------++------------------------------- + | Height in lines. || Angle of slope. + +-------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+------- + | _B._ | _l._ | _k._ | _b._ || _B._ | _l._ | _k._ | _b._ + ---------+-------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+------- + Forgery | 7 | 7 | 6 | 7-1/4 || 15 | 20 | 21 | 21 + ---------+-------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+------- + Example 1| 7-1/4 | 6-1/2 | 5-1/2 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 22 | 21 | 20 + | | | | || | | | + " 2| 7-1/4 | 6-1/4 | 6 | 7-1/4 || 17 | 21 | 20 | 20 + | | | | || | | | + " 3| 7-1/4 | 6 | 5-3/4 | 7-3/4 || 16 | 21 | 20 | 21 + | | | | || | | | + " 4| 7 | 6-1/4 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 21 | 20 | 21 + | | | | || | | | + " 5| 7 | 6-3/4 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 17 | 22 | 21 | 20 + | | | | || | | | + " 6| 7-1/2 | 6-3/4 | 5 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 21 | 20 | 21 + | | | | || | | | + " 7| 7-1/2 | 6 | 6 | 7-1/4 || 17 | 20 | 21 | 21 + | | | | || | | | + " 8| 7-1/2 | 6-1/2 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 22 | 21 | 21 + | | | | || | | | + " 9| 7-1/4 | 6-1/2 | 5-1/2 | 7 || 16 | 21 | 21 | 21 + | | | | || | | | + " 10| 6-3/4 | 6-1/2 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/4 || 16 | 20 | 21 | 21 + | | | | || | | | + " 11| 7-1/4 | 6-3/4 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 21 | 21 | 22 + | | | | || | | | + " 12| 7 | 6-1/4 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 20 | 21 | 21 + ---------+-------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+------- + Average | 7-1/4 | 6-1/2 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16-1/4| 21 | 20-3/4| 20-3/4 + ---------+-------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+------- + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +TERMINOLOGY. + + +[Illustration: TERMINOLOGY.] + +In order to render the description of a writing perfectly clear, a +system of terminology is adopted which is invariable. That is, the same +terms are always employed in indicating the same parts of a letter. +These are simple, and for the most part self-explanatory, so that no +effort is required to commit them to memory. + +Every part of a letter has a distinctive name, so that it would be +possible to reproduce a script character very closely by a verbal +description. + +The following are the terms used in describing a letter:-- + +_Letter_ means the whole of any script character, capital or small. For +the sake of brevity in notes and reports capital is written Cp.; small, +Sm. + +_Arc._--An arc is the curve formed _inside_ the top loop or curve, as in +_f_, _m_, _h_, _o_. In _o_, the inside top half of the letter is the +arc; the inside bottom half is the hook. + +_Buckle._--The buckle is the separate stroke added to such letters as +_k_, _f_, and capitals _A_, _F_, _H_. + +_Beard._--The beard is the preliminary stroke that often appears in +capital letters. + +_Body._--The body of a letter is that portion of it which rests on the +line and could be contained in a small circle. For example, in a small +_d_ the body consists of the circle and the final upward curve or toe. +In a small _g_ the body is the circle minus the tail. + +_Eye_ is the small circle formed by the continuation of a stroke as in +the shoulder _r_. + +_Finals._--A final is the finishing stroke not carried beyond the shank +in capitals, and in a few smalls like _y_, _g_, _z_. + +_Foot._--The foot of a letter is that portion of it that rests on the +line. Small _m_ has three feet, _h_ has two, etc. + +_Hook._--The hook is the inside of a bottom curve. It is the opposite of +the arc. + +_Link._--The link is that portion of the stroke which connects two +letters. + +_Broken link._--A broken link is a disconnection in the link joining two +letters. + +_Loop._--A loop is that portion of a letter which forms the top or tail. +Unlooped tops and tails are called "barred." For example, small _f_ has +two loops, top and bottom; _f_, _h_, _l_ have one top loop; _g_, _y_, +_z_ have one bottom loop. + +_Shank._--The shank of a letter is the principal long downstroke that +forms the backbone. + +_Shoulder._--The shoulder is the outside of the top of the curve as seen +in small _m_, _n_, _o_, _h_. Small _m_ has three shoulders, _n_ two, _h_ +one. + +_Spur._--The spur is to the small letter what the beard is to the +capital. It is the initial stroke. + +_Tick._--A tick is a small stroke generally at the beginning of a +letter, sometimes at the end. + +_Toe._--The toe is the concluding upward stroke of a letter, as seen in +small _e_, _n_, _h_, &c. + +_Whirl._--The whirl is the upstroke in all looped letters. It is a +continuation of the spur in _b_, _h_, _f_, _l_, and is always an +upstroke. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +CLASSES OF HANDWRITING. + + +For convenience in differentiation, handwritings are divided into the +following classes. Practically every type of writing can be placed in +one of them. + +_Vertical Hand._--A vertical hand is one in which the tops and tails of +letters form as nearly as possible a perpendicular with the horizontal +line. The best example of this class of handwriting is that known as the +Civil Service hand, familiar to the general public through telegrams and +official documents. + +_Back Hand_ is a hand in which the general slope of the characters is +from right to left. + +_Italian Hand_ is the reverse of a back hand, the slope being at an +acute angle from left to right. It is a style fast going out of fashion, +and is almost invariably the handwriting used by elderly ladies. Its +most pronounced characteristic is its sharp angles and absence of +curves. + +_Open Hand._--An open hand is one that generally approximates to the +vertical, its distinguishing feature being the wide space between the +letters. The best example of it is that known as the Cusack style of +writing. + +_Closed Hand._--A closed hand is the opposite of an open hand, the +letters being crowded together and generally long and narrow, with the +slope from left to right. + +_Greek Hand._--This is the name given to a type of writing that closely +approximates to the printed character. Many letters, both capital and +small, are formed to imitate print, particularly the capitals _T_, _X_, +_Y_, _R_, _B_, _D_, and the smalls _e_, _f_, _g_, _h_, _j_, _k_, _p_, +_r_, _t_, _v_, _w_, _x_, _y_, _z_. It is a hand frequently found in the +writings of classical scholars, literary men engaged in work entailing +careful research, and often is an evidence of short sight. + +The _Wavy Hand_ is generally vertical. Its characteristic is an +undulating serpentine waviness. Little or no distinction is made between +barred or looped letters. There are no rounded shoulders to the _m_ and +_n_ and the word minnie would be written by five small _u_'s. In +round-bodied letters like _a_, _d_, _g_, the circle is rarely completed, +but is left open, so that small _a_ becomes _u_, and small _d_ may be +mistaken for _it_, with the _i_ undotted and _t_ uncrossed. Despite its +geometrical and caligraphic inaccuracy in detail, this hand is generally +written with great regularity, that is, the characters, though +incomplete, are always uniform in their irregularity. The _e_ is never +open, but is an undotted _i_, and _n_ is _u_, but when the peculiarities +of the writer become familiar this hand is often very legible. + +_Flat Hand._--A flat hand is a type of handwriting in which the +characters have an oblate or flattened appearance, the _o_, _a_, _g_, +&c., being horizontal ovals, like the minim and breve in music. The +tails and tops are generally short, with wide loops. It is nearly always +a vertical hand. + +An _Eccentric Hand_ is one that presents various marked peculiarities +and departures from standard rules in the formation of certain letters, +and cannot be placed in any recognised class, though it may approximate +to one more than to another. + +The _Round_ or _Clerical Hand_ is a writing that preserves a close +affinity for the round regular hand of the average school-boy, with the +difference that while the characters are formed on regular copybook +model, the hand is written with considerable fluency and firmness. It is +generally only a little out of the perpendicular, sloping slightly +towards the right. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +HOW TO EXAMINE A WRITING. + + +The examination of a writing generally consists in making a careful +comparison between it and another or others, the object being to +determine whether all are by the same hand. + +The writing which is in a known hand or as to the authorship of which +there is no doubt, is usually called the Original, and is always +referred to by this name. The writing which has to be compared with it, +and which practically forms the subject of the enquiry, is called the +Suspect. The Suspects should be marked A, B, C, D, &c., and put away +without examination until the Original has been thoroughly mastered. +This is more important than may appear at first sight, for the confusing +effect of having the two types of writing in the eye and mind before one +type is made familiar is highly prejudicial. Any inclination to look at +the Suspects first should be firmly resisted. + +Let us assume that the object of the examination is to discover the +writer of an anonymous letter--one of the most frequent tasks of the +handwriting expert. The material in hand is the anonymous letter, which +in such a case may be called the Original, and half-a-dozen specimens of +the writing of suspected persons. These Suspects are numbered from 1 to +6, or marked A, B, C, &c., and put aside until the Original has been +thoroughly studied. + +The first thing is to examine the paper and envelope, noting its +quality, watermark, size, and any feature that may afford a clue. It is +always safe to presume that the paper is in every respect unlike that +commonly used by the writer, just as it is equally safe to take it for +granted that the writing it contains will, so far as its general +appearance goes, be the reverse of the normal hand of the author. That +is, if it be a heavy back hand, the writer probably uses a hand +approximating to the Italian, though too much weight must not be +attached to this theory. + +Next, note the general style of the document as a whole, whether the +margin between top, bottom, and sides is large or small. A writer who +habitually begins at the top left-hand corner very near to the edge of +the paper will often betray himself by repeating the habit. It is a very +common sign of an economical disposition. Note whether he crowds his +words and letters near the ends of lines or leaves a good margin. Clerks +and those engaged in official work rarely crowd their final words, +preferring rather to leave a wide space and go on to the next line. + +Note whether the hyphen is used to divide words. Many writers never +divide a word, others do it frequently, with or without the hyphen. + +Measure the average distance between lines, if unruled paper be used, +and make a note of the average distance. + +Measure the distance between words and strike an average, noting if +words are connected without lifting the pen. It may be found that this +joining is only done when certain letters form the final of the first +word joined and the initial of the word connected. Look carefully for +such. + +Note particularly the slope of the topped and tailed letters. + +Note the punctuation, whether frequent and accurate or otherwise. + +Determine the class to which the writing belongs. + +Read the document carefully, noting any peculiarities of language, +errors, or Americanisms in spelling, such as "favor" for "favour," +"color" for "colour," &c.; the substitution of "_z_" for "_s_" in such +words as "advertise," &c. Examine with the glass any words that may have +been crossed out or rewritten, noting particularly letters that have +been mended or touched up. + +Note whether the horizontal lines have a tendency to slope up or down. + +Note particularly letters with two or more feet, like _a_, _d_, _h_, +_k_, _m_, _n_, &c. It will be found that a certain regularity in +formation exists in most writings. If the _a_ be formed like an _o_, +the toe not touching the line, or an _n_ with the second foot high up +like a bearded _r_, these peculiarities should be carefully noted. Some +writers go to the other extreme, and carry the second foot below the +line, so that _a_ becomes a small _q_. Too much time cannot be devoted +to this aspect of handwriting, as it presents features of which the +writer is probably quite unconscious, and, therefore, affords valuable +evidence. + +Next study the topped and tailed letters, noting whether they are looped +or barred, that is, formed by a single stroke. It will be often found +that certain letters are always looped, others barred. Take careful note +of such. If both barred and looped letters appear to be used +indiscriminately, count and average them. In any case, a characteristic +will be revealed. Examine and classify the loops. Note whether they are +long or short, rounded or angular, wide or narrow. Devote special +attention to the arc, shoulder and hook. Note, also, any difference of +thickness between the up and down stroke; test the degree of clearness +and sharpness of stroke by means of the glass, and carefully look for +the serrated or ragged edge, which will assist in determining the angle +at which the pen is held. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE ALPHABET IN DETAIL. + + +[Illustration: ALPHABET VARIANTS.] + +If the instructions so far given have been acted upon, the student will +have familiarised himself with the general character of the writing +under examination. He should now proceed with a detailed examination of +each letter, beginning with the smalls, and taking them in alphabetical +order. + +Take a sheet of tracing paper and trace each small _a_, letting them +follow each other on the line, with about a quarter inch of space +between each letter. During the process of tracing, the eye must be on +the alert for peculiarities, notably the roundness or otherwise of the +circle as a whole, the curve or angle of the arc and hook, the relative +position of the toe. Note the shank, whether looped or barred, whether +the top of it is above or below the body of the circle, whether it is +vertical or sloping from right or left. Having compared all the _a_'s, +count them, and decide which form most frequently recurs. This may be +taken as the normal _a_ of the writer. + +The following are the principal points to be considered in examining +succeeding letters. + +_b._--Note the spur, its length, how far up the shank it meets it; +whether the shank is barred or looped; the character of the loop. Note +particularly the toe, which also forms the link. This is a very +significant hand-gesture. It may be low down, making the _b_ literally +_li_, or it may be a horizontal bar, an angle, or a neat semicircle. Its +formation offers large scope for variation, and should be very carefully +studied. Compare the toe with the corresponding stroke in _f_, _o_, _v_, +_w_. Note whether it is joined with an eye, and observe its average +distance from the bottom on base line. + +_c._--This letter, when an initial, is frequently begun with a spur, +often with a dot or tick. When connected with a preceding letter, the +link may make the _c_ into an _e_. It is sometimes disconnected from the +preceding letter. Note whether this is characteristic. + +_d._--Apply the same tests as in examining small _a_, noting whether the +shank is barred or looped. + +_e._--Examine the spur in initials; closely observe the loop. Look for +any recurrence of the Greek {e}. Examine and compare the specimens given +in the examples. Many writers have a habit of forming an _e_ as an _i_ +and adding the loop. Look out for this with assistance of the glass. + +_f._--This is an important letter, giving scope for numerous varieties +of form. Examine and classify the loops, noting which is the longer--the +top or bottom; whether one or both are barred. The eye and toe are +pregnant with material for observation. Examine the various forms of +this letter given in the examples. + +_g._--Like the preceding letter, this one has many varieties of form, +and will repay careful study. + +_h._--The characteristic portion of this letter is the hook forming its +body. Note how it is joined to the shank--whether it starts from the +line or high up; whether the shoulder is rounded or angular, whether the +foot touches the line or remains above it; whether the shank is looped +or barred. + +_i._--This is an important letter because of the dot, which is made +mechanically. After noting whether the shank is spurred as an initial, +special attention must be devoted to the dot. Dots are of various forms. +They may be a wedge-shaped stroke sloping in any direction, a horizontal +dash, a tiny circle or semicircle, a small _v_, or a perfect dot. +Examine them all through the glass, and compare them with the comma, +which often partakes of the same character as the dot. Note also its +relative position to the shank, whether vertical, to the right or left, +and its average height and distance from the shank. Much may be learned +from a careful examination of the dot, and its every variation and +characteristic should be most carefully noted and classified. + +_j_ is important for the same reason that makes the _i_ significant. +There are several forms of it, but the dotting offers the most valuable +evidence. + +_k._--This is the most significant and valuable of the small letters, as +it offers scope for so much originality and irregularity in its +formation. The characteristic features of the small _k_ lie mainly in +the body. Few writers form a _k_ alike. Although it may belong to the +same class, the number of variations that can be rung on the body is +surprisingly large, ranging from the regulation copybook model to the +eccentric patterns shown in the examples. Special attention should be +devoted to the eye and buckle, for it is at this junction of the two +strokes forming the body that most writers exhibit their peculiarities. + +_l._--The same principles of examination apply to this letter as to the +small _e_. Note carefully the character of the loop and examine the +position of the spur. + +_m_ and _n_ offer ample material for examination. As an initial the +first stroke is sometimes exaggerated, approximating the letter to the +capital _M_ or _N_. Note the formation of the shoulders and their +relative heights and width; also, by means of a line touching the tops +of the shoulders, note carefully and compare the last shoulder with the +first. This letter presents great extremes in formation. The shoulders +may be high and well rounded, or even horizontal, or they may be sharp +angles, turning the _m_ into _in_, and the _n_ into _u_. Note the +distance between the shanks and observe whether it is uniform. + +_o._--This letter owes its main importance to its connecting link. Note +whether it is carried low down, making the letter like an _a_, whether +it is joined to the body by an eye, and if the toe is curved or angular. +Note, also, the general conformation of the circular body and compare +the toe with that in _b_, _f_, _v_, and _w_. + +_p._--There are several forms of this letter, and a writer who affects +one of them generally repeats it often. The shank may be barred or +looped, wholly or in part, especially when used as an initial. The body +generally offers ample material for examination. + +_q_ is also a letter with which great liberties are taken, and is the +subject of several variations. Some writers make no distinction between +_g_ and _q_, and the final stroke often supplies the main characteristic +of this letter. + +_r._--This important letter has two forms--the square, or eyed, and the +hooked. Many variants are employed in forming it, as the specimens in +the examples show. Many writers unconsciously form a habit of using both +_r_'s, but with a certain degree of system. For example, one may use the +hook _r_ always as a final, and the eyed _r_ as an initial. The +formation of the eye should be specially studied, with the shoulder, +which may be formed as a semicircle, an arc, a straight bar or an +angular _v_. The hooked _r_ is equally rich in varying forms, and the +letter forms an interesting study. + +_s._--This is a letter of such frequent recurrence in the English +language that it not unnaturally has become the subject of a variety of +forms, and this despite the fact that its regulation shape is +exceedingly simple and rudimentary. The majority of writers have one +favourite form of the letter, which, like the _k_, becomes +characteristic. + +_t._--This letter is important because of its frequent recurrence, and +on account of the variations of form, the bar or crossing being the most +fruitful in material for observation. There are two usual forms of the +_t_, the hooked and crossed, and the barred, and they are equally +valuable and characteristic. The crossing of a hooked _t_, like the +dotting of an _i_, is so mechanical an act that it often reveals +important evidence. The cross stroke when closely examined will be found +to present many variations. It may be a fine horizontal line, a curve, a +heavy short dash; it may be ticked or dotted at either end or both--in +short, there is scarcely an end to the numerous forms this important +hand-gesture may assume. Then its relative position to the shank tells +much. It may be high up, not touching the shank; low down, neatly struck +at right angles to the shank, or it may be omitted altogether. In some +circumstances a _t_ is crossed, in others left uncrossed; for example, +the _t_ at the beginning of a word may be invariably uncrossed, but the +final _t_ never. These are the peculiarities and characteristics the +student has to keep a watchful eye for. The other form of the _t_ is +known as the bar _t_. It is generally uncrossed, and often the buckle is +an important feature. A careful examination of the examples will suggest +the lines on which the analysis of the letter _t_ should be conducted +and at the same time reveal the richness of material at the disposal of +the student. + +_u._--Note whether the two shanks are uniform, whether the letter is +spurred as an initial. Average the distance between the shanks, and +observe the conformation of the hook, whether rounded or _v_-shaped. + +_v._--The important feature of this letter is the toe. Its formation +must be carefully noted as in _f_, _o_, hooked _r_ and _w_. + +_w._--Apply the same test as to _u_ and _v_. Note the uniformity or +otherwise of the shanks and hooks, and study the varied forms given in +the examples. + +_x._--This letter lends itself to tricks and variations, and few letters +depart more from the orthodox copybook form in actual practice, as is +shown in the examples. + +_y._--Note the spur and its relative position to the shank. Note the +tail and its average length. + +_z._--This letter offers good material for study and the detection of +mannerisms. Its body is the most significant part, as it is capable of +so many variations. It may be angular or well curved; the eye may be +large or exaggerated or merely suggested. Like _k_ and _x_, the form +once adopted by a writer is not usually departed from to any great +extent. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +THE CAPITALS. + + +Owing to their large size and more complex form the capital letters +offer much more material for tests than the smalls. They yield more +scope for tricks and eccentricity, though, at the same time, their extra +prominence, and the clearness with which their outlines strike the eye +of the writer render it more likely that he will detect glaring +departures from the orthodox model. In other words, a writer would +probably pay more attention to accuracy in forming, and particularly in +copying, a capital than a small letter. This is generally found to be +the case in signature forgeries, the capitals being, as a rule, much +nearer the original than the small letters. But there is this great +advantage in favour of the student in examining capitals--the strokes +being more expansive supply a larger field and material for examination. +For example, a ragged or diamond stroke in a much flourished capital +like _M_, _W_, _R_ or _B_ would be more apparent than the same kind of +stroke in a small letter. + +There is no need to take the capital letters seriatim, as was the case +with the smalls, for the same principles and rules for examination apply +in both cases. The same care is necessary in examining the arcs, hooks +and shoulders of loops, with their general conformation. The angle of +slope is more noticeable in capitals, and they reveal the +characteristics of the writer more than small letters. Persons who +profess to delineate character from handwriting always pay great +attention to the capitals, doubtless with good reason, and as the result +of long experience. + +An examination will show that about ten capitals can be formed with two +disconnected strokes. They are _A_, _B_, _F_, _H_, _K_, _P_, _Q_, _R_, +_T_ and _X_. These are known as double capitals. These doubles should +be carefully looked for, and the frequency, or otherwise, of their +recurrence noted, as it is probable they will be found to be nearly +always used under the same circumstances; that is, a writer may have a +habit of beginning with a double capital when possible, but revert to +the single form of the same letter in the body of the writing. Another +writer will almost invariably disconnect the capitals from the rest of +the word, while a third as regularly connects them. Some writers affect +the more simple form, approximating to the printed character. Others +again indulge in inordinate flourishes, particularly in their +signatures. Such writers prove easy prey to the forger. + +A feature very easy of detection in capitals is the "diamond." It is +formed by a sudden thickening of the downstroke. It is particularly +noticeable in the writing of those who have been instructed in the +old-fashioned school, where a distinction between the heavy downstroke +and the light upstroke was insisted upon. The diamond habit once formed +is very difficult to eradicate, and traces of it always remain in the +writing of persons thus taught. + +An important and significant part of a capital letter is the beard. It +is an automatic trick, and always repays careful examination. It may be +a spurred, ticked or dotted beard, but in any case the initial stroke +must be carefully examined, whatever form it may assume, for the +oft-emphasized reason that it belongs so essentially to the +clue-providing class of unguarded and unpremeditated automatic strokes +that are overlooked by the writer. + +Variations in the form of a capital must be noted, and a record kept, +for, however great the variety, it will be found that one particular +form is more used than another, and may be regarded as the normal type +of the writer. + +A peculiarity of some writers is the use of an enlarged form of the +small letter for a capital. The letters so made to serve a double +purpose are generally _A_, _C_, _E_, _G_, _M_, _N_, _O_, _P_, _Q_, _S_, +_U_, _V_ and _W_. They are referred to as small capitals. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +PUNCTUATION. + + +The ampersand (&) is a symbol that provides excellent material for clues +to tricks and mannerisms. It varies in form from a mere _v_-shaped tick +of almost indeterminate character to an ornate thing of loops and +flourishes. It is very sparingly employed by illiterate persons, and +some educated writers avoid its use under the impression that, like the +abbreviation of words, it is vulgar. In a few high-class ladies' schools +its use is sternly repressed, and there are many fluent and habitual +writers who never employ this sign. This in itself supplies a useful +clue to characterisation. Others, again, only employ it in such +combinations as "& Co.," "&c.," though this latter abbreviation is, as +often as not, written "etc." by many persons. + +The dash (--) occurs very largely in many writings, and particularly in +those of ladies, who regard it as a universal punctuation mark, and +employ it indiscriminately as comma and full stop. Many persons of both +sexes invariably make a dash below the address on an envelope, using it +as a kind of final flourish. A close examination of the samples provided +in such a writing will reveal many valuable idiosyncrasies. It may be a +bold, firm horizontal line, a curve with a tick at either end, or both; +a wavy line or even an upward or downward line. Note, also, the ragged +edge, as it affords an important clue to the style of holding the pen. +The dash is so essentially an unpremeditated and mechanically-formed +hand-gesture that it often betrays more of the character of the writer +than any other letter. Cases have been known in which the writer of an +anonymous letter has successfully concealed all his characteristics, +but in putting the final stroke in the form of a dash he has so far +forgotten himself as to produce, quite unconsciously, what was probably +one of his most pronounced hand-gestures, thus providing a clue which +led to ultimate conviction. + +Punctuation is rarely a marked feature of English handwriting. It is +said that many of our leading literary men practically leave this +important phase of their work to the printer's proof-reader. An +examination of a hundred private letters by different hands will show a +marvellous scarcity of punctuation marks, and few correspondents use or +appear to know the use of any stop other than the comma and full point, +the dash being made to do service for all else. The mark of +interrogation is fairly often used, and its formation gives scope and +material for careful examination. The examples offer suggestions of the +form and direction eccentricity sometimes takes. + +The colon and semicolon are very little used by average writers, and +when they are, it is generally inaccurately, but nearly always under the +same circumstances, which should be carefully noted. The quotation marks +(" ") are still more rarely employed, and it will be found on +examination that most people form them wrongly. The accurate style is +this, " ", but as often as not the initial quotation has the dot at the +top instead of the bottom. + +Another almost universal omission is that of the full point after +initials to a name, after "Esq.," and in the initials of postal +districts, as E.C., W.C. The addressing of an envelope affords +interesting and valuable material for clues, for it will generally be +found that a writer who uses punctuation marks at all will do so with +automatic regularity under the same circumstances. + +The shape and general formation of stops and marks must be carefully +examined and classified, for they belong to the significant +unpremeditated class of hand-gestures, and are, therefore, valuable as +clues to peculiarities. + +The "Esq." that generally follows a man's name on a letter addressed to +him partakes much of the character of a symbol like the "?" or "!", and, +being automatic through usage, is therefore valuable. Most writers use a +uniform style in shaping it, and the three letters that go to make up +the abbreviation are fortunately of a kind that lend themselves to +characterisation. + +Notice, also, the position of the possessive sign in such words as +"men's," "writer's." If accurately placed, the writer may be presumed to +understand punctuation, and will give evidence of it in a long writing. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +PAPER AND WATERMARKS. + + +The brownish tint of old age which paper needs to help out a fraud is +obtained in various ways--sometimes by steeping in a weak solution of +coffee, but in other cases by holding it before a bright hot fire. This +latter device is, fortunately, not easy of accomplishment, considerable +care, judgment and even luck being needed to ensure a satisfactory +result. In our own case we have failed persistently in the attempt, the +paper becoming tinted so unequally as to excite remark at first sight. + +All the old pattern of letter paper was almost uniform in size--post +quarto, and the watermark is invariably very distinct, explainable by +the fact that the art of close weaving the wire mould was not then +brought to its present state of perfection. + +The watermarks are very fairly imitated by means of a pointed stick +dipped in a solution of spermaceti and linseed oil melted in water and +stirred till cold; or, equal quantities of turpentine and Canada balsam +shaken together. The same result may be obtained by the use of megilp, a +mixture employed by artists. + +The detection of this watermark fraud is simple and infallible. If the +suspected document be moistened with lukewarm water the spurious +watermark disappears immediately, but if genuine, it becomes plainer. + +The worn and dingy appearance inseparable from age in a letter is +accentuated by rubbing it lightly with a dirty duster. The effect is +usually obvious under a strong glass, the passage of the dirty cloth +revealing itself in minute parallel lines. + +Very little care is needed to distinguish between paper that has been +taken from books and the genuine letter paper of the period. To begin +with, such letters are always on single sheets. In genuine cases, the +sheet is as often as not a folio of four pages. In the majority of cases +the bogus sheet is of no recognised size. If taken from a book larger +than post quarto, it has had to be cut to conceal the tear. This +operation has made an irregular sized sheet--too small for post quarto, +too large for the next size. In the genuine writing paper, all four +edges are usually rough like those of a bank note. If the sheet has been +abstracted from a book, one edge must have been cut or trimmed. + +Again, such paper is of unequal thickness, the writing paper of the +period being much smoother and finer than the printing paper, while in +parts it is almost certain the ink has run, as it does on a coarse, +absorbent paper. This is a sure sign that the paper is printing and not +writing. + +Further, such paper is certain to show signs of wear at the bottom edges +where they have been handled and exposed, while that part of the page +which has been closest to the inside edge of the cover is generally +cleaner, and shows less sign of wear. In many cases the impression of +the book binding is plainly visible. + +A careful examination and comparison of a few sheets of genuine letter +paper of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries with the blank leaves +found in printed books will reveal differences so marked that mistake is +scarcely possible afterwards. + +It often occurs that grease marks interrupt the forger. Knowing that he +cannot write over them, and that they are hardly likely to have existed +on the paper when it was new, and when the letter was supposed to be +written, he avoids them. The result becomes apparent in unequal spacing +of words and even letters. + +On one occasion a really excellent forgery, which had successfully +withstood all the tests we had applied, had its real character revealed +by a curious oversight on the part of the forger. + +It was an early seventeenth century document, and our attention was +arrested by a peculiar uniform smudgy appearance, such as results from +blotting with a hard, unabsorbent, much-worn sheet of blotting paper. At +the period of the presumed date of this document blotting paper was +unknown, writings being dried by means of a specially prepared fine +powder called pounce, sand, or a powder containing fine crystals of +metal intended to give an ornamental gloss to the ink. Close examination +under the microscope revealed the truth. There were no signs of pounce +or any other drying powder, the crystals of which are usually plain to +the unassisted eye, but there were distinct signs of the fibre of the +blotting paper left in the ink. + +Another forgery we discovered through the presence in the centre of the +sheet of paper of a very faint square outline which enclosed a slight +discolouration. The sheet had, as usual, been removed from a book, and +the square outline was a faint impression of a book-plate which had been +affixed to the opposite page. The discolouration was caused by the ink +on the book-plate. + +It should be superfluous to have to remind intelligent and educated +persons that it is necessary for a collector of old documents to make +himself familiar with the peculiarities, habits and customs of the +period in whose literary curiosities he is dealing. Yet fact compels the +admission that extraordinary laxity and even ignorance exist on these +points. We are acquainted with a collector, by no means uneducated, who +gave a good price for a letter purporting to be by Sir Humphrey Davy, +the inventor of the miners' safety lamp, enclosed in an envelope. He was +ignorant of the fact that envelopes were unknown until 1840, thirty +years later than the date of this particular letter. Envelopes supposed +to have been addressed by Dickens have been offered for sale and +purchased, bearing postage stamps not in circulation at the period. + +One would imagine that a forger would pay sufficient attention to his +materials to be on his guard against the blunder which earned the +perpetrator of the Whalley Will Forgery penal servitude. He put forward +a will dated 1862, written on paper bearing in a plain watermark the +date 1870! Another indiscreet person asked the Court to accept a will +written and signed with an aniline copying pencil, but dated years +before that instrument had been invented. + +Both the works by Dr. Scott and Mr. Davies, given in the list, show +samples of watermarks of the various periods affected by forgers of +literary documents. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +INKS. + + +Examination for determining whether a writing has been done at one time, +or added to later, necessitates some acquaintance with the nature and +qualities of ink. In the ordinary case the assistance of a chemist is +necessary, but an enlarged photograph shows up minute differences with +amazing accuracy. + +In the majority of instances alterations are made some time after the +original has been written, in which case a difference in the shade of +the ink will be perceptible, even to the unassisted eye. This is +particularly true when the now almost universal blue-black ink is used. + +The period required for an addition to become as black as the older +writing depends very much upon the character of the paper. If this be +smooth and hard, and the writing has not been dried with blotting paper, +but allowed to dry naturally and slowly, it will become black much +quicker than if the paper be rough and of an absorbent nature. + +A fairly reliable test is to touch a thick stroke of the suspected +addition with a drop of diluted muriatic acid--as much as will cling to +the point of a pin. Apply the drop to the suspected addition and to the +older writing at the same moment, and carefully watch the result. The +newer writing will become faint and watery, with a bluish tinge almost +instantly, but the change will be slower in the case of the older +writing, taking ten or even twenty seconds. The longer the period +required for the change, the older the writing. + +This same acid test is applied to prove whether a writing is in ordinary +ink, or has been lithographed or photographed. If the two latter, the +acid will have no effect. + +On more than one occasion collectors have purchased as original +autographs of celebrities which proved to have been lithographed or +photographed, but the persons so deceived have generally been +inexperienced amateurs. + +When the difference between a written and printed signature has been +once noticed it is hardly likely that an observant person will be +deceived. It is, however, as well to be carefully on guard against this +contingency, for modern photography and process printing have been +brought to such a degree of imitative perfection that it is easy for a +not too keen-eyed person to experience great difficulty in forming an +opinion in the absence of the acid test. Fortunately that is infallible. + +It must, however, be admitted that up to the present no great success +has attended efforts to determine how long an interval has passed +between the writing of the original and the suspected addition. Broadly +speaking, the most that the expert can hope to gain from an examination +of ink under these circumstances are hints, clues and suggestions rather +than definite, reliable facts. Fortunately it often occurs that a +suggestion so obtained proves of immense value to the trained or careful +observer, though it might convey no conviction to others. + +As in the case of nearly all deductive reasoning the handwriting expert +becomes sensitive to slight suggestions. If called upon, as he sometimes +is, to explain to others how and why one of these slight and almost +imperceptible signs fit in with his theory, he fails. Therefore the +cautious expert, like a good judge, is careful in giving reasons for his +judgment only to cite those which are self-evident. + +Many an expert has made a poor exhibition in the witness-box by failing +to convey to a jury the impression produced on his own mind by a slight +piece of evidence, the proper understanding and interpretation of which +can only be grasped by those who have learned how to recognize faint +signs. + +The process of chemically testing inks for the purpose of ascertaining +the points mentioned is quite simple, and is distinctly interesting. In +a very important case the services of a qualified chemist will probably +be requisitioned, but the cost of the necessary material and the time +required to make oneself proficient as a capable tester are so slight +that even the small fee that would be charged by a chemist is scarcely +worth paying. + +The materials necessary are a few test tubes, some bottles of lime +water, diluted muriatic acid, a solution of nitrate of silver in +distilled water, in the proportion of ten grains to the ounce, some +camel hair pencils, and clean white blotting and litmus paper. The whole +need not cost more than half-a-crown. + +The method of using these materials is best illustrated by describing a +test often needed by autograph collectors. + +A very common method employed by forgers to give an appearance of age to +the ink used in spurious old documents is to mix with ordinary ink, +muriatic acid, oxalic acid, or binoxalate of potash. The presence of +these colouring agents can be detected in the following manner. + +In the first place, washing the letter with cold water will make the ink +become darker if acid has been used to brown the ink, but the following +test will settle the point beyond dispute: + +With a camel's-hair brush wash the letter over with warm water. If, as +sometimes happens, a sort of paint or coloured indian ink has been used, +this will be immediately washed away and disappear, leaving a rusty +smudge. If not, apply the litmus paper to the wetted ink, and the +presence of acid will be shown in the usual way by the litmus paper +changing colour. If genuine, wetting makes no difference. + +Next, pour a drop or two of the water from the writing into a test tube +from off the letter, add a little distilled water and one or two drops +of the nitrate of silver solution. + +If muriatic acid has been used to colour the ink, a thick white +precipitate will be seen in the tube immediately. + +If not, pour a few more drops of the water which has been washed over +the writing into a second test tube, add a little distilled water and a +few drops of lime water. A white precipitate will be seen in the tube if +either oxalic acid or binoxalate of potash has been employed. + +In many cases it will be sufficient to place the tip of the tongue to a +thick stroke. An unmistakable acid taste will be noticed. + +Further and fuller particulars of the methods resorted to by forgers to +simulate ancient documents will be given in the chapter on Autographs. + +It is sometimes important to know whether a stroke has been made over +another, as in the famous case in which the real issue turned on the +question whether an apparent alteration in a signature was really a +pen-mark made to indicate where the signatory should sign. It was +obvious that if the mark was made first the signature would be over it; +if, as was suggested, the mark was added in an attempt to alter or touch +up the signature, it must have been written over the signature. + +In cases of this kind an enlarged photograph leaves no room for doubt. +The ink is seen lying over the lower stroke as plainly as a layer of +paint in a picture can be seen overlying the stroke beneath. + +This is one of those apparently difficult points which become +marvellously simple when dealt with in a practical manner. + +Pages might be needed to explain what a very simple experiment will +reveal at a glance. + +Take a word which has been written long enough for the ink to have +become dry, and make a stroke across it. For example, make a letter _t_ +without the bar, then, after a lapse of an hour or two, add the cross +bar. When this is quite dry and has become as dark as the first mark, +examine it with a good glass. The ink of the added bar will be seen +plainly overlaying the vertical stroke, but any doubt can be promptly +removed by taking an enlarged photograph. + +Even when the second stroke is added while the ink on the first is still +wet the upper stroke can be distinguished, though not so clearly as if +the first stroke had been allowed to dry first. + +By practising and examining such strokes, the student will soon learn to +distinguish important signs which leave no doubt as to which stroke was +first made. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +ERASURES. + + +The alteration of the figures and amount written on a cheque is +generally effected by erasure. At one time chemicals were used for this +purpose, but fortunately the modern cheque is forgery-proof in this +respect. No means are known to chemists by which ordinary writing can be +removed from a cheque without leaving a sign too pronounced to escape +detection. + +But even erasure on a cheque is extremely difficult, and the experienced +eye of the average bank teller can detect it in the vast majority of +cases. Frauds perpetrated by this means are very rare, and are usually +the result of gross carelessness on the part of the person accepting the +document so altered. + +The more frequent form of cheque fraud is effected by adding to such +words as six, seven, eight and nine. The addition of _ty_ and _y_ is all +that is necessary. But the ordinarily careful business man never leaves +sufficient blank space between his words to admit of this addition, +while there are few bank tellers who do not carefully scrutinise a +cheque made out for these larger amounts. + +It may be accepted as a satisfactory fact that cheque forgery is not +only extremely difficult, but rarely successful. Great frauds are +usually perpetrated by means of other instruments, such as bills of +exchange, credit notes, &c. + +An erasure is the easiest thing to detect if looked for. To begin with +it is only necessary to hold a scratched document to the light to have +the alteration revealed. + +Erasing must of necessity remove part of the surface of the paper which +is made noticeably thinner at the spot erased. + +In nearly every case the writing that has been added to the erasure is +blurred, owing to the rough and absorbent character of the paper. Expert +forgers have devised means of counteracting this by rubbing in some +substance which partially restores the original smoothness and mitigates +the blurred appearance. But such devices ought not to be successful for +they are so easily detected. + +As a matter of fact the only chance the forger of an erased cheque has +lies in the carelessness of the teller. Any crowding of words and +unequal spacing in the filling up of a cheque ought to excite suspicion +and provoke careful and closer scrutiny, and, it may be added, it +generally does. + +The addition of letters intended to increase the value of a number, such +as the adding of _ty_ to six or seven, is easy of detection if properly +looked for. + +It is safe to assume that the addition has been made long after the +original word was written, and the point of junction can be detected by +the aid of a good glass. + +Had the word been originally written sixty, the chances are that there +would be no perceptible break between the _x_ and the _t_. Few persons +write such short words in a disconnected manner. On placing the word +under an ordinary glass the point of junction will be plainly apparent, +and a microscope, or an enlarged photograph, cannot fail to reveal the +fraud. Of course these latter tests will not be possible under the +ordinary circumstances attending the paying out of a cheque over the +counter, but when once the peculiarities of such alterations have been +studied, it is marvellous how quick the eye becomes in recognizing them +at a glance. + +Erasure in writings on stout thick paper is not quite so readily noticed +as those on thin paper such as cheques; but the same methods of +examination will apply--holding the document to the light, or level with +and horizontal to the eye. A very effective application of the latter +test is to bend or curve the paper, making an arch. The bending has a +tendency to stretch and widen the erased part, and if any smoothing +substance such as starch or wax has been added to restore the gloss of +the scraped portion, it will usually reveal itself by separating and +coming away in dust or tiny flakes. This process may be accentuated by +drawing the suspected document over a ruler, or, better still, a pencil, +repeating the motion several times. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +PENCILS AND STYLOGRAPHS. + + +It is obvious that writing executed with a pencil or the now much-used +stylograph will differ in many respects from that performed by an +ordinary pen. It is not too much to say that their use will eliminate +many features and introduce new ones. This change is mainly brought +about by the different way in which a pencil or stylograph is held in +comparison with a pen. There is a much greater sense of freedom. The +pencil can be, and is, turned and twisted in the process of making a +stroke as a pen cannot be, and the signs of this freedom become apparent +in a more rounded stroke. Even a writer whose characters are acutely +angular shows a tendency to a more graceful outline. As a matter of +fact, it is comparatively rare to meet a pencilled writing that is +pronouncedly angular. + +The same remarks apply with only little modification to writing produced +by the stylograph, and for the same reason--the ease and freedom with +which the instrument is held. + +There is no possibility of mistaking writing produced by a stylograph +for that of an ordinary steel nib. The strokes are absolutely uniform in +thickness. No nib-formed writing can be so, for it is impossible for a +writer, however careful, to avoid putting pressure on his pen at some +point; and the opening of the nib, however slight, must produce an +apparent thickening. + +Therefore, recognising these facts, the expert is always extremely +careful in giving an opinion upon a writing produced by pencil or stylo +unless he have ample specimens of the writer's productions done with +these instruments. + +At the same time, although an absence of characteristics present in pen +writing would be noticeable, the main features would exist: for example, +the space between words and letters would be the same; the dot over the +_i_ would be in its customary position; the bar of the _t_ would be of +the same type as heretofore. The principal changes would be in the +direction of a more uniform stroke with a tendency to greater rotundity. + +Persons who habitually employ the stylo very frequently develop an +unconscious habit of twisting the pen at certain points so as to form a +deep, rounded dot. This occurs principally at the ends of words and +strokes. A magnifying-glass reveals this peculiarity at once, and, when +discovered, notice should be taken of the circumstances under which this +twisting is usually done. It will be found, most probably, that the +trick is uniform; that is, certain letters or strokes are mostly +finished with the dot. + +There is a well-known public character who for years has employed no +other writing instrument but the stylo. His writing possesses one +peculiarity which is so habitual that in four hundred examples examined +it was absent in only five. He forms this twist dot at the end of the +last letter at the end of every line. The inference and explanation is +that, in raising the pen to travel back to the next line, he twists it +with a backward motion in harmony with the back movement. Another trick +is to make the same dot in words on which he appears to have halted or +hesitated before writing the next. In every such case there is an extra +wide space between the word ended by a dot and that which follows. It +would appear as if the writer mechanically made the dot while pausing to +choose the next word. This is a striking example of the unconscious +hand-gesture. + +Something akin to it occurs in the handwriting of a famous lawyer. Here +and there in his letters will be noticed a faint, sloping, vertical +stroke, like a figure _1_. Those who have seen him write explain it +thus. While hesitating in the choice of a word he moves his pen up and +down over the paper, and unintentionally touches it. It is such slips as +these which often supply the expert with valuable clues to identity. +When they occur they should be carefully examined, for in the majority +of cases a reason will be found for their presence. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +ANONYMOUS LETTERS AND DISGUISED HANDS. + + +That mischievous and cowardly form of secret attack, the anonymous +letter, demands, unfortunately, a large amount of attention from the +handwriting expert. One of the most pleasant rewards that can attend the +conscientious and painstaking student of handwriting lies in the +knowledge that his art may sometimes enable him to bring to deserved +punishment the assassin of reputation and domestic happiness. + +It is a moot point, which has been discussed by legal authorities, as to +whether the handwriting expert is justified in tendering evidence and +opinions of a kind that may be said to belong by right to the criminal +investigator. By this is meant that the expert should not be allowed to +point out to a jury such pieces of circumstantial evidence as the +similarity of the paper used by the suspected person with other found in +his possession; that he ought not to direct attention to postmarks, +coincidence of dates, similarity of ink used, the employment of certain +words and phrases, and other external and indirect clues that point to +the authorship. It is urged that the whole duty of the expert is to say +whether in his opinion two or more writings are by the same hand or not, +and any expression of opinion outside this question is _ultra vires_. + +The obvious answer to this objection is that it is impossible to limit +the expert in the selection of those points which appeal to and assist +him in forming an opinion. It is impossible to say what may or may not +suggest a valuable clue to a keen observer; and as the expert is often +called upon to give reasons for his opinion he is quite justified in +indicating the steps by which he arrived at it. + +These circumstances arise more often in connection with anonymous +letters than with ordinary signature forgeries, for the field of +exploration and the material examined are so much larger. Details become +invaluable. The quality and make of the paper used, or a peculiar method +of folding and placing it in the envelope may afford a clue that will +put the expert on the high road to an important discovery. It is +impossible to say how or where a clue may lurk. The torn edge of a +postage stamp once supplied a hint that was followed up successfully. A +smudge on the envelope, that matched a similar one on a packet of +envelopes in the writing case of a person quite unsuspected, led to +conviction, as did a number of an address that was crossed out and +rewritten, the anonymous writer having, by force of habit, begun with +the number he was in the habit of writing--his own. + +In short, the expert has, _nolens volens_, to assume many of the +functions of the crime investigator in dealing with apparent trifles, +and even if they do not always help him in reaching his goal, they +provide material for exercising the useful art of observation. Strictly +speaking the expert should, perhaps, ignore all outside suggestions as +to the authorship, and confine himself to saying whether or not the +specimens submitted are in the same handwriting; but in practice this +will be found extremely difficult, if not impossible, for the student +cannot shut his eyes to the accidental clues that invariably arise in +the examination of the evidence, and almost before he realizes it, the +most cautious expert finds himself trespassing upon ground that by right +should be the preserve of the detective. + +The points raised here may, however, be safely left to be dealt with by +the judgment of the student as they arise. In the early stages of study +they will probably not present themselves with the same force and +frequency as later on, when they will be appreciated as providing useful +private pointers for guidance; and though at times they may put the +inexperienced student upon a false scent, he will have no difficulty in +detecting his error if, when in doubt, he follows the principles laid +down for the comparison of handwriting. + +The first step to the examination of the anonymous letter consists in +procuring as many suspects as possible, which, as before advised, should +be lettered or numbered and put aside, until the original, which in this +case is the anonymous letter, has been studied and mastered. The +external evidence of which so much has already been said may or may not +be looked for. + +Next proceed with the examination and comparison of the writings. It is +presumed that the student has prepared his notes of the peculiarities of +the original; he has now to search for them in the suspects. Suppose he +begins with the spurs and beards, having found them well marked in the +original. He will take any one of the suspects and examine it for a +repetition of the same signs. He may follow on with the rest of the +suspects, taking advantage of his memory being fresh on this point, or +he may prefer to exhaust one suspect of all its evidences before +proceeding with another; but practice and experience will decide the +best course in this matter, and influence the line of procedure. + +Whatever method is pursued, all have the same object--the discovery of +the peculiarities of the original in one or more of the suspects, and +the student will be wise if he follow accurately the course laid down in +the chapter on "How to Examine a Writing." + +It is generally safe to take it for granted that the writing in an +anonymous letter is disguised. There are occasions when the author +persuades another person to write for him, but only rarely; for the +perpetrator of a contemptible act is not usually brazen and indiscreet +enough to expose himself to others. The same reasons lend strength to +the presumption that the writing will, so far as its general appearance +goes, be as much the opposite of the author's usual style as his +ingenuity can make it. The extreme back hand occurs very frequently. It +seems to be the first impulse of the anonymous writer to avoid the right +slope. Even when the normal hand is a vertical, with a tendency to back +hand, the extreme left slope is often chosen. Fortunately, the assumed +back hand is one of the most transparent of disguises. If the student +has practised it, he will not need to be reminded how difficult it is +for a writer to conceal his mannerisms. By altering the slope he has +only stretched and lengthened his outlines, and the expert soon learns +to recognise them in their new form. + +Another common disguise is the illiterate hand. This is quite as easy of +detection. It is no easier for the practised and fluent writer to +reproduce the shaky, irregular outlines of the illiterate, than it is +for the speaker of pure and cultured English to imitate the coarse +accent of the vulgar. However good the copy it always breaks down early, +and the sudden and unconscious firm, clear and geometrically accurate +stroke reveals the practised writer beneath the mask. Sometimes an +accurately placed punctuation mark supplies the necessary clue, for when +once the art of proper punctuation has been acquired it becomes almost +automatic. Even experienced novelists are caught this way occasionally. +They will introduce a letter, supposed to be the work of an illiterate +character. The grammar and orthography suggest the idea, but the more +difficult details of punctuation will be attended to, even to the +apostrophe that marks the elided _g_ in such words as "talkin'," +"comin'," &c. + +Very difficult and troublesome is the letter written throughout in +imitation printed characters. The expert has to rely upon the curved +lines, accidental punctuation marks and unpremeditated flourishes and +hand-gestures; but, broadly speaking, such a letter is beyond the skill +of the expert if unaided by accidental betrayal. If, as sometimes +happens, the writer is ingenious enough to adopt an alphabet formed +completely of straight lines and angles--an easy task--he may boast of +having produced a detection-proof writing; that is, if characters formed +with the aid of a rule can be called writing, for it defies detection, +because there are none of the signs essential for comparison, and is +less easy of identification than an incomplete skeleton. In the absence +of external clues, an expert would refuse to do more than offer a very +guarded opinion, and it would be wiser to decline to offer any comment +whatever. + +Another trick that has been resorted to by some persons is writing with +the hand constricted by a tight-fitting glove. This produces a very +effective disguise; but if the student will practise with the same +impediment, he will discover many useful rules for guiding him on the +road to penetrating this entanglement. + +It should be remembered that the less control a writer has over his pen, +the more likely is he unintentionally to revert to those forms to which +he is habituated, for, left by itself, the hand steers the more +familiar course. Disguise, alteration and variation on customary forms +are the result of premeditation. When the mind is occupied more with the +subject than the formation of characters, the latter naturally assume +that shape to which the force of custom has bent them. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +FORGED LITERARY AUTOGRAPHS. + + +The collection of autographs, letters, and documents of literary and +historical interest has for many years been a prominent feature in the +collecting world, but at no time was the quest more keen or conducted on +more systematic lines than to-day. The records of the leading sale rooms +often supply matter for surprise, the prices asked and obtained for rare +and choice specimens being such as to excite both wonder and amazement, +sometimes tempered with scepticism. + +It is, therefore, not surprising that this profitable and growing market +should have attracted the fraudulent, for the prizes when won are +generally of a substantial character, and amply repay the misapplied +effort and ingenuity demanded. + +The success which has attended too many of these frauds may be largely +accounted for by the fact that in many cases the enthusiasm of the +collector has outrun his caution. + +Many a man famous for his astuteness in the pursuit of his ordinary +business has allowed himself to fall an easy victim to the forger, thus +exemplifying the familiar adage that we are easily persuaded to believe +what we want to believe. + +The recorded stories of some of the frauds perpetrated upon ardent and +presumably judicious collectors read like the tales told so often of the +triumph of the confidence trickster, and one marvels how a person of +ordinary power of observation, to say nothing of experience, could fall +a victim to a fraud requiring little perception to detect. The +explanation doubtless lies in the direction indicated--the ardour of the +pursuit, the pride and joy of possessing something that is absolutely +unique. + +The leading case--to use an expressive legal term--is that known as the +Vrain-Lucas fraud, the principal victim of which was Mons. Chasles, +probably the greatest of modern French geometricians, and one of the few +foreign savants entitled to append the distinguishing mark of a F.R.S. +of England. + +Lucas was a half-educated frequenter, and nominal reading student of the +great Parisian library, and for some years had dealt in autographs in a +small way, the specimens he offered being undoubtedly genuine. Inspired +by the collecting ardour and the apparent blind faith placed in him by +M. Chasles, Lucas embarked upon a series of deceptions so impudent, that +it is easy to sympathise with the defence put forward by his advocate at +the trial, namely, that the fraud was so transparent that it could only +be regarded as a freak. + +In the period between the years 1861 and 1869, Lucas sold to his dupe +the enormous number of 27,000 documents, every one a glaring fraud. They +comprised letters purporting to have been written by such improbable +authors as Abelard, Alcibiades, Alexander the Great to Aristotle, +Cicero, Cleopatra, Joan of Arc, Sappho, Anacreon, Pliny, Plutarch, St. +Jerome, Diocletian, Juvenal, Socrates, Pompey, and--most stupendous joke +of all--Lazarus after his resurrection. + +It is hard to believe, and but for the irrefutable records of the Court, +few would credit the fact that every one of these letters was in the +French language! And the dupe a highly educated mathematician of +European repute. + +In the face of such incredible gullibility one is disposed to regard the +sentence of two years' imprisonment and a fine of 500 francs as +extravagantly severe, even despite the fact that Lucas received in all +over 140,000 francs from M. Chasles. + +The Chatterton and Ireland forgeries are familiar to all educated +persons. These, however, hardly come under the head of the class of +fraud with which the ordinary forger is associated. In each of these +cases the motive of the deception was not so much to make money as a +literary reputation. In both cases presumably competent judges were +deceived. But the standard by which they gauged the genuineness of the +productions was not caligraphic, but literary. In neither instance was +there occasion or opportunity for the handwriting expert to exercise his +skill, for the sufficient reason that there existed no material with +which the writings could be compared. What the literary expert had to do +was to examine and compare the style of the compositions--a test in +which the idiosyncrasies and predilections of the judge played a leading +part. + +Probably the greatest, and for a short time the most successful +autograph fraud perpetrated in Great Britain was that known as the case +of the Rillbank MSS., the detection and exposure of which were mainly +attributable to one of the authors of this work (Capt. W. W. Caddell). + +Just before, and up till 1891, there was in Edinburgh a young man named +Alexander Howland Smith, who claimed to be the son of a reputable +Scottish law official, and a descendant of Sir Walter Scott. + +On the strength of his presumed connection with the great novelist, he +had no difficulty in disposing of, to an Edinburgh bookseller, for +prices whose smallness alone should have excited suspicion, letters +purporting to be in the handwriting of Sir Walter Scott. Emboldened by +success, he embarked upon a wholesale manufacture of spurious letters +bearing the signatures of Burns, Edmund Burke, Sir Walter Scott, Grattan +and Thackeray. His principal victim was an Edinburgh chemist, Mr. James +Mackenzie, who, when the fraud was not only suspected, but proved, +distinguished himself by a stubborn and courageous defence of the +genuineness of the documents. + +Smith's _modus operandi_ consisted in purchasing large-sized volumes of +the period of the subjects of his forgeries, and using the blank leaves +for the purpose of fabricating the letters. In May, 1891, a number of +alleged Burns' letters were put up for sale by public auction at +Edinburgh, fetching the surprising paltry price of from twenty to thirty +shillings apiece. + +It was a feature of all Smith's productions that the letters were +extremely brief--a feature common to literary forgeries. The +circumstance which first gave rise to suspicion was that the letters +attributed to Scott, Burke, Burns, General Abercrombie, Grattan and +Thackeray all began and ended with the same words. Those signed by Sir +Walter Scott all began "I have your letter," and ended "I remain," a +form of phraseology the reputed writer never used, but which, according +to Smith, was common to all the distinguished men whose handwriting he +had counterfeited with considerable success. + +On the strength of the partial guarantee provided by the sale of some of +these documents at a reputable auction room, Captain Caddell purchased a +parcel of alleged Scott letters without prior inspection. A brief +examination disclosed their fraudulent nature, and Smith was arrested. +The Edinburgh police took the matter up, and the impostor was convicted +in June, 1893, and sentenced to eighteen months' imprisonment. + +Thackeray and Dickens are favourite subjects with most literary forgers, +Washington and Benjamin Franklin running them very close for +favouriteship. American collectors are particularly keen on procuring +specimens of the last two-named, and there is grave reason to believe +that many fall easy victims. + +Fortunately the facilities for comparing and testing the genuineness of +the autographs of every distinguished person whose holographs are most +in favour with the forger, are numerous. In addition to the splendid +collection of specimens extant at the British Museum Library, there are +many facsimiles available. + +The excellent work on Autograph Collecting by Dr. Henry T. Scott (Upcott +Gill, London) is indispensable to the collector. It contains some +hundreds of specimens, specially selected for the purposes of +comparison, and gives besides many very valuable rules and hints for +detecting the real from the sham. + +Dr. Scott, writing of the autographic letters of his distinguished +namesake, says: + +"Of Sir Walter Scott's autographs it may be observed (1) the paper is +generally letter size, gilt edged, with a soft, firm feeling to the +touch, and an unglazed surface. (2) The date and residence are placed on +the top and right hand, with a good space before the 'My Dear Sir,' +uniform margins on the left side of the paper of a quarter of an inch, +but on the right side no margin at all, the writing being carried close +to the edge. The folding is done with the precision of a man of +business, forming the space for the address into a nice oblong almost in +the centre of the sheet, and the first line of the address is written +nearly in the centre of the space with the remainder below. + +"The watermarks found on the paper are one of the following: +Valleyfield, 1809; C. Wilmott, 1815; J. Dickinson and Co., 1813; J. +Dickinson, 1816; J. Dickinson (without date); J. Whatman, 1814; J. +Whatman (without date); Turkey Mill, 1819; Turkey Mill (without date); +G. C. & Co., 1828." + +The paper used by Burns for his correspondence was always large in size, +rough in surface, never glossy, and all four edges had the rough edge +that is the peculiarity of a Bank of England note. + +It is worthy of remark that in the case of the A. H. Smith Burns +forgeries, suspicion was first excited by a simple but significant +matter. The paper contained several worm holes. These had been carefully +avoided by the writer, he knowing that if his pen touched them the +result would be a spluttering and spreading of the ink. + +Now it is safe to assume that these worm holes, being the effect of age, +did not exist at the time the letter--if genuine--was written; as the +worm did its work long afterwards, it must be regarded as a fortunate +circumstance that in perforating the paper it refrained from destroying +the writing, carefully selecting the wider spaces that the poet had, +with commendable foresight, left for the insect's depredations. + +The letters of Thackeray are in two styles of handwriting, the earlier +sloping slightly, the latter vertical, round, neat and print-like, the +capital _I_ being invariably a simple vertical stroke. His is the most +neat and uniformly readable hand of all the great literary characters. +It is somewhat unfortunate that he was not anything like so uniform in +his choice of paper. Letters are in existence on an extraordinary +variety of material, from a quarto sheet to a scrap torn from half a +sheet of note paper. On many of these letters is neither address nor +date, but when once the characteristics of the charming handscript have +been mastered, they are never forgotten, and are recognisable amid the +closest imitations. + +There are extant a number of forged Thackeray's. Their distinguishing +features are that they are invariably very short, as if the forger +feared to provide sufficient matter to supply material for comparison; +most are on single half sheets of note paper, many on quarto sheets of +varying texture and quality, and the characteristic vertical _I_, +Thackeray's trade mark, always occurs. It is shaky and often out of the +perpendicular, as the genuine rarely is. In the forgeries we have seen +and suspect to be the work of A. H. Smith, a very significant sign is a +sudden thickening of the downstrokes of tailed letters like _y_, _f_, +_g_, producing a tiny diamond-shaped excrescence in the middle of the +letter. The glass reveals that ragged-edged stroke which is inseparable +from the writing of the nervous copyist. + +It is generally safe to be cautious about very short letters. The forger +well knows how difficult is the task of maintaining an assumed +character. Just as the mimic may succeed in reproducing the tone and +manner of a person with sufficient closeness to deceive even the most +intimate acquaintances of the subject, yet fail to carry the deception +beyond a few words or phrases, so the literary forger invariably breaks +down when he attempts to simulate handwriting over many sentences. So +conscious is he of this great difficulty that he often avoids it by +boldly copying some genuine letter. We have had offered to us +"guaranteed" Thackeray letters which we immediately recognised as such. +In one particularly glaring case the forger had copied the original +letter very fairly so far as the penmanship was concerned, but while the +original was written on a half sheet of note paper, the forgery was on a +different size paper, and the writing across the length of the paper +instead of the breadth. This naturally disarranged the spacing between +the words, which in all Thackeray's writings is a pronouncedly regular +feature, and this variation was in itself sufficient to excite +suspicion. + +The popularity of Dickens among collectors grows steadily. Despite the +fact that he was an industrious correspondent, and that a very large +number of his letters appear from time to time in the market, the demand +is ever in excess of the supply. As a consequence he has suffered +perhaps more than any of the literary immortals at the hands of the +forger. Yet it is safe to say that there should be no writer so safe +from fraudulent imitation, for there is a peculiar distinctiveness about +his caligraphic productions that once seen and noted should never be +forgotten. Specimens are easily available. The catalogues of dealers are +constantly presenting them, and most public libraries possess examples, +either in the original holograph or in some form of reproduction. + +Probably no writer preserved his style with such little change as +Dickens. His signature in later years varied somewhat from that of his +literary youth, but the body of his handscript retained throughout the +same characteristics. It was always a free, fluent, graceful hand, +legible as that of Thackeray when its leading peculiarities have been +mastered, but less formal and studied than his. It was always remarkably +free from corrections or interlineations. He wrote with the easy freedom +of the stenographer; indeed it is easy to recognise in the delicate +gracefully formed letters the effect of years of training in the most +difficult and exacting form of handscript. + +Perhaps the leading peculiarities in the Dickens holograph are these:-- + +The date of the month is never expressed in figures, but always written +in full; in fact, abbreviation in any form he never countenanced. + +The letter _y_, both as a capital and a small letter is a figure 7 +except in the affix "ly," when the two letters become an _f_ or long +stroke _s_. + +The letter _t_ is crossed by the firm downward bar, which the character +readers claim as a sign of great resolution. + +Letter _g_ is invariable in form. + +Capital _E_ consists of a downstroke with a bar in the centre. + +The hook of many final letters has a tendency to turn backwards. + +New paragraphs are marked by beginning the line about an inch from the +left-hand margin. + +A very marked peculiarity noticeable in many letters is that the +left-hand margin gradually grows wider as the lines approach the bottom +of the page. The narrowing is wondrously regular, a line drawn from the +first letter on the first line to the corresponding position on the last +will touch nearly every other line. This peculiarity appears to have +escaped every forger whose work we have examined. + +If the signs relied upon by the readers of character in handwriting are +to be accepted, self-esteem was a pronounced characteristic of the great +novelist. His writing abounds with those subtle symptoms of the +prevalence of that weakness. + +His signature is perhaps the best known of any with which the British +public are familiar. It is remarkably uniform, and remained precisely +the same from the time he adopted it after the Pickwick period until his +death. That which he used in youth was less striking, but none the less +self-conscious. + +After the Pickwick period Dickens adopted the use of blue paper and blue +ink. Letters in black ink, if undated, may safely be attributed to the +earlier period. + +His note paper was in later years of the regulation note size. The +address, Gads' Hill Place, Higham by Rochester, Kent, was in embossed +black old English letter. His paper was hand-made, and of good quality. +The envelopes were blue, of the same quality paper, but without crest, +monogram or distinctive mark. Dickens' vanity expressed itself in the +habit of franking envelopes, _i.e._, by writing his name in the +left-hand bottom corner, after the fashion in vogue when Peers and +M.P.'s enjoyed the privilege of free postage. + +His letters of the pre-envelope period--before 1842--were on quarto +sheets. These are exceedingly rare. + +There is one feature about autographic forgery which may always be +relied upon to assist greatly in the work of detection. As a general +rule there is sufficient matter in a literary forgery to supply the +necessary material for comparison. It must of necessity be a copy, if +not of an existing original, at least of the general style. The process +of imitation must be slow and cautious, and the signs remain in shaky, +broken lines, and a ruggedness entirely absent from the writing of the +real author, which is fluent and free. Even the shakiness of age +noticeable in a few distinguished handwritings is different to the +shakiness of the forger's uncertainty. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +FORGED SIGNATURES. + + +The most difficult phase of the art of the handwriting expert consists +in the detection of forgery in signatures. It will be obvious to the +student who has followed the instructions and illustrations already +given that this difficulty is brought about by two principal causes: +first, by the paucity of material for comparison; secondly, because of +the very important fact that a forgery must, by its nature, be a good +and close copy of an original. This means that the unconscious tricks +and irregularities that often abound in a long letter, written in a more +or less disguised hand, are almost entirely absent from a forged +signature. It follows, therefore, that the student must have some other +clues and rules to guide him, for he cannot rely upon the chance of a +slip or accidental trick occurring in a signature that contains at most +perhaps a dozen letters. + +The first step in the examination of a suspected signature is to master +thoroughly the various characteristics of the genuine signature. These +must be studied in every possible relation, and from as many specimens +as can be obtained. The magnifying glass must be in constant use and the +eye alert to detect the angle at which the pen is habitually held, the +class of pen used, and the degree of pressure and speed employed. These +last-named points can only be discovered as the result of practice and +observation, and though at first sight it may appear impossible to form +a correct estimate of the pace at which a pen has travelled, the student +will, if observant, soon learn to detect the difference between a +swiftly formed stroke and one written with slowness and deliberation. By +making a number of each kind of stroke and carefully examining them +through a glass, the student will learn in an hour more than can be +taught by means of verbal description. The study of the genuine +signatures must be continued until every stroke and its peculiarities +are as familiar as the features of a well-known face, for until one is +thoroughly impregnated with the original it will be useless to proceed +with the examination of the suspects. + +At first sight the student will probably perceive very little, if any, +difference between the original and the suspect. It would be a very +clumsy forgery if he could. Gradually the points of dissimilarity will +become clear to him, and with each fresh examination they grow plainer, +until he is surprised that they did not sooner strike him; they are so +obvious that the eye cannot avoid them; they stand out as plainly as the +hidden figure, after it has been detected, in the well-known picture +puzzles. There are few faculties capable of such rapid and accurate +development as that of observation. Thousands of persons go through life +unconscious of the existence of certain common things until the occasion +arises for noticing them, or accident forces them upon the attention; +then they marvel that the thing should have escaped observation. This is +a truism, no doubt, but the force of every platitude does not always +present itself to every one. The comparison of handwritings is so +essentially a matter of cultivating the powers of observation, that even +if turned to no more practical account than that of a hobby its value as +a mental exercise is great. + +There are two principal methods by which a signature may be forged: +first, by carefully copying the original as one would copy a drawing; +secondly, by tracing it. + +The first process is referred to as copied. The forger will, most +probably, have practised the signature before affixing it to the cheque +or other document, thereby attaining a certain degree of fluency. But +however well executed, close examination with the aid of the magnifying +glass will reveal those signs of hesitancy and irregularity that one may +reasonably expect to find in a copy. + +There is no part of a person's handwriting so fluent and free as his +signature. Even the most illiterate persons show more freedom and +continuity of outline in their signature than in the body of their +writing. This is explicable on the ground of usage. A writer may feel a +degree of momentary uncertainty in forming a word that he does not +write frequently, but his signature he is more sure about. He strikes it +off without hesitancy, and in the majority of cases appends some +meaningless flourish, which may be described as a superfluous stroke or +strokes added for the purpose of ornamentation, for adding +distinctiveness, or, in some cases, and particularly with business men, +with the idea that the flourishes help to secure the signature from +forgery. Such writers will probably be surprised to learn that there is +no form of signature so easy to forge as that involved and complicated +by a maze of superfluous lines and meaningless flourishes. The most +difficult signature for the forger is the clear, plain, +copybook-modelled autograph. A little thought and examination will make +the reason for this clear. + +Let a signature be enveloped in a web of curves and flourishes, making +it look like a complicated script monogram. The lines are so numerous +that the eye cannot take them all in at a glance, and, if copied, any +slight irregularity or departure from the original is more likely to +pass undetected amid the confusing network of interlaced lines. If, on +the other hand, the signature be simple and free from the bewildering +effects of flourishes, the entire autograph lies revealed, a clear and +regular outline, and the slightest variation from the accustomed figure +stands out naked and plain. Most of the successful forgeries will be +found to be on signatures of the complicated order. Their apparent +impregnability has tempted the facile penman to essay the task of +harmless imitation; his success has surprised and flattered him, and the +easy possibilities of forgery opened up. More than one forger has +admitted that his initiatory lessons were prompted by an innocent +challenge to imitate a particularly complicated "forgery-proof" +signature. + +It must be remembered that the eye of the casual observer takes in a +word as a whole rather than in detail. This explains why an author can +rarely be trusted to correct his own proofs. He knows what the word +should be, and in reading his work in print he notices only the general +expected effect of a word. It needs the trained eye of the proof-reader +to detect the small _c_ that has taken the place of the _e_, the +battered _l_ that is masquerading as an _i_. So long as the general +outline of the word is not distorted the wrong letters are often passed; +and it is much the same with a signature with which one is fairly +familiar. The trained examiner of handwriting, like the proof-reader, +knows what to look for, and discovers irregularities that would escape +the notice of the untrained eye. + +The first part of a genuine signature that should be examined is the +flourish, which includes all fancy strokes appended to it, and any +superfluous addition to the body of the letters. A close scrutiny +through the glass will show that the lines forming the tail-flourish are +generally clear, firm and sharp in outline, being formed, not only +without hesitation, but with a dash and decided sweep that are strongly +at variance with the broken, saw-edged, unsteady line of the copy. It +will also generally be found to follow an almost fixed rule in the +matter of its proportionate conformation: that is, supposing the writer +finishes up with a horizontal line under his signature, it will be seen, +on averaging a dozen or so of them, that the distance of the line from +the feet of the letters is proportionately uniform. If the line be begun +with a spur or curved inward hook, that feature will be repeated. The +end of the flourish or final stroke, at the point where the pen leaves +the paper, should be very carefully examined. One writer finishes with +an almost imperceptible dot, as if the pen had been stabbed into the +paper; another finishes with a curve, either upward or downward; a third +with a hook turned upward, either a curve or an angle; while a fourth +continues the line till it becomes finer and sharper to vanishing point. +Some writers are fond of concluding with a more or less bold and +expansive underline running horizontally with the signature. A close +examination will show a variation in the degrees of thickness of such a +line, which should be carefully noted and looked for in other genuine +signatures. + +In this connection it will be found extremely useful and instructive to +study strokes, either horizontal or vertical, with a view to discovering +whether they were struck from right to left, top to bottom, or _vice +vers_. The glass will render it easy to detect beginning from end after +a few failures, which, by the way, should not be allowed to discourage, +for every minute devoted to the study of handwriting is so much gain in +experience, and represents so much more learned, which will never be +forgotten. + +The flourishes that occur on and about the signature proper must be +treated as exaggerated loops, and their shoulders, arcs, hooks and toes +carefully measured and noted. For this purpose an average genuine +signature should be selected and gauged, which is done in this way: +Place over it a sheet of transfer paper. With the scale-rule and a fine +pencil draw horizontal lines that will touch the tops and bottoms of the +bodies of the letters, lines that touch the tops and bottoms of the +tailed and topped letters, and vertical lines that follow the shanks of +every topped or tailed letter, including the capitals. The gauge, when +completed, will represent a framework fitting the signature, and its use +is twofold. It helps the eye to detect the variations in the general +contour of the signature, and, when placed over another, brings out the +points of difference. Due allowance must be made for proportion. It is +obvious that the distance of letters will be greater in a signature +written larger than another, but the proportionate distances will be +preserved. The difference in the size of a letter is not very important, +except that it offers more scope for examination. For example, a looped +_l_ may be very small or half an inch long; but, if made by the same +writer, the proportionate width at top, bottom and middle will be +preserved, and compare with the same measurements in the smaller letter. +Signatures of the same writer do not often vary much in size, though +they may be thicker or finer according to the character of the pen used; +but observation will show that the difference in a handwriting caused by +the use of different pens is much more imaginary than real. + +The traced signature is produced by placing the paper over the genuine +autograph, holding it to the light, generally on a sheet of glass, and +tracing it with a fine point. Such forgeries are often more easily +detected than the copied signature, for the reason that signs of the +tracing process can generally be found by careful examination. The fine, +hard point used to trace the autograph leaves a smooth hollow, which can +be seen through the glass on examining the back of the cheque or +document. If the paper be held in a line with the eye in a strong light, +the ridge will be more clearly perceived. The difference between a mark +made by a hard point and a pen can be tested by experiment. The hard +point must of necessity be pressed with a degree of force to make the +desired impression on the paper, and the result is a smooth hollow. But +if a pen be pressed hard, it produces two parallel lines, and, instead +of a hollow, a ridge is formed between the parallels. Of course, it will +be so slight as to be hardly perceptible, except through a strong glass, +but it will be there nevertheless, and knowing what to look for, the +expert will generally have no difficulty in satisfying himself whether +the forgery has been traced or copied, a very valuable piece of evidence +when once settled, for it is within the bounds of probability that the +genuine signature from which the tracing was made may be discovered. It +is possible, and has often occurred, that the writer of the original may +have some recollection of having written to the suspected person, or in +many ways a clue may be suggested. There is a well-known case of a +forgery being brought home to the perpetrator through the accuracy of +the tracing. It is a fact easily proved, that no man can write a word +twice, so exactly, that if the two are overlaid they fit. If two such +signatures be produced, it is safe to assume that one has been traced or +otherwise mechanically produced. In the case mentioned a signature on a +cheque was pronounced a forgery by the person supposed to have signed +it. In examining specimens of the genuine autograph, the experts came +upon one which, when placed upon that on the cheque, proved a perfect +replica, down to the most minute detail, showing beyond question that it +had been used to trace the forgery from. It was further proved that the +original had been in the possession of the supposed forger, and the jury +were asked to decide whether it was probable that a man could reproduce +his signature in exact facsimile after a lapse of time, and without the +original before him. As the chances against such a contingency are many +millions to one--a fact the student can verify--the jury decided against +the forger. + +At the risk of appearing tautological to a tiresome degree it is +necessary to accentuate the fact that the comparison of handwriting, +and more particularly of signatures, is essentially dependent on +cultivating the faculty of observation. This art cannot be taught; it +can only be acquired by practice and experience, like swimming or +riding. The teacher can at most indicate the method of study and some of +the leading principles of conducting an investigation. Most men are not +naturally observant, and the habit can be best fostered by having an +object; but when once a person has been taught what to look for he +almost instinctively notices details that previously never struck him. +This is specially true of the study of handwriting. + +The best method of practice that can be adopted by the student is to +begin by making a careful study of his own signature and writing. He +will be surprised at the number of facts hitherto unsuspected that will +be revealed to him. The value of using his own handwriting as a subject +of examination lies in this, that the student can satisfy himself how +and why certain strokes are made. This he can only guess at in the +writing of others. + +The preliminary exercise should consist in studying the effect produced +by the different methods of holding the pen. The signature supplies +excellent material for this class of practice. Begin by holding the pen +with the top end pointed well towards the left shoulder, in the absurd +and unnatural position taught by the old school of writing masters. +Repeat the signature with the pen held a trifle less acutely angular, +and go on till six or eight signatures have been written at a decreasing +angle--until the top of the penholder points well to the right, +producing what is known as a backhand. The effect of these angles must +be carefully noted, and in a short time it will be found possible to +arrive at a very accurate opinion as to how the writer of a particular +signature habitually holds his pen--an important and valuable piece of +knowledge. The practice should be extended to long sentences, and a +frequent repetition of all the letters, capital and small, the +magnifying glass being always used to examine the effect of the various +and varying strokes. + +In examining a signature for comparing it with a suspected forgery it +should be copied very frequently, as the clues and suggestions the +experiments will produce are of much greater service than will at first +appear, and of more practical value than pages of theory, as the how and +why will be revealed for much that would be obscure without this +assistance. As experience grows, it will not be necessary to adopt this +copying process so often, for the eye soon becomes alert at detecting +slight shades of difference in strokes, and a glance will convey more +than could be explained in many pages. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +THE EXPERT IN THE WITNESS-BOX. + + +When the expert has been called upon to give an opinion upon the +genuineness of writings he embodies his conclusions in a report of which +the following may be taken as a fair example:-- + + To the Chief of Police. + + SIR, + + REX _versus_ JONES. + + In accordance with your instructions dated ---- I beg leave to + inform you that I have made a careful examination of the document + marked _A_, and attached hereto, and compared it with the documents + marked _B_, _C_, _D_, _E_ and _F_, also attached. + + I have arrived at the conclusion that the document _A_ was written + by the same hand as produced _B_, _C_, _D_, _E_ and _F_. + + The main reasons which have led me to form this opinion are these:-- + + First, although the writing in _A_ bears at first sight no + resemblance to that of the other documents, the difference is only + such as experience leads me to expect in a writing which has been + purposely disguised, as I believe this has been. + + The writing on the five documents _B_ to _F_ I take to be the normal + hand of the author, and that on _A_ to be the same writer's hand + altered so as to present a different appearance. I will call the + specimens _B_ to _F_ the genuine examples, and _A_ the disguised. + + Experience shows that the person who writes an anonymous letter + generally seeks to disguise his hand by departing as much as he + deems possible from his normal writing. The usual hand of the writer + of the genuine document is a free rounded hand sloping upwards + towards the right. The writing of _A_ presents exactly the features + I would expect to find when, as appears to be the case here, the + writer has adopted the familiar trick of sloping his writing in a + direction opposite to his normal hand. While the result of this + change is to alter the apparent style and general appearance of the + writing, the alteration does not extend to certain tricks and + characteristics which are plainly obvious in the genuine letters and + are repeated in the anonymous letter _A_. + + The writing in the genuine letters contains fourteen very + distinctive peculiarities, or tricks of hand, which I find repeated + in the anonymous letter _A_. + + (Here describe them, as for example.) + + 1. The figure 4 in the dates is always made like the print form of + that figure. + + 2. The small _e_ is always of the Greek form. + + 3. The small _t_ is always crossed by a bar thick at the beginning, + tapering to a point, with its longest part behind the shank of + the _t_ [and so on]. + +The various points of resemblance are set out in detail, a separate +paragraph for each, and each paragraph numbered. + +It is extremely important that a report should be fully descriptive and +written in plain, non-technical language, easily understood by the jury, +who will have to decide whether the resemblance has been made out. + +Too many handwriting experts spoil the effect of their evidence by +employing technical language and presuming on the part of the jury an +acquaintance with the methods of comparing handwritings. + +Do not be satisfied by saying that certain letters resemble each other. +Show by an enlarged diagram how and where, indicating the parts to which +attention is called by arrows. Place the single letters to be compared +in parallel columns, headed with the alphabetical letter distinguishing +the document in which the particular letter occurs. Use foolscap paper, +and write on one side of the paper only. + +The usual method of dealing with the handwriting expert in the +witness-box is shown in the following extract from a report of an actual +case. + +Mr. D. B---- was called by counsel for the prosecution and duly sworn. + +Q.--You have had considerable experience in examining handwriting. + +A.--Over twenty years. + +Q.--Look at these documents. (Hands documents to witness.) Have you seen +and examined these? + +A.--I have. + +Q.--Have you formed any opinion upon them? + +A.--I have, and have prepared a report. + +In some cases the expert is allowed to read his report in full. In +others he is requested to give a verbal report, but if the point be +insisted upon, the judge generally permits the report to be read, either +by the expert or by counsel. A copy of the report, together with the +documents in dispute are then usually handed to the jury for +examination. The expert may proceed to illustrate his point with the aid +of a blackboard and chalk, but much depends upon the attitude taken by +the judge and counsel. Some judges insist that the expert shall confine +himself to expressing his opinion, leaving counsel to deal with the +explanation and comparison; others give the expert every opportunity of +showing how he has arrived at his opinions. + +The examination in chief is usually a very simple matter. The trouble +for the expert begins when counsel for the other side gets up to +cross-examine. + +In nearly every case the object of the cross-examining counsel is to +ridicule the art and get the expert to admit the possibility of other +writers possessing the same peculiarities which are said to distinguish +the letters before the Court. + +Counsel's favourite trick is to select some letter and ask the expert if +he is prepared to swear that he has never seen something just like it in +some other person's writing. The expert who knows his business will +insist on keeping well to the front the bedrock basis of handwriting +comparison, which is the application of the law of probability to +cumulative evidence. It is not a question whether some other person may +be in the habit of making a _t_ or a _k_ similar to those cited as +evidences of common origin, but whether it is probable that two persons +should make a dozen or more letters in precisely the same way under +similar conditions and exhibit precisely the same peculiarities of +style. He should reply with the unanswerable postulate that millions of +persons possess red hair, snub noses, a scar on the face, blue eyes, +bent fingers and a stammer; but it is millions to one against any two +persons possessing all six of those peculiarities. + +In the course of his replies the expert may justifiably help his own +case by repeating, when opportunity occurs, such irrefutable axioms as, +No writer can say off-hand what peculiarities he may exhibit; that there +are scores of ways of dotting an _i_, or crossing a _t_, and that few +persons know which form they mostly affect. Fifty such points may be +gathered from this little volume alone, while acquaintance with the +works of other writers on caligraphy will supply ample ammunition for +meeting and repelling the customary form of attack on the handwriting +expert. + +Another method of discrediting a witness is to remind him that experts +have differed, the Dreyfus case being usually cited. The answer is +obvious. First it is essential to be assured that those experts were all +competent, for there are degrees of competency in judging handwriting as +in every other subject on which opinion may be called. It is a notorious +fact that in the Dreyfus case the most competent experts testified that +the Henry letters were forgeries, the authorities called on the other +side being in most cases unknown men or amateurs of no standing. A +number of these self-styled experts possessed no other qualification +than presumed familiarity with the handwriting of Dreyfus. It is also +worthy of note that several of the experts on both sides proved most +inefficient witnesses, obscuring their explanations by the employment of +technical phraseology which conveyed little meaning to the lay mind. + +Exactitude and regularity in the choice of the words used in describing +the parts of letters should be strictly observed by the student. The +rules given in the chapter on "Terminology" should be mastered and +adhered to. In most cases the terms there applied to letter-analysis +will be found to be self-explanatory. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +HANDWRITING AND EXPRESSION. + + +No work dealing with the study of handwriting would be complete unless +it recognised that phase of it which touches on the delineation of +character by an examination of the caligraphy. + +That many valuable clues can be picked up by the expert who applies the +principles on which the graphologist works is indisputable, nor is it +necessary to accept all the theories claimed as reliable by those who +practice this interesting branch of the art of writing-analysis. + +There is no doubt that many persons have attained a remarkable degree of +proficiency in deducing from the hand-gestures of an unknown person a +very accurate estimate of his or her character, and this fact should +prove that the principles of the art of graphology are based on +scientific grounds, or at least that the rules on which the student +works are regular and not, as some suggest, mere guess-work or +coincidence. + +The elder d'Israeli, in his fascinating work, the "Curiosities of +Literature," devotes considerable space to the subject. Among other +things, he says:-- + +"Assuredly nature would prompt every individual to have a distinct sort +of writing, as she has given a peculiar countenance, a voice, and a +manner. The flexibility of the muscles differs with every individual, +and the hand will follow the direction of the thoughts, and the emotions +and the habits of the writers. + +"The phlegmatic will portray his words with signs of labour and +deliberation, while the playful haste of the volatile will scarcely +sketch them; the slovenly will blot and efface and scrawl, while the +neat and orderly-minded will view themselves in the paper before their +eyes. The merchant's clerk will not write like the lawyer or the poet. +Even nations are distinguished by their writing; the vivacity and +variableness of the Frenchman, and the delicacy and suppleness of the +Italian, are perceptibly distinct from the slowness and strength of pen +discoverable in the phlegmatic German, Dane, and Swede. + +"When we are in grief we do not write as we should in joy. The elegant +and correct mind, which has acquired the fortunate habit of a fixity of +attention, will write with scarcely an erasure on the page, as Fenelon +and Gibbon; while we find in Pope's manuscripts the perpetual struggle +of correction, and the eager and rapid interlineations struck off in +heat. Lavater's notion of handwriting is by no means chimerical; nor was +General Paoli fanciful when he told Mr. Northcote he had decided on the +character and disposition of a man from his letters and the handwriting. + +"Long before the days of Lavater, Shenstone in one of his letters said, +'I want to see Mrs. Jago's writing that I may judge of her temper.' + +"One great truth must, however, be conceded to the opponents of the +physiognomy of handwriting. General rules only can be laid down. Yet the +vital principle must be true that the handwriting bears an analogy to +the character of the writer, as all voluntary actions are characteristic +of the individual." + + * * * * * + +Professor Foli, in his very useful work, "Handwriting as an Index to +Character" (London: C. A. Pearson, Ltd.), says: + +"The changes which handwriting undergoes as maturity is reached prove +how directly it is influenced by the nervous condition of the writer. + +"The writing proper to childhood is large, round and accompanied by a +laboured pen movement; whereas that which is normal as manhood or +womanhood is attained is smaller, and turned off by a more rapid and +fluent motion of the hand. + +"Illness, again, affects the writing. As the hand is charged with more +or less of the nerve fluid, so the writing is stronger or weaker, firmer +or feebler, as the case may be. + +"This goes to show the important influence which the nerve current +exerts in fashioning the handwriting. Small wonder that our handwriting +alters day by day. Yet it does not alter either. So far as its general +appearance is concerned I grant it _seems_ to do so. But look at the +really significant points of the writing written at different times. +Give a glance at the height at which the '_i_' is dotted, the way in +which the '_t_' is barred, the manner in which the letters are, or are +not, connected and finished off. These things will crop up with unerring +uniformity time after time. + +"You do, of course, get a studied handwriting now and then, just as you +sometimes meet with a formed facial expression. But that does not +express the true character, simply because the control over the feelings +or the power of disguising what is felt is a salient point in the +character; and this very fact will serve to show that there is truth in +graphology. + +"That the pen, whether it be a fine or a broad pointed nib, plays a +certain part in determining the thickness or thinness of the strokes, I +am willing to allow, but here again we have no argument against +graphology, for most people have their favourite nib--just as they +prefer one occupation to another--and this is the one which will best +serve to define their characteristics. The same with the surface of the +paper upon which they write; some will select a smooth, others a rough +kind, but whatever that may be which is adopted with comfort, it will be +typical of the writer." + +The following are some of the more marked signs of the character they +indicate. For a fuller exposition of their application it would be well +to study the work of Foli, before mentioned, and of Rosa Baughan (Upcott +Gill, London, 2_s._ 6_d._), with the scholarly work of J. +Crpieux-Jainin, entitled, "Handwriting and Expression," translated by +J. Holt Schooling. + + * * * * * + +_General Characteristic._--The fineness of an organism will be revealed +by a fine light penstroke. Coarse, low natures make heavy blurred +entangled lines. + +_Activity_ is denoted by the length of the letters. Where it is feeble +the letters will be widely spaced and rounded. + +_Excitability_ is shown by sharp strokes and stops. The more acute and +irregular the pen-strokes the greater the intensity of feeling. + +_Aggression_, which is the inclination to attack, the destructive force, +is indicated by the final strokes of letters and the cross-bars of _t_'s +advancing well forward, the dots of the _i_'s placed well forward. In +such a word as "time" the dot would probably be between the _m_ and _e_. +The style is angular and well and evenly spaced, altogether a forward, +"go-ahead" writing. + +_Economy_, or acquisitiveness, is shown by the finishing strokes being +turned backwards, and inwards; by a cramped hand, a disposition to +curtail strokes, particularly the endings of letters, as if the +expenditure of ink was begrudged. + +_Secretiveness_, or extra caution, has its sign in the narrow, +tightly-closed form of the body of the letters _a_, _d_, _g_, _o_, _q_, +the _a_ and _o_ often being merely a narrow _v_. The general tendency of +the writing is to compression, the final strokes being very short. When +very marked, the letters dwindle into an indistinct unformed condition. +The substitution of dashes for punctuation is another symptom. + +_Insincerity._--Beware of the man or woman whose writing is a fine, wavy +line, upright, with short, stumpy and indistinct tops and tails, words +running at their end to an almost straight line, the letters merely +indicated. The flatter, finer and more perpendicular this writing, the +greater the insincerity. Such a writer would probably be a polite, +pleasing and plausible person, but double-faced as Janus. + +_Love of praise_, glory, ambition are shown by a tendency to write +upwards, the lines of writing trending towards the right-hand corner of +the paper. The signature will usually have a curved line below it, with +a degree of flourish. + +_Self-esteem_, to which is allied conceit and ostentation, shows itself +in proportion to the size of the writing, the taller and more flourished +the upstrokes and the longer the downstrokes, the greater the +self-assertiveness. The flourish beneath the signature will be very +pronounced, often an elaborate spider's web of interlaced lines. The +writing is more or less angular with the finals turned backwards and +inwards. + +_Will power_ is shown by firm bars to the _t_, with a tendency to +descend from left to right, bludgeon-like downstrokes to tailed letters, +writing rather angular than rounded, and the final strokes finished by +a heavy pressure. Straight, firm, downward strokes take the place of the +tails to _y_, _g_, _f_, _q_. + +_Sympathy_, good nature, kindness of heart are shown by a flowing open +hand, the finals of the letters being extended and thrown out with an +expansive movement. The tailed letters are long and looped, and often +turned up the right side of the letter. The letters are well apart but +not necessarily unconnected, and the style is curved. As a general rule +hard matter-of-fact natures incline to an angular style; the artistic +and softer nature affects rounded, gracefully curved strokes, and avoids +straight perpendiculars or horizontals. + +_Constructiveness_, which implies the ability to combine and connect +words and phrases, is shown by joining the words together, several being +written without lifting the pen from the paper. The more simple and +ingenuous the method of attaching the words, the greater will be the +ability. When this joining of words is carried to extremes, it may be +taken as a sign of good deductive judgment. + +_Observation_, by which is implied the keen, penetrating, inquiring mind +(which in excess becomes curiosity), is marked by angularity of the +strokes and finals; a small, generally neat, handwriting, with the +letters disconnected. + +_Punctuation_ affords a very valuable clue to character-reading, for +reasons set out in the chapter "How to Study a Handwriting." They are +the most mechanical and unpremeditated of hand-gestures, and are, +therefore, the more valuable. + +When, for example, a dot is thick and heavy, we infer that the pen has +been driven across the paper with a strong, decided movement of the +hand, which would be consistent with extreme energy and will power; +whereas, when the dot is light and faintly indicated we may be certain +that only a moderate force has been expended upon its production, which +would be compatible with less resistance and endurance in the character. + +Again, a dot whose outlines were blurred would show a certain +sensuousness of character--strong passions and a want of restraint over +the lower propensities; whereas, a dot whose edges were sharply defined +would tell of refinement and a loathing against all that was coarse or +vulgar. + +Careful attention to punctuation indicates neatness, order, method and +love of arrangement; nor is it necessary that the punctuation should be +strictly correct, for the art is but imperfectly mastered by most +people, even the best educated. + +Stops that partake of the appearance of a comma indicate a degree of +impetuosity; well rounded stops imply calmness and tranquility of +temperament. When the full stops are fashioned after the form of a comma +and droop towards the right hand they indicate a tendency to sulkiness. +When they are merely angular we may infer impatience and a "peppery" +disposition. + +Flourishes are always indicative of a certain amount of assertiveness. +The simpler the flourish the less artificial this self-insistence; the +more elaborate, the greater the desire to seem what one is not. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HANDWRITING. + + +Most of the works in this list relate to that aspect of the study of +graphology which is supposed to bear upon the manifestations of +character. But there is not one which the student of handwriting can +afford to ignore, since, apart from the debatable question of character +reading, they all contain numerous hints and observations of extreme +value to the student whose objective is the acquisition of aptitude in +the more practical art of detecting forgery. + + AUTOGRAPH COLLECTING: A practical manual for Amateurs and + Historical Students. By HENRY T. SCOTT, M.D. London: Upcott Gill. + Price 5_s._ + + A GUIDE TO THE COLLECTION OF HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS, LITERARY MSS. AND + AUTOGRAPH LETTERS, &c. By Rev. H. T. SCOTT and SAMUEL DAVEY. (Out + of print.) May be seen in British Museum and many public + libraries. + + THE AUTOGRAPHIC MIRROR: A monthly journal now defunct, but + procurable at second hand. + + HANDWRITING AND EXPRESSION. Translated and edited by JOHN HOLT + SCHOOLING, from the third French edition of "L'Escriture et le + Caractere," par J. CRPIEUX-JAININ. Kegan, Paul and Trench. + + CHARACTER INDICATED BY HANDWRITING. By ROSA BAUGHAN. Upcott Gill. + Price 2_s._ 6_d._ + + THE PHILOSOPHY OF HANDWRITING. By DON FELIX DE SALAMANCA. Macmillan. + + HOW TO READ CHARACTER IN HANDWRITING. By HENRY FRITH. Ward Lock. + Price 1_s._ + + HANDWRITING AS AN INDEX TO CHARACTER. By Professor FOLI. C. A. + Pearson. Price 1_s._ + + A SYSTEM OF GRAPHOLOGY. By the ABB MICHON. In French; no English + translation. A valuable work. + + A HISTORY OF HANDWRITING. Same Author. + + A METHOD OF GRAPHOLOGIC STUDY. Same Author. + + A MEMOIR UPON THE FAULTY METHODS USED BY EXPERTS IN HANDWRITING. + Same Author. + + A DICTIONARY OF THE NOTABILITIES OF FRANCE JUDGED FROM THE + HANDWRITING. Same Author. + + THE HANDWRITING OF THE FRENCH PEOPLE SINCE THE MEROVINGIAN EPOCH. + Same Author. + + LES MYSTRES DE L'CRITURE. Preface by Desbarrolles. Same Author. + + THE HANDWRITING OF JUNIUS PROFESSIONALLY EXAMINED BY CHABOT. Edited + by the Hon. E. TWISTLETON. John Murray. 1871. + +This work is the only one hitherto published in England explaining the +methods of the handwriting expert. Mons. Chabot, for many years the +leading English expert, was commissioned by Mr. Twistleton to examine +the handwriting of "Junius" with a view to deciding the authorship of +the famous letters. The result was an exhaustive volume in which the +process of handwriting analysis is illustrated by thousands of examples. +The conclusion arrived at was that the writer of the "Junius" letters +was Sir Philip Francis. + + + + + _Literary and Historical + Autograph Letters and Manuscripts + Purchased._ + + + OPINIONS GIVEN AS TO + + GENUINENESS OF DOCUMENTS. + + ALSO ON + + SUSPECTED FORGERIES + + AND + + ANONYMOUS LETTERS. + + + BY + + BLACKBURN & CADDELL, + 19, CHARLWOOD PLACE, + LONDON, S.W. + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + + Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note, whilst + more significant amendments have been listed below. + + Page 37, 'analine' amended to _aniline_. + Page 53, 'Alcebiades' amended to _Alcibiades_. + Page 56, 'correspence' amended to _correspondence_. + Page 56, 'addresss' amended to _address_. + Page 68, 'four documents' amended to _five documents_. + Page 78, 'MERORINGIAN' amended to _MEROVINGIAN_. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Detection of Forgery, by +Douglas Blackburn and Waithman Caddell + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DETECTION OF FORGERY *** + +***** This file should be named 25532-8.txt or 25532-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/5/3/25532/ + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Detection of Forgery + A Practical Handbook for the Use of Bankers, Solicitors, + Magistrates' Clerks, and All Handling Suspected Documents + +Author: Douglas Blackburn + Waithman Caddell + +Release Date: May 20, 2008 [EBook #25532] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DETECTION OF FORGERY *** + + + + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<h1><span class="fsm">THE</span><br /> +<span class="smcap"><big>Detection of Forgery</big></span>.</h1> + +<p class="hd1"><big>A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK</big><br /> +<span class="fsxs">FOR THE USE OF</span><br /> +BANKERS, SOLICITORS, MAGISTRATES' CLERKS,<br /> +<small>AND ALL HANDLING SUSPECTED DOCUMENTS.</small></p> + +<p class="hd1"><span class="fsxs">BY</span><br /> +<big>DOUGLAS BLACKBURN</big><br /> +<span class="fsxxs">(<i>Late Expert to the Natal Criminal Investigation Department, and the Transvaal Republic</i>)</span><br /> +<span class="fsxs">AND</span><br /> +<big><span class="smcap">Captain</span> WAITHMAN CADDELL.</big></p> + +<p class="hd1"><small>LONDON:</small><br /> +CHARLES & EDWIN LAYTON,<br /> +<small>FARRINGDON STREET, E.C.</small></p> +<p class="center"><small>1909.</small></p> + +<hr /> +<div class="blockquot"><p class="center"><b>ERRATUM. (<i>Page <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</i>)</b></p> + +<p>Owing to the averages given in the table on page 15 +being printed from some incomplete manuscript they are +incorrect. It is obvious that the proper averages are—</p></div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr class="tr3"><td class="td3">7¼</td><td class="td3">6½</td><td class="td3">5¾</td><td class="td5">7½</td><td class="td3">16¼</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">20¾</td><td class="center">20¾</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="trn"><b>Transcriber's Note:</b> +The corrections in the above erratum have been applied. +The handwritten pages entitled '<a href="#Page_17">Terminology</a>' and '<a href="#Page_24">Alphabet Variants</a>' have been +moved to the beginning of their relevant chapters. +Hyphenation and punctuation have been standardised.</div> + +<hr /> +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="td2"><small>CHAPTER</small></td><td class="td2" colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><small>Page</small></span></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2"> </td><td class="td1">Introduction</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">I.—</td><td class="td1">The Principles of Handwriting Analysis</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">II.—</td><td class="td1">Measurement and its Appliances</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">III.—</td><td class="td1">Terminology</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">IV.—</td><td class="td1">Classes of Handwriting</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">V.—</td><td class="td1">How to Examine a Writing</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">VI.—</td><td class="td1">The Alphabet in Detail</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">VII.—</td><td class="td1">The Capitals</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">VIII.—</td><td class="td1">Punctuation</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">IX.—</td><td class="td1">Paper and Watermarks</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">X.—</td><td class="td1">Inks</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">XI.—</td><td class="td1">Erasures</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">XII.—</td><td class="td1">Pencils and Stylographs</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">XIII.—</td><td class="td1">Anonymous Letters and Disguised Hands</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">XIV.—</td><td class="td1">Forged Literary Autographs</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">XV.—</td><td class="td1">Forged Signatures</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">XVI.—</td><td class="td1">The Expert in the Witness-box</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">XVII.—</td><td class="td1">Handwriting and Expression</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr> +<tr class="tr1"><td class="td2">XVIII.—</td><td class="td1">Bibliography of Handwriting</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p> +<h2>INTRODUCTION.</h2> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">The</span> object of this little work is to assist those who may +occasionally be called upon to form an opinion as to the +genuineness of signatures, alterations in cheques, and the +varied doubtful documents that demand the serious consideration +of business men by way of a preliminary to +"taking further steps."</p> + +<p>It is the first attempt published in England to explain +the principles upon which the comparison and examination +of handwriting are conducted by experts. It is, and can +only be, an outline of suggestions how to begin, for no two +experts follow precisely the same methods, any more than +two painters work on the same lines. Both agree in recognising +certain rules and general principles, but each strives +for his objective point by the employment of those means +which experience, temperament, taste and opportunity +suggest. The study of the elementary rules of their art +puts them upon the road for perfecting it, after which +success can only be attained by rightly reading the signs +that lead to the ultimate goal.</p> + +<p>In reading these chapters the student should begin by +practising that self-help which is essential to success. +<i>He must read with pen and notebook.</i> It is with the +object of compelling this valuable habit that no illustrative +examples are given in the text. It would have been easy +to fill many pages with script illustrations, but experience +shows that a much greater impression is made upon the +memory by the hand forming the outlines described than if +they were provided in pictorial form. In other words, the +student should supply this purposeful omission by himself +constructing the illustrations from the description. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +trifling extra time and trouble thus demanded will be amply +repaid by the ease and rapidity with which the various +points will be fixed in the memory. Nor is this the only +advantage to be gained. The act of reproducing the illustration +cited will emphasise and render clear technical and +mechanical features that would require many words to +explain, with the attendant risk of confusing the mind by +mere verbiage.</p> + +<p>The material and opportunity for practising and studying +the comparison of handwritings are abundant. Every letter +written or read affords a subject, and in a surprisingly short +space of time the student will find himself instinctively noting +and analysing peculiarities in handwriting that probably +never arrested his attention before. The principles of the +art are exceedingly simple and free from complexity, and +many a person who takes up the study will find that he +possesses powers of analysis and observation unguessed +before. The most successful expert is he who observes +most closely and accurately, and the faculty needs only the +spur of an objective point for it to be developed.</p> + +<p>After a little practice, experience will suggest many +methods of examination and test not dealt with here. For +example, photographic enlargements can be and are utilised +with great advantage by bringing out minute details, +especially in signatures, erasures and alterations. Interesting +experiments can be made with a view to discovering the +effect of different kinds of ink—important in settling the +question whether the whole of a particular writing was done +with one fluid, and at the same time, or at intervals.</p> + +<p>The study of erasures and alterations of figures or +characters also comes within the scope of developments of +the art which it is not deemed necessary to deal with at +length in these pages, for after experience will suggest their +use and the best methods of procedure. For the beginner +the instructions given in the chapters that follow will be +found amply sufficient to direct him how to take up a +fascinating and practical accomplishment, and this, with +no further aid than his own judgment, perseverance and +powers of observation and deduction.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2> + +<h3>The Principles of Handwriting Analysis.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">The</span> principle on which experts claim to be able to detect +variations and to differentiate between handwritings is based +on the well-established axiom that there is no such thing as +a perfect pair in nature; that, however close the apparent +similarity between two things, a careful examination and +comparison will reveal marked differences to those trained to +detect them.</p> + +<p>This is especially true of everything that is produced by +human agency. Everyone knows how difficult it is to keep +check upon and eradicate certain physical habits, such as +gestures, style of walking, moving the hands, arms, &c., +tricks of speech, or tone of voice. These mannerisms, being +mechanical and automatic, or the result of long habit, are +performed unconsciously, and there is probably no person +who is entirely free from some marked peculiarity of manner, +which he is ignorant of possessing. It is a well-known fact +that the subject of caricature or mimicry rarely admits the +accuracy or justness of the imitation, although the peculiarities +so emphasised are plainly apparent to others. Even +actors, who are supposed to make a careful study of their +every tone and gesture, are constantly criticised for faults +or mannerisms plain to the observer, but undetected by +themselves.</p> + +<p>It is easy, therefore, to understand how a trick or a +gesture may become a fixed and unconscious habit through +long custom, especially when, as in the case of a peculiarity +of style in handwriting, there has been neither criticism on +it, nor special reason for abandoning it.</p> + +<p>Every person whose handwriting is developed and permanently +formed has adopted certain more or less distinctive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +peculiarities in the formation of letters of which he is +generally unaware.</p> + +<p>The act of writing is much less a matter of control than +may be supposed. The pen follows the thoughts mechanically, +and few ready and habitual writers could, if suddenly called +upon to do so, say what peculiarities their writing possessed. +For example, how many could say off-hand how they dotted +an <i>i</i>—whether with a round dot, a tick or a dash—whether +the tick was vertical, horizontal or sloping; what was the +proportional distance of the dot from the top of the <i>i</i>. +Again, ask a practised writer how he crosses the letter <i>t</i>—whether +with a horizontal, up or down stroke? It is safe to +assume that not one in a thousand could give an accurate +answer, for the reason that the dotting of an <i>i</i> and crossing +of a <i>t</i> have become mechanical acts, done without thought or +premeditation, but as the result of a long-formed habit.</p> + +<p>It is these unconscious hand-gestures and mechanical +tricks of style that the handwriting expert learns to distinguish +and recognise,—the unconsidered trifles that the writer +has probably never devoted a minute's thought to, and which +come upon him as a surprise when they are pointed out to him. +Their detection is rendered the more easy when one knows +what to look for from the fact that they are, unlike gestures +and tricks of voice, permanent. A mannerism may not strike +two observers in the same way, nor is it easy to compare, for +it is fleeting, and the memory has to be relied upon to recall a +former gesture in order to compare it with the last. It is not +so with a hand-gesture in writing. The sign remains side by +side with its repetition, for careful and deliberate comparison; +and if the writing be a long one, the expert has the +advantage of being in possession of ample material on which +to base his judgment.</p> + +<p><i>A Popular Fallacy.</i>—One of the most frequent objections +offered by the casual critic when the subject of expert +testimony is discussed is to the effect that people write +different hands with different pens, and he probably believes +this to be true. A very slight acquaintance with the +principles on which the expert works would satisfy this +spontaneous critic of the fallacy of his objection. A person +who habitually writes a fine, small hand, sloping from right<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +to left, may believe that he has altered the character of his +hand by using a thick, soft quill, reversing the slope to what +is called a backhand, and doubling the size of the letters. +All he has done is to put on a different suit of clothes; the +same man is in them. The use of a thick pen does not make +him put a dot over the <i>i</i> where before he made an horizontal +dash; it does not turn a straight, barred <i>t</i> into a curved loop, +neither does it alter the proportionate distance between the +letters and lines. It does not make him form loops where +before he habitually made bars, or <i>vice versâ</i>, and if he +formerly made a <i>u</i> with an angle like a <i>v</i> he will not write +the <i>u</i> with a rounded hook. Neither will it cause him to drop +his habit of adding a spur to his initial letters or curtail the +ends and tails that he was wont to make long. In short, the +points to which the expert devotes his investigation are those +least affected by any variation in the character of the pen +used and the hand-gestures which have, by constant usage, +become as much part of the writer's style as his walk and the +tone of his voice.</p> + +<p>It follows, therefore, that the work of the handwriting +experts consists in learning how to detect and recognize +those unconscious or mechanical signs, characteristics or hand-gestures +that are a feature in the handwriting of every +person, no matter how closely any two hands may approximate +in general appearance. However similar two hands may +seem to the casual and untrained observer, very distinct and +unmistakable differences become apparent when the student +has been taught what to look for. There is no more certain +thing than the fact that there has not yet been discovered +two handwritings by separate persons so closely allied that +a difference cannot be detected by the trained observer. +Every schoolmaster knows that in a class of pupils taught +writing from the same model, and kept strictly to it, no two +hands are alike, although in the early and rudimentary stage, +before the hand has attained freedom and approached a +settled character, the differences are less marked. So soon +as the child has been freed from the restraint of the set copy +and the criticism of the teacher, he begins to manifest distinct +characteristics, which become more marked and fixed with +practice and usage.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p> + +<p>There is no writing so uniform as the regulation hand +used, and wisely insisted upon, in the Civil Service, and +familiar to the general public in telegrams and official letters. +Yet it is safe to say that there is not a telegraph or post office +clerk in England who would not be able to pick out the +writing of any colleague with which he was at all acquainted.</p> + +<p><i>Duplicates non-existent.</i>—But the best and most decisive +answer to the objection that writings may be exactly similar +lies in the notorious fact that during half a century experts +have failed to discover two complete writings by different +hands, so much alike that a difference could not be detected. +Had such existed, they would long ere this have been produced +for the confuting of the expert in the witness-box; +particularly when we bear in mind that the liberty, and even +the life of a person, have depended upon the identification of +handwriting. That there are many cases of extraordinary +similarity between different handwritings is a fact; if there +were not, there would be very little occasion for the services +of the expert, but it is equally a fact that the fancied +resemblance becomes less apparent as soon as the writing is +examined by a capable and painstaking expert. It should +not be forgotten that it is not every person who undertakes +the comparison of handwritings who is qualified for the task, +any more than every doctor who diagnoses a case can be +depended upon to arrive at an accurate conclusion. But if +the tried and accepted principles of the art be acted upon, +there should be no possibility of error, always assuming that +the person undertaking the examination has a sufficiency of +material for comparison. An expert who valued his reputation +would, for example, be very cautious about giving an +emphatic opinion if the only material at his disposal were +two or three words or letters. It is quite possible that a +clever mimic might reproduce the voice of another person so +accurately as to deceive those who knew the subject of the +imitation; but let him carry on a conversation in the assumed +voice for a few minutes, and detection is certain. In like +manner, while a few characters and tricks of style in writing +may be fairly well imitated, it is impossible to carry the +deception over a number of words. Sooner or later the +forger lapses into some trick of his own, and it is here<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +the trained observer catches him. The expert, like the +caricaturist, lays himself out to note the peculiarities of his +subject, knowing that these are practically beyond the control +of the writer, and that the probabilities are that he is not +even aware of them. Peculiarities in handwriting, like +unchecked habits in children, become, in time, crystallised +into a mannerism so fixed as to be part of the nature, and +consequently are difficult of eradication. As a matter of fact +a peculiarity in handwriting is more often cultivated than +controlled, many writers regarding a departure from orthodox +copybook form as an evidence of an "educated hand."</p> + +<p><i>The Law of Probabilities.</i>—In examining a writing for +comparison with another the expert notes all peculiarities, +which he labels, for distinctive reference, "tricks." When +he has recorded as many as possible he looks for them in the +writing which he has to compare. Suppose that he has +taken note of a dozen tricks, and finds them all repeated in +the suspected writing. The law of probabilities points to a +common authorship for both writings, for it is asking too +much to expect one to believe that there should exist two +different persons, probably strangers, who possess precisely +the same peculiarities in penmanship.</p> + +<p>This principle of the law of probabilities is applied in the +case of the identification of persons "wanted" by the police. +For example, the official description of an absconding forger +runs as follows:—"He has a habit of rubbing his right +thumb against the middle finger as if turning a ring. He +frequently strokes his right eyebrow with right forefinger +when engaged in writing; when perplexed, he bites his +lower lip and clenches and unclenches his fingers."</p> + +<p>Now there are, probably, thousands of people who do +every one of these things singly, but the chances are millions +to one against there being two people who do them all as +described in the official placard. In like manner there may +be a multitude of writers who form an <i>f</i> or <i>k</i> with a peculiar +exaggerated buckle. Thousands more may make certain +letters in the same way, but to assume that there are two +persons who possess equally the whole twelve characteristics +noted by the expert is to strain coincidence to the breaking-point +of absurdity.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p> + +<p>Therefore, it follows that it is the weight of cumulative +evidence of similarity in the production of unusual tricks of +style that proclaims a common authorship for two apparently +different writings.</p> + +<p>It may be, and often is, the case that the peculiarities or +tricks in the original have been imitated in the suspected +writing. As the result of his experience in knowing what to +look for in a copied document, the expert is not deceived. +However good the copy, there are always apparent to the +trained eye evidences that prove another and stranger hand, +plain as the difference between the firm, clear line of the +drawing master and the broken saw-edged effort of the pupil. +Habitual observation trains the eye to an extent that would +scarcely be credited unless proved by experiment. The art +of observation cannot be taught; it must be the outcome of +practice. The most the teacher can do is to indicate the +lines on which the study should be carried out, and offer hints +and suggestions as to what to look for. The rest is in the +hands of the student.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2> + +<h3>Measurement and its Appliances.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">The</span> appliances necessary for the work of examination are, +a good magnifying or reading glass of the greatest power +obtainable, a pair of fine compasses or dividers, a horn or +celluloid protractor for measuring angles of slope, and a +clearly marked scale rule. Suitable articles will generally be +found in an ordinary case of mathematical instruments.</p> + +<p>A simpler and equally accurate method of taking +measurements of handwriting is by the aid of the transparent +paper known as foreign letter paper. It is usually of quarto +size, very thin and transparent, and is ruled horizontally and +vertically, dividing the sheet into tiny squares. It is laid +over the writing to be examined, and the various measurement +marks are made with a finely pointed lead pencil. The +lines and squares are used for measurement as the parallels +of latitude and longitude are used on a chart. For example, +a letter is said to be so many lines high, so many lines wide. +One of the tiny squares should be carefully divided into two, +or, if possible, four parts, so as to ensure finer and more +accurate measurement. A letter may then be measured in +parts of a line, being described, for example, as, height 6¾ +lines, breadth 2½ lines. It is of course important that the +same gauge of ruled paper be used uniformly, otherwise the +measurements will vary. If the student has had practice in +the use of the dividers and scale rule, he may prefer to +employ these, but the ruled paper and a finely pointed lead +pencil will be found sufficient for most purposes. A paper +specially prepared for surveyors, ruled in squares of one-eighth +of an inch may be obtained. For measuring the +slopes of letters a transparent protractor is necessary. The +letters measured are all topped and tailed small letters, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +all capitals having a shank. Letters like <i>O</i>, <i>C</i>, <i>Q</i>, <i>S</i>, and <i>X</i> +can only be measured approximately.</p> + +<p>The method of applying the measurements of heights and +angles of slope is shown in the case illustrated by the table +on page <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</p> + +<p>The subject of enquiry was a signature containing the +letters <i>B</i>, <i>l</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>b</i>.</p> + +<p>The measurements of these letters in the forgery are +given at the top of the table, and show the height in lines and +angle of slope in degrees.</p> + +<p>The measurements of the corresponding letters in twelve +genuine signatures are shown in the table as Examples 1 to +12.</p> + +<p>The total is averaged by dividing by twelve.</p> + +<p>The presumption in favour of the suspected signature +being a forgery is strongly supported by the arithmetical +result.</p> + +<p>A difference of more than 2 per cent. in angle of slope, +and 3 per cent. in height may be safely relied upon as +ground for suspicion, for it is rarely that a man's signature +varies so greatly within a brief period. In the absence of +the explanation provided by illness, intentional change in +style or other abnormal circumstances, such a difference as is +shown in this example will justify a belief that the suspected +signature is by another hand.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr class="tr2"><td class="td4" style="border-left: solid black 1px;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"> </td><td class="td6" colspan="4">Height in lines.</td><td class="td7" colspan="4">Angle of slope.</td></tr> +<tr class="tr2"><td class="td3"><i>B.</i></td><td class="td3"><i>l.</i></td><td class="td3"><i>k.</i></td><td class="td5"><i>b.</i></td> +<td class="td3"><i>B.</i></td><td class="td3"><i>l.</i></td><td class="td3"><i>k.</i></td><td class="td3"><i>b.</i></td></tr> +<tr class="tr2"><td class="td9">Forgery</td><td class="td4">...</td><td class="td3">7</td><td class="td3">7</td><td class="td3">6</td> +<td class="td5">7¼</td><td class="td3">15</td><td class="td3">20</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">21</td></tr> +<tr class="tr2"><td class="td9">Example</td><td class="td4">1</td><td class="td3">7¼</td><td class="td3">6½</td><td class="td3">5½</td> +<td class="td5">7½</td><td class="td3">16</td><td class="td3">22</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">2</td><td class="td3">7¼</td><td class="td3">6¼</td> +<td class="td3">6</td><td class="td5">7¼</td><td class="td3">17</td> +<td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">20</td><td class="td3">20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">3</td><td class="td3">7¼</td><td class="td3">6</td> +<td class="td3">5¾</td><td class="td5">7¾</td><td class="td3">16</td> +<td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">20</td><td class="td3">21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">4</td><td class="td3">7</td><td class="td3">6¼</td><td class="td3">5¾</td><td class="td5">7½</td><td class="td3">16</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">20</td><td class="td3">21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">5</td><td class="td3">7</td><td class="td3">6¾</td><td class="td3">5¾</td><td class="td5">7½</td><td class="td3">17</td><td class="td3">22</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">6</td><td class="td3">7½</td><td class="td3">6¾</td><td class="td3">5</td><td class="td5">7½</td><td class="td3">16</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">20</td><td class="td3">21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">7</td><td class="td3">7½</td><td class="td3">6</td><td class="td3">6</td><td class="td5">7¼</td><td class="td3">17</td><td class="td3">20</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">8</td><td class="td3">7½</td><td class="td3">6½</td><td class="td3">5¾</td><td class="td5">7½</td><td class="td3">16</td><td class="td3">22</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">9</td><td class="td3">7¼</td><td class="td3">6½</td><td class="td3">5½</td><td class="td5">7</td><td class="td3">16</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">10</td><td class="td3">6¾</td><td class="td3">6½</td><td class="td3">5¾</td><td class="td5">7¼</td><td class="td3">16</td><td class="td3">20</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">11</td><td class="td3">7¼</td><td class="td3">6¾</td><td class="td3">5¾</td><td class="td5">7½</td><td class="td3">16</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">22</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td8">"</td><td class="td4">12</td><td class="td3">7</td><td class="td3">6¼</td><td class="td3">5¾</td><td class="td5">7½</td><td class="td3">16</td><td class="td3">20</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">21</td></tr> +<tr class="tr3"><td class="td9">Average</td><td class="td4">...</td><td class="td3">7¼</td><td class="td3">6½</td><td class="td3">5¾</td><td class="td5">7½</td><td class="td3">16¼</td><td class="td3">21</td><td class="td3">20¾</td><td class="td3">20¾</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2> + +<h3>Terminology.</h3> + +<div class="figright"> +<img src="images/001.png" width="296" height="500" alt="TERMINOLOGY" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">In</span> order to render the description of a writing perfectly +clear, a system of terminology is adopted which is invariable. +That is, the same terms are always employed in indicating +the same parts of a letter. These are simple, and for the +most part self-explanatory, so that no effort is required to +commit them to memory.</p> + +<p>Every part of a letter has a distinctive name, so that it +would be possible to reproduce a script character very closely +by a verbal description.</p> + +<p>The following are the terms used in describing a letter:—</p> + +<p><i>Letter</i> means the whole of any script character, capital +or small. For the sake of brevity in notes and reports capital +is written Cp.; small, Sm.</p> + +<p><i>Arc.</i>—An arc is the curve formed <i>inside</i> the top loop or +curve, as in <i>f</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>o</i>. In <i>o</i>, the inside top half of the letter +is the arc; the inside bottom half is the hook.</p> + +<p><i>Buckle.</i>—The buckle is the separate stroke added to such +letters as <i>k</i>, <i>f</i>, and capitals <i>A</i>, <i>F</i>, <i>H</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Beard.</i>—The beard is the preliminary stroke that often +appears in capital letters.</p> + +<p><i>Body.</i>—The body of a letter is that portion of it which +rests on the line and could be contained in a small circle. +For example, in a small <i>d</i> the body consists of the circle and +the final upward curve or toe. In a small <i>g</i> the body is the +circle minus the tail.</p> + +<p><i>Eye</i> is the small circle formed by the continuation of a +stroke as in the shoulder <i>r</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Finals.</i>—A final is the finishing stroke not carried beyond +the shank in capitals, and in a few smalls like <i>y</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>z</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Foot.</i>—The foot of a letter is that portion of it that rests +on the line. Small <i>m</i> has three feet, <i>h</i> has two, etc.</p> + +<p><i>Hook.</i>—The hook is the inside of a bottom curve. It is +the opposite of the arc.</p> + +<p><i>Link.</i>—The link is that portion of the stroke which +connects two letters.</p> + +<p><i>Broken link.</i>—A broken link is a disconnection in the link +joining two letters.</p> + +<p><i>Loop.</i>—A loop is that portion of a letter which forms the +top or tail. Unlooped tops and tails are called "barred." +For example, small <i>f</i> has two loops, top and bottom; <i>f</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>l</i> +have one top loop; <i>g</i>, <i>y</i>, <i>z</i> have one bottom loop.</p> + +<p><i>Shank.</i>—The shank of a letter is the principal long downstroke +that forms the backbone.</p> + +<p><i>Shoulder.</i>—The shoulder is the outside of the top of the +curve as seen in small <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>h</i>. Small <i>m</i> has three shoulders, +<i>n</i> two, <i>h</i> one.</p> + +<p><i>Spur.</i>—The spur is to the small letter what the beard is to +the capital. It is the initial stroke.</p> + +<p><i>Tick.</i>—A tick is a small stroke generally at the beginning +of a letter, sometimes at the end.</p> + +<p><i>Toe.</i>—The toe is the concluding upward stroke of a letter, +as seen in small <i>e</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>h</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Whirl.</i>—The whirl is the upstroke in all looped letters. +It is a continuation of the spur in <i>b</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>l</i>, and is always an +upstroke.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2> + +<h3>Classes of Handwriting.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">For</span> convenience in differentiation, handwritings are divided +into the following classes. Practically every type of writing +can be placed in one of them.</p> + +<p><i>Vertical Hand.</i>—A vertical hand is one in which the tops +and tails of letters form as nearly as possible a perpendicular +with the horizontal line. The best example of this class of +handwriting is that known as the Civil Service hand, familiar +to the general public through telegrams and official +documents.</p> + +<p><i>Back Hand</i> is a hand in which the general slope of the +characters is from right to left.</p> + +<p><i>Italian Hand</i> is the reverse of a back hand, the slope +being at an acute angle from left to right. It is a style fast +going out of fashion, and is almost invariably the handwriting +used by elderly ladies. Its most pronounced characteristic is +its sharp angles and absence of curves.</p> + +<p><i>Open Hand.</i>—An open hand is one that generally +approximates to the vertical, its distinguishing feature being +the wide space between the letters. The best example of it +is that known as the Cusack style of writing.</p> + +<p><i>Closed Hand.</i>—A closed hand is the opposite of an open +hand, the letters being crowded together and generally long +and narrow, with the slope from left to right.</p> + +<p><i>Greek Hand.</i>—This is the name given to a type of writing +that closely approximates to the printed character. Many +letters, both capital and small, are formed to imitate print, +particularly the capitals <i>T</i>, <i>X</i>, <i>Y</i>, <i>R</i>, <i>B</i>, <i>D</i>, and the smalls +<i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>j</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>p</i>, <i>r</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>v</i>, <i>w</i>, <i>x</i>, <i>y</i>, <i>z</i>. It is a hand frequently +found in the writings of classical scholars, literary men +engaged in work entailing careful research, and often is an +evidence of short sight.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p> + +<p>The <i>Wavy Hand</i> is generally vertical. Its characteristic +is an undulating serpentine waviness. Little or no distinction +is made between barred or looped letters. There are no +rounded shoulders to the <i>m</i> and <i>n</i> and the word minnie would +be written by five small <i>u</i>'s. In round-bodied letters like +<i>a</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>g</i>, the circle is rarely completed, but is left open, so that +small <i>a</i> becomes <i>u</i>, and small <i>d</i> may be mistaken for <i>it</i>, with +the <i>i</i> undotted and <i>t</i> uncrossed. Despite its geometrical and +caligraphic inaccuracy in detail, this hand is generally +written with great regularity, that is, the characters, though +incomplete, are always uniform in their irregularity. The <i>e</i> +is never open, but is an undotted <i>i</i>, and <i>n</i> is <i>u</i>, but when the +peculiarities of the writer become familiar this hand is often +very legible.</p> + +<p><i>Flat Hand.</i>—A flat hand is a type of handwriting in +which the characters have an oblate or flattened appearance, +the <i>o</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>g</i>, &c., being horizontal ovals, like the minim and +breve in music. The tails and tops are generally short, with +wide loops. It is nearly always a vertical hand.</p> + +<p>An <i>Eccentric Hand</i> is one that presents various marked +peculiarities and departures from standard rules in the +formation of certain letters, and cannot be placed in any +recognised class, though it may approximate to one more than +to another.</p> + +<p>The <i>Round</i> or <i>Clerical Hand</i> is a writing that preserves a +close affinity for the round regular hand of the average +school-boy, with the difference that while the characters are +formed on regular copybook model, the hand is written with +considerable fluency and firmness. It is generally only a +little out of the perpendicular, sloping slightly towards the +right.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER V.</h2> + +<h3>How to Examine a Writing.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">The</span> examination of a writing generally consists in making +a careful comparison between it and another or others, the +object being to determine whether all are by the same hand.</p> + +<p>The writing which is in a known hand or as to the authorship +of which there is no doubt, is usually called the Original, +and is always referred to by this name. The writing which +has to be compared with it, and which practically forms the +subject of the enquiry, is called the Suspect. The Suspects +should be marked A, B, C, D, &c., and put away without +examination until the Original has been thoroughly mastered. +This is more important than may appear at first sight, for the +confusing effect of having the two types of writing in the +eye and mind before one type is made familiar is highly +prejudicial. Any inclination to look at the Suspects first +should be firmly resisted.</p> + +<p>Let us assume that the object of the examination is to +discover the writer of an anonymous letter—one of the +most frequent tasks of the handwriting expert. The +material in hand is the anonymous letter, which in such a +case may be called the Original, and half-a-dozen specimens +of the writing of suspected persons. These Suspects are +numbered from 1 to 6, or marked A, B, C, &c., and put aside +until the Original has been thoroughly studied.</p> + +<p>The first thing is to examine the paper and envelope, noting +its quality, watermark, size, and any feature that may afford +a clue. It is always safe to presume that the paper is in +every respect unlike that commonly used by the writer, just +as it is equally safe to take it for granted that the writing it +contains will, so far as its general appearance goes, be the +reverse of the normal hand of the author. That is, if it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +be a heavy back hand, the writer probably uses a hand +approximating to the Italian, though too much weight must +not be attached to this theory.</p> + +<p>Next, note the general style of the document as a whole, +whether the margin between top, bottom, and sides is large +or small. A writer who habitually begins at the top left-hand +corner very near to the edge of the paper will often +betray himself by repeating the habit. It is a very common +sign of an economical disposition. Note whether he crowds +his words and letters near the ends of lines or leaves a good +margin. Clerks and those engaged in official work rarely +crowd their final words, preferring rather to leave a wide +space and go on to the next line.</p> + +<p>Note whether the hyphen is used to divide words. Many +writers never divide a word, others do it frequently, with or +without the hyphen.</p> + +<p>Measure the average distance between lines, if unruled +paper be used, and make a note of the average distance.</p> + +<p>Measure the distance between words and strike an average, +noting if words are connected without lifting the pen. It +may be found that this joining is only done when certain +letters form the final of the first word joined and the initial +of the word connected. Look carefully for such.</p> + +<p>Note particularly the slope of the topped and tailed +letters.</p> + +<p>Note the punctuation, whether frequent and accurate or +otherwise.</p> + +<p>Determine the class to which the writing belongs.</p> + +<p>Read the document carefully, noting any peculiarities +of language, errors, or Americanisms in spelling, such as +"favor" for "favour," "color" for "colour," &c.; the +substitution of "<i>z</i>" for "<i>s</i>" in such words as "advertise," +&c. Examine with the glass any words that may have been +crossed out or rewritten, noting particularly letters that have +been mended or touched up.</p> + +<p>Note whether the horizontal lines have a tendency to +slope up or down.</p> + +<p>Note particularly letters with two or more feet, like <i>a</i>, <i>d</i>, +<i>h</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, &c. It will be found that a certain regularity in +formation exists in most writings. If the <i>a</i> be formed like<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +an <i>o</i>, the toe not touching the line, or an <i>n</i> with the second +foot high up like a bearded <i>r</i>, these peculiarities should be +carefully noted. Some writers go to the other extreme, and +carry the second foot below the line, so that <i>a</i> becomes a +small <i>q</i>. Too much time cannot be devoted to this aspect of +handwriting, as it presents features of which the writer is +probably quite unconscious, and, therefore, affords valuable +evidence.</p> + +<p>Next study the topped and tailed letters, noting whether +they are looped or barred, that is, formed by a single stroke. +It will be often found that certain letters are always looped, +others barred. Take careful note of such. If both barred +and looped letters appear to be used indiscriminately, count +and average them. In any case, a characteristic will be +revealed. Examine and classify the loops. Note whether +they are long or short, rounded or angular, wide or narrow. +Devote special attention to the arc, shoulder and hook. Note, +also, any difference of thickness between the up and down +stroke; test the degree of clearness and sharpness of stroke +by means of the glass, and carefully look for the serrated or +ragged edge, which will assist in determining the angle at +which the pen is held.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2> + +<h3>The Alphabet in Detail.</h3> + +<div class="figright"> +<img src="images/002.png" width="296" height="500" alt="ALPHABET VARIANTS." title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">If</span> the instructions so far given have been acted upon, the +student will have familiarised himself with the general +character of the writing under examination. He should now +proceed with a detailed examination of each letter, beginning +with the smalls, and taking them in alphabetical order.</p> + +<p>Take a sheet of tracing paper and trace each small <i>a</i>, +letting them follow each other on the line, with about a +quarter inch of space between each letter. During the +process of tracing, the eye must be on the alert for +peculiarities, notably the roundness or otherwise of the +circle as a whole, the curve or angle of the arc and hook, +the relative position of the toe. Note the shank, whether +looped or barred, whether the top of it is above or below the +body of the circle, whether it is vertical or sloping from right +or left. Having compared all the <i>a</i>'s, count them, and decide +which form most frequently recurs. This may be taken as +the normal <i>a</i> of the writer.</p> + +<p>The following are the principal points to be considered in +examining succeeding letters.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i>—Note the spur, its length, how far up the shank it +meets it; whether the shank is barred or looped; the +character of the loop. Note particularly the toe, which also +forms the link. This is a very significant hand-gesture. It +may be low down, making the <i>b</i> literally <i>li</i>, or it may be a +horizontal bar, an angle, or a neat semicircle. Its formation +offers large scope for variation, and should be very carefully +studied. Compare the toe with the corresponding stroke in +<i>f</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>v</i>, <i>w</i>. Note whether it is joined with an eye, and observe +its average distance from the bottom on base line.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i>—This letter, when an initial, is frequently begun with +a spur, often with a dot or tick. When connected with a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +preceding letter, the link may make the <i>c</i> into an <i>e</i>. It is +sometimes disconnected from the preceding letter. Note +whether this is characteristic.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i>—Apply the same tests as in examining small <i>a</i>, noting +whether the shank is barred or looped.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i>—Examine the spur in initials; closely observe the loop. +Look for any recurrence of the Greek ε. Examine and +compare the specimens given in the examples. Many writers +have a habit of forming an <i>e</i> as an <i>i</i> and adding the loop. +Look out for this with assistance of the glass.</p> + +<p><i>f.</i>—This is an important letter, giving scope for numerous +varieties of form. Examine and classify the loops, noting +which is the longer—the top or bottom; whether one or both +are barred. The eye and toe are pregnant with material for +observation. Examine the various forms of this letter given +in the examples.</p> + +<p><i>g.</i>—Like the preceding letter, this one has many varieties +of form, and will repay careful study.</p> + +<p><i>h.</i>—The characteristic portion of this letter is the hook +forming its body. Note how it is joined to the shank—whether +it starts from the line or high up; whether the +shoulder is rounded or angular, whether the foot touches the +line or remains above it; whether the shank is looped or +barred.</p> + +<p><i>i.</i>—This is an important letter because of the dot, which +is made mechanically. After noting whether the shank is +spurred as an initial, special attention must be devoted to the +dot. Dots are of various forms. They may be a wedge-shaped +stroke sloping in any direction, a horizontal dash, a +tiny circle or semicircle, a small <i>v</i>, or a perfect dot. Examine +them all through the glass, and compare them with the +comma, which often partakes of the same character as the +dot. Note also its relative position to the shank, whether +vertical, to the right or left, and its average height and +distance from the shank. Much may be learned from a +careful examination of the dot, and its every variation and +characteristic should be most carefully noted and classified.</p> + +<p><i>j</i> is important for the same reason that makes the <i>i</i> +significant. There are several forms of it, but the dotting +offers the most valuable evidence.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>k.</i>—This is the most significant and valuable of the small +letters, as it offers scope for so much originality and +irregularity in its formation. The characteristic features of +the small <i>k</i> lie mainly in the body. Few writers form a <i>k</i> +alike. Although it may belong to the same class, the number +of variations that can be rung on the body is surprisingly +large, ranging from the regulation copybook model to the +eccentric patterns shown in the examples. Special attention +should be devoted to the eye and buckle, for it is at this +junction of the two strokes forming the body that most +writers exhibit their peculiarities.</p> + +<p><i>l.</i>—The same principles of examination apply to this letter +as to the small <i>e</i>. Note carefully the character of the loop +and examine the position of the spur.</p> + +<p><i>m</i> and <i>n</i> offer ample material for examination. As an +initial the first stroke is sometimes exaggerated, approximating +the letter to the capital <i>M</i> or <i>N</i>. Note the formation of the +shoulders and their relative heights and width; also, by +means of a line touching the tops of the shoulders, note carefully +and compare the last shoulder with the first. This +letter presents great extremes in formation. The shoulders +may be high and well rounded, or even horizontal, or they +may be sharp angles, turning the <i>m</i> into <i>in</i>, and the <i>n</i> into <i>u</i>. +Note the distance between the shanks and observe whether it +is uniform.</p> + +<p><i>o.</i>—This letter owes its main importance to its connecting +link. Note whether it is carried low down, making the letter +like an <i>a</i>, whether it is joined to the body by an eye, and if the +toe is curved or angular. Note, also, the general conformation +of the circular body and compare the toe with that in <i>b</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>v</i>, +and <i>w</i>.</p> + +<p><i>p.</i>—There are several forms of this letter, and a writer +who affects one of them generally repeats it often. The +shank may be barred or looped, wholly or in part, especially +when used as an initial. The body generally offers ample +material for examination.</p> + +<p><i>q</i> is also a letter with which great liberties are taken, and +is the subject of several variations. Some writers make no +distinction between <i>g</i> and <i>q</i>, and the final stroke often supplies +the main characteristic of this letter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>r.</i>—This important letter has two forms—the square, or +eyed, and the hooked. Many variants are employed in +forming it, as the specimens in the examples show. Many +writers unconsciously form a habit of using both <i>r</i>'s, but with +a certain degree of system. For example, one may use the +hook <i>r</i> always as a final, and the eyed <i>r</i> as an initial. The +formation of the eye should be specially studied, with the +shoulder, which may be formed as a semicircle, an arc, a +straight bar or an angular <i>v</i>. The hooked <i>r</i> is equally +rich in varying forms, and the letter forms an interesting +study.</p> + +<p><i>s.</i>—This is a letter of such frequent recurrence in the +English language that it not unnaturally has become the +subject of a variety of forms, and this despite the fact that its +regulation shape is exceedingly simple and rudimentary. +The majority of writers have one favourite form of the letter, +which, like the <i>k</i>, becomes characteristic.</p> + +<p><i>t.</i>—This letter is important because of its frequent recurrence, +and on account of the variations of form, the bar or +crossing being the most fruitful in material for observation. +There are two usual forms of the <i>t</i>, the hooked and +crossed, and the barred, and they are equally valuable and +characteristic. The crossing of a hooked <i>t</i>, like the dotting +of an <i>i</i>, is so mechanical an act that it often reveals important +evidence. The cross stroke when closely examined will be +found to present many variations. It may be a fine horizontal +line, a curve, a heavy short dash; it may be ticked or dotted +at either end or both—in short, there is scarcely an end +to the numerous forms this important hand-gesture may +assume. Then its relative position to the shank tells much. +It may be high up, not touching the shank; low down, neatly +struck at right angles to the shank, or it may be omitted +altogether. In some circumstances a <i>t</i> is crossed, in others +left uncrossed; for example, the <i>t</i> at the beginning of a word +may be invariably uncrossed, but the final <i>t</i> never. These +are the peculiarities and characteristics the student has to +keep a watchful eye for. The other form of the <i>t</i> is known +as the bar <i>t</i>. It is generally uncrossed, and often the buckle +is an important feature. A careful examination of the +examples will suggest the lines on which the analysis of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +letter <i>t</i> should be conducted and at the same time reveal the +richness of material at the disposal of the student.</p> + +<p><i>u.</i>—Note whether the two shanks are uniform, whether +the letter is spurred as an initial. Average the distance +between the shanks, and observe the conformation of the +hook, whether rounded or <i>v</i>-shaped.</p> + +<p><i>v.</i>—The important feature of this letter is the toe. Its +formation must be carefully noted as in <i>f</i>, <i>o</i>, hooked <i>r</i> and <i>w</i>.</p> + +<p><i>w.</i>—Apply the same test as to <i>u</i> and <i>v</i>. Note the uniformity +or otherwise of the shanks and hooks, and study the varied +forms given in the examples.</p> + +<p><i>x.</i>—This letter lends itself to tricks and variations, and +few letters depart more from the orthodox copybook form in +actual practice, as is shown in the examples.</p> + +<p><i>y.</i>—Note the spur and its relative position to the shank. +Note the tail and its average length.</p> + +<p><i>z.</i>—This letter offers good material for study and the +detection of mannerisms. Its body is the most significant +part, as it is capable of so many variations. It may be +angular or well curved; the eye may be large or exaggerated +or merely suggested. Like <i>k</i> and <i>x</i>, the form once adopted +by a writer is not usually departed from to any great extent.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VII.</h2> + +<h3>The Capitals.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">Owing</span> to their large size and more complex form the +capital letters offer much more material for tests than the +smalls. They yield more scope for tricks and eccentricity, +though, at the same time, their extra prominence, and the +clearness with which their outlines strike the eye of the writer +render it more likely that he will detect glaring departures from +the orthodox model. In other words, a writer would probably +pay more attention to accuracy in forming, and particularly +in copying, a capital than a small letter. This is generally +found to be the case in signature forgeries, the capitals being, +as a rule, much nearer the original than the small letters. +But there is this great advantage in favour of the student in +examining capitals—the strokes being more expansive supply +a larger field and material for examination. For example, a +ragged or diamond stroke in a much flourished capital like +<i>M</i>, <i>W</i>, <i>R</i> or <i>B</i> would be more apparent than the same kind of +stroke in a small letter.</p> + +<p>There is no need to take the capital letters seriatim, as +was the case with the smalls, for the same principles and +rules for examination apply in both cases. The same care is +necessary in examining the arcs, hooks and shoulders of +loops, with their general conformation. The angle of slope +is more noticeable in capitals, and they reveal the characteristics +of the writer more than small letters. Persons who +profess to delineate character from handwriting always pay +great attention to the capitals, doubtless with good reason, +and as the result of long experience.</p> + +<p>An examination will show that about ten capitals can be +formed with two disconnected strokes. They are <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, <i>F</i>, <i>H</i>, +<i>K</i>, <i>P</i>, <i>Q</i>, <i>R</i>, <i>T</i> and <i>X</i>. These are known as double capitals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +These doubles should be carefully looked for, and the +frequency, or otherwise, of their recurrence noted, as it is +probable they will be found to be nearly always used under +the same circumstances; that is, a writer may have a habit of +beginning with a double capital when possible, but revert to +the single form of the same letter in the body of the writing. +Another writer will almost invariably disconnect the capitals +from the rest of the word, while a third as regularly connects +them. Some writers affect the more simple form, approximating +to the printed character. Others again indulge in +inordinate flourishes, particularly in their signatures. Such +writers prove easy prey to the forger.</p> + +<p>A feature very easy of detection in capitals is the "diamond." +It is formed by a sudden thickening of the downstroke. It is +particularly noticeable in the writing of those who have been +instructed in the old-fashioned school, where a distinction +between the heavy downstroke and the light upstroke was +insisted upon. The diamond habit once formed is very +difficult to eradicate, and traces of it always remain in the +writing of persons thus taught.</p> + +<p>An important and significant part of a capital letter is the +beard. It is an automatic trick, and always repays careful +examination. It may be a spurred, ticked or dotted beard, +but in any case the initial stroke must be carefully examined, +whatever form it may assume, for the oft-emphasized reason +that it belongs so essentially to the clue-providing class of +unguarded and unpremeditated automatic strokes that are +overlooked by the writer.</p> + +<p>Variations in the form of a capital must be noted, and a +record kept, for, however great the variety, it will be found +that one particular form is more used than another, and may +be regarded as the normal type of the writer.</p> + +<p>A peculiarity of some writers is the use of an enlarged +form of the small letter for a capital. The letters so made +to serve a double purpose are generally <i>A</i>, <i>C</i>, <i>E</i>, <i>G</i>, <i>M</i>, <i>N</i>, <i>O</i>, +<i>P</i>, <i>Q</i>, <i>S</i>, <i>U</i>, <i>V</i> and <i>W</i>. They are referred to as small +capitals.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VIII.</h2> + +<h3>Punctuation.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">The</span> ampersand (&) is a symbol that provides excellent +material for clues to tricks and mannerisms. It varies in +form from a mere <i>v</i>-shaped tick of almost indeterminate +character to an ornate thing of loops and flourishes. It is +very sparingly employed by illiterate persons, and some +educated writers avoid its use under the impression that, like +the abbreviation of words, it is vulgar. In a few high-class +ladies' schools its use is sternly repressed, and there are many +fluent and habitual writers who never employ this sign. This +in itself supplies a useful clue to characterisation. Others, +again, only employ it in such combinations as "& Co.," "&c.," +though this latter abbreviation is, as often as not, written +"etc." by many persons.</p> + +<p>The dash (—) occurs very largely in many writings, and +particularly in those of ladies, who regard it as a universal +punctuation mark, and employ it indiscriminately as comma +and full stop. Many persons of both sexes invariably make +a dash below the address on an envelope, using it as a kind +of final flourish. A close examination of the samples provided +in such a writing will reveal many valuable idiosyncrasies. +It may be a bold, firm horizontal line, a curve with a tick at +either end, or both; a wavy line or even an upward or +downward line. Note, also, the ragged edge, as it affords an +important clue to the style of holding the pen. The dash is +so essentially an unpremeditated and mechanically-formed +hand-gesture that it often betrays more of the character of +the writer than any other letter. Cases have been known in +which the writer of an anonymous letter has successfully<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +concealed all his characteristics, but in putting the final +stroke in the form of a dash he has so far forgotten himself +as to produce, quite unconsciously, what was probably one of +his most pronounced hand-gestures, thus providing a clue +which led to ultimate conviction.</p> + +<p>Punctuation is rarely a marked feature of English handwriting. +It is said that many of our leading literary men +practically leave this important phase of their work to the +printer's proof-reader. An examination of a hundred private +letters by different hands will show a marvellous scarcity of +punctuation marks, and few correspondents use or appear to +know the use of any stop other than the comma and full +point, the dash being made to do service for all else. The +mark of interrogation is fairly often used, and its formation +gives scope and material for careful examination. The +examples offer suggestions of the form and direction +eccentricity sometimes takes.</p> + +<p>The colon and semicolon are very little used by average +writers, and when they are, it is generally inaccurately, but +nearly always under the same circumstances, which should be +carefully noted. The quotation marks (" ") are still more +rarely employed, and it will be found on examination that +most people form them wrongly. The accurate style is this, +“ ”, but as often as not the initial quotation has the dot at +the top instead of the bottom.</p> + +<p>Another almost universal omission is that of the full point +after initials to a name, after "Esq.," and in the initials of +postal districts, as E.C., W.C. The addressing of an envelope +affords interesting and valuable material for clues, for it will +generally be found that a writer who uses punctuation marks +at all will do so with automatic regularity under the same +circumstances.</p> + +<p>The shape and general formation of stops and marks must +be carefully examined and classified, for they belong to the +significant unpremeditated class of hand-gestures, and are, +therefore, valuable as clues to peculiarities.</p> + +<p>The "Esq." that generally follows a man's name on a +letter addressed to him partakes much of the character of a +symbol like the "?" or "!", and, being automatic through +usage, is therefore valuable. Most writers use a uniform style<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +in shaping it, and the three letters that go to make up the +abbreviation are fortunately of a kind that lend themselves +to characterisation.</p> + +<p>Notice, also, the position of the possessive sign in such +words as "men's," "writer's." If accurately placed, the +writer may be presumed to understand punctuation, and +will give evidence of it in a long writing.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER IX.</h2> + +<h3>Paper and Watermarks.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">The</span> brownish tint of old age which paper needs to help +out a fraud is obtained in various ways—sometimes by +steeping in a weak solution of coffee, but in other cases by +holding it before a bright hot fire. This latter device is, +fortunately, not easy of accomplishment, considerable care, +judgment and even luck being needed to ensure a satisfactory +result. In our own case we have failed persistently +in the attempt, the paper becoming tinted so unequally as to +excite remark at first sight.</p> + +<p>All the old pattern of letter paper was almost uniform in +size—post quarto, and the watermark is invariably very +distinct, explainable by the fact that the art of close weaving +the wire mould was not then brought to its present state of +perfection.</p> + +<p>The watermarks are very fairly imitated by means of a +pointed stick dipped in a solution of spermaceti and linseed +oil melted in water and stirred till cold; or, equal quantities +of turpentine and Canada balsam shaken together. The +same result may be obtained by the use of megilp, a mixture +employed by artists.</p> + +<p>The detection of this watermark fraud is simple and +infallible. If the suspected document be moistened with +lukewarm water the spurious watermark disappears +immediately, but if genuine, it becomes plainer.</p> + +<p>The worn and dingy appearance inseparable from age in +a letter is accentuated by rubbing it lightly with a dirty +duster. The effect is usually obvious under a strong glass, +the passage of the dirty cloth revealing itself in minute +parallel lines.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p> + +<p>Very little care is needed to distinguish between paper +that has been taken from books and the genuine letter paper +of the period. To begin with, such letters are always on +single sheets. In genuine cases, the sheet is as often as not +a folio of four pages. In the majority of cases the bogus +sheet is of no recognised size. If taken from a book larger +than post quarto, it has had to be cut to conceal the tear. +This operation has made an irregular sized sheet—too small +for post quarto, too large for the next size. In the genuine +writing paper, all four edges are usually rough like those +of a bank note. If the sheet has been abstracted from a +book, one edge must have been cut or trimmed.</p> + +<p>Again, such paper is of unequal thickness, the writing +paper of the period being much smoother and finer than the +printing paper, while in parts it is almost certain the ink has +run, as it does on a coarse, absorbent paper. This is a sure +sign that the paper is printing and not writing.</p> + +<p>Further, such paper is certain to show signs of wear at +the bottom edges where they have been handled and exposed, +while that part of the page which has been closest to the +inside edge of the cover is generally cleaner, and shows less +sign of wear. In many cases the impression of the book +binding is plainly visible.</p> + +<p>A careful examination and comparison of a few sheets of +genuine letter paper of the seventeenth and eighteenth +centuries with the blank leaves found in printed books will +reveal differences so marked that mistake is scarcely possible +afterwards.</p> + +<p>It often occurs that grease marks interrupt the forger. +Knowing that he cannot write over them, and that they are +hardly likely to have existed on the paper when it was new, +and when the letter was supposed to be written, he avoids +them. The result becomes apparent in unequal spacing of +words and even letters.</p> + +<p>On one occasion a really excellent forgery, which had +successfully withstood all the tests we had applied, had its +real character revealed by a curious oversight on the part of +the forger.</p> + +<p>It was an early seventeenth century document, and our +attention was arrested by a peculiar uniform smudgy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +appearance, such as results from blotting with a hard, +unabsorbent, much-worn sheet of blotting paper. At the +period of the presumed date of this document blotting paper +was unknown, writings being dried by means of a specially +prepared fine powder called pounce, sand, or a powder +containing fine crystals of metal intended to give an +ornamental gloss to the ink. Close examination under the +microscope revealed the truth. There were no signs of +pounce or any other drying powder, the crystals of which +are usually plain to the unassisted eye, but there were +distinct signs of the fibre of the blotting paper left in +the ink.</p> + +<p>Another forgery we discovered through the presence in +the centre of the sheet of paper of a very faint square outline +which enclosed a slight discolouration. The sheet had, as +usual, been removed from a book, and the square outline was +a faint impression of a book-plate which had been affixed to +the opposite page. The discolouration was caused by the ink +on the book-plate.</p> + +<p>It should be superfluous to have to remind intelligent and +educated persons that it is necessary for a collector of old +documents to make himself familiar with the peculiarities, +habits and customs of the period in whose literary curiosities +he is dealing. Yet fact compels the admission that extraordinary +laxity and even ignorance exist on these points. +We are acquainted with a collector, by no means uneducated, +who gave a good price for a letter purporting to be by +Sir Humphrey Davy, the inventor of the miners' safety lamp, +enclosed in an envelope. He was ignorant of the fact that +envelopes were unknown until 1840, thirty years later than +the date of this particular letter. Envelopes supposed to +have been addressed by Dickens have been offered for sale +and purchased, bearing postage stamps not in circulation at +the period.</p> + +<p>One would imagine that a forger would pay sufficient +attention to his materials to be on his guard against the +blunder which earned the perpetrator of the Whalley Will +Forgery penal servitude. He put forward a will dated 1862, +written on paper bearing in a plain watermark the date +1870! Another indiscreet person asked the Court to accept<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +a will written and signed with an aniline copying pencil, +but dated years before that instrument had been invented.</p> + +<p>Both the works by Dr. Scott and Mr. Davies, given in the +list, show samples of watermarks of the various periods +affected by forgers of literary documents.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER X.</h2> + +<h3>Inks.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">Examination</span> for determining whether a writing has +been done at one time, or added to later, necessitates some +acquaintance with the nature and qualities of ink. In the +ordinary case the assistance of a chemist is necessary, but an +enlarged photograph shows up minute differences with +amazing accuracy.</p> + +<p>In the majority of instances alterations are made some +time after the original has been written, in which case a +difference in the shade of the ink will be perceptible, even to +the unassisted eye. This is particularly true when the now +almost universal blue-black ink is used.</p> + +<p>The period required for an addition to become as black as +the older writing depends very much upon the character of +the paper. If this be smooth and hard, and the writing has +not been dried with blotting paper, but allowed to dry +naturally and slowly, it will become black much quicker than +if the paper be rough and of an absorbent nature.</p> + +<p>A fairly reliable test is to touch a thick stroke of the +suspected addition with a drop of diluted muriatic acid—as +much as will cling to the point of a pin. Apply the drop to +the suspected addition and to the older writing at the same +moment, and carefully watch the result. The newer writing +will become faint and watery, with a bluish tinge almost +instantly, but the change will be slower in the case of the +older writing, taking ten or even twenty seconds. The +longer the period required for the change, the older the +writing.</p> + +<p>This same acid test is applied to prove whether a writing +is in ordinary ink, or has been lithographed or photographed. +If the two latter, the acid will have no effect.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span></p> + +<p>On more than one occasion collectors have purchased as +original autographs of celebrities which proved to have been +lithographed or photographed, but the persons so deceived +have generally been inexperienced amateurs.</p> + +<p>When the difference between a written and printed +signature has been once noticed it is hardly likely that an +observant person will be deceived. It is, however, as well to +be carefully on guard against this contingency, for modern +photography and process printing have been brought to such a +degree of imitative perfection that it is easy for a not too +keen-eyed person to experience great difficulty in forming an +opinion in the absence of the acid test. Fortunately that is +infallible.</p> + +<p>It must, however, be admitted that up to the present no +great success has attended efforts to determine how long an +interval has passed between the writing of the original and +the suspected addition. Broadly speaking, the most that the +expert can hope to gain from an examination of ink under +these circumstances are hints, clues and suggestions rather +than definite, reliable facts. Fortunately it often occurs that +a suggestion so obtained proves of immense value to the +trained or careful observer, though it might convey no conviction +to others.</p> + +<p>As in the case of nearly all deductive reasoning the handwriting +expert becomes sensitive to slight suggestions. If +called upon, as he sometimes is, to explain to others how and +why one of these slight and almost imperceptible signs fit in +with his theory, he fails. Therefore the cautious expert, like +a good judge, is careful in giving reasons for his judgment +only to cite those which are self-evident.</p> + +<p>Many an expert has made a poor exhibition in the witness-box +by failing to convey to a jury the impression produced +on his own mind by a slight piece of evidence, the proper +understanding and interpretation of which can only be +grasped by those who have learned how to recognize faint +signs.</p> + +<p>The process of chemically testing inks for the purpose of +ascertaining the points mentioned is quite simple, and is +distinctly interesting. In a very important case the services +of a qualified chemist will probably be requisitioned, but the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +cost of the necessary material and the time required to make +oneself proficient as a capable tester are so slight that even +the small fee that would be charged by a chemist is scarcely +worth paying.</p> + +<p>The materials necessary are a few test tubes, some bottles +of lime water, diluted muriatic acid, a solution of nitrate of +silver in distilled water, in the proportion of ten grains to the +ounce, some camel hair pencils, and clean white blotting and +litmus paper. The whole need not cost more than half-a-crown.</p> + +<p>The method of using these materials is best illustrated +by describing a test often needed by autograph collectors.</p> + +<p>A very common method employed by forgers to give an +appearance of age to the ink used in spurious old documents +is to mix with ordinary ink, muriatic acid, oxalic acid, or +binoxalate of potash. The presence of these colouring agents +can be detected in the following manner.</p> + +<p>In the first place, washing the letter with cold water will +make the ink become darker if acid has been used to brown +the ink, but the following test will settle the point beyond +dispute:</p> + +<p>With a camel's-hair brush wash the letter over with warm +water. If, as sometimes happens, a sort of paint or coloured +indian ink has been used, this will be immediately washed +away and disappear, leaving a rusty smudge. If not, apply +the litmus paper to the wetted ink, and the presence of acid +will be shown in the usual way by the litmus paper changing +colour. If genuine, wetting makes no difference.</p> + +<p>Next, pour a drop or two of the water from the writing +into a test tube from off the letter, add a little distilled water +and one or two drops of the nitrate of silver solution.</p> + +<p>If muriatic acid has been used to colour the ink, a thick +white precipitate will be seen in the tube immediately.</p> + +<p>If not, pour a few more drops of the water which has +been washed over the writing into a second test tube, add a +little distilled water and a few drops of lime water. A white +precipitate will be seen in the tube if either oxalic acid or +binoxalate of potash has been employed.</p> + +<p>In many cases it will be sufficient to place the tip of the +tongue to a thick stroke. An unmistakable acid taste will be +noticed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p> + +<p>Further and fuller particulars of the methods resorted to +by forgers to simulate ancient documents will be given in the +chapter on Autographs.</p> + +<p>It is sometimes important to know whether a stroke has +been made over another, as in the famous case in which +the real issue turned on the question whether an apparent +alteration in a signature was really a pen-mark made to +indicate where the signatory should sign. It was obvious +that if the mark was made first the signature would be over +it; if, as was suggested, the mark was added in an attempt +to alter or touch up the signature, it must have been written +over the signature.</p> + +<p>In cases of this kind an enlarged photograph leaves no +room for doubt. The ink is seen lying over the lower stroke +as plainly as a layer of paint in a picture can be seen +overlying the stroke beneath.</p> + +<p>This is one of those apparently difficult points which +become marvellously simple when dealt with in a practical +manner.</p> + +<p>Pages might be needed to explain what a very simple +experiment will reveal at a glance.</p> + +<p>Take a word which has been written long enough for the +ink to have become dry, and make a stroke across it. For +example, make a letter <i>t</i> without the bar, then, after a lapse +of an hour or two, add the cross bar. When this is quite +dry and has become as dark as the first mark, examine it +with a good glass. The ink of the added bar will be seen +plainly overlaying the vertical stroke, but any doubt can be +promptly removed by taking an enlarged photograph.</p> + +<p>Even when the second stroke is added while the ink on +the first is still wet the upper stroke can be distinguished, +though not so clearly as if the first stroke had been allowed +to dry first.</p> + +<p>By practising and examining such strokes, the student +will soon learn to distinguish important signs which leave no +doubt as to which stroke was first made.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XI.</h2> + +<h3>Erasures.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">The</span> alteration of the figures and amount written on a +cheque is generally effected by erasure. At one time +chemicals were used for this purpose, but fortunately the +modern cheque is forgery-proof in this respect. No means +are known to chemists by which ordinary writing can be +removed from a cheque without leaving a sign too pronounced +to escape detection.</p> + +<p>But even erasure on a cheque is extremely difficult, and +the experienced eye of the average bank teller can detect it +in the vast majority of cases. Frauds perpetrated by this +means are very rare, and are usually the result of gross carelessness +on the part of the person accepting the document so +altered.</p> + +<p>The more frequent form of cheque fraud is effected by +adding to such words as six, seven, eight and nine. The +addition of <i>ty</i> and <i>y</i> is all that is necessary. But the +ordinarily careful business man never leaves sufficient blank +space between his words to admit of this addition, while there +are few bank tellers who do not carefully scrutinise a cheque +made out for these larger amounts.</p> + +<p>It may be accepted as a satisfactory fact that cheque +forgery is not only extremely difficult, but rarely successful. +Great frauds are usually perpetrated by means of other +instruments, such as bills of exchange, credit notes, &c.</p> + +<p>An erasure is the easiest thing to detect if looked for. +To begin with it is only necessary to hold a scratched +document to the light to have the alteration revealed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p> + +<p>Erasing must of necessity remove part of the surface of +the paper which is made noticeably thinner at the spot +erased.</p> + +<p>In nearly every case the writing that has been added to +the erasure is blurred, owing to the rough and absorbent +character of the paper. Expert forgers have devised means +of counteracting this by rubbing in some substance which +partially restores the original smoothness and mitigates the +blurred appearance. But such devices ought not to be +successful for they are so easily detected.</p> + +<p>As a matter of fact the only chance the forger of an erased +cheque has lies in the carelessness of the teller. Any crowding +of words and unequal spacing in the filling up of a cheque +ought to excite suspicion and provoke careful and closer +scrutiny, and, it may be added, it generally does.</p> + +<p>The addition of letters intended to increase the value of a +number, such as the adding of <i>ty</i> to six or seven, is easy of +detection if properly looked for.</p> + +<p>It is safe to assume that the addition has been made long +after the original word was written, and the point of junction +can be detected by the aid of a good glass.</p> + +<p>Had the word been originally written sixty, the chances +are that there would be no perceptible break between the +<i>x</i> and the <i>t</i>. Few persons write such short words in a +disconnected manner. On placing the word under an ordinary +glass the point of junction will be plainly apparent, and a +microscope, or an enlarged photograph, cannot fail to reveal +the fraud. Of course these latter tests will not be possible +under the ordinary circumstances attending the paying out +of a cheque over the counter, but when once the peculiarities +of such alterations have been studied, it is marvellous how +quick the eye becomes in recognizing them at a glance.</p> + +<p>Erasure in writings on stout thick paper is not quite so +readily noticed as those on thin paper such as cheques; but +the same methods of examination will apply—holding the +document to the light, or level with and horizontal to the +eye. A very effective application of the latter test is to bend +or curve the paper, making an arch. The bending has a +tendency to stretch and widen the erased part, and if any +smoothing substance such as starch or wax has been added<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +to restore the gloss of the scraped portion, it will usually +reveal itself by separating and coming away in dust or tiny +flakes. This process may be accentuated by drawing the +suspected document over a ruler, or, better still, a pencil, +repeating the motion several times.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XII.</h2> + +<h3>Pencils and Stylographs.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">It</span> is obvious that writing executed with a pencil or the now +much-used stylograph will differ in many respects from that +performed by an ordinary pen. It is not too much to say +that their use will eliminate many features and introduce new +ones. This change is mainly brought about by the different +way in which a pencil or stylograph is held in comparison +with a pen. There is a much greater sense of freedom. The +pencil can be, and is, turned and twisted in the process of +making a stroke as a pen cannot be, and the signs of this +freedom become apparent in a more rounded stroke. Even +a writer whose characters are acutely angular shows a +tendency to a more graceful outline. As a matter of fact, +it is comparatively rare to meet a pencilled writing that is +pronouncedly angular.</p> + +<p>The same remarks apply with only little modification to +writing produced by the stylograph, and for the same reason—the +ease and freedom with which the instrument is held.</p> + +<p>There is no possibility of mistaking writing produced by +a stylograph for that of an ordinary steel nib. The strokes +are absolutely uniform in thickness. No nib-formed writing +can be so, for it is impossible for a writer, however careful, +to avoid putting pressure on his pen at some point; and the +opening of the nib, however slight, must produce an apparent +thickening.</p> + +<p>Therefore, recognising these facts, the expert is always +extremely careful in giving an opinion upon a writing +produced by pencil or stylo unless he have ample specimens +of the writer's productions done with these instruments.</p> + +<p>At the same time, although an absence of characteristics +present in pen writing would be noticeable, the main features +would exist: for example, the space between words and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +letters would be the same; the dot over the <i>i</i> would be in its +customary position; the bar of the <i>t</i> would be of the same +type as heretofore. The principal changes would be in the +direction of a more uniform stroke with a tendency to greater +rotundity.</p> + +<p>Persons who habitually employ the stylo very frequently +develop an unconscious habit of twisting the pen at certain +points so as to form a deep, rounded dot. This occurs +principally at the ends of words and strokes. A magnifying-glass +reveals this peculiarity at once, and, when discovered, +notice should be taken of the circumstances under which this +twisting is usually done. It will be found, most probably, +that the trick is uniform; that is, certain letters or strokes +are mostly finished with the dot.</p> + +<p>There is a well-known public character who for years has +employed no other writing instrument but the stylo. His +writing possesses one peculiarity which is so habitual that in +four hundred examples examined it was absent in only five. +He forms this twist dot at the end of the last letter at the +end of every line. The inference and explanation is that, in +raising the pen to travel back to the next line, he twists it +with a backward motion in harmony with the back movement. +Another trick is to make the same dot in words on which he +appears to have halted or hesitated before writing the next. +In every such case there is an extra wide space between the +word ended by a dot and that which follows. It would +appear as if the writer mechanically made the dot while +pausing to choose the next word. This is a striking example +of the unconscious hand-gesture.</p> + +<p>Something akin to it occurs in the handwriting of a +famous lawyer. Here and there in his letters will be noticed +a faint, sloping, vertical stroke, like a figure <i>1</i>. Those who +have seen him write explain it thus. While hesitating in the +choice of a word he moves his pen up and down over the +paper, and unintentionally touches it. It is such slips as +these which often supply the expert with valuable clues +to identity. When they occur they should be carefully +examined, for in the majority of cases a reason will be +found for their presence.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XIII.</h2> + +<h3>Anonymous Letters and Disguised Hands.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">That</span> mischievous and cowardly form of secret attack, the +anonymous letter, demands, unfortunately, a large amount of +attention from the handwriting expert. One of the most +pleasant rewards that can attend the conscientious and painstaking +student of handwriting lies in the knowledge that his +art may sometimes enable him to bring to deserved punishment +the assassin of reputation and domestic happiness.</p> + +<p>It is a moot point, which has been discussed by legal +authorities, as to whether the handwriting expert is justified +in tendering evidence and opinions of a kind that may be said +to belong by right to the criminal investigator. By this is +meant that the expert should not be allowed to point out to a +jury such pieces of circumstantial evidence as the similarity +of the paper used by the suspected person with other found +in his possession; that he ought not to direct attention to +postmarks, coincidence of dates, similarity of ink used, the +employment of certain words and phrases, and other external +and indirect clues that point to the authorship. It is urged +that the whole duty of the expert is to say whether in his +opinion two or more writings are by the same hand or not, +and any expression of opinion outside this question is <i>ultra +vires</i>.</p> + +<p>The obvious answer to this objection is that it is impossible +to limit the expert in the selection of those points which +appeal to and assist him in forming an opinion. It is +impossible to say what may or may not suggest a valuable +clue to a keen observer; and as the expert is often called +upon to give reasons for his opinion he is quite justified in +indicating the steps by which he arrived at it.</p> + +<p>These circumstances arise more often in connection with +anonymous letters than with ordinary signature forgeries,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +for the field of exploration and the material examined are so +much larger. Details become invaluable. The quality and +make of the paper used, or a peculiar method of folding and +placing it in the envelope may afford a clue that will put the +expert on the high road to an important discovery. It is +impossible to say how or where a clue may lurk. The torn +edge of a postage stamp once supplied a hint that was +followed up successfully. A smudge on the envelope, that +matched a similar one on a packet of envelopes in the writing +case of a person quite unsuspected, led to conviction, as did a +number of an address that was crossed out and rewritten, the +anonymous writer having, by force of habit, begun with the +number he was in the habit of writing—his own.</p> + +<p>In short, the expert has, <i>nolens volens</i>, to assume many of +the functions of the crime investigator in dealing with +apparent trifles, and even if they do not always help him in +reaching his goal, they provide material for exercising the +useful art of observation. Strictly speaking the expert +should, perhaps, ignore all outside suggestions as to the +authorship, and confine himself to saying whether or not the +specimens submitted are in the same handwriting; but in +practice this will be found extremely difficult, if not impossible, +for the student cannot shut his eyes to the accidental clues +that invariably arise in the examination of the evidence, and +almost before he realizes it, the most cautious expert finds +himself trespassing upon ground that by right should be the +preserve of the detective.</p> + +<p>The points raised here may, however, be safely left to be +dealt with by the judgment of the student as they arise. In +the early stages of study they will probably not present +themselves with the same force and frequency as later on, +when they will be appreciated as providing useful private +pointers for guidance; and though at times they may put the +inexperienced student upon a false scent, he will have no +difficulty in detecting his error if, when in doubt, he follows +the principles laid down for the comparison of handwriting.</p> + +<p>The first step to the examination of the anonymous +letter consists in procuring as many suspects as possible, +which, as before advised, should be lettered or numbered +and put aside, until the original, which in this case is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +anonymous letter, has been studied and mastered. The +external evidence of which so much has already been said +may or may not be looked for.</p> + +<p>Next proceed with the examination and comparison of the +writings. It is presumed that the student has prepared his +notes of the peculiarities of the original; he has now to +search for them in the suspects. Suppose he begins with the +spurs and beards, having found them well marked in the +original. He will take any one of the suspects and examine +it for a repetition of the same signs. He may follow on with +the rest of the suspects, taking advantage of his memory +being fresh on this point, or he may prefer to exhaust one +suspect of all its evidences before proceeding with another; +but practice and experience will decide the best course in +this matter, and influence the line of procedure.</p> + +<p>Whatever method is pursued, all have the same object—the +discovery of the peculiarities of the original in one or +more of the suspects, and the student will be wise if he +follow accurately the course laid down in the chapter on +"How to Examine a Writing."</p> + +<p>It is generally safe to take it for granted that the writing +in an anonymous letter is disguised. There are occasions +when the author persuades another person to write for him, +but only rarely; for the perpetrator of a contemptible act is +not usually brazen and indiscreet enough to expose himself +to others. The same reasons lend strength to the presumption +that the writing will, so far as its general appearance goes, +be as much the opposite of the author's usual style as his +ingenuity can make it. The extreme back hand occurs very +frequently. It seems to be the first impulse of the anonymous +writer to avoid the right slope. Even when the normal hand +is a vertical, with a tendency to back hand, the extreme left +slope is often chosen. Fortunately, the assumed back hand +is one of the most transparent of disguises. If the student +has practised it, he will not need to be reminded how difficult +it is for a writer to conceal his mannerisms. By altering the +slope he has only stretched and lengthened his outlines, and +the expert soon learns to recognise them in their new form.</p> + +<p>Another common disguise is the illiterate hand. This is +quite as easy of detection. It is no easier for the practised<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +and fluent writer to reproduce the shaky, irregular outlines +of the illiterate, than it is for the speaker of pure and cultured +English to imitate the coarse accent of the vulgar. However +good the copy it always breaks down early, and the sudden +and unconscious firm, clear and geometrically accurate stroke +reveals the practised writer beneath the mask. Sometimes +an accurately placed punctuation mark supplies the necessary +clue, for when once the art of proper punctuation has been +acquired it becomes almost automatic. Even experienced +novelists are caught this way occasionally. They will +introduce a letter, supposed to be the work of an illiterate +character. The grammar and orthography suggest the idea, +but the more difficult details of punctuation will be attended +to, even to the apostrophe that marks the elided <i>g</i> in such +words as "talkin'," "comin'," &c.</p> + +<p>Very difficult and troublesome is the letter written +throughout in imitation printed characters. The expert +has to rely upon the curved lines, accidental punctuation +marks and unpremeditated flourishes and hand-gestures; +but, broadly speaking, such a letter is beyond the skill of the +expert if unaided by accidental betrayal. If, as sometimes +happens, the writer is ingenious enough to adopt an alphabet +formed completely of straight lines and angles—an easy task—he +may boast of having produced a detection-proof writing; +that is, if characters formed with the aid of a rule can be +called writing, for it defies detection, because there are none +of the signs essential for comparison, and is less easy of +identification than an incomplete skeleton. In the absence +of external clues, an expert would refuse to do more than +offer a very guarded opinion, and it would be wiser to decline +to offer any comment whatever.</p> + +<p>Another trick that has been resorted to by some persons +is writing with the hand constricted by a tight-fitting glove. +This produces a very effective disguise; but if the student +will practise with the same impediment, he will discover +many useful rules for guiding him on the road to penetrating +this entanglement.</p> + +<p>It should be remembered that the less control a writer +has over his pen, the more likely is he unintentionally to +revert to those forms to which he is habituated, for, left by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +itself, the hand steers the more familiar course. Disguise, +alteration and variation on customary forms are the result of +premeditation. When the mind is occupied more with the +subject than the formation of characters, the latter naturally +assume that shape to which the force of custom has bent +them.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XIV.</h2> + +<h3>Forged Literary Autographs.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">The</span> collection of autographs, letters, and documents of +literary and historical interest has for many years been a +prominent feature in the collecting world, but at no time was +the quest more keen or conducted on more systematic lines +than to-day. The records of the leading sale rooms often +supply matter for surprise, the prices asked and obtained for +rare and choice specimens being such as to excite both +wonder and amazement, sometimes tempered with scepticism.</p> + +<p>It is, therefore, not surprising that this profitable and +growing market should have attracted the fraudulent, for the +prizes when won are generally of a substantial character, and +amply repay the misapplied effort and ingenuity demanded.</p> + +<p>The success which has attended too many of these frauds +may be largely accounted for by the fact that in many cases +the enthusiasm of the collector has outrun his caution.</p> + +<p>Many a man famous for his astuteness in the pursuit of +his ordinary business has allowed himself to fall an easy +victim to the forger, thus exemplifying the familiar adage +that we are easily persuaded to believe what we want to +believe.</p> + +<p>The recorded stories of some of the frauds perpetrated +upon ardent and presumably judicious collectors read like +the tales told so often of the triumph of the confidence +trickster, and one marvels how a person of ordinary power of +observation, to say nothing of experience, could fall a victim +to a fraud requiring little perception to detect. The +explanation doubtless lies in the direction indicated—the +ardour of the pursuit, the pride and joy of possessing +something that is absolutely unique.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p> + +<p>The leading case—to use an expressive legal term—is +that known as the Vrain-Lucas fraud, the principal victim of +which was Mons. Chasles, probably the greatest of modern +French geometricians, and one of the few foreign savants +entitled to append the distinguishing mark of a F.R.S. of +England.</p> + +<p>Lucas was a half-educated frequenter, and nominal +reading student of the great Parisian library, and for some +years had dealt in autographs in a small way, the specimens +he offered being undoubtedly genuine. Inspired by the +collecting ardour and the apparent blind faith placed in him +by M. Chasles, Lucas embarked upon a series of deceptions +so impudent, that it is easy to sympathise with the defence +put forward by his advocate at the trial, namely, that the +fraud was so transparent that it could only be regarded as a +freak.</p> + +<p>In the period between the years 1861 and 1869, Lucas +sold to his dupe the enormous number of 27,000 documents, +every one a glaring fraud. They comprised letters purporting +to have been written by such improbable authors as Abelard, +Alcibiades, Alexander the Great to Aristotle, Cicero, +Cleopatra, Joan of Arc, Sappho, Anacreon, Pliny, Plutarch, +St. Jerome, Diocletian, Juvenal, Socrates, Pompey, and—most +stupendous joke of all—Lazarus after his resurrection.</p> + +<p>It is hard to believe, and but for the irrefutable records +of the Court, few would credit the fact that every one of +these letters was in the French language! And the dupe a +highly educated mathematician of European repute.</p> + +<p>In the face of such incredible gullibility one is disposed to +regard the sentence of two years' imprisonment and a fine of +500 francs as extravagantly severe, even despite the fact that +Lucas received in all over 140,000 francs from M. Chasles.</p> + +<p>The Chatterton and Ireland forgeries are familiar to all +educated persons. These, however, hardly come under the +head of the class of fraud with which the ordinary forger is +associated. In each of these cases the motive of the +deception was not so much to make money as a literary +reputation. In both cases presumably competent judges were +deceived. But the standard by which they gauged the +genuineness of the productions was not caligraphic, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +literary. In neither instance was there occasion or opportunity +for the handwriting expert to exercise his skill, for the +sufficient reason that there existed no material with which +the writings could be compared. What the literary expert +had to do was to examine and compare the style of the +compositions—a test in which the idiosyncrasies and +predilections of the judge played a leading part.</p> + +<p>Probably the greatest, and for a short time the most +successful autograph fraud perpetrated in Great Britain was +that known as the case of the Rillbank MSS., the detection +and exposure of which were mainly attributable to one of the +authors of this work (Capt. W. W. Caddell).</p> + +<p>Just before, and up till 1891, there was in Edinburgh a +young man named Alexander Howland Smith, who claimed +to be the son of a reputable Scottish law official, and a +descendant of Sir Walter Scott.</p> + +<p>On the strength of his presumed connection with the +great novelist, he had no difficulty in disposing of, to an +Edinburgh bookseller, for prices whose smallness alone +should have excited suspicion, letters purporting to be in the +handwriting of Sir Walter Scott. Emboldened by success, +he embarked upon a wholesale manufacture of spurious +letters bearing the signatures of Burns, Edmund Burke, Sir +Walter Scott, Grattan and Thackeray. His principal victim +was an Edinburgh chemist, Mr. James Mackenzie, who, when +the fraud was not only suspected, but proved, distinguished +himself by a stubborn and courageous defence of the +genuineness of the documents.</p> + +<p>Smith's <i>modus operandi</i> consisted in purchasing large-sized +volumes of the period of the subjects of his forgeries, +and using the blank leaves for the purpose of fabricating the +letters. In May, 1891, a number of alleged Burns' letters +were put up for sale by public auction at Edinburgh, fetching +the surprising paltry price of from twenty to thirty shillings +apiece.</p> + +<p>It was a feature of all Smith's productions that the letters +were extremely brief—a feature common to literary forgeries. +The circumstance which first gave rise to suspicion was that +the letters attributed to Scott, Burke, Burns, General +Abercrombie, Grattan and Thackeray all began and ended<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +with the same words. Those signed by Sir Walter Scott all +began "I have your letter," and ended "I remain," a form +of phraseology the reputed writer never used, but which, +according to Smith, was common to all the distinguished men +whose handwriting he had counterfeited with considerable +success.</p> + +<p>On the strength of the partial guarantee provided by the +sale of some of these documents at a reputable auction room, +Captain Caddell purchased a parcel of alleged Scott letters +without prior inspection. A brief examination disclosed their +fraudulent nature, and Smith was arrested. The Edinburgh +police took the matter up, and the impostor was convicted in +June, 1893, and sentenced to eighteen months' imprisonment.</p> + +<p>Thackeray and Dickens are favourite subjects with most +literary forgers, Washington and Benjamin Franklin running +them very close for favouriteship. American collectors are +particularly keen on procuring specimens of the last two-named, +and there is grave reason to believe that many fall +easy victims.</p> + +<p>Fortunately the facilities for comparing and testing the +genuineness of the autographs of every distinguished person +whose holographs are most in favour with the forger, are +numerous. In addition to the splendid collection of specimens +extant at the British Museum Library, there are many +facsimiles available.</p> + +<p>The excellent work on Autograph Collecting by Dr. Henry +T. Scott (Upcott Gill, London) is indispensable to the collector. +It contains some hundreds of specimens, specially selected for +the purposes of comparison, and gives besides many very +valuable rules and hints for detecting the real from the sham.</p> + +<p>Dr. Scott, writing of the autographic letters of his +distinguished namesake, says:</p> + +<p>"Of Sir Walter Scott's autographs it may be observed (1) +the paper is generally letter size, gilt edged, with a soft, +firm feeling to the touch, and an unglazed surface. (2) The +date and residence are placed on the top and right hand, +with a good space before the 'My Dear Sir,' uniform +margins on the left side of the paper of a quarter of an inch, +but on the right side no margin at all, the writing being +carried close to the edge. The folding is done with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +precision of a man of business, forming the space for the +address into a nice oblong almost in the centre of the sheet, +and the first line of the address is written nearly in the +centre of the space with the remainder below.</p> + +<p>"The watermarks found on the paper are one of the +following: Valleyfield, 1809; C. Wilmott, 1815; J. Dickinson +and Co., 1813; J. Dickinson, 1816; J. Dickinson (without +date); J. Whatman, 1814; J. Whatman (without date); +Turkey Mill, 1819; Turkey Mill (without date); +G. C. & Co., 1828."</p> + +<p>The paper used by Burns for his correspondence was always +large in size, rough in surface, never glossy, and all four +edges had the rough edge that is the peculiarity of a Bank of +England note.</p> + +<p>It is worthy of remark that in the case of the A. H. Smith +Burns forgeries, suspicion was first excited by a simple but +significant matter. The paper contained several worm holes. +These had been carefully avoided by the writer, he knowing +that if his pen touched them the result would be a spluttering +and spreading of the ink.</p> + +<p>Now it is safe to assume that these worm holes, being the +effect of age, did not exist at the time the letter—if genuine—was +written; as the worm did its work long afterwards, it +must be regarded as a fortunate circumstance that in +perforating the paper it refrained from destroying the +writing, carefully selecting the wider spaces that the poet +had, with commendable foresight, left for the insect's +depredations.</p> + +<p>The letters of Thackeray are in two styles of handwriting, +the earlier sloping slightly, the latter vertical, round, neat and +print-like, the capital <i>I</i> being invariably a simple vertical +stroke. His is the most neat and uniformly readable hand of +all the great literary characters. It is somewhat unfortunate +that he was not anything like so uniform in his choice of +paper. Letters are in existence on an extraordinary variety +of material, from a quarto sheet to a scrap torn from half a +sheet of note paper. On many of these letters is neither +address nor date, but when once the characteristics of the +charming handscript have been mastered, they are never +forgotten, and are recognisable amid the closest imitations.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p> + +<p>There are extant a number of forged Thackeray's. Their +distinguishing features are that they are invariably very short, +as if the forger feared to provide sufficient matter to supply +material for comparison; most are on single half sheets of +note paper, many on quarto sheets of varying texture and +quality, and the characteristic vertical <i>I</i>, Thackeray's trade +mark, always occurs. It is shaky and often out of the +perpendicular, as the genuine rarely is. In the forgeries we +have seen and suspect to be the work of A. H. Smith, a very +significant sign is a sudden thickening of the downstrokes of +tailed letters like <i>y</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, producing a tiny diamond-shaped +excrescence in the middle of the letter. The glass reveals +that ragged-edged stroke which is inseparable from the +writing of the nervous copyist.</p> + +<p>It is generally safe to be cautious about very short letters. +The forger well knows how difficult is the task of maintaining +an assumed character. Just as the mimic may +succeed in reproducing the tone and manner of a person with +sufficient closeness to deceive even the most intimate +acquaintances of the subject, yet fail to carry the deception +beyond a few words or phrases, so the literary forger +invariably breaks down when he attempts to simulate +handwriting over many sentences. So conscious is he of this +great difficulty that he often avoids it by boldly copying some +genuine letter. We have had offered to us "guaranteed" +Thackeray letters which we immediately recognised as such. +In one particularly glaring case the forger had copied the +original letter very fairly so far as the penmanship was +concerned, but while the original was written on a half sheet +of note paper, the forgery was on a different size paper, and +the writing across the length of the paper instead of the +breadth. This naturally disarranged the spacing between the +words, which in all Thackeray's writings is a pronouncedly +regular feature, and this variation was in itself sufficient to +excite suspicion.</p> + +<p>The popularity of Dickens among collectors grows +steadily. Despite the fact that he was an industrious +correspondent, and that a very large number of his letters +appear from time to time in the market, the demand is ever +in excess of the supply. As a consequence he has suffered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +perhaps more than any of the literary immortals at the hands +of the forger. Yet it is safe to say that there should be no +writer so safe from fraudulent imitation, for there is a +peculiar distinctiveness about his caligraphic productions that +once seen and noted should never be forgotten. Specimens +are easily available. The catalogues of dealers are constantly +presenting them, and most public libraries possess examples, +either in the original holograph or in some form of +reproduction.</p> + +<p>Probably no writer preserved his style with such little +change as Dickens. His signature in later years varied +somewhat from that of his literary youth, but the body of his +handscript retained throughout the same characteristics. It +was always a free, fluent, graceful hand, legible as that of +Thackeray when its leading peculiarities have been mastered, +but less formal and studied than his. It was always +remarkably free from corrections or interlineations. He +wrote with the easy freedom of the stenographer; indeed it is +easy to recognise in the delicate gracefully formed letters the +effect of years of training in the most difficult and exacting +form of handscript.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the leading peculiarities in the Dickens holograph +are these:—</p> + +<p>The date of the month is never expressed in figures, but +always written in full; in fact, abbreviation in any form he +never countenanced.</p> + +<p>The letter <i>y</i>, both as a capital and a small letter is a +figure 7 except in the affix "ly," when the two letters become +an <i>f</i> or long stroke <i>s</i>.</p> + +<p>The letter <i>t</i> is crossed by the firm downward bar, which +the character readers claim as a sign of great resolution.</p> + +<p>Letter <i>g</i> is invariable in form.</p> + +<p>Capital <i>E</i> consists of a downstroke with a bar in the centre.</p> + +<p>The hook of many final letters has a tendency to turn +backwards.</p> + +<p>New paragraphs are marked by beginning the line about +an inch from the left-hand margin.</p> + +<p>A very marked peculiarity noticeable in many letters is +that the left-hand margin gradually grows wider as the +lines approach the bottom of the page. The narrowing is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +wondrously regular, a line drawn from the first letter on the +first line to the corresponding position on the last will touch +nearly every other line. This peculiarity appears to have +escaped every forger whose work we have examined.</p> + +<p>If the signs relied upon by the readers of character in +handwriting are to be accepted, self-esteem was a pronounced +characteristic of the great novelist. His writing abounds with +those subtle symptoms of the prevalence of that weakness.</p> + +<p>His signature is perhaps the best known of any with +which the British public are familiar. It is remarkably +uniform, and remained precisely the same from the time he +adopted it after the Pickwick period until his death. That +which he used in youth was less striking, but none the less +self-conscious.</p> + +<p>After the Pickwick period Dickens adopted the use of +blue paper and blue ink. Letters in black ink, if undated, +may safely be attributed to the earlier period.</p> + +<p>His note paper was in later years of the regulation note +size. The address, Gads' Hill Place, Higham by Rochester, +Kent, was in embossed black old English letter. His paper +was hand-made, and of good quality. The envelopes were +blue, of the same quality paper, but without crest, monogram +or distinctive mark. Dickens' vanity expressed itself in the +habit of franking envelopes, <i>i.e.</i>, by writing his name in the +left-hand bottom corner, after the fashion in vogue when +Peers and M.P.'s enjoyed the privilege of free postage.</p> + +<p>His letters of the pre-envelope period—before 1842—were +on quarto sheets. These are exceedingly rare.</p> + +<p>There is one feature about autographic forgery which +may always be relied upon to assist greatly in the work of +detection. As a general rule there is sufficient matter in +a literary forgery to supply the necessary material for +comparison. It must of necessity be a copy, if not of an +existing original, at least of the general style. The process +of imitation must be slow and cautious, and the signs remain +in shaky, broken lines, and a ruggedness entirely absent from +the writing of the real author, which is fluent and free. +Even the shakiness of age noticeable in a few distinguished +handwritings is different to the shakiness of the forger's +uncertainty.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XV.</h2> + +<h3>Forged Signatures.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">The</span> most difficult phase of the art of the handwriting +expert consists in the detection of forgery in signatures. It +will be obvious to the student who has followed the instructions +and illustrations already given that this difficulty is +brought about by two principal causes: first, by the paucity +of material for comparison; secondly, because of the very +important fact that a forgery must, by its nature, be a good +and close copy of an original. This means that the unconscious +tricks and irregularities that often abound in a long letter, +written in a more or less disguised hand, are almost entirely +absent from a forged signature. It follows, therefore, that +the student must have some other clues and rules to guide +him, for he cannot rely upon the chance of a slip or +accidental trick occurring in a signature that contains at +most perhaps a dozen letters.</p> + +<p>The first step in the examination of a suspected signature +is to master thoroughly the various characteristics of the +genuine signature. These must be studied in every possible +relation, and from as many specimens as can be obtained. +The magnifying glass must be in constant use and the eye +alert to detect the angle at which the pen is habitually held, +the class of pen used, and the degree of pressure and speed +employed. These last-named points can only be discovered +as the result of practice and observation, and though at first +sight it may appear impossible to form a correct estimate of +the pace at which a pen has travelled, the student will, if +observant, soon learn to detect the difference between a +swiftly formed stroke and one written with slowness and +deliberation. By making a number of each kind of stroke +and carefully examining them through a glass, the student +will learn in an hour more than can be taught by means of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +verbal description. The study of the genuine signatures +must be continued until every stroke and its peculiarities are +as familiar as the features of a well-known face, for until one +is thoroughly impregnated with the original it will be useless +to proceed with the examination of the suspects.</p> + +<p>At first sight the student will probably perceive very little, +if any, difference between the original and the suspect. It +would be a very clumsy forgery if he could. Gradually +the points of dissimilarity will become clear to him, and with +each fresh examination they grow plainer, until he is surprised +that they did not sooner strike him; they are so obvious that +the eye cannot avoid them; they stand out as plainly as the +hidden figure, after it has been detected, in the well-known +picture puzzles. There are few faculties capable of such +rapid and accurate development as that of observation. +Thousands of persons go through life unconscious of the +existence of certain common things until the occasion arises +for noticing them, or accident forces them upon the attention; +then they marvel that the thing should have escaped observation. +This is a truism, no doubt, but the force of every +platitude does not always present itself to every one. The +comparison of handwritings is so essentially a matter of +cultivating the powers of observation, that even if turned to +no more practical account than that of a hobby its value as a +mental exercise is great.</p> + +<p>There are two principal methods by which a signature +may be forged: first, by carefully copying the original as +one would copy a drawing; secondly, by tracing it.</p> + +<p>The first process is referred to as copied. The forger will, +most probably, have practised the signature before affixing it +to the cheque or other document, thereby attaining a certain +degree of fluency. But however well executed, close examination +with the aid of the magnifying glass will reveal those +signs of hesitancy and irregularity that one may reasonably +expect to find in a copy.</p> + +<p>There is no part of a person's handwriting so fluent and +free as his signature. Even the most illiterate persons show +more freedom and continuity of outline in their signature +than in the body of their writing. This is explicable on the +ground of usage. A writer may feel a degree of momentary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +uncertainty in forming a word that he does not write +frequently, but his signature he is more sure about. He +strikes it off without hesitancy, and in the majority of cases +appends some meaningless flourish, which may be described +as a superfluous stroke or strokes added for the purpose of +ornamentation, for adding distinctiveness, or, in some cases, +and particularly with business men, with the idea that the +flourishes help to secure the signature from forgery. Such +writers will probably be surprised to learn that there is no +form of signature so easy to forge as that involved and +complicated by a maze of superfluous lines and meaningless +flourishes. The most difficult signature for the forger is the +clear, plain, copybook-modelled autograph. A little thought +and examination will make the reason for this clear.</p> + +<p>Let a signature be enveloped in a web of curves and +flourishes, making it look like a complicated script monogram. +The lines are so numerous that the eye cannot take them all +in at a glance, and, if copied, any slight irregularity or +departure from the original is more likely to pass undetected +amid the confusing network of interlaced lines. If, on the +other hand, the signature be simple and free from the +bewildering effects of flourishes, the entire autograph lies +revealed, a clear and regular outline, and the slightest +variation from the accustomed figure stands out naked and +plain. Most of the successful forgeries will be found to be +on signatures of the complicated order. Their apparent +impregnability has tempted the facile penman to essay the +task of harmless imitation; his success has surprised and +flattered him, and the easy possibilities of forgery opened up. +More than one forger has admitted that his initiatory lessons +were prompted by an innocent challenge to imitate a +particularly complicated "forgery-proof" signature.</p> + +<p>It must be remembered that the eye of the casual observer +takes in a word as a whole rather than in detail. This +explains why an author can rarely be trusted to correct his +own proofs. He knows what the word should be, and in +reading his work in print he notices only the general expected +effect of a word. It needs the trained eye of the proof-reader +to detect the small <i>c</i> that has taken the place of the <i>e</i>, the +battered <i>l</i> that is masquerading as an <i>i</i>. So long as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +general outline of the word is not distorted the wrong letters +are often passed; and it is much the same with a signature +with which one is fairly familiar. The trained examiner of +handwriting, like the proof-reader, knows what to look for, +and discovers irregularities that would escape the notice of +the untrained eye.</p> + +<p>The first part of a genuine signature that should be +examined is the flourish, which includes all fancy strokes +appended to it, and any superfluous addition to the body of +the letters. A close scrutiny through the glass will show +that the lines forming the tail-flourish are generally clear, +firm and sharp in outline, being formed, not only without +hesitation, but with a dash and decided sweep that are +strongly at variance with the broken, saw-edged, unsteady +line of the copy. It will also generally be found to follow +an almost fixed rule in the matter of its proportionate +conformation: that is, supposing the writer finishes up with +a horizontal line under his signature, it will be seen, on +averaging a dozen or so of them, that the distance of the +line from the feet of the letters is proportionately uniform. +If the line be begun with a spur or curved inward hook, that +feature will be repeated. The end of the flourish or final +stroke, at the point where the pen leaves the paper, should +be very carefully examined. One writer finishes with an +almost imperceptible dot, as if the pen had been stabbed into +the paper; another finishes with a curve, either upward or +downward; a third with a hook turned upward, either a +curve or an angle; while a fourth continues the line till it +becomes finer and sharper to vanishing point. Some writers +are fond of concluding with a more or less bold and expansive +underline running horizontally with the signature. A close +examination will show a variation in the degrees of thickness +of such a line, which should be carefully noted and looked +for in other genuine signatures.</p> + +<p>In this connection it will be found extremely useful and +instructive to study strokes, either horizontal or vertical, with +a view to discovering whether they were struck from right to +left, top to bottom, or <i>vice versâ</i>. The glass will render it +easy to detect beginning from end after a few failures, which, +by the way, should not be allowed to discourage, for every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +minute devoted to the study of handwriting is so much gain +in experience, and represents so much more learned, which +will never be forgotten.</p> + +<p>The flourishes that occur on and about the signature +proper must be treated as exaggerated loops, and their +shoulders, arcs, hooks and toes carefully measured and noted. +For this purpose an average genuine signature should be +selected and gauged, which is done in this way: Place over +it a sheet of transfer paper. With the scale-rule and a fine +pencil draw horizontal lines that will touch the tops and +bottoms of the bodies of the letters, lines that touch the tops +and bottoms of the tailed and topped letters, and vertical +lines that follow the shanks of every topped or tailed letter, +including the capitals. The gauge, when completed, will +represent a framework fitting the signature, and its use is +twofold. It helps the eye to detect the variations in the +general contour of the signature, and, when placed over +another, brings out the points of difference. Due allowance +must be made for proportion. It is obvious that the distance +of letters will be greater in a signature written larger than +another, but the proportionate distances will be preserved. +The difference in the size of a letter is not very important, +except that it offers more scope for examination. For +example, a looped <i>l</i> may be very small or half an inch +long; but, if made by the same writer, the proportionate +width at top, bottom and middle will be preserved, and +compare with the same measurements in the smaller letter. +Signatures of the same writer do not often vary much in +size, though they may be thicker or finer according to the +character of the pen used; but observation will show that +the difference in a handwriting caused by the use of different +pens is much more imaginary than real.</p> + +<p>The traced signature is produced by placing the paper +over the genuine autograph, holding it to the light, generally +on a sheet of glass, and tracing it with a fine point. Such +forgeries are often more easily detected than the copied +signature, for the reason that signs of the tracing process can +generally be found by careful examination. The fine, hard +point used to trace the autograph leaves a smooth hollow, +which can be seen through the glass on examining the back<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +of the cheque or document. If the paper be held in a line +with the eye in a strong light, the ridge will be more clearly +perceived. The difference between a mark made by a hard +point and a pen can be tested by experiment. The hard +point must of necessity be pressed with a degree of force to +make the desired impression on the paper, and the result is a +smooth hollow. But if a pen be pressed hard, it produces two +parallel lines, and, instead of a hollow, a ridge is formed +between the parallels. Of course, it will be so slight as to be +hardly perceptible, except through a strong glass, but it will be +there nevertheless, and knowing what to look for, the expert +will generally have no difficulty in satisfying himself whether +the forgery has been traced or copied, a very valuable piece +of evidence when once settled, for it is within the bounds of +probability that the genuine signature from which the tracing +was made may be discovered. It is possible, and has often +occurred, that the writer of the original may have some +recollection of having written to the suspected person, or in +many ways a clue may be suggested. There is a well-known +case of a forgery being brought home to the perpetrator +through the accuracy of the tracing. It is a fact easily +proved, that no man can write a word twice, so exactly, that +if the two are overlaid they fit. If two such signatures be +produced, it is safe to assume that one has been traced or +otherwise mechanically produced. In the case mentioned a +signature on a cheque was pronounced a forgery by the +person supposed to have signed it. In examining specimens +of the genuine autograph, the experts came upon one which, +when placed upon that on the cheque, proved a perfect +replica, down to the most minute detail, showing beyond +question that it had been used to trace the forgery from. +It was further proved that the original had been in the +possession of the supposed forger, and the jury were asked to +decide whether it was probable that a man could reproduce +his signature in exact facsimile after a lapse of time, and +without the original before him. As the chances against such +a contingency are many millions to one—a fact the student +can verify—the jury decided against the forger.</p> + +<p>At the risk of appearing tautological to a tiresome degree +it is necessary to accentuate the fact that the comparison of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +handwriting, and more particularly of signatures, is essentially +dependent on cultivating the faculty of observation. This +art cannot be taught; it can only be acquired by practice and +experience, like swimming or riding. The teacher can at +most indicate the method of study and some of the leading +principles of conducting an investigation. Most men are not +naturally observant, and the habit can be best fostered by +having an object; but when once a person has been taught +what to look for he almost instinctively notices details that +previously never struck him. This is specially true of the +study of handwriting.</p> + +<p>The best method of practice that can be adopted by the +student is to begin by making a careful study of his own +signature and writing. He will be surprised at the number +of facts hitherto unsuspected that will be revealed to him. +The value of using his own handwriting as a subject of +examination lies in this, that the student can satisfy himself +how and why certain strokes are made. This he can only +guess at in the writing of others.</p> + +<p>The preliminary exercise should consist in studying the +effect produced by the different methods of holding the pen. +The signature supplies excellent material for this class of +practice. Begin by holding the pen with the top end pointed +well towards the left shoulder, in the absurd and unnatural +position taught by the old school of writing masters. Repeat +the signature with the pen held a trifle less acutely angular, +and go on till six or eight signatures have been written at a +decreasing angle—until the top of the penholder points well +to the right, producing what is known as a backhand. The +effect of these angles must be carefully noted, and in a short +time it will be found possible to arrive at a very accurate +opinion as to how the writer of a particular signature +habitually holds his pen—an important and valuable piece +of knowledge. The practice should be extended to long +sentences, and a frequent repetition of all the letters, capital +and small, the magnifying glass being always used to examine +the effect of the various and varying strokes.</p> + +<p>In examining a signature for comparing it with a +suspected forgery it should be copied very frequently, as the +clues and suggestions the experiments will produce are of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +much greater service than will at first appear, and of more +practical value than pages of theory, as the how and why +will be revealed for much that would be obscure without this +assistance. As experience grows, it will not be necessary to +adopt this copying process so often, for the eye soon becomes +alert at detecting slight shades of difference in strokes, and a +glance will convey more than could be explained in many +pages.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XVI.</h2> + +<h3>The Expert in the Witness-box.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">When</span> the expert has been called upon to give an opinion +upon the genuineness of writings he embodies his conclusions +in a report of which the following may be taken as a fair +example:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>To the Chief of Police.</p> +<p class="ind">Sir,</p> + +<p class="center">REX <i>versus</i> JONES.</p> + +<p>In accordance with your instructions dated —— +I beg leave to inform you that I have made a careful +examination of the document marked <i>A</i>, and attached +hereto, and compared it with the documents marked +<i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>, <i>E</i> and <i>F</i>, also attached.</p> + +<p>I have arrived at the conclusion that the document <i>A</i> +was written by the same hand as produced <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>, +<i>E</i> and <i>F</i>.</p> + +<p>The main reasons which have led me to form this +opinion are these:—</p> + +<p>First, although the writing in <i>A</i> bears at first sight +no resemblance to that of the other documents, the +difference is only such as experience leads me to expect +in a writing which has been purposely disguised, as I +believe this has been.</p> + +<p>The writing on the five documents <i>B</i> to <i>F</i> I take to +be the normal hand of the author, and that on <i>A</i> to be +the same writer's hand altered so as to present a different +appearance. I will call the specimens <i>B</i> to <i>F</i> the +genuine examples, and <i>A</i> the disguised.</p> + +<p>Experience shows that the person who writes an +anonymous letter generally seeks to disguise his hand by +departing as much as he deems possible from his normal +writing. The usual hand of the writer of the genuine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +document is a free rounded hand sloping upwards +towards the right. The writing of <i>A</i> presents exactly +the features I would expect to find when, as appears to +be the case here, the writer has adopted the familiar +trick of sloping his writing in a direction opposite to his +normal hand. While the result of this change is to +alter the apparent style and general appearance of the +writing, the alteration does not extend to certain tricks and +characteristics which are plainly obvious in the genuine +letters and are repeated in the anonymous letter <i>A</i>.</p> + +<p>The writing in the genuine letters contains fourteen +very distinctive peculiarities, or tricks of hand, which I +find repeated in the anonymous letter <i>A</i>.</p> + +<p class="center">(Here describe them, as for example.)</p> + +<p>1. The figure 4 in the dates is always made like the +print form of that figure.</p> + +<p>2. The small <i>e</i> is always of the Greek form.</p> + +<p>3. The small <i>t</i> is always crossed by a bar thick at the +beginning, tapering to a point, with its longest part +behind the shank of the <i>t</i> [and so on].</p></div> + +<p>The various points of resemblance are set out in detail, a +separate paragraph for each, and each paragraph numbered.</p> + +<p>It is extremely important that a report should be fully +descriptive and written in plain, non-technical language, +easily understood by the jury, who will have to decide +whether the resemblance has been made out.</p> + +<p>Too many handwriting experts spoil the effect of their +evidence by employing technical language and presuming on +the part of the jury an acquaintance with the methods of +comparing handwritings.</p> + +<p>Do not be satisfied by saying that certain letters resemble +each other. Show by an enlarged diagram how and where, +indicating the parts to which attention is called by arrows. +Place the single letters to be compared in parallel columns, +headed with the alphabetical letter distinguishing the document +in which the particular letter occurs. Use foolscap +paper, and write on one side of the paper only.</p> + +<p>The usual method of dealing with the handwriting expert +in the witness-box is shown in the following extract from a +report of an actual case.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span></p> + +<p>Mr. D. B—— was called by counsel for the prosecution +and duly sworn.</p> + +<p>Q.—You have had considerable experience in examining +handwriting.</p> + +<p>A.—Over twenty years.</p> + +<p>Q.—Look at these documents. (Hands documents to +witness.) Have you seen and examined these?</p> + +<p>A.—I have.</p> + +<p>Q.—Have you formed any opinion upon them?</p> + +<p>A.—I have, and have prepared a report.</p> + +<p>In some cases the expert is allowed to read his report in +full. In others he is requested to give a verbal report, but +if the point be insisted upon, the judge generally permits the +report to be read, either by the expert or by counsel. A +copy of the report, together with the documents in dispute +are then usually handed to the jury for examination. The +expert may proceed to illustrate his point with the aid of a +blackboard and chalk, but much depends upon the attitude +taken by the judge and counsel. Some judges insist that the +expert shall confine himself to expressing his opinion, leaving +counsel to deal with the explanation and comparison; others +give the expert every opportunity of showing how he has +arrived at his opinions.</p> + +<p>The examination in chief is usually a very simple matter. +The trouble for the expert begins when counsel for the +other side gets up to cross-examine.</p> + +<p>In nearly every case the object of the cross-examining +counsel is to ridicule the art and get the expert to admit the +possibility of other writers possessing the same peculiarities +which are said to distinguish the letters before the Court.</p> + +<p>Counsel's favourite trick is to select some letter and ask +the expert if he is prepared to swear that he has never seen +something just like it in some other person's writing. The +expert who knows his business will insist on keeping well to +the front the bedrock basis of handwriting comparison, which +is the application of the law of probability to cumulative +evidence. It is not a question whether some other person +may be in the habit of making a <i>t</i> or a <i>k</i> similar to those cited +as evidences of common origin, but whether it is probable +that two persons should make a dozen or more letters in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +precisely the same way under similar conditions and exhibit +precisely the same peculiarities of style. He should reply +with the unanswerable postulate that millions of persons +possess red hair, snub noses, a scar on the face, blue eyes, +bent fingers and a stammer; but it is millions to one against +any two persons possessing all six of those peculiarities.</p> + +<p>In the course of his replies the expert may justifiably help +his own case by repeating, when opportunity occurs, such +irrefutable axioms as, No writer can say off-hand what +peculiarities he may exhibit; that there are scores of ways of +dotting an <i>i</i>, or crossing a <i>t</i>, and that few persons know which +form they mostly affect. Fifty such points may be gathered +from this little volume alone, while acquaintance with the +works of other writers on caligraphy will supply ample +ammunition for meeting and repelling the customary form of +attack on the handwriting expert.</p> + +<p>Another method of discrediting a witness is to remind him +that experts have differed, the Dreyfus case being usually +cited. The answer is obvious. First it is essential to be +assured that those experts were all competent, for there are +degrees of competency in judging handwriting as in every +other subject on which opinion may be called. It is a +notorious fact that in the Dreyfus case the most competent +experts testified that the Henry letters were forgeries, the +authorities called on the other side being in most cases +unknown men or amateurs of no standing. A number of +these self-styled experts possessed no other qualification than +presumed familiarity with the handwriting of Dreyfus. It is +also worthy of note that several of the experts on both sides +proved most inefficient witnesses, obscuring their explanations +by the employment of technical phraseology which conveyed +little meaning to the lay mind.</p> + +<p>Exactitude and regularity in the choice of the words used +in describing the parts of letters should be strictly observed +by the student. The rules given in the chapter on "Terminology" +should be mastered and adhered to. In most cases +the terms there applied to letter-analysis will be found to be +self-explanatory.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XVII.</h2> + +<h3>Handwriting and Expression.</h3> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">No</span> work dealing with the study of handwriting would be +complete unless it recognised that phase of it which touches +on the delineation of character by an examination of the +caligraphy.</p> + +<p>That many valuable clues can be picked up by the expert +who applies the principles on which the graphologist works +is indisputable, nor is it necessary to accept all the theories +claimed as reliable by those who practice this interesting +branch of the art of writing-analysis.</p> + +<p>There is no doubt that many persons have attained a +remarkable degree of proficiency in deducing from the hand-gestures +of an unknown person a very accurate estimate of +his or her character, and this fact should prove that the +principles of the art of graphology are based on scientific +grounds, or at least that the rules on which the student +works are regular and not, as some suggest, mere guess-work +or coincidence.</p> + +<p>The elder d'Israeli, in his fascinating work, the "Curiosities +of Literature," devotes considerable space to the subject. +Among other things, he says:—</p> + +<p>"Assuredly nature would prompt every individual to +have a distinct sort of writing, as she has given a peculiar +countenance, a voice, and a manner. The flexibility of the +muscles differs with every individual, and the hand will +follow the direction of the thoughts, and the emotions and +the habits of the writers.</p> + +<p>"The phlegmatic will portray his words with signs of +labour and deliberation, while the playful haste of the +volatile will scarcely sketch them; the slovenly will blot +and efface and scrawl, while the neat and orderly-minded +will view themselves in the paper before their eyes. The +merchant's clerk will not write like the lawyer or the poet.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> +Even nations are distinguished by their writing; the +vivacity and variableness of the Frenchman, and the +delicacy and suppleness of the Italian, are perceptibly +distinct from the slowness and strength of pen discoverable +in the phlegmatic German, Dane, and Swede.</p> + +<p>"When we are in grief we do not write as we should in +joy. The elegant and correct mind, which has acquired +the fortunate habit of a fixity of attention, will write with +scarcely an erasure on the page, as Fenelon and Gibbon; +while we find in Pope's manuscripts the perpetual struggle +of correction, and the eager and rapid interlineations +struck off in heat. Lavater's notion of handwriting is by +no means chimerical; nor was General Paoli fanciful when +he told Mr. Northcote he had decided on the character and +disposition of a man from his letters and the handwriting.</p> + +<p>"Long before the days of Lavater, Shenstone in one of +his letters said, 'I want to see Mrs. Jago's writing that I +may judge of her temper.'</p> + +<p>"One great truth must, however, be conceded to the +opponents of the physiognomy of handwriting. General +rules only can be laid down. Yet the vital principle must +be true that the handwriting bears an analogy to the +character of the writer, as all voluntary actions are +characteristic of the individual."</p> + +<hr class="min" /> + +<p>Professor Foli, in his very useful work, "Handwriting as +an Index to Character" (London: C. A. Pearson, Ltd.), says:</p> + +<p>"The changes which handwriting undergoes as maturity +is reached prove how directly it is influenced by the nervous +condition of the writer.</p> + +<p>"The writing proper to childhood is large, round and +accompanied by a laboured pen movement; whereas that +which is normal as manhood or womanhood is attained is +smaller, and turned off by a more rapid and fluent motion of +the hand.</p> + +<p>"Illness, again, affects the writing. As the hand is +charged with more or less of the nerve fluid, so the writing +is stronger or weaker, firmer or feebler, as the case may be.</p> + +<p>"This goes to show the important influence which the +nerve current exerts in fashioning the handwriting. Small<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +wonder that our handwriting alters day by day. Yet it does +not alter either. So far as its general appearance is concerned +I grant it <i>seems</i> to do so. But look at the really significant +points of the writing written at different times. Give a +glance at the height at which the '<i>i</i>' is dotted, the way in +which the '<i>t</i>' is barred, the manner in which the letters +are, or are not, connected and finished off. These things will +crop up with unerring uniformity time after time.</p> + +<p>"You do, of course, get a studied handwriting now and +then, just as you sometimes meet with a formed facial +expression. But that does not express the true character, +simply because the control over the feelings or the power of +disguising what is felt is a salient point in the character; +and this very fact will serve to show that there is truth in +graphology.</p> + +<p>"That the pen, whether it be a fine or a broad pointed +nib, plays a certain part in determining the thickness or +thinness of the strokes, I am willing to allow, but here again +we have no argument against graphology, for most people +have their favourite nib—just as they prefer one occupation +to another—and this is the one which will best serve to +define their characteristics. The same with the surface of +the paper upon which they write; some will select a smooth, +others a rough kind, but whatever that may be which is +adopted with comfort, it will be typical of the writer."</p> + +<p>The following are some of the more marked signs of the +character they indicate. For a fuller exposition of their +application it would be well to study the work of Foli, before +mentioned, and of Rosa Baughan (Upcott Gill, London, 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>), +with the scholarly work of J. Crépieux-Jainin, entitled, "Handwriting +and Expression," translated by J. Holt Schooling.</p> + +<hr class="min" /> + +<p><i>General Characteristic.</i>—The fineness of an organism will +be revealed by a fine light penstroke. Coarse, low natures +make heavy blurred entangled lines.</p> + +<p><i>Activity</i> is denoted by the length of the letters. Where it +is feeble the letters will be widely spaced and rounded.</p> + +<p><i>Excitability</i> is shown by sharp strokes and stops. The +more acute and irregular the pen-strokes the greater the +intensity of feeling.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Aggression</i>, which is the inclination to attack, the +destructive force, is indicated by the final strokes of letters +and the cross-bars of <i>t</i>'s advancing well forward, the dots of +the <i>i</i>'s placed well forward. In such a word as "time" the +dot would probably be between the <i>m</i> and <i>e</i>. The style is +angular and well and evenly spaced, altogether a forward, +"go-ahead" writing.</p> + +<p><i>Economy</i>, or acquisitiveness, is shown by the finishing +strokes being turned backwards, and inwards; by a cramped +hand, a disposition to curtail strokes, particularly the endings +of letters, as if the expenditure of ink was begrudged.</p> + +<p><i>Secretiveness</i>, or extra caution, has its sign in the narrow, +tightly-closed form of the body of the letters <i>a</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>q</i>, the +<i>a</i> and <i>o</i> often being merely a narrow <i>v</i>. The general tendency +of the writing is to compression, the final strokes being very +short. When very marked, the letters dwindle into an +indistinct unformed condition. The substitution of dashes for +punctuation is another symptom.</p> + +<p><i>Insincerity.</i>—Beware of the man or woman whose writing +is a fine, wavy line, upright, with short, stumpy and indistinct +tops and tails, words running at their end to an almost +straight line, the letters merely indicated. The flatter, finer +and more perpendicular this writing, the greater the +insincerity. Such a writer would probably be a polite, +pleasing and plausible person, but double-faced as Janus.</p> + +<p><i>Love of praise</i>, glory, ambition are shown by a tendency +to write upwards, the lines of writing trending towards the +right-hand corner of the paper. The signature will usually +have a curved line below it, with a degree of flourish.</p> + +<p><i>Self-esteem</i>, to which is allied conceit and ostentation, +shows itself in proportion to the size of the writing, the taller +and more flourished the upstrokes and the longer the downstrokes, +the greater the self-assertiveness. The flourish +beneath the signature will be very pronounced, often an +elaborate spider's web of interlaced lines. The writing is +more or less angular with the finals turned backwards and +inwards.</p> + +<p><i>Will power</i> is shown by firm bars to the <i>t</i>, with a tendency +to descend from left to right, bludgeon-like downstrokes to +tailed letters, writing rather angular than rounded, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +final strokes finished by a heavy pressure. Straight, firm, +downward strokes take the place of the tails to <i>y</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>q</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Sympathy</i>, good nature, kindness of heart are shown by a +flowing open hand, the finals of the letters being extended and +thrown out with an expansive movement. The tailed letters +are long and looped, and often turned up the right side of +the letter. The letters are well apart but not necessarily +unconnected, and the style is curved. As a general rule hard +matter-of-fact natures incline to an angular style; the +artistic and softer nature affects rounded, gracefully curved +strokes, and avoids straight perpendiculars or horizontals.</p> + +<p><i>Constructiveness</i>, which implies the ability to combine and +connect words and phrases, is shown by joining the words +together, several being written without lifting the pen from +the paper. The more simple and ingenuous the method of +attaching the words, the greater will be the ability. When +this joining of words is carried to extremes, it may be taken +as a sign of good deductive judgment.</p> + +<p><i>Observation</i>, by which is implied the keen, penetrating, +inquiring mind (which in excess becomes curiosity), is marked +by angularity of the strokes and finals; a small, generally +neat, handwriting, with the letters disconnected.</p> + +<p><i>Punctuation</i> affords a very valuable clue to character-reading, +for reasons set out in the chapter "How to Study +a Handwriting." They are the most mechanical and +unpremeditated of hand-gestures, and are, therefore, the +more valuable.</p> + +<p>When, for example, a dot is thick and heavy, we infer +that the pen has been driven across the paper with a strong, +decided movement of the hand, which would be consistent +with extreme energy and will power; whereas, when the dot +is light and faintly indicated we may be certain that only a +moderate force has been expended upon its production, which +would be compatible with less resistance and endurance in +the character.</p> + +<p>Again, a dot whose outlines were blurred would show a +certain sensuousness of character—strong passions and a want +of restraint over the lower propensities; whereas, a dot whose +edges were sharply defined would tell of refinement and a +loathing against all that was coarse or vulgar.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p> + +<p>Careful attention to punctuation indicates neatness, order, +method and love of arrangement; nor is it necessary that the +punctuation should be strictly correct, for the art is but +imperfectly mastered by most people, even the best educated.</p> + +<p>Stops that partake of the appearance of a comma indicate +a degree of impetuosity; well rounded stops imply calmness +and tranquility of temperament. When the full stops are +fashioned after the form of a comma and droop towards the +right hand they indicate a tendency to sulkiness. When +they are merely angular we may infer impatience and a +"peppery" disposition.</p> + +<p>Flourishes are always indicative of a certain amount of +assertiveness. The simpler the flourish the less artificial this +self-insistence; the more elaborate, the greater the desire to +seem what one is not.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p> +<h2>BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HANDWRITING.</h2> + +<p class="cap"><span class="dcap">Most</span> of the works in this list relate to that aspect of the +study of graphology which is supposed to bear upon the +manifestations of character. But there is not one which the +student of handwriting can afford to ignore, since, apart from +the debatable question of character reading, they all contain +numerous hints and observations of extreme value to the +student whose objective is the acquisition of aptitude in the +more practical art of detecting forgery.</p> + +<div class="bk1"><p><b>AUTOGRAPH COLLECTING</b>: A practical manual for Amateurs and Historical +Students. By <span class="smcap">Henry T. Scott</span>, M.D. London: Upcott Gill. Price 5<i>s.</i></p> + +<p><b>A GUIDE TO THE COLLECTION OF HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS, LITERARY +MSS. AND AUTOGRAPH LETTERS, &c.</b> By Rev. <span class="smcap">H. T. Scott</span> and +<span class="smcap">Samuel Davey</span>. (Out of print.) May be seen in British Museum and +many public libraries.</p> + +<p><b>THE AUTOGRAPHIC MIRROR</b>: A monthly journal now defunct, but procurable +at second hand.</p> + +<p><b>HANDWRITING AND EXPRESSION.</b> Translated and edited by <span class="smcap">John Holt +Schooling</span>, from the third French edition of "L'Escriture et le +Caractere," par <span class="smcap">J. Crépieux-Jainin</span>. Kegan, Paul and Trench.</p> + +<p><b>CHARACTER INDICATED BY HANDWRITING.</b> By <span class="smcap">Rosa Baughan</span>. Upcott +Gill. Price 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p><b>THE PHILOSOPHY OF HANDWRITING.</b> By <span class="smcap">Don Felix de Salamanca</span>. +Macmillan.</p> + +<p><b>HOW TO READ CHARACTER IN HANDWRITING.</b> By <span class="smcap">Henry Frith</span>. +Ward Lock. Price 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<p><b>HANDWRITING AS AN INDEX TO CHARACTER.</b> By Professor <span class="smcap">Foli</span>. +C. A. Pearson. Price 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<p><b>A SYSTEM OF GRAPHOLOGY.</b> By the <span class="smcap">Abbé Michon</span>. In French; no English +translation. A valuable work.</p> + +<p><b>A HISTORY OF HANDWRITING.</b> Same Author.</p> + +<p><b>A METHOD OF GRAPHOLOGIC STUDY.</b> Same Author.</p> + +<p><b>A MEMOIR UPON THE FAULTY METHODS USED BY EXPERTS IN +HANDWRITING.</b> Same Author.</p> + +<p><b>A DICTIONARY OF THE NOTABILITIES OF FRANCE JUDGED FROM THE +HANDWRITING.</b> Same Author.</p> + +<p><b>THE HANDWRITING OF THE FRENCH PEOPLE SINCE THE MEROVINGIAN +EPOCH.</b> Same Author.</p> + +<p><b>LES MYSTÉRES DE L'ÉCRITURE.</b> Preface by Desbarrolles. Same Author.</p> + +<p><b>THE HANDWRITING OF JUNIUS PROFESSIONALLY EXAMINED BY +CHABOT.</b> Edited by the Hon. <span class="smcap">E. Twistleton</span>. John Murray. 1871.</p></div> + +<p>This work is the only one hitherto published in England +explaining the methods of the handwriting expert. Mons. +Chabot, for many years the leading English expert, was +commissioned by Mr. Twistleton to examine the handwriting +of "Junius" with a view to deciding the authorship of the +famous letters. The result was an exhaustive volume in +which the process of handwriting analysis is illustrated by +thousands of examples. The conclusion arrived at was that +the writer of the "Junius" letters was Sir Philip Francis.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="hd2"><i>Literary and Historical<br /> +Autograph Letters and Manuscripts<br /> +Purchased.</i></p> + +<p class="hd2"><span class="fsm">OPINIONS GIVEN AS TO</span><br /> +GENUINENESS OF DOCUMENTS.<br /> +<span class="fsxs">ALSO ON</span><br /> +SUSPECTED FORGERIES<br /> +<span class="fsxs">AND</span><br /> +ANONYMOUS LETTERS.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="fsxs">BY</span></p> +<p class="hd3"><span class="fsl">BLACKBURN & CADDELL,</span><br /> +19, CHARLWOOD PLACE,<br /> +LONDON, S.W.</p> + +<hr /> +<div class="trn"><b>Transcriber's Note:</b> +Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note, whilst more +significant amendments have been listed below. + +<ul><li>Page <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, 'analine' amended to <i>aniline</i>.</li> + +<li>Page <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, 'Alcebiades' amended to <i>Alcibiades</i>.</li> + +<li>Page <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, 'correspence' amended to <i>correspondence</i>.</li> + +<li>Page <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, 'addresss' amended to <i>address</i>.</li> + +<li>Page <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, 'four documents' amended to <i>five documents</i>.</li> + +<li>Page <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, 'MERORINGIAN' amended to <i>MEROVINGIAN</i>.</li></ul> + +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Detection of Forgery, by +Douglas Blackburn and Waithman Caddell + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DETECTION OF FORGERY *** + +***** This file should be named 25532-h.htm or 25532-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/5/3/25532/ + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Detection of Forgery + A Practical Handbook for the Use of Bankers, Solicitors, + Magistrates' Clerks, and All Handling Suspected Documents + +Author: Douglas Blackburn + Waithman Caddell + +Release Date: May 20, 2008 [EBook #25532] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DETECTION OF FORGERY *** + + + + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + + THE + DETECTION OF FORGERY. + + + A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK + FOR THE USE OF + BANKERS, SOLICITORS, MAGISTRATES' CLERKS, + AND ALL HANDLING SUSPECTED DOCUMENTS. + + + BY + DOUGLAS BLACKBURN + (_Late Expert to the Natal Criminal Investigation Department, + and the Transvaal Republic_) + + AND + CAPTAIN WAITHMAN CADDELL. + + + LONDON: + CHARLES & EDWIN LAYTON, + FARRINGDON STREET, E.C. + 1909. + + + + +ERRATUM. (_Page 15._) + +Owing to the averages given in the table on page 15 being printed from +some incomplete manuscript they are incorrect. It is obvious that the +proper averages are-- + + | 7-1/4 | 6-1/2 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16-1/4 | 21 | 20-3/4 | 20-3/4 + + +Transcriber's Note: + + The corrections in the above erratum have been applied. The + handwritten pages entitled 'Terminology' and 'Alphabet Variants' + have been moved to the beginning of their relevant chapters. Greek + text has been transliterated and is shown between {braces}. + Hyphenation and punctuation have been standardised. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + CHAPTER PAGE + + INTRODUCTION 5 + + I.--THE PRINCIPLES OF HANDWRITING ANALYSIS 7 + + II.--MEASUREMENT AND ITS APPLIANCES 13 + + III.--TERMINOLOGY 17 + + IV.--CLASSES OF HANDWRITING 19 + + V.--HOW TO EXAMINE A WRITING 21 + + VI.--THE ALPHABET IN DETAIL 24 + + VII.--THE CAPITALS 29 + + VIII.--PUNCTUATION 31 + + IX.--PAPER AND WATERMARKS 34 + + X.--INKS 38 + + XI.--ERASURES 42 + + XII.--PENCILS AND STYLOGRAPHS 45 + + XIII.--ANONYMOUS LETTERS AND DISGUISED HANDS 47 + + XIV.--FORGED LITERARY AUTOGRAPHS 52 + + XV.--FORGED SIGNATURES 60 + + XVI.--THE EXPERT IN THE WITNESS-BOX 68 + + XVII.--HANDWRITING AND EXPRESSION 72 + + XVIII.--BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HANDWRITING 78 + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +The object of this little work is to assist those who may occasionally +be called upon to form an opinion as to the genuineness of signatures, +alterations in cheques, and the varied doubtful documents that demand +the serious consideration of business men by way of a preliminary to +"taking further steps." + +It is the first attempt published in England to explain the principles +upon which the comparison and examination of handwriting are conducted +by experts. It is, and can only be, an outline of suggestions how to +begin, for no two experts follow precisely the same methods, any more +than two painters work on the same lines. Both agree in recognising +certain rules and general principles, but each strives for his objective +point by the employment of those means which experience, temperament, +taste and opportunity suggest. The study of the elementary rules of +their art puts them upon the road for perfecting it, after which success +can only be attained by rightly reading the signs that lead to the +ultimate goal. + +In reading these chapters the student should begin by practising that +self-help which is essential to success. _He must read with pen and +notebook._ It is with the object of compelling this valuable habit that +no illustrative examples are given in the text. It would have been easy +to fill many pages with script illustrations, but experience shows that +a much greater impression is made upon the memory by the hand forming +the outlines described than if they were provided in pictorial form. In +other words, the student should supply this purposeful omission by +himself constructing the illustrations from the description. The +trifling extra time and trouble thus demanded will be amply repaid by +the ease and rapidity with which the various points will be fixed in the +memory. Nor is this the only advantage to be gained. The act of +reproducing the illustration cited will emphasise and render clear +technical and mechanical features that would require many words to +explain, with the attendant risk of confusing the mind by mere verbiage. + +The material and opportunity for practising and studying the comparison +of handwritings are abundant. Every letter written or read affords a +subject, and in a surprisingly short space of time the student will find +himself instinctively noting and analysing peculiarities in handwriting +that probably never arrested his attention before. The principles of the +art are exceedingly simple and free from complexity, and many a person +who takes up the study will find that he possesses powers of analysis +and observation unguessed before. The most successful expert is he who +observes most closely and accurately, and the faculty needs only the +spur of an objective point for it to be developed. + +After a little practice, experience will suggest many methods of +examination and test not dealt with here. For example, photographic +enlargements can be and are utilised with great advantage by bringing +out minute details, especially in signatures, erasures and alterations. +Interesting experiments can be made with a view to discovering the +effect of different kinds of ink--important in settling the question +whether the whole of a particular writing was done with one fluid, and +at the same time, or at intervals. + +The study of erasures and alterations of figures or characters also +comes within the scope of developments of the art which it is not deemed +necessary to deal with at length in these pages, for after experience +will suggest their use and the best methods of procedure. For the +beginner the instructions given in the chapters that follow will be +found amply sufficient to direct him how to take up a fascinating and +practical accomplishment, and this, with no further aid than his own +judgment, perseverance and powers of observation and deduction. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +THE PRINCIPLES OF HANDWRITING ANALYSIS. + + +The principle on which experts claim to be able to detect variations and +to differentiate between handwritings is based on the well-established +axiom that there is no such thing as a perfect pair in nature; that, +however close the apparent similarity between two things, a careful +examination and comparison will reveal marked differences to those +trained to detect them. + +This is especially true of everything that is produced by human agency. +Everyone knows how difficult it is to keep check upon and eradicate +certain physical habits, such as gestures, style of walking, moving the +hands, arms, &c., tricks of speech, or tone of voice. These mannerisms, +being mechanical and automatic, or the result of long habit, are +performed unconsciously, and there is probably no person who is entirely +free from some marked peculiarity of manner, which he is ignorant of +possessing. It is a well-known fact that the subject of caricature or +mimicry rarely admits the accuracy or justness of the imitation, +although the peculiarities so emphasised are plainly apparent to others. +Even actors, who are supposed to make a careful study of their every +tone and gesture, are constantly criticised for faults or mannerisms +plain to the observer, but undetected by themselves. + +It is easy, therefore, to understand how a trick or a gesture may become +a fixed and unconscious habit through long custom, especially when, as +in the case of a peculiarity of style in handwriting, there has been +neither criticism on it, nor special reason for abandoning it. + +Every person whose handwriting is developed and permanently formed has +adopted certain more or less distinctive peculiarities in the formation +of letters of which he is generally unaware. + +The act of writing is much less a matter of control than may be +supposed. The pen follows the thoughts mechanically, and few ready and +habitual writers could, if suddenly called upon to do so, say what +peculiarities their writing possessed. For example, how many could say +off-hand how they dotted an _i_--whether with a round dot, a tick or a +dash--whether the tick was vertical, horizontal or sloping; what was the +proportional distance of the dot from the top of the _i_. Again, ask a +practised writer how he crosses the letter _t_--whether with a +horizontal, up or down stroke? It is safe to assume that not one in a +thousand could give an accurate answer, for the reason that the dotting +of an _i_ and crossing of a _t_ have become mechanical acts, done +without thought or premeditation, but as the result of a long-formed +habit. + +It is these unconscious hand-gestures and mechanical tricks of style +that the handwriting expert learns to distinguish and recognise,--the +unconsidered trifles that the writer has probably never devoted a +minute's thought to, and which come upon him as a surprise when they are +pointed out to him. Their detection is rendered the more easy when one +knows what to look for from the fact that they are, unlike gestures and +tricks of voice, permanent. A mannerism may not strike two observers in +the same way, nor is it easy to compare, for it is fleeting, and the +memory has to be relied upon to recall a former gesture in order to +compare it with the last. It is not so with a hand-gesture in writing. +The sign remains side by side with its repetition, for careful and +deliberate comparison; and if the writing be a long one, the expert has +the advantage of being in possession of ample material on which to base +his judgment. + +_A Popular Fallacy._--One of the most frequent objections offered by the +casual critic when the subject of expert testimony is discussed is to +the effect that people write different hands with different pens, and he +probably believes this to be true. A very slight acquaintance with the +principles on which the expert works would satisfy this spontaneous +critic of the fallacy of his objection. A person who habitually writes a +fine, small hand, sloping from right to left, may believe that he has +altered the character of his hand by using a thick, soft quill, +reversing the slope to what is called a backhand, and doubling the size +of the letters. All he has done is to put on a different suit of +clothes; the same man is in them. The use of a thick pen does not make +him put a dot over the _i_ where before he made an horizontal dash; it +does not turn a straight, barred _t_ into a curved loop, neither does it +alter the proportionate distance between the letters and lines. It does +not make him form loops where before he habitually made bars, or _vice +versa_, and if he formerly made a _u_ with an angle like a _v_ he will +not write the _u_ with a rounded hook. Neither will it cause him to drop +his habit of adding a spur to his initial letters or curtail the ends +and tails that he was wont to make long. In short, the points to which +the expert devotes his investigation are those least affected by any +variation in the character of the pen used and the hand-gestures which +have, by constant usage, become as much part of the writer's style as +his walk and the tone of his voice. + +It follows, therefore, that the work of the handwriting experts consists +in learning how to detect and recognize those unconscious or mechanical +signs, characteristics or hand-gestures that are a feature in the +handwriting of every person, no matter how closely any two hands may +approximate in general appearance. However similar two hands may seem to +the casual and untrained observer, very distinct and unmistakable +differences become apparent when the student has been taught what to +look for. There is no more certain thing than the fact that there has +not yet been discovered two handwritings by separate persons so closely +allied that a difference cannot be detected by the trained observer. +Every schoolmaster knows that in a class of pupils taught writing from +the same model, and kept strictly to it, no two hands are alike, +although in the early and rudimentary stage, before the hand has +attained freedom and approached a settled character, the differences are +less marked. So soon as the child has been freed from the restraint of +the set copy and the criticism of the teacher, he begins to manifest +distinct characteristics, which become more marked and fixed with +practice and usage. + +There is no writing so uniform as the regulation hand used, and wisely +insisted upon, in the Civil Service, and familiar to the general public +in telegrams and official letters. Yet it is safe to say that there is +not a telegraph or post office clerk in England who would not be able to +pick out the writing of any colleague with which he was at all +acquainted. + +_Duplicates non-existent._--But the best and most decisive answer to the +objection that writings may be exactly similar lies in the notorious +fact that during half a century experts have failed to discover two +complete writings by different hands, so much alike that a difference +could not be detected. Had such existed, they would long ere this have +been produced for the confuting of the expert in the witness-box; +particularly when we bear in mind that the liberty, and even the life of +a person, have depended upon the identification of handwriting. That +there are many cases of extraordinary similarity between different +handwritings is a fact; if there were not, there would be very little +occasion for the services of the expert, but it is equally a fact that +the fancied resemblance becomes less apparent as soon as the writing is +examined by a capable and painstaking expert. It should not be forgotten +that it is not every person who undertakes the comparison of +handwritings who is qualified for the task, any more than every doctor +who diagnoses a case can be depended upon to arrive at an accurate +conclusion. But if the tried and accepted principles of the art be acted +upon, there should be no possibility of error, always assuming that the +person undertaking the examination has a sufficiency of material for +comparison. An expert who valued his reputation would, for example, be +very cautious about giving an emphatic opinion if the only material at +his disposal were two or three words or letters. It is quite possible +that a clever mimic might reproduce the voice of another person so +accurately as to deceive those who knew the subject of the imitation; +but let him carry on a conversation in the assumed voice for a few +minutes, and detection is certain. In like manner, while a few +characters and tricks of style in writing may be fairly well imitated, +it is impossible to carry the deception over a number of words. Sooner +or later the forger lapses into some trick of his own, and it is here +the trained observer catches him. The expert, like the caricaturist, +lays himself out to note the peculiarities of his subject, knowing that +these are practically beyond the control of the writer, and that the +probabilities are that he is not even aware of them. Peculiarities in +handwriting, like unchecked habits in children, become, in time, +crystallised into a mannerism so fixed as to be part of the nature, and +consequently are difficult of eradication. As a matter of fact a +peculiarity in handwriting is more often cultivated than controlled, +many writers regarding a departure from orthodox copybook form as an +evidence of an "educated hand." + +_The Law of Probabilities._--In examining a writing for comparison with +another the expert notes all peculiarities, which he labels, for +distinctive reference, "tricks." When he has recorded as many as +possible he looks for them in the writing which he has to compare. +Suppose that he has taken note of a dozen tricks, and finds them all +repeated in the suspected writing. The law of probabilities points to a +common authorship for both writings, for it is asking too much to expect +one to believe that there should exist two different persons, probably +strangers, who possess precisely the same peculiarities in penmanship. + +This principle of the law of probabilities is applied in the case of the +identification of persons "wanted" by the police. For example, the +official description of an absconding forger runs as follows:--"He has a +habit of rubbing his right thumb against the middle finger as if turning +a ring. He frequently strokes his right eyebrow with right forefinger +when engaged in writing; when perplexed, he bites his lower lip and +clenches and unclenches his fingers." + +Now there are, probably, thousands of people who do every one of these +things singly, but the chances are millions to one against there being +two people who do them all as described in the official placard. In like +manner there may be a multitude of writers who form an _f_ or _k_ with a +peculiar exaggerated buckle. Thousands more may make certain letters in +the same way, but to assume that there are two persons who possess +equally the whole twelve characteristics noted by the expert is to +strain coincidence to the breaking-point of absurdity. + +Therefore, it follows that it is the weight of cumulative evidence of +similarity in the production of unusual tricks of style that proclaims a +common authorship for two apparently different writings. + +It may be, and often is, the case that the peculiarities or tricks in +the original have been imitated in the suspected writing. As the result +of his experience in knowing what to look for in a copied document, the +expert is not deceived. However good the copy, there are always apparent +to the trained eye evidences that prove another and stranger hand, plain +as the difference between the firm, clear line of the drawing master and +the broken saw-edged effort of the pupil. Habitual observation trains +the eye to an extent that would scarcely be credited unless proved by +experiment. The art of observation cannot be taught; it must be the +outcome of practice. The most the teacher can do is to indicate the +lines on which the study should be carried out, and offer hints and +suggestions as to what to look for. The rest is in the hands of the +student. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +MEASUREMENT AND ITS APPLIANCES. + + +The appliances necessary for the work of examination are, a good +magnifying or reading glass of the greatest power obtainable, a pair of +fine compasses or dividers, a horn or celluloid protractor for measuring +angles of slope, and a clearly marked scale rule. Suitable articles will +generally be found in an ordinary case of mathematical instruments. + +A simpler and equally accurate method of taking measurements of +handwriting is by the aid of the transparent paper known as foreign +letter paper. It is usually of quarto size, very thin and transparent, +and is ruled horizontally and vertically, dividing the sheet into tiny +squares. It is laid over the writing to be examined, and the various +measurement marks are made with a finely pointed lead pencil. The lines +and squares are used for measurement as the parallels of latitude and +longitude are used on a chart. For example, a letter is said to be so +many lines high, so many lines wide. One of the tiny squares should be +carefully divided into two, or, if possible, four parts, so as to ensure +finer and more accurate measurement. A letter may then be measured in +parts of a line, being described, for example, as, height 6-3/4 lines, +breadth 2-1/2 lines. It is of course important that the same gauge of +ruled paper be used uniformly, otherwise the measurements will vary. If +the student has had practice in the use of the dividers and scale rule, +he may prefer to employ these, but the ruled paper and a finely pointed +lead pencil will be found sufficient for most purposes. A paper +specially prepared for surveyors, ruled in squares of one-eighth of an +inch may be obtained. For measuring the slopes of letters a transparent +protractor is necessary. The letters measured are all topped and tailed +small letters, and all capitals having a shank. Letters like _O_, _C_, +_Q_, _S_, and _X_ can only be measured approximately. + +The method of applying the measurements of heights and angles of slope +is shown in the case illustrated by the table on page 15. + +The subject of enquiry was a signature containing the letters _B_, _l_, +_k_, _b_. + +The measurements of these letters in the forgery are given at the top of +the table, and show the height in lines and angle of slope in degrees. + +The measurements of the corresponding letters in twelve genuine +signatures are shown in the table as Examples 1 to 12. + +The total is averaged by dividing by twelve. + +The presumption in favour of the suspected signature being a forgery is +strongly supported by the arithmetical result. + +A difference of more than 2 per cent. in angle of slope, and 3 per cent. +in height may be safely relied upon as ground for suspicion, for it is +rarely that a man's signature varies so greatly within a brief period. +In the absence of the explanation provided by illness, intentional +change in style or other abnormal circumstances, such a difference as is +shown in this example will justify a belief that the suspected signature +is by another hand. + + ---------+-------------------------------++------------------------------- + | Height in lines. || Angle of slope. + +-------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+------- + | _B._ | _l._ | _k._ | _b._ || _B._ | _l._ | _k._ | _b._ + ---------+-------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+------- + Forgery | 7 | 7 | 6 | 7-1/4 || 15 | 20 | 21 | 21 + ---------+-------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+------- + Example 1| 7-1/4 | 6-1/2 | 5-1/2 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 22 | 21 | 20 + | | | | || | | | + " 2| 7-1/4 | 6-1/4 | 6 | 7-1/4 || 17 | 21 | 20 | 20 + | | | | || | | | + " 3| 7-1/4 | 6 | 5-3/4 | 7-3/4 || 16 | 21 | 20 | 21 + | | | | || | | | + " 4| 7 | 6-1/4 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 21 | 20 | 21 + | | | | || | | | + " 5| 7 | 6-3/4 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 17 | 22 | 21 | 20 + | | | | || | | | + " 6| 7-1/2 | 6-3/4 | 5 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 21 | 20 | 21 + | | | | || | | | + " 7| 7-1/2 | 6 | 6 | 7-1/4 || 17 | 20 | 21 | 21 + | | | | || | | | + " 8| 7-1/2 | 6-1/2 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 22 | 21 | 21 + | | | | || | | | + " 9| 7-1/4 | 6-1/2 | 5-1/2 | 7 || 16 | 21 | 21 | 21 + | | | | || | | | + " 10| 6-3/4 | 6-1/2 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/4 || 16 | 20 | 21 | 21 + | | | | || | | | + " 11| 7-1/4 | 6-3/4 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 21 | 21 | 22 + | | | | || | | | + " 12| 7 | 6-1/4 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 20 | 21 | 21 + ---------+-------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+------- + Average | 7-1/4 | 6-1/2 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16-1/4| 21 | 20-3/4| 20-3/4 + ---------+-------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+------- + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +TERMINOLOGY. + + +[Illustration: TERMINOLOGY.] + +In order to render the description of a writing perfectly clear, a +system of terminology is adopted which is invariable. That is, the same +terms are always employed in indicating the same parts of a letter. +These are simple, and for the most part self-explanatory, so that no +effort is required to commit them to memory. + +Every part of a letter has a distinctive name, so that it would be +possible to reproduce a script character very closely by a verbal +description. + +The following are the terms used in describing a letter:-- + +_Letter_ means the whole of any script character, capital or small. For +the sake of brevity in notes and reports capital is written Cp.; small, +Sm. + +_Arc._--An arc is the curve formed _inside_ the top loop or curve, as in +_f_, _m_, _h_, _o_. In _o_, the inside top half of the letter is the +arc; the inside bottom half is the hook. + +_Buckle._--The buckle is the separate stroke added to such letters as +_k_, _f_, and capitals _A_, _F_, _H_. + +_Beard._--The beard is the preliminary stroke that often appears in +capital letters. + +_Body._--The body of a letter is that portion of it which rests on the +line and could be contained in a small circle. For example, in a small +_d_ the body consists of the circle and the final upward curve or toe. +In a small _g_ the body is the circle minus the tail. + +_Eye_ is the small circle formed by the continuation of a stroke as in +the shoulder _r_. + +_Finals._--A final is the finishing stroke not carried beyond the shank +in capitals, and in a few smalls like _y_, _g_, _z_. + +_Foot._--The foot of a letter is that portion of it that rests on the +line. Small _m_ has three feet, _h_ has two, etc. + +_Hook._--The hook is the inside of a bottom curve. It is the opposite of +the arc. + +_Link._--The link is that portion of the stroke which connects two +letters. + +_Broken link._--A broken link is a disconnection in the link joining two +letters. + +_Loop._--A loop is that portion of a letter which forms the top or tail. +Unlooped tops and tails are called "barred." For example, small _f_ has +two loops, top and bottom; _f_, _h_, _l_ have one top loop; _g_, _y_, +_z_ have one bottom loop. + +_Shank._--The shank of a letter is the principal long downstroke that +forms the backbone. + +_Shoulder._--The shoulder is the outside of the top of the curve as seen +in small _m_, _n_, _o_, _h_. Small _m_ has three shoulders, _n_ two, _h_ +one. + +_Spur._--The spur is to the small letter what the beard is to the +capital. It is the initial stroke. + +_Tick._--A tick is a small stroke generally at the beginning of a +letter, sometimes at the end. + +_Toe._--The toe is the concluding upward stroke of a letter, as seen in +small _e_, _n_, _h_, &c. + +_Whirl._--The whirl is the upstroke in all looped letters. It is a +continuation of the spur in _b_, _h_, _f_, _l_, and is always an +upstroke. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +CLASSES OF HANDWRITING. + + +For convenience in differentiation, handwritings are divided into the +following classes. Practically every type of writing can be placed in +one of them. + +_Vertical Hand._--A vertical hand is one in which the tops and tails of +letters form as nearly as possible a perpendicular with the horizontal +line. The best example of this class of handwriting is that known as the +Civil Service hand, familiar to the general public through telegrams and +official documents. + +_Back Hand_ is a hand in which the general slope of the characters is +from right to left. + +_Italian Hand_ is the reverse of a back hand, the slope being at an +acute angle from left to right. It is a style fast going out of fashion, +and is almost invariably the handwriting used by elderly ladies. Its +most pronounced characteristic is its sharp angles and absence of +curves. + +_Open Hand._--An open hand is one that generally approximates to the +vertical, its distinguishing feature being the wide space between the +letters. The best example of it is that known as the Cusack style of +writing. + +_Closed Hand._--A closed hand is the opposite of an open hand, the +letters being crowded together and generally long and narrow, with the +slope from left to right. + +_Greek Hand._--This is the name given to a type of writing that closely +approximates to the printed character. Many letters, both capital and +small, are formed to imitate print, particularly the capitals _T_, _X_, +_Y_, _R_, _B_, _D_, and the smalls _e_, _f_, _g_, _h_, _j_, _k_, _p_, +_r_, _t_, _v_, _w_, _x_, _y_, _z_. It is a hand frequently found in the +writings of classical scholars, literary men engaged in work entailing +careful research, and often is an evidence of short sight. + +The _Wavy Hand_ is generally vertical. Its characteristic is an +undulating serpentine waviness. Little or no distinction is made between +barred or looped letters. There are no rounded shoulders to the _m_ and +_n_ and the word minnie would be written by five small _u_'s. In +round-bodied letters like _a_, _d_, _g_, the circle is rarely completed, +but is left open, so that small _a_ becomes _u_, and small _d_ may be +mistaken for _it_, with the _i_ undotted and _t_ uncrossed. Despite its +geometrical and caligraphic inaccuracy in detail, this hand is generally +written with great regularity, that is, the characters, though +incomplete, are always uniform in their irregularity. The _e_ is never +open, but is an undotted _i_, and _n_ is _u_, but when the peculiarities +of the writer become familiar this hand is often very legible. + +_Flat Hand._--A flat hand is a type of handwriting in which the +characters have an oblate or flattened appearance, the _o_, _a_, _g_, +&c., being horizontal ovals, like the minim and breve in music. The +tails and tops are generally short, with wide loops. It is nearly always +a vertical hand. + +An _Eccentric Hand_ is one that presents various marked peculiarities +and departures from standard rules in the formation of certain letters, +and cannot be placed in any recognised class, though it may approximate +to one more than to another. + +The _Round_ or _Clerical Hand_ is a writing that preserves a close +affinity for the round regular hand of the average school-boy, with the +difference that while the characters are formed on regular copybook +model, the hand is written with considerable fluency and firmness. It is +generally only a little out of the perpendicular, sloping slightly +towards the right. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +HOW TO EXAMINE A WRITING. + + +The examination of a writing generally consists in making a careful +comparison between it and another or others, the object being to +determine whether all are by the same hand. + +The writing which is in a known hand or as to the authorship of which +there is no doubt, is usually called the Original, and is always +referred to by this name. The writing which has to be compared with it, +and which practically forms the subject of the enquiry, is called the +Suspect. The Suspects should be marked A, B, C, D, &c., and put away +without examination until the Original has been thoroughly mastered. +This is more important than may appear at first sight, for the confusing +effect of having the two types of writing in the eye and mind before one +type is made familiar is highly prejudicial. Any inclination to look at +the Suspects first should be firmly resisted. + +Let us assume that the object of the examination is to discover the +writer of an anonymous letter--one of the most frequent tasks of the +handwriting expert. The material in hand is the anonymous letter, which +in such a case may be called the Original, and half-a-dozen specimens of +the writing of suspected persons. These Suspects are numbered from 1 to +6, or marked A, B, C, &c., and put aside until the Original has been +thoroughly studied. + +The first thing is to examine the paper and envelope, noting its +quality, watermark, size, and any feature that may afford a clue. It is +always safe to presume that the paper is in every respect unlike that +commonly used by the writer, just as it is equally safe to take it for +granted that the writing it contains will, so far as its general +appearance goes, be the reverse of the normal hand of the author. That +is, if it be a heavy back hand, the writer probably uses a hand +approximating to the Italian, though too much weight must not be +attached to this theory. + +Next, note the general style of the document as a whole, whether the +margin between top, bottom, and sides is large or small. A writer who +habitually begins at the top left-hand corner very near to the edge of +the paper will often betray himself by repeating the habit. It is a very +common sign of an economical disposition. Note whether he crowds his +words and letters near the ends of lines or leaves a good margin. Clerks +and those engaged in official work rarely crowd their final words, +preferring rather to leave a wide space and go on to the next line. + +Note whether the hyphen is used to divide words. Many writers never +divide a word, others do it frequently, with or without the hyphen. + +Measure the average distance between lines, if unruled paper be used, +and make a note of the average distance. + +Measure the distance between words and strike an average, noting if +words are connected without lifting the pen. It may be found that this +joining is only done when certain letters form the final of the first +word joined and the initial of the word connected. Look carefully for +such. + +Note particularly the slope of the topped and tailed letters. + +Note the punctuation, whether frequent and accurate or otherwise. + +Determine the class to which the writing belongs. + +Read the document carefully, noting any peculiarities of language, +errors, or Americanisms in spelling, such as "favor" for "favour," +"color" for "colour," &c.; the substitution of "_z_" for "_s_" in such +words as "advertise," &c. Examine with the glass any words that may have +been crossed out or rewritten, noting particularly letters that have +been mended or touched up. + +Note whether the horizontal lines have a tendency to slope up or down. + +Note particularly letters with two or more feet, like _a_, _d_, _h_, +_k_, _m_, _n_, &c. It will be found that a certain regularity in +formation exists in most writings. If the _a_ be formed like an _o_, +the toe not touching the line, or an _n_ with the second foot high up +like a bearded _r_, these peculiarities should be carefully noted. Some +writers go to the other extreme, and carry the second foot below the +line, so that _a_ becomes a small _q_. Too much time cannot be devoted +to this aspect of handwriting, as it presents features of which the +writer is probably quite unconscious, and, therefore, affords valuable +evidence. + +Next study the topped and tailed letters, noting whether they are looped +or barred, that is, formed by a single stroke. It will be often found +that certain letters are always looped, others barred. Take careful note +of such. If both barred and looped letters appear to be used +indiscriminately, count and average them. In any case, a characteristic +will be revealed. Examine and classify the loops. Note whether they are +long or short, rounded or angular, wide or narrow. Devote special +attention to the arc, shoulder and hook. Note, also, any difference of +thickness between the up and down stroke; test the degree of clearness +and sharpness of stroke by means of the glass, and carefully look for +the serrated or ragged edge, which will assist in determining the angle +at which the pen is held. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE ALPHABET IN DETAIL. + + +[Illustration: ALPHABET VARIANTS.] + +If the instructions so far given have been acted upon, the student will +have familiarised himself with the general character of the writing +under examination. He should now proceed with a detailed examination of +each letter, beginning with the smalls, and taking them in alphabetical +order. + +Take a sheet of tracing paper and trace each small _a_, letting them +follow each other on the line, with about a quarter inch of space +between each letter. During the process of tracing, the eye must be on +the alert for peculiarities, notably the roundness or otherwise of the +circle as a whole, the curve or angle of the arc and hook, the relative +position of the toe. Note the shank, whether looped or barred, whether +the top of it is above or below the body of the circle, whether it is +vertical or sloping from right or left. Having compared all the _a_'s, +count them, and decide which form most frequently recurs. This may be +taken as the normal _a_ of the writer. + +The following are the principal points to be considered in examining +succeeding letters. + +_b._--Note the spur, its length, how far up the shank it meets it; +whether the shank is barred or looped; the character of the loop. Note +particularly the toe, which also forms the link. This is a very +significant hand-gesture. It may be low down, making the _b_ literally +_li_, or it may be a horizontal bar, an angle, or a neat semicircle. Its +formation offers large scope for variation, and should be very carefully +studied. Compare the toe with the corresponding stroke in _f_, _o_, _v_, +_w_. Note whether it is joined with an eye, and observe its average +distance from the bottom on base line. + +_c._--This letter, when an initial, is frequently begun with a spur, +often with a dot or tick. When connected with a preceding letter, the +link may make the _c_ into an _e_. It is sometimes disconnected from the +preceding letter. Note whether this is characteristic. + +_d._--Apply the same tests as in examining small _a_, noting whether the +shank is barred or looped. + +_e._--Examine the spur in initials; closely observe the loop. Look for +any recurrence of the Greek {e}. Examine and compare the specimens given +in the examples. Many writers have a habit of forming an _e_ as an _i_ +and adding the loop. Look out for this with assistance of the glass. + +_f._--This is an important letter, giving scope for numerous varieties +of form. Examine and classify the loops, noting which is the longer--the +top or bottom; whether one or both are barred. The eye and toe are +pregnant with material for observation. Examine the various forms of +this letter given in the examples. + +_g._--Like the preceding letter, this one has many varieties of form, +and will repay careful study. + +_h._--The characteristic portion of this letter is the hook forming its +body. Note how it is joined to the shank--whether it starts from the +line or high up; whether the shoulder is rounded or angular, whether the +foot touches the line or remains above it; whether the shank is looped +or barred. + +_i._--This is an important letter because of the dot, which is made +mechanically. After noting whether the shank is spurred as an initial, +special attention must be devoted to the dot. Dots are of various forms. +They may be a wedge-shaped stroke sloping in any direction, a horizontal +dash, a tiny circle or semicircle, a small _v_, or a perfect dot. +Examine them all through the glass, and compare them with the comma, +which often partakes of the same character as the dot. Note also its +relative position to the shank, whether vertical, to the right or left, +and its average height and distance from the shank. Much may be learned +from a careful examination of the dot, and its every variation and +characteristic should be most carefully noted and classified. + +_j_ is important for the same reason that makes the _i_ significant. +There are several forms of it, but the dotting offers the most valuable +evidence. + +_k._--This is the most significant and valuable of the small letters, as +it offers scope for so much originality and irregularity in its +formation. The characteristic features of the small _k_ lie mainly in +the body. Few writers form a _k_ alike. Although it may belong to the +same class, the number of variations that can be rung on the body is +surprisingly large, ranging from the regulation copybook model to the +eccentric patterns shown in the examples. Special attention should be +devoted to the eye and buckle, for it is at this junction of the two +strokes forming the body that most writers exhibit their peculiarities. + +_l._--The same principles of examination apply to this letter as to the +small _e_. Note carefully the character of the loop and examine the +position of the spur. + +_m_ and _n_ offer ample material for examination. As an initial the +first stroke is sometimes exaggerated, approximating the letter to the +capital _M_ or _N_. Note the formation of the shoulders and their +relative heights and width; also, by means of a line touching the tops +of the shoulders, note carefully and compare the last shoulder with the +first. This letter presents great extremes in formation. The shoulders +may be high and well rounded, or even horizontal, or they may be sharp +angles, turning the _m_ into _in_, and the _n_ into _u_. Note the +distance between the shanks and observe whether it is uniform. + +_o._--This letter owes its main importance to its connecting link. Note +whether it is carried low down, making the letter like an _a_, whether +it is joined to the body by an eye, and if the toe is curved or angular. +Note, also, the general conformation of the circular body and compare +the toe with that in _b_, _f_, _v_, and _w_. + +_p._--There are several forms of this letter, and a writer who affects +one of them generally repeats it often. The shank may be barred or +looped, wholly or in part, especially when used as an initial. The body +generally offers ample material for examination. + +_q_ is also a letter with which great liberties are taken, and is the +subject of several variations. Some writers make no distinction between +_g_ and _q_, and the final stroke often supplies the main characteristic +of this letter. + +_r._--This important letter has two forms--the square, or eyed, and the +hooked. Many variants are employed in forming it, as the specimens in +the examples show. Many writers unconsciously form a habit of using both +_r_'s, but with a certain degree of system. For example, one may use the +hook _r_ always as a final, and the eyed _r_ as an initial. The +formation of the eye should be specially studied, with the shoulder, +which may be formed as a semicircle, an arc, a straight bar or an +angular _v_. The hooked _r_ is equally rich in varying forms, and the +letter forms an interesting study. + +_s._--This is a letter of such frequent recurrence in the English +language that it not unnaturally has become the subject of a variety of +forms, and this despite the fact that its regulation shape is +exceedingly simple and rudimentary. The majority of writers have one +favourite form of the letter, which, like the _k_, becomes +characteristic. + +_t._--This letter is important because of its frequent recurrence, and +on account of the variations of form, the bar or crossing being the most +fruitful in material for observation. There are two usual forms of the +_t_, the hooked and crossed, and the barred, and they are equally +valuable and characteristic. The crossing of a hooked _t_, like the +dotting of an _i_, is so mechanical an act that it often reveals +important evidence. The cross stroke when closely examined will be found +to present many variations. It may be a fine horizontal line, a curve, a +heavy short dash; it may be ticked or dotted at either end or both--in +short, there is scarcely an end to the numerous forms this important +hand-gesture may assume. Then its relative position to the shank tells +much. It may be high up, not touching the shank; low down, neatly struck +at right angles to the shank, or it may be omitted altogether. In some +circumstances a _t_ is crossed, in others left uncrossed; for example, +the _t_ at the beginning of a word may be invariably uncrossed, but the +final _t_ never. These are the peculiarities and characteristics the +student has to keep a watchful eye for. The other form of the _t_ is +known as the bar _t_. It is generally uncrossed, and often the buckle is +an important feature. A careful examination of the examples will suggest +the lines on which the analysis of the letter _t_ should be conducted +and at the same time reveal the richness of material at the disposal of +the student. + +_u._--Note whether the two shanks are uniform, whether the letter is +spurred as an initial. Average the distance between the shanks, and +observe the conformation of the hook, whether rounded or _v_-shaped. + +_v._--The important feature of this letter is the toe. Its formation +must be carefully noted as in _f_, _o_, hooked _r_ and _w_. + +_w._--Apply the same test as to _u_ and _v_. Note the uniformity or +otherwise of the shanks and hooks, and study the varied forms given in +the examples. + +_x._--This letter lends itself to tricks and variations, and few letters +depart more from the orthodox copybook form in actual practice, as is +shown in the examples. + +_y._--Note the spur and its relative position to the shank. Note the +tail and its average length. + +_z._--This letter offers good material for study and the detection of +mannerisms. Its body is the most significant part, as it is capable of +so many variations. It may be angular or well curved; the eye may be +large or exaggerated or merely suggested. Like _k_ and _x_, the form +once adopted by a writer is not usually departed from to any great +extent. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +THE CAPITALS. + + +Owing to their large size and more complex form the capital letters +offer much more material for tests than the smalls. They yield more +scope for tricks and eccentricity, though, at the same time, their extra +prominence, and the clearness with which their outlines strike the eye +of the writer render it more likely that he will detect glaring +departures from the orthodox model. In other words, a writer would +probably pay more attention to accuracy in forming, and particularly in +copying, a capital than a small letter. This is generally found to be +the case in signature forgeries, the capitals being, as a rule, much +nearer the original than the small letters. But there is this great +advantage in favour of the student in examining capitals--the strokes +being more expansive supply a larger field and material for examination. +For example, a ragged or diamond stroke in a much flourished capital +like _M_, _W_, _R_ or _B_ would be more apparent than the same kind of +stroke in a small letter. + +There is no need to take the capital letters seriatim, as was the case +with the smalls, for the same principles and rules for examination apply +in both cases. The same care is necessary in examining the arcs, hooks +and shoulders of loops, with their general conformation. The angle of +slope is more noticeable in capitals, and they reveal the +characteristics of the writer more than small letters. Persons who +profess to delineate character from handwriting always pay great +attention to the capitals, doubtless with good reason, and as the result +of long experience. + +An examination will show that about ten capitals can be formed with two +disconnected strokes. They are _A_, _B_, _F_, _H_, _K_, _P_, _Q_, _R_, +_T_ and _X_. These are known as double capitals. These doubles should +be carefully looked for, and the frequency, or otherwise, of their +recurrence noted, as it is probable they will be found to be nearly +always used under the same circumstances; that is, a writer may have a +habit of beginning with a double capital when possible, but revert to +the single form of the same letter in the body of the writing. Another +writer will almost invariably disconnect the capitals from the rest of +the word, while a third as regularly connects them. Some writers affect +the more simple form, approximating to the printed character. Others +again indulge in inordinate flourishes, particularly in their +signatures. Such writers prove easy prey to the forger. + +A feature very easy of detection in capitals is the "diamond." It is +formed by a sudden thickening of the downstroke. It is particularly +noticeable in the writing of those who have been instructed in the +old-fashioned school, where a distinction between the heavy downstroke +and the light upstroke was insisted upon. The diamond habit once formed +is very difficult to eradicate, and traces of it always remain in the +writing of persons thus taught. + +An important and significant part of a capital letter is the beard. It +is an automatic trick, and always repays careful examination. It may be +a spurred, ticked or dotted beard, but in any case the initial stroke +must be carefully examined, whatever form it may assume, for the +oft-emphasized reason that it belongs so essentially to the +clue-providing class of unguarded and unpremeditated automatic strokes +that are overlooked by the writer. + +Variations in the form of a capital must be noted, and a record kept, +for, however great the variety, it will be found that one particular +form is more used than another, and may be regarded as the normal type +of the writer. + +A peculiarity of some writers is the use of an enlarged form of the +small letter for a capital. The letters so made to serve a double +purpose are generally _A_, _C_, _E_, _G_, _M_, _N_, _O_, _P_, _Q_, _S_, +_U_, _V_ and _W_. They are referred to as small capitals. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +PUNCTUATION. + + +The ampersand (&) is a symbol that provides excellent material for clues +to tricks and mannerisms. It varies in form from a mere _v_-shaped tick +of almost indeterminate character to an ornate thing of loops and +flourishes. It is very sparingly employed by illiterate persons, and +some educated writers avoid its use under the impression that, like the +abbreviation of words, it is vulgar. In a few high-class ladies' schools +its use is sternly repressed, and there are many fluent and habitual +writers who never employ this sign. This in itself supplies a useful +clue to characterisation. Others, again, only employ it in such +combinations as "& Co.," "&c.," though this latter abbreviation is, as +often as not, written "etc." by many persons. + +The dash (--) occurs very largely in many writings, and particularly in +those of ladies, who regard it as a universal punctuation mark, and +employ it indiscriminately as comma and full stop. Many persons of both +sexes invariably make a dash below the address on an envelope, using it +as a kind of final flourish. A close examination of the samples provided +in such a writing will reveal many valuable idiosyncrasies. It may be a +bold, firm horizontal line, a curve with a tick at either end, or both; +a wavy line or even an upward or downward line. Note, also, the ragged +edge, as it affords an important clue to the style of holding the pen. +The dash is so essentially an unpremeditated and mechanically-formed +hand-gesture that it often betrays more of the character of the writer +than any other letter. Cases have been known in which the writer of an +anonymous letter has successfully concealed all his characteristics, +but in putting the final stroke in the form of a dash he has so far +forgotten himself as to produce, quite unconsciously, what was probably +one of his most pronounced hand-gestures, thus providing a clue which +led to ultimate conviction. + +Punctuation is rarely a marked feature of English handwriting. It is +said that many of our leading literary men practically leave this +important phase of their work to the printer's proof-reader. An +examination of a hundred private letters by different hands will show a +marvellous scarcity of punctuation marks, and few correspondents use or +appear to know the use of any stop other than the comma and full point, +the dash being made to do service for all else. The mark of +interrogation is fairly often used, and its formation gives scope and +material for careful examination. The examples offer suggestions of the +form and direction eccentricity sometimes takes. + +The colon and semicolon are very little used by average writers, and +when they are, it is generally inaccurately, but nearly always under the +same circumstances, which should be carefully noted. The quotation marks +(" ") are still more rarely employed, and it will be found on +examination that most people form them wrongly. The accurate style is +this, " ", but as often as not the initial quotation has the dot at the +top instead of the bottom. + +Another almost universal omission is that of the full point after +initials to a name, after "Esq.," and in the initials of postal +districts, as E.C., W.C. The addressing of an envelope affords +interesting and valuable material for clues, for it will generally be +found that a writer who uses punctuation marks at all will do so with +automatic regularity under the same circumstances. + +The shape and general formation of stops and marks must be carefully +examined and classified, for they belong to the significant +unpremeditated class of hand-gestures, and are, therefore, valuable as +clues to peculiarities. + +The "Esq." that generally follows a man's name on a letter addressed to +him partakes much of the character of a symbol like the "?" or "!", and, +being automatic through usage, is therefore valuable. Most writers use a +uniform style in shaping it, and the three letters that go to make up +the abbreviation are fortunately of a kind that lend themselves to +characterisation. + +Notice, also, the position of the possessive sign in such words as +"men's," "writer's." If accurately placed, the writer may be presumed to +understand punctuation, and will give evidence of it in a long writing. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +PAPER AND WATERMARKS. + + +The brownish tint of old age which paper needs to help out a fraud is +obtained in various ways--sometimes by steeping in a weak solution of +coffee, but in other cases by holding it before a bright hot fire. This +latter device is, fortunately, not easy of accomplishment, considerable +care, judgment and even luck being needed to ensure a satisfactory +result. In our own case we have failed persistently in the attempt, the +paper becoming tinted so unequally as to excite remark at first sight. + +All the old pattern of letter paper was almost uniform in size--post +quarto, and the watermark is invariably very distinct, explainable by +the fact that the art of close weaving the wire mould was not then +brought to its present state of perfection. + +The watermarks are very fairly imitated by means of a pointed stick +dipped in a solution of spermaceti and linseed oil melted in water and +stirred till cold; or, equal quantities of turpentine and Canada balsam +shaken together. The same result may be obtained by the use of megilp, a +mixture employed by artists. + +The detection of this watermark fraud is simple and infallible. If the +suspected document be moistened with lukewarm water the spurious +watermark disappears immediately, but if genuine, it becomes plainer. + +The worn and dingy appearance inseparable from age in a letter is +accentuated by rubbing it lightly with a dirty duster. The effect is +usually obvious under a strong glass, the passage of the dirty cloth +revealing itself in minute parallel lines. + +Very little care is needed to distinguish between paper that has been +taken from books and the genuine letter paper of the period. To begin +with, such letters are always on single sheets. In genuine cases, the +sheet is as often as not a folio of four pages. In the majority of cases +the bogus sheet is of no recognised size. If taken from a book larger +than post quarto, it has had to be cut to conceal the tear. This +operation has made an irregular sized sheet--too small for post quarto, +too large for the next size. In the genuine writing paper, all four +edges are usually rough like those of a bank note. If the sheet has been +abstracted from a book, one edge must have been cut or trimmed. + +Again, such paper is of unequal thickness, the writing paper of the +period being much smoother and finer than the printing paper, while in +parts it is almost certain the ink has run, as it does on a coarse, +absorbent paper. This is a sure sign that the paper is printing and not +writing. + +Further, such paper is certain to show signs of wear at the bottom edges +where they have been handled and exposed, while that part of the page +which has been closest to the inside edge of the cover is generally +cleaner, and shows less sign of wear. In many cases the impression of +the book binding is plainly visible. + +A careful examination and comparison of a few sheets of genuine letter +paper of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries with the blank leaves +found in printed books will reveal differences so marked that mistake is +scarcely possible afterwards. + +It often occurs that grease marks interrupt the forger. Knowing that he +cannot write over them, and that they are hardly likely to have existed +on the paper when it was new, and when the letter was supposed to be +written, he avoids them. The result becomes apparent in unequal spacing +of words and even letters. + +On one occasion a really excellent forgery, which had successfully +withstood all the tests we had applied, had its real character revealed +by a curious oversight on the part of the forger. + +It was an early seventeenth century document, and our attention was +arrested by a peculiar uniform smudgy appearance, such as results from +blotting with a hard, unabsorbent, much-worn sheet of blotting paper. At +the period of the presumed date of this document blotting paper was +unknown, writings being dried by means of a specially prepared fine +powder called pounce, sand, or a powder containing fine crystals of +metal intended to give an ornamental gloss to the ink. Close examination +under the microscope revealed the truth. There were no signs of pounce +or any other drying powder, the crystals of which are usually plain to +the unassisted eye, but there were distinct signs of the fibre of the +blotting paper left in the ink. + +Another forgery we discovered through the presence in the centre of the +sheet of paper of a very faint square outline which enclosed a slight +discolouration. The sheet had, as usual, been removed from a book, and +the square outline was a faint impression of a book-plate which had been +affixed to the opposite page. The discolouration was caused by the ink +on the book-plate. + +It should be superfluous to have to remind intelligent and educated +persons that it is necessary for a collector of old documents to make +himself familiar with the peculiarities, habits and customs of the +period in whose literary curiosities he is dealing. Yet fact compels the +admission that extraordinary laxity and even ignorance exist on these +points. We are acquainted with a collector, by no means uneducated, who +gave a good price for a letter purporting to be by Sir Humphrey Davy, +the inventor of the miners' safety lamp, enclosed in an envelope. He was +ignorant of the fact that envelopes were unknown until 1840, thirty +years later than the date of this particular letter. Envelopes supposed +to have been addressed by Dickens have been offered for sale and +purchased, bearing postage stamps not in circulation at the period. + +One would imagine that a forger would pay sufficient attention to his +materials to be on his guard against the blunder which earned the +perpetrator of the Whalley Will Forgery penal servitude. He put forward +a will dated 1862, written on paper bearing in a plain watermark the +date 1870! Another indiscreet person asked the Court to accept a will +written and signed with an aniline copying pencil, but dated years +before that instrument had been invented. + +Both the works by Dr. Scott and Mr. Davies, given in the list, show +samples of watermarks of the various periods affected by forgers of +literary documents. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +INKS. + + +Examination for determining whether a writing has been done at one time, +or added to later, necessitates some acquaintance with the nature and +qualities of ink. In the ordinary case the assistance of a chemist is +necessary, but an enlarged photograph shows up minute differences with +amazing accuracy. + +In the majority of instances alterations are made some time after the +original has been written, in which case a difference in the shade of +the ink will be perceptible, even to the unassisted eye. This is +particularly true when the now almost universal blue-black ink is used. + +The period required for an addition to become as black as the older +writing depends very much upon the character of the paper. If this be +smooth and hard, and the writing has not been dried with blotting paper, +but allowed to dry naturally and slowly, it will become black much +quicker than if the paper be rough and of an absorbent nature. + +A fairly reliable test is to touch a thick stroke of the suspected +addition with a drop of diluted muriatic acid--as much as will cling to +the point of a pin. Apply the drop to the suspected addition and to the +older writing at the same moment, and carefully watch the result. The +newer writing will become faint and watery, with a bluish tinge almost +instantly, but the change will be slower in the case of the older +writing, taking ten or even twenty seconds. The longer the period +required for the change, the older the writing. + +This same acid test is applied to prove whether a writing is in ordinary +ink, or has been lithographed or photographed. If the two latter, the +acid will have no effect. + +On more than one occasion collectors have purchased as original +autographs of celebrities which proved to have been lithographed or +photographed, but the persons so deceived have generally been +inexperienced amateurs. + +When the difference between a written and printed signature has been +once noticed it is hardly likely that an observant person will be +deceived. It is, however, as well to be carefully on guard against this +contingency, for modern photography and process printing have been +brought to such a degree of imitative perfection that it is easy for a +not too keen-eyed person to experience great difficulty in forming an +opinion in the absence of the acid test. Fortunately that is infallible. + +It must, however, be admitted that up to the present no great success +has attended efforts to determine how long an interval has passed +between the writing of the original and the suspected addition. Broadly +speaking, the most that the expert can hope to gain from an examination +of ink under these circumstances are hints, clues and suggestions rather +than definite, reliable facts. Fortunately it often occurs that a +suggestion so obtained proves of immense value to the trained or careful +observer, though it might convey no conviction to others. + +As in the case of nearly all deductive reasoning the handwriting expert +becomes sensitive to slight suggestions. If called upon, as he sometimes +is, to explain to others how and why one of these slight and almost +imperceptible signs fit in with his theory, he fails. Therefore the +cautious expert, like a good judge, is careful in giving reasons for his +judgment only to cite those which are self-evident. + +Many an expert has made a poor exhibition in the witness-box by failing +to convey to a jury the impression produced on his own mind by a slight +piece of evidence, the proper understanding and interpretation of which +can only be grasped by those who have learned how to recognize faint +signs. + +The process of chemically testing inks for the purpose of ascertaining +the points mentioned is quite simple, and is distinctly interesting. In +a very important case the services of a qualified chemist will probably +be requisitioned, but the cost of the necessary material and the time +required to make oneself proficient as a capable tester are so slight +that even the small fee that would be charged by a chemist is scarcely +worth paying. + +The materials necessary are a few test tubes, some bottles of lime +water, diluted muriatic acid, a solution of nitrate of silver in +distilled water, in the proportion of ten grains to the ounce, some +camel hair pencils, and clean white blotting and litmus paper. The whole +need not cost more than half-a-crown. + +The method of using these materials is best illustrated by describing a +test often needed by autograph collectors. + +A very common method employed by forgers to give an appearance of age to +the ink used in spurious old documents is to mix with ordinary ink, +muriatic acid, oxalic acid, or binoxalate of potash. The presence of +these colouring agents can be detected in the following manner. + +In the first place, washing the letter with cold water will make the ink +become darker if acid has been used to brown the ink, but the following +test will settle the point beyond dispute: + +With a camel's-hair brush wash the letter over with warm water. If, as +sometimes happens, a sort of paint or coloured indian ink has been used, +this will be immediately washed away and disappear, leaving a rusty +smudge. If not, apply the litmus paper to the wetted ink, and the +presence of acid will be shown in the usual way by the litmus paper +changing colour. If genuine, wetting makes no difference. + +Next, pour a drop or two of the water from the writing into a test tube +from off the letter, add a little distilled water and one or two drops +of the nitrate of silver solution. + +If muriatic acid has been used to colour the ink, a thick white +precipitate will be seen in the tube immediately. + +If not, pour a few more drops of the water which has been washed over +the writing into a second test tube, add a little distilled water and a +few drops of lime water. A white precipitate will be seen in the tube if +either oxalic acid or binoxalate of potash has been employed. + +In many cases it will be sufficient to place the tip of the tongue to a +thick stroke. An unmistakable acid taste will be noticed. + +Further and fuller particulars of the methods resorted to by forgers to +simulate ancient documents will be given in the chapter on Autographs. + +It is sometimes important to know whether a stroke has been made over +another, as in the famous case in which the real issue turned on the +question whether an apparent alteration in a signature was really a +pen-mark made to indicate where the signatory should sign. It was +obvious that if the mark was made first the signature would be over it; +if, as was suggested, the mark was added in an attempt to alter or touch +up the signature, it must have been written over the signature. + +In cases of this kind an enlarged photograph leaves no room for doubt. +The ink is seen lying over the lower stroke as plainly as a layer of +paint in a picture can be seen overlying the stroke beneath. + +This is one of those apparently difficult points which become +marvellously simple when dealt with in a practical manner. + +Pages might be needed to explain what a very simple experiment will +reveal at a glance. + +Take a word which has been written long enough for the ink to have +become dry, and make a stroke across it. For example, make a letter _t_ +without the bar, then, after a lapse of an hour or two, add the cross +bar. When this is quite dry and has become as dark as the first mark, +examine it with a good glass. The ink of the added bar will be seen +plainly overlaying the vertical stroke, but any doubt can be promptly +removed by taking an enlarged photograph. + +Even when the second stroke is added while the ink on the first is still +wet the upper stroke can be distinguished, though not so clearly as if +the first stroke had been allowed to dry first. + +By practising and examining such strokes, the student will soon learn to +distinguish important signs which leave no doubt as to which stroke was +first made. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +ERASURES. + + +The alteration of the figures and amount written on a cheque is +generally effected by erasure. At one time chemicals were used for this +purpose, but fortunately the modern cheque is forgery-proof in this +respect. No means are known to chemists by which ordinary writing can be +removed from a cheque without leaving a sign too pronounced to escape +detection. + +But even erasure on a cheque is extremely difficult, and the experienced +eye of the average bank teller can detect it in the vast majority of +cases. Frauds perpetrated by this means are very rare, and are usually +the result of gross carelessness on the part of the person accepting the +document so altered. + +The more frequent form of cheque fraud is effected by adding to such +words as six, seven, eight and nine. The addition of _ty_ and _y_ is all +that is necessary. But the ordinarily careful business man never leaves +sufficient blank space between his words to admit of this addition, +while there are few bank tellers who do not carefully scrutinise a +cheque made out for these larger amounts. + +It may be accepted as a satisfactory fact that cheque forgery is not +only extremely difficult, but rarely successful. Great frauds are +usually perpetrated by means of other instruments, such as bills of +exchange, credit notes, &c. + +An erasure is the easiest thing to detect if looked for. To begin with +it is only necessary to hold a scratched document to the light to have +the alteration revealed. + +Erasing must of necessity remove part of the surface of the paper which +is made noticeably thinner at the spot erased. + +In nearly every case the writing that has been added to the erasure is +blurred, owing to the rough and absorbent character of the paper. Expert +forgers have devised means of counteracting this by rubbing in some +substance which partially restores the original smoothness and mitigates +the blurred appearance. But such devices ought not to be successful for +they are so easily detected. + +As a matter of fact the only chance the forger of an erased cheque has +lies in the carelessness of the teller. Any crowding of words and +unequal spacing in the filling up of a cheque ought to excite suspicion +and provoke careful and closer scrutiny, and, it may be added, it +generally does. + +The addition of letters intended to increase the value of a number, such +as the adding of _ty_ to six or seven, is easy of detection if properly +looked for. + +It is safe to assume that the addition has been made long after the +original word was written, and the point of junction can be detected by +the aid of a good glass. + +Had the word been originally written sixty, the chances are that there +would be no perceptible break between the _x_ and the _t_. Few persons +write such short words in a disconnected manner. On placing the word +under an ordinary glass the point of junction will be plainly apparent, +and a microscope, or an enlarged photograph, cannot fail to reveal the +fraud. Of course these latter tests will not be possible under the +ordinary circumstances attending the paying out of a cheque over the +counter, but when once the peculiarities of such alterations have been +studied, it is marvellous how quick the eye becomes in recognizing them +at a glance. + +Erasure in writings on stout thick paper is not quite so readily noticed +as those on thin paper such as cheques; but the same methods of +examination will apply--holding the document to the light, or level with +and horizontal to the eye. A very effective application of the latter +test is to bend or curve the paper, making an arch. The bending has a +tendency to stretch and widen the erased part, and if any smoothing +substance such as starch or wax has been added to restore the gloss of +the scraped portion, it will usually reveal itself by separating and +coming away in dust or tiny flakes. This process may be accentuated by +drawing the suspected document over a ruler, or, better still, a pencil, +repeating the motion several times. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +PENCILS AND STYLOGRAPHS. + + +It is obvious that writing executed with a pencil or the now much-used +stylograph will differ in many respects from that performed by an +ordinary pen. It is not too much to say that their use will eliminate +many features and introduce new ones. This change is mainly brought +about by the different way in which a pencil or stylograph is held in +comparison with a pen. There is a much greater sense of freedom. The +pencil can be, and is, turned and twisted in the process of making a +stroke as a pen cannot be, and the signs of this freedom become apparent +in a more rounded stroke. Even a writer whose characters are acutely +angular shows a tendency to a more graceful outline. As a matter of +fact, it is comparatively rare to meet a pencilled writing that is +pronouncedly angular. + +The same remarks apply with only little modification to writing produced +by the stylograph, and for the same reason--the ease and freedom with +which the instrument is held. + +There is no possibility of mistaking writing produced by a stylograph +for that of an ordinary steel nib. The strokes are absolutely uniform in +thickness. No nib-formed writing can be so, for it is impossible for a +writer, however careful, to avoid putting pressure on his pen at some +point; and the opening of the nib, however slight, must produce an +apparent thickening. + +Therefore, recognising these facts, the expert is always extremely +careful in giving an opinion upon a writing produced by pencil or stylo +unless he have ample specimens of the writer's productions done with +these instruments. + +At the same time, although an absence of characteristics present in pen +writing would be noticeable, the main features would exist: for example, +the space between words and letters would be the same; the dot over the +_i_ would be in its customary position; the bar of the _t_ would be of +the same type as heretofore. The principal changes would be in the +direction of a more uniform stroke with a tendency to greater rotundity. + +Persons who habitually employ the stylo very frequently develop an +unconscious habit of twisting the pen at certain points so as to form a +deep, rounded dot. This occurs principally at the ends of words and +strokes. A magnifying-glass reveals this peculiarity at once, and, when +discovered, notice should be taken of the circumstances under which this +twisting is usually done. It will be found, most probably, that the +trick is uniform; that is, certain letters or strokes are mostly +finished with the dot. + +There is a well-known public character who for years has employed no +other writing instrument but the stylo. His writing possesses one +peculiarity which is so habitual that in four hundred examples examined +it was absent in only five. He forms this twist dot at the end of the +last letter at the end of every line. The inference and explanation is +that, in raising the pen to travel back to the next line, he twists it +with a backward motion in harmony with the back movement. Another trick +is to make the same dot in words on which he appears to have halted or +hesitated before writing the next. In every such case there is an extra +wide space between the word ended by a dot and that which follows. It +would appear as if the writer mechanically made the dot while pausing to +choose the next word. This is a striking example of the unconscious +hand-gesture. + +Something akin to it occurs in the handwriting of a famous lawyer. Here +and there in his letters will be noticed a faint, sloping, vertical +stroke, like a figure _1_. Those who have seen him write explain it +thus. While hesitating in the choice of a word he moves his pen up and +down over the paper, and unintentionally touches it. It is such slips as +these which often supply the expert with valuable clues to identity. +When they occur they should be carefully examined, for in the majority +of cases a reason will be found for their presence. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +ANONYMOUS LETTERS AND DISGUISED HANDS. + + +That mischievous and cowardly form of secret attack, the anonymous +letter, demands, unfortunately, a large amount of attention from the +handwriting expert. One of the most pleasant rewards that can attend the +conscientious and painstaking student of handwriting lies in the +knowledge that his art may sometimes enable him to bring to deserved +punishment the assassin of reputation and domestic happiness. + +It is a moot point, which has been discussed by legal authorities, as to +whether the handwriting expert is justified in tendering evidence and +opinions of a kind that may be said to belong by right to the criminal +investigator. By this is meant that the expert should not be allowed to +point out to a jury such pieces of circumstantial evidence as the +similarity of the paper used by the suspected person with other found in +his possession; that he ought not to direct attention to postmarks, +coincidence of dates, similarity of ink used, the employment of certain +words and phrases, and other external and indirect clues that point to +the authorship. It is urged that the whole duty of the expert is to say +whether in his opinion two or more writings are by the same hand or not, +and any expression of opinion outside this question is _ultra vires_. + +The obvious answer to this objection is that it is impossible to limit +the expert in the selection of those points which appeal to and assist +him in forming an opinion. It is impossible to say what may or may not +suggest a valuable clue to a keen observer; and as the expert is often +called upon to give reasons for his opinion he is quite justified in +indicating the steps by which he arrived at it. + +These circumstances arise more often in connection with anonymous +letters than with ordinary signature forgeries, for the field of +exploration and the material examined are so much larger. Details become +invaluable. The quality and make of the paper used, or a peculiar method +of folding and placing it in the envelope may afford a clue that will +put the expert on the high road to an important discovery. It is +impossible to say how or where a clue may lurk. The torn edge of a +postage stamp once supplied a hint that was followed up successfully. A +smudge on the envelope, that matched a similar one on a packet of +envelopes in the writing case of a person quite unsuspected, led to +conviction, as did a number of an address that was crossed out and +rewritten, the anonymous writer having, by force of habit, begun with +the number he was in the habit of writing--his own. + +In short, the expert has, _nolens volens_, to assume many of the +functions of the crime investigator in dealing with apparent trifles, +and even if they do not always help him in reaching his goal, they +provide material for exercising the useful art of observation. Strictly +speaking the expert should, perhaps, ignore all outside suggestions as +to the authorship, and confine himself to saying whether or not the +specimens submitted are in the same handwriting; but in practice this +will be found extremely difficult, if not impossible, for the student +cannot shut his eyes to the accidental clues that invariably arise in +the examination of the evidence, and almost before he realizes it, the +most cautious expert finds himself trespassing upon ground that by right +should be the preserve of the detective. + +The points raised here may, however, be safely left to be dealt with by +the judgment of the student as they arise. In the early stages of study +they will probably not present themselves with the same force and +frequency as later on, when they will be appreciated as providing useful +private pointers for guidance; and though at times they may put the +inexperienced student upon a false scent, he will have no difficulty in +detecting his error if, when in doubt, he follows the principles laid +down for the comparison of handwriting. + +The first step to the examination of the anonymous letter consists in +procuring as many suspects as possible, which, as before advised, should +be lettered or numbered and put aside, until the original, which in this +case is the anonymous letter, has been studied and mastered. The +external evidence of which so much has already been said may or may not +be looked for. + +Next proceed with the examination and comparison of the writings. It is +presumed that the student has prepared his notes of the peculiarities of +the original; he has now to search for them in the suspects. Suppose he +begins with the spurs and beards, having found them well marked in the +original. He will take any one of the suspects and examine it for a +repetition of the same signs. He may follow on with the rest of the +suspects, taking advantage of his memory being fresh on this point, or +he may prefer to exhaust one suspect of all its evidences before +proceeding with another; but practice and experience will decide the +best course in this matter, and influence the line of procedure. + +Whatever method is pursued, all have the same object--the discovery of +the peculiarities of the original in one or more of the suspects, and +the student will be wise if he follow accurately the course laid down in +the chapter on "How to Examine a Writing." + +It is generally safe to take it for granted that the writing in an +anonymous letter is disguised. There are occasions when the author +persuades another person to write for him, but only rarely; for the +perpetrator of a contemptible act is not usually brazen and indiscreet +enough to expose himself to others. The same reasons lend strength to +the presumption that the writing will, so far as its general appearance +goes, be as much the opposite of the author's usual style as his +ingenuity can make it. The extreme back hand occurs very frequently. It +seems to be the first impulse of the anonymous writer to avoid the right +slope. Even when the normal hand is a vertical, with a tendency to back +hand, the extreme left slope is often chosen. Fortunately, the assumed +back hand is one of the most transparent of disguises. If the student +has practised it, he will not need to be reminded how difficult it is +for a writer to conceal his mannerisms. By altering the slope he has +only stretched and lengthened his outlines, and the expert soon learns +to recognise them in their new form. + +Another common disguise is the illiterate hand. This is quite as easy of +detection. It is no easier for the practised and fluent writer to +reproduce the shaky, irregular outlines of the illiterate, than it is +for the speaker of pure and cultured English to imitate the coarse +accent of the vulgar. However good the copy it always breaks down early, +and the sudden and unconscious firm, clear and geometrically accurate +stroke reveals the practised writer beneath the mask. Sometimes an +accurately placed punctuation mark supplies the necessary clue, for when +once the art of proper punctuation has been acquired it becomes almost +automatic. Even experienced novelists are caught this way occasionally. +They will introduce a letter, supposed to be the work of an illiterate +character. The grammar and orthography suggest the idea, but the more +difficult details of punctuation will be attended to, even to the +apostrophe that marks the elided _g_ in such words as "talkin'," +"comin'," &c. + +Very difficult and troublesome is the letter written throughout in +imitation printed characters. The expert has to rely upon the curved +lines, accidental punctuation marks and unpremeditated flourishes and +hand-gestures; but, broadly speaking, such a letter is beyond the skill +of the expert if unaided by accidental betrayal. If, as sometimes +happens, the writer is ingenious enough to adopt an alphabet formed +completely of straight lines and angles--an easy task--he may boast of +having produced a detection-proof writing; that is, if characters formed +with the aid of a rule can be called writing, for it defies detection, +because there are none of the signs essential for comparison, and is +less easy of identification than an incomplete skeleton. In the absence +of external clues, an expert would refuse to do more than offer a very +guarded opinion, and it would be wiser to decline to offer any comment +whatever. + +Another trick that has been resorted to by some persons is writing with +the hand constricted by a tight-fitting glove. This produces a very +effective disguise; but if the student will practise with the same +impediment, he will discover many useful rules for guiding him on the +road to penetrating this entanglement. + +It should be remembered that the less control a writer has over his pen, +the more likely is he unintentionally to revert to those forms to which +he is habituated, for, left by itself, the hand steers the more +familiar course. Disguise, alteration and variation on customary forms +are the result of premeditation. When the mind is occupied more with the +subject than the formation of characters, the latter naturally assume +that shape to which the force of custom has bent them. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +FORGED LITERARY AUTOGRAPHS. + + +The collection of autographs, letters, and documents of literary and +historical interest has for many years been a prominent feature in the +collecting world, but at no time was the quest more keen or conducted on +more systematic lines than to-day. The records of the leading sale rooms +often supply matter for surprise, the prices asked and obtained for rare +and choice specimens being such as to excite both wonder and amazement, +sometimes tempered with scepticism. + +It is, therefore, not surprising that this profitable and growing market +should have attracted the fraudulent, for the prizes when won are +generally of a substantial character, and amply repay the misapplied +effort and ingenuity demanded. + +The success which has attended too many of these frauds may be largely +accounted for by the fact that in many cases the enthusiasm of the +collector has outrun his caution. + +Many a man famous for his astuteness in the pursuit of his ordinary +business has allowed himself to fall an easy victim to the forger, thus +exemplifying the familiar adage that we are easily persuaded to believe +what we want to believe. + +The recorded stories of some of the frauds perpetrated upon ardent and +presumably judicious collectors read like the tales told so often of the +triumph of the confidence trickster, and one marvels how a person of +ordinary power of observation, to say nothing of experience, could fall +a victim to a fraud requiring little perception to detect. The +explanation doubtless lies in the direction indicated--the ardour of the +pursuit, the pride and joy of possessing something that is absolutely +unique. + +The leading case--to use an expressive legal term--is that known as the +Vrain-Lucas fraud, the principal victim of which was Mons. Chasles, +probably the greatest of modern French geometricians, and one of the few +foreign savants entitled to append the distinguishing mark of a F.R.S. +of England. + +Lucas was a half-educated frequenter, and nominal reading student of the +great Parisian library, and for some years had dealt in autographs in a +small way, the specimens he offered being undoubtedly genuine. Inspired +by the collecting ardour and the apparent blind faith placed in him by +M. Chasles, Lucas embarked upon a series of deceptions so impudent, that +it is easy to sympathise with the defence put forward by his advocate at +the trial, namely, that the fraud was so transparent that it could only +be regarded as a freak. + +In the period between the years 1861 and 1869, Lucas sold to his dupe +the enormous number of 27,000 documents, every one a glaring fraud. They +comprised letters purporting to have been written by such improbable +authors as Abelard, Alcibiades, Alexander the Great to Aristotle, +Cicero, Cleopatra, Joan of Arc, Sappho, Anacreon, Pliny, Plutarch, St. +Jerome, Diocletian, Juvenal, Socrates, Pompey, and--most stupendous joke +of all--Lazarus after his resurrection. + +It is hard to believe, and but for the irrefutable records of the Court, +few would credit the fact that every one of these letters was in the +French language! And the dupe a highly educated mathematician of +European repute. + +In the face of such incredible gullibility one is disposed to regard the +sentence of two years' imprisonment and a fine of 500 francs as +extravagantly severe, even despite the fact that Lucas received in all +over 140,000 francs from M. Chasles. + +The Chatterton and Ireland forgeries are familiar to all educated +persons. These, however, hardly come under the head of the class of +fraud with which the ordinary forger is associated. In each of these +cases the motive of the deception was not so much to make money as a +literary reputation. In both cases presumably competent judges were +deceived. But the standard by which they gauged the genuineness of the +productions was not caligraphic, but literary. In neither instance was +there occasion or opportunity for the handwriting expert to exercise his +skill, for the sufficient reason that there existed no material with +which the writings could be compared. What the literary expert had to do +was to examine and compare the style of the compositions--a test in +which the idiosyncrasies and predilections of the judge played a leading +part. + +Probably the greatest, and for a short time the most successful +autograph fraud perpetrated in Great Britain was that known as the case +of the Rillbank MSS., the detection and exposure of which were mainly +attributable to one of the authors of this work (Capt. W. W. Caddell). + +Just before, and up till 1891, there was in Edinburgh a young man named +Alexander Howland Smith, who claimed to be the son of a reputable +Scottish law official, and a descendant of Sir Walter Scott. + +On the strength of his presumed connection with the great novelist, he +had no difficulty in disposing of, to an Edinburgh bookseller, for +prices whose smallness alone should have excited suspicion, letters +purporting to be in the handwriting of Sir Walter Scott. Emboldened by +success, he embarked upon a wholesale manufacture of spurious letters +bearing the signatures of Burns, Edmund Burke, Sir Walter Scott, Grattan +and Thackeray. His principal victim was an Edinburgh chemist, Mr. James +Mackenzie, who, when the fraud was not only suspected, but proved, +distinguished himself by a stubborn and courageous defence of the +genuineness of the documents. + +Smith's _modus operandi_ consisted in purchasing large-sized volumes of +the period of the subjects of his forgeries, and using the blank leaves +for the purpose of fabricating the letters. In May, 1891, a number of +alleged Burns' letters were put up for sale by public auction at +Edinburgh, fetching the surprising paltry price of from twenty to thirty +shillings apiece. + +It was a feature of all Smith's productions that the letters were +extremely brief--a feature common to literary forgeries. The +circumstance which first gave rise to suspicion was that the letters +attributed to Scott, Burke, Burns, General Abercrombie, Grattan and +Thackeray all began and ended with the same words. Those signed by Sir +Walter Scott all began "I have your letter," and ended "I remain," a +form of phraseology the reputed writer never used, but which, according +to Smith, was common to all the distinguished men whose handwriting he +had counterfeited with considerable success. + +On the strength of the partial guarantee provided by the sale of some of +these documents at a reputable auction room, Captain Caddell purchased a +parcel of alleged Scott letters without prior inspection. A brief +examination disclosed their fraudulent nature, and Smith was arrested. +The Edinburgh police took the matter up, and the impostor was convicted +in June, 1893, and sentenced to eighteen months' imprisonment. + +Thackeray and Dickens are favourite subjects with most literary forgers, +Washington and Benjamin Franklin running them very close for +favouriteship. American collectors are particularly keen on procuring +specimens of the last two-named, and there is grave reason to believe +that many fall easy victims. + +Fortunately the facilities for comparing and testing the genuineness of +the autographs of every distinguished person whose holographs are most +in favour with the forger, are numerous. In addition to the splendid +collection of specimens extant at the British Museum Library, there are +many facsimiles available. + +The excellent work on Autograph Collecting by Dr. Henry T. Scott (Upcott +Gill, London) is indispensable to the collector. It contains some +hundreds of specimens, specially selected for the purposes of +comparison, and gives besides many very valuable rules and hints for +detecting the real from the sham. + +Dr. Scott, writing of the autographic letters of his distinguished +namesake, says: + +"Of Sir Walter Scott's autographs it may be observed (1) the paper is +generally letter size, gilt edged, with a soft, firm feeling to the +touch, and an unglazed surface. (2) The date and residence are placed on +the top and right hand, with a good space before the 'My Dear Sir,' +uniform margins on the left side of the paper of a quarter of an inch, +but on the right side no margin at all, the writing being carried close +to the edge. The folding is done with the precision of a man of +business, forming the space for the address into a nice oblong almost in +the centre of the sheet, and the first line of the address is written +nearly in the centre of the space with the remainder below. + +"The watermarks found on the paper are one of the following: +Valleyfield, 1809; C. Wilmott, 1815; J. Dickinson and Co., 1813; J. +Dickinson, 1816; J. Dickinson (without date); J. Whatman, 1814; J. +Whatman (without date); Turkey Mill, 1819; Turkey Mill (without date); +G. C. & Co., 1828." + +The paper used by Burns for his correspondence was always large in size, +rough in surface, never glossy, and all four edges had the rough edge +that is the peculiarity of a Bank of England note. + +It is worthy of remark that in the case of the A. H. Smith Burns +forgeries, suspicion was first excited by a simple but significant +matter. The paper contained several worm holes. These had been carefully +avoided by the writer, he knowing that if his pen touched them the +result would be a spluttering and spreading of the ink. + +Now it is safe to assume that these worm holes, being the effect of age, +did not exist at the time the letter--if genuine--was written; as the +worm did its work long afterwards, it must be regarded as a fortunate +circumstance that in perforating the paper it refrained from destroying +the writing, carefully selecting the wider spaces that the poet had, +with commendable foresight, left for the insect's depredations. + +The letters of Thackeray are in two styles of handwriting, the earlier +sloping slightly, the latter vertical, round, neat and print-like, the +capital _I_ being invariably a simple vertical stroke. His is the most +neat and uniformly readable hand of all the great literary characters. +It is somewhat unfortunate that he was not anything like so uniform in +his choice of paper. Letters are in existence on an extraordinary +variety of material, from a quarto sheet to a scrap torn from half a +sheet of note paper. On many of these letters is neither address nor +date, but when once the characteristics of the charming handscript have +been mastered, they are never forgotten, and are recognisable amid the +closest imitations. + +There are extant a number of forged Thackeray's. Their distinguishing +features are that they are invariably very short, as if the forger +feared to provide sufficient matter to supply material for comparison; +most are on single half sheets of note paper, many on quarto sheets of +varying texture and quality, and the characteristic vertical _I_, +Thackeray's trade mark, always occurs. It is shaky and often out of the +perpendicular, as the genuine rarely is. In the forgeries we have seen +and suspect to be the work of A. H. Smith, a very significant sign is a +sudden thickening of the downstrokes of tailed letters like _y_, _f_, +_g_, producing a tiny diamond-shaped excrescence in the middle of the +letter. The glass reveals that ragged-edged stroke which is inseparable +from the writing of the nervous copyist. + +It is generally safe to be cautious about very short letters. The forger +well knows how difficult is the task of maintaining an assumed +character. Just as the mimic may succeed in reproducing the tone and +manner of a person with sufficient closeness to deceive even the most +intimate acquaintances of the subject, yet fail to carry the deception +beyond a few words or phrases, so the literary forger invariably breaks +down when he attempts to simulate handwriting over many sentences. So +conscious is he of this great difficulty that he often avoids it by +boldly copying some genuine letter. We have had offered to us +"guaranteed" Thackeray letters which we immediately recognised as such. +In one particularly glaring case the forger had copied the original +letter very fairly so far as the penmanship was concerned, but while the +original was written on a half sheet of note paper, the forgery was on a +different size paper, and the writing across the length of the paper +instead of the breadth. This naturally disarranged the spacing between +the words, which in all Thackeray's writings is a pronouncedly regular +feature, and this variation was in itself sufficient to excite +suspicion. + +The popularity of Dickens among collectors grows steadily. Despite the +fact that he was an industrious correspondent, and that a very large +number of his letters appear from time to time in the market, the demand +is ever in excess of the supply. As a consequence he has suffered +perhaps more than any of the literary immortals at the hands of the +forger. Yet it is safe to say that there should be no writer so safe +from fraudulent imitation, for there is a peculiar distinctiveness about +his caligraphic productions that once seen and noted should never be +forgotten. Specimens are easily available. The catalogues of dealers are +constantly presenting them, and most public libraries possess examples, +either in the original holograph or in some form of reproduction. + +Probably no writer preserved his style with such little change as +Dickens. His signature in later years varied somewhat from that of his +literary youth, but the body of his handscript retained throughout the +same characteristics. It was always a free, fluent, graceful hand, +legible as that of Thackeray when its leading peculiarities have been +mastered, but less formal and studied than his. It was always remarkably +free from corrections or interlineations. He wrote with the easy freedom +of the stenographer; indeed it is easy to recognise in the delicate +gracefully formed letters the effect of years of training in the most +difficult and exacting form of handscript. + +Perhaps the leading peculiarities in the Dickens holograph are these:-- + +The date of the month is never expressed in figures, but always written +in full; in fact, abbreviation in any form he never countenanced. + +The letter _y_, both as a capital and a small letter is a figure 7 +except in the affix "ly," when the two letters become an _f_ or long +stroke _s_. + +The letter _t_ is crossed by the firm downward bar, which the character +readers claim as a sign of great resolution. + +Letter _g_ is invariable in form. + +Capital _E_ consists of a downstroke with a bar in the centre. + +The hook of many final letters has a tendency to turn backwards. + +New paragraphs are marked by beginning the line about an inch from the +left-hand margin. + +A very marked peculiarity noticeable in many letters is that the +left-hand margin gradually grows wider as the lines approach the bottom +of the page. The narrowing is wondrously regular, a line drawn from the +first letter on the first line to the corresponding position on the last +will touch nearly every other line. This peculiarity appears to have +escaped every forger whose work we have examined. + +If the signs relied upon by the readers of character in handwriting are +to be accepted, self-esteem was a pronounced characteristic of the great +novelist. His writing abounds with those subtle symptoms of the +prevalence of that weakness. + +His signature is perhaps the best known of any with which the British +public are familiar. It is remarkably uniform, and remained precisely +the same from the time he adopted it after the Pickwick period until his +death. That which he used in youth was less striking, but none the less +self-conscious. + +After the Pickwick period Dickens adopted the use of blue paper and blue +ink. Letters in black ink, if undated, may safely be attributed to the +earlier period. + +His note paper was in later years of the regulation note size. The +address, Gads' Hill Place, Higham by Rochester, Kent, was in embossed +black old English letter. His paper was hand-made, and of good quality. +The envelopes were blue, of the same quality paper, but without crest, +monogram or distinctive mark. Dickens' vanity expressed itself in the +habit of franking envelopes, _i.e._, by writing his name in the +left-hand bottom corner, after the fashion in vogue when Peers and +M.P.'s enjoyed the privilege of free postage. + +His letters of the pre-envelope period--before 1842--were on quarto +sheets. These are exceedingly rare. + +There is one feature about autographic forgery which may always be +relied upon to assist greatly in the work of detection. As a general +rule there is sufficient matter in a literary forgery to supply the +necessary material for comparison. It must of necessity be a copy, if +not of an existing original, at least of the general style. The process +of imitation must be slow and cautious, and the signs remain in shaky, +broken lines, and a ruggedness entirely absent from the writing of the +real author, which is fluent and free. Even the shakiness of age +noticeable in a few distinguished handwritings is different to the +shakiness of the forger's uncertainty. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +FORGED SIGNATURES. + + +The most difficult phase of the art of the handwriting expert consists +in the detection of forgery in signatures. It will be obvious to the +student who has followed the instructions and illustrations already +given that this difficulty is brought about by two principal causes: +first, by the paucity of material for comparison; secondly, because of +the very important fact that a forgery must, by its nature, be a good +and close copy of an original. This means that the unconscious tricks +and irregularities that often abound in a long letter, written in a more +or less disguised hand, are almost entirely absent from a forged +signature. It follows, therefore, that the student must have some other +clues and rules to guide him, for he cannot rely upon the chance of a +slip or accidental trick occurring in a signature that contains at most +perhaps a dozen letters. + +The first step in the examination of a suspected signature is to master +thoroughly the various characteristics of the genuine signature. These +must be studied in every possible relation, and from as many specimens +as can be obtained. The magnifying glass must be in constant use and the +eye alert to detect the angle at which the pen is habitually held, the +class of pen used, and the degree of pressure and speed employed. These +last-named points can only be discovered as the result of practice and +observation, and though at first sight it may appear impossible to form +a correct estimate of the pace at which a pen has travelled, the student +will, if observant, soon learn to detect the difference between a +swiftly formed stroke and one written with slowness and deliberation. By +making a number of each kind of stroke and carefully examining them +through a glass, the student will learn in an hour more than can be +taught by means of verbal description. The study of the genuine +signatures must be continued until every stroke and its peculiarities +are as familiar as the features of a well-known face, for until one is +thoroughly impregnated with the original it will be useless to proceed +with the examination of the suspects. + +At first sight the student will probably perceive very little, if any, +difference between the original and the suspect. It would be a very +clumsy forgery if he could. Gradually the points of dissimilarity will +become clear to him, and with each fresh examination they grow plainer, +until he is surprised that they did not sooner strike him; they are so +obvious that the eye cannot avoid them; they stand out as plainly as the +hidden figure, after it has been detected, in the well-known picture +puzzles. There are few faculties capable of such rapid and accurate +development as that of observation. Thousands of persons go through life +unconscious of the existence of certain common things until the occasion +arises for noticing them, or accident forces them upon the attention; +then they marvel that the thing should have escaped observation. This is +a truism, no doubt, but the force of every platitude does not always +present itself to every one. The comparison of handwritings is so +essentially a matter of cultivating the powers of observation, that even +if turned to no more practical account than that of a hobby its value as +a mental exercise is great. + +There are two principal methods by which a signature may be forged: +first, by carefully copying the original as one would copy a drawing; +secondly, by tracing it. + +The first process is referred to as copied. The forger will, most +probably, have practised the signature before affixing it to the cheque +or other document, thereby attaining a certain degree of fluency. But +however well executed, close examination with the aid of the magnifying +glass will reveal those signs of hesitancy and irregularity that one may +reasonably expect to find in a copy. + +There is no part of a person's handwriting so fluent and free as his +signature. Even the most illiterate persons show more freedom and +continuity of outline in their signature than in the body of their +writing. This is explicable on the ground of usage. A writer may feel a +degree of momentary uncertainty in forming a word that he does not +write frequently, but his signature he is more sure about. He strikes it +off without hesitancy, and in the majority of cases appends some +meaningless flourish, which may be described as a superfluous stroke or +strokes added for the purpose of ornamentation, for adding +distinctiveness, or, in some cases, and particularly with business men, +with the idea that the flourishes help to secure the signature from +forgery. Such writers will probably be surprised to learn that there is +no form of signature so easy to forge as that involved and complicated +by a maze of superfluous lines and meaningless flourishes. The most +difficult signature for the forger is the clear, plain, +copybook-modelled autograph. A little thought and examination will make +the reason for this clear. + +Let a signature be enveloped in a web of curves and flourishes, making +it look like a complicated script monogram. The lines are so numerous +that the eye cannot take them all in at a glance, and, if copied, any +slight irregularity or departure from the original is more likely to +pass undetected amid the confusing network of interlaced lines. If, on +the other hand, the signature be simple and free from the bewildering +effects of flourishes, the entire autograph lies revealed, a clear and +regular outline, and the slightest variation from the accustomed figure +stands out naked and plain. Most of the successful forgeries will be +found to be on signatures of the complicated order. Their apparent +impregnability has tempted the facile penman to essay the task of +harmless imitation; his success has surprised and flattered him, and the +easy possibilities of forgery opened up. More than one forger has +admitted that his initiatory lessons were prompted by an innocent +challenge to imitate a particularly complicated "forgery-proof" +signature. + +It must be remembered that the eye of the casual observer takes in a +word as a whole rather than in detail. This explains why an author can +rarely be trusted to correct his own proofs. He knows what the word +should be, and in reading his work in print he notices only the general +expected effect of a word. It needs the trained eye of the proof-reader +to detect the small _c_ that has taken the place of the _e_, the +battered _l_ that is masquerading as an _i_. So long as the general +outline of the word is not distorted the wrong letters are often passed; +and it is much the same with a signature with which one is fairly +familiar. The trained examiner of handwriting, like the proof-reader, +knows what to look for, and discovers irregularities that would escape +the notice of the untrained eye. + +The first part of a genuine signature that should be examined is the +flourish, which includes all fancy strokes appended to it, and any +superfluous addition to the body of the letters. A close scrutiny +through the glass will show that the lines forming the tail-flourish are +generally clear, firm and sharp in outline, being formed, not only +without hesitation, but with a dash and decided sweep that are strongly +at variance with the broken, saw-edged, unsteady line of the copy. It +will also generally be found to follow an almost fixed rule in the +matter of its proportionate conformation: that is, supposing the writer +finishes up with a horizontal line under his signature, it will be seen, +on averaging a dozen or so of them, that the distance of the line from +the feet of the letters is proportionately uniform. If the line be begun +with a spur or curved inward hook, that feature will be repeated. The +end of the flourish or final stroke, at the point where the pen leaves +the paper, should be very carefully examined. One writer finishes with +an almost imperceptible dot, as if the pen had been stabbed into the +paper; another finishes with a curve, either upward or downward; a third +with a hook turned upward, either a curve or an angle; while a fourth +continues the line till it becomes finer and sharper to vanishing point. +Some writers are fond of concluding with a more or less bold and +expansive underline running horizontally with the signature. A close +examination will show a variation in the degrees of thickness of such a +line, which should be carefully noted and looked for in other genuine +signatures. + +In this connection it will be found extremely useful and instructive to +study strokes, either horizontal or vertical, with a view to discovering +whether they were struck from right to left, top to bottom, or _vice +versa_. The glass will render it easy to detect beginning from end after +a few failures, which, by the way, should not be allowed to discourage, +for every minute devoted to the study of handwriting is so much gain in +experience, and represents so much more learned, which will never be +forgotten. + +The flourishes that occur on and about the signature proper must be +treated as exaggerated loops, and their shoulders, arcs, hooks and toes +carefully measured and noted. For this purpose an average genuine +signature should be selected and gauged, which is done in this way: +Place over it a sheet of transfer paper. With the scale-rule and a fine +pencil draw horizontal lines that will touch the tops and bottoms of the +bodies of the letters, lines that touch the tops and bottoms of the +tailed and topped letters, and vertical lines that follow the shanks of +every topped or tailed letter, including the capitals. The gauge, when +completed, will represent a framework fitting the signature, and its use +is twofold. It helps the eye to detect the variations in the general +contour of the signature, and, when placed over another, brings out the +points of difference. Due allowance must be made for proportion. It is +obvious that the distance of letters will be greater in a signature +written larger than another, but the proportionate distances will be +preserved. The difference in the size of a letter is not very important, +except that it offers more scope for examination. For example, a looped +_l_ may be very small or half an inch long; but, if made by the same +writer, the proportionate width at top, bottom and middle will be +preserved, and compare with the same measurements in the smaller letter. +Signatures of the same writer do not often vary much in size, though +they may be thicker or finer according to the character of the pen used; +but observation will show that the difference in a handwriting caused by +the use of different pens is much more imaginary than real. + +The traced signature is produced by placing the paper over the genuine +autograph, holding it to the light, generally on a sheet of glass, and +tracing it with a fine point. Such forgeries are often more easily +detected than the copied signature, for the reason that signs of the +tracing process can generally be found by careful examination. The fine, +hard point used to trace the autograph leaves a smooth hollow, which can +be seen through the glass on examining the back of the cheque or +document. If the paper be held in a line with the eye in a strong light, +the ridge will be more clearly perceived. The difference between a mark +made by a hard point and a pen can be tested by experiment. The hard +point must of necessity be pressed with a degree of force to make the +desired impression on the paper, and the result is a smooth hollow. But +if a pen be pressed hard, it produces two parallel lines, and, instead +of a hollow, a ridge is formed between the parallels. Of course, it will +be so slight as to be hardly perceptible, except through a strong glass, +but it will be there nevertheless, and knowing what to look for, the +expert will generally have no difficulty in satisfying himself whether +the forgery has been traced or copied, a very valuable piece of evidence +when once settled, for it is within the bounds of probability that the +genuine signature from which the tracing was made may be discovered. It +is possible, and has often occurred, that the writer of the original may +have some recollection of having written to the suspected person, or in +many ways a clue may be suggested. There is a well-known case of a +forgery being brought home to the perpetrator through the accuracy of +the tracing. It is a fact easily proved, that no man can write a word +twice, so exactly, that if the two are overlaid they fit. If two such +signatures be produced, it is safe to assume that one has been traced or +otherwise mechanically produced. In the case mentioned a signature on a +cheque was pronounced a forgery by the person supposed to have signed +it. In examining specimens of the genuine autograph, the experts came +upon one which, when placed upon that on the cheque, proved a perfect +replica, down to the most minute detail, showing beyond question that it +had been used to trace the forgery from. It was further proved that the +original had been in the possession of the supposed forger, and the jury +were asked to decide whether it was probable that a man could reproduce +his signature in exact facsimile after a lapse of time, and without the +original before him. As the chances against such a contingency are many +millions to one--a fact the student can verify--the jury decided against +the forger. + +At the risk of appearing tautological to a tiresome degree it is +necessary to accentuate the fact that the comparison of handwriting, +and more particularly of signatures, is essentially dependent on +cultivating the faculty of observation. This art cannot be taught; it +can only be acquired by practice and experience, like swimming or +riding. The teacher can at most indicate the method of study and some of +the leading principles of conducting an investigation. Most men are not +naturally observant, and the habit can be best fostered by having an +object; but when once a person has been taught what to look for he +almost instinctively notices details that previously never struck him. +This is specially true of the study of handwriting. + +The best method of practice that can be adopted by the student is to +begin by making a careful study of his own signature and writing. He +will be surprised at the number of facts hitherto unsuspected that will +be revealed to him. The value of using his own handwriting as a subject +of examination lies in this, that the student can satisfy himself how +and why certain strokes are made. This he can only guess at in the +writing of others. + +The preliminary exercise should consist in studying the effect produced +by the different methods of holding the pen. The signature supplies +excellent material for this class of practice. Begin by holding the pen +with the top end pointed well towards the left shoulder, in the absurd +and unnatural position taught by the old school of writing masters. +Repeat the signature with the pen held a trifle less acutely angular, +and go on till six or eight signatures have been written at a decreasing +angle--until the top of the penholder points well to the right, +producing what is known as a backhand. The effect of these angles must +be carefully noted, and in a short time it will be found possible to +arrive at a very accurate opinion as to how the writer of a particular +signature habitually holds his pen--an important and valuable piece of +knowledge. The practice should be extended to long sentences, and a +frequent repetition of all the letters, capital and small, the +magnifying glass being always used to examine the effect of the various +and varying strokes. + +In examining a signature for comparing it with a suspected forgery it +should be copied very frequently, as the clues and suggestions the +experiments will produce are of much greater service than will at first +appear, and of more practical value than pages of theory, as the how and +why will be revealed for much that would be obscure without this +assistance. As experience grows, it will not be necessary to adopt this +copying process so often, for the eye soon becomes alert at detecting +slight shades of difference in strokes, and a glance will convey more +than could be explained in many pages. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +THE EXPERT IN THE WITNESS-BOX. + + +When the expert has been called upon to give an opinion upon the +genuineness of writings he embodies his conclusions in a report of which +the following may be taken as a fair example:-- + + To the Chief of Police. + + SIR, + + REX _versus_ JONES. + + In accordance with your instructions dated ---- I beg leave to + inform you that I have made a careful examination of the document + marked _A_, and attached hereto, and compared it with the documents + marked _B_, _C_, _D_, _E_ and _F_, also attached. + + I have arrived at the conclusion that the document _A_ was written + by the same hand as produced _B_, _C_, _D_, _E_ and _F_. + + The main reasons which have led me to form this opinion are these:-- + + First, although the writing in _A_ bears at first sight no + resemblance to that of the other documents, the difference is only + such as experience leads me to expect in a writing which has been + purposely disguised, as I believe this has been. + + The writing on the five documents _B_ to _F_ I take to be the normal + hand of the author, and that on _A_ to be the same writer's hand + altered so as to present a different appearance. I will call the + specimens _B_ to _F_ the genuine examples, and _A_ the disguised. + + Experience shows that the person who writes an anonymous letter + generally seeks to disguise his hand by departing as much as he + deems possible from his normal writing. The usual hand of the writer + of the genuine document is a free rounded hand sloping upwards + towards the right. The writing of _A_ presents exactly the features + I would expect to find when, as appears to be the case here, the + writer has adopted the familiar trick of sloping his writing in a + direction opposite to his normal hand. While the result of this + change is to alter the apparent style and general appearance of the + writing, the alteration does not extend to certain tricks and + characteristics which are plainly obvious in the genuine letters and + are repeated in the anonymous letter _A_. + + The writing in the genuine letters contains fourteen very + distinctive peculiarities, or tricks of hand, which I find repeated + in the anonymous letter _A_. + + (Here describe them, as for example.) + + 1. The figure 4 in the dates is always made like the print form of + that figure. + + 2. The small _e_ is always of the Greek form. + + 3. The small _t_ is always crossed by a bar thick at the beginning, + tapering to a point, with its longest part behind the shank of + the _t_ [and so on]. + +The various points of resemblance are set out in detail, a separate +paragraph for each, and each paragraph numbered. + +It is extremely important that a report should be fully descriptive and +written in plain, non-technical language, easily understood by the jury, +who will have to decide whether the resemblance has been made out. + +Too many handwriting experts spoil the effect of their evidence by +employing technical language and presuming on the part of the jury an +acquaintance with the methods of comparing handwritings. + +Do not be satisfied by saying that certain letters resemble each other. +Show by an enlarged diagram how and where, indicating the parts to which +attention is called by arrows. Place the single letters to be compared +in parallel columns, headed with the alphabetical letter distinguishing +the document in which the particular letter occurs. Use foolscap paper, +and write on one side of the paper only. + +The usual method of dealing with the handwriting expert in the +witness-box is shown in the following extract from a report of an actual +case. + +Mr. D. B---- was called by counsel for the prosecution and duly sworn. + +Q.--You have had considerable experience in examining handwriting. + +A.--Over twenty years. + +Q.--Look at these documents. (Hands documents to witness.) Have you seen +and examined these? + +A.--I have. + +Q.--Have you formed any opinion upon them? + +A.--I have, and have prepared a report. + +In some cases the expert is allowed to read his report in full. In +others he is requested to give a verbal report, but if the point be +insisted upon, the judge generally permits the report to be read, either +by the expert or by counsel. A copy of the report, together with the +documents in dispute are then usually handed to the jury for +examination. The expert may proceed to illustrate his point with the aid +of a blackboard and chalk, but much depends upon the attitude taken by +the judge and counsel. Some judges insist that the expert shall confine +himself to expressing his opinion, leaving counsel to deal with the +explanation and comparison; others give the expert every opportunity of +showing how he has arrived at his opinions. + +The examination in chief is usually a very simple matter. The trouble +for the expert begins when counsel for the other side gets up to +cross-examine. + +In nearly every case the object of the cross-examining counsel is to +ridicule the art and get the expert to admit the possibility of other +writers possessing the same peculiarities which are said to distinguish +the letters before the Court. + +Counsel's favourite trick is to select some letter and ask the expert if +he is prepared to swear that he has never seen something just like it in +some other person's writing. The expert who knows his business will +insist on keeping well to the front the bedrock basis of handwriting +comparison, which is the application of the law of probability to +cumulative evidence. It is not a question whether some other person may +be in the habit of making a _t_ or a _k_ similar to those cited as +evidences of common origin, but whether it is probable that two persons +should make a dozen or more letters in precisely the same way under +similar conditions and exhibit precisely the same peculiarities of +style. He should reply with the unanswerable postulate that millions of +persons possess red hair, snub noses, a scar on the face, blue eyes, +bent fingers and a stammer; but it is millions to one against any two +persons possessing all six of those peculiarities. + +In the course of his replies the expert may justifiably help his own +case by repeating, when opportunity occurs, such irrefutable axioms as, +No writer can say off-hand what peculiarities he may exhibit; that there +are scores of ways of dotting an _i_, or crossing a _t_, and that few +persons know which form they mostly affect. Fifty such points may be +gathered from this little volume alone, while acquaintance with the +works of other writers on caligraphy will supply ample ammunition for +meeting and repelling the customary form of attack on the handwriting +expert. + +Another method of discrediting a witness is to remind him that experts +have differed, the Dreyfus case being usually cited. The answer is +obvious. First it is essential to be assured that those experts were all +competent, for there are degrees of competency in judging handwriting as +in every other subject on which opinion may be called. It is a notorious +fact that in the Dreyfus case the most competent experts testified that +the Henry letters were forgeries, the authorities called on the other +side being in most cases unknown men or amateurs of no standing. A +number of these self-styled experts possessed no other qualification +than presumed familiarity with the handwriting of Dreyfus. It is also +worthy of note that several of the experts on both sides proved most +inefficient witnesses, obscuring their explanations by the employment of +technical phraseology which conveyed little meaning to the lay mind. + +Exactitude and regularity in the choice of the words used in describing +the parts of letters should be strictly observed by the student. The +rules given in the chapter on "Terminology" should be mastered and +adhered to. In most cases the terms there applied to letter-analysis +will be found to be self-explanatory. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +HANDWRITING AND EXPRESSION. + + +No work dealing with the study of handwriting would be complete unless +it recognised that phase of it which touches on the delineation of +character by an examination of the caligraphy. + +That many valuable clues can be picked up by the expert who applies the +principles on which the graphologist works is indisputable, nor is it +necessary to accept all the theories claimed as reliable by those who +practice this interesting branch of the art of writing-analysis. + +There is no doubt that many persons have attained a remarkable degree of +proficiency in deducing from the hand-gestures of an unknown person a +very accurate estimate of his or her character, and this fact should +prove that the principles of the art of graphology are based on +scientific grounds, or at least that the rules on which the student +works are regular and not, as some suggest, mere guess-work or +coincidence. + +The elder d'Israeli, in his fascinating work, the "Curiosities of +Literature," devotes considerable space to the subject. Among other +things, he says:-- + +"Assuredly nature would prompt every individual to have a distinct sort +of writing, as she has given a peculiar countenance, a voice, and a +manner. The flexibility of the muscles differs with every individual, +and the hand will follow the direction of the thoughts, and the emotions +and the habits of the writers. + +"The phlegmatic will portray his words with signs of labour and +deliberation, while the playful haste of the volatile will scarcely +sketch them; the slovenly will blot and efface and scrawl, while the +neat and orderly-minded will view themselves in the paper before their +eyes. The merchant's clerk will not write like the lawyer or the poet. +Even nations are distinguished by their writing; the vivacity and +variableness of the Frenchman, and the delicacy and suppleness of the +Italian, are perceptibly distinct from the slowness and strength of pen +discoverable in the phlegmatic German, Dane, and Swede. + +"When we are in grief we do not write as we should in joy. The elegant +and correct mind, which has acquired the fortunate habit of a fixity of +attention, will write with scarcely an erasure on the page, as Fenelon +and Gibbon; while we find in Pope's manuscripts the perpetual struggle +of correction, and the eager and rapid interlineations struck off in +heat. Lavater's notion of handwriting is by no means chimerical; nor was +General Paoli fanciful when he told Mr. Northcote he had decided on the +character and disposition of a man from his letters and the handwriting. + +"Long before the days of Lavater, Shenstone in one of his letters said, +'I want to see Mrs. Jago's writing that I may judge of her temper.' + +"One great truth must, however, be conceded to the opponents of the +physiognomy of handwriting. General rules only can be laid down. Yet the +vital principle must be true that the handwriting bears an analogy to +the character of the writer, as all voluntary actions are characteristic +of the individual." + + * * * * * + +Professor Foli, in his very useful work, "Handwriting as an Index to +Character" (London: C. A. Pearson, Ltd.), says: + +"The changes which handwriting undergoes as maturity is reached prove +how directly it is influenced by the nervous condition of the writer. + +"The writing proper to childhood is large, round and accompanied by a +laboured pen movement; whereas that which is normal as manhood or +womanhood is attained is smaller, and turned off by a more rapid and +fluent motion of the hand. + +"Illness, again, affects the writing. As the hand is charged with more +or less of the nerve fluid, so the writing is stronger or weaker, firmer +or feebler, as the case may be. + +"This goes to show the important influence which the nerve current +exerts in fashioning the handwriting. Small wonder that our handwriting +alters day by day. Yet it does not alter either. So far as its general +appearance is concerned I grant it _seems_ to do so. But look at the +really significant points of the writing written at different times. +Give a glance at the height at which the '_i_' is dotted, the way in +which the '_t_' is barred, the manner in which the letters are, or are +not, connected and finished off. These things will crop up with unerring +uniformity time after time. + +"You do, of course, get a studied handwriting now and then, just as you +sometimes meet with a formed facial expression. But that does not +express the true character, simply because the control over the feelings +or the power of disguising what is felt is a salient point in the +character; and this very fact will serve to show that there is truth in +graphology. + +"That the pen, whether it be a fine or a broad pointed nib, plays a +certain part in determining the thickness or thinness of the strokes, I +am willing to allow, but here again we have no argument against +graphology, for most people have their favourite nib--just as they +prefer one occupation to another--and this is the one which will best +serve to define their characteristics. The same with the surface of the +paper upon which they write; some will select a smooth, others a rough +kind, but whatever that may be which is adopted with comfort, it will be +typical of the writer." + +The following are some of the more marked signs of the character they +indicate. For a fuller exposition of their application it would be well +to study the work of Foli, before mentioned, and of Rosa Baughan (Upcott +Gill, London, 2_s._ 6_d._), with the scholarly work of J. +Crepieux-Jainin, entitled, "Handwriting and Expression," translated by +J. Holt Schooling. + + * * * * * + +_General Characteristic._--The fineness of an organism will be revealed +by a fine light penstroke. Coarse, low natures make heavy blurred +entangled lines. + +_Activity_ is denoted by the length of the letters. Where it is feeble +the letters will be widely spaced and rounded. + +_Excitability_ is shown by sharp strokes and stops. The more acute and +irregular the pen-strokes the greater the intensity of feeling. + +_Aggression_, which is the inclination to attack, the destructive force, +is indicated by the final strokes of letters and the cross-bars of _t_'s +advancing well forward, the dots of the _i_'s placed well forward. In +such a word as "time" the dot would probably be between the _m_ and _e_. +The style is angular and well and evenly spaced, altogether a forward, +"go-ahead" writing. + +_Economy_, or acquisitiveness, is shown by the finishing strokes being +turned backwards, and inwards; by a cramped hand, a disposition to +curtail strokes, particularly the endings of letters, as if the +expenditure of ink was begrudged. + +_Secretiveness_, or extra caution, has its sign in the narrow, +tightly-closed form of the body of the letters _a_, _d_, _g_, _o_, _q_, +the _a_ and _o_ often being merely a narrow _v_. The general tendency of +the writing is to compression, the final strokes being very short. When +very marked, the letters dwindle into an indistinct unformed condition. +The substitution of dashes for punctuation is another symptom. + +_Insincerity._--Beware of the man or woman whose writing is a fine, wavy +line, upright, with short, stumpy and indistinct tops and tails, words +running at their end to an almost straight line, the letters merely +indicated. The flatter, finer and more perpendicular this writing, the +greater the insincerity. Such a writer would probably be a polite, +pleasing and plausible person, but double-faced as Janus. + +_Love of praise_, glory, ambition are shown by a tendency to write +upwards, the lines of writing trending towards the right-hand corner of +the paper. The signature will usually have a curved line below it, with +a degree of flourish. + +_Self-esteem_, to which is allied conceit and ostentation, shows itself +in proportion to the size of the writing, the taller and more flourished +the upstrokes and the longer the downstrokes, the greater the +self-assertiveness. The flourish beneath the signature will be very +pronounced, often an elaborate spider's web of interlaced lines. The +writing is more or less angular with the finals turned backwards and +inwards. + +_Will power_ is shown by firm bars to the _t_, with a tendency to +descend from left to right, bludgeon-like downstrokes to tailed letters, +writing rather angular than rounded, and the final strokes finished by +a heavy pressure. Straight, firm, downward strokes take the place of the +tails to _y_, _g_, _f_, _q_. + +_Sympathy_, good nature, kindness of heart are shown by a flowing open +hand, the finals of the letters being extended and thrown out with an +expansive movement. The tailed letters are long and looped, and often +turned up the right side of the letter. The letters are well apart but +not necessarily unconnected, and the style is curved. As a general rule +hard matter-of-fact natures incline to an angular style; the artistic +and softer nature affects rounded, gracefully curved strokes, and avoids +straight perpendiculars or horizontals. + +_Constructiveness_, which implies the ability to combine and connect +words and phrases, is shown by joining the words together, several being +written without lifting the pen from the paper. The more simple and +ingenuous the method of attaching the words, the greater will be the +ability. When this joining of words is carried to extremes, it may be +taken as a sign of good deductive judgment. + +_Observation_, by which is implied the keen, penetrating, inquiring mind +(which in excess becomes curiosity), is marked by angularity of the +strokes and finals; a small, generally neat, handwriting, with the +letters disconnected. + +_Punctuation_ affords a very valuable clue to character-reading, for +reasons set out in the chapter "How to Study a Handwriting." They are +the most mechanical and unpremeditated of hand-gestures, and are, +therefore, the more valuable. + +When, for example, a dot is thick and heavy, we infer that the pen has +been driven across the paper with a strong, decided movement of the +hand, which would be consistent with extreme energy and will power; +whereas, when the dot is light and faintly indicated we may be certain +that only a moderate force has been expended upon its production, which +would be compatible with less resistance and endurance in the character. + +Again, a dot whose outlines were blurred would show a certain +sensuousness of character--strong passions and a want of restraint over +the lower propensities; whereas, a dot whose edges were sharply defined +would tell of refinement and a loathing against all that was coarse or +vulgar. + +Careful attention to punctuation indicates neatness, order, method and +love of arrangement; nor is it necessary that the punctuation should be +strictly correct, for the art is but imperfectly mastered by most +people, even the best educated. + +Stops that partake of the appearance of a comma indicate a degree of +impetuosity; well rounded stops imply calmness and tranquility of +temperament. When the full stops are fashioned after the form of a comma +and droop towards the right hand they indicate a tendency to sulkiness. +When they are merely angular we may infer impatience and a "peppery" +disposition. + +Flourishes are always indicative of a certain amount of assertiveness. +The simpler the flourish the less artificial this self-insistence; the +more elaborate, the greater the desire to seem what one is not. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HANDWRITING. + + +Most of the works in this list relate to that aspect of the study of +graphology which is supposed to bear upon the manifestations of +character. But there is not one which the student of handwriting can +afford to ignore, since, apart from the debatable question of character +reading, they all contain numerous hints and observations of extreme +value to the student whose objective is the acquisition of aptitude in +the more practical art of detecting forgery. + + AUTOGRAPH COLLECTING: A practical manual for Amateurs and + Historical Students. By HENRY T. SCOTT, M.D. London: Upcott Gill. + Price 5_s._ + + A GUIDE TO THE COLLECTION OF HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS, LITERARY MSS. AND + AUTOGRAPH LETTERS, &c. By Rev. H. T. SCOTT and SAMUEL DAVEY. (Out + of print.) May be seen in British Museum and many public + libraries. + + THE AUTOGRAPHIC MIRROR: A monthly journal now defunct, but + procurable at second hand. + + HANDWRITING AND EXPRESSION. Translated and edited by JOHN HOLT + SCHOOLING, from the third French edition of "L'Escriture et le + Caractere," par J. CREPIEUX-JAININ. Kegan, Paul and Trench. + + CHARACTER INDICATED BY HANDWRITING. By ROSA BAUGHAN. Upcott Gill. + Price 2_s._ 6_d._ + + THE PHILOSOPHY OF HANDWRITING. By DON FELIX DE SALAMANCA. Macmillan. + + HOW TO READ CHARACTER IN HANDWRITING. By HENRY FRITH. Ward Lock. + Price 1_s._ + + HANDWRITING AS AN INDEX TO CHARACTER. By Professor FOLI. C. A. + Pearson. Price 1_s._ + + A SYSTEM OF GRAPHOLOGY. By the ABBE MICHON. In French; no English + translation. A valuable work. + + A HISTORY OF HANDWRITING. Same Author. + + A METHOD OF GRAPHOLOGIC STUDY. Same Author. + + A MEMOIR UPON THE FAULTY METHODS USED BY EXPERTS IN HANDWRITING. + Same Author. + + A DICTIONARY OF THE NOTABILITIES OF FRANCE JUDGED FROM THE + HANDWRITING. Same Author. + + THE HANDWRITING OF THE FRENCH PEOPLE SINCE THE MEROVINGIAN EPOCH. + Same Author. + + LES MYSTERES DE L'ECRITURE. Preface by Desbarrolles. Same Author. + + THE HANDWRITING OF JUNIUS PROFESSIONALLY EXAMINED BY CHABOT. Edited + by the Hon. E. TWISTLETON. John Murray. 1871. + +This work is the only one hitherto published in England explaining the +methods of the handwriting expert. Mons. Chabot, for many years the +leading English expert, was commissioned by Mr. Twistleton to examine +the handwriting of "Junius" with a view to deciding the authorship of +the famous letters. The result was an exhaustive volume in which the +process of handwriting analysis is illustrated by thousands of examples. +The conclusion arrived at was that the writer of the "Junius" letters +was Sir Philip Francis. + + + + + _Literary and Historical + Autograph Letters and Manuscripts + Purchased._ + + + OPINIONS GIVEN AS TO + + GENUINENESS OF DOCUMENTS. + + ALSO ON + + SUSPECTED FORGERIES + + AND + + ANONYMOUS LETTERS. + + + BY + + BLACKBURN & CADDELL, + 19, CHARLWOOD PLACE, + LONDON, S.W. + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + + Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note, whilst + more significant amendments have been listed below. + + Page 37, 'analine' amended to _aniline_. + Page 53, 'Alcebiades' amended to _Alcibiades_. + Page 56, 'correspence' amended to _correspondence_. + Page 56, 'addresss' amended to _address_. + Page 68, 'four documents' amended to _five documents_. + Page 78, 'MERORINGIAN' amended to _MEROVINGIAN_. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Detection of Forgery, by +Douglas Blackburn and Waithman Caddell + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DETECTION OF FORGERY *** + +***** This file should be named 25532.txt or 25532.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/5/3/25532/ + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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