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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Australia The Dairy Country, by
+Australia Department of External Affairs
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Australia The Dairy Country
+
+Author: Australia Department of External Affairs
+
+Release Date: May 19, 2008 [EBook #25527]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUSTRALIA THE DAIRY COUNTRY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Nick Wall and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+     DEPARTMENT OF EXTERNAL AFFAIRS, MELBOURNE.
+
+
+     AUSTRALIA: _The_ Dairy Country
+
+
+     Dairy Farmers are specially invited and assisted to come to
+     Australia because it is considered that in a progressive young
+     Country with so much Territory adapted for Dairying such Settlers
+     will advance the interest of the Country and of themselves.
+
+
+     PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE MINISTER OF STATE FOR EXTERNAL
+     AFFAIRS, MELBOURNE, AUSTRALIA . . . . 1915.
+
+
+     By Authority: McCARRON, BIRD & CO., Printers. 479 Collins Street,
+     Melbourne.
+
+
+[Illustration: Note the Shedding is of very light description.]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+                                             PAGE
+
+     Bacon-Curing                             48
+     Bee Farming                              21
+     Breeds of Cattle in Use                  33
+     Butter Exported                          11
+     Cheese-making                            47
+     Clearing Land                            45
+     Condensed Milk                           36
+     Conditions of Selection                  45
+     Co-op. Factories, Facilities given       36
+     Cost of Starting a Farm                  27, 34
+     Dairy Herds                              47
+     Experiences of Farmers                   35
+     Facilities Offered to Dairymen           31, 38, 42
+     Gov'mnt. Assistance to the Farmer        31
+     Grasses                                  35
+     Growth of the Industry                   10
+     Labour Conditions                         5
+     Land for Dairy Farming                   26, 31, 32, 43
+     Land, Price of                           26, 33, 43
+     Monetary Aid to Settlers                 25
+     New South Wales                          26-27
+     Pig Raising                              14
+     Poultry Farming                          20
+     Profit per Cow                           33, 40
+     Queensland                               31-36
+     Seasons                                   7
+     South Australia                          37-40
+     Share System of Dairying                 22
+     Size of Average Herd                     34
+     State Supervision                        12
+     Stock, Price of                          33
+     Tasmania                                 44-48
+     Victoria                                 27-31
+     Western Australia                        40-44
+     Winter Feed                              35
+
+
+
+
+     Information Concerning AUSTRALIA
+     may be obtained on application to--
+
+
+     IN AMERICA:
+
+     AUSTRALIAN PAVILION,
+     PANAMA PACIFIC EXHIBITION.
+
+     NIEL NIELSEN, Esq.,
+     Trade and Immigration Commissioner for New South Wales,
+     419 Market Street, San Francisco.
+
+     F. T. A. FRICKE, Esq.,
+     Land and Immigration Agent for Victoria,
+     687 Market Street, San Francisco.
+
+
+     IN LONDON:
+
+     The High Commissioner for
+     THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA,
+     72 Victoria Street, Westminster, London, S.W.
+
+
+     IN AUSTRALIA:
+
+     THE SECRETARY,
+     DEPARTMENT OF EXTERNAL AFFAIRS,
+     Collins and Spring Streets, Melbourne.
+
+
+
+
+The suitability of Australia as a country for the dairyman is referred
+to in the report of the Scottish Agricultural Commission,[A] who toured
+the States of the Commonwealth in 1910-11, in the following terms:--
+
+[Illustration: An up-to-date Milking Yard.]
+
+     "The practice of dairying, in a limited domestic sense, as applied
+     to the milking of a few cows and the making of a little butter and
+     cheese for family use, is as old as the history of mankind, and in
+     that restricted meaning dairying has been carried on in Australia
+     since the arrival of the first settlers. But the industry as
+     existing there to-day is a vastly different matter, being already
+     of great importance, and promising rapid and extensive development.
+     It is a young industry, so recently out of its infancy that if this
+     report had been written fifteen years ago the section on dairying
+     might have been almost as brief as the famous chapter on snakes in
+     Ireland.
+
+[Illustration: Cream Carts at the Factory.]
+
+     "The live stock brought to Sydney by Captain Phillip in 1788, and
+     sent to propagate their kind at Farm Cove, consisted of one bull,
+     four cows, one calf, and seven pigs. Their descendants in 1908
+     included about ten and a-half millions of cattle, of which nearly
+     two millions were dairy cows. This is about one cow for every two
+     persons in the Commonwealth, which seems a large proportion, but as
+     it means only one cow for every two square miles in Australia,
+     there is ample room for expansion. In Great Britain we have about
+     twenty-six cows for every square mile, and only one cow for every
+     fifteen people. These figures indicate that in proportion to its
+     population Australia is much more of a dairying country than Great
+     Britain, but that in proportion to its area, it has developed the
+     industry much less extensively, and is still capable of making
+     enormous growth. Until within comparatively recent years there was
+     little dairying anywhere in the Commonwealth, and what little there
+     was appears to have been carried on by somewhat primitive methods.
+     Modern developments, the spread of scientific knowledge, the
+     fostering care of Government, and, above everything, the advent of
+     the separator, of the milking machine, and of the freezer have
+     changed all that. To-day the industry is prospering and full of
+     promise....
+
+     "There is no denying the fact that every State in the Commonwealth
+     has extensive districts where dairying could be carried on very
+     profitably. Indeed there must be very few parts of the world where
+     Nature does so much to help and so little to hinder the provident
+     and industrious producer of milk.
+
+     "The most important advantage of all is undoubtedly the climate,
+     and that, like many another thing of value, is a good servant, but
+     a bad master. It would not be easy to overstate the benefit a
+     dairyman receives from being relieved of the need for housing,
+     hand-feeding, and tending his cows during a long winter. His cows
+     are healthier, their feeding costs less, there is no cleaning of
+     byres, no washing of floors, no preparing of food, no never-ending
+     carting of turnips, no filling of sheds with hay or straw. His
+     anxiety, his work, and his expense are reduced by half, through the
+     simple agency of a friendly climate. And yet this same climate is
+     also his most dangerous enemy.
+
+     "There are certainly also adverse influences which must not be
+     forgotten, but a careful examination of the whole position will
+     probably lead to the conclusion that Australia is, on the whole, a
+     good dairyman's country.
+
+     "The advantages include:--(1) Cheap land, (2) cheap cows, (3)
+     inexpensive buildings, (4) a climate permitting cows to be in the
+     open all the year round, (5) a convenient market and a fair price
+     at the factories, (6) helpful Government supervision.
+
+     "The disadvantages are:--(1) Dear and scarce labour, (2) an
+     inferior stock of milk cows, (3) occasional dry seasons, and (4)
+     the farmer's inexperience and ignorance of scientific dairying."
+
+These several points are touched on in this pamphlet in the chapters
+dealing with the individual States, but some general remarks are offered
+here in regard to the four points mentioned as operating
+disadvantageously.
+
+(1) _Dear and Scarce Labour._--Every young country at times experiences
+the difficulty of procuring sufficient skilled assistance to keep pace
+with the rapid expansion of its industries. Australia is no exception.
+Dairy farmers there have not always been able to obtain experienced
+milkers. The farmer with children old enough to assist him is at a great
+advantage, and some of the most successful dairy farms in the
+Commonwealth are worked mainly by the owners and their families. But
+where the herd is too large, or the family too small, the milking
+machine, which is really a valuable aid to the dairyman, has been
+pressed into use, with satisfactory results.
+
+[Illustration: A fine herd of Holsteins.]
+
+There is no doubt that rapid as has been the expansion of this industry
+in Australia, its development has been distinctly retarded by the want
+of reliable milkers.
+
+But what is the farmer's bane is the farm labourer's boon. The scarcity
+of labour has checked the farmer's operations, but it gives the man
+seeking employment a wider field.
+
+Competent milkers readily find employment at $4.80 to $6.00 per week and
+keep. In every important district good dairy hands also have facilities
+extended to them for entering into arrangements for dairying on shares,
+with profit to themselves (see pp. 16-18).
+
+(2) _An Inferior Stock of Milk Cows._--The fact that while in many
+districts there are to be found dairy herds averaging barely 300 gallons
+per cow per annum, with a butter fat percentage of little over 3.5,
+carried on the same class of land as herds which average over 500
+gallons per cow, with over 4 per cent. butter fat, will enable any dairy
+farmer to realise how much room there is for improvement in this
+thriving young industry, and what scope there is for the man accustomed
+to get the best results from his land and his herd. But the Governments
+of the respective States afford special facilities by way of importing
+and placing at the disposal of farmers stud cattle of the highest
+standards. Private persons are also doing a great deal in importing and
+breeding high-class animals. Herd-testing associations are becoming more
+numerous. Farmers are learning that it is profitable to keep milk
+records and to cull out of their herds the cows that do not give payable
+yields, and pronounced advancement is being made in this direction.
+
+(3) _Occasional Dry Seasons._--The effects of dry spells, which
+sometimes occur even in the best-watered dairying districts, can be
+greatly minimised by the conservation of fodder, by cheap and easy
+methods of silage. So rich is the country in succulent natural grasses,
+and so congenial is the climate, that farmers exhibit a tendency to rely
+too much on the bounty of the seasons. This is what the Scottish
+Commission meant when they referred to the friendly climate as being the
+dairyman's most dangerous enemy. It is true that in normal years milch
+cows may depasture the whole year long on the natural pastures, and on
+this food alone yield milk of magnificent flavour, producing butter and
+cheese of the highest quality. But there should be put by to supplement
+the natural fodder during dry times a supply of food either as hay or
+silage. The experts of the various agricultural departments strongly
+advocate the use of the silo, but the advice has not yet been generally
+adopted.
+
+As the loss in the silo is insignificant, it can be realised how cheaply
+ample stores of the best class of stand-by fodder can be conserved.
+Silos to hold 100 tons cost about $480.00 to construct, and a cutter and
+elevator about $144.00. To this would have to be added the cost of a
+horse-works or engine, but until a settler is in a position to indulge
+in the most up-to-date outfit, he can follow the usual practice of
+serving his greenstuff in the form of stack silage, which entails a very
+moderate outlay.
+
+[Illustration: Silos, Victoria.]
+
+Many crops excellent for silage are easily grown, and the cultivation
+areas need never be idle for a day at any time of the year. As one crop
+becomes fit to use, the land can be replanted irrespective of weather
+conditions. For instance, in spring (September) maize or sorghum can be
+sown, either over the whole area at once or at intervals of a week or a
+month up to January. In three to three and a-half months, during which
+time the pastures are at their best, and there is no need for
+supplementary fodder, the first of the areas will be ready for use as
+green fodder, or for conversion into silage to serve as a cheap and
+juicy winter fodder. In many districts as soon as the earliest-sown
+maize crop is harvested a second maize or sorghum crop is planted, and
+by the time that is ready to cut, barley and vetches or field peas can
+be planted to come in to supplement the stores of winter fodder.
+
+[Illustration: A fine growth of Sorghum--Victoria.--An excellent fodder
+crop.]
+
+Maize is harvested for silage when the cobs are well filled, and the
+grain is beginning to glaze; at this stage a normal crop will yield
+about 20 tons greenstuff per acre. Sorghum will produce about 15 tons,
+and barley and vetches or peas about 10 tons per acre. Wheat and oats
+are often grown in order to be cut for hay, and make an excellent
+fodder.
+
+Another most valuable crop to the dairyman is lucerne, which will keep
+in a well-built stack for an indefinite time.
+
+(4) _The Farmer's inexperience and ignorance of Scientific
+Dairying._--To this last point the Scottish Commissioners furnish a
+reply in their report.
+
+[Illustration: A typical Australian Dairy Farm.]
+
+"A great many," the report states, "of those engaged in producing milk
+have had no training in the business. If a man can milk a cow, or is
+willing to learn, he thinks himself quite able to run a dairy farm. In
+time, if he is intelligent and observant, he becomes as expert at his
+trade as if he had never done anything else; but his experience has
+certainly cost him a good deal. The men who are neither intelligent nor
+observant learn little from experience, and their dairy methods leave
+much to be desired. It is they who breed their cows anyhow, who keep no
+kind of milk records, who think it economy to bring in their cows to the
+calving as hard as wood, who depend entirely on pasture for food, who
+make no provision for drought, who have nothing to learn from anybody,
+and who are keeping the reputation of the Australian cow at a level much
+below respectability. By-and-by, no doubt, this type of man will become
+scarcer. The State Governments are doing what is possible to spread
+abroad scientific knowledge in dairying matters, and a younger
+generation is growing up that has been made familiar both with the
+practice and the theory of milk production. When their time comes it is
+certain they will make dairying highly profitable. The fact that, with
+an average milk yield of 'something under 250 gallons per annum,' the
+industry as a whole is in a prosperous condition affords the most
+remarkable testimony possible to the excellence of Australia as a
+dairyman's country. What will happen when the average doubles itself,
+and attains, as it surely will, the moderate figure of 500 gallons per
+annum?"
+
+
+A Phenomenal Growth.
+
+Starting out with splendid natural advantages--a wide range of soils of
+great fertility, indigenous grasses of high food value, and a congenial
+climate--the dairying industry in Australia has made phenomenal strides.
+
+The establishment throughout the chief districts of co-operative
+factories, owned and managed by the farmers themselves, and the
+introduction of cold storage greatly stimulated its growth. During the
+last decade its advancement has been remarkable. The Australian dairy
+industry is based on the world's markets. Every year the demand in
+various countries for Australian and other dairy and farmyard products
+increases, and the large home market is also expanding.
+
+The facilities for supervision, handling, and transportation are
+improving, and Australian dairymen to-day obtain high prices in both
+local and outside markets for their produce. It is stated that in South
+Australia dairymen who delivered good cream were able to secure from the
+factories an average of $0.22 per lb. from the butter made therefrom.
+
+The following table shows at once the advance of the dairying industry
+(including poultry farming and bee culture):--
+
+                                       TEN YEARS.
+    +-------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+
+    |                         |      1902.     |      1912.     |Increase.|
+    +-------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+
+    |Dairy Cows          No   | 1,113,911      |  2,086,885     | 87.34 % |
+    |Pigs                No   |   777,289      |    845,255     |  8.88 % |
+    |Hives               No   |    80,111      |    167,441     |109.01 % |
+    |Production (quantity)--  |                |                |         |
+    |  Butter                 |79,572,327 lbs. |187,194,161 lbs.|135.25 % |
+    |  Cheese                 |10,005,787 lbs. | 16,160,491 lbs.| 61.50 % |
+    |  Bacon and Ham          |30,608,345 lbs. | 54,192,175 lbs.| 77.05 % |
+    |  Honey                  | 2,873,763 lbs. |  8,007,492 lbs.|178.63 % |
+    |  Beeswax                |    68,243 lbs. |    130,959 lbs.| 91.90 % |
+    +-------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+
+
+                                       FIVE YEARS.
+    +-------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+
+    |                         |      1907.     |      1912.     |Increase.|
+    +-------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+
+    |Production (total value) |$74,803,200.00  |$97,344,000.00  | 30.13 % |
+    +-------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+
+
+                                       TEN YEARS.
+    +-------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+
+    |                         |      1902.     |      1912.     |Increase.|
+    +-------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+
+    |Exports (Value)--        |                |                |         |
+    |  Butter                 | 1,820,371.20   | 16,044,681.60  |         |
+    |  Cheese                 |    20,592.00   |     27,648.00  |         |
+    |  Condensed Milk         |    55,689.60   |     92,308.80  |         |
+    |  Bacon and Hams         |    37,060.80   |    328,814.40  |         |
+    |  Lard                   |     6,100.80   |    177,902.40  |         |
+    |  Frozen Pork            |    70,339.20   |     79,972.80  |         |
+    |  Honey                  |     7,891.20   |      9,235.20  |         |
+    |  Other items            |   269,246.40   |     78,859.20  |         |
+    |-------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+
+    |        Total            |$2,287,291.20   |$16,839,422.40  |636.21 % |
+    +-------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+
+
+[Illustration: In the Butter Factory.]
+
+The United Kingdom purchases the great bulk of Australian butter--about
+88 per cent.--but considerable quantities also go to Canada, Ceylon,
+China, the Dutch East Indies, Egypt, Hongkong, the Islands of the
+Pacific, Japan, Philippine Islands, the Straits Settlements and South
+Africa.
+
+Besides the co-operative factories there are many proprietary concerns,
+and the farmer is benefited by the keen competition between them. The
+establishments in the Commonwealth where the manufacture of butter,
+cheese, and condensed milk is carried on number several hundreds. They
+are distributed throughout all the States, but they are larger and more
+numerous in New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland.
+
+[Illustration: In the Cheese Factory.]
+
+Cream separation and butter-making are often carried on together under
+the co-operative system. The creation of large central butter factories,
+supplied by numerous separating establishments or "creameries," has
+resulted in a considerable reduction in the cost of manufacture, since
+improved appliances, such as refrigerators, may be profitably worked at
+the larger establishments. The product is also of a more uniform
+quality. The number of farmers who adhere to hand processes is rapidly
+diminishing. Formerly the average quantity of milk used per lb. of
+hand-made butter was about 3 gallons, but separator butter requires only
+about 2.6 gallons.
+
+
+State Supervision.
+
+Each of the State Agricultural Departments exercises considerable
+supervision in regard to the industry. Dairy experts are employed to
+give instruction in approved methods of production, to examine animals,
+to inspect the buildings used for milking, separating and butter-making,
+and to examine the marketable produce. A high standard of dairy hygiene,
+cleanliness of _personnel_ and _materiel_ and purity of produce have
+also been insisted upon under State laws. Financial assistance has been
+given to facilitate the economic handling of dairy products, and much
+benefit has resulted, the advances having generally been promptly
+repaid.
+
+For the maintenance of the purity and quality of Australian butter and
+other dairy produce, the Commerce Act passed by the Commonwealth
+Government requires that each of these articles shall conform to certain
+standards. Butter intended for shipment oversea must be covered with a
+true trade description, and that the following information should appear
+on each box:--The word "Australia," the name of the State in which it
+was produced, net weight, manufacturer's or exporter's name or
+registered brand, and the words "pure creamery butter," "pastry butter,"
+"milled butter" (that is, butter which is a mixture or blend of two or
+more butters ordinarily packed alone and under separate names or
+brands), or "repacked butter," as the case may require. Other matters
+may be added, but must be true, and not liable to mislead. Margarine
+must be so stamped or marked. All butter and other dairy products
+intended for export must be sent for inspection to appointed places. The
+inspecting officer issues a certificate on the authorised form that it
+is up to the standard.
+
+The regulations now in force contain important provisions in regard to
+the standard for export dairy products. By means of these provisions
+purity and quality are guaranteed. Trade is also facilitated, since
+quantities of butter are purchased solely on the certificate issued,
+without inspection. The standard for butter, the most important dairy
+article, is as follows:--Butter which contains only--No fat other than
+butter fat, not more than 16 per cent. of water, 3 per cent. of casein,
+0.5 per cent. of boric acid, 4 per cent. of salt, or less than 82 per
+cent. of butter fat; or any colouring matter deemed by the Minister for
+Trade and Customs to be harmless.
+
+[Illustration: Lucerne Hay.]
+
+
+Subsidiary Industries.
+
+_Pig-Raising._--Not least among the rural industries awaiting a far
+wider development in Australia is that of pig raising. For very many
+years the number of these animals raised in the different States showed
+no appreciable increase, though of more recent years improvements in
+this direction have been noticeable. Yet the rate of progress is quite
+unequal to the requirements of local demand and of the export business.
+
+Pig raising for years has been a kind of subsidiary industry to
+dairying, and as such has seldom received the attention warranted by the
+returns yielded. To some extent it has been the ease with which these
+profits have been obtained that has brought about the condition of
+affairs existent to within a few years ago. Pig raising now, instead of
+being regarded merely as an adjunct to dairying, is being looked upon
+much in the same light as is a main line whether connected with dairying
+or general farming. This is indicated by the fact that where previously
+any description of boar or sow was good enough to produce a litter, now
+both farmers and dairymen are using chiefly the pedigree stock, and are
+giving attention to the different crosses most likely to give the
+largest litters suitable for bacon production, which can be brought into
+condition for market in the quickest time. The introduction of these
+businesslike methods has naturally resulted in greater gains, and has
+further given a stimulus to the pig-raising industry.
+
+The policy of closer settlement which is entering freely into the rural
+development of the various States is furthermore causing farmers and
+settlers to give more careful attention to any side industry which can
+be made to return a good margin of profit on the labour expended. In
+other words, the modern farmer is becoming more alive to the business
+possibilities of what may be termed specialised production. It is in
+this fact that the future development of the pig-raising industry
+depends. A dairyman, general farmer, irrigationist, and even the
+fruitgrower finds the pig of inestimable value in using up the waste
+produce, and turning it into a commodity which will return high interest
+in a remarkably short space of time.
+
+This turn of events is making itself felt in other directions.
+Bacon-curing establishments and co-operative factories are coming into
+existence where formerly supplies would never have justified their
+presence, and the result is that those who have suitable classes of pigs
+to dispose of find no difficulty in turning them over at lucrative
+prices.
+
+This, however, can only be regarded as a commencement in the turn of
+affairs, for with the increased demand and added facilities of
+marketing, the sound establishment of the industry is each year becoming
+more assured.
+
+[Illustration: 1. A Modern Piggery.]
+
+[Illustration: 2. Feeding pigs with corn grown on the farm.]
+
+As an instance of the value of this side line to the settler, the
+experience of a Victorian irrigated block owner, as related in the
+columns of the Melbourne "Argus," is worth recording. Writing from
+Rochester, Vic., the local correspondent reported as follows:--"The pig
+industry is becoming of great and growing importance on our irrigation
+holdings, and that settlers are recognising its great value as an
+adjunct to dairying is proved by the fact that there are now on the
+settlements four times as many pigs as there were a year ago. A leading
+auctioneer estimates that, with improved facilities, the sales in
+Rochester would in the near future amount to 1000 a month. The methods
+adopted on the irrigation farm of Messrs. Jacob and Kennedy, at
+Nannulla, show that pig raising is a leading factor in their success.
+Mr. Jacob demonstrated that $192 per acre a year can be realised from
+pigs reared almost wholly on lucerne, for half an acre suffices for the
+sustenance of a brood sow and her progeny of about 20 per annum till
+they are fit for market. Well-bred animals pay best, especially in the
+case of the sire, for which a Yorkshire is recommended. Mr. Jacob is
+prepared to submit his books and returns to those interested, as he did
+to the writer.... It has to be observed that pig raising does not
+require either the capital or experience demanded in the case of sheep."
+
+These facts relate in a general way to the industry as it is possible to
+be carried on in all parts of the Commonwealth. A dairy man or mixed
+farmer finds that the carrying on of his work at a maximum of profit
+involves the growth of a number of different crops with which to
+supplement the rations of his dairy herd. Peas, barley, wheat, maize,
+pumpkins, carrots, mangolds, lucerne, rape, and other crops are more or
+less used for a succession. Each one of these is of special value from
+the pig-raiser's standpoint. Both peas and barley have a high value for
+fattening purposes, and some of the successful breeders maintain that
+the addition of wheat contributes largely towards rapid development.
+Similarly the root crops play an important part in the general rations,
+whereas lucerne and rape make an admirable pasture for the running of
+stores and breeding sows. General experience has shown that when pigs
+which are being fattened for market have the run of a good pasture of
+these crops they do better and fatten on much less food. Consequently
+with some one or another or several of these crops to supplement the
+skim milk provided by the dairying operations, no more favourable
+conditions could well exist for the development of this adjunct to the
+dairying industry.
+
+With suitable root and pasture crops there is no reason why pig raising
+should remain merely as an offshoot of dairying and farming operations.
+It is sufficiently remunerative even when all food has to be purchased
+on the open market to justify attention being devoted to raising alone.
+But such circumstances do not enter into the operation of the industry
+as managed in Australia. The close proximity of separating factories
+would in many districts make it possible for a breeder to entirely
+ignore the dairying side of the question. From these sources such
+supplies of skim milk as were considered an advisable supplement to the
+ordinary rations might easily be obtained. With only very limited
+supplies of skim milk pig raising and fattening affords wide scope for
+the investments of men with limited capital. F. C. Grace, of
+Warrnambool, Victoria, who recently went into the matter of the cost of
+producing pork, indicates the possibilities of the bacon industry in a
+report furnished to the State Department of Agriculture. In this account
+he states:--"Over 6 tons of live pork have been produced, and the
+average cost per pound for all rations with pigs of all ages has been 4
+cents. The actual selling price has been 10 cents per pound, but a
+number of the pigs were sold as studs, somewhat above market price.
+Taking the average of all pigs sold in the open yards for bacon
+purposes, about 4-1/2 tons, the selling price was 10 cents per pound--a
+margin of over 6 cents per pound over and above the cost of feed."
+
+This statement is of interest as showing the position of the industry
+when everything has been paid for at well above market rates for the
+produce, and in a degree serves to emphasise the much-improved position
+of the breeder who, with root crops and pasture land, is able to
+dispense with the costs incurred in purchasing foods for fattening
+purposes on the open market.
+
+[Illustration: A Happy Family.]
+
+Throughout the Commonwealth there is a difference of opinion regarding
+the relative value of the manner in which the predominating breeds, the
+Berkshire and Yorkshire, are crossed in raising pigs for market. This no
+doubt will always exist, owing to predilection of breeders towards
+particular types, and to the relative merits resulting from the various
+crosses. The main point is that both breeds are wonderfully well suited
+to Australian conditions, and that they are prolific. Brood sows will,
+if kept in an ordinarily thrifty condition, farrow two litters of pigs
+in the year, which will number from eight to twelve pigs to the litter.
+If anything, the predominating cross favours the use of the Yorkshire
+boar with the Berkshire sow. The cross has this advantage that the
+litters will consist of all white pigs. The boar used should be pure and
+the sow of good type, preferably three-quarter bred. The average litter
+from such a cross is eight. These, if kept until about five months, will
+weigh out at about 140 lbs., and at 12 cents per lb., the ruling price,
+will return approximately $16.80 apiece, or $268.80 per year from each
+sow. In some instances as many as five litters may be obtained during a
+period of two years, but when this is done too much is taken out of the
+mother.
+
+Another aspect worth considering in the choice of crossing these two
+breeds is that the Yorkshire sow is a better mother than the Berkshire,
+and the litters produced are larger. In this case there is a lack of
+uniformity in the colour of the litters, a fact which no doubt must
+often cause slight depreciation when the marketing of large numbers of
+pigs is taken into consideration. From experience in the Commonwealth
+the middle Yorkshire of a pure strain is more favoured for breeding
+purposes. He is a quicker grower, of hardy constitution, and as a rule a
+better shaped pig for market requirements.
+
+[Illustration: Typical Dairy Country.]
+
+But while there are differences of opinion in the matter of breeds for
+crossing purposes, it is clear that this subject has never been
+exhaustively determined. For example, while there are advocates for the
+maintenance of pure strains, and the crossing of the Tamworth with both
+the black and white pigs, the large white Yorkshire is practically an
+unknown quantity. Both in Great Britain and in Denmark this breed has
+done more to establish the bacon industry than any other breed. Its
+value is indorsed by experience at Dookie College, where the only pure
+strain of the breed in Victoria is located. The Berkshire sow used with
+the large white boar produces a shapely offspring, which takes on the
+short snout of the sow with the pure white colouring of the boar. The
+cross is a longer pig than the Berkshire, cleaner in the shoulder, but
+with much the same conformation elsewhere. A common plan is to use all
+the longest and deepest sows of the first cross for breeding baconers.
+The pure large Yorkshire is not as economical as the Berkshire if
+growing pigs for the pork trade, as it takes longer to mature. The sows,
+however, average about ten to the litter, and some have fifteen or
+sixteen. Only the fine-haired ones seem to scald, otherwise they stand
+the sun as well as the Berks. They are good doers under a wide range of
+conditions, prolific, vigorous, and more likely to do well under the
+rough circumstances to which they are accustomed on most farms than the
+more delicate Berkshires. When sold at the same time as other breeds and
+crosses, they always top the market; and a half-truck realised over
+$20.00 per head when sold in Melbourne under six months old.
+
+So far as Australian experience has gone there is everything to indicate
+that pig raising, while an extremely profitable occupation, has not yet
+attained the results which may be expected to follow as more attention
+is given to the choice of breeds, the selection of the hogs, and
+fecundity on the part of the sow. These are all matters which from the
+ordinary farming standpoint have never been gone into thoroughly. That
+pig raising will pay and does yield handsome returns is admitted, yet
+when so many avenues of improvement are open, it cannot be said that the
+industry is receiving the attention it deserves. Up to the present
+farmers and dairymen have been chiefly concerned with raising the pigs,
+disposing of them perhaps at two months, or, as more often is the case,
+of keeping them on till four months, when they are topped off and sent
+to market to bring what can be realised. Many send away their pigs too
+fat, and few engaged in the general branches of agriculture really give
+the animals full attention over the growing period.
+
+[Illustration: Dam, Western Australia.]
+
+With the advent of the factories which are springing up in all the
+States, this condition of things will no doubt give place to better
+methods. In the first place breeders will be assured of markets for all
+the pigs produced, and, secondly, the differences in values of prime
+baconers will direct more attention to the greater profits for this
+class of produce.
+
+[Illustration: A well-established Dairy Farm, New South Wales Coast.]
+
+That there is opportunity for a great increase in pig raising is shown
+by the fact that Great Britain pays annually to foreign countries
+$91,200,000.00 for pig products. Statistics show that two great sources
+of supply to the British market (United States and Canada) are gradually
+but surely declining, and before long must cease altogether on account
+of the rapid increase in population, and the consequent increased food
+requirements in those countries. In Denmark we cannot expect to see any
+great increase in production, as the limit also has been nearly reached.
+Holland and Sweden are the only other European countries from which we
+may anticipate competition. The rapid growth of the population in
+Central Europe increases the food requirements of those countries, where
+there is already a short supply of animal foods generally. The present
+condition of the industry shows that there is a possibility of the
+Commonwealth building up a large export trade, even though local demands
+are increasing, at prices which are higher than they were ten or twelve
+years ago, when the number of pigs in the Commonwealth was scarcely a
+thousand head more than at the present time. At the Franco-British
+Exhibition the grand champion prize against the world was secured by
+Australia for pig products in the form of frozen pork, as well as in
+hams and bacon.
+
+_Poultry-farming._--The fact that Australian hens and ducks have broken
+all records in laying competitions serves to indicate the suitability of
+the country for poultry-raising. On general farms, where the birds live
+on food that may otherwise be wasted, poultry are a source of
+considerable profit. The opinion of the Scottish Commission was that
+"Australia possesses natural conditions of almost unequalled value for
+the profitable keeping of poultry. In climate, soil, shelter, and in
+natural food she has the essential attributes to success."
+Poultry-farming is carried on together with wheat or dairying or pig
+farming, but in many places the raising of poultry is carried on as a
+single line. Poultry for consumption is extensively reared, and the
+egg-producing qualities of the birds have also been greatly improved by
+careful breeding. Egg collecting circles have been formed in some
+country districts, to develop (under Government supervision and with
+Government aid until the organisation is self-supporting) the industry
+on co-operative lines. A member of the circle is elected to act as
+secretary, and he receives all the eggs from the members, tests, packs,
+and forwards them to the metropolitan depot for shipment. Only clean and
+fresh eggs are to be delivered to the secretary under penalty of fine
+and expulsion from the circle. Another method of collecting and
+marketing the eggs is through the local butter factories, where eggs are
+delivered by the suppliers of milk and cream a number of times each
+week.
+
+[Illustration: Government Farm.--Pens at Burnley, Victoria, for
+Egg-laying Competition.]
+
+_Bee-farming._--Bee-farming has ordinarily been an adjunct to the
+agricultural or dairying industries, and can hardly yet be said to have
+been organised as a distinct industry. There are many prosperous bee
+farms in the Commonwealth. The indigenous flora is rich in nectar, and
+the quantities of honey stored in single hives are astonishingly large,
+sometimes reaching 400 lbs.
+
+[Illustration: White Leghorns.]
+
+With the farmyard and dairy products of the Commonwealth standing now at
+over $96,000,000.00 per annum, the industry may be said to be well in
+its infancy.
+
+Under the large irrigation projects being carried out in several of the
+States there are splendid opportunities opening up for the carrying on
+of all these industries, either separately or in conjunction.
+
+
+Share Farming.
+
+The system of farming on shares is common in several branches of
+Australian farming, including dairying. To the intelligent and
+industrious man with a limited amount of capital, the system offers many
+opportunities for success. Practical dairymen, and especially those with
+children over fourteen years of age, may obtain a farm on shares. The
+arrangements made between landlords and their tenants on shares are not
+uniform. They differ considerably in individual cases, but the following
+broad outlines of the arrangements made between the parties may be set
+down as having a more or less universal application.
+
+As a general rule the landlord provides--
+
+     (a) The land cleared and fenced into convenient paddocks.
+     (b) The dairy herd.
+     (c) Cowbails and piggeries.
+     (d) All necessary utensils and implements.
+     (e) Dwelling.
+
+On the other hand, the tenant supplies--
+
+     (a) All the labour--milks the cows, separates the cream and carts
+          it to the nearest butter factory.
+     (b) His own horse and cart.
+     (c) Cultivates sufficient land to grow green fodder for the winter.
+
+In some instances the share farmer buys his own dairy utensils, but in
+the greater number of cases the landowner provides them and keeps them
+in repair. The sharing of the profits depends largely upon the character
+of the farm. As a general rule the tenant receives from one-third to
+one-half of the proceeds of all cream or butter sold. He also receives
+from one-third to one-half the value of the pigs raised, and from $1.20
+to $1.80 per head for each calf reared to the age of six months. A man
+is generally given as many cows to milk as he can conveniently manage
+and care for.
+
+[Illustration: In the Cheese Factory.]
+
+There are cases which can be pointed to where a tenant farmer after even
+paying for assistance, makes a profit of from $67.20 to $96.00 every
+month.
+
+It is not possible to state definitely the size of herd that any
+individual can manage, but it is by no means uncommon to see a herd of
+forty head, with from twenty-five to thirty cows in milk at a time,
+managed comfortably by a man and his wife and one sturdy boy or girl of
+fifteen or sixteen years of age. The average returns from a fairly good
+herd, in the majority of districts, may be stated at $4.80 per head per
+month, and as each cow will be milking for seven to eight months at
+least, and there will be the calves and ample separated milk for a good
+many pigs, it will be seen that there is at least a fair living to be
+made, especially when it is remembered that the share dairy farmer,
+under the ordinary arrangements, is living rent free and under
+conditions which enable him to keep household expenses at a minimum.
+
+The conditions regarding cropping and keeping the farm implements in
+repair and caring for the dairy herd are not onerous, and are such as no
+good tenant could object to.
+
+[Illustration: An Extensive Milking Shed.]
+
+Men who contemplate undertaking this class of farming should submit the
+fullest possible details of their experience and qualification to enable
+the officers of the Government Information Bureau to make arrangements
+which will permit of settlement immediately on arrival. It is needless
+to remind experienced dairymen that any owner of dairy cows naturally
+feels it necessary to know a good deal about anyone to whom he is to
+entrust the sole management of a good herd.
+
+[Illustration: Young Dairy Stock.]
+
+
+Monetary Aid to Settlers.
+
+Besides aiding the settler in the various ways already mentioned, viz.,
+by providing the expert personal instruction and advice of officers of
+the Agricultural Departments, in regard to feeding, breeding,
+management, and other matters, by the importation of high-class stud
+cattle, and making them available at cheap rates for herd improvement,
+and in the granting of facilities for the transportation and marketing
+of his produce, the Governments of the Australian States assist the
+dairyman with loans of cheap money. The Advances to Settlers' Board or
+Agricultural Bank in each of the States, lend money to settlers for the
+purpose of repaying existing debts, for building homes, for purchasing
+stock, or for improving and developing their holdings. The sums which
+may be advanced and the terms and conditions of the loans vary in
+different States. Broadly speaking, however, a settler may obtain on the
+security of his land or of his improvements sums ranging from $120.00 to
+$9600.00 at rates of interest varying from 4 per cent. to 6 per cent. on
+easy terms of repayment extending over a long period of years up to, as
+in the States of New South Wales and South Australia, thirty-one years.
+
+
+
+
+NEW SOUTH WALES.
+
+
+In the coastal districts of New South Wales and throughout a vast extent
+of the northern and central tableland districts dairy farming is a
+profitable and constantly-expanding industry.
+
+In the older settled district of Illawarra, comprising the greater
+portion of the south coast district, dairying has been the main industry
+for many years, and there is not much first-class land unoccupied. There
+is, however, in this district ample scope for tenant farmers and for
+dairying on shares on several large estates where the experienced man of
+small means with children old enough to help in the work can make a good
+living, and save with the object of later on obtaining a farm of his
+own. In the north coast district the strides being made in dairying are
+phenomenal. There is a fair amount of first-class unimproved bush
+country available for settlement on the upper reaches of the Tweed and
+Richmond Rivers, and large estates have been subdivided by private
+owners, and offered for sale on very easy terms at from $19.20 to $28.80
+per acre. Many farmers who find that better returns can be obtained by
+carrying a decreased number of specially good cows on a small area
+intensively worked are ready to dispose of areas, so that a new-comer
+with capital necessary to acquire land in this highly-favoured district
+can soon be suited. Owing to the big returns from dairying in the best
+parts of the settled portions of the north coast, land values are high,
+ranging to over $96.00 per acre.
+
+Suitable areas of Crown lands are brought forward from time to time in
+districts adapted for dairying at prices, as a rule, lower than the
+lands in private subdivisions.
+
+In the central and north coast district there are several large private
+subdivisions of excellent dairy land. In the tableland districts, where
+the rainfall averages 30 in. per annum, dairy farming has taken firm
+hold. Private owners are also cutting up tracts of splendid
+partially-improved land, and offering it at from $19.20 to $28.80 per
+acre, on liberal terms.
+
+The natural grasses of New South Wales, especially in the well-watered
+districts along the coast, grow in great luxuriance, and are rich in
+milk-producing qualities. In many districts imported grasses, such as
+Rhodes, Paspalum dilatatum, and Philaris, rye grass and red clover have
+been introduced, and soon become well established. In the most
+favourable portions of the State farmers are able to depend almost
+solely on the grazing qualities of their farms, although the experts of
+the Department strongly assert the wisdom of growing winter feed.
+
+New South Wales has many fine herds of all the approved breeds. The
+Jersey is perhaps the most popular, but there are also many good herds
+of Ayrshires, Guernseys, Holsteins, and other approved breeds.
+
+The co-operative system flourishes in New South Wales. Every important
+centre has its own co-operative butter, cheese or bacon factory. The
+Byron Bay Co-operative Company, situated in the heart of the rich north
+coast district, has an enormous turnover in the neighbourhood of
+$4,800,000.00 sterling each year, and is at least one of the largest
+concerns of its kind in the world.
+
+[Illustration: Calm II.--Champion Jersey Cow.]
+
+To stock a dairy farm of 100 acres, the detailed cost of stock and plant
+necessary to make a good start, exclusive of a bull, is given by
+practical farmers as follows:--
+
+                                                                    $
+     30 Cows at $31.20                                          936.00
+     10 Heifers, springing, at $24.00                           240.00
+     2 Plough Horses at $86.40                                  172.80
+     Harness for plough horses                                   31.20
+     Pigs--2 sows at $10.08; one hog at $15.60                   35.28
+     Separator, cans, buckets, etc.                             240.00
+     Cart and harness                                            86.40
+     Plough, $21.60; harrow, $14.40; cultivator, $12.00          48.00
+     Sundry tools, etc.                                          24.00
+                                                              --------
+                                                              $1813.68
+
+     Including the bull the cost might roughly be put down at $1920.00
+
+
+
+
+VICTORIA.
+
+
+For the past twenty years dairy farming in Victoria has been steadily
+advancing. The industry has proved very successful, so that thousands of
+farmers are not only making a comfortable living from it, but in many
+cases it has raised hard-working families into positions of comparative
+wealth. The principal markets supplied are those of Great Britain,
+South Africa, India, and the East. At present the industry is only in
+its infancy. It is capable of almost unlimited expansion. So far,
+farmers have confined their attention almost exclusively to butter, but
+the first steps have also been successfully taken to manufacture cheese
+and condensed milk, and to open up a regular market for fresh pork,
+hams, and bacon.
+
+[Illustration: How the Dairy Fodder Question is Settled in Australia.]
+
+A large portion of Victoria is suitable for dairy farming on account of
+the suitability of soil for the production of pasture and fodder crops,
+and the mild climatic conditions. For the most part the cows are fed
+solely on the natural pastures, little provision either in the way of
+food or shelter being thought necessary. Progressive farmers, however,
+find that it pays them to grow fodder for their herd and to shelter the
+animals in the winter, and anyone beginning in Victoria is advised to
+make up his mind to cultivate a certain area of his land from the first,
+instead of trusting to grazing alone.
+
+[Illustration: Shorthorn Cattle.]
+
+The southern half of Victoria is divided, roughly speaking, into the
+Western District and Gippsland. Two-thirds of the dairy cows are kept in
+these portions of the State. The Western District is famed for its rich
+soil of volcanic origin. Every town and hamlet has its butter factory.
+
+Gippsland is a district of rolling hills and downs, and of a
+comparatively heavy rainfall. Many parts were once covered with dense
+forests, but these are rapidly passing away before the pioneer.
+Practically every railway station has become a centre of the dairying
+industry, and cans of cream are always in evidence on the platforms.
+Owing to its suitable climate Gippsland has become the centre of maize
+growing in the State, and much of this crop reaches the market in the
+form of butter and pork.
+
+In the north the summers are warmer and drier, but the soil is perhaps
+even more prolific than in the southern parts of Victoria. Large areas
+are suitable for dairy farming under ordinary conditions, and extensive
+water storage works have been provided for the irrigation of large
+tracts of country which is being made available in suitable areas for
+dairying under very liberal conditions.
+
+The manufacturing and marketing of the butter is carried on, to a very
+large extent, on a co-operative basis, the factories being owned and
+managed by the farmers who supply the cream. Two hundred factories are
+scattered throughout the State, the largest of them producing upwards of
+40 tons of butter per week in the height of the season. Where the farm
+is close to the factory the milk is taken to the creamery, where it is
+separated, and the corresponding quantity of skim milk is returned to
+the farmer. In other cases the farmer owns his separator, the milk is
+passed through the machine as soon as the cows are milked, and the cream
+is sent to the factory by road or rail every day or two, according to
+the size of the farm.
+
+[Illustration: Dairy Factory--Refrigerating Butter Train.]
+
+
+Government Assistance to the Farmer.
+
+Every branch of the producing interests is steadily fostered by the
+Government of Victoria in a way that may sound strange to the British
+farmer. Besides the facilities for acquiring farms and homes, the
+Government employs dairy supervisors, who assist the farmer with
+information and advice on matters relating to the farm and herd. The
+produce is conveyed by the railways (which belong to the Government) at
+special low rates. It is received into the Government cool stores, where
+it is graded and frozen ready for export. The State has contracts with
+the principal lines of steam-ships, securing regular despatch, a minimum
+temperature, and a very low rate of freight for the British markets. It
+costs less to send butter from a farm in Victoria to London than it does
+to send it from a farm in Ireland.
+
+[Illustration: "Miss Prim," Champion Ayrshire Cow.]
+
+
+
+
+QUEENSLAND.
+
+
+Queensland as a Dairying Country.
+
+Queensland, especially in its southern portions and along its coastal
+areas, is particularly well adapted for dairying. Large areas of
+magnificent soil exist, such as the Darling Downs, Lockyer, Stanley,
+Rosewood, Fassifern, Logan, Albert, Wide Bay, Burnett, and other
+districts, which, in addition to being well watered by rivers and
+creeks, enjoy a perfect winter climate. It is in these localities that
+dairying principally flourishes.
+
+While in Southern Queensland and on some of the northern tablelands it
+is desirable to rug milch cows during the winter months, up north, along
+the eastern coastland, it is not necessary.
+
+Along the eastern seaboard, which is well watered by running rivers and
+creeks, the Blackall Range is becoming an important dairy centre. This
+district lies to the north of Brisbane, and is a mountainous region
+containing exceedingly fertile soil.
+
+Further north again, on the coast, there are large areas in the Burnett,
+Gladstone, Rockhampton, and Bowen districts suitable for dairying, and
+in these localities it is rapidly extending. Despite this, there still
+remain immense tracts as yet untouched by the dairy farmer, which are
+capable of being successfully brought under the Butter Industry.
+Considerable portions of the northern tablelands, and parts of Central
+Queensland, are also suitable for dairying, and a beginning has already
+been made in these localities. Large numbers of dairy cattle are being
+imported into the Atherton district in the North.
+
+As yet, only a fractional part of the country able to support a large
+dairying population has been touched.
+
+
+Dairy Land and Stock.
+
+The class of land chiefly used for dairying is open forest country,
+plain scrub land, and rich alluvial flats. The scrub lands have first to
+be cleared by felling the scrub and burning it off when dry. When
+cleared, scrub soils are more prolific than any other. Cost of clearing
+is about $7.20 to $9.60 per acre, and in some cases more.
+
+[Illustration: Ayrshire Dairy Cows Grazing.]
+
+The price varies according to locality. Remoteness or proximity to
+market have to be considered. It is essential for the dairy farmer to be
+near a railway. The intending settler can either select Crown lands from
+the Government, at prices varying from $0.60 to $4.80 and upwards, or if
+he has some capital he can purchase a freehold farm. Good dairy freehold
+land can be bought from $14.40 to $24.00 per acre, but close to the
+railway in the older farming districts it reaches up to $96.00 per acre.
+
+[Illustration: "Ladylike," Ayrshire Dairy Cow.]
+
+In ordinary times $24.00 to $38.40 is paid for a good average cow;
+heifers up to $21.60. Similar prices rule, generally speaking, in regard
+to all the States. An ordinary cow would earn from $2.40 to $4.20; and a
+good cow from $4.80 to $6.00 a month, whilst in profit, on an eight
+months' average milking.
+
+
+Dairy Breeds in Use.
+
+The milking breeds most in use in Queensland are the Ayrshire, Jersey,
+and Milking Shorthorns. Herds of Holsteins, Guernseys, and other breeds
+have also been established. Some fine specimens of these dairy cattle
+are to be seen throughout the State, and at the large annual shows of
+pure-bred stock, held at Brisbane, Toowoomba, and other centres.
+
+The Queensland Agricultural College, a State institution, breeds
+high-class dairy bulls for sale to farmers, and herds are being also
+raised on the State Farms.
+
+Cows should bring in not less than $3.00 per month, or be turned out as
+useless. The average is about $3.72. Up-to-date men will not keep a cow
+who does not average this for her milking.
+
+
+Cost of Starting on 160 Acres.
+
+This, of course, varies with the circumstances of the case, and depends
+largely on whether a man has the capital to push forward his operations,
+or is content to gradually get his land into working order. A man with
+$720.00 to $1032.00 could make a good start. If the land was taken up at
+$2.40 per acre from the Crown, his first year's deposit would be $18.24,
+and he would have sufficient to fence the land, buy some cows, and put
+up some sort of a house. Necessarily a settler does not spend much on
+his house at first until he has made some money. On the other hand, many
+of the most prosperous farmers in Queensland have started with only a
+few pounds, sufficient to pay their first year's rent. By fencing his
+land himself, the settler can save a good deal of expense. And by
+working for neighbouring farmers, he can gradually acquire money to buy
+stock from time to time.
+
+On the other hand, if he wishes to begin straight away, and has a little
+money, he can get assistance from the Agricultural Bank, a Government
+institution, which advances $0.60 in the $ towards improvements, and
+$0.50 in the $ for stock, machinery, and implements, charging 5 per
+cent. simple interest.
+
+              COST OF STARTING A DAIRY FARM ON 160 ACRES.
+                                                                $
+     Rent--1st year's deposit and survey fee                  18.24
+     Fencing--2 miles at 96.00 per mile
+       (posts 12 feet apart and 3 barbs)                     192.00
+     12 Cows at $28.80 per cow                               345.60
+     2 Horses at $72.00                                      144.00
+     Plough                                                   28.80
+     Harness                                                  24.00
+     Swingle bars and chains                                   6.00
+     House--24 x 12 feet, slabbed and floored,
+       at $4.80 per foot                                     115.20
+     Milking-shed                                             24.00
+     Yard                                                     48.00
+     30-gallon Separator                                      60.00
+     Cart (second-hand)                                       24.00
+
+Some small items, such as rations, milk-room, tinware, &c., have not
+been included in the estimate. If the fencing were erected personally,
+the cost would be materially reduced. If the settler built his own
+house, it would cost him little more than his own labour and the iron
+for the roof.
+
+Many beginners put up cheap sapling yards for a start, and at a nominal
+cost. This would materially reduce this estimate.
+
+
+The Average Herd.
+
+The average herd is about thirty head, but many farmers milk from 80 to
+150 cows daily. The number of cows that could be kept on an average farm
+of, say, 160 acres depends entirely on the land, and the amount of
+cultivation or area under artificial grasses. From thirty to eighty head
+would be about a fair estimate that good land would carry.
+
+One dairy farmer in the West Moreton, who landed in Queensland
+twenty-five years ago with $0.36 in his pocket, now has 160 acres of
+freehold, of which he cultivates 50 acres for feed for his cows and
+pigs. He began by working for his neighbours for the first few years,
+and thus gained both cash and experience. He now milks thirty to fifty
+cows the whole year round, and he makes from $720.00 to $864.00 a year
+from his pigs. His income from all sources is from $1920.00 to $2400.00
+per annum. Six or seven years ago he paid $5280.00 for the place, but
+to-day he would not take $14,400.00 for it, and there is not a penny of
+debt on the property.
+
+[Illustration: An up-to-date Milking Shed.]
+
+
+Grasses.
+
+The natural grasses of Queensland are sufficient in ordinary seasons
+during the summer months for the dairy stock, but no farmer can
+successfully carry on dairy operations in dry times, or in winter, by
+means of the grass alone. He requires to supplement the grass by growing
+fodder for the winter months.
+
+Splendid results have been obtained by sowing artificial grasses, such
+as Paspalum dilatatum, Rhodes, Prairie, Guinea, and Giant Couch grasses.
+
+
+Winter Feed.
+
+Barley, lucerne, wheat, rye, sorghum, &c., can be grown for winter feed.
+On land which will grow lucerne, a certain supply of fodder can be
+conserved. Lucerne (or alfalfa, as it is called in America), once
+planted, will last from five to ten years.
+
+The butter factories were first started by proprietary companies, and
+their cream depots were scattered all over the farming districts.
+Competition was exceedingly keen, and in some of the townships there
+were four or five rival cream depots, all endeavouring to get the
+biggest shares of the cream.
+
+[Illustration: Jersey Cows.]
+
+Of late, a number of co-operative factories run by the farmers have
+started, and proved very successful, enabling their shareholders to get
+a higher price for their cream than hitherto. They are admirably
+managed, are essentially popular institutions, and have done splendid
+work.
+
+The farmers establish, manage, and work them, and the profits, instead
+of going into the pockets of the middlemen, are distributed among the
+shareholders.
+
+
+State Aid to Co-operative Factories.
+
+Under a vote by Parliament the State makes advances to farmers to
+establish co-operative dairy factories. The loans extend over a period
+of fourteen years, and 4 per cent. interest is charged.
+
+
+Condensed Milk.
+
+The Preserved and Condensed Milk Industry promises to become important
+in the near future. Six factories are now in operation.
+
+Messrs. Nestle and Co., the world-renowned firm, have invested
+$480,000.00 in their Preserved Milk Industry in Queensland. It speaks
+well for a country when an old-world firm such as this is prepared to
+invest so largely.
+
+
+
+
+SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
+
+
+A large area of South Australia is eminently adapted to successful
+dairying, and while the summer is dry, rendering it necessary to make
+provision for succulent feed for several months, the temperate nature of
+the climate enables the dairyman to keep his cows in the open right
+through the year, the natural shelter in timber country being
+sufficient, except on a limited number of days of extreme wet and cold.
+Stall feeding for weeks at a time is unknown; the necessary shelter
+sheds can be cheaply provided, while the labour of feeding is, under
+these conditions, reduced to a minimum. In the northern districts
+conditions are not so favourable as in the south, but even here dairying
+can be profitably carried on; the fact that land is much cheaper
+compensates for the shorter period during which the natural herbage
+supplies practically all the feed required. In some of the driest of our
+farming areas dairying has largely replaced wheat-growing, and, although
+the yield per cow is naturally not so high as under more favourable
+conditions, still low rents and large areas of natural pasture enable
+the farmer to make a fair profit.
+
+[Illustration: The Cream Cart, North Coast, N.S.W.]
+
+The Dairy Industry, though of considerable magnitude, has not made as
+much progress as was anticipated. This is probably due to the fact that
+wheat-growing and sheep-breeding combined offer greater attractions to
+the farmer. These industries require a great deal less labour than
+dairying, besides which the work is not so continuous. So long as highly
+profitable returns can be obtained from the production of cereals and
+the breeding of lambs, the Dairying Industry is hardly likely to make
+the progress that would otherwise be possible, though there has of late
+years been steady and continued development in the industry, especially
+in the northern districts. In the south and south-east, where conditions
+are more suitable, there has, on the other hand, been very little
+extension.
+
+Large quantities of butter are exported to Broken Hill and West
+Australia throughout the year, while during the spring months shipments
+are made to Great Britain.
+
+Butter is exported in increasing quantities to Great Britain each year.
+In normal years from 1400 to 1600 tons are shipped.
+
+Cheese is not made on such an extensive scale proportionately to butter;
+indeed, in some seasons sufficient for local consumption is not
+produced. Practically all the cheese is manufactured on the Cheddar
+system, and an article of very high quality is produced in the best
+factories.
+
+Special facilities are afforded by the railways for the conveyance of
+perishable goods, and cream is forwarded by the dairyman to the city
+factories from districts 300 miles distant. Payment is usually made on
+the butter-fat percentages; and in order to afford suppliers an
+opportunity of checking the returns received from private factories the
+Government established a butter factory in connection with the export
+freezing works at Port Adelaide. At this factory every can of cream is
+sampled, and the quantity of butter it will produce is ascertained by
+the usual methods, and the supplier is paid accordingly.
+
+A considerable number of butter factories have been erected in South
+Australia, and the butter produced is generally of high quality. The
+butter made from the milk of cows grazing on the natural herbage of the
+country is of splendid quality and colour. Hand separators are in
+general use, the cream being sent to the factories for treatment. The
+percentage of butter-fat in the milk of cows grazing on the natural
+pastures is unusually high.
+
+Practically the whole of the midland, central, and south-east districts,
+excepting that portion east of the Murray, are suitable for dairying
+practice when carried out on systematic lines. The prices for such land
+for dairying would range from $24.00 to $240.00 per acre according to
+location, soil, and rainfall. No special terms are offered by the
+Government for the occupation of dairy lands. Most of the repurchased
+estates are in districts suitable for dairying, and these are allotted
+under covenant to purchase. The purchase money is paid off in seventy
+half-yearly instalments (the first ten bearing interest only at the rate
+of 4 per cent. on purchase money). Purchase money may be completed at
+any time after nine years. Reliable particulars of successful dairying
+are difficult to obtain. It is safe to say that there are many hundreds
+of dairymen making comfortable livings throughout the State.
+
+[Illustration: Fodder Crops--Lucerne, Mangels, Rape.]
+
+Capital may be safely expended for dairy practice, especially by careful
+and intelligent men who have families, and they may depend upon making a
+good living, especially when they combine dairy practice with
+pig-raising. There are many instances where gross returns are obtained
+of from $38.40 to $72.00 per cow per annum, and this in districts where
+the milk is sold to the local co-operative or private factories, but
+where they are situated within forty miles of Adelaide, and are able to
+take advantage of a good train service, they can deliver their milk to
+the capital and obtain gross returns equal to about $76.80 to $96.00 per
+cow per annum.
+
+[Illustration: Interior of a Cheese Factory.]
+
+
+
+
+WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
+
+
+The Dairying Industry has not developed as rapidly as other branches of
+farming in the State during recent years. The cause of this is
+attributable to various reasons, one of the number of which has been the
+difficulty of obtaining suitable farm labourers. The majority of young
+men who have embarked in farming in the Western State during the last
+decade have favoured the lightly-timbered belts more suitable for wheat
+and sheep raising in preference to the heavily-timbered land suitable
+for dairying situated in the coastal districts of the south-west. That
+there is in the State an enormous area of land which is eminently
+adaptable to the growing of fodders necessary for successful dairying
+has been amply demonstrated. Since 1905 indefatigable efforts to advance
+the Dairying Industry have been made. An estate at Brunswick, in the
+vicinity of Bunbury, about 100 miles south of Perth, was purchased by
+the Government, and 800 acres of it was vested in the Department of
+Agriculture for the purpose of a State Dairy Farm, on lines that could
+be copied by a practical dairy farmer; also--
+
+     (1) For supplying stud stock of the best strains procurable at
+          reasonable prices to dairy farmers.
+     (2) To demonstrate that with the assistance of irrigation a small
+          acreage of land can be made to carry a large number of stock.
+     (3) Where a variety of fodder crops can be introduced, and
+          experimented with so as to ascertain their value for feeding-off,
+          both in a green state for curing into hay or for preserving into
+          big silos in a succulent form.
+
+Capacious cow and calf stables, suitable sheds, and piggeries were
+designed and constructed as an example to be followed in starting an
+up-to-date dairy farm. A herd of dairy cows, of some of the best
+Ayrshire strains in Australia, was collected, as well as a fine number
+of Berkshire pigs, purchased from the most successful breeders and
+importers. Three large tub silos, capable of holding 250 tons of fodder,
+were erected in which to store winter-grown crops as well as the summer
+crops under irrigation.
+
+[Illustration: "Crown Prince," Guernsey Bull.]
+
+An irrigation scheme was carried out, and the results have been most
+successful. The following dairy fodder crops have yielded
+prolifically:--Oats, rye, maize, sorghum, pearl millet, vetches, field
+peas, cow peas, lucerne, mustard, Jersey kale, field cabbage, turnips,
+swedes, mangel wurzel, silver beet, buckwheat, potatoes, linseed, pig
+melon, paspalum, Italian canary grass. The irrigation plant is capable
+of dealing with 80 acres of land in the summer months. Some of the land
+thus treated is the rich dark alluvial on the river bank, while a
+portion is on the higher clay plateau, and consists of land typical of
+many thousands of acres in the same locality. The land in its virgin
+state was timbered with red gum and flooded gum, and cost about $38.40
+an acre to grub and clear, and on such land with irrigation in the
+summer two heavy crops a year can be depended on.
+
+[Illustration: Milking Shed.]
+
+Shortly after the State Farm was established the Government purchased
+over 500 dairy cows in the eastern States, and these were sold to
+Western Australian farmers in lots of ten at cost price on two-year
+terms, with 5 per cent. interest added.
+
+The Government engaged a highly-qualified dairy expert in the person of
+Mr. Kinsella, of New Zealand, to visit the districts most likely to give
+attention to the dairying industry in the immediate future, and by means
+of personal interviews, addresses, leaflets, and concisely-written
+pamphlets, Mr. Kinsella did valuable work in distributing information
+and directing the beginner on the right road to successful dairying. Mr.
+Kinsella subsequently severed his connection with the department, and he
+has been recently succeeded by Mr. Abernethy, who has obtained the very
+highest diplomas in England in connection with dairying. Mr. Abernethy
+recently arrived from Great Britain, and has now entered upon his
+duties, and it is confidently believed that his efforts will result in a
+number of farmers being induced to embark in the industry on sound and
+practical lines. The new selector will also have the benefit and the
+advice of the Director of Agriculture, Mr. McNulty, on all matters
+concerning his soil, his stock, and the marketing of his produce.
+
+
+Lands for Dairy Farming.
+
+With a view to settling practical farmers with limited means on the rich
+and heavily-timbered lands in the southern portion of the State the
+Government have a large number of surveyors at work surveying the land
+into suitable sized blocks, ranging from 200 to 700 acres each. Main
+roads have been cleared to serve these areas, and a proposal to clear 10
+acres on each block for the plough is now under consideration. Railways
+will be pushed through this country as rapidly as possible. The annual
+average rainfall over this country averages from 35 in. to 40 in., and
+the land contains some of the richest soil in the State.
+
+
+Price of Land.
+
+The price of land ranges from about $4.80 to $19.20 an acre, and each
+new selector over sixteen years of age will have the right to
+practically a free grant of 160 acres, additional land being available
+at approximately the prices quoted, the payments for which will be
+spread over twenty years without interest. The selector will also have
+the privilege of borrowing from the State Agricultural Bank for
+ringbarking, clearing, water conservation, and subsequently for stock
+and implements, the loan being repaid over a term of thirty years, for
+the first five years of which interest only at the rate of 5 per cent.
+per annum will be payable. Prior to the blocks being thrown open the
+prices will be advertised and the amount of loan the bank is prepared to
+advance to suitable applicants on each block will be fixed.
+
+[Illustration: Devon Cattle in Australia.]
+
+[Illustration: Prime Herd of Jerseys.]
+
+
+Butter Factories.
+
+At the present time there are three butter factories operating in the
+State, and no doubt when the Dairying Industry has developed
+sufficiently a number of co-operative factories will be started.
+
+The men who decide to devote their energies to the Dairying Industry
+will have the advantage of a magnificent local market to start on, as at
+the present time Western Australia is sending something like $4800.00 a
+day to the eastern States for dairy produce.
+
+
+
+
+TASMANIA.
+
+
+The conditions of Tasmania are eminently favourable for dairy farming.
+Up till recent years the industry did not receive much attention, but
+now that a start has been made butter production is advancing rapidly.
+
+
+The Land Required.
+
+The foundation of the Dairying Industry is grass, and to get grass, good
+land and plenty of moisture is required. Therefore anyone proposing to
+go into this business should endeavour to secure the very best land
+obtainable. There is a large quantity available, especially in the
+north-western and north-eastern parts of the island. There is a great
+deal also in the southern districts. Information can always be obtained
+from the Lands Department and the district surveyors, and no difficulty
+should be experienced by the intending dairy farmer in finding land
+suitable for his purpose. The more open parts of the State, such as the
+midlands and the east coast, where there is natural grass, have largely
+passed into private hands, and later selectors have had to take up,
+clear, and lay down in pasture the more heavily-timbered portions. This,
+however, is not altogether the handicap it appears at first sight, as
+the returns from the very rich scrub lands are by far the highest. It is
+easy to judge of the quality of land by the indigenous timber upon it.
+Rich land, suitable for laying down in grass, is covered with a dense
+growth of sassafras, tree-fern, musk, and pear tree, with large blue or
+swamp gums, and an underbush of what are known as cathead ferns.
+Stringy-bark trees mean a poorer soil, and any land bearing them should
+be avoided if possible.
+
+Any person of eighteen years of age and upwards may select an area not
+exceeding 200 acres of first-class land, provided he does not hold land
+on credit under any previous Act. He is required to pay a cash deposit
+of $0.04 an acre at the time of sale, an instalment of $0.06 an acre for
+each of the two following years, $0.24 an acre annually for the next
+four years, $0.36 an acre for the next four years, and $0.48 per acre
+for the next eight years. The survey fee is paid, one-fifth in cash and
+the balance by four equal annual payments, with interest added, unless
+the selector elects to pay it off at once, when interest is remitted.
+Every encouragement short of giving the fee simple of the land away for
+nothing is afforded the intending settler, and he can acquire a freehold
+on easier terms in Tasmania than anywhere else.
+
+[Illustration: Ayrshire Herd, New South Wales.]
+
+
+Clearing the Land.
+
+Clearing a selection for dairy farming is a very different operation
+from the clearing required for fruit-growing. Where the land is to be
+laid down in pasture, no ploughing has to be done, consequently the
+cost is very much less. In clearing land for grass it is the best plan
+to first of all "ring" all the eucalyptus trees. This consists in
+cutting a ring round the tree with axes through the bark and sapwood, or
+alburnum, into the brown wood beneath. The crude sap, bearing in
+solution the various organic matters which the roots have extracted from
+the soil, ascends by the outer layer of wood immediately beneath the
+bark to the leaves, where it is elaborated into plant food. When this
+layer is cut through, the food supply is immediately stopped, and the
+tree dies. The operation of ringing is best done during the winter, when
+the sap is down, and if properly performed at the right time the tree
+always dies very soon. If possible, the ringing should be done a year or
+two before the general clearing is commenced, as all the dead leaves,
+small branches, and dead bark have time to fall, and are then burned off
+with the rest of the scrub. The next operation is to cut down all the
+brushwood and smaller growths with bill-hooks, and then the rest of the
+scrub is felled with axes, and allowed to lie until quite dry, when it
+is burned off. A good burn should leave very little to be cleared up,
+but sometimes, where there is such vegetation as sassafras or fallen
+tree-ferns, a good deal of "picking-up" has to be done. This means that
+all the unburnt timber on the ground has to be rolled together and
+burnt. Tree-ferns should not be felled, as they do not burn well. The
+best way of killing them is to cut off the fronds just below where they
+spring from the stem. Some knack is required to cut in just the right
+place, but it is easily acquired. There are certain precautions to be
+observed in burning-off, which the settler should make himself
+acquainted with. Information on this point and in regard to any matters
+of practical interest to the beginner will be furnished gladly and
+without charge by experienced officers of the Department of Agriculture.
+
+[Illustration: Clearing the Land.]
+
+As soon as the land is burnt off the grass may be sown upon it. No
+cultivation is usually given, the grass-seed being sown upon the ashes
+remaining from the burnt scrub, which forms very effective manure.
+Cocksfoot is the grass par excellence for this work, as it is very hardy
+and nutritious, and not attacked by insect pests to the same extent as
+others. Sometimes a mixture of cocksfoot, English rye-grass, and white
+clover is used, or the two grasses alone are planted. Local information
+is the best guide obtainable as to what it is best to plant. Dairying
+thus becomes practicable in a year or two, and returns are received much
+sooner than from any other branch of agriculture. It will, of course, be
+necessary to clear a certain amount of the selection for cultivation, so
+that crops may be grown, and it is often better and cheaper in the end
+to devote the poorer and less heavily timbered parts of the holding to
+this purpose, and buy manure. Some selectors clean up a part of the
+ground of roots and logs, leaving all the big ringed timber standing,
+and plough it up. It requires some skill to steer a plough under these
+conditions, but very good crops can be grown in this way.
+
+
+Butter Factories.
+
+Properly equipped butter factories are situated at Launceston (2),
+Deloraine, Burnie, Emu Bay, Wynyard, Stanley, Smithton, Wilmot,
+Ringarooma, Derby, and Pyengana. In the south there are only two of any
+magnitude, one in Hobart, and the other at Bream Creek. A well-equipped
+factory has been established on King Island, in Bass Straits, a locality
+that has been found very suitable for dairying.
+
+
+Dairy Herds.
+
+The dairy herds of the State until a few years ago were of a somewhat
+nondescript type, very few farmers having realised the necessity of
+improving the butter-yielding capacity of their stock. Recently,
+however, great improvements have taken place, as the dairying industry
+has advanced, until now many Tasmanian dairymen own herds of the highest
+standard. The work of improving the milking strains of cattle is in the
+hands of the farmers themselves, but advice and assistance are always
+obtainable from the Government Dairy Expert.
+
+
+Cheese-making.
+
+This is a highly profitable branch of dairy farming, and the product is
+so small in bulk compared with its value that it is eminently portable.
+Cheese-making can therefore be carried on under conditions where other
+forms of production would be difficult. Some skill and knowledge are
+required, but the Dairy Expert regularly gives lectures and
+demonstrations on the subject in all the principal agricultural centres,
+so that any intelligent person can easily obtain all the information he
+requires.
+
+The principal cheese factories in the State are situated at St. Mary's,
+Pyengana, Emu Bay, Devonport, and Circular Head.
+
+The cheese produced is very good in quality, and a considerable export
+trade will soon be developed in it.
+
+
+Bacon-curing.
+
+The production of hams and bacon is one of the collateral industries
+connected with dairying, as the skim-milk and waste products form a very
+valuable food for fattening pigs. Excellent bacon is produced in
+Tasmania, and a good deal is exported, but not nearly what might be
+produced.
+
+[Illustration: Group of Prize Bulls.]
+
+
+Dairy Factories.
+
+It is the introduction of the dairy factory system that has solved the
+problem of success or failure for the dairy farmer. These institutions
+are becoming fairly numerous throughout the State, and are all equipped
+with the most modern machinery and managed by expert men. The farmer
+nearly always, nowadays, has his cream separator, and all he has to take
+to the factory is the cream, which does not occupy much space, while the
+skimmed milk remains on the farm for feeding pigs or calves. Some of the
+dairy factories in the State are proprietary, but others are on the
+co-operative system, under which the farmers are the owners, and share
+in the general profits, as well as being paid for their cream.
+
+
+McCARRON, BIRD & CO., Printers, 479 Collins Street, Melbourne.
+
+
+
+
+[Footnote A: The personnel of the Commission was as follows:--Sir T.
+Carlaw Martin, Edinburgh (Chairman); Sir John R. G. Sinclair, Bart.,
+Barrock House, Wick (Vice Chairman); Dr. J. H. Wilson, F.R.S.E., St.
+Andrew's University; Dr. Shirra Gibb Boon, Lauder; William Barber, M.A.,
+Tererran, Moniaive; J. McHutchen Dobbie, Campend, Dalkeith; James
+Dunlop, Kilmarnock; R. B. Greig, F.R.S.E., Cults; William Henderson,
+Lawton, Coupar-Angus; James Keith, Pitmeddan, Udny; E. E. Morrison,
+M.A., Bonnington, Siravithie; and Alex. M. Prain, Errol (Secretary).]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Australia The Dairy Country, by
+Australia Department of External Affairs
+
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