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diff --git a/25520-8.txt b/25520-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6aed1ec --- /dev/null +++ b/25520-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10499 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Stock-Feeder's Manual, by Charles Alexander Cameron + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Stock-Feeder's Manual + the chemistry of food in relation to the breeding and + feeding of live stock + +Author: Charles Alexander Cameron + +Release Date: May 19, 2008 [EBook #25520] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STOCK-FEEDER'S MANUAL *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, David Garcia and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + + +[Illustration: PRIZE YEARLING SHORT-HORN BULL, "VICTOR EMMANUEL," + +THE PROPERTY OF LORD TALBOT DE MALAHIDE, + +Was awarded the First Prize in his Section (there being sixteen +competitors), at the Show of the Royal Agricultural Society, held +at Belfast, in August, 1861. Calved June 24, 1860; sire, Prince +Duke the Second (16,731); dam, Turfoida, by Earl of Dublin (10,178); +gd., Rosina, by Gray Friar (9,172); ggd., Hinda, by Little John (4,232).] + + + + + + +THE STOCK-FEEDER'S MANUAL. + + + THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD IN RELATION TO + THE BREEDING AND FEEDING OF LIVE STOCK. + + +BY CHARLES A. CAMERON, Ph.D., M.D., + + Licentiate of the King and Queen's College of Physicians + in Ireland; Honorary Corresponding Member of the New York + State Agricultural Society; Member of the Agricultural + Society of Belgium; Professor of Hygiene or Political + Medicine in the Royal College of Surgeons; Professor of + Chemistry and Natural Philosophy in Steevens' Hospital + and Medical College; Lecturer on Chemistry in the Ledwich + School of Medicine; Analyst to the City of Dublin; Chemist + to the County of Kildare Agricultural Society, the Queen's + County Agricultural Society, c.; Member of the International + Jury of the Paris Exhibition, 1867; Editor of the + "Agricultural Review;" one of the Editors of the "Irish + Farmer's Gazette;" Author of the "Chemistry of Agriculture," + "Sugar and the Sugar Duties," &c. &c. + + + LONDON AND NEW YORK: + CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN. + 1868. + +[_All rights reserved._] + + + + LONDON + CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN, BELLE SAUVAGE WORKS, + LUDGATE HILL, E. C. + + + + THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE + Dedicated + TO + + THE RIGHT HONORABLE + THE LORD TALBOT DE MALAHIDE, F.R.S., + _President of the Royal Irish Academy, &c. &c. &c._, + + ONE OF THE MOST ENLIGHTENED AND LIBERAL PROMOTERS + OF AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENTS. + + THE AUTHOR IS UNDER MANY OBLIGATIONS TO HIS LORDSHIP, FOR + WHICH HE CAN MAKE NO RETURN SAVE THIS PUBLIC ACKNOWLEDGMENT + OF HIS INDEBTEDNESS. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +Some papers on the Chemistry of Food, read before the Royal Agricultural +Society of Ireland and the Athy Farmers' Club, and a few articles on the +Management of Live Stock, published in the _Weekly Agricultural Review_, +constitute the basis of this Work. It describes the nature of the food +used by the domesticated animals, explains the composition of the animal +tissues, and treats generally upon the important subject of nutrition. +The most recent analyses of all the kinds of food usually consumed by +the animals of the farm are fully stated; and the nutritive values of +those substances are in most instances given. Some information is +afforded relative to the breeds and breeding of live stock; and a +division of the Work is wholly devoted to the consideration of the +economic production of "meat, milk, and butter." + +Within the last twenty years the processes of chemical analysis have +been so much improved, that the composition of organic bodies is now +determined with great accuracy. The analyses of foods made from twenty +to fifty years ago, possess now but little value. In this Work the +analyses of vegetables quoted are chiefly those recently performed by the +distinguished Scotch chemist, Dr. Thomas Anderson, and by Dr. Voelcker. +The Author believes that in no other Work of moderate size are there so +many analyses of food substances given, and ventures to hope that the +success of this Work may fully justify the belief that a "handy" book +containing such information as that above mentioned, is much required +by stock feeders. + + _102, Lower Baggot Street, Dublin_, + April, 1868. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + + PAGE + +INTRODUCTION: History of Agriculture--Agricultural Statistics--Imports + of Live Stock + + 1 + +PART I. ON THE GROWTH AND COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS. + +SECTION I. ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE. Functions of Plants. Animal + Life.--SECTION II. COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. Elements of + Organic Bodies. Proximate Composition of Organic Substances.--SECTION III. + USE OF FAT IN THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. Fatty Food necessary in Cold Climates. + Fat Equivalents.--SECTION IV. RELATION BETWEEN THE COMPOSITION OF AN + ANIMAL AND THAT OF ITS FOOD. Tables of Experimental Results.--SECTION V. + RELATION BETWEEN THE QUANTITY OF FOOD CONSUMED BY AN ANIMAL AND + THE INCREASE OF ITS WEIGHT, OR OF THE AMOUNT OF ITS WORK. Weights + of Foods necessary to sustain a Man's Life for twenty-four hours. + Value of Manure. + + 8 + +PART II. ON THE BREEDING AND BREEDS OF STOCK. + +SECTION I. THE BREEDING OF STOCK.--SECTION II. THE BREEDS OF STOCK. + The Form of Animals. _Breeds of the Ox._ Shorthorns. Devons. + Herefords. Ayrshires. Polled Cattle. Kyloes. Long-horned. + Kerrys. Alderneys. _Sheep._ The Leicester. Lincoln. Cotswold. + Cheviot. Southdown. Shropshire. Blackfaced. _Breeds of the + Pig._ Berkshire. Yorkshire. _Breeds of the Horse._ Clydesdales. + Suffolk Punch. Hunters and Racers. + + 47 + +PART III. ON THE MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCK. + +SECTION I. THE OX. Breeding Cows. Wintering of Young Stock. Shelter + of Stock. Milch Cows. Stall Feeding. Cost of Maintaining Animals. + Cooking and Bruising Food. Value for Feeding Purposes of various + Foods. Bedding Cattle.--SECTION II. THE SHEEP. Breeding Ewes. + Yeaning. Rearing of Lambs. Sheep Feeding. Sheep Dips.--SECTION III. THE + PIG. Young Pigs. Store Pigs. Fattening Pigs.--SECTION IV. THE HORSE. + Foals. Dietaries for the Horse. + + 74 + +PART IV. MEAT, MILK, AND BUTTER. + +SECTION I. MEAT. Quality of Meat. Is very Fat Meat Unwholesome? + Diseased Meat.--SECTION II. MILK. Composition of Milk of Different + Animals. Yield of Milk. Preserved Milk.--SECTION III. BUTTER. History + of Butter. Irish Butter. Composition of Butter. The Butter + Manufacture. + + 112 + +PART V. ON THE COMPOSITION AND VALUE OF VEGETABLE FOODS. + +SECTION I. THE MONEY VALUE OF FOOD SUBSTANCES.--SECTION II. PROXIMATE + CONSTITUENTS OF VEGETABLES. Starch. Sugar. Inulin. Gum. Pectin. + Cellulose. Oils and Fats. Stearin. Margarin. Olein. Palmitin. + Albumen. Fibrin. Legumin.--SECTION III. GREEN FOOD. The + Grasses. Schroeder Brome. Tussac Grass. The Clovers. Leguminous + Plants--Vetch, Sainfoin, &c. The Yellow Lupine. Rib Grass Plantain. + Ergot in Grasses. Holcus Saccharatus. Green Rye. Buckwheat. Rape. + Mustard. Comfrey. Chicory. Yarrow. Melons and Marrows. Cabbage. + Furze.--SECTION IV. STRAW AND HAY. _Straw._ Anderson's, Voelcker's, + and Cameron's Analyses of Straws. Feeding Experiments with Straw. + Relative Values of Straw and Oil-cake. _Hay._ Composition of the + Hay of different Grasses. Over-ripening of Hay. Damaged Hay and + Straw.--SECTION V. ROOTS AND TUBERS. _Turnips._ Swedish. White + Globe. Aberdeen Yellow. Purple-top. Norfolk Bell. Greystone. + Turnip Tops. Analyses of Turnips. Mangel Wurtzel. Chemistry of + the Mangel. Stripping Leaves off the Mangel. Beet-root. Parsnip. + Carrot. Kohl-rabi. Analyses of Kohl-rabi. Radish. The Radish as + a Field Crop. Composition of Radish. Jerusalem Artichoke: Advantages + of Cultivating it. Analysis of Jerusalem Artichoke. Potato: Analyses + of six varieties. Feeding Value of Potatoes.--SECTION VI. SEEDS. _Wheat._ + Analyses of Wheat, Flour, Bran, and Husks. Over-ripening of + Grain. Wheat a Costly Food. Analyses of Barley, Oat Grain, Indian + Corn, Rye, Rice, Rice-dust, and Buckwheat. Malted Corn. Voelcker's + Analyses of Malt and Barley. Experiments of Thompson, Lawes, &c., + with Malt. Malt Combings. _Leguminous Seeds._ Beans. Composition + of Common Beans, Foreign Beans, Peas. Lentils and Winter Tares. + _Oil Seeds._ Rape Seeds. Experiments with Rapeseed. Flax Bolls. + Composition of Linseed, Rape-seed, Hemp-seed, and Cotton-seed. + Fenugreek Seed.--SECTION VII. OIL-CAKES AND OTHER ARTIFICIAL FOODS. + Composition of Linseed, Rape-seed, Cotton-seed, and Poppy-seed + Cake. Linseed-cake. Adulteration of Linseed-cake. Rape-cake. + Feeding Experiments with Rape-cake. Adulterations of Rape-cake. + Cotton-seed Cake. Analyses of Decorticated Cotton-seed Cake. + Palm-nut Meal: its Composition and Nutritive Properties. Locust, + or Carob Bean: its Composition. Dates. Brewers' Dregs and + Distillery Wash. Molasses and Treacle.--SECTION VIII. CONDIMENTAL FOOD. + Lawes' Experiments with Thorley's Food. Analyses of Condimental + Food. Formula for a Tonic Food.--SECTION IX. TABLES OF THE ANALYSES + OF THE ASHES OF PLANTS. + + 147 + +APPENDIX. AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. Numbers of Live Stock in the United + Kingdom. Value of the Agriculture Products of Great Britain. + + 254 + + + + + + +THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +When Virgil composed his immortal "Bucolics," and Varro indited his +profound Essays on Agriculture, the inhabitants of the British Islands +were almost completely ignorant of the art of cultivating the soil. +The rude spoils torn from the carcasses of savage animals protected the +bodies of their hardly less savage victors; and the produce of the chase +served almost exclusively to nourish the hardy frames of the ancient +Celtic hunters. In early ages wild beasts abounded in the numerous and +extensive forests of Britain and Ireland; but men were few, for the +conditions under which the maintenance of a dense population is possible +did not then exist. As civilisation progressed, men rapidly multiplied, +and the demand for food increased. The pursuit of game became merely the +pastime of the rich; and tame sheep and oxen furnished meat to the lowly +as well as to the great. Nor were the fruits of the earth neglected; for +during the latter days of the dominion of the Romans, England raised +large quantities of corn. Gradually the food of the people, which at +first was almost purely animal, became chiefly vegetable. The shepherds, +who had supplanted the hunters, became less numerous than the tillers of +land; and the era of tillage husbandry began. + +At present the great mass of the rural population of these countries +subsist almost exclusively upon vegetable aliment--a diet which poverty, +and not inclination, prescribes for them. Were the flesh of animals +the staple food of the British peasantry, their numbers would not be +nearly so large as they now are, for a given area of land is capable of +sustaining a far larger number of vegetarians than of meat eaters. The +Chinese are by no means averse to animal food, but they are so numerous, +that they are in general obliged to content themselves on a purely +vegetable diet. + +In the manufacturing districts of Great Britain, there are several +millions of people whose condition in relation to food is somewhat +different from that of the small farmer and agricultural laborer. The +artizans employed in our great industries are comparatively well paid +for their toil; and the results of their labor place within their reach +a fair share of animal food. This section of the population is rapidly +increasing, and consequently is daily augmenting the demand for meat. +The rural population is certainly not increasing; rather the reverse. +Less manual labor is now expended in the operations of agriculture, and +even horses are retiring before the advance of the steam plough. The +only great purely vegetable-feeding class is diminishing, and the upper, +the middle, and the artizan classes--the beef and mutton eating sections +of society--are rapidly increasing. It is clear, then, that we are +threatened with a revival of the pastoral age, and that in one way, at +least, we are returning to the condition of our ancestors, whose staple +food consisted of beef, mutton, and pork. + +And here two questions arise. How long shall we be able to supply the +increasing demand for meat? How long shall we be able to compete with +the foreign feeders? These are momentous queries for the British farmer, +and I trust they may be solved in a satisfactory manner. At any time +during the present century the foreign or colonial grower of wheat could +have undersold the British producer of that article, were the latter not +protected by a tariff; but cattle could not, as a general rule, be +imported into Great Britain at a cheaper rate than they could be +produced at home. Were there no corn imported, it is certain that the +price of bread would be greater than it is now, even if the grain +harvests had been better than they have been for some years past. A bad +cereal harvest in England raises the price of flour, but only to a small +and strictly limited extent, because, practically, there is no limit +to the amount of bread-stuffs procurable from abroad. When, on the +contrary, the turnip crop fails, or that excessive drought greatly +curtails the yield of grass, the price of meat and butter increases +greatly, and is but slightly modified by the importation of foreign +stock. + +Hitherto the difficulty of transit has been so great that we have only +derived supplies of live stock from countries situated at a short +distance, such as Holstein and Holland. Vast herds of cattle are fed +with but little expense in America, and myriads of sheep are maintained +cheaply in Australia; but the immense distances which intervene between +our country and those remote and sparsely populated regions have, +hitherto, prevented the superabundant supply of animal food produced +therein from being available to the teeming population of the British +Isles. Should, however, any cheap mode of conveying live stock, or even +their flesh, from those and similarly circumstanced countries be +devised, it might render the production of meat in Britain a far less +profitable occupation than it is now. That we are increasing the area +from whence we draw our supplies of live stock is evident from the fact, +that within the last two years enormous numbers of horned stock have +been imported from Spain. In that extensive country there are noble +breeds of the ox; and it would appear that very large numbers of animals +could be annually exported, without depriving the inhabitants of a due +supply of bovine meat. As Spain is not very distant, it is likely that +this traffic will be increased, and that in a short time we shall be as +well supplied with Spanish beef as we are now provided with French +flour. Meat is at present dear, and is likely to continue so for some +time; but still it is evident that, sooner or later, the British feeders +will come into keen competition with the foreign producer of meat, and +that the price of their commodity will consequently fall. The mere +probability of such a state of things, were there no other reason, +should induce the feeder to devote increased attention to the +improvement of his stock, and to discover more economical methods of +feeding them. There is still much to be learned relative to the precise +nutritive values of the various feeding stuffs. The proper modes of +cooking, or otherwise preparing, food, are still to be satisfactorily +determined; and there are many very important questions in relation to +the breeding of stock yet unanswered. + +It is but fair to admit that the farmer is earnestly endeavouring to +improve his art, and that he is willing, nay anxious, to obtain the +co-operation of scientific men, in order to increase his knowledge of +the theory as well as the practice of his ancient calling. Indeed, he +not only admits the utility of science in agriculture, but often places +an undue degree of value upon the theories of the chemist, of the +botanist, and of the geologist. This is encouraging to the men of +science; but, on the other hand, they must admit that by far the greater +portion of the sum of human knowledge has been derived from the +experience and observation of men utterly unacquainted with science, in +the ordinary signification of that term. This portion of our knowledge +is also, in its practical application, the most valuable. In the most +important branch of industry--agriculture--the labors of the purely +scientific man have as yet borne but scant fruit; whilst the unaided +efforts of the husbandman have reclaimed from sterility extensive +tracts, and caused them to "blossom as the rose." That practical men +should have done so much, and scientific men so little, for agriculture, +may easily be explained. Countless millions of men, during many +thousands of years, have incessantly been occupied in improving the +processes of mechanical agriculture, which, as an _art_, has +consequently been brought to a high degree of perfection: but scientific +agriculture is a creation of almost our own time, and the number of its +cultivators is, and always has been, very small; all its theories cannot, +therefore, justly claim that degree of confidence which, as a rule, is +only reposed in the opinions founded on the experience of practical +workers in the field and in the feeding-house. Still, the farmer has +derived a great amount of useful information from the chemist and +physiologist; and they alone can explain to him the causes of the +various phenomena which the different branches of his art present. There +was a time when it was the fashion of the man of science to look down +with contempt, from the lofty pedestal on which he placed himself, upon +the lessons of practical experience read to him by the cultivator of the +soil; whilst at the same time the farmer treated as foolish visionaries +those who applied the teachings of science to the improvement of their +art. But this time has happily passed away. The scientific man no longer +despises the knowledge of the mere farmers, but turns to good account +the information derivable from their experience; whilst the farmer, on +the other side, has ceased to speak in contemptuous terms of mere "book +learning." It is to this happy combination of the theorist with the +practical man that the recent remarkable advance in agriculture is +chiefly due; and to it we may confidently look for improvement in the +economic production of meat and butter, and for the enlargement of our +knowledge of the relative value of food substances. + + STATEMENT OF THE NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. + + ---------+------------------------------------+ + | Enumerated, 1866. | + +-----------+------------+-----------+ + | Cattle. | Sheep. | Pigs. | + +-----------+------------+----+------+ + England | 3,307,034 | 15,124,541 | 2,066,299 | + Wales | 541,401 | 1,668,663 | 191,604 | + Islands | 17,700 | 57,685 | 22,887 | + Scotland | 937,411 | 5,255,077 | 219,716 | + Ireland | 3,493,414 | 3,688,742 | 1,299,893 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+ + Total | 8,316,960 | 25,794,708 | 3,800,399 | + ---------+-----------+------------+-----------+ + + ---------+------------------------------------+ + | Estimated, 1865. | + +-----------+------------+-----------+ + | Cattle. | Sheep. | Pigs. | + +-----------+------------+-----------+ + England | 3,422,165 | 18,691,088 | 2,363,724 | + Wales | ---- | ---- | ---- | + Islands | ---- | ---- | ---- | + Scotland | 974,437 | 5,683,168 | 146,354 | + Ireland | 3,493,414 | 3,688,742 | 1,299,893 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+ + Total | 7,890,016 | 28,062,998 | 3,809,971 | + ---------+-----------+------------+-----------+ + + + STATEMENT OF THE POPULATION AND NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK IN THE + UNITED KINGDOM AND VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES, ACCORDING TO + THE LATEST RETURNS. + + +--------------+-------+----------+------------------------------+----------+----------+ + | |Date of|Population| Cattle. | | | + | Countries. |Returns|according |---------+---------+----------+ Sheep. | Pigs. | + | |of Live|to Latest | Cows. | Other | Total. | | | + | |Stock. |Returns. | | Cattle. | | | | + +--------------+-------+----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+----------+ + |United Kingdom|1865-66|29,070,932|3,286,308|5,030,652| 8,316,960|25,795,708| 3,802,399| + |Russia |1859-63|74,139,394| ... | ... |25,444,000|45,130,800|10,097,000| + |Denmark Proper| 1861 | 1,662,734| 756,834| 361,940| 1,118,774| 1,751,950| 300,928| + |Sleswig | 1861 | 421,486| 217,751| 172,250| 390,001| 362,219| 87,867| + |Holstein | 1861 | 561,831| 198,310| 92,062| 290,372| 165,344| 82,398| + |Sweden | 1860 | 3,859,728|1,112,944| 803,714| 1,916,658| 1,644,156| 457,981| + |Prussia | 1862 |18,491,220|3,382,703|2,251,797| 5,634,500|17,428,017| 2,709,709| + |Hanover | 1861 | 1,880,070| ... | ... | 949,179| 2,211,927| 554,056| + |Saxony | 1861 | 2,225,240| 411,563| 226,897| 638,460| 371,986| 270,462| + |Wurtemburg | 1861 | 1,720,708| 466,758| 490,414| 957,172| 683,842| 216,965| + |Grand Duchy | | | | | | | | + | of Baden | 1861 | 1,429,199| 348,418| 273,068| 621,486| 177,322| 307,198| + | " Hesse | 1863 | 853,315| 187,442| 129,211| 316,653| 231,787| 195,596| + | " Nassau | 1864 | 468,311| 116,421| 84,224| 200,645| 152,584| 65,979| + | Mecklenb.| | | | | | | | + | " Schwerin | 1857 | 539,258| 197,622| 69,215| 266,837| 1,198,450| 157,522| + | " Oldenburg | 1852 | 279,637| ... | ... | 219,843| 295,322| 87,336| + |Holland | 1864 | 3,618,459| 943,214| 390,673| 1,333,887| 930,136| 294,636| + |Belgium | 1856 | 4,529,461| ... | ... | 1,257,649| 583,485| 458,418| + |France | 1862 |37,386,313|5,781,465|8,415,895|14,197,360|33,281,592| 5,246,403| + |Spain | 1865 |15,658,531| ... | ... | 2,904,598|22,054,967| 4,264,817| + |Austria | 1863 |36,267,648|6,353,086|7,904,030|14,257,116|16,964,236| 8,151,608| + |Bavaria | 1863 | 4,807,440|1,530,626|1,655,356| 3,185,882| 2,058,638| 926,522| + |United States | 1860 |31,445,080|8,728,862|8,182,813|16,911,475|23,317,756|32,555,267| + +--------------+-------+----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+----------+ + + + NUMBERS OF THE LIVE STOCK IMPORTED INTO GREAT BRITAIN + DURING THE ELEVEN MONTHS ENDED 31st NOVEMBER, 1867. + + Bullocks, bulls, and cows 150,518 + Calves 20,720 + Sheep and lambs 504,514 + Pigs 45,566 + -------- + 721,318 + + AMOUNT OF ANIMAL FOOD IMPORTED DURING SAME PERIOD. + + Bacon and hams cwts. 452,132 + Salt beef " 163,638 + Salt pork " 123,257 + Butter " 1,000,095 + Lard " 213,599 + Cheese " 798,267 + Eggs 373,042,000 + +I am indebted to Professor Ferguson, Chief of the Veterinary Department +of the Irish Privy Council Office, for the following statement:-- + + RETURN OF HORNED CATTLE EXPORTED FROM THE SEVERAL IRISH + PORTS AT WHICH VETERINARY INSPECTORS HAVE BEEN APPOINTED, + AND CERTIFIED AS FREE FROM DISEASE, FROM THE 18th OF + NOVEMBER, 1866, TO THE 16th OF NOVEMBER, 1867 (52 WEEKS). + + Fat Stock 187,483 + Store Stock 317,331 + Breeding and Dairy Stock 36,599 + -------- + Total 541,413 + ======== + + + + +PART I. + +ON THE GROWTH AND COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS. + + +SECTION I. + +ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE. + +_Functions of Plants._--It is the primary function of plants to convert +the inorganic matter of the soil and air into organised structures +of a highly complex nature. The food of plants is purely mineral, and +consists chiefly of water, carbonic acid, and ammonia. Water is composed +of the elements oxygen and hydrogen; carbonic acid is a compound of +oxygen and carbon; and ammonia is formed of hydrogen and nitrogen. These +four substances are termed the _organic elements_, because they form by +far the larger portion--sometimes the whole--of organic bodies. The +combustible portion of plants and animals is composed of the organic +elements; the incombustible part is made up of potassium, sodium, and +the various other elements enumerated in another page. The organic +elements are furnished chiefly by the atmosphere, and the incombustible +matters are supplied by the soil. + +Water in the state of vapor forms, according to the temperature and +other conditions of the atmosphere, from a half per cent. to four and a +half per cent. of the weight of that fluid--about 1·25 per cent. being +the average; carbonic acid exists in it to the extent of 1/2000th; and +ammonia forms a minute portion of it--according to Dr. Angus Smith, one +grain weight in 412·42 cubic feet of air (of a town), or 0·000453 per +cent. It is remarkable that the most abundant constituents of atmospheric +air--oxygen and nitrogen--are not assimilable by plants, although these +elements enter largely into the composition of vegetable substances. In +the soil, also, the part which ministers to the wants of vegetables is +relatively quite insignificant in amount. + +Plants are unendowed with organs of locomotion, their food must +therefore be within easy reach. Every breeze wafts gaseous nutriment to +their expanded leaves, and their rootlets ramify throughout the soil in +search of appropriate mineral aliment. But no matter how abundant, or +however easy of reach may be the food of plants, the vegetable organism +is incapable of partaking of it unless under the influence of light. +Exposed to this potent stimulus, the plant collects the gaseous carbonic +acid and the vaporous water, solidifies them, decomposes them, and +combines their elements into new and organised forms. In effecting these +changes--in conferring vitality upon the atoms of lifeless matter--the +plant acts merely as the _mechanism_, the light is the _force_. As the +work performed by the steam-engine is proportionate to the amount of +force developed by the combustion of the fuel beneath its boiler, +so is the rapidity of the elaboration of organic substances by plants +proportionate to the amount of sunlight to which they are exposed. It is +an axiom that matter is indestructible; we may alter its form as often +as we please, but we cannot destroy a particle of it. It is the same +with _force_: we may convert one kind of it into another--heat into +light, or magnetism into electricity--but our power ends there; we can +only cause force, or _motion_, to pass from one of its conditions to +another, but its _quantity_ can never be diminished by the power of man. + +The principle of the Conservation of the Forces gives us a clear +explanation of the fact that animals can obtain their food only through +the medium of the vegetable kingdom. Plants are stationary mechanisms; +they have no need to develop motive power, as animals have, in moving +themselves from place to place. Their temperature is, we may say, the +same as that of the medium in which they exist. Such beings as plants +do not, therefore, require the expenditure of force to maintain their +vitality; on the contrary, their mechanisms are, for a beneficent +purpose, constructed for the _accumulation_ of force. The growing +plant absorbs, together with carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, a +proportionate amount of light, heat, and the various other subtile +forces which have their abiding place in the sun-beam-- + + "That golden chain, + Whose strong embrace holds heaven and earth and main." + +Co-incidentally with the conversion of the mineral constituents of the +food of plants into organised structures--albumen, fibre, and such +like substances--the light, and the heat, and the various other forces +likewise suffer a change. Although the precise nature of the new force +into which they are converted is still a mystery--one, too, which may +never be revealed to us--still we know sufficient of it to satisfy +us that it can only exist in connection with organic or organised +structures. It is owing to its presence that the elements of these +structures (the natural state of which is mineral) are bound together +in what may be aptly designated a constrained state; or, as Liebig +aptly expresses it, like the matter in a bent spring. So long as the +organic structure retains its form, it will be a reservoir of latent +force--which will manifest itself in some form during the recoil of the +atoms of the matter forming the structure to their original mineral, or +statical condition: so the bent spring, when the pressure is removed, +returns to its original straight form. + +_Animal Life._--The chief manifestation of the life of a plant is the +accumulation of force; very different are the functions of animal life. +It is only by the continuous _expenditure_ of force that the vitality of +animals is preserved; the heat of a man's body, his power of locomotion, +the performance of his daily toil, even his very faculty of thought, are +all dependent upon, and to a great extent proportionate to, the amount +of organised matter disorganised in his body. It is by the conversion +of this organised matter into its original mineral state of water, +carbonic acid, and ammonia, that the force originally expended in +arranging, through the agency of plants, its atoms, is again restored, +chiefly in the form of heat and animal motive power. + +Animals, as a class, are completely dependent upon vegetables for +their existence. There is every reason to believe that the most lowly +organised beings in the scale of animal life, even those of so +simple a structure as to have been long regarded as vegetables or as +plant-animals, are incapable of organising mineral matter. The so-called +vegetative life of animals--for I believe the term to be exceedingly +inexact--is applied to their growth, that is, to the increase in their +weight. This increase takes place by their power of reorganising, or +of assimilating to the nature of their own organisms, certain of the +substances elaborated by plants, and destined to become food for +animals. + + +SECTION II. + +COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. + +_Elements of Organic Bodies._--The number of distinct kinds of +substances--each distinguishable from all the others by the peculiarity +of its properties, taken as a whole--is exceedingly great, yet all +these substances are resolvable into a very small number of bodies. +As an illustration, I shall take a well-known substance, common +green copperas, or, as the chemists term it, protosulphate of iron. +By submitting this compound to the process termed chemical analysis, +two other kinds of matter may be obtained from it, namely, oxide of iron +and oil of vitrol, or sulphuric acid. If we continued this process--if +we submitted the acid and the oxide to analysis--we could separate the +former into sulphur and oxygen, and the latter into iron and oxygen. +Now, by these means we could demonstrate the compound nature of +copperas; we could prove that it was _proximately_ composed of sulphuric +acid and oxide of iron; and, _ultimately_, of iron, sulphur, and oxygen. + +Iron, sulphur, and oxygen, are elementary, or simple bodies. They cannot +be decomposed; they cannot be analysed. Torture them as we will in our +crucibles; expose them as we please to the highest temperature of a wind +furnace, or to the more intense heat evolved by a powerful galvanic +battery; subject them to the influence of any agent, or force, or +process we may choose, and still they will yield nothing but iron, +sulphur, and oxygen: hence these undecomposable bodies are regarded as +_elements_, or simple substances. So far as our knowledge extends, there +are about sixty-six of these undecomposable bodies, of which about one +half occurs in but exceedingly minute quantities, and a considerable +number of the others exists in comparatively small amounts. As by far +the greater proportion of compounds is made up of two or more of about +a dozen elementary bodies, it would at first sight appear as if the +distinct kinds of compounds which exist, or which may be called into +existence by the chemist, must be limited to, at most, a realisable +number; but the fact is there is no practical limit to the variety of +substances which may be artificially formed. Every difference in the +mode of the arrangement of the constituent atoms of a compound, causes +its metamorphosis into another kind of substance. To prove that the +number of these changes is bounded by no narrow limits, I need but refer +to the rules of Permutation, which demonstrate that twelve letters of +the alphabet may be arranged in no fewer than 479,000,000 different +ways.[1] The elements are the letters of Nature's alphabet, their +compounds are the words of the language of Creation. The combinations +of sounds and of signs which express the ideas and sensations of man may +be limited to millions; but numberless are the hieroglyphs by which the +Divine wisdom and beneficence is inscribed on the pages of the +magnificent volume of Nature. + +Of the sixty-six elementary bodies, not more than a dozen occur +commonly in animal and vegetable substances; these are Oxygen, Hydrogen, +Nitrogen, Carbon, Sulphur, Phosphorus, Chlorine, Silicium, Potassium, +Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, and Iron. In addition to these, Iodine, and +sometimes Bromine, are found in plants which grow in or near the sea; +and the former element has also been detected in some of the lower +animals, and in land plants. Manganese, Lithium, Cæsium, Rubidium, +and a few others of the simple bodies, occasionally occur in plants and +animals, but I believe their presence therein is always accidental. + +_Proximate Composition of Animal Substances._--The differences between +vegetable and animal substances are often more apparent than real. +Indeed many of the more important of these substances are almost +identical in composition. The albumen which coagulates when the juices +of vegetables are boiled, is identical with the albumen of the white +of eggs; the fibrine of wheat is in no respect chemically different +from the fibrine, or clot, of the blood; and, lastly, the legumine, +or _vegetable caseine_, of peas is almost indistinguishable from the +curd of milk, or _animal caseine_. But not only has chemical research +demonstrated the identity of the albumen, fibrine, and caseine of +vegetables with three of the more important constituents of animals, it +has gone a step further, and proved that they differ from each other in +but a few unimportant respects. They are unquestionably convertible into +each other[2] within the animal organism; and their functions, as elements +of nutrition, are almost, if not quite, identical. + +Exclusive of the blood, which contains the elements of every part of +the body, the animal organism is composed of three distinct classes of +substances--namely, _nitrogenous_, _non-nitrogenous_, and _mineral_. +All of these constituents, or substances capable of being converted +into them, must exist in the food. Certain articles, for example, milk, +contains all of them; but in others, for instance, butter, only one of +these substances is found. The nitrogenous part of the body embraces the +muscles, or lean flesh, the gelatine of the bones, and the skin and its +appendages--such as hair and horns; the non-nitrogenous constituents are +its fat and oil; and its mineral matter is found chiefly in the bony +framework. These constituents are not, however, isolated: the mineral +matter, no doubt, accumulates in certain parts, but in small quantities +it is found in every portion of the body; and although the fat forms a +distinct tissue, the muscles of the leanest animal are never free from +a sensible proportion of it. + +Albumen, fibrine, and caseine are the principal nitrogenous constituents +of food, and as they are employed in the reparation of the nitrogenous +tissues of the animal body, they have been termed _flesh-formers_. + +The fat and oil of animals are derived either from vegetable oil and +fat, or from some such substance as starch or sugar. The constituents +of food which form fat are termed _fat-formers_, and sometimes +_heat-givers_ or _respiratory elements_, from the notion that their +slow combustion in the animal body is the chief cause of its high +temperature. + +The mineral elements of the body are furnished principally by the +varieties of food which contain nitrogen. The whey of milk is rich in +them; but they do not exist in pure butter, in starch, or in sugar. + +Fat is a much more abundant constituent of the animal body than is +generally supposed, That this substance should constitute the greater +portion of the weight of an obese pig seems probable enough; but few +are aware that even in a lean sheep there is 50 per cent. more fat than +lean. + +For a very accurate knowledge of the relative proportions of the fatty, +nitrogenous, and mineral constituents of the carcasses of animals used +as human food, we are indebted to Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert. Before +these investigators turned their attention to this subject, it had +scarcely attracted the notice of scientific men; but a notion appears to +have been current, amongst non-scientific people, at least, that in all, +save the fattest animals, the lean flesh greatly preponderated over the +fat. That this idea was unsustained by a foundation of fact, has been +clearly proved by the results of an investigation[3] undertaken a few +years ago by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert--an investigation which I cannot +avoid characterising as one of the most laborious and apparently +trustworthy on record. The mere statement of the results of this inquiry +occupies 187 pages of one of the huge volumes of the Transactions of the +Royal Society--a fact which best indicates the immensity of the labour +which these gentlemen imposed upon themselves, and which, independently +of their other and numerous contributions to scientific agriculture, +entitles their names to most honourable mention in the annals of +science. + +I shall now briefly advert to a few of the more important facts +established by Lawes and Gilbert. From a large number of oxen, sheep, +and pigs, on which feeding experiments were being conducted, ten +individuals were selected. These were, a fat calf, a half-fat ox, a +moderately fat ox, a fat lamb, a store sheep, a half-fat old sheep, a +fat sheep, a very fat sheep, a store pig, and a fat pig. These animals +were killed, and the different organs and parts of their bodies were +separately weighed and analysed. The results were, that, with the +exception of the calf, all the animals contained, respectively, more fat +than lean. The fat ox and the fat lamb contained each three times as +much fat as lean flesh, and the proportion of the fatty matters to the +nitrogenous constituents of the carcass of the very fat sheep was as 4 +to 1. In the pig the fat greatly preponderated over the lean; the store +pig containing three times as much, and the fat pig five times as much +fat as lean. + +That part of the animal which is consumed as food by man, is termed the +_carcass_ by the butcher, and contains by far the greater portion of +the fat of the animal. The _offal_, in the language of the butcher, +constitutes those parts which are not commonly consumed as human food, +at least by the well-to-do classes. In calves, oxen, lambs, and sheep, +the offal embraces the skin, the feet, and the head, and all the +internal organs, excepting the kidneys and their fatty envelope. The +offal of the pig is made up of all the internal organs, excepting the +kidneys and kidney fat. It is the relative proportion of fat in the +carcasses analysed by Lawes and Gilbert that I have stated; but as the +nitrogenous matters occur in greatest quantity in the offal, it is +necessary that the relative proportions of the constituents of the body, +taken as a whole, should be considered. On an average, then, it will be +found that a fat fully-grown animal will contain 49 per cent. of water, +33 per cent. of dry fat, 13 per cent. of dry nitrogenous matter--muscles +separated from fat, hide, &c.--and 3 per cent. of mineral matter. In a +lean animal the average proportions of the various constituents will be +54 per cent. of water, 25-1/2 per cent. dry fat, 17 per cent. of dry +nitrogenous substances, and 3-1/2 per cent. of mineral matter. In the +following table these proportions are set forth. + + + SUMMARY OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE TEN ANIMALS--SHOWING THE + PER-CENTAGES OF MINERAL MATTER, DRY NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS, + FAT, TOTAL DRY SUBSTANCE, AND WATER. + + 1st. In Fresh Carcass. 2nd. In Fresh Offal (equal Sum of Parts, + excluding Contents of Stomachs and Intestines). 3rd. In Entire + Animal (Fasted Live-weight, including therefore the weight of + Contents of Stomachs and Intestines). + + +-----------------------------------------+ + | KEY: | + | A.--Mineral matter. | + | B.--Dry nitrogenous compounds. | + | C.--Fat. | + | D.--Dry substance. | + | E.--Water. | + | F.--Contents of viscera. | + | | + ----------------------------+-----------------------------------------+ + | Per cent. in Carcass. | + DESCRIPTION +--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ + OF ANIMAL. | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | + ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ + Fat calf | 4·48 | 16·6 | 16·6 | 37·7 | 62·3 | + Half-fat ox | 5·56 | 17·8 | 22·6 | 46·0 | 54·0 | + Fat ox | 4·56 | 15·0 | 34·8 | 54·4 | 45·6 | + Fat lamb | 3·63 | 10·9 | 36·9 | 51·4 | 48·6 | + Store sheep | 4·36 | 14·5 | 23·8 | 42·7 | 57·3 | + Half-fat old sheep | 4·13 | 14·9 | 31·3 | 50·3 | 49·7 | + Fat sheep | 3·45 | 11·5 | 45·4 | 60·3 | 39·7 | + Extra fat sheep | 2·77 | 9·1 | 55·1 | 67·0 | 33·0 | + Store pig | 2·57 | 14·0 | 28·1 | 44·7 | 55·3 | + Fat pig | 1·40 | 10·5 | 49·5 | 61·4 | 38·6 | + ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ + Means of all | 3·69 | 13·5 | 34·4 | 51·6 | 48·4 | + ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ + Means of 8 of the half-fat, | | | | | | + fat, and very fat animals | 3·75 | 13·3 | 36·5 | 53·6 | 46·4 | + ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ + Means of 6 of the fat, | | | | | | + and very fat animals | 3·38 | 12·3 | 39·7 | 55·4 | 44·6 | + ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ + + ----------------------------+-----------------------------------------+ + | Per cent. in Offal. | + Description +--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ + of Animal. | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | + ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ + Fat calf | 3·41 | 17·1 | 14·6 | 35·1 | 64·9 | + Half-fat ox | 4·05 | 20·6 | 15·7 | 40·4 | 59·6 | + Fat ox | 3·40 | 17·5 | 26·3 | 47·2 | 52·8 | + Fat lamb | 2·45 | 18·9 | 20·1 | 41·5 | 58·5 | + Store sheep | 2·19 | 18·0 | 16·1 | 36·3 | 63·7 | + Half-fat old sheep | 2·72 | 17·7 | 18·5 | 38·9 | 61·1 | + Fat sheep | 2·32 | 16·1 | 26·4 | 44·8 | 55·2 | + Extra fat sheep | 3·64 | 16·8 | 34·5 | 54·9 | 45·1 | + Store pig | 3·07 | 14·0 | 15·0 | 32·1 | 67·9 | + Fat pig | 2·97 | 14·8 | 22·8 | 40·6 | 59·4 | + ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ + Means of all | 3·02 | 17·2 | 21·0 | 41·2 | 58·8 | + ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ + Means of 8 of the half-fat, | | | | | | + fat, and very fat animals | 3·12 | 17·4 | 22·4 | 42·9 | 57·1 | + ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ + Means of 6 of the fat, | | | | | | + and very fat animals | 3·03 | 16·9 | 24·1 | 44·0 | 56·0 | + ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ + + ----------------------------+-----------------------------------------+ + | Per cent. in Entire Animal. | + Description +------+------+------+------+------+------+ + of Animal. | A. | B. | C. | D. | F. | E. | + ----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + Fat calf | 3·80 | 15·2 | 14·8 | 33·8 | 3·17 | 63·8 | + Half-fat ox | 4·66 | 16·6 | 19·1 | 40·3 | 8·19 | 51·5 | + Fat ox | 3·92 | 14·5 | 30·1 | 48·5 | 5·98 | 45·5 | + Fat lamb | 2·94 | 12·3 | 28·5 | 43·7 | 8·54 | 47·8 | + Store sheep | 3·16 | 14·8 | 18·7 | 36·7 | 6·00 | 57·3 | + Half-fat old sheep | 3·17 | 14·0 | 23·5 | 40·7 | 9·05 | 50·2 | + Fat sheep | 2·81 | 12·2 | 35·6 | 50·6 | 6·02 | 43·4 | + Extra fat sheep | 2·90 | 10·9 | 45·8 | 59·6 | 5·18 | 35·2 | + Store pig | 2·67 | 13·7 | 23·3 | 39·7 | 5·22 | 55·1 | + Fat pig | 1·65 | 10·9 | 42·2 | 54·7 | 3·97 | 41·3 | + ----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + Means of all | 3·17 | 13·5 | 28·2 | 44·9 | 6·13 | 49·0 | + ----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + Means of 8 of the half-fat, | | | | | | | + fat, and very fat animals | 3·23 | 13·3 | 29·9 | 46·4 | 6·26 | 47·3 | + ----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + Means of 6 of the fat, | | | | | | | + and very fat animals | 3·00 | 12·7 | 32·8 | 48·5 | 5·48 | 46·0 | + ----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + + + +SECTION III. + +USE OF FAT IN THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. + +As fat forms so large a portion of the body, it is evident that +the part it plays in the animal economy must be a most important one. +The general opinion which prevails amongst scientific men as to its +physiological functions was originated by the celebrated Liebig. +According to his theory, the food of animals includes two distinct kinds +of substances--_plastic_[4] and _non-plastic_. The plastic materials are +composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and a little sulphur +and phosphorus. Albumen, fibrine, and casein are plastic elements of +nutrition; they form the lean flesh, or muscles, the membranes, and +cartilages, the gelatine of the bones, the skin, the hair, and, in +short, every part of the body which contains nitrogen. The _non-plastic_ +elements of nutrition include fat, oil, starch, sugar, gum, and certain +constituents of fruits, such as pectine. + +All non-plastic substances--and of each kind there are numerous +varieties--are capable of conversion, in the animal mechanism, into fat +and oil. The non-plastic food substances do not contain nitrogen, hence +they are commonly termed non-nitrogenous elements. The oily and fatty +matters contain a large proportion of carbon, their next most abundant +component is hydrogen, and they contain but little oxygen. Unlike the +plastic elements, they are--except the fats of the brain and nervous +tissue--altogether destitute of sulphur and phosphorus. The starchy, +saccharine, and gummy substances are composed of the same elements as +the fatty bodies, but they contain a higher proportion of oxygen. +According to Liebig, fat is used in the animal economy as a source of +internal heat. We all know that it is a most combustible body, and that +during its inflammation the most intense heat is developed. It is less +evident, but not less true, that heat is evolved during its slow +oxidation, or decay. + +The more rapidly a body burns, the greater is the amount of heat evolved +by it in a _given time_; but the total amount of heat developed by a +specific weight of the body is the same, whether the combustion takes +place rapidly or slowly. An experiment performed with phosphorus +illustrates the case perfectly. If we burned two pieces of equal weight, +the one in oxygen, the other in atmospheric air, we should find that the +former would emit a light five times as brilliant as that evolved by the +latter, for the simple reason that its combustion would be five times as +rapid. The white, vapor-like matter into which phosphorus is converted +by its combustion, is termed _phosphoric acid_. It is composed of +phosphorus and oxygen. In forming an ounce of this compound, by the +direct oxidation, or combustion of phosphorus, the amount of force, +either as heat, or as heat and light, evolved is precisely the same, +whether the time expended in the process be a minute or a month.[5] If, +in the experiment I have described, we were to substitute two pieces of +fat for the fragments of phosphorus, the results would be precisely +similar. The fat burned in oxygen gas would emit intense light and heat; +but the total amount of these forces evolved would be neither greater +nor less than that developed during the slower and therefore less +brilliant combustion of the fat in ordinary atmospheric air. Now, as we +can demonstrate that an ounce of fat will emit a certain amount of heat, +if burned within a minute of time, and that neither a larger nor a +smaller amount will be developed if the combustion of the fat extend +over a period of five minutes, I think we may fairly assume that the +amount of heat evolved by the complete oxidation of a specific quantity +of fat is constant under all conditions, except, as I have already +explained, at high temperatures, when a portion of the heat is converted +into light. + +In the animal organism fat is burned. The process of combustion no +doubt is a very slow one, but still the total amount of heat evolved +is just the same as if the fat were consumed in a furnace. When the +fat constituting a candle is burned, what becomes of it? Its elements, +carbon and hydrogen (we may disregard its small amount of oxygen) +combine with the oxygen of the air, and form carbonic acid gas and +water. What becomes of the fat consumed within the animal body? It also +is converted into carbonic acid gas and water. It is not difficult +to prove these statements to be facts. A candle will not burn in +atmospheric air which has been deprived of its oxygen, because there is +no substance present with which the elements of the taper can combine, +consequently the process of combustion cannot go on. Now, a man may in +one respect be compared with this taper. He is partly made up of fat; +that fat is consumed by the oxygen of the air, and the heat developed +thereby keeps the body warm. In the process of respiration oxygen is +introduced into the lungs, and from thence, by means of the blood +vessels, is conveyed throughout every part of the body. In some way, at +present not thoroughly understood, the elements of the fat combine with +the oxygen, and are converted into carbonic acid gas and water, which +are exhaled from the lungs and from the surface of the body. + +Fat is a constituent of both animals and plants. The animal derives a +portion of its fat directly from the vegetable; but it possesses the +power of forming this substance from other organic bodies, such, for +example, as starch. Plants elaborate fat directly from the +minerals--carbonic acid gas, and water. + +I have already explained that the growth of plants is, _cæteris +paribus_, directly proportionate to the amount of sunlight to which +they are exposed. Not less certainly is the force which constitutes the +sun-beam expended in grouping mineral atoms into organic forms, than is +the heat which converts water into steam. But in neither case is the +force destroyed. When the vaporous steam is condensed into the liquid +water, all the heat is restored, and becomes palpable. By the ultimate +decomposition of vegetable substances all the force expended on their +production is liberated, and, in some form, becomes manifest. + +When the fat formed in the mechanisms of plants is decomposed in +the animal organism, two results follow:--The atoms of the fat are +re-converted to their original mineral, or statical conditions of +carbonic acid gas and water; and the force which maintained them in +their organic state is set free as heat, and its equivalent, motive +power. + +One of the most useful instruments which the ingenuity of man has +devised, is the Thermometer. It is so familiarly known that I need +not describe it. This instrument does not enable us to estimate the +actual quantity of heat contained in a substance, but it indicates +the proportion of that subtile element which is _sensible_--that is +recognisable by the sense of touch. The dusky Hindu, clad in his single +cotton garment, and the Laplander in his suit of fur, are placed under +the most opposite conditions in relation to the heat of the sun--the +Indian is exposed during the whole year to Sol's most ardent beams, +whilst but a scant share of its genial rays goes to warm the body of +the Laplander. Now, if we placed the bulb of a thermometer beneath the +tongue of a Hindu, we would find the mercury to stand at 98 degrees on +Fahrenheit's scale, and if we repeated the experiment on a Laplander, +we would obtain an identical result. Numerous experiments of this +nature have been made on individuals in most parts of the world, and +the results have proved that the temperature of the blood of man is +98 degrees Fahrenheit, whether he be in India or at Nova Zembla, on +the _steppes_ of Russia, or the elevated _plateaus_ of America. This +invariability[6] of the temperature of the bodies of men and of all +other warm-blooded animals, appears the more wonderful when it it is +considered that the range of the temperature of the medium in which +they exist exceeds 200 degrees Fahrenheit. In India, the mercury in the +thermometer has been observed to stand at 145 degrees in the direct +sunlight, and at 120 degrees in the shade. In high latitudes the +temperature is sometimes so low as 100 degrees below zero. A Russian +army, in an expedition to China, in 1839, was exposed for several +successive days to a temperature of 42 degrees below zero, and suffered +severely in consequence. + +The facts which I have cited clearly prove that the animal body +possesses the power of generating, or, to speak more correctly, +liberating heat, either from portions of its own mechanism or from +substances placed within that mechanism. + +At one time it was the general belief amongst physiologists that one +portion of the food consumed by an animal was employed in repairing +the waste of its body, and the remaining part was burned as fuel, +evolving heat just in the same way as if it had been consumed in a +furnace. It was this theory that led to the classification of food into +flesh-formers, and heat-givers. It is now doubted if any portion of the +food be really burned in this way; and I, for one, think it far more +probable that, before its conversion into carbonic acid gas and water +(whereby, according to this theory, it develops the heat which keeps the +body warm), it first becomes assimilated, that is, becomes an integral +part of the animal body--blood, fat, muscle. Perhaps we would be +nearer the truth if we were to assume that heat is evolved during the +decomposition of both the nitrogenous and fatty constituents of the +body. + +The constantly recurring contractions of the muscles must alone be a +source of much heat. The development of animal motive power is said to +be strictly proportionate to the amount of muscular tissue decomposed. +As the nitrogen of the latter is almost completely excreted under the +form of urea, the quantity of the latter daily eliminated from the +body of an animal is a measure of the decomposed muscular tissue, and +consequently of the amount of muscular power generated in the animal +organism.[7] The correspondence between the amount of the motive power +of an animal, and the quantity of effete nitrogen excreted from the +body, is limited to laboring men and to the lower animals. Strange as +it may appear, it is an incontrovertible fact that men whose pursuits +require the constant exercise of the intellectual faculties--lawyers, +writers, statesmen, students, scientific men, and other +brain-workers--excrete more urea than do men engaged in the most +physically laborious occupations. An activity of thoughts and ideas +involves a corresponding destruction of the tissues, and these require, +for their reparation, the consumption of food. Here, then, we have a +physical meaning for the common expression--"food for thought." + +That the amount of heat developed in the animal organism, is +proportionate to the quantity of fatty matters (or of substances capable +of forming them) supplied to it in the shape of food, is a proposition +which admits of easy demonstration. The natives of warm regions do not +require the generation of much heat within their bodies, because the +temperature of the medium in which they exist is generally as high as, +or higher than, that of their blood. But as they must consume food for +the purpose of repairing the waste of their nitrogenous tissues, and as +every kind of food contains heat-producing elements, an excess of heat +is developed within their bodies, which, if allowed to accumulate, would +speedily produce fatal results. The means by which nature removes this +superabundant heat are admirably simple, as indeed all its contrivances +are. The skin is permeated with millions of pores, and through these +openings a large quantity of vapor is given off, and carries with it the +surplus heat. The pores are the orifices of minute convoluted tubes +which lie beneath the skin, and when straightened measure each about the +tenth of an inch, or, according to a writer in the _British and Foreign +Medico-Chirurgical Review_ (1859, page 349), the one-fifteenth of an +inch in length. According to Erasmus Wilson, the number of these tubes +which open into every square inch of the surface of the body is 2,800. +The total number of square inches on the surface of an average sized man +is 2,500, consequently the surface of his body is drained by not less +than twenty-eight miles of tubing, furnished with 7,000,000 openings. +The cooling of the body, by the evaporation of water from it, admits of +explanation by well-known natural laws. Water, in the state of vapor, +occupies a space 1,700 fold greater than it does in its liquid +condition. It is heat which causes its vaporous form, but it ceases to +be heat when it has accomplished this change in the condition of the +liquid; for, suffering itself an alteration, it passes into another form +of force--mechanical, or motive power. The heat generated within the +body is absorbed by the liquid water, the conversion of the latter into +vapor follows, and both the heat and the water, in their altered forms, +escape through the pores. + +_Fatty food necessary in cold climates._--As a grave objection against +the chemical theory of heat, it has been urged that rice--the pabulum of +hundreds of millions of the inhabitants of tropical regions--contains an +exceedingly high proportion of heat-giving substances. I have, however, +great doubt as to rice ever forming the exclusive food of those people, +without their health being impaired in consequence of the deficiency in +that substance of the plastic elements of nutrition. Indeed I believe +it is a great mistake to assert that the natives of India live almost +exclusively on rice. This article, no doubt, forms a large proportion of +their food, but it is supplemented with pulse (the produce of leguminous +plants), which is rich in flesh-forming materials, also with dried fish, +butter, and various kinds of vegetable and animal food rich in nitrogen. +The innutritious nature of rice is clearly shown by its chemical +composition, and so large a quantity of it must the Hindu consume in +order to repair the waste of his body, that his stomach sometimes +acquires prodigious dimensions; hence the term "pot-bellied," so often +applied to the Indian ryot. I doubt very much, however, if the stomach +of the Hindu, large as it is, could accommodate a quantity of rice, the +combustion of which would produce a very excessive development of heat. +This substance, when cooked, contains a high proportion of water, the +evaporation of which carries off a large amount of the heat generated +by the combustion of its respiratory constituents. The amount of motive +power developed by the Hindu is small as compared with that which the +European is capable of exerting; hence he has less necessity for a +highly nitrogenous diet. On the whole, then, I am disposed to think +that the food of the natives of tropical climates contains sufficient +nitrogenous matters to effectually build up and keep in repair their +bodies; it also appears clear to me that the amount of heat developed +in their bodies is not excessive, and that it is readily disposed of +in converting the water, which enters so largely into their diet, into +vapor. The proportion of plastic to non-plastic elements in the diet +of the Hindu and of the well-fed European, is probably as follows:-- + + Nitrogenous. Non-nitrogenous + (calculated as starch.) + + Hindu 1 to 9 + European 1 to 8 + + +This statement does not quite correspond with Liebig's, who estimates +the proportion of nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous substances in rice as +10 to 123, in beef as ten to seventeen, and in veal as ten to one. The +results of Lawes and Gilbert's investigations, already alluded to, have, +however, dispelled the illusion that the plastic constituents of flesh +exceed its non-plastic. In the potato, which at one time constituted +more of the food of the Irish peasantry than rice does that of the +Hindu, the proportion of plastic to non-plastic materials is as 10 to +110. The results of some analyses of the food grains consumed in the +Presidency of Madras, made by Professor Mayer, of the University of +Madras, clearly prove that the food of the inhabitants of that part of +India is of a far more highly nitrogenous character than is generally +supposed. That the Hindu, who subsists exclusively on rice, exhibits +all the symptoms of deficient nutrition, is a fact to which numerous +competent observers have testified. + +A slight consideration of the facts which I have mentioned leads to the +conclusion that the food of the inhabitants of very cold regions is +required to produce a large amount of heat. Melons, rice, and other +watery vegetable productions, however delicious to the palate of the +Hindu, would be rejected with disgust by the Esquimaux, whilst the train +oil, blubber, and putrid seal's flesh which the children of the icy +North consider highly palatable, would excite the loathing of the East +Indian. On this subject I may appositely quote the following remarks by +Dr. Kane, the Arctic explorer:--"Our journeys have taught us the wisdom +of the Esquimaux appetite, and there are few among us who do not relish +a slice of raw blubber, or a chunk of frozen walrus beef. The liver of +a walrus (awuktanuk), eaten with little slices of his fat--of a verity +it is a delicious morsel. Fire would seem to spoil the curt, pithy +expression of vitality which belongs to its uncooked juices. Charles +Lamb's roast pig was nothing to awuktanuk. I wonder that raw beef is not +eaten at home. Deprived of extraneous fibre, it is neither indigestible +nor difficult to masticate. With acids and condiments, it makes a salad +which an educated palate cannot help relishing; and as a powerful and +condensed heat-making and anti-scorbutic food, it has no rival. I make +this last broad assertion after carefully considering its truth. The +natives of South Greenland prepare themselves for a long journey, by a +course of frozen seal. At Upper Navik they do the same with the narwhal, +which is thought more heat-making than the seal; while the bear, to use +their own expression, is 'stronger travel than all.' In Smith's Sound, +where the use of raw meat seems almost inevitable from the modes of +living of the people, walrus holds the first rank. Certainly this +pachyderm (Cetacean?) whose finely condensed tissue and delicately +permeating fat (oh! call it not blubber) assimilate it to the ox, is +beyond all others, and is the best _fuel_ a man can swallow." The +gastronomic capabilities of the Esquimaux and of other northern races, +and their fondness for fatty food, are exhibited in a sufficiently +strong light in the following statements:-- + +Captain Parry weighed and presented to an Esquimaux lad the following +articles:-- + + lb. oz. + + Frozen seahorse flesh 4 4 + Wild seahorse flesh 4 4 + Bread and bread dust 1 12 + Rich gravy soup 1 4 + Water 10 0 + Strong grog 1 tumbler. + Raw spirits 3 wine glasses. + +This large quantity of food, which the lad did not consider excessive, +was consumed by him within twenty-four hours. According to Captain +Cochrane a reindeer suffices but for one repast for three Yakutis, and +five of them will devour at a sitting a calf weighing 200 lbs. Mr. +Hooper, one of the officers of the _Plover_, in his narrative of their +residence on the shores of Arctic America, states that "one of the +ladies who visited them was presented, as a jest, with a small tallow +candle, called a purser's dip. It was, notwithstanding, a very pleasant +joke to the damsel, who deliberately munched it up with evident relish, +and finally drew the wick between her set teeth to clean off any +remaining morsels of fat." + +The partiality for certain kinds of food, and disgust at other +varieties, which particular races of men exhibit, is an instinct which +they cannot avoid obeying. Instead of exciting our disgust, as it too +frequently does, it should exalt our admiration of the infinite wisdom +of the Creator, who by simply adapting man's desire for particular kinds +of food to the external conditions under which he is placed, enables him +to occupy and "subdue the earth" from the Equator to the Poles. + +The food of human beings and of the lower animals who inhabit cold +countries is nearly exclusively composed of animal substances. +The flesh, fat, and oil of animals occupy less space than do the +corresponding elements of vegetables; consequently the nutriment they +afford is more concentrated, and a larger quantity can be stowed away +without inconvenience in the stomach. The heat-forming constituents of +these substances constitute not only the chief part of their bulk, but +they are also capable of evolving a greater amount of heat than any +other of the respiratory elements. One pound of dry fat will develop as +much heat as two and a half pounds of dry starch, and the fattest flesh +includes four times as much plastic materials as rice. The diet of +people all over the world, unless under circumstances which prevent the +gratification of the natural appetite, establishes the intimate relation +which subsists between cold and food. The appetite of man is at a +minimum at the Equator, and at a maximum within the Arctic circle. The +statements as to the voracity of Hottentots and Bosjesmans, recorded in +the narratives of travellers, do not in the slightest degree affect the +general rule that more is eaten in cold climates than in hot regions. +These are mere records of gluttony, and it would not be difficult to +find parallel cases in our own country. Gluttony is an abnormal +appetite, and the greater part of the food devoured under its unnatural, +and generally unhealthy stimulus is not applied to the wants of the body. + +The bodies of animals are heated masses of matter, and are subject to +the ordinary laws of _radiation_. Every substance radiates its heat, and +receives in return a portion of that emitted from surrounding bodies. If +two bodies of unequal temperature be placed near each other, the warmer +of the two will radiate a portion of its heat to the colder, and will +receive some of the heat of the latter in return; but as the warmer body +will emit more heat than it will receive, the result will be, that after +a time, the length of which will depend on the nature of the bodies, +both will acquire the same temperature. In very warm climates the bodies +of animals derive from the sun, and from the heated bodies surrounding +them, more heat than they give in return; and were it not for their +internal cooling apparatus, which I have described, the heat so absorbed +would prove fatal. In every climate, on the contrary, where the +temperature is lower than 98°, or "blood heat," the bodies of animals +lose more heat by radiation than they receive by the same means. The +philosophy of the _clothing_ of men and the _sheltering_ of the lower +animals is now evident. It is not only necessary that heat should be +developed within the body, but also that its wasteful expenditure should +be prevented. The latter is effected by interposing between the warm +body and the cold air some substances (such as fur or wool) which do not +readily permit the transmission of heat--_non-conductors_ as they are +termed. The close down of the eider duck is destined to protect its +bosom from the chilling influence of the icy waters of the North Polar +Sea, and the quadrupeds of the dreary Arctic Circle are sheltered by +thick fur coverings from the piercing blasts of its long winter. + +_Fat Equivalents._--Whilst it is quite certain that neither nerves nor +muscles can be elaborated exclusively out of fat, starch, sugar, or any +other non-nitrogenous substance, it is almost equally clear that fat may +be formed out of nitrogenous tissue. The quantity of fat, however, which +is produced in the animal mechanism, from purely nitrogenous food +appears to be relatively very small. No animal is capable of subsisting +solely on muscle-forming materials, no matter how abundantly supplied. +The food of the Carnivora contains a large proportion of fat, and the +nutriment of the Herbivora is largely made up of starch and other +fat-formers. Dogs, geese, and other animals fed exclusively upon albumen +or white of egg rapidly decreased in weight, and after presenting all +the symptoms of starvation, died in three or four weeks.[8] The fat of +the bodies of the Carnivora is almost entirely formed--and probably with +little if any alteration--from the fatty constituents of their food. +Herbivorous animals, on the contrary, derive nearly all their fat from +starch, sugar, gum, cellulose, and other non-nitrogenous, but not fatty, +materials. + +Although starch is convertible into fat, it is not to be understood that +a pound weight of one of these bodies is equivalent to an equal quantity +of the other. During the conversion of starch into fat, the greater +number of its constituent atoms is converted into water and carbonic +acid gas. The greater number of the more important metamorphoses of +organised matter, which take place in the animal organum, is the result +of either oxidation or fermentation: in the conversion of starch or +sugar into fat or oil, both of these processes, it is stated, take +place; a portion of the hydrogen is converted by oxidation into water, +and by fermentation carbonic acid gas is formed, which removes both +oxygen and carbon. Perhaps in the formation of fat fermentation is alone +employed--a portion of the oxygen being removed as water, and another +portion as carbonic acid. The chief difference between the ultimate +composition of starch and fat is, that the latter contains a much larger +proportion of hydrogen and carbon. The knowledge of the exact quantity +of starch required for the formation of a given amount of fat is of +importance in enabling us to estimate the relative feeding value of both +substances. Certain difficulties stand in the way of our acquiring an +accurate knowledge on this point. Not only are there several distinct +kinds of fat, but the precise formula, or atomic constitution of each, +is as yet veiled in doubt. There are three fats which occur in man +and the domesticated animals, and in vegetables. These are stearine, +margarine, and oleine. The relative proportions of these vary in each +animal: thus, in man and in the goose margarine is the most abundant +fat, whilst oleine[9] exists in the pig in a greater proportion than in +man, the sheep, or the ox. The composition of the animal fats does not, +however, vary much; and this fact, together with other considerations, +have led chemists to assume that two-and-a-half parts of starch are +required for the production of one part of the mixed fats of the +different animals. Grape sugar and the pectine bodies--substances which +form a large proportion of the food of the Herbivora--contain more +oxygen and hydrogen than exist in starch, and, consequently, are not +capable of forming so large an amount of fat as an equal weight of +starch. We may assume, then, that 2·50 parts of starch, 2·75 parts of +sugar, or 3 parts of the pectine bodies, are equivalent to 1 part of +fat. + + +SECTION IV. + +RELATION BETWEEN THE COMPOSITION OF AN ANIMAL AND THAT OF ITS FOOD. + +I have already stated that the results of the admirable investigations +of Lawes and Gilbert prove that the non-nitrogenous constituents of the +carcasses of oxen, sheep, and pigs exceed in weight their nitrogenous +elements. This fact is suggestive of many important questions. What +relation is there between the composition of an animal and that of +its food? Should an animal whose body contains three times as much +fat as lean flesh, be supplied with food containing three times +as much fat-formers as flesh-formers? To these questions there is +some difficulty in replying. There _is_ a relationship between the +composition of the body of an animal and that of its food; but the +relationship varies so greatly that it is impossible to determine with +any degree of accuracy the quantity of fat-formers which is required to +produce a given weight of fat in animals, taken _in globo_. If, however, +we deal with a particular animal placed under certain conditions, it is +then possible to ascertain the amount of fat which a given weight of +non-plastic food will produce. For the greater part of our knowledge +on this point, as on so many others, in the feeding of stock, we are +indebted to Lawes and Gilbert. In the case of sheep fed upon fattening +food these inquirers found that every 100 lbs. of dry[10] non-nitrogenous +substances consumed by them produced, on an average, an increase of 10 +lbs. in the weight of their fat. In the case of pigs, also, supplied +with food, the proportion of non-nitrogenous matters appropriated to +the animal's increase was double that so applied in the bodies of the +sheep. As the food supplied to these animals contained but a very small +proportion of ready-formed fat, it was inferred that four-fifths of the +fat of the increase was derived from the sugar, starch, cellulose, and +pectine bodies. + +These tables exhibit in a condensed form the results of one of the +elaborate series of experiments in relation to this point carried out +by Lawes and Gilbert:-- + + ESTIMATED AMOUNT OF CERTAIN CONSTITUENTS STORED UP IN _INCREASE_, + FOR 100 PARTS OF EACH CONSUMED IN FOOD BY FATTENING SHEEP. + + +-------------------------------------------------------- + | KEY: + | A.--No. of Animals. + | B.--Mineral matter (ash).[11] + | C.--Nitrogenous compounds (dry). + | D.--Non-nitrogenous substance. + | E.--Total dry substance. + | + --------------------+------------------------------------+------------------- + | Amount of each + | Class in Increase + |for 100 of the same + GENERAL PARTICULARS OF THE EXPERIMENTS. | consumed in Food. + --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+---- + | | | Description of | | | | + | | | Fattening Food. | | | | + | | |-------------+--------| | | | + | | | Given | Given | | | | + | | | in limited | ad | | | | + BREED. | A.|Duration.| quantity. |libitum.| B. | C. | D. | E. + --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+---- + Class I. + --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+---- + | |wks. dys.|Oilcake and |Swedish | | | | + | | |clover chaff.|turnips.| | | | + Cotswolds | 46| 19 5 | " | " |3·98|4·43|11·6|9·60 + Leicesters | 40| 20 0 | " | " |3·15|3·39|12·0|9·48 + Cross-bred wethers | 40| 20 0 | " | " |3·24|3·60|11·6|9·31 + Cross-bred ewes | 40| 20 0 | " | " |3·25|3·60|11·8|9·40 + Hants Downs | 40| 26 0 | " | " |3·40|4·28|10·3|8·49 + Sussex Downs | 40| 26 0 | " | " |3·30|4·16|10·3|8·44 + --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+---- + Means |3·39|3·91|11·3|9·12 + =========================================================+====+====+====+==== + Class III.--(Series 1.) + --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+---- + | | | |Swedish | | | | + | | | |turnips.| | | | + Hants Downs | 5 | 13 6 |Oilcake. | " |4·16|4·01|11·1|9·33 + | 5 | 13 6 |Oats. | " |5·73|7·07|10·0|9·45 + | 5 | 13 6 |Clover chaff.| " |3·98|7·44| 9·0|8·49 + --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+---------+----+---- + Means |4·62|6·17|10·0|9·09 + =========================================================+====+====+====+==== + Class IV.--(Series 2.) + --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+---- + | | | | Clover | | | | + | | | | chaff. | | | | + Hants Downs | 5 | 19 1 |Oilcake. | " |1·69|2·20| 6·3|5·07 + | 5 | 19 1 |Linseed. | " |1·81|2·32| 6·2|5·19 + | 5 | 19 1 |Barley. | " |1·75|2·82| 5·7|5·00 + | 5 | 19 1 |Malt. | " |1·46|2·17| 5·3|4·61 + --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+---- + Means |1·68|2·38| 5·9|4·97 + =========================================================+====+====+====+==== + Class V.--(Series 4.) + --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+---- + | | | |Mangolds| | | | + Hants Downs | 4 | 10 0 |Barley ground| " |3·80|5·65| 9·8|8·91 + | 5 | 10 0 |Malt, ground,| " |4·04|6·18|10·4|9·49 + | | |& malt dust. | | | | | + | 4 | 10 0 |Barley ground| " |3·72|6·35| 8·9|8·28 + | | | and steeped.| | | | | + | 4 | 10 0 |Malt, ground | " |2·95|4·34| 9·3|8·23 + | | |and steeped, | | | | | + | | |& malt dust. | | | | | + | 5 | 10 0 |Malt, ground,| " |3·46|5·46| 9·1|8·25 + | | |& malt dust. | | | | | + --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+---- + Means |3·59|5·60| 9·5|8·63 + ---------------------------------------------------------+----+----+----+---- + Means of all |3·27|4·41| 9·4|8·06 + =========================================================+====+====+====+==== + + + ESTIMATED AMOUNT OF CERTAIN CONSTITUENTS STORED UP IN _INCREASE_, + FOR 100 OF EACH CONSUMED IN FOOD, BY FATTENING PIGS. + + +----------------------------------------------------------------- + | KEY: + | A.--No. of Animals. + | B.--Mineral matter (ash). + | C.--Nitrogenous compounds (dry). + | D.--Non-nitrogenous substance. + | E.--Total dry substance. + | F.--Fat. + | + -----------+----------------------------------------+------------------------ + | Amount of each Class + | in Increase for + GENERAL PARTICULARS OF THE EXPERIMENTS. | 100 of the same + | consumed in Food. + --+--------+----------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+--- + | | Description of Fattening Food. | | | | | + | |--------------------+-------------------| | | | | + | | Given in | Given | | | | | + A.|Duration|limited quantities. | ad libitum. | B. | C. | D. | E. | F. + ==+========+====================+===================+====+=====+====+====+=== + The Analysed "Fat Pig."[12] + --+--------+----------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+--- + | weeks | | | | | | + 1 | 10 |Mixture of bran 1, bean and lentil-meal |2·66| 7·76|17·6|14·9|405 + | | 2, and barley-meal 3 parts, ad libitum| | | | | + ==+========+========================================+====+=====+====+====+=== + Series I. + --+--------+--------------------+-------------------+----+-----+----+----+--- + 3 | 8 |None. |Bean & lentil-meal.|0·68| 4·88|25·3|17·5|621 + 3 | " |Indian-meal. | " |1·86| 6·39|23·7|17·9|477 + 3 | " |Indian-meal and bran| " |0·33| 5·02|21·1|16·1|362 + 3 | " |None. |Indian meal. |2·09| 9·28|20·9|18·6|300 + 3 | " |Bean and lentil-meal| " |0·99| 9·18|20·9|18·4|324 + 3 | " |Bran. | " |2·35|12·10|20·3|18·7|300 + 3 | " |Bean, lentil-meal, | " |2·71|10·03|21·3|18·5|307 + | | and bran. | " | | | | | + | | +-------------------| | | | | + 3 | " |Bean, lentil-meal, Indian-meal, bran, |0·22| 5·65|21·1|16·8|362 + | | ad libitum. | | | | | + --+--------+----------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+--- + Means |0·74| 7·82|21·8|17·8|382 + ====================================================+====+=====+====+====+=== + Series II. + --+--------+--------------------+-------------------+----+-----+----+----+--- + 3 | 8 |None. |Bean & lentil-meal.|3·20| 3·12|26·5|18·2|801 + 3 | " |Barley-meal. | " |0·16| 4·65|19·2|14·7|575 + 3 | " |Bran. | " |0·16| 3·99|21·2|15·2|547 + 3 | " |Barley-meal and bran| " |0·75| 4·57|20·1|15·6|514 + 3 | " |None. |Barley-meal. |0·56|10·09|18·5|16·9|574 + 3 | " |Bean and lentil-meal| " |0·53| 6·57|21·1|17·5|620 + 3 | " |Bran. | " |0·49| 9·79|18·9|16·9|506 + 3 | " |Bean, lentil-meal, | " |4·33| 4·49|22·7|18·0|578 + | | and bran. | | | | | | + | | +-------------------| | | | | + 6 | " |Mixture of bran 1, barley-meal 2, and |0·27| 5·65|20·4|16·1|495 + | | bean lentil-meal 3 parts, ad libitum. | | | | | + 6 | " |Mixture of bran 1, bean lentil-meal 2, |1·58| 8·10|21·1|17·6|515 + | | barley-meal 3 parts, ad libitum. | | | | | + --+--------+----------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+--- + Means |0·59| 6·10|21·0|16·7|572 + ====================================================+====+=====+====+====+=== + Series III. + --+--------+--------------------+-------------------+----+-----+----+----+--- + 4 | 8 |Dried Cod Fish. |Bran & Indian-meal |1·06| 5·06|24·3|18·1|315 + | | | (equal parts). | | | | | + 4 | " | " |Indian-meal. |0·26| 8·16|25·6|20·9|352 + --+--------+--------------------+-------------------+----+-----+----+----+--- + Means |0·66| 6·61|24·9|19·5|333 + ====================================================+====+=====+====+====+=== + Series IV. + --+--------+--------------------+-------------------+----+-----+----+----+--- + 3 | 10 |Lentil-meal & bran. |Sugar. |3·07| 9·30|19·4|16·9| + 3 | " | " |Starch. |3·18| 9·36|19·4|16·9| + 3 | " | " |Sugar & starch. |4·06|10·78|17·7|16·1| + | | +-------------------| | | | | + 3 | " |Lentils, bran, sugar, starch, ad libitum|4·80| 9·96|18·7|16·5| + --+--------+----------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----|--- + Means |3·78| 9·85|18·8|16·6| + ----------------------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+--- + Means of all |0·58| 7·34|21·2|17·3|472 + ====================================================+====+=====+====+====+=== + +The larger appropriation of the non-nitrogenous constituents of its food +by the pig, as compared with the sheep, must not be attributed solely to +its greater tendency to fatten, but partly to the far more digestible +nature of the food supplied to it. + + +SECTION V. + +RELATION BETWEEN THE QUANTITY OF FOOD CONSUMED BY AN ANIMAL, AND THE +INCREASE IN ITS WEIGHT, OR OF THE AMOUNT OF ITS WORK. + +The manifestations of that wondrous and mysterious principle, _life_, +are completely dependent upon the decomposition of organised matter. Not +an effort of the mind, not a motion of the body, can be accomplished +without involving the destruction of a portion of the tissues. In a +general sense we may regard the fat of the animal to be its store of +fuel, and its lean flesh to be the source of its motive power. As the +evolution of heat within the body is proportionate to the quantity of +fat consumed, so also is the amount of force developed in the animal +mechanism in a direct ratio to the proportion of flesh decomposed. +The quantity of fat burned in the body is estimated by the amount of +carbonic acid gas expired from the lungs and perspired through the skin; +the proportion of flesh disorganised is ascertained by the quantity of +urea eliminated in the liquid egesta. The amount of urea excreted daily +by a man is influenced by the activity of his mind, as well as by that +of his body. A man engaged in physical labor wears out more of his body +than one who does no work; and a man occupied in a pursuit involving +intense mental application, consumes a greater proportion of his tissue +than the man who works only with his body.[13] In each of these cases, +there is a different amount of tissue disorganised, and consequently a +demand for different amounts of food, with which to repair the waste. +But all the food consumed by a man is not devoted to the reparation of +the tissue worn out in the operations of thinking and working. A human +being whose mind is a perfect blank, and who performs no bodily work, +excretes a large quantity of urea, the representative of an equivalent +amount of worn-out flesh. In fact the greater part of the food consumed +by a man serves merely to sustain the functions of the body--the +circulation of the blood--the action of the heart--the movements of the +muscles concerned in respiration--in a word, the various motions of the +body which are independent of the will. According to Professor Haughton, +about three-fourths of the food of a working man of 150 lbs. weight, are +used in merely keeping him _alive_, the remaining fourth is expended in +the production of mechanical force, constituting his daily toil. + +In the nutrition of the lower animals, as in that of man, the amount of +food made use of by a particular individual depends upon its age, its +weight, the amount of work it performs, and probably its temper. As +three-fourths of the weight of the food of a laboring man are expended +in merely keeping him alive, it is obvious that the withholding of the +remaining fourth would render him incapable of working. An amount of +food which adequately maintains the vital and mechanical powers of three +men, serves merely to keep four alive. It is the same with the horse, +the ox, and every other animal useful to man: each makes use of a +certain amount of food, _for its own purposes_; all that is consumed +beyond that is applied for the benefit of its owner. Let us take the +case of two of our most useful quadrupeds--the horse and the ox. The +horse is used as an immediate source of motive power. For this purpose +food is supplied to it, the greater portion of which is consumed in +keeping the animal alive, and the rest for the development of its motive +power. Abundance of food is as necessary to the natural mechanism, +the horse, as fuel is to the artificial mechanism, the steam-engine. +In each case the amount of force developed is, within certain limits, +proportionate to the quantity of vegetable or altered vegetable matter +consumed. The greater portion of the ox's food is also consumed in +keeping its body alive, and the rest, instead of being expended in the +development of motive power, accumulates as surplus stores of flesh, +which in due time are applied to the purpose of repairing the organisms +of men. It is evident then, that the greater sufferer from the deficient +supply of food to animals is their owner. That they cannot be _taught_ +to _fast_ is a fact which does not appear very patent to some minds. +The man who sought by gradually reducing the daily quantum of his +horse's provender to accustom it to work without eating, was justly +punished for his ignorant cruelty. The day before the horse's allowance +was to be reduced to pure water, and when its owner's hope appeared +certain of speedy realisation, the animal died. There are men who act +almost as foolishly as the parsimonious horse owner in this fable did; +and who are as properly punished as he was. Such men are to be found in +the farmers who overstock their sheep pastures, and whose "lean kine" +are the _laughing stock_ of their more intelligent neighbours. + +The weight of a working full-grown horse does not vary from day +to day, as the weight of its egesta is equal to that of its food. +The desideratum in the case of the working animal is that its food +should be as thoroughly decomposed as possible, and the force pent +up in it liberated within the animal's body: as an ox, on the contrary, +increases in weight from day to day, it is desirable that as little as +possible of its food should be disorganised. The wasteful expenditure +of the animal's fat may be obviated by shelter, and the application of +artificial heat: the retardation of the destruction of its flesh is even +more under our control; for, as active muscular exertion involves the +decomposition of tissue, we have merely to diminish the activity of +the motions which cause this waste. This, in practice, is effected by +stall-feeding. Confined within the narrow boundaries of the stall, the +muscular action of the animal is reduced to a minimum, or limited to +those uncontrollable actions which are conditions in the maintenance +of animal life. + +The proportion of the food of oxen, sheep, and pigs, which is +consumed in maintaining their vital functions, has not been accurately +ascertained; probably, as in the case of man, it is strictly +proportionate to the animal's weight. We can determine the amount +of plastic food consumed by an animal during a given period: we can +ascertain the increase (if any) in the weight of its body; and finally, +we can weigh and analyse its egesta. With these data it is comparatively +easy to ascertain the quantity of food which produced the increase in +the animal's weight; but they do not enable us to determine the amount +expended in keeping it alive, because the egesta might be largely made +up of unappropriated food--organised matter which had done no work in +the animal body. When we come to know the precise quantity of nitrogen, +in a purely, or nearly pure, mineral form[14] excreted by an animal, +then we shall be in a position to estimate the proportion of its food +expended in sustaining the essential vital processes which continuously +go on in its body. But although we are in ignorance as to the precise +quantity of flesh-formers expended in keeping the animal alive, we know +pretty accurately the amount which is consumed in producing a given +weight of its flesh, or rather in causing a certain increase in its +weight. This knowledge is the result of numerous investigations, of +which by far the most valuable are those of Lawes and Gilbert. These +experimenters found that fattening pigs stored up about 7-1/2 per +cent. of the plastic materials of their food, whilst sheep accumulated +somewhat less than 5 per cent. That is, 92-1/2 out of every 100 lbs. +weight of the nitrogenous food of the pig, and 95 out of every 100 lbs. +of that of the sheep, are eliminated in the excretions of those animals. + +It appears from the results of Lawes and Gilbert's experiments, that +pigs store up in their _increase_ about 20 per cent., sheep 12 per +cent., and oxen 8 per cent. of their (dry) food. The relative increase +of the fatty, nitrogenous, and mineral constituents whilst fattening, +are shown in this table. + + ---------------------+------------------------------------------------- + |Estimated per cent. in Increase whilst Fattening. + CASES. +--------+-----------+-----------+---------------- + |Mineral |Nitrogenous| | + | matter |matter | Fat (dry).| Total dry + |(ash). |(dry). | | substance. + ---------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+---------------- + Average of 98 oxen | 1·47 | 7·69 | 66·2 | 75·4 + Average of 348 sheep | 1·80 | 7·13 | 70·4 | 79·53 + Average of 80 pigs | 0·44 | 6·44 | 71·5 | 78·40 + ---------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+---------------- + +The quantity of food consumed daily by an animal is, as might be expected, +proportionate to the weight of its body. The pig consumes, for every 100 +lbs. of its weight, from 26 to 30 lbs. of food, the sheep 15 lbs., and +the ox 12 to 13 lbs. These figures and the statements which I have made +relative to the proportions of fat and plastic elements in the animals' +bodies, apply to them in their fattening state, and when the food is +of a highly nutritious character. The calf and the young pig will +make use--to cause their increase--of a larger portion of nitrogenous +matters. The sheep, however, being early brought to maturity, will, even +when very young, store up the plastic and non-plastic constituents of +its food, in nearly the same relative proportions that I have mentioned. + +As it is the food taken into the body that produces heat and motion, it +might at first sight appear an easy matter to determine the amount of +heat or of motion which a given weight of a particular kind of food is +capable of producing within the animal mechanism. But this performance +is not so easy a task as it appears to be. In the first place, all of +the food may not be perfectly oxidised, though thoroughly disorganised +within the body; secondly, as animals rarely subsist on one kind of +food, it is difficult, when they are supplied with mixed aliments, to +determine which of them is the most perfectly decomposed. But though the +difficulties which I have mentioned, and many others, render the task +of determining the nutritive values of food substances difficult, the +problem is by no means insoluble, and, in fact, is in a fair way of +being solved. Professor Frankland, in a paper published in the number +of the _Philosophical Magazine_ for September, 1866, determines the +relative alimental value of foods by ascertaining the quantity of heat +evolved by each when burned in oxygen gas. From the results of these +researches he has constructed a table, showing the amount of food +necessary to keep a man alive for twenty-four hours. The following +figures, which I select from this table, are of interest to the +stock-feeder:-- + + + Weight necessary to sustain a + man's life for twenty-four hours. + + Kinds of Food. Ounces. + + Potatoes 13·4 + Apples 20·7 + Oatmeal 3·4 + Flour 3·5 + Pea Meal 3·5 + Bread 6·4 + Milk 21·2 + Carrots 25·6 + Cabbage 31·8 + Butter 1·8 + Lump Sugar 3·9 + +These figures show the relative calefacient, or heat-producing powers of +the different foods named _outside_ the body; but there is some doubt as +to their having the same relative values when burned _within_ the body. +The woody fibre of the carrots and cabbages is very combustible in the +coal furnace, but it is very doubtful if more than 20 or 30 per cent. of +this substance is ever burned in the _animal furnace_. However, such +inquiries as those carried out by Frankland possess great value; and +tables constructed upon their results cannot fail to be useful in the +drawing up of dietary scales, whether for man or for the inferior +animals. + +I may here remark, that in my opinion the nutritive value of food admits +of being very accurately determined by the adoption of the following +method:-- + +1. The animal experimented upon to be supplied daily with a weighed +quantity of food, the composition and calefacient value of which had +been accurately determined. 2. The gases, vapors, and liquid and solid +egesta thrown off from its body to be collected, analysed, and the +calefacient[15] value of the combustible portion of them to be determined. +3. The increase (if any) of the weight of the animal to be ascertained. +4. The difference between the amount of heat evolvable by the foods +before being consumed, and that actually obtained by the combustion +of the egesta into which they were ultimately converted, would be the +amount actually set free and rendered available within the body. The +calculations would be somewhat affected by an increase in the weight +of the animal's body; but it would not be difficult to keep the weight +stationary, or nearly so, and there are other ways of getting over +such a difficulty. An experiment such as this would be a costly one, +and could not be properly conducted unless by the aid of an apparatus +similar to that employed by Pettenkofer in his experiments on +respiration. This apparatus, which was made at the expense of the King +of Bavaria, cost nearly £600. + +_Value of Manure._--It is a complication in the question of the +economic feeding of the farm animals that the value of their manure +must be taken into account. Of the three classes of food constituents, +two--the mineral and nitrogenous--are recoverable in the animal's body +and manure; the non-nitrogenous is partly recoverable in the fat. +I shall take the case of a sheep, which will consume weekly per 100 +lbs. of its weight, 12 lbs. of fat-formers, and 3 lbs. of flesh-formers. +Twelve per cent. of the fat-formers will be retained in the _increase_, +but the rest will be expended in keeping the animal warm, and the +products of its combustion--carbonic acid and water--will be useless to +the farmer. It is, therefore, desirable to diminish as much as possible +the combustion of fatty matter in the animal's body; and this is +effected, as I have already explained, by keeping it in a warm place. +Of the flesh-forming substance only five per cent. is retained in the +increase, the rest is partly consumed in carrying on the movements of +the animal--partly expelled from its body unaltered, or but slightly +altered, in composition. The solid excrement of the animal contains +all the undigested food; but of this only the mineral and nitrogenous +constituents are valuable as manure. The nitrogen of the plastic +materials which are expended in maintaining the functions of the body is +eliminated from the lungs, through the skin, and by the kidneys--perhaps +also, but certainly only to a small extent, by the rectum. + +The food consumed by an animal is disposed of in the following way:--A +portion passes unchanged, or but slightly altered, through the body; +another part is assimilated and subsequently disorganised and ejected; +the rest is converted into the carcass of the animal at the time of its +death. The undigested food and aliment which had undergone conversion +into flesh and other tissues, and subsequent disorganisation, constitute +the excrements, or manure, of the animal. The richer in nitrogen and +phosphoric acid the food is, the more valuable will be the manure; so +that the money value of a feeding stuff is not determinable merely by +the amount of flesh which it makes, but also, and to a great extent, +by the value of the manure into which it is ultimately converted. + +Corn and oil-cakes are powerful fertilisers of the soil; but the three +principles which constitute their manurial value--namely, nitrogen +(ammonia), phosphoric acid, and potash--are purchasable at far lower +prices in guano and other manures. Nevertheless, many farmers believe +that the most economical way to produce good manure is to feed their +stock with concentrated aliment, in order to greatly increase the value +of their excreta. They consider that a pound's worth of oil-cake, or of +corn, will produce at least a pound's worth of meat, and that the manure +will be had for nothing, or, rather, will be the profit of the business. +The richer food is in nitrogen and phosphoric acid, the more valuable +will be the manure it yields. It follows, therefore, that if two kinds +of feeding stuff produce equal amounts of meat, that the preference +should be given to that which contains the more nitrogen and phosphoric +acid. Mr. Lawes, who has thrown light upon this point, as well as upon +so many others, has made careful estimates of the value of the manure +produced from different foods. They are given in the following table:-- + + TABLE + + Showing the estimated value of the manure obtained on the + consumption of one ton of different articles of food; each + supposed to be of good quality of its kind. + + Estimated Money Value + Description of Food. of the Manure from + One Ton of each Food. + + 1. Decorticated cotton-seed cake £6 10 0 + 2. Rape-cake 4 18 0 + 3. Linseed-cake 4 12 0 + 4. Malt-dust 4 5 0 + 5. Lentils 3 17 0 + 6. Linseed 3 13 0 + 7. Tares 3 13 6 + 8. Beans 3 13 6 + 9. Peas 3 2 6 + 10. Locust beans 1 2 6(?) + 11. Oats 1 14 6 + 12. Wheat 1 13 0 + 13. Indian corn 1 11 6 + 14. Malt 1 11 6 + 15. Barley 1 9 6 + 16. Clover-hay 2 5 0 + 17. Meadow-hay 1 10 0 + 18. Oat-straw 0 13 6 + 19. Wheat-straw 0 12 6 + 20. Barley-straw 0 10 6 + 21. Potatoes 0 7 0 + 22. Mangolds 0 5 0 + 23. Swedish turnips 0 4 3 + 24. Common turnips 0 4 0 + 25. Carrots 0 4 0 + +All the saline matter contained in the food is either converted into +flesh, or is recoverable in the form of manure, but a portion of its +nitrogen appears to be lost by respiration and perspiration. Reiset +states that 100 parts of the nitrogen of food given to sheep upon +which he experimented, were disposed of as follows:-- + + + Recovered in the excreta 58·3 + Recovered in the meat, tallow, and skin 13·7 + Lost in respiration 28·0 + ------ + 100·00 + +Haughton's experiments, performed upon men, gave results which proved +that no portion of the nitrogen of their food was lost by perspiration +or by respiration. Barral, on the contrary, asserts that nitrogen +is given off from the bodies of both man and the inferior animals. +Boussingault states that horses, sheep, and pigs exhale nitrogen. +A cow, giving milk, on which he had experimented, lost 15 per cent. +of the nitrogen of its food by perspiration. The amount of nitrogen +which Reiset states that sheep exhale is exceedingly great, and it +is difficult to reconcile his results with those obtained by Voit, +Bischoff, Regnault, Pettenkofer, and Haughton. Of course, men and sheep +are widely different animals; but still it is unlikely that all the +nitrogen of the food of man should be recoverable in his egesta, whilst +nearly a third of the nitrogen of the food of the sheep should be +dissipated as gas. I think further experiments are necessary before this +point can be regarded as settled; and it is probable that it will yet be +found that all, or nearly all, of the nitrogen of the food of animals is +recoverable in their egesta. + +Regarding, then, an animal as a mechanism by which meat is to be +"manufactured," five economic points in relation to it demand the +feeder's attention: these are--the first cost of the mechanism, the +expense of maintaining the mechanism in working order, the price of +the raw materials intended for conversion into meat, the value of the +meat, and the value of the manure. In proportion to the attention given +to these points, will be the feeder's profits; but they are, to some +extent, affected by the climatic, geographic, and other conditions under +which the farm is placed. + + * * * * * + +[Footnote 1: If the elements were only capable of combining with each +other in simple ratios, the number of their combinations would be as +limited as that of the letters of the alphabet; but as one, two, or +more atoms of oxygen can combine with one, two, or more atoms of +other elements, we can assign no limits to the number of _possible_ +combinations. There are hundreds of distinct substances formed of but +two elements, namely, hydrogen and carbon.] + +[Footnote 2: In a paper by Professor Sullivan, of Dublin, the conversion +of one of these substances into another _outside_ the animal mechanism, +is almost incontrovertibly proved.] + +[Footnote 3: _Experimental Inquiry into the Composition of some of +the Animals Fed and Slaughtered as Human Food._ By John Bennet Lawes, +F.R.S., F.C.S., and Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D., F.C.S. _Philosophical +Transactions of the Royal Society._ Part II., 1860.] + +[Footnote 4: From the Greek _plasso_, "to form." Plastic materials are +sometimes termed _formative_ elements; both terms imply the belief that +they are capable of giving shape, or form, not only to themselves, but +also to other kinds of matter not possessed of formative power.] + +[Footnote 5: The slow conversion of phosphorus into phosphoric acid +takes place in the animal organism; its gradual oxidation in the open +air gives rise only to an imperfectly oxidised body--_phosphorous acid_. +But the latter fact does not invalidate the general proposition, that +the heat emitted by a substance undergoing the process of oxidation is +proportionate to the amount of oxygen with which it combines, and is not +influenced by the length of time occupied by the process, further than +this, that if the oxidation be _very_ rapidly effected, a portion of the +heat will be converted into an _equivalent_ amount of light.] + +[Footnote 6: This statement is not absolutely correct, but the range +of variation is confined within such narrow limits as to be quite +insignificant.] + +[Footnote 7: Doubt has recently been thrown on the truth of this belief +by Frankland, Fick, and Wislicenus.] + +[Footnote 8: The results of Savory's experiments on rats appear to prove +that animals can live on food destitute of fat, sugar, starch, or any +other fat-forming substance. I think, however, that animals could hardly +thrive on purely nitrogenous food. The conclusions which certain late +writers, who object to Liebig's theory of animal heat, have deduced from +Savory's investigations, appear to me to be quite unfounded.] + +[Footnote 9: So termed because it is the basis of the common oils; the +fluid portion of fat is composed of oleine.] + +[Footnote 10: The term _dry_ is applied to the _solid_ constituents of +the food. Thus, a pig fed with 100 lbs. of potatoes would be said to +have been supplied with 25 lbs. of dry potatoes, because water forms +75 per cent. of the weight of those tubers.] + +[Footnote 11: The amounts of "mineral matter" are too high, owing to the +adventitious matters (dirt) retained by the wool.] + +[Footnote 12: This pig was completely analysed by Lawes and Gilbert.] + +[Footnote 13: The results of recent and accurately conducted +investigations prove that men engaged in occupations requiring the +highest exercise of the intellectual faculties, require more nutritious +food, and even a greater quantity of nutriment, than the hardest worked +laborers, such as paviours, and navvies. I have been assured by an +extensive manufacturer, that on promoting his workmen to situations of +_greater_ responsibility but _less_ physically laborious than those +previously filled by them, he found that they required more food and +that, too, of a better quality. This change in their appetite was +not the result of increased wages, which in most cases remained the +same--the decrease in the amount of labour exacted being considered in +most cases a sufficient equivalent for the increased responsibility +thrown upon them.] + +[Footnote 14: As ammonia, urea, uric acid, or hippuric acid; all of which +are nearly or perfectly mineralised substances.] + +[Footnote 15: The excrements of animals are capable of evolving, by +combustion, enormous amounts of heat.] + + + + +PART II. + +ON THE BREEDING AND BREEDS OF STOCK. + + +SECTION I. + +THE BREEDING OF STOCK. + +_Cross Breeding._--For many years past feeders have zealously occupied +themselves in the improvement of their stock, and the result of their +labors is observable in the marked superiority of the breeds of the +present day over their ancestors in the last century. The improvement +of animals designed as food for man is effected by keeping them on a +liberal dietary, by selecting only the best individuals for sires and +dams, and by combining the excellencies of two or more varieties of a +species in one breed. A species consists of a number of animals which +exhibit so many points of resemblance, that they are regarded by the +great majority of naturalists to be the descendants of a single pair. +If we except the believers in the hypotheses relative to the origin +of existing varieties of animals and plants, propounded by Lamarck, +Darwin, and other naturalists of the "advanced school," there is a +general belief in the immutability of species. The individuals of an +existing species, say dogs, can never acquire the peculiar features +of another species; nor can their descendants, if we except hybrids, +ever become animals in which the characteristics of the dog tribe are +irrecognisable. By various influences, such as, for example, differences +in food and climate, and domestication, a species may be split into +_varieties_, or _breeds_, all of which, however, retain the more +important characteristics of the primordial type. There appears to be +no limit to the varieties of dogs, yet one can perceive by a glance that +there is no specific difference between the huge Mont St. Bernard dog +and the diminutive poodle, or between the sparse greyhound and the burly +mastiff. All the varieties of our domestic fowl have been traced to +a common origin--the wild Indian fowl (_Gallus bankiva_). Even Darwin +admits that all the existing kinds of horses are, in all probability, +the descendants of an original stock; and it is generally agreed that +the scores of varieties of pigeons own a common ancestor in the rock +pigeon (_Columba livia_). + +As certain individuals are grouped by naturalists into species, so +particular species, which in habits and general appearance resemble each +other, are arranged under the head of genus. The horse, the ass, and the +zebra are formed on nearly the same anatomical plan; they are therefore +classed together, and designated the genus _Equus_, a term derived from +the Latin word _equus_, a horse--that animal being regarded as the type, +or perfect member of the group. Thus the horse, in the nomenclature of +the naturalist, is termed _Equus caballus_; the ass, _Equus asinus_; and +the zebra, _Equus zebra_. By a further extension of this principle of +classification, very closely allied genera are united under the term +of _family_. + +The different varieties of the same species breed, as might be +anticipated, freely together; but it frequently happens that two +individuals of different species pair, and produce an animal which +inherits some of the properties of each of its progenitors. These +half-breeds are termed _hybrids_, or _mules_, and we have familiar +examples of them in the common mule and the jennet. As a general rule, +animals exhibit a disinclination to breed with other than members of +their own species; and although the interference of man may overcome +this natural repugnance, he can only effect the fruitful congress of +individuals belonging to closely allied species, being members of the +same genus. Hybrids in the genus _Equus_ are very common. A cross has +been produced between the he-goat and the ewe; the camel and the +dromedary have bred together; and Buffon succeeded in producing a hybrid +in which three animals were represented--namely, the bison, the zebu, +and the ox. On the other hand, attempts to effect a cross between +animals belonging to different families have generally failed; nor is +it at all probable that a cross will ever be produced between the pig +and the sheep, between the horse and the cow, or, most unlikely of all, +between the dog and the cat. + +It is the general belief that hybrids are sterile, or, at least, that +they are incapable of propagation _inter se_. This may be true with +respect to the hybrids of species not very closely allied; but that +there are exceptions to the rule is quite clear from Roux's experiments +with hares and rabbits. This gentleman, who is, or was, the president +of a French agricultural society, but who makes no profession of +scientific knowledge, has succeeded, after several failures, in producing +a fruitful cross between the rabbit and the hare. This hybrid has +received the name of leporide (from the Latin _leporinus_, pertaining to +a hare), and it is different from former crosses, in being five parts +hare, and three parts rabbit. M. Roux has bred this hybrid during the +last eighteen years, and has not observed the slightest appearance +of decay of race manifest itself up to the present, so that, for all +practical purposes, the leporide may be regarded as an addition to the +distinct species of animals. The leporide fattens rapidly, and with but +little expenditure of food. Sold at the age of four months, it realises, +in France, a price four times greater than that commanded by a rabbit of +the same age; and at a year old it weighs on an average ten pounds, and +sometimes as much as sixteen pounds. It breeds at four months, continues +thirty days in gestation, and yearly produces five or six litters of +from five to eight young. To produce this hybrid is by no means +difficult. A leveret, just old enough to dispense with the maternal +nutriment, should be placed with a few doe rabbits of his own age, +apart from other animals. He will soon become familiar with the does, +and when they attain the age of puberty, all the rabbits save one or two +should be removed. Speedily those left with the hare will become with +young, upon which they should be removed, and replaced by others. After +this the hare should be kept in a hutch by himself, and a doe left with +him at night only. As the hare is naturally a very shy animal, it will +only breed when perfect quietness prevails. The half-bred produced in +the first instance should now be put to the hare, and a cross, three +parts hare, and one part rabbit, obtained. The permanent breed should +then be obtained by crossing the quadroon doe leporide, if I may use the +term, with the half-bred buck. + +I have directed attention to the production of the leporide because +I believe that the problems in relation to it, which have been solved +by M. Roux, have an important bearing upon the breeding of animals +of greater importance than hares and rabbits. Here we find a race of +animals produced by the fusion of two species, which naturally exist in +a state of mutual enmity, and which differ in many important respects. +The hare and the rabbit are respectively of but little value as food, at +least they are of no importance to the feeder; yet a cross between them +turns out to be an excellent meat-producing animal, which may be reared +with considerable profit to the feeder. It is thus clearly shown that +two kinds of animals, neither of which is of great utility, may give +rise to an excellent cross, if their blood, so to speak, be blended in +proper proportions. A half-bred animal may be less valuable than its +parents, but a quadroon may greatly excel its progenitors. The goat +and sheep are so closely related that they are classed by naturalists +under one head--_Capridæ_. Some kinds of sheep have hair like goats, and +certain varieties of goats have fleeces that closely resemble those on +the sheep. There are sheep with horns, and goats without those striking +appendages. The Cape of Good Hope goat might easily be mistaken for a +sheep. It would seem, judging by the results of Roux's experiments, that +there is no great difficulty in the way of obtaining a cross between the +sheep and the goat. I do not mean an ordinary half-breed, but a prolific +hybrid similar to the leporide. Of course, it is impossible, _a priori_, +to say whether or not such a hybrid race, supposing it produceable, +would be valuable; but as goats can find a subsistence on mountains +where sheep would starve, it is possible that an animal, essentially a +sheep, but with a streak of goat blood in it, could be profitably kept +on very poor uplands. Whether a race of what we might term _caprides_ be +formed or not we have derived most suggestive information from M. Roux's +experiments, which I hope may be turned to account in what is by far the +most important field of enquiry, the judicious crossing of varieties of +the same species. + +It is a _quæstio vexata_ whether or not the parents generally exercise +different influences upon the shape and size of their offspring. Mr. +Spooner supports the supposition--a very popular one--that the sire +gives shape to the external organs, whilst the dam affects the internal +organisation. I have considerable doubt as to the probability of this +theory. The children who spring from the union of a white man with a +negress possess physical and intellectual qualities which are nearly if +not quite the _mean_ of their parents; but the offspring of parents, +both of the same race--be it Caucasian, Mongolian, or Indian--frequently +conform, intellectually and corporeally, to either of their progenitors. +Thus, of the children of a tall, thin, dark man, and a short, fat, +fair woman, some will be like their father, and the others will +resemble their mother, or, perhaps, all may "take after" either parent. +Sometimes a child appears to be in every respect unlike its parents, +and occasionally the likeness of an ancestor appears in a descendant, in +whom no resemblance to his immediate progenitors can be detected. It is +highly probable that both parents exercise, under most circumstances, a +joint influence upon the qualities of their offspring, but that one of +them may produce so much greater an effect that the influence of the +other is not recognisable, except perhaps to a very close observer. But +I doubt very much that any particular organ of the offspring is, as a +rule, more liable to the influence of the sire than of the dam, or _vice +versâ_; and the breeder who believes that the sire alone is concerned in +moulding the external form of the offspring, and who consequently pays +no attention to this point in the dam, will often find himself out in +his reckonings. In order to be certain of a satisfactory result, the dam +should in every respect be equal to the sire. In practice, however, this +is not always the case, for as sires are so few as compared with the +number of dams, the greatest efforts have been directed towards the +improvement of the former. + +There is, or ought to be, a familiar maxim with breeders, that "like +begets like, or the likeness of an ancestor." This is a "wise saw," of +which there are many "modern instances:" the excellencies or defects of +sire or dam are certain to be transmitted through several generations, +though they may not appear in all. As a general rule, good animals will +produce a good, and defective animals a defective, offspring, but it +sometimes happens that a bull or cow, of the best blood, is decidedly +inferior, whilst really good animals are occasionally the produce of +parents of "low degree." If the defects or excellencies of animals were +ineradicable there would be no need for the science of breeding; but by +the continual selection of only the most superior animals for breeding +purposes the defects of a species gradually disappear, and the good +qualities are alone transmitted. As, however, animals that are used as +food for man are to some extent in an abnormal condition, the points +which may be excellencies in that state, would not have been such in the +original condition of the animal. We find, therefore, that the improved +breeds of oxen and sheep exhibit some tendency to revert to their +original condition, and it is only by close attention to the diet, +breeding, and general management of these animals that this tendency can +be successfully resisted. Sometimes, however, an animal of even the best +breed will "return to nature," or will acquire some undesirable quality; +such an animal should be rejected for breeding purposes, for its defects +would in all probability be transmitted to its descendants, near or +remote. A case, which admirably illustrates this point, is recorded in +the _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1813, and it is sufficiently +interesting to be mentioned here:-- + + Seth Wright, who possessed a small farm on the Charles River, + about sixteen miles from Boston, had a small flock, consisting + of fifteen ewes and one ram. One of these ewes, in 1791, produced + a singular-shaped male lamb. Wright was advised to kill his former + ram and keep this new one in place of it; the consequence was, the + formation of a new breed of sheep, which gradually spread over a + considerable part of New England, but the introduction of the Merino + has nearly destroyed them again. This new variety was called the + Otter, or "Ankon" breed. They are remarkable for the shortness of + their legs, and the crookedness of their forelegs, like an elbow. + They are much more feeble and much smaller than the common sheep, + and less able to break over low fences; and this was the reason + of their being continued and propagated. + + +Here we have an instance of an animal propagating a defect through +a great number of descendants, though it had not acquired it from +its own ancestors. It is, however, probable that occasionally a male +descendant of this short-legged ram possessed considerably longer organs +of locomotion than the founder of his breed; and, consequently, if +selected for breeding purposes might become the founder of a long-legged +variety, in which, however, a couple of pairs of short-legs would +occasionally present themselves. I have a notion that the higher animals +are in the scale of being, the greater is their tendency to transmit +their acquired good or bad habits to their posterity. Dogs are, perhaps, +the most intelligent of the inferior animals, and it is well known +that they transmit to their offspring their acquired as well as their +natural habits. I doubt very much that those most stupid of creatures, +guinea-pigs, possess this property in any sensible degree; or, indeed, +that like the canine tribe, they can be readily made to acquire +artificial peculiarities: but there once flourished a "learned pig," +and it would be worth inquiring whether or not its descendants, like the +descendants of the trained setter, and pointer, were at all benefited by +the education of their ancestor. I shall conclude this part of my subject +in the words of Professor Tanner: "In all cases where the breed has been +carefully preserved pure, great benefit will result from doing so. The +character of a breed becomes more and more concentrated and confirmed in +a pedigree animal, and this character is rendered more fully hereditary +in proportion to the number of generations through which it has been +transmitted. By the aid of pedigree, purity of blood may be insured, and +a systematic plan adopted by which we can perpetuate distinct families, +and thereby obtain a change of blood without its being a cross. It is +evident that any one adopting a systematic arrangement will be able to +do this more effectually than another without this aid. This is the more +important when the number of families is small, as is the case with +Devons and Herefords, especially the former. The individual animals from +which the Devons are descended are very limited in number, and in a few +hands; but, with some honourable exceptions, little attention is given +to this point. The importance is rendered evident by the decreasing size +of the breed, the number of barren heifers, and the increased delicacy +of constitution shown in the stock of many breeders of that district who +are not particular in this respect. The contrast between such herds, +and those in which more care and judgment are exercised, renders the +advantages of attention to pedigree very evident; for here the strength +of constitution is retained, together with many of the advantages of +this valuable breed." + + +SECTION II. + +THE BREEDS OF STOCK. + +The nature of the animal determines, as I have already stated, the +proportion of its food carried off in its increase; but this point is +also greatly influenced by its _variety_, or _breed_. Certain breeds +which have for a long period been kept on bulky food, and obliged +to roam in quest of it, appear to have acquired a normal tendency to +_leanness_. No doubt, if they were supplied with highly nutritious +food for many successive generations, these breeds might eventually +exhibit as great a tendency to fatten as they now do to remain in a +lean condition. As it is, the horned cattle of Kerry, Wales, and some +other regions, rarely become fat, no matter how abundantly they may be +supplied with fattening food. On the other hand, the Herefords, but more +especially the Shorthorns, exhibit a natural disposition to obesity, and +such animals alone should be stall-fed. It is noteworthy that animals +which are naturally disposed to yield abundance of milk are often the +best adapted for fattening; but it would appear that the continuous +use of highly fattening food, and the observance of the various other +conditions in the _forcing_ system, diminish the activity of the lacteal +secretion, and increase the tendency to fatness in the races of the +bovine tribe. The Shorthorns were at one time famous for their milking +capabilities, but latterly their galactophoric reputation has greatly +declined. Still I am disposed to believe, that if some of those animals +were placed under conditions favorable to the improvement of dairy +stock, herds of Shorthorn milch cows could be obtained which would vie +in their own line with the famous fat-disposed oxen of the same breed. + +In sheep the tendency to early maturity and to fatten is greatly +influenced by the breed. The Leicester, even when kept on inferior +pasture, fattens so rapidly that in eighteen months it is fit for the +butcher; whilst the Merino, though supplied with excellent herbage, must +be preserved for nearly four years before it is ready for the shambles. +The crossing of good herds has resulted in the development of numerous +varieties, all remarkable for their aptitude to fatten and to arrive +early at maturity. The Leicester--itself supposed to be a cross--has +greatly improved the Lincoln, and the Hampshire and Southdown have +produced an excellent cross. Of course, each breed and cross has its +admirers; indeed, the differences of opinion which prevail in relation +to the relative merits of the Lincoln and the Leicester--the Southdown +and the Shropshiredown--the Dorset and the Somerset--occasionally +culminate into newspaper controversies of an exceedingly ascerb +character. There is no doubt but that particular breeds of sheep +thrive in localities and under conditions which are inimical to other +varieties; but still it is equally evident that, _cæteris paribus_, one +kind of sheep will store up in its increase a larger proportion of its +food than another kind, and will arrive earlier at maturity. It is the +knowledge of this fact which has led to the great estimation in which +are held some half-dozen out of the numerous breeds and cross-breeds +of that animal. In 1861 an interesting experiment was made by the +Parlington Farmers' Club with the object of testing the relative merits +of several varieties of sheep. The results are shown in the tables:-- + + TABLE I. + + ----------------+------------------------------------+----------------------- + | Live Weight of Six Wethers |Weights gained + | when Shorn, 26th February, 1862. |during the time of + | +--------------------------- |Feeding from the + | | Weight of Mutton when |11th November, 1861, + Description of | | Slaughtered. |to 14th February, 1862. + Class of Sheep. | | +------+------+------+-------+-------+------- + | | |Weight|Weight|Weight| | | + | | | of | of | of |In Live| In | In + | | |Tallow| Wool.|Pelts.|Weight.|Mutton.| Wool. + ----------------+-------+-------+------+------+------+-------+-------+------- + |st. lb.|st. lb.| lb.| lb.| lb.|st. lb.|st. lb.|lb. oz. + Cross from | | | | | | | | + the Teeswater | 85 3 | 53 1 | 106| 43| 85| 13 7 | 8 6 | 14 5 + | | | | | | | | + North Sheep | 83 12 | 53 12 | 96|43-1/2| 83| 12 11 | 8 3 | 14 8 + | | | | | | | | + Lincolns | 92 1 | 59 12 | 105| 66| 103| 16 1 |10 7 | 22 0 + | | | | | | | | + South Downs | 71 0 | 47 7 |97-1/4| 28|65-3/4| 11 13 | 8 0 | 9 5 + | | | | | | | | + Shropshire Downs| 85 6 | 53 1 | 103|42-1/2| 91| 15 11 | 9 12 | 14 3 + | | | | | | | | + Leicesters | 80 9 | 53 4 |90-1/2| 44|78-1/2| 14 10 | 9 10 | 14 11 + | | | | | | | | + Cotswolds | 76 5 | 47 6 | 79| 54| 90| 12 6 | 7 11 | 18 0 + ----------------+-------+-------+------+------+------+-------+-------+------- + + + TABLE II. + + -----------------+--------------------------------------------+-----------+ + | Value of the preceding | Food | + Description | Mutton and Wool so gained. | consumed | + of Sheep. +----------------------+---------------------+ during | + | Price of the Mutton. | Price of the Wool. | time of | + | | | Feeding. | + -----------------+-------+--------------+-------+-------------+-----+-----+ + | | | | |Swd. |Lnd. | + | p. lb.| | p. lb.| |Tnp. |Cke. | + +-------+ +-------+ +-----+-----+ + | d. | £ s. d. | d. | £ s. d. | st. | lb. | + Teeswater, Cross | 6 | 2 19 0 | 18 | 1 1 6 | 978 | 300 | + North Shropshire | 6 | 2 17 6 | 17-1/2| 1 1 1-3/4 | 914 | 300 | + Lincolnshire[16] | 5-3/4 | 3 10 5-1/4 | 18 | 1 13 0 | 936 | 363 | + Southdowns | 6-1/2 | 3 0 8 | 17 | 0 13 2-1/2 | 684 | 300 | + Shropshire | 6-1/4 | 3 11 10-1/2 | 17-1/2| 1 0 7-3/4 | 924 | 300 | + Leicester | 5-3/4 | 3 5 2 | 18 | 1 2 0 | 877 | 300 | + Cotswolds | 6 | 2 14 6 | 18 | 1 7 0 | 926 | 300 | + -----------------+-------+--------------+-------+-------------+-----+-----+ + + -----------------+------------------+--------------+----------------------+ + | Value of the | | Value of Food | + | Food, Calculating| Value of | deducted from Value | + Description | Turnips at 6s. | the Mutton | of Mutton and Wool, | + of Sheep. | 8d., and Cake at | and Wool. | showing real value of| + | £10 10s. per ton.| | the different sheep. | + -----------------+------------------+--------------+----------------------+ + | | | | + | | | | + | | | | + | £ s. d. | £ s. d. | £ s. d. | + Teeswater, Cross | 3 8 10-1/2 | 4 0 6 | 0 11 7 | + North Shropshire | 3 6 2-1/2 | 3 18 7-3/4 | 0 12 5 | + Lincolnshire[16] | 3 13 0-1/4 | 5 3 5-1/4 | 1 10 5 | + Southdowns | 2 16 7-1/2 | 3 13 10-1/2 | 0 17 3 | + Shropshire | 3 6 7-3/4 | 4 12 6-1/4 | 1 5 10 | + Leicester | 3 4 8 | 4 7 2 | 1 2 6 | + Cotswolds | 3 6 8-1/2 | 4 1 6 | 0 14 9-1/2 | + -----------------+------------------+--------------+----------------------+ + +These results, taken with the customary _grain of salt_, tell well for +the improved Lincoln; they also clearly show the aptitude to fatten, +without much loss in offal, of the Leicester;[17] and they commend to the +lover of good mutton the Shropshire and South-Downs. + +In the sixteenth volume of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society +of England, Mr. Lawes gives some valuable information relative to the +comparative fattening qualities of different breeds of sheep. The +following table, on this author's authority, shows the average food +consumed in producing 100 lbs. increase in live weight:-- + + Breed. Oil Cake. Clover. Swedes. + + Sussex 297-1/4 285-1/2 3·835-3/4 + Hampshire 291-1/2 261-1/4 3·966-3/4 + Cross-bred Wethers 264-1/2 251-3/4 3·725-1/4 + Do. Ewes 263-1/2 250-1/4 3·671 + Leicesters 263-3/4 251-1/4 3·761 + Cotswolds 253-1/2 216-3/4 3·557-1/2 + +Some breeds are profitably kept in certain localities, where other kinds +would not pay so well: for example, the Devons, according to Mr. Smith, +are better adapted than larger breeds for "converting the produce of +cold and hilly pastures into meat." It is remarkable that nearly all the +best existing breeds of oxen and sheep are crosses. Major Rudd states +that the dam of Hubback, the famous founder of pure improved Shorthorns, +owed her propensity to fatten to an admixture of Kyloe blood, and also +that the sire of Hubback had a stain of Alderney, or Normandy blood. +Although the Rudd account of the ancestry of Hubback is not accepted by +all the historians of this splendid breed of cattle, there is no doubt +but that the breed owes its origin as much to judicious crossing as to +careful selection of sires and dams. It must not, however, be imagined +that there are no good pure races of stock. There is a perfectly pure, +but now scarce, tribe of Kerry oxen, admirably adapted to poor uplands. +The excellent Southdown sheep, though in every respect immensely +superior to their ancestors in the last century, have not attained to +their present superior state by crossing. The high value placed by +breeders upon good sires and dams in the approved breeds of stock is +shown by the large sums which they frequently realise at sales, or when +the former are let out for service. Bakewell received in one season for +the use of a ram 400 guineas each from two breeders, and they did not +retain the animal during the whole season. Several hundred guineas have +lately been more than once paid for a celebrated tup. Colonel Towneley's +Shorthorn bull, Master Butterfly, was, not long since, disposed of to an +Australian buyer for £1,260. At the sale of Mr. Bates's stock in 1850, +a stock of Shorthorns, including calves, brought on the average £116 5s. +per head. At the Earl Ducie's sale in 1852, a three year old +cow--Duchess--realised 700 guineas. + +The color of an animal is, to some extent, a criterion of the purity +of its breed. Roan is a favourite hue with the breeders of Shorthorns. +There have been celebrated sires and dams of that breed perfectly white; +but that color, or rather absence of color, is now somewhat unpopular, +partly from the idea that it is a sign of weakness of constitution--a +notion for which there appears to me to be no foundation in fact. +The slightest spot of black, or even a very dark shade, is regarded +to be a blemish of the most serious kind when observed on the pelt +of a Shorthorn. The Herefords are partly white, partly red; the Devon +possesses in general a deep red hue; the Suffolks are usually of a dun +or faint reddish tint; the Ayrshires are commonly spotted white and red; +and the Kerrys are seen in every shade between a jet black and a deep +red. Uniformity in color would be most desirable in the case of each +variety, and this object could easily be attained if breeders devoted +some attention to it. + +_The Form of Animals._--The functions of an animal are arranged by +Bichat, an eminent physiologist, into two classes--those relating to +its nutrition, and those exhibited by its muscular and mental systems. +The first class of functions comprise the _vegetative_, or organic life +of the animal, and the second class constitute its _relative_ life. +Adopting this arrangement, we may say, then, that those animals in which +the vegetative life is far more energetic than the relative life are +best suited for the purposes of the feeder. In tigers, wolves, and dogs +the relative life predominates over the vegetative; the muscles are +almost constantly in a high degree of tension, and the processes of +nutrition are in constant requisition to supply the waste of muscle. +On the other hand, in oxen, sheep, and pigs, at least when in a state +of domesticity, the muscles are not highly developed; they do not +largely tax the vegetative processes, and, consequently, the substances +elaborated under the influence of the vegetative life rapidly increase. +The form of an animal is therefore mainly determined by the activity of +its relative life. In a greyhound, the nervous power of which is highly +developed, the muscles are large and well-knit, the stomach, intended +for the reception of concentrated nutriment only, is small, and the +lungs are exceedingly capacious. In such an animal the arrangements for +the rapid expenditure of nervous power must be perfect. It is not merely +necessary that its muscles should be large and powerful, its lungs must +also admit of deep inspirations of oxygen, whereby the motive power +wielded by these muscles may be rapidly generated. Now, an animal +exactly opposite in organisation to the greyhound would, according +to theory, be just the kind to select for the production of meat. +The greyhound and the horse expend all their food in the production +of motive power; the ox and the sheep, being endowed with but a feeble +muscular organisation, use a smaller proportion of their food for +carrying on the functions of their relative life, consequently, the +weight of their bodies is augmented by the surplus nutriment. It is +clear, then, that an animal of a lymphatic temperament, an indolent +disposition, a low degree of nervous power, and a tendency to rapid +growth, is the _beau ideal_ of a "meat-manufacturing machine." Now, as +the larger the lungs of an animal are, the greater is its capacity for +"burning," or consuming its tissues, one might suppose that small lungs +would be a _desideratum_ in an ox, or other animal destined for the +shambles. This appears to be Liebig's opinion, for in one of his +books he states that "a narrow chest (small lungs) is considered by +experienced agriculturists a sure sign, in pigs, for example, of easy +fattening; and the same remark applies to cows, in reference to the +produce of milk--that is, of butter." On this subject Professor Tanner +makes the following remarks, in his excellent Essay on Breeding and +Rearing Cattle:[18]--"In our high-bred animals we find a small liver +and a small lung, accompanied with a gentle and peaceful disposition. +Now, these conditions, which are so desirable for producing fat, are +equally favorable for yielding butter. The diminished organs economise +the consumption of the carbonaceous matters in the blood, hence, more +remains for conversion into fat, but equally prepared for yielding +cream, if the tendency of the animal is equally favorable to the same." +One would imagine, from the foregoing passage, that Mr. Tanner and Baron +Liebig coincided in believing small lungs necessary to rapid fattening; +but in another part of his essay, Tanner thus describes one of the +points indicative of a tendency to fatten early:--"The chest should be +bold and prominent, wide and deep, furnished with a deep but not coarse +dewlap." On comparing the two passages which I have quoted from Tanner's +essay, a contradiction is apparent. Mr. Bowly, Major Rudd, and other +eminent breeders and feeders, appear to regard a capacious chest as the +best sign of a fattening property which an animal could show. Lawes and +Gilbert have recorded the weights of the viscera of a number of animals +which, though supplied with equal quantities of the same kind of food, +attained to different degrees of fatness. On carefully scrutinising +these records, I failed to perceive any constant relation between the +weight of their lungs and their tendency to fatten rapidly. Some animals +with large lungs converted a larger proportion of their food into meat +than others with smaller respiratory organs, and _vice versâ_. In a +state of nature, there is no doubt but that the lungs of the ox and of +the sheep are moderately large; and it is evident that in their case, as +well as in that of man, over-feeding and confinement tend to diminish +their muscular energy, and, of course, to decrease the capacity of the +lungs. That such a practice does not tend to the improvement of the +health of an animal is perfectly evident, but then the perfect ox of +nature is very different from the perfect ox of man. The latter is +a wide departure from the original type of its species: any marked +development of its nervous system is undesirable; and it is valuable +in proportion as its purely vegetative functions are most strongly +manifested. A young bullock, therefore, of this kind would, no doubt, +be the most economical kind to rear, provided that it was perfectly +healthy, and capable of assimilating the liberal amount of food supplied +to it. But it rarely happens that a young animal with a weakly chest +turns out other than a scrofulous or otherwise diseased adult. On the +whole, then, I am disposed to believe that whilst naturally small-lunged +species may be more prone to fatten than large-chested ones, it is not +the case that small-chested individuals fatten more rapidly than larger +lunged individuals of the same kind. + +The conditions under which oxen, sheep, and pigs have been so long +maintained in civilised countries, must have diminished the capacity of +their chests in relation to other parts of their bodies; and it may be +fairly doubted if any good could result by reducing to still smaller +dimensions those most important organs. Probably the lungs and hearts of +the improved breeds of stock are already too small, and that it is only +the individuals which are least affected in this respect that answer to +Mr. Bowly's description of a fat-disposed beast. Whether or not small +lungs are desirable in a bullock or milch cow, it is certain that a ram +or a bull should be possessed of a capacious chest, for otherwise he +will have but little vigour, and will be likely to produce a weakly +offspring. A sire should be a perfectly developed animal in every +respect--sound lungs and heart, and not over fat. It is sufficient that +it belongs to a good fattening breed; but to produce offspring with a +tendency to fatness and early maturity, it is not necessary that the +sire should himself be obese. It is to be regretted that so many sires +of the Shorthorns and other improved varieties should be used for +breeding purposes, when their hearts and lungs have become, by +over-feeding the animals, unfitted for the proper discharge of their +function. The progeny of such sires must _naturally_ inherit the +_acquired taint_ of their diseased progenitors, and prove weakly and +unhealthy animals. + +With respect to the general outline structure of a bull, he should have +a small, well-set head, rounded ribs, straight legs, small bones, and +sound internal organs. The following are considered to be the best +points in a Shorthorn bull:--A short and moderately small head, with +tapering muzzle and broad forehead, furnished with short, white, +curved, graceful looking horns; bright, yet mild, large eyes, placed in +prominent orbits; dilated nostrils, and flesh-colored nose, and long, +thin ears. The neck should be broad, deep, and muscular, sloping in a +graceful line from the shoulder to the head. The chest should be wide, +deep, projecting, but level in front. The shoulders should be oblique, +the blades well set in towards the ribs. The forelegs should be stout, +muscular above the knee, and slender below it; the hind legs should be +slender to the hock, and from thence increase in thickness to the +buttocks, which should be well developed. The carcass should be well +rounded at each side, but level on the back and on the belly. There +should be no hollows between the shoulder and the ribs, the line from +the highest part of the shoulder to the insertion of the tail should be +a perfect level. The flank should be full, the loins broad, and the tail +finely formed and only partially covered with hair. The skin is a prime +point: it must be covered with hair of a roan, or other _fashionable_ +color, and communicate to the hand of the experienced feeler, a peculiar +sensation, which it is impossible to describe. With regard to this +point, I cannot do better than quote the words of an experienced +"handler":-- + +"A nice or good judge of cattle or sheep, with a slight touch of the +fingers upon the fatting points of the animal--viz., the hips, rump, +ribs, flanks, breast, twist, shoulder score, &c. will know immediately +whether it will make fat or not, and in which part it will be the +fattest. I have often wished to convey in language that idea or +sensation we acquire by the touch or feel of our fingers, which enables +us to form a judgment when we are handling an animal intended to be +fatted, but I have as often found myself unequal to that wish. It is +very easy to know where an animal is fattest which is already made fat, +because we can evidently feel a substance or quantity of fat--all those +parts which are denominated the fatting points; but the difficulty is to +explain how we know or distinguish animals, in a lean state, which will +make fat and which will not--or rather, which will make fat in such +points or parts, and not in others--which a person of judgment (_in +practice_) can tell, as it were, instantaneously. I say _in practice_, +because I believe that the best judges _out of practice_ are not able to +judge with precision--at least, I am not. We say this beast _touches_ +nicely upon its ribs, hips, &c., &c., because we find a mellow, pleasant +feel on those parts; but we do not say soft, because there are some of +this same sort of animals which have a soft, loose handle, of which we +do not approve, because, though soft and loose, have not the mellow feel +above mentioned. For though they both handle soft and loose, yet we know +that the one will make fat and the other will not; and in this lies the +difficulty of the explanation. We clearly find a particular kindliness +or pleasantness in the feel of the one much superior to the other, by +which we immediately conclude that this will make fat, and the other not +so fat; and in this a person of judgment, and _in practice_, is very +seldom mistaken." + +In many respects the good points in a Shorthorn cow resemble those in +the male of that breed, but in others there is considerable difference. +As I have described in prose the excellencies which a bull should +possess, I will now give a poetical summary of the good points of a cow +of that breed, extracted from the _Journal of Agriculture_, and composed +evidently by an excellent breeder and poet, Mr. Carr:-- + + The following features constitute, I trow, + The beau ideal of a short-horn cow:-- + Frame massive, round, deep-barrell'd, and straight-back'd; + Hind quarters level, lengthy, and well pack'd; + Thighs wide, flesh'd inwards, plumb almost to hock; + Twist deep, conjoining thighs in one square block; + Loin broad and flat, thick flesh'd, and free from dip; + Back ribs "well home," arch'd even with the hip; + Hips flush with back, soft-cushion'd, not too wide; + Flanks full and deep, well forward on the side; + Fore ribs well-flesh'd, and rounded like a drum; + Fore flanks that even with the elbow come; + Crop "barrell'd" flush with shoulders and with side; + Girth large and round--not deep alone, but wide; + Shoulders sloped back, thick cover'd wide at chine; + Points snug, well-flesh'd, to dew-lap tapering fine; + Neck vein fill'd up to well-clothed shoulder-point; + Arm full above, turn'd in at elbow-joint; + Legs short and straight, fine boned 'neath hock and knee; + Belly cylindrical, from drooping free; + Chest wide between the legs, with downward sweep; + Brisket round, massive, prominent, and deep; + Neck fine at head, fast thickening towards its base; + Head small, scope wide, fine muzzle and dish'd face; + Eyes prominent and bright, yet soft and mild; + Horns waxy, clear, of medium size, unfiled; + Tail fine, neat hung, rectangular with back; + Hide soft, substantial, yielding, but not slack; + Hair furry, fine, thick set, of colour smart; + Udder well forward, with teats wide apart. + These points proportion'd well delight the eye + Of grazier, dairyman, and passer-by; + And these to more fastidious minds convey + Appearance stylish, feminine, and gay. + + +_Breeds of the Ox._--The Shorthorned cattle are now generally regarded +as the most valuable breed in these countries. They are the descendants +of a short-horned breed of cattle which existed for centuries in the +north-east of England. They were not held in much estimation, their +flesh being coarse; but the cows of this breed yielded abundance of +milk. In the eighteenth century this breed, it is said, was greatly +improved by a large infusion of blood from Dutch Shorthorns: but it is +very doubtful that any such event took place, for during that period +the importation of cattle into Great Britain was prohibited by very +stringent laws. The present race of Shorthorns owe most of their +valuable qualities to the brothers, Charles and Robert Colling, of the +county of Durham. The former was the more successful breeder, and +established the celebrated breed of Ketton Shorthorns. His whole process +appears to have consisted in the careful selection of parents, and in +"close" breeding. He must, however, have been an admirable judge of the +good points of the ox, for beginning with animals not worth more on an +average than £10 each, he produced in less than a quarter of a century +a stock worth on the average £150 each. The most famous bull of Charles +Colling's was Comet. The sale of this animal realised the handsome sum +of 1,000 guineas. The bull Hubback is said by many writers to have been +the great improver of Shorthorn blood. He was bought by Robert Colling +for the trifling sum of £8; but although this animal was kept by both +Collings for three years, there is good reason to believe that they made +but little use of him. It would appear, indeed, that to the cows first +used by the Collings--Lady Maynard, and young Strawberry--many of the +good qualities of this breed are traceable. Shorthorns are now to be +found in almost every part of the United Kingdom, capable of maintaining +heavy stock. In Ireland the breed has been greatly improved, and it is +gradually supplanting most of the other varieties. + +Shorthorn males have a short, wide head, covered very often with short +curly hair; the muzzle is taper; the ear rather long and narrow; the eye +large, and bright, and mild. The shape is symmetrical, the carcass deep, +the back level, ribs spreading out widely, and the limbs fine. The color +is a mixture of red and white, sometimes a rich roan. The females are +not so large in the head, which tapers more, and the neck is much +thinner. + +The DEVONS are not so large as the Shorthorns. Their shape is +symmetrical; fine head, horns of medium size, often tapering gracefully; +rich red or orange red color; fore-quarters rather oblique. The meat of +this breed is much esteemed: they yield excellent milk, but in rather +limited quantity; and the bullocks answer the plough much better than +many other kinds do. These animals arrive early at maturity. + +The HEREFORDS are a rather small-boned breed; their horns are medium +sized, straight or slightly curved upwards; their color is dark red; +neat shoulders, thin thighs, and wide sirloin. They fatten well, but are +not generally kept on dairy farms. In many respects they resemble the +Devons. + +The AYRSHIRES have a tapering head, fine neck, and large, bony, but not +coarse carcass; flat ribs; short and rather ugly horns; their skin is +soft, and covered with hair, which is usually red and white in spots. +The Ayrshire cows are invaluable for dairy purposes. + +The POLLED ANGUS, POLLED ABERDEENS, and POLLED GALLOWAYS are very large +cattle, with big heads, unfurnished with horns. Their color is in +general a decided black, but occasionally it exhibits a mixture of black +and white. Their flesh is in general not of the best quality, but some +of their crosses with Shorthorns yield excellent meat, and at an early +age, too. + +The KYLOES are a breed peculiar to the Highlands of Scotland. They are +rather rough, but very picturesque animals, covered with long, shaggy +hair. Their horns are rather long, and curve upwards. Their hair is +differently colored--red, yellow, dun, and black, the latter being the +prevailing hue. No variety of the ox yields a sweeter meat than the +Kyloes, and other mountain breeds of these countries. The animals, +however, arrive slowly to maturity, and in this respect there is great +room for improvement. These mountain-bred animals are now transferred +in large numbers to lowland tillage farms, where the fattening process +is more expeditiously performed. There are excellent crosses between +Shorthorn bulls and Highland cows. + +LONGHORNED CATTLE are rapidly advancing towards extinction. At one time +they were the chief breed kept by most farmers. In general they may be +regarded as an inferior variety, being slow feeders, and producing +rather coarse beef. They are, however, capable of great improvement, as +instanced in the case of Bakewell's celebrated Longhorn herds. + +The KERRYS are a diminutive breed, peculiar to Ireland. They have small +heads, fine necks, fine horns of medium length, and curved upwards near +their summits. They have a soft skin; the hair is generally black, +interspersed with a few white streaks; sometimes their color is red, and +occasionally brown. They are a very hardy race, being indigenous to +mountains. Their flesh is very good, more especially if the animals have +been kept on fattening food. The Kerrys are good milch cows. + +The ALDERNEYS are a small race of oxen with deer-like faces. They +exhibit various shades of red, white, brown, and roan. No cows yield +better milk, or larger quantities of that fluid. + +_Sheep._--The different breeds of sheep are classified under three +heads--viz., _Long-woolled_, _Short-woolled_, and _Middle-woolled_. + +The LEICESTER is, perhaps, the most celebrated breed of sheep reared in +these countries. It was immensely improved by Bakewell about a century +ago, and the breed is often termed the Dishley, after the name of +Bakewell's residence. This sheep has a wide, clean head, broad forehead, +fine eyes, long, thin ears, thick neck, round body, deep chest, +straight, broad back, high ribs, and muscular thighs. The wool is long, +very thick, and fine. At from fifteen to eighteen months old, the +Leicester weighs from 25 to 30 lbs. per quarter; but a fat animal often +weighs from 38 to 40 lbs. per quarter. The fleece weighs from 6 to 8 +lbs. This breed is well adapted for Ireland. It is reared on very poor +land: but in order to maintain its good quality, this sheep requires +abundance of food, and also good shelter during the winter. + +The LINCOLN is distinguished for its large bones and strong muscles. +Originally a gaunt and ugly animal, it has of late years been much +improved. Indeed, the prices lately realised by Lincoln sheep are +extremely high. The Lincoln has a long, white face, long body, and thick +legs. The wool is long, thick, and moderately fine. The flesh of the +Lincoln is lean, owing to its great muscular development. At fifteen +months old it yields about 30 lbs. weight per quarter. It is said that +a Lincoln wether has attained the weight of 304-1/2 lbs. The average +weight of the wool of a hogget is 9-1/2 lbs. + +The COTSWOLD breed arose in the Cotswold hills, in Gloucestershire. +In this variety the skeleton is large, the chest capacious, the back +broad and straight, and the ribs well arched. It has good quarters, +and a finely-arched neck. It is distinguished by a large tuft of +wool--"fore-top," on the forehead. It fattens early, and produces about +25 lbs. per quarter when fifteen months old, and 40 lbs. when two years +old. The wool is rather coarse; its yield is about 8 lbs. + +The CHEVIOT has a long body, long face, long legs, and long ears. The +chest projects slightly, and is rather narrow. The forehead is bare of +wool; the legs and face are white, sometimes approaching to a dun shade. +Weight from 70 to 80 lbs.; weight of fleece, from 3 to 4 lbs. The wool +is of excellent quality, and is used largely in the manufacture of +tweeds. The Cheviot is a mountain sheep, and, as might be expected, its +flesh is well flavored. There are several crosses of the Cheviot with +the Leicester, the Southdown, and the Shropshire. + +The SOUTHDOWN is generally regarded as the best breed for wool reared in +these countries. It is indigenous to the chalk hills of Kent, Sussex, +Hampshire, and Dorsetshire. It has a small head; its back is broad and +straight; the ribs spring out at nearly right angles from the vertebræ. +It is rather light in the fore-quarters, and full in the hind quarters. +Its chest is pretty deep; its face and legs are grey or brown. The wool +of the Southdown is short, and extremely fine; the fleece weighs about 3 +lbs. This sheep arrives early at maturity. It weighs at 15 months old +about 80 lbs. The flesh is very well flavored. + +THE SHROPSHIRE is said to combine in itself the good qualities of the +Southdown, the Cotswold, and the Leicester. It resembles the Southdown +more than any other breed, having the same grey, or brownish grey hue, +and a similar shape. It is, however, larger than the Southdown, and +yields a larger quantity of wool. This breed is becoming a great +favorite in both England and Ireland. + +The BLACK-FACED sheep is peculiar to Scotland. It is equipped with +horns, has a bold long face, and possesses a tuft of wool on its +forehead; its limbs are strong, and its body is somewhat long. The wool +of this breed is very coarse, the fleece weighs about 3-1/2 lbs. The +average weight of this sheep is 75 lbs., the quality of the mutton is +excellent, but it is long before it becomes matured. There are several +other breeds of the sheep, but they are of far less importance than +those which I have described. + +_Breeds of the Pig._--There are several breeds of this useful animal, of +which those known as BERKSHIRE and YORKSHIRE appear to be the greatest +favorites. The Berkshire is black or dusky brown, very rarely reddish +brown. It has a very small head. Its sides are extremely deep, and its +legs very short. There are several sub-varieties of the Yorkshire. This +breed is white, has a compact body, and very broad sides. The head is +very small, somewhat like that of the Berkshire. Both Berkshire and +Yorkshire pigs attain to the enormous weight of 1,000 lbs. The old Irish +"racer" pig is the least profitable kind to keep, but fortunately it is, +as a pure breed, nearly extinct. + +_Breeds of the Horse._--There are a great many breeds of horses. The +Shetland pony is so small, that many specimens are no larger than a +Newfoundland dog; on the other hand, Clydesdale horses sometimes attain +to almost elephantine proportions. There is a wide difference between +the bull-like Suffolk Punch and the greyhound-like _racer_. The English +and Irish racer is said to owe its origin to a cross between the old +English light-legged breed and the Arabian. The most valuable kind of +carriage horse is the joint product of the draught-horse and the racer. +The dray-horse of these countries has a large share of Flemish blood in +him. The best horses for agricultural purposes are unquestionably the +CLYDESDALE and the SUFFOLK PUNCH. The latter is perhaps to be preferred +in most instances, especially on light lands. Very light and feeble +horses are the most expensive variety on almost any kind of farm; for +whilst they consume nearly as much food as the most powerful animals, +and are therefore nearly as costly, they are incapable of effectively +performing their work. A large proportion of the farm horses used by the +small farmers of Ireland are totally unsuited for tillage purposes. On +the other hand, there is no need to employ horses equal in size to the +ponderous creatures that draw brewers' carts. Moderate sized horses, +with well rounded, compact bodies, and muscular but not too heavy limbs, +are the kind best adapted for farm purposes. In Ireland, where there are +not fewer than 600,000 horses, a considerable infusion of blood from +Clydesdales and Suffolk Punches is much required. + +_Hunters and Racers._--There is a strong tendency in the human mind to +look with a regretful feeling to the past, and to compare it to the +disadvantage of the present. It is a general belief with most people +that the old time was the best time; that the seasons were more genial +formerly; that provisions were cheaper and more abundant; that men were +taller, and stouter, and healthier; that, in a word, everything was +better in the days of yore than it is now, and that degeneracy and +effeteness are the prevailing characteristics of our age. Philosophers, +statists, and political economists tell us that all this regret for the +"good old time" is mis-spent sympathy; for that we are in every respect +superior--in physique, health, morals, and wealth--to our ancestors. On +the whole, I rather incline myself to this comfortable philosophy; but +we must admit that we have not progressed in all things since the times +of our fathers. + +In a work entitled "A Comparative View of the Form and Character of the +English Racer and Saddle Horse during the Last and Present Centuries," +published by Hookham, of Old Bond Street, London, it is proved very +clearly that the English race-horse has sadly degenerated. The author +very properly traces the cause of its decay to the avarice of the +turfites: they look upon the noble animal as a mere gambling machine; +and they sacrifice all its other qualities to the excessive development +of that one which is likely to put money in their pockets. Formerly, +gentlemen kept horses for their own sakes--for their admiration and +enjoyment of one of the most beautiful, docile, and useful of animals. +They were incessant in their efforts to develop into perfection all the +really valuable points in the animal; and the result was, that the +English and Irish racer of the last century was unmatched for strength, +speed, and endurance. Models of this splendid race of horses are seldom +to be found at the present time; but there are, perhaps, sporting men +living who saw them in the celebrated Mambrino, Sweet Briar, and Sweet +William. Those horses possessed compact bodies, capacious lungs, strong +loins, large joints, and enormous masses of muscular tissue on the +shoulder-blades and arms. They were good weight-carrying hunters as well +as racers, and they could carry eight stones over a six miles heat, +or twelve stones over a four miles one. The Irish horses, at least, +were capable of safely carrying thirteen stones over what would now be +considered a very ugly ditch, and could get over a long steeplechase in +a style which would astonish the owners of the modern "weeds." Since the +distance to be traversed by competing horses has been reduced from the +old-fashioned three heats of four miles each to a single run of a mile +or two, and also since the weight imposed upon the animals has been +reduced to six or seven stones, from ten to twelve, the anatomical +structure of the race-horse has undergone a remarkable and serious +alteration. The back has become very long, the sides flat, the loins +weak, the limbs long and very thin; and this alteration in structure has +been attended by weakness of constitution and a remarkable tendency +to disease. The modern horse has attained to a remarkable degree of +rapidity of locomotion, but it has been at the expense of its vigor, +endurance, and health; it can run with great velocity for a short +distance, but in a four-mile heat, and mounted by a man of average +weight, a mediocre horse of the style of the middle of the last century +would come to the post long before the winner of the last St. Leger. + +The decay of the breed of horses in this country is a serious matter, +and the attention of all who are interested in the preservation of this +animal should be earnestly and promptly directed towards discovering +the means of regeneration. My remarks are directed towards racers and +hunters. The quality of speed which they possess has been developed +to an extent which is incompatible with the development of equally +essential properties. Encouragement should be given to the production of +weight-carrying hunters; steeple-chasing should be restored to its old +state, when only a powerful horse had a chance of success. The quality +of speed should be promoted in the animal up to a certain point; but +when the development of this attribute begins to cause a loss of +strength and endurance, it is high time to check it. There are a few +horses at present which are strong and moderately fast: why should not +steeple-chasing be of the kind which would call this style of animal +into competition? Only a "weed" can now enter with any probability of +success at a race of this kind; and when he has won it, of what use +is he as a good hunter? What we want are good, stout, healthy horses, +capable of carrying, in good style, twelve stones weight over a rough +country; and the object of steeple-chasing should be the production of +such a race of horses. + + * * * * * + +[Footnote 17: Improved by Leicester blood.] + +[Footnote 18: The object of the first breeders of the Leicester was +to produce a sheep which would yield a great carcass, and small offal +weight. So far as the results of these experiments go, I think the idea +of the founder of this breed has been realised.] + +[Footnote 19: "Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of +Scotland," for July, 1860.] + + + + +PART III. + +ON THE MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCK. + + +SECTION I. + +THE OX. + +_Breeding Cows._--The period of gestation in the cow is about nine +months. The earliest time at which it is at all safe to breed from these +animals is when they are one year and eight months old. Shorthorns breed +early, whilst the mountain varieties are seldom in calf before they are +three years old. The practice of very early breeding, though approved of +by some extensive rearers of stock, is not to be commended for sound +physiological reasons. Cows calve at all times of the year; but the most +favorable time is near the end of winter, or in early spring. The cows +should at this time be in fair condition--neither too fat nor too lean. +Parturition should take place in a roomy, covered place, provided with +abundance of clean litter. If such a place be not available, a nice +paddock close to the house must answer. After having given birth to +the calf, the cow should receive an oatmeal drink, or some warm and +nutritious mash, and afterwards be liberally fed. The cow is usually +allowed to run dry four or five weeks before calving: this period should +not be curtailed; on the contrary, it would be better to extend it to +six weeks, so as not to allow her condition to become too poor. + +_The Wintering of Young Stock._--There are certain localities wherein +the rearing of young stock is one of the easiest tasks which devolve +upon the farmer. Well-drained and shady fields, yielding abundance of +sound herbage, and through which streams of _pure_ water unceasingly +flow, are just the proper _locale_ for economically feeding young +animals. But there are districts in which those favorable conditions do +not exist; yet they are not better adapted to other uses. It is only the +feeders of young stock in wet, moory, sandy, or undrained, heavy soils +who really have cause for anxiety and incessant watchfulness. In rearing +a calf the great object is to cause a rapid and uninterrupted increase +in the weight of its body. At first the food of the animal should be +furnished solely from the maternal founts; but at an early stage of its +existence--about the third or fourth week--other food may wholly, or in +part, be substituted for the natural aliment. It is important that no +great interval should elapse between the hours of feeding. The digestive +apparatus of the young animal is small, and its powers of assimilation +are very energetic. The food with which it is supplied should, +therefore, be given in moderate quantities, and very frequently. This +is, in fact, what takes place when the calf is allowed free access to +its dam; for the instant it feels a desire for aliment, the supply is at +once available. Of course, there may be objections to this plan on the +score of economy; but as a general rule, too much liberality cannot be +exercised in feeding growing animals; and there is nothing more certain +than that the calf which is illiberally fed will never be developed into +a valuable, matured animal. When carefully tended from their birth, +comfortably housed in winter, and abundantly supplied with nutritious +food, it is sometimes wonderful the rapid progress which young stock +make. Mr. Wright mentions a remarkable case of early maturity, which +occurred in his own herd. A young steer, one year old, exhibited all the +development of an animal twice its age. This bullock had been suckled +for three months, whereby it had not only kept its calf-flesh, but +gained and retained a step in advance. Its weight when only a year old +was no less than 50 stones; and as the price of beef at the time was 8s. +9d. per stone, live weight, the carcass of the animal was worth £21 17s. +6d. Mr. Wright offers this fact as a suggestive one to "those farmers who +think of bringing up their calves on old milk, or who would otherwise +stint their growth." + +Supposing, then, that we have young stock which had been liberally +treated when in their "baby" state, how are we to most economically +maintain them throughout the winter? In the first place, they should be +kept in warm sheds, and well sheltered from both rain and wind. Some +authorities contend that exercise is necessary to young stock, and deny +that a proper development of the muscles (lean flesh) can take place if +they are cooped up like fattening turkeys during the winter. There is +some truth in this opinion; and if the animals be designed for breeding +or dairy purposes, their freedom of motion should only be partially +restrained. On the other hand, if they be intended for an early +introduction to the shambles, the less exercise they get the greater +will be the profit on their keep. I have known cases where animals were +closely housed for seven months, and yet their health did not appear +to suffer in the slightest degree. In fact, so predominant are the +vegetative functions of the ruminants over their nervous attributes, +that the only essential conditions of their existence are adequate +supplies of good air and food. That the health of these animals does +occasionally suffer when the motions of their bodies are reduced to a +_minimum_ is quite true; but in most of these instances the real cause +is, not the want of exercise, but the want of pure air. The greatest +care should, therefore, be taken in the ventilation of the places where +stock, whether old or young, are kept; and no economy of space or heat +will compensate for the want of wholesome air. Under the fallacious idea +that exposure to cold renders young stock hardy, many farmers turn them +out to eat straw in the open fields in frosty weather. Treatment of this +kind, instead of being productive of good, almost invariably lays the +foundation of disease, which will manifest itself at some stage of the +animal's growth. There are a few favored localities, such as those to +which I have already alluded, where yearlings may be occasionally allowed +a turn through the fields in winter; but on cold clays, wet moors, and +sandy soils the young stock should never be permitted to leave their +sheds or courts from the time they are housed till late in the spring. + +Young stock are best fed on good meadow hay and turnips, with a moderate +supplement of oil-cake; this, however, is expensive feeding in many +farms, and a little filling-in may be done with cheaper or more easily +obtainable stuffs. A mixture of cut chaff, with pulped mangels, is a +good substitute for the more costly hay; and particularly in the case +of animals intended for breeding or for the dairy. The roots should be +pulped, and allowed to remain until, owing to a slight fermentation, +they become warm. This change takes place in from twenty-four hours to +sixty hours, according to the temperature; but the fermentation should +not be carried farther than the earliest stage. The heated pulp should +then be thoroughly mixed with the chaff, and the compound, after an +hour or two, will be ready for use. A little chopped hay--no matter if +inferior or slightly mildewed--may be substituted for the chaff, and +turnips employed instead of the mangels, but the latter are the more +desirable roots. + +Until lately, the use of oil-cake was confined to fattening animals, +but latterly it is freely given to calves, even when they are only +a month old; and there is no doubt but that it is a suitable and +economical food for store stock. It is, however, sometimes given in +excess: from half a pound to two and a half pounds daily will be +sufficient for animals under one year; and this addition to their food +will be found to exercise a beneficial influence on them when they +are placed in stalls for finishing. The experience of several eminent +breeders has proved that fattening beasts, which had in their youth +a supply of oil-cake, or its equivalent, invariably store up a larger +portion of their food than those which had been reared on hay and roots +only. + +Mr. George Stodart, of Cultercullen, an Aberdeenshire farmer, describes, +in the _Irish Farmer's Gazette_, his method of rearing calves:-- + + I occupy (says Mr. Stodart) a farm of 380 acres. I usually rear + twenty-four calves yearly, and buy in sixteen one-year-olds. + I generally breed from cross cows (the same as mentioned above), + served by a pure Shorthorn bull. When the calves are dropped I put + two calves to suck one cow for six months. In autumn, spring calves + are put into the house upon turnips and straw, with about 1 lb. of + oil-cake per day to each, until they are put out to grass in spring + following, at which time they are one year old. Then, of course, + they have grass in summer, and at the approach of winter they are + again housed upon turnips and straw, which bring them to be two + years old in spring. Now they are sent out to the best grass, and + again brought into the house at the beginning of September, and + fed on turnips and straw until the end of November or middle of + December, when they usually fetch from £25 to £32 a-head. This + year (1864), however, they will average £32. a-head. Before selling + I give each 3-1/2 lbs. of oil-cake per day for six weeks, and during + this time they have swede turnips; at other times yellow. We give as + much turnips at all times as they can eat. + + +Mr. Bowick, in his excellent paper on the rearing of calves, published +in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, gives the following +information on this subject:-- + + We consider it desirable to allow the calf to remain with its + dam for the first three or four days after calving. + + Not much trouble is generally experienced in getting it to take + to the pail. We find it better to miss the evening's meal, and + next morning a very little attention induces the majority of them + to partake of what is set before them. At most the guidance of the + fingers may be wanted for the first meal or two. + + As regards the quantity of milk which is needful to keep a + moderately bred Shorthorn calf in a thriving condition, we have + found the following allowance to come pretty near the mark, + although the appetite of calves varies, both in individuals and + at different times with the same animal:-- + + 1st week with the dam; or 4 quarts per day, at two meals. + + 2nd to 4th week, 5 to 6 quarts per day, at two meals. + + 4th to 6th week, 6 to 7 quarts per day, at two meals. + + And the quantity need not, during the ensuing six weeks (after + which it is weaned), exceed a couple of gallons per day. This + implies that the calf is fed upon new milk only, and that no + other feeding liquids are employed. But, in addition to the above, + the calf will, towards the fourth week, begin to eat a little + green hay; and in a week or two later, some sliced roots, or meal, + or finely crushed cake, mixed with hay-chaff; and, if really good, + creditable beasts are wanted--such as will realise £25 a-head from + the butcher when turned two and a half years old--a little cake + or meal in their early days will be found a desirable investment. + In fact, we doubt not but 1 lb. of cake per day to the calf will + make as much flesh as triple the quantity of cake at any period + of after life. As regards meal, if that is given with the chaff, + we prefer oatmeal, or barley-meal, or wheaten flour, but not the + meal of beans or pease. Others may see it differently, but we + believe beans to be too heating for any class of young stock. For + roots, the best we know of is the carrot, grated and mixed with + the chaff, or sliced thin with a knife and given alone. It is also, + of all roots, the one which we find them most fond of, and which + they will most readily take to. As soon as they can eat them + freely, an immediate reduction in the supply of milk may be made. + + In most articles it holds good in the end that "the best is the + cheapest." So with the rearing of calves; the best class of food, + or that above referred to, is found to give the greatest ultimate + satisfaction. But practically the question often is, how to rear + good calves with comparatively little new milk, a condition which + circumstances often render almost imperative; for where dairy + produce, in any other form, is the chief object, the calves stand + in a secondary position, and are treated accordingly. But let us + ask whether you cannot rear good stock under such circumstances + also? We believe that this may be, and often is done. We manage to + turn out from twenty-five to thirty calves annually--such as will + pass muster anywhere--and never use at any one time more than six + gallons of new milk daily. For this purpose, as well as to obtain + a regular supply of milk for other purposes, the calves are allowed + to come at different periods, extending from October to May. Hence + the calf-house has generally a succession of occupants throughout + the season; and as one lot are ready to be removed, and placed loose + in a small hovel, with yard attached, others fill their places. + We begin with new milk from the pail, which is continued for a + fortnight after leaving the cow. Then skim-milk--boiled, and allowed + to cool to the natural warmth--is substituted to the extent of + one-third of the allowance. In another week the new milk is reduced + to half, and at the same time, not before, boiled linseed is added + to the mess.[20] As soon as they take freely to this food, the new + milk may be replaced with that from the dairy, and the calf is + encouraged to indulge in a few sliced carrots and the other dry + foods named. + + +Mr. Murray, of Overstone, thus states the expense of rearing the calf +until it is two years old, when, after the weaning process is completed, +it is turned out to grass:-- + + During the summer they have the run of a grass paddock during + the day, but return regularly to their yards at night; the + following winter they are kept in larger yards, and which contain + a greater number of animals. Their bill of fare for this winter is + 2 lbs. of oil-cake, half a bushel of cut roots, with cut chaff _ad + libitum_. The chaff has a small quantity of flour or pollard mixed + with it, is moistened with water, and the whole mass turned over; + this is done the day previous to using it. By this means they eat + the chaff with more relish, and moistening it prevents the flour + being wasted. They are put to grass the following summer, generally + from the 15th to the 20th of May, or as soon as the pastures are in + a state to receive them; they remain there on second-rate land till + about the end of October, when they are brought home and tied up in + the stalls. The daily allowance is then 4 lbs. linseed-cake, 4 lbs. + flour--3/4 bean, 1/4 barley--1 bushel of cut roots with cut chaff; + the flour and chaff is mixed as already described. At about the end + of December the quantity of cake is increased to 8 lbs., and the + flour to 6 lbs.; this they continue to receive till they are sold + to the butcher during the months of March and April, when they + weigh, on an average, 90 stones of 8 lbs. per bullock, and under + two years and six months old. At this season of the year beef + generally makes 5s. per stone--we often make 9s.--but taking that + as an average would make the value of each beast £22 10s. The cost + of keeping to this age will be as follows:-- + + £ s. d. + + One calf 2 0 0 + Milk, &c., nine weeks 1 5 0 + Cake, grass, &c., forty-three weeks, at 1s. 6d. 3 4 6 + Second year, November till May, cake, flour, + roots, &c., 2s. 6d. per week, for twenty-six weeks 3 5 0 + May till November, grass, twenty-six weeks, at 2s. 6d. 3 5 0 + Third year, November till April, twenty weeks, at 8s. 8 0 0 + --------- + £20 19 6 + + Which leaves a gain to each animal of £1 10s. 6d., besides the + manure. + +_Shelter of Stock._--The great diminution of temperature, and the +falling off in the supply of herbage, that are coincident with the +close of the autumn, render it necessary to remove our cattle from the +open fields, and provide them with some sort of shelter during the +winter months and early part of the spring. + +The particular period at which this change of quarters takes place of +course varies, and is, in fact, altogether dependent upon the character +of the season. There are some years in which there is, so to speak, a +kind of relapse of the summer, November being bright and warm, instead +of, as is usually the case, cold and foggy. In such a year there is some +herbage to be picked up until the very end of December. On the other +hand, the latter part of October is often very wet, and October frosts +are by no means uncommon. Tempestuous, biting winds in November, or +torrents of rain, or both, tell severely upon the poor animals in the +fields, even where there is abundance of herbage; and hence, should such +weather take place at the latter part of October, the true economy would +be to remove the animals at once to sheltered places. + +Nothing lowers the temperature of the surface so rapidly as a cold wind. +Captain Parry, one of the explorers of the Arctic regions, states that +his men, when well clothed, suffered no inconvenience on exposure to the +low temperature of 55 degrees below zero, provided the air was perfectly +calm; but the slightest breeze, when the air was at this temperature, +caused the painful sensation produced by intense cold. I could adduce +the experience of many practical men in favor of the plan of affording +shelter to animals, but more especially to those kept in situations +much exposed to winds. Mr. Nesbit relates a case bearing on this +point:--A farmer in Dorsetshire put up twenty or thirty sheep, under +the protection of a series of upright double hurdles lined with straw, +having as a sort of roof, or lean-to, a single hurdle, also lined with +straw. A like number of sheep, of the same weight, were fed in the open +field, without shelter of any kind. Each set was fed with turnips _ad +libitum_. The result was, that those without shelter increased in weight +1 lb. per week for each sheep, whilst those under shelter, although they +consumed less food, increased respectively 3 lbs. per week. + +As a general rule, the latter part of October, or early in November, is +the time for the removal of live stock from the pastures to the shelter +of the farmstead. In England and Scotland the transference is seldom +delayed after these dates; but in Ireland it is no uncommon thing to see +the animals grazing very much later in the year--a circumstance which +the lateness and mildness of our climate account for. But whatever the +date may be, the importance of such shelter is universally recognised, +even by those who most neglect it and are least acquainted with the +principles upon which its necessity depends. The more important of these +principles have already been explained, but they may be here summarised +as follows:-- + +1. A certain amount of warmth is an indispensable condition for the +maintenance of the life of animals. + +2. The internal heat of the bodies of animals is supplied by the +chemical combination which takes place between the oxygen of the +atmospheric air which they inspire and certain of the constituents +(carbon and hydrogen) of the food which they consume, or, to speak more +accurately, of the tissues of their bodies, which are formed out of +their food. It is very much in the same way in which our houses are +heated by the burning of coal, turf, or wood in their fire-places, since +the heat derived in the latter case is obtained from a similar source as +in the former one--namely, by the union of the oxygen of the air with +the carbon and hydrogen of the fuel. The only real difference between +the two kinds of combustion is, that in respiration the process is +conducted with an extreme degree of slowness, whilst in the ordinary +fire the combinations take place rapidly, and the heat being evolved +in a much shorter time is proportionately the more intense. + +3. The temperature of the external parts of the animal body varies with +the nature and quantity of the food supplied to it, and also depends +upon the state of the weather and the character of the protection +afforded to it. + +The colder the air, the greater will be the quantity of food required, +and the more complete the shelter. In other words, a diminution of +temperature, no matter how caused, will necessitate an increased amount +of food and more perfect shelter, in order to maintain at the proper +degree of heat the fluids of the body. It is only the external parts of +the body that become cold: so long as the animal is in health its blood +always maintains the same degree of temperature; but in cold weather the +blood is subjected to a greater cooling power than it is in warm +weather, and this cooling power it can only resist by taxing more +extensively the heat-producing resources of the body. + +4. Exposure to wet, even in warm weather, will tend to reduce the +temperature of the body, since the conversion of water into vapor can +only be effected at the expense of heat, which heat must be in great +part extracted from the body of the animal itself. + +5. No possible increase of food, however nutritious it may be, can +suffice to keep up the due warmth and healthy condition of the animal +frame in winter, if shelter from cold and rain be not simultaneously +effected. On the contrary, an animal well protected from the winter +blasts will require much less food than if it were placed in an exposed +position. The reason of this is, that the amount of food which an animal +exposed to great cold consumes to maintain the temperature of its body +would, under opposite conditions, be stored up in the form of permanent +"increase"--beef or mutton for the butcher, in fact. + +The fat-forming constituents of the food of stock are in no case +converted into permanent fat, except when they exceed in quantity the +amount required to keep up the internal heat of the animal; but when +this is constantly reduced by exposure to a wintry temperature, the +food becomes insufficient for even that purpose, no matter how much +aliment is given. What, then, must not be the condition of the +unfortunate animals whose fate it is to be the property of a farmer +who neither shelters them from the weather nor provides them with a +sufficient quantity of nourishing food! + +_Milch Cows._--When dairy-farming is conducted on pure pastures, the +cows are altogether dependent upon the grasses; and in winter, the +animals suffer much from scarcity of food. This is the very worst system +of cow-keeping, but it is prevalent amongst many small farmers in +Ireland, and is to be met with even in England and Scotland. I am +strongly of opinion that it would be far more economical to keep cows +(and other cattle) altogether in the house, and feed them with cut +grass, than to allow them to remain out altogether in the field. There +are several disadvantages resulting from the depasturing of cows. In the +warm weather, the animals are greatly annoyed by the attacks of flies: +there is a considerable waste of muscle, caused by the movements of +the animals whilst in search of their food; and the excrements of the +animals and their footmarks injure a large portion of the grass. It may +be somewhat troublesome and expensive to cut the grass, and convey it +from the field to the house; but the labor and the cost will be more +than repaid by the greatly-increased yield of food. A grass-field, +mowed, will produce from 20 to 30 per cent. more food than it would if +it were trampled upon and soiled by cattle. Exercise for an hour or two +in the cool of the evening, or early in the morning (during the hot +weather), will be quite sufficient to keep the animals in health. This +may be taken in a field, better in a paddock, best of all in a roomy +yard. When cattle are supplied with cut grass, or clover, care should +be taken not to give it to them when very wet, for otherwise there is +danger of the excessively moist herbage producing the _hoove_. Neither +should large quantities of the green food be given to them--the supply +should be "little and often." Should the food be too succulent, the +addition of a little straw will correct its laxative effects. When +the stock is about passing from the winter keep to summer food, the +transition should be gradual; a well-made compound of straw or hay with +grass (natural or artificial) is much relished by cows. A supply of +good water is absolutely necessary; but sufficient attention to this +important point is seldom given. Cooked food is well adapted for milch +cows. Mangels, kohl-rabi, and cabbages are each of them better food than +turnips, as the latter is apt to impart a disagreeable flavour to the +butter. Three feeds in the day is a sufficient number for cows. The +first meal should be early in the morning, and may consist of roots, +mixed with straw or hay. Some feeders prefer using dry fodder, or cooked +food of some kind, and not raw roots. The second meal is given at +mid-day, and the third in the evening. The daily allowance of roots +varies from 2 to 8 stones, depending upon the quantities of other foods +used. Mr. Horsfall's diet is as follows:--Hay, 9 lbs.; rape-cake, 6 +lbs.; malt-combs, 1 lb.; bran, 1 lb.; roots, 28 lbs. These substances +are mixed and cooked, and the animals receive them in a warm state. +In addition to this food, Mr. Horsfall's cows get bean-meal--a cow in +full milk 2 lbs., others from 1/2 lb. to 1-1/2 lbs.; cost per week per +cow, 8s. 7d.[21] Mr. Alcock, of Skipton, feeds his cows as follows:--Raw +mangels, 20 lbs.; carob beans, 3 lbs.; bran and malt-combs, 1-3/4 lbs.; +bean-meal, 3-1/2 lbs.; rape-cake, 3 lbs.; per diem. A steamed mixture +of wheat and bean straws and shells of oats _ad libitum_. Oats, to the +extent of 2 or 3 lbs. daily, are an excellent food for cows. + +An important point in dairy economics is the feeding of the cows at +_regular_ intervals. If the usual time for the feed be allowed to pass, +the animals are almost certain to become very uneasy--to _worry_; and +every feeder knows, or ought to know, that a fretting beast will neither +fatten nor yield milk satisfactorily. The cow-house ought to be kept as +clean as possible; and the excreta, therefore, should be removed several +times a day. + +Mr. Harvey, of Glasgow, has probably one of the largest dairies +in the world. His cow byres, 56 yards long, and from 12 to 24 feet +wide--according as one or two rows of cows are to be accommodated--stand +closely packed, the whole surface of the ground being thus covered by +a kind of roof. From 900 to 1,000 cows are constantly in milk. They are +fed during winter partly on steamed turnips (7 tons being steamed daily +in order to give one meal daily to 900 cows), partly on coarse hay, of +which, as of straw, they get between 20 and 30 lbs. a day each. They are +also fed on draff, of which they receive half a bushel daily each; on +Indian corn meal, of which they have 3 lbs. daily each; and on pot-ale, +of which they receive three times a day nearly as much as they will +consume, _i.e._, from 6 to 10 gallons daily. During the summer they are +let out, a byreful at a time, for half a day to grass, and on coming +in receive their spent malt and still liquor, and hay in addition. They +are managed, cleaned, and fed by two men to each byre holding about 100 +cows. The milking is done three times a day, by women who take charge +of 13 cows in full milk, or double that number in half milk, apiece. +Between 4 and 5 o'clock a.m. (taking the winter management), the byres +are cleaned out, and the cows receive a "big shovelful" of draff +apiece, and half their steamed turnips and meal, and a "half stoupful," +(probably 2 gallons) of pot-ale. They are milked very early. At 7 they +receive their fodder-straw or hay. At 10 they get a "full stoupful" +(probably 3 or 4 gallons) of pot-ale. They are milked at noon. At 2 +p.m., or thereabouts, they are foddered again, and at 4 p.m. receive +the same food as at the morning meal. They are again milked at 5 to 6, +cleaned out and left till morning. The average produce is stated to be +2 gallons a day per cow. + +Mrs. Scott, of Weekston, Peebles, who keeps one of the best managed +dairy farms in the United Kingdom, thus conducts her operations in +the winter:--At 6 o'clock in the morning the cows are well wiped or +scrubbed, have their bedding removed, and receive each about 4 or 5 lbs. +of straw. At 8 o'clock the cows are milked, and Mrs. Scott examines each +to ascertain whether or not the milk-maid has left any fluid in the +udder--and woe betide the careless maid if her work has been carelessly +done! At 10 o'clock a barrowful of turnips is divided amongst three +cows, and when these roots are not available, a quantity of peas or bean +meal, with a pint of cold water, takes their place. At 1 o'clock the +cows are allowed out to be watered, and during their absence from the +byre it is thoroughly cleansed and ventilated. When the state of the +weather prevents the cows from being turned out, they receive twice a +day a handful of oatmeal diffused throughout three pints of water--a +handful of salt being given in the first of these drinks. When the cows +return to the byre, they receive each about 4 or 5 lbs. of straw, and at +4 or 5 o'clock an evening meal of turnips equal to their morning feed. +At 8 o'clock a "windling" of meadow hay is given to each pair of cows, +the quantity being always regulated according to the requirements of +each cow. The cows upon calving receive, in addition to this allowance +of hay, half a pailful of boiled turnips, mixed with a quart of peas +or bean-meal. This mess is given in a lukewarm state. Mrs. Scott's +system may be thus epitomised: Regularity in feeding; sufficient but +not excessive food; regularity in milking; and minute attention to +cleanliness and ventilation. + +_Stall-feeding._--What becomes of the 90 per cent. of the weight of +the non-nitrogenous constituents of the food of the sheep, and of the +80 per cent. of that of the nutriment of the pig, which they consume +but do not store up? I have already partly answered this question. This +portion of the food is chiefly expended in the production of the heat +with which the high temperature of the animal's body is maintained. Part +of it, no doubt, passes unchanged through its body, either owing to its +indigestibility, or to its being given in excess. The quantity of +non-nitrogenous matters consumed by a man is influenced greatly by the +temperature of the air which he habitually breathes, and by the nature +of the artificial covering of his body; there may be other conditions +at present unknown to us, but these are amongst the chief ones. Now, as +there is sufficient reason to lead us to believe that the consumption +of carbonaceous food by the lower animals is influenced in the same +way by the temperature of the medium in which they exist, the question +naturally suggests itself, would it not be cheaper to maintain the heat +of the animal by burning the carbon of cheap coal or turf outside its +body, than by consuming the carbon of costly fat within it? The answer +to this question is not so simple as at first sight it appears to be. We +must not consider that, because 10 lbs. weight of carbon, as coal, costs +but a penny, whilst an equal weight of the same element in starch costs +twenty pence, heat may be furnished to a fattening animal twenty times +cheaper by the combustion of coal than by that of starch. No doubt the +amount of heat evolved by the conversion of a pound-weight of carbon +into carbonic acid is the same, whether it be a constituent of starch or +of coal; but the application of the heat so produced is less under our +control in the latter case. All the heat evolved during the combustion +of the starch within the animal's body is made use of; whilst a very +large proportion of that developed by the combustion of coal in a +furnace cannot in practice be applied to the purpose of heating the +animal's body. + +It is only the handiwork of the Creator which is perfect, and no machine +constructed by the skill of man, for the direction of force, can rival +that wondrous heat-producing, force-directing mechanism--the animal +organism. According to Dumas, the combustion of about 2-1/2 lbs. of +carbon in a steam-engine is required to generate sufficient force to +convey a man from the level of the sea to the summit of Mont Blanc; but +a man will ascend the mountain in two days, and burn in his mechanism +only half a pound of carbon. There is no machine in which heat and +force are more completely made available than the animal organism; and +were it not--thanks to the influence of antediluvian sunshine--that +the carbon of fuel in these countries is so very much cheaper than the +carbon of food, there is no doubt but that the cheapest mode of keeping +an animal warm would be to allow it to burn its carbon within its +body. As the matter stands, however, there is no question as to the +advisability of keeping fattening animals in a warm place. If the +temperature of the stall be equal to that of the animal's body there +will be less food consumed in the increase of its fat; because less of +the fat-forming materials will be expended in the production of heat. +In this sense, therefore, heat is an equivalent to food, but only within +certain limits; because heat is developed in large quantity within the +animal body independently of the temperature of the air. There is, +therefore, no object to be attained by having the stalls heated beyond +70 or 80 degrees. Indeed, it is to be questioned whether or not stalls +artificially heated are ever properly ventilated. If they be not, the +health of the animal will suffer, and its appetite--so essential a point +in fattening stock--will become impaired. We may conclude--firstly, +that animals, when fattening, should be kept at a temperature not under +70 degrees nor above 90 degrees Fahrenheit; secondly, that the mode of +heating must be such that there is as little wasteful combustion of fuel +as is possible under the circumstances; and, lastly, that no motives of +economy of fuel should prevent the feeding places from being thoroughly +ventilated. + +Stall-feeding is not so extensively carried on in Ireland as it is in +Great Britain. There is a general impression that it does not pay in the +former country; but if such be the case, it is simply owing to the want +of skill on the part of the Irish feeders. + +The cattle intended for stall-feeding should be removed (if out) from +the field in October, and put into the house, or court, or crib, or +hammel, as the case may be. They are fed upon roots, straw, hay, grain, +and artificial food. The greatest skill is required in their treatment. +It is a nice point to determine which foods are the most economical, +and also to ascertain in what foods excessive proportions of certain +nutritive elements exist. Sufficient food should be given; but any +approach to waste should be avoided. Three feeds a day are usually +given, and should be supplied at the same hours each day. For about two +weeks the animals are furnished with white turnips _ad libitum_; but +after the expiration of that time they receive Swedish turnips, straw, +and grain, or oil-cake. Late in the season mangels will replace turnips. +Almost every extensive feeder now uses oil-cakes in large quantities; +but when oats are low in price, they will in general be found a cheap +equivalent for a large proportion of the oil-cake. Different feeders +have different dietaries, and the nature of the aliments supplied to +fattening stock depends very much upon the market prices of food-stuffs, +and the locality in which the feeding-house is situated. The following +dietaries are but examples of the methods of feeding adopted in +different districts and by different persons:-- + +Mr. McCombie, of Tillyfour, fattens from 300 to 400 beasts annually, +and obtained for them in 1861 £35 per head. He never exceeds 4 lbs. of +oil-cake per diem, nor 2 lbs. of bruised oats, for each beast. He gives +as much turnip and straw as they can consume. He realises £12 per acre +in feeding on Aberdeen and Swedish turnips. + +"For fatting cattle," says Mr. Edmonds, of Cirencester, "I should +recommend two parts hay and one part straw, or in forward animals +three parts hay and one part straw cut in chaff. Those of average size +will eat somewhere about five bushels per day, with 4 lbs. to 5 lbs. +oil-cake, and half a peck of mixed meal, barley and peas, or beans, and, +if cheap, a proportion of wheat also, to be increased to one peck per +day in a month or six weeks after they have come to stall, the oil-cake +and meal to be boiled in water for half-an-hour or three-quarters, and +thrown in the form of rich soup over the chaff, and well mixed, to which +add a little salt." + +Colonel M'Douall, of Logan, Wigtonshire, gives 3 lbs. of bean-meal and +3 lbs. of cut straw cooked together, and 84 lbs. of Swedish turnips. + +According to the researches of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, an ox weighing +1,400 lbs. ought to gain 20 lbs. weekly when fed under cover with 8 lbs. +of crushed oil-cake, 13 lbs. of chopped clover hay, and 47 lbs. of +turnips. The chemical constituents (in a dried state) of this allowance +are as follows:-- + + Ounces. + + Fat-formers, or heat givers 232 + Flesh-formers 55 + Mineral matter 29 + +_Cost of Maintaining Animals._--The animal mechanism, which exhibits +the least tendency to fatten, is the most costly to keep in repair, in +relation to the work performed by it. If, for example, a sheep store up +in its increase one-fifth of its food, then the remaining four-fifths +are expended in preserving it alive, and their cost represents, so to +speak, the expense of preserving the animal's body in repair. If another +sheep store up only one-tenth of its food, then the cost of its +maintenance may be said to be double that of the animal which retains +the larger proportion of its nutriment in the form of flesh. Of course +in both cases the value of the manure will to a great extent compensate +for the cost of the food expended in merely keeping the animal alive; +but that does not affect the proposition, that the less food expended by +an animal in carrying on its vital functions the more valuable is it as +a "meat-manufacturing machine." From the moment it is brought into the +world until it is "ripe" for the shambles, an animal should steadily +increase in weight: every week that it does not store up a portion of +its food in permanent increase is the loss of a week's food to the +feeder; for all the fodder consumed during that time by the animal is, +so to speak, devoted to its own private purposes. Sheep overcrowded +on pastures, milch cows on "short commons," calves kept on bulky +innutritious food, are all so many sources of positive loss to the +feeder--and as many proofs that he who aspires to be a successful +producer of meat, must, in one respect at least, be a devout believer +in the doctrine of Progressive Development. + +_Cooking and Bruising Food._--The cooking, or the otherwise preparing, +of the food of the domesticated animals is a subject which until +recently was completely ignored by the vast majority of stock feeders. +It is now, however, beginning to attract a fair amount of attention; and +no doubt ere long the best modes of treating the food of cattle will be +discovered. + +As might be expected from our limited experience of the subject, there +exists considerable difference of opinion relative to the proper method +of cooking cattle food; and there are many very extensive feeders who +object to the plan altogether, and contend that as the food of the +inferior animals is naturally supplied to them in a raw condition, +it would be quite unnatural to give it to them in a cooked state. + +Whatever difference of opinion there may be with regard to the propriety +of cooking the food of stock, we believe there ought not to be a doubt +as to the desirability of mechanically treating the harder kinds of +feeding stuff. It is quite evident that a horse fed upon hard grains of +oats and wiry fibres of uncut hay or straw must expend no inconsiderable +proportion of his motive power in the process of mastication. After a +hard day's work of eight or ten hours he has before him the laborious +task of reducing to a pulp from 12 lbs. to 20 lbs. weight of exceedingly +hard and tough vegetable matter; and as this operation is carried on +during the hours which should be devoted to rest, the repose of the +animal is to some extent interfered with. Indeed, it not unfrequently +happens that a horse, after a hard day's work, is too tired to chew his +food properly; he consequently bolts his oats, a large proportion of +which, as a matter of course, passes unchanged through the animal's +body. + +In order to render fully effective the motive power of the horse, it is +absolutely necessary to pay attention to the condition, as well as to +the quantity and quality of his nutriment. The force wasted by a horse +in the comminution of his food, when composed of whole oats and uncut +hay and straw, cannot, at the lowest estimate, be less than that which +he expends in an hour of ordinary work, such as, for example, in +ploughing. The preparation of his food by means of water or steam power, +or even by animal motive power, would economise by at least 50 per cent. +the labor expended in its mastication; and this would be equivalent to +nearly half a day's work in each week, and, consequently, a clear gain +of so much labor to the owner of the animal. In the present time of +water-power and steam-power corn-mills, one man is able to grind the +flour necessary for the support of several thousand men; in early ages +the labor of one person in the grinding of wheat served but to supply +the wants of twenty others. In both cases machinery was employed +for reducing the grain to flour; but in the one case, the mechanisms +employed were more than a hundred times more effective than in the +other. But even the most imperfect flour mill is by far a more +economical system of comminuting corn than the jaws of animals; and if +every man were obliged, as the horse is, to grind his corn by means of +his teeth alone, he would find his powers for the performance of other +kinds of labor considerably lessened. + +It has been urged as an objection to the use of bruised oats by horses, +that they exercise in that state a laxative influence upon the animal's +bowels. I doubt very much that such is frequently the case, when the +animal is fed only upon oats and hay and straw; but even if the oats +produce such an effect, the addition of a small proportion of beans--the +binding properties of which are well known--will obviate the +disadvantage. + +The desirability of mechanically acting upon soft food is not so +apparent as the necessity for the bruising of oats is. Roots are so +easily masticable that if they are rendered more so there is danger of +their being so hastily swallowed as to escape thorough insalivation, +which is so necessary to ensure perfect digestion. To guard against this +danger, perhaps the best way would be to give pulped mangels and turnips +mixed with cut straw; a mixture which could not easily be bolted. +Mr. Charles Lawrence, of Cirencester, who is a great advocate for the +cooking of food, and has frequently published his experience of the +benefits derivable therefrom, thus describes his method of combining +pulped roots with dry fodder:-- + + We find that, taking a score of bullocks together fattening, + they consume per head per diem three bushels of chaff, mixed + with just half a cwt. of pulped roots, exclusive of cakes of + corn; that is to say, rather more than two bushels of chaff + are mixed with the roots, and given at two feeds, morning and + evening, and the remainder is given with the cake, &c., at the + middle-day feed, thus:--We use the steaming apparatus of Stanley, + of Peterborough, consisting of a boiler in the centre, in which + the steam is generated, and which is connected by a pipe on the + left hand with a large galvanised iron receptacle for steaming + food for pigs, and on the right with a large wooden tub, lined + with copper, in which the cake, mixed with water, is made into + a thick soup. Adjoining this is a slate tank, of sufficient size + to contain one feed for the entire lot of bullocks feeding. Into + this tank is laid chaff with a three-grained fork, and pressed + down firmly; and this process is repeated until the slate tank + is full, when it is covered down for an hour or two before + feeding time. The soup is then found entirely absorbed by the + chaff, which has become softened and prepared for ready digestion. + + +Mr. Wright, near Dunbar, gives the following account of an experiment +with pulped roots and straw and oil-cake. It appears to prove the +superiority of mixed foods over the same foods consumed separately:-- + + Two lots of year-old cattle were fed; the one in the usual + way--sliced turnips and straw, _ad libitum_--the others with + the minced turnips, mixed with cut straw. The first lot consumed + daily 84 lbs. sliced turnips, 1 lb. oil-cake, 1 lb. rape-cake, + 1/2 lb. bean-meal, broken small and mixed with a little salt, + and what straw they liked. The second lot ate, each, daily, + 50 lbs. minced turnips, 1 lb. oil-cake, 1 lb. rape-cake, 1/2 lb. + bean-meal, and a little salt, the whole being mixed with double + the bulk of cut straw or wheat chaff. In spring, the lot of + cattle which had the mixed food were in good condition, and + equally well grown as others, though they had consumed in five + months two tons less of roots apiece. The reporter does not + advise the mincing process to be commenced when cattle are very + forward in condition, as any change of food requires a certain + time to accustom the animals to it, and in the meantime fat + cattle are apt to fall off in condition. It ought to be begun + when they are young and lean. + + +Mr. Duckham, of Baysham Court, Ross, Herefordshire, says:-- + + The advantages of pulping roots for cattle are--1st, Economy + of food; for the roots being pulped and mixed with the chaff, + either from threshing or cut hay or straw, the whole is consumed + without waste, the animals not being able to separate the chaff + from the pulped roots, as is the case when the roots are merely + sliced by the common cutter, neither do they waste the fodder as + when given without being cut. + + 2. The use of ordinary hay or straw. After being mixed with the + pulp for about twelve hours, fermentation commences, and this + soon renders the most mouldy hay palatable, and animals eat with + avidity that which they would otherwise reject. This fermentation + softens the straw, makes it more palatable, and puts it in a state + to assimilate more readily with the other food. In this respect + I think the pulper of great value, particularly upon corn farms + where large crops of straw are grown, and where there is a limited + acreage of pasture, as by its use the pastures may be grazed, the + expensive process of haymaking reduced, and, consequently, an + increased number of cattle kept. I keep one-third more, giving + the young stock a small quantity of oil-cake, which I mix with + the chaff, &c. + + 3. Choking is utterly impossible, and I have only had one case of + hoove in three years, and that occurred when the mixture had not + fermented. + + 4. There is an advantage in mixing the meal with the chaff and + pulped roots for fattening animals, as thereby they cannot separate + it, and the moisture from the fermentation softens the meal and + ensures its thorough digestion, whereas, when given in a dry state + without any mixture, frequently a great portion passes away in the + manure. + + +On the value of the process for a grazing farm with but a small quantity +of plough-land, Mr. Corner, of Woodlands, Holford, Bridgewater, thus +speaks:-- + + My plan is, first commencing with the grazing beasts, to cut about + an equal quantity of hay and straw and mix with a sufficient + quantity of roots (mostly mangel) to well moisten the chaff; and as + the beasts advance in condition, I lessen the straw and increase + the hay, and in their further progress I mix--in addition to all + hay, chaff, and roots--from 6 to 10 lb. per day to each bullock of + barley and bean-meal, according to its size--and I have them large + sometimes. I sold last week for the London market a lot of Devon + oxen of very prime quality, averaging in weight upwards of 100 stone + imperial each. + + For my horses, cows, yearlings, and oxen--the latter to be kept in + a thriving condition, and turned to grass, and kept through the + summer for Christmas, 1860--I cut nearly all straw, with a very + small quantity of hay, and this the offal of the rick. These also + have as many pulped roots as will moisten the chaff, except the + horses, and to them I give, along with bruised oats, just enough + roots to keep their bowels in a proper condition. To the two or + three-year-old beasts I give some long straw and a part chaff, + and the offal (if any) of the food of the above lots of stock. + + My farm is but a small one--under 200 acres. My predecessor always + mowed nearly all the pastures for hay, which is about half the + farm, and with this scarcely ever grazed any beasts, and kept but + very few sheep. Since my occupation I scarcely ever exceed ten acres + of meadow with one field of seeds for hay. I keep from 250 to 300 + large-size Leicester sheep, and graze from 20 to 25 large-size + beasts a year, with other breeding stock in proportion. + + I consider the pulping of roots is better for fatting pigs than + anything else. My plan is to have a large two-hogshead vat as near + the pulping machine as possible, so as to fill it with a malt + shovel as it comes from the machine; at the same time I keep a lad + sprinkling meal (either barley or Indian corn) with the roots; and + this is all done in fifteen or twenty minutes. It is then ready for + use, to be carried to the pigs in the stalls alongside the fatting + beasts. I never could fatten a pig with profit until I used pulped + roots. + + +Although the practice of cooking food has been advocated by several +eminent feeders, it has been condemned by others. Mr. Lawes is not +favorable to the cooking of food unless when it is scarce. The results +of Colonel M'Douall's experiments go to prove that cattle can be more +economically kept upon a mixture of raw and cooked foods than upon +either raw or cooked fodder given separately. One meal of cooked food +and two feeds of raw turnips gave better results than three feeds of +raw turnips; whilst two cooked feeds and a raw one resulted in a loss. + +The fermentation of food, if not the best, is certainly the cheapest +mode of preparing it. If the process be not pushed too far the loss of +nutriment sustained is inconsiderable. When a mixture of straw and roots +is fermented, the hard fibres of the latter are, to a great extent, +broken up, and the nutrient particles which they envelop are fully +exposed to the action of the solvent juices of the stomach. + +A great advantage in cooking or fermenting food is that the most +rubbishy materials can be used up. Indeed, as a general rule, the better +soft food is, the less the necessity for cooking it; but washed out hay +and hard, over-ripened straw are of but little value, except when cooked +and given in combination with some agreeably-flavored substance. + + + VALUE FOR FEEDING PURPOSES OF VARIOUS FOODS.[22] + + +--------------------------------------------------------+ + | KEY: | + | A.--Starch, Sugar, &c. | + | B.--Oil, Starch, &c., computed as Oil. | + | C.--Weight. | + | D.--Value. | + | E.--Value of Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid, and Potash. | + | F.--Deduct Nitrogen for perspiration. | + | G.--Net Value for Manure. | + | | + +---------------+------------------+-------------------------------------+ + | | COST. | 100 LBS. CONTAIN. | + | +----------+-------+------+-------+-------+--------------+ + | MATERIAL. | | | | | | Nitrogen. | + | | | Per | | | | | + | | Per | 100 | | | +------+-------+ + | | ton. | lbs. | Oil. | A. | B. | C. | D. | + +---------------+----------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+ + | | £ s. d.| s. d. | lbs. | lbs. | lbs. | lbs. | d. | + | | | | | | | | | + |Meadow-hay | 4 0 0 | 3 7 | 2·68 | 39·75 | 24·63 | 1·48 | 10·62 | + | | | | | | | | | + |Wheat-straw | 1 15 0 | 1 7 | 0·50 | 32·0 | 18·50 | 0·42 | 3·0 | + | | | | | | | | | + |Swedish Turnips| 4 10 0 | 4 0 | 2·0 | 60·0 | 35·0 | 2·40 | 17·28 | + | | | | | | | | | + |Oil-cake | 9 6 8 | 8 4 |12·0 | 38·0 | 33·0 | 5·0 | 36·0 | + | | | | | | | | | + |Beans | 9 6 8 | 8 4 | 2·0 | 42·0 | 25·30 | 4·45 | 32·0 | + | | | | | | | | | + |Indian Meal | 9 6 8 | 8 4 | 7·0 | 60·0 | 40·0 | 2·25 | 16·20 | + | | | | | | | | | + |Carob, or | | | | | | | | + | Locust Bean | 9 6 8 | 8 4 | 6·76 | 57·0 | 35·0 | 0·64 | 3·75 | + +---------------+----------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+ + + +---------------+---------------------------+----------------------------+ + | | 100 LBS. CONTAIN. | | + | +-------------+-------------+----------+-------+---------+ + | MATERIAL. | Phosphoric | Potash. | | | | + | | Acid. | | | | | + | +------+------+------+------+ | | | + | | C. | D. | C. | D. | E. | F. | G. | + +---------------+------+------+------+------+----------+-------+---------+ + | | lbs. | d. | lbs. | d. | s. d. | d. | s. d. | + | | | | | | | | | + |Meadow-hay | 0·90 | 1·35 | 1·50 | 4·50 | 1 4-1/2 | 2-1/12| 1 2-1/4 | + | | | | | | | | | + |Wheat-straw | 0·14 | 0·21 | 0·65 | 2·16 | 0 5 | 1/2 | 0 5 | + | | | | | | | | | + |Swedish Turnips| 0·80 | 1·20 | 2·25 | 6·75 | 2 1-1/4 | 3-1/2 | 1 9-3/4 | + | | | | | | | | | + |Oil-cake | 2·25 | 3·37 | 1·75 | 5·25 | 3 8-1/2 | 7-1/4 | 3 1-3/4 | + | | | | | | | | | + |Beans | 0·86 | 1·29 | 1·11 | 3·33 | 3 0-1/2 | 6-1/2 | 2 6 | + | | | | | | | | | + |Indian Meal | 0·19 | 0·28 | 0·17 | 0·51 | 1 5 | 3-1/4 | 1 1-3/4 | + | | | | | | | + |Carob, or | No analysis | | | | | + | Locust Bean | of ash. | |say 5-3/4 | -- | 0 5 | + +---------------+--------------------+------+----------+-------+---------+ + +_Bedding Cattle._--Instead of wasting straw in bedding cattle, it would +be much better to pass it through their bodies. If straw must be used +for litter, let it be employed as economically as possible. Good +substitutes, wholly or in part, for straw bedding may be found in +sawdust, ashes, tan and ferns. Leaves of trees if procurable in +quantity constitute an excellent litter. + + +SECTION II. + +THE SHEEP. + +The management of sheep varies greatly--depending upon the breeds of +the animal, the localities in which they are reared and fattened, and +various economic conditions. The tupping season varies of course with +the country: in Ireland it commences about the middle of September and +lasts for two months; in England and parts of Scotland, the season is +about a month earlier. The best kinds of sheep admit of being very early +put to breed. Both ram and ewe are ready for this purpose when about +fifteen months old. One ram is sufficient for about 80 ewes. The +breeding flock should be in a sound, healthy condition, and the ram +ought to be as near perfection as possible. The condition of the sire +ought to be good, but at the same time it is not desirable to have him +over fat. The more striking indications of good health in the sheep are +dry eyes, red gums, sound teeth, smooth, oily skin, and regular +rumination. The color of the excreta should be natural. + +_Breeding Ewes._--After the tupping season, which generally lasts for +a month, the sheep are usually put on a pasture, which need not be +very rich. In cold situations ample shelter should be afforded to the +breeding flocks; and in severe weather they should, if possible, be +removed to sheds. When snow covers the ground, the animals must be +supplied with turnips, or cooked food of some kind. At such time a +little oil-cake will be found very useful. + +_Yeaning._--In March the yeaning season sets in; and as this time +approaches, the food of the animals should be improved, and the greatest +care must be taken of them. The shepherd should be unceasing in his +watchfulness, frequently examining every individual animal. The lambing, +if possible, ought to take place in sheds, or some covered place. + +_Rearing of Lambs._--Delicate lambs require great care. Very weak ones +often require to be hand fed. Should a mother die, her offspring may be +placed with another ewe; on the other hand, should a lamb perish, its +mother may be appointed to rear one of another ewe's twins (if such +be available). The ram lambs, not intended for breeding purposes, are +subjected to a necessary mutilation when they are about three weeks old. +If this operation be performed later, there is great danger that fatal +inflammatory action may set in; on the other hand, a lamb much younger +than three weeks is hardly strong enough to bear the pain of the +operation. The tails of the lambs are shortened about the same time; +but it would be better in the case of the rams not to perform both +operations on the same day. These operations are best performed during +moist or cloudy weather; if they must be done on frosty or stormy +days, the lambs should be kept under shelter for two or three days, as +otherwise the cold might induce inflammation. The lambs remain with +their mothers for about four months, after which they are weaned, and +put upon a good pasture. When the herbage is poor, oil-cake, say 1/4 lb. +daily, or some other nutritious food, should be used to supplement it. +During the summer and part of the autumn the young stock, as a rule, +subsist upon grass; but many flock-masters give them other kinds of food +in addition. As winter approaches, the young sheep on tillage farms +receive soft turnips, and sometimes a little hay or straw. The allowance +of oil-cake may be increased to 1/2 lb., or if corn be cheap, it may be +substituted for the oil-cake. After Christmas Swedish turnips are used. + +Mr. Mechi gives the following information on the subject of rearing +lambs during a season when roots are scarce:-- + + + Two hundred lambs, which cost 22s. 6d. each on September 12th, + were kept on leas and stubble until November 3rd, then on + turnips until December 19th, when fifty of them were drafted to + another flock getting a little cotton-cake. On the 3rd of February + fatting commenced with linseed-cake in addition to cut Swedes. On + the 7th of April the fifty tegs were put on rye with mangels, and + they were sold on the 4th of May at 61s. each. + + The remaining 150 lambs were wintered as stores at little cost, + on inferior turnips uncut; they were put on rye from March 8th + till May 4th, when they were valued at 48s. each. + + The district just referred to became so exhausted of its stock, + that at some of the later fairs the number of lambs and of ewes + exhibited was less than one-fourth of the average. But in Essex, + on six adjoining farms, including that from which I write, the + number of sheep wintered has been greater than these heavy lands + ever carried before. This has been effected by the extension of + a system of management often practised on heavy land, that of + eking out a scanty supply of green food by a liberal allowance + of straw, chaff, and grain; which happily were good in quality, + as well as plentiful and low in price in 1864. + + By these means we were enabled last winter to keep 1,500 sheep + on about 650 acres of arable, and 350 acres of dry upland + pasture--chiefly park surrounding a mansion. The arable land + does not very well bear folding in winter, as a preparation for + spring corn. Neither climate nor soil are favorable to turnips, + and notwithstanding our efforts in assisting Nature, our crops + of turnips, rape, or Swedes, are never first-rate, and sometimes + very bad. Strong stubbles, good beans, clover-seed, and mangel, + are the specialities of the locality, and they indicate heavy + land, corn-growing, and yard-feeding. Sheep have been generally + "conspicuous by their absence," though even the heavy-land farmer + is glad to winter a yard of them instead of cattle, that he may + keep some, at least, of the stock that pays best. + + In the autumn of 1864 our root crops consisted of some white + turnips and rape, eaten by the ewes in September, and of a very + bad crop of mangel, the whole of which was reserved for the ewes + at lambing-time. In this predicament we wintered about 1,000 + half-bred lambs, more than 400 ewes, and some fatting sheep. + All, except the fatting sheep, were folded on the stubbles, and + allowed a daily run on the park of about an hour for each flock. + The freshest grass was reserved for the ewes, and a very meagre + bite remained for the lambs; in fact, except for a few weeks + in autumn, the parks afforded them little or nothing except + exercise and water. + + The flocks were divided between three separate farms, and their + food was prepared at the respective homesteads. The treatment + was in every respect similar; we shall therefore only notice in + detail the management at one farm. + + The following details are taken from our "Live Stock Book:"-- + + EXTRACTS FROM STOCK BOOK. + + _Lambs._ + + Payments. Remarks. + + _November 4th, 1864._ + £ s. d. + + 352 lambs, cost at date, 30s. 9-1/2d. each 542 2 3 (a) + _Cost of keeping 24 weeks to April 21, 1865_:-- (b) + Corn and cake, as per granary book 245 16 9 (c) + Cutting 25 tons of chaff, at 6s. 7 13 0 (d) + Grinding 96 qrs. 6 bshls. of corn, at 9d. 3 12 6 + Attendance, at 19s. 10d. per week 23 16 0 (e) + Horse labor, at 6s. per week 7 4 0 + Coal, 3s. 2d. per week 3 16 0 (f) + Use of 21 troughs, at 3d. each per month 1 11 6 (g) + Use of 180 hurdles, at 1d. each per month 4 10 0 + 1-1/2 cwt. of rock salt 0 4 6 + ========== + £840 6 6 + + Remarks. + + (a) Total cost of keeping 352 lambs for 24 weeks, £298 4s. 3d. + (b) Cost per head, 16s. 11d. + (c) Cost, food only, 14s. 11d. + (d) Value of the manure, reckoned at one-fifth the cost of the + corn and cake, £49 3s. 4d. + (e) Cost of the lambs, per head, £2 7s. 8d. + (f) Value of manure, per head, 2s. 10d. + (g) No charge made for the straw-chaff eaten on the land. + + + The tegs would probably have been sold at a profit in April; + they were, however, put on grass and clover, and were fattened + in the summer. + + _September 29th._--352 lambs in the parks, on a little cotton-cake + and some oats, until November 4th, when they were folded on a wheat + stubble. Gave them 5 bushels of meal daily, mixed with 468 lb. of + straw chaff. Cost 3-1/2d. each per week for meal. + + _December 20th._--Increased the food to 6-1/2 bushels of meal and + 1 bushel of oil-cake. + + _December 18th._-- + + lb. + + 2-3/4 bushels of maize crushed and boiled 143 + 4-1/2 bushels of mixed meal 200 + 1 bushel of oil-cake 50 + --- + 393 + === + + + Cost 5-1/2d. per week for corn and cake; chaff, 2-1/4 lb. each, + between these and the ewes, the lambs eating rather less than + 2 lb. each. + + Eight pounds of rock-salt licked up by the 352 lambs per week. + + _January 23rd._--The food was increased to 7-1/2 bushels of meal, + 2 bushels of oil-cake, and 2 bushels of rape-cake. + + Mixture of Corn. + + Wheat 4 parts. + Barley 4 " + Oats 2 " + Maize 4 " + + Cost per stone (14 lb.) + s. d. + Wheat 1 0 + Barley 0 10 + Oats 1 0 + Maize 0 10 + Oil-cake 1 4-1/4 + Rape-cake 0 9 + + +_Sheep Feeding._--In Ireland sheep are often exclusively fed on grass; +but in most cases the addition of other food is desirable, and more +especially is it necessary during winter. When confined to roots, sheep, +on an average, consume about 26 lbs. daily, unless when under shelter, +which diminishes the quantity by from five to ten per cent. Some sheep +on which Dr. Voelcker experimented were fed as follows:-- + + lbs. ounces. + + Mangel wurtzel 19 8 + Chopped clover hay 1 3/10 + Linseed cake 0 4-8/100 + -------------- + Total 20 15-38/100 + +On this diet four sheep were maintained from the 22nd of March until +the 10th of May, a period of forty-seven days. The weights were as +follows:-- + + 22nd Mar. 10th May. Gain. + + No. 1 153 170-1/2 17-1/2 + No. 2 134 151-1/2 17-1/2 + No. 3 170 187 17-1/2 + No. 4 136 155 19 + +This experiment shows that the sheep can increase in weight on a daily +allowance of food, much less than is usually given to them; but it will +be found that growing sheep will usually consume a greater quantity of +food than that used by Dr. Voelcker's fattening animals. + +Sheep washing is performed before the animal is shorn. It is a process +which should never be neglected, as dirty wool is certain to bring a +less price than the same quality would if clean. After being washed, +sheep should be kept in dry pasture for about ten days in order to allow +the loss of yolk removed by the washing to be repaired; they will then +be in proper condition for the shearer. + +_Sheep Dips_ are used for the purpose of removing parasites from the +animal's skin. They often contain arsenic, or bichloride of mercury +(corrosive sublimate), which are very objectionable ingredients. The +glycerine sheep dip, prepared by Messrs. Hendrick and Guerin, of London, +is a safe mixture, as it is free from mineral poisons, whilst the tar +substances which it includes, act as a powerful cleanser of the skin, +without injuriously affecting the yolk of the wool. + + +SECTION III. + +THE PIG. + +In the breeding of pigs, as in the breeding of other kinds of stock, +great care should be taken in the selection of both sire and dam. A good +pig should have a small head, short nose, plump cheek, a compact body, +short neck, and thin but very hairy skin, and short legs. The black +breed is considered to be more hardy than the white; and pure--all black +or all white--colors as a rule indicate the purest blood. + +The sow should not be bred from until she is a year old, and the boar +especially should not be employed at an earlier age. Although one boar +is sometimes left with forty pigs and even a greater number, he will not +be able to serve more than a dozen about the same time, if vigorous +progeny be expected. The sow's regular period of gestation is 113 days; +she can have two litters a year, and in each there are from five to +fourteen young. Moderate sized litters are the best, the young of very +numerous ones being often weakly. The best time to rear young pigs is +during the warm or mild parts of the year. + +During gestation the sow should be liberally fed, but not with excessive +amounts. The food at this time should rather excel in quality than in +quantity; but so soon as she begins to nurse, her allowance must be +increased, and may be rendered more stimulating. For a week or so before +farrowing, the sow ought to be kept alone. Its sty should not be too +small--not less than 8 or 10 feet square--for pigs require good air in +abundance as well as other animals. + +The straw used for litter should neither be too abundant nor too long; +in the latter case some of the young might be covered by it, and +escaping the notice of the sow, might unconsciously be crushed by the +latter. If the young are very feeble, it may become necessary to +hand-feed them. Some sows eat their young: and when they have this +habit, the better plan is to cease breeding from them; for it appears to +be incurable. After parturition some bran and liquid or semi-liquid food +should be given to the sow. + +_Young Pigs_ subsist exclusively on their mother's milk but for a short +time. In two or three weeks they may receive skimmed or butter-milk from +the dairy. At a month old such of them as are not designed for breeding +purposes may be subjected to the usual mutilations; and at from five to +six weeks old the young are weaned, and converted into _stores_. + +_Store Pigs_, when young, are best fed upon skimmed milk, oatmeal, +and potatoes, in a cooked state. When they are approaching three months +old, they may be supplied with raw food, if the weather be warm; +but in winter, cooked and warm food will be found the more economical. +Cabbages, roots, potatoes, and all kinds of grain that are cheap are +used in pig feeding. The number of meals varies from six or seven in the +case of very young animals, to three in the case of those nearly ready +for fattening. Store pigs should be allowed a few hours' exercise daily +in a paddock, or field, or at least in a large yard. + +The dietaries of store pigs vary greatly, for these animals being +omnivorous readily eat almost every kind of food. Mr. Baldwin, of Bredon +House, near Birmingham, an extensive pig breeder, gave (in 1862) stores +the following allowance:--At three months old, a quart of peas, Egyptian +beans, or Indian corn. He considered English beans to be too _heating_ +for young pigs. The animals were allowed the _run_ of a grass field. +On this diet the stores were kept until they were eight months old +(increasing at the average rate of five pounds per week), after which +they were allowed an extra half-pint of corn. He calculated the weekly +cost as follows:--Dry food, 1s.; grass, 2d.; man's time, 1d.; total, 1s. +3d. These results yielded a profit of 1s. per week per pig, pork being +at the time 6d. per lb. Some feeders give young store pigs half-a-pint +of peas, mixed with pulped mangel, and the quantum of peas is gradually +increased to one pint per diem. All kinds of food-refuse from the house +are welcomed by the pig. Skins, dripping, damaged potatoes, cabbage, +&c., may be given to them; but they should not be altogether substituted +for the ordinary food-stuffs. Coal-dust, cinders, mortar rubbish, and +similar substances are often swallowed by pigs, and sometimes even +given to them by the feeder. In certain cases Lawes and Gilbert found +that superphosphate of lime was a useful addition to the food of pigs. +A little salt should invariably be given, more especially if mangels +(which are rich in salt) do not enter into the animals' dietary. + +_Fattening Pigs._--For some time before store pigs are put up to be +fattened, the quality and quantity of their food should be increased, +for it is not economy to put a rather lean animal suddenly upon a very +fattening diet. The sty should be well supplied with clean litter, and +should be darkened. Three feeds per diem will be a sufficient number, +and the remains (if any) of one should be removed from the trough before +the fresh feed is put into it. The feeding trough (which should be made +of iron) should be so constructed that the animals cannot place their +fore feet in it. The pig is naturally a clean animal, and therefore +it should be washed occasionally, as there is every reason to believe +that such a procedure will tend to promote the animal's health. It +should be supplied with clean water. + +In Stephen's "Book of the Farm," it is stated that two pecks of +steamed potatoes, and 9 lbs. of barley-meal, given every day to a pig +weighing from 24 to 28 stones, will fatten it perfectly in nine weeks. +Barley-meal is largely used in England as food for pigs. It is given +generally in the form of a thin paste, and in large quantities. Lawes +and Gilbert found that 1 cwt. of barley-meal given to pigs increased +their weight by 22-1/2 lbs. Indian meal is fully equal, if it is not +superior to barley-meal, as food for pigs; and for this purpose it is +far more extensively employed in Ireland. Every kind of grain given to +pigs should be ground and cooked. In Scotland pigs are often fattened +solely on from 28 to 35 lbs. of barley-meal weekly, and mangels or +turnips _ad libitum_. Pollard is a good food for pigs, being rich in +muscle-forming materials; it is a good addition to very fatty or starchy +food. A mixture of pollard and palm-nut meal is an excellent fattening +food. Potatoes are now so dear, that they are seldom--unless the very +worst and diseased kinds--used in pig feeding. They should never be +given raw. The more inferior feeding-stuffs should be used up first in +the fattening of pigs, and the more valuable and concentrated kinds +during the latter part of the process. + + +SECTION IV. + +THE HORSE. + +The horse is subject to many diseases, not a few of which arise from the +defective state of his stable. The best kinds of stables are large and +lofty, well ventilated and drained, smoothly paved, and well provided +with means for admitting the direct sunlight. The walls should be +whitewashed occasionally, and for disinfecting and general sanitary +purposes, four ounces of chloride of lime (bleaching powder) mixed with +each bucket of whitewash, will be found extremely useful. + +Farm horses are kept in stalls, which should not be less than six feet +wide, and (exclusive of rack and rere passage) 10 feet long. For hunters +and thorough-breds, _loose boxes_ are now generally used. + +The mare commences to breed at four years, and the period of gestation +is 340 days. She may be worked until within a fortnight of the time at +which parturition is expected to occur. After foaling, the mare should +be turned into a grass field (unless the weather is severe) and kept +there idly for three or four weeks. + +_Foals_ are kept with their mothers until they are about five or six +months old: after weaning, their food must be tender and nutritious--well +bruised oats, cut hay, bean or oatmeal mashes; carrots are very +suitable. + +Working horses are fed chiefly upon oats and hay, which undoubtedly are +the best foods for these animals, both being rich in muscle-forming +materials. Bruised oats are far more economical than the whole grains: +and if the animals eat too rapidly, that habit is easily overcome by +mixing chopped straw or hay with the grain. + +According to Playfair, a horse not working can subsist and remain in +fair condition on a daily allowance of 12 lbs. of hay and 5 lbs. of +oats. According to the same authority, a working horse should receive +14 lbs. of hay, 12 lbs. of oats, and 2 lbs. of beans. + +Beans are a very concentrated food, rich in flesh-formers, and are, +therefore, well adapted for sustaining hard-working horses. They are +rather _binding_; but this property is easily neutralised by combining +the beans with some laxative food. Turnips, carrots, furze, and various +other foods are given to the horse, often in large quantities. The +following are some among the many dietaries on which this animal +is kept:-- + +Professor Low's formula is, 30 to 35 lbs. of a mixture of equal parts +of chopped straw, chopped hay, bruised grain, and steamed potatoes. + +The daily rations of horses of the London Omnibus Company, are 16 lbs. +of bruised oats, 7-1/2 lbs. of cut hay, and 2-1/2 lbs. of chopped straw. + +Stage coach-horses in the United States receive daily about 19 lbs. of +Indian meal and 13 lbs. of cut hay. + +Mr. Robertson, of Clandeboye, near Belfast, gives the following +information on the subject of horse-keeping:-- + + The year we divide into three periods--October, November to + May inclusive, June to September inclusive. During the first + period, the horses get about 18 lb. of chaff and 12 lb. of + crushed oats and beans; "10-1/2 oats and 1-1/2 beans" per head + per day. During the second period they get about 15 lb. of hay + chaff, 12 lb. of crushed oats and beans, and about 3 gallons + of boiled turnips per head per day. During the third period + they were turned out to graze during the night. In the day time, + whilst in the stable, each animal is allowed about 50 lb. of cut + clover, and about 12 lb. of crushed oats and beans per day. The + feeding is all under the charge of one person. He uses his own + discretion in feeding the animals, though he is not allowed to + exceed the quantities named. The horses to which I allude are the + same on which the experiments commenced two years ago--six cart + horses, one cart pony, and one riding horse. From Sept. 1, 1865, + to and including August 31, 1866, the cost of maintaining these + horses in good working condition; keeping the carts, harness, + &c., in repair; shoeing, c., was as follows:-- + + Oats, 14 tons, at 16s. per cwt. £112 0 0 + Beans, 2 tons, at 18s. per cwt. 18 0 0 + Hay, 13 tons, at 30s. per ton 19 10 0 + Green Clover 15 0 0 + Turnips 5 0 0 + Night grazing 18 0 0 + Engine, cutting chaff, crushing oats, &c. 7 4 0 + Attendance 26 0 0 + Blacksmith 12 0 0 + Saddler 12 0 0 + Carpenter 10 0 0 + Five per cent. interest on value, £110 5 10 0 + Depreciation in value 10 per cent. 11 0 0 + ------------ + £271 4 0 + Deduct cost of riding horse 35 0 0 + ------------ + £236 4 0 + + + £33 11s. 10d. per head; if we suppose the available working + days to be 300, allowing 13 for wet days, holidays, &c., the + daily cost will be 2s. 2-1/2d.; to this if we add 1s. 8d., + the wages of the driver, we shall have a total of 3s. 10-1/2d. + as the cost of a horse, cart, and driver per day. I would only + add, in conclusion, that the horses are kept in good working + condition; and, as a proof of their good health under this + system, I may state that during the past two years we have not + had occasion to require the services of a veterinary surgeon. + + +Musty hay or straw should not be given to horses. Furze is said to be +a heating food; but it is very nutritious, and when young, may be given +as _part_ of the food of the horse. + +Boiled turnips and mangels are often given in winter; but they are +not sufficiently nutritious to constitute a substantial portion of the +animal's diet. Oil-cake is occasionally given to horses; but seldom in +larger quantities than 1-1/2 lbs. per diem. On the whole, experience is +in favor of occasionally giving cooked food to horses; and the practice +meets with the full approval of the veterinarian. To most kinds of food +for horses, the addition of one or two ounces of salt is necessary. + +In the _Agricultural Gazette_ for November 25, 1865, the following +instructive tables are given:-- + + STABLE FEEDING DURING AUTUMN. + + ---+-------------------------+---------+---------+------+-----------+------ + | Name and Address | | | | Clover, |Weekly + No.| of Authorities. | Hay. | Oats. |Beans.| &c. | Cost. + ---+-------------------------+---------+---------+------+-----------+------ + | | lb. | lb. | lb. | | s. d. + | | | | | | + 1 | W. Gater, Botley | 168 | 63* | 32* | ... |12 0 + 2 | W. C. Spooner | 112 | 84 | 24 | ... |11 0 + 3 | T. Aitken, Spalding. | ... | 37-1/2 | ... | ad lib. | 7 6? + 4 | " " | ... | 37-1/2 | 35 | ad lib. |10 O? + 5 | T. P. Dods, Hexham. | ... | 105 | ... | ad lib. |10 6? + 6 | " " | ad lib. | 105 | ... | ... |10 6? + | | | | | Straw | + 7 | A. Ruston, I. of Ely. | ad lib. | 84 | 10 | ad lib. | 9 0 + | | 1/2 | | | 1/2 Bran. | + | | | | | 1/3 bush. | + 8 | A. Simpson, Beauly | 168 | 70 | 14 | 24 lb. |10 0 + | | | | | Straw. | + 9 | H. J. Wilson, Mansfield | ... | 52-1/2 | ... | ad lib. | 7 3? + 10 | " " | 42 | 87-1/2 | ... | ad lib. | 9 0 + ---+-------------------------+---------+---------+------+-----------+------ + In this table the asterisk (*) means that the grain is crushed or ground. + + + STABLE FEEDING DURING WINTER. + + ---+------------------+------+-------+------+--------+---------+------+------ + No.|Name and Address. | Hay. | Oats. |Beans.| Roots. |Sundries.|Straw.|Weekly + | | | | | | | | Cost. + ---+------------------+------+-------+------+--------+---------+------+------ + | | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. | s. d. + 1 |Professor Low | | | | | | | + | --Elements of | | | |Potatoes| | | + | Agriculture | 56* | 56* | ... | 56+ | ... | 56* | 6 6 + | | | | | | | | + 2 |H. Stephens | | | | | | | + | --Book of the | | | |Turnips | | | + | Farm | 112 | 35 | ... | 112 | ... | ... | 6 0 + | | | | | | | | + 3 |J. Gibson, Woolmet| | | |Potatoes| | | + | --H. Soc. 1850 | ... | 84 | ... | 217+ | 217+ | 112 | 9 0 + | | | | | | | | + 4 |--Binnie, | | | | Barley | | ad | + | Seaton | ... | 70* | 28* | 243+ | 42+ | lib. |11 6 + | | | | | | | | + 5 |--Thomson, | | | | | | ad | + | Hangingside | ... | 84 | 14 | 336 | 14 | lib. | 9 6 + | | | | | | | | + 6 |W. C. Spooner, | | | | | | | + | Ag. Soc. Journ. | | | | | | | + | vol. ix. | ... | 63 | ... | 42 | ... | 196 | 4 9 + | | | | | | | | + 7 |T. Aitken, | ad | | | | | ad | + | Spalding, | lib. | | | | | lib. | + | Lincolnshire | (2/3)| 37 | 35 | ... | ... |(1/3) | 9 0 + | | | | | | | | + 8 |G. W. Baker, | | | | | | | + | Woburn, | | | | | | | + | Bedfordshire | ... | 60* | 20* | ... | ... | ... | 9 8 + | | | | | | | | + 9 |R. Baker, | | | | | | | + | Writtle, Essex | 70 | 42 | ... | ... | ... | 140 | 5 0 + | | | | | | | | + 10 |J. Coleman, | | | | | | ad | + | Cirencester | ... | 84 | 16 | ... | ... | lib. | 7 3 + | | | | | | | | + 11 |T. P. Dods, | | | | | | ad | + | Hexham | ... | 95 | ... | 56 | ... | lib. | 8 0 + | | | | | | | | + 12 |J. Cobban, | | | | | Linseed | ad | + | Whitfield | 84* | 60* | ... | ... | 3-1/2 | lib.*| 7 3 + | | | | | | | | + 13 |S. Druce, jun., | | | | Swedes | | 2 | + | Ensham | 112 | 52 | ... | 70 | ... | bu.* | 7 0 + | | | | | | | | + | | ad | | | | | ad | + 14 |C. Howard, | lib. | | | | | lib. | + | Biddenham | (2/3)| 52 | 17 | 84 | ... | 1/3* | 8 6? + | | | | | | | | + 15 |J. J. Mechi, | | | |M.Wurzel| | ad | + | Tiptree. | 49* | 70* | ... | 210 | ... | lib.*| 7 6 + | | | | | | | | + 16 |W. J. Pope, | | | | | | ad | + | Bridport | 2* | 84 | ... | ... | ... | lib. | 9 0? + | | | | | | | | + 17 |S. Rich, | | | | | | | + | Didmarton, | | | | | Grains | ad | + | Gloucestershire | 168 | 63 | ... | ... | 2 bush. | lib. |10 8 + | | | | | | | | + 18 |H. E. Sadler, | | | | | | | + | Lavant, Sussex | 140 | 84 | ... | ... | ... | ... | 9 9 + | | | | | | | | + 19 |J. Morton, | | | |Carrots | | ad | + | Whitfield Farm | ... |126 | ... | 350 | ... | lib. |10 9 + | | | | | | | | + 20 |E. H. Sandford, | | | | | Bran | ad | + | Dover | 56 | 42 | ... | ... | 12 | lib. | 5 6 + | | | | | | | | + 21 |A. Simpson, | | | | |Tail Corn| ad | + | Beauly, N.B. | ... | 49 | 7 | 105 | 21 | lib.*| 5 6 + | | | | | | | | + 22 |H. J. Wilson, | | | | | Bran | ad | + | Mansfield | 42 | 52-1/2| ... | ... | 21 | lib. | 6 6? + | | | | | | | | + 23 |F. Sowerby, | | | | | | | + | Aylesby, North | | | | | | ad | + | Lincolnshire | 112 | 28 | Cut Oat Sheaf.| ... | lib.*| 8 0? + ---+------------------+------+-------+------+--------+---------+------+------ + Where an asterisk (*) is attached to any item, it is to be understood + that the corn has been bruised or ground, or the hay or straw has been + cut into chaff. Where a dagger (+) is appended, the article so marked + has been boiled or steamed. A mark of interrogation (?) indicates that + the result so marked is uncertain, owing to some indefiniteness in the + account given. + + +On feeding horses with pulped roots, Mr. Slater, of Weston Colville, +Cambridgeshire, says:-- + + I give all my cart horses a bushel per day of pulped mangel, mixed + with straw and corn-chaff. I begin in September, and continue using + them all winter and until late in the summer, nearly, if not quite, + all the year round, beginning, however, with smaller quantities, + about a peck, and then half a bushel, the first week or two, as too + many of the young-growing mangel would not suit the stock. I believe + pulped mangels, with chaff, are the best, cheapest, and most healthy + food horses can eat. I always find my horses miss them when I have + none, late in the summer. I give them fresh ground every day. Young + store beasts, colts, &c., do well with them. + + * * * * * + +[Footnote 20: Five pounds of linseed will make about seven gallons of +gruel, and suffice for five good-sized calves; considerable allowance +must, however, be made for differences of quality in the linseed, that +from India not being gelatinous enough, and therefore boiling hard, +instead of "coming down kindly."] + +[Footnote 21: "Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society," vol. xxxix.] + +[Footnote 22: From Mr. Horsfall's Essay on Dairy Management, in "Journal +of Royal Agricultural Society," vol. xviii., part i.] + + + + +PART IV. + +MEAT, MILK, AND BUTTER. + + +SECTION I. + +MEAT. + +No one ought to feel a greater interest in the subject of meat in +all its branches than the stock feeder. Just in proportion as this +kind of food is agreeable to the taste, easily digestible, and rich in +nutriment, will the demand for it increase. The quality of meat is, in +fact, a primary consideration with the producer of that article; and he +whose beef and mutton are the most tender and the best flavored will +make the most profit. + +_Quality of Meat._--The flesh of herbivorous animals is composed of +muscular and adipose (fatty) tissues. The muscles consist of bundles of +elastic fibres (_fibrine_), enclosed in an albuminous tissue formed of +little vessels, termed cells, and intimately commingled with water, and +a mixture of albuminous, fatty, and saline matters. The leanest flesh +(muscles) contains fat, but the latter accumulates in certain parts of +the body--often to such an extent as to seriously interfere with the +functions of life. The red color of flesh is due to a rather large +proportion of blood, which it contains in minute vessels; and the slight +acidity of its juice is owing to the presence of _inosinic_ acid, and +probably of several other acids. The agreeable odour of meat, when it +is subjected to the process of cooking, is developed from a complex +substance termed _osmazome_.[23] This constituent varies in nature and +quantity in the different animals--hence the variety in flavor and odour +of their flesh--and its amount increases with the age of the animal. +The albumen of the muscles, and their fatty and saline constituents, +are digestible; but it is generally believed that the elastic fibres, +and the horny cellular tissue which binds them into bundles, are not +assimilable. It is more certain that the crystalline substances found in +flesh, such as, for example, _kreatine_, are incapable of ministering to +the nutrition of animals. + +The composition of flesh varies very much--that of a very obese pig +containing more than half its weight of fat, whilst in some specimens +of "jerked beef," imported from Monte Video, scarcely 5 per cent. of +that substance was found. The flesh of a fat ox has on an average the +following composition:-- + + Per cent. + + Water 45 + Fatty substances 35 + Lean flesh, or muscle 15 + Mineral matters 5 + --- + Total 100 + +I have examined for Dr. Morgan several specimens of the corned beef +recently prepared in South America, by "Morgan's process." The following +were the average results of three analyses:-- + + Per cent. + + Water 40 + Fatty matters 21 + Lean, or muscular flesh 27 + Mineral matters (chiefly common salt) 12 + --- + Total 100 + +It may not here be out of place to direct attention to the composition +of a kind of animal food extensively purchased by the poorer classes, +and known under the term of slink veal. It is the flesh of calves that +are killed on the first day of their existence, and also, I have reason +to believe, that of very immature animals--of calves that have never +breathed. The flesh is of a very loose texture naturally, and is still +further puffed out by air, which is usually supplied from the lungs of +the operator. This kind of meat, though regarded as a delicacy by some +people, is not held in much estimation, otherwise its price would be +higher than it is. It is at present sold at about 4d. or 5d. per pound, +sometimes even at a lower rate. Apart from the disgusting process of +"blowing" veal, so generally adopted, the use of this food is extremely +objectionable, owing to its great tendency to produce diarrhoea. To +the truth of this assertion every physician who has studied the subject +of dietetics can testify. I have analysed a specimen of it (purchased +from a person who admitted that it was part of a calf a day old), and +obtained the following results:-- + +100 parts contain-- + + Per cent. + + Water 72·25 + Fat 6·17 + Lean flesh 18·46 + Mineral matter 3·12 + ------ + Total 100·00 + +I believe that a large portion of the lean flesh is indigestible; and +altogether I may safely say of this kind of meat that it is, especially +during the prevalence of cholera, an unsafe article of diet. Of course +these observations do not apply to _fed_ veal, the only kind which +respectable butchers, as a rule, offer for sale. + +Young meat is richer in soluble albumen and poorer in fibrine and +fat than the matured flesh of the same animal. The flesh of the goat +contains _hircic_ acid, which renders it almost uneatable, but this +substance is either altogether absent from, or present but in minute +proportion in, the well-flavored meat of the kid. The flesh of game +contains abundance of osmazome, a substance which is somewhat deficient +in that of the domestic fowl. + +Owing to the marked individuality which man exhibits in the selection of +his food, and to the intimate relationship subsisting between food and +the organism it nourishes, it is impossible to arrange the alimental +substances in the strict order of their nutritive values. You can bring +a horse to the water, but you cannot compel him to drink it; you can +swallow any kind of food you please, but you cannot force your stomach +to digest it. It is, therefore, vain to tell a man that a certain kind +of food is shown by chemical analysis to be nutritious, when his stomach +tells him unmistakeably that it is poisonous, and refuses to digest it. +In the matter of dietetics Nature is a safer guide than the chemist. +Many substances, when viewed only in the light shed upon them by +chemical analysis, appear to be rich in the elements of nutrition, yet +when they are introduced into the stomachs of certain individuals, they +disarrange the digestive organs, and sometimes cause the whole system to +go out of order. Every day we see exemplified the truth of the proverb, +that "one man's meat is another man's poison." There are persons who +relish and readily digest fat pork, and yet they cannot eat a single +egg with impunity; others enjoy and easily assimilate eggs, but their +stomachs cannot tolerate a particle of fat bacon. + +It is not merely the composition of an aliment and its adaptability to +the organism which determine its nutritive value--its digestibility +and flavor are points which affect it. There are few people in these +countries who are disposed to quarrel with beef; but no one would +prefer the leg of an elderly milch cow to the sirloin of a well-fed +three-year-old bullock: yet if our selection were to be determined by +the analysis of the two kinds of beef, we would be just as likely to +prefer the one as the other. No doubt the relative tenderness of meats +may be ascertained by experiments conducted _outside_ the body; but +tenderness is not in every case synonymous with easy digestibility. +Veal contains more soluble albumen, and is, consequently, far more +tender than beef; yet, as every one knows, it is less digestible. It is +curious that maturity renders the flesh of some animals more digestible, +and that of others less digestible. Flavor has something to do with +these differences. Beef is richer than veal in the agreeably flavorous +osmazome, and the flesh of the kid is destitute of the disagreeable +odour of the fully-developed goat. The superiority of wild-fowl over the +domesticated birds is solely owing to the finer flavor of their flesh. + +The habits of animals, and the nature of their food, affect the +quality of their flesh. Exercise increases the amount of osmazome, and +consequently renders the meat more savory. The mutton of Wicklow, Wales, +and other mountainous regions is remarkably sweet, because the animals +that furnish it are almost as nimble as goats, and skip from crag to +crag in quest of their food. The fatty mutton, with pale muscle, which +is so abundant in our markets, is furnished by very young animals forced +prematurely into full development. Those animals have abundance of food +placed within easy reach; their muscular activity is next to _nil_, +and the result is, that their flesh contains less than its natural +proportion of savory ingredients. It is the same with all other animals. +The flesh of the tame rabbit is very insipid, whilst that of the wild +variety is well flavored. Wild fowls cooped up, and rapidly fattened, +lose their characteristic flavor; and when the domesticated birds become +wild their flesh becomes less fatty, and acquires all the peculiarities +of game. Ducks, whether wild or tame, ordinarily yield goodly meat; +but the flesh of some of those that feed on fish smacks strongly of +cod-liver oil. Birds which subsist partly on aromatic berries assimilate +the odour as well as the nutriment of their food. The flesh of grouse +has very commonly a slight flavor of heather. Foster states that in +Tahiti pigs are fed upon fruit, which renders their fat very bland and +their flesh like veal. Animals subjected to certain kinds of mutilation +fatten more rapidly than they do in their natural state. Capons increase +in weight more rapidly than cocks, poulards than hens, bullocks than +bulls, and cows deprived of their ovaries than perfect cows. Why it is +that the flesh of mutilated animals should be fatter and more tender +than that of whole animals, we know not; we only know that such is the +fact. The hunting of animals renders their flesh more tender; the cause +assigned is, that the great exertion of the muscles liquefies their +fibrine, which is the toughest of their constituents. The meat of +animals brought very early to maturity is seldom so valuable as the +naturally developed article. Lawes and Gilbert state that portions of +a sheep that had been fattened upon _steeped_ barley and mangels, and +which gave a very rapid increase, yielded several per cent. less of +cooked meat, and lost more, both in dripping and by the evaporation of +water, than the corresponding portions of a sheep which had been fed +upon _dry_ barley and mangels, and which gave only about half the +amount of gross increase within the same period of time. + +Although the digestibility and flavor of meat (and of every other kind +of food) affect its nutritive value, these points are in general of far +less importance than its composition. Potatoes are not so nutritious as +peas, because they contain a smaller amount of fat and flesh-formers; +but they are more digestible. Fish contains less solid matter than +flesh, and is less nutritious, yet a cut of turbot will be, in general, +more easily digested than an equal weight of old beef. The fact is, that +digestibility and flavor are only of great importance to dyspeptic +persons. In the healthy digestive organs a pound weight of (dry) food +of inferior flavor and slow digestibility will be just as useful as the +same weight of well-flavored and easily assimilable aliment, provided +all other conditions be alike. If the food be eaten with a relish, and +tolerated by the stomach, its digestibility will not, except in extreme +cases, affect in a very sensible degree its nutritiveness. + +Were one question in animal nutrition satisfactorily answered, it +would then be comparatively easy to arrange aliments in the order of +their nutritive value. That question is--What are the proper relative +proportions of the fat-forming and flesh-forming constituents of our +food? It is constantly urged, that the food of the Irish peasantry +contains an excess of the fat-forming materials in relation to the +muscle-forming substances; and the remedy suggested is, that their +staple article of food--potatoes--should be supplemented with flesh, +peas, and such like substances, in which, it is supposed, the elements +of nutrition are more fairly balanced. In potatoes, the proportion of +fat-formers (calculated as fat) is about five times as much as that +of the flesh-formers; but these principles exist in the same relative +proportions in the fat bacon with which the potato-eater loves +to supplement his bulky food. In bread we find the proportion of +fat-formers to be only 2-1/2 times as much as that of the flesh-formers, +whilst, according to Lawes and Gilbert, the edible portion of the +carcass of a fat sheep contains 6-1/2 times as much fat as nitrogenous +(flesh-forming) compounds. It is evident, then, that meat such as, for +example, the beef recently imported from Monte Video, from which the +fatty elements of nutrition are almost completely absent, cannot be +a suitable adjunct to a farinaceous food. + +There is evidence to prove that in the animal food consumed by the +population of these countries, the proportion of fatty to nitrogenous +matters is greater than in the seeds of cereal and leguminous plants, +and but little less than in potatoes. "It would appear to be +unquestionable," say Lawes and Gilbert, "therefore, that the influence +of our staple _animal foods_, to supplement our otherwise mainly +farinaceous diet, is, on the large scale, to _reduce_, and _not to +increase_, the relation of the _assumed_ flesh-forming material to the +more peculiarly respiratory and fat-forming capacity, so to speak, of +the food consumed." It must be remembered, too, that the fat _formers_ +are ready _formed_ in animal food, whereas they exist chiefly in the +form of starch, gum, sugar, and such-like substances in vegetables. +According to theory, 2-1/2 parts of starch are equivalent to, _i.e._, +convertible into, 1 part of fat; but it is not certain whether the force +which effects this change is derivable from the 2-1/2 parts of starch, +or from the destruction of tissue, or of another portion of food. If +there be a tax on the system in order to convert starch into fat, it +is evident that 2-1/2 parts of starch, though convertible into, are not +equivalent in nutritive value to one part of fat. + +It is quite certain that millions of healthy, vigorous men have +subsisted for years exclusively on potatoes; but it is no less clear +that a diet of meat and potatoes enables the laborer to work harder +and longer than if his food were composed solely of potatoes. But we +have seen that the relation between the flesh-forming and fat-forming +elements is nearly the same in both potatoes and meat; so that the +superiority of a meat or mixed diet cannot be chiefly owing, contrary to +the generally received opinion, to a greater abundance of flesh-forming +materials. As the proportion of flesh-formers to fat-formers is so much +greater in wheaten or oaten bread than in potatoes, and as peas and +other vegetables rich in nitrogenous compounds are practically found to +be an excellent supplement to potatoes, it is probable that the latter +may be somewhat relatively deficient in flesh-forming capacity. It is, +however, in all probability the great bulk of a potato diet, and its +total want of ready formed fat, that render the addition to it of animal +food so very desirable. The concentrated state in which the ingredients +of flesh exist, the intimate way in which they are intermixed, their +agreeable flavor, and their (in general) ready and almost complete +digestibility, appear to be the principal points in which a meat diet +excels a vegetable regimen. There may be others, which, though less +evident, are, perhaps, of equal importance. At all events, the general +experience of mankind testifies to the superiority of a mixed animal +and vegetable diet over a purely vegetable one. + +_Is very Fat Meat wholesome?_--The enormous and rapidly increasing +demand for meat which characterises the food markets of these days, +has reacted in a remarkable manner upon the nature of the animals that +supply it. Formerly the animals that furnished pork, mutton, and beef, +were allowed to attain the age of three years old and upwards before +they were considered to be "ripe" for the butcher; but now sheep and pigs +are perfectly _matured_ at the early age of one year, and two-year-old +oxen furnish a large quota of the "roast beef of old England." The +so-called improvement of stock is simply the forcing of them into an +unnatural degree of fatness at an early age; and this end is attained +by dexterous selection and crossing of breeds, by avoidance of cold, by +diminishing as much as possible their muscular activity, and lastly, +and chiefly, by over-feeding them with concentrated aliments. + +Every one knows that a man so obese as to be unable to walk cannot be +in a healthy state; yet many feeders of stock look upon the monstrously +fat bulls and cows of cattle show prize celebrity as normal types of the +bovine tribe. It requires but little argument to refute so fallacious +a notion. No doubt it is desirable to encourage the breeding of those +varieties of animals which exhibit the greatest disposition to fatten, +and to arrive early at maturity; but the forcing of individual animals +into an unnatural state of obesity, except for purely experimental +purposes, is a practice which cannot be too strongly deprecated. If +breeders contented themselves with handing over to the butcher their +huge living blocks of fat, the matter would not perhaps be very serious; +but, unfortunately, it is too often the practice to turn them to account +as sires and dams. Were I a judge at a cattle show, I certainly should +disqualify every extremely fat animal entered for competition amongst +the breeding stock. Unless parents are healthy and vigorous, their +progeny are almost certain to be unhealthy and weakly; and it is +inconceivable that an extremely obese bull and an unnaturally fat cow +could be the progenitors of healthy offspring. We should by all means +improve our live stock; but we should be careful not to overdo the +thing. If we must have gaily-decked ponderous bulls and cows at our fat +cattle exhibitions, let us condemn to speedy immolation those unhappy +victims to a most absurd fashion; but in the name of common sense let +us leave the perpetuation of the species to individuals in a normal +state, whose muscles are not replaced by fat, whose hearts are not +hypertrophied, and whose lungs are capable of effectively performing +the function of respiration. + +Mr. Gant, in a small volume[24] devoted wholly to the subject, describes +the serious functional and structural disarrangements which over-feeding +produces in stock. He found the heart of a one-year old Southdown +wether, fattened according to the _high-pressure system_, to be little +more than a mass of fat. In several other young, but so-called "matured" +sheep, he found more or less fatty degeneration of the heart, and +extensively spread disease of the liver and of the lungs. A four-year +old Devon heifer, exhibited by the late Prince Consort at a Smithfield +show, was found to be in a highly diseased state. It was slaughtered, +and of course its flesh sold at a high price as "prize beef," but its +internal organs came into Mr. Gant's possession. The substance of both +ventricles of the heart had undergone all but complete conversion into +fat; one of its muscles was broken up, and many of the fibres of the +others were ruptured. In another animal the muscular fibres of the +heart had given way to so great an extent that if the thin lining +membrane (_endocardium_) had burst, death would have instantly ensued. +The slightest exertion was likely to cause this catastrophe; but, +fortunately enough in this case, the animal was not capable of exertion, +for though under three years of age, it weighed upwards of 200 stones: +this animal had received for some time before its exhibition, the +liberal allowance of 21 lbs. of oil-cake (besides other food) per diem. +"A pen of three pigs," says Mr. Gant, "belonging to his Royal Highness +the Prince Consort, happened to be placed in a favorable light for +observation, and I particularly noticed their condition. They lay +helpless on their sides, with their noses propped up against each +other's backs, as if endeavouring to breathe more easily, but their +respiration was loud, suffocating, and at long intervals. Then you heard +a short catching snore, which shook the whole body of the animal, and +passed with the motion of a wave over its fat surface, which, moreover, +felt cold. I thought how much the heart under such circumstances must +be laboring to propel the blood through the lungs and throughout the +body. The gold medal pigs of Mr. Moreland were in a similar condition, +if anything, worse; for they snored and gasped for breath, their mouths +being opened, as well as their nostrils dilated, at each inspiration. +From a pig we only expect a grunt, but not a snore. These animals, +only twelve months and ten days old, were marked '_improved_ Chilton +breed.' They, with their fellows just mentioned, of eleven months and +twenty-three days, had early come to grief. Three pigs of the black +breed were in a similar state, at seven months three weeks and five +days, yet such animals 'the judges highly commended.'" + +Dr. Brinton denies the accuracy of several of Mr. Gant's statements +relative to the structural changes in the muscles of obese animals; +but I do not think that he has succeeded in disproving the principal +assertions made by the latter. + +There is conclusive evidence to prove that one of the effects of the +present mode of fattening beasts is disease of the internal organs +of the animals; but it is by no means certain that the flesh of those +diseased animals is as unwholesome food as some writers assert it to +be. The flesh of an over-fattened animal differs from that of a lean, or +moderately fat one, in containing an exceedingly high proportion of fat; +but it has not been proved that the fat of prize animals differs from +the fat of lean kine, or that it is less wholesome or nutritious. Be the +flesh of those exceedingly fat animals unwholesome or not, there are +thousands, ay, millions of persons, to whom its greasy quality renders +it peculiarly acceptable; and as for those who dislike fat--they do +not usually invest their money in the flesh of prize sheep or oxen. +At the same time, it must not be understood that all, or even a large +proportion of fully matured stock is in a diseased state; though in most +of them the vital and muscular powers are undoubtedly exceedingly low. + +There is no doubt but that sheep and oxen, from three to five years old, +moderately fat, and fairly exercising their locomotive powers, furnish +the most savory, and, perhaps, the most nutritious meat: but if such +were the only kind of meat in demand, it may be fairly doubted that the +supply would be equal to it. The produce of meat in these countries has +been rapidly increasing for many years past; and the weight of meat +annually supplied from a given area of land is now from 80 to 100 per +cent. greater than it furnished thirty or forty years ago. It is chiefly +by means of the so-called forcing system that the produce of meat has +been so considerably increased. If this system were abandoned, the +production would be greatly diminished, and the consequently high price +of the article would place it beyond the reach of the masses of the +population. Besides, it has not been proved that the flesh of the +animals brought early to maturity is much inferior, except somewhat in +flavor, to the meat of three-year-old beasts. There is, no doubt, plenty +of unwholesome meat offered for sale, but it is that of animals which +were affected by diseases as likely to attack the young as the old. On +the whole, then, we may say of the improved system of fattening stock, +that it produces a maximum amount of meat on a given area of land; that +the meat so produced is, except in rare cases, perfectly wholesome; that +it is capable of supplying the ingredient--fat--which is almost wholly +absent from a vegetable diet; and, finally, that it places animal food +within the reach of the working classes. + +_Diseased Meat._--The losses occasioned to stockowners by the diseases +of live stock are far greater than is generally supposed. It has been +calculated that in the six years ending 1860, the value of the horned +stock lost by disease amounted to £25,934,650. Pleuro-pneumonia was the +chief cause of these losses. Exclusive of the enormous losses occasioned +by the ravages of the rinderpest, the annual loss by disease in live +stock in these countries for some years past cannot be much under +£6,000,000 sterling. + +Whether it is owing to the somewhat abnormal condition under which the +domesticated animals are placed, or to causes which operate upon them +when in a state of nature, it is certain that they are remarkably prone +to disease. It is extremely difficult to get a horse six years old that +is not a roarer or a whistler, or "weak on his pins," or in some way or +other unsound. Oxen, sheep, and pigs have almost as many maladies +afflicting them as human flesh is heir to, notwithstanding the short +period of life which they are permitted to enjoy. + +It is a very serious question whether or not the flesh of animals that +have been killed while they are in a diseased condition is injurious to +health. The opinions on this point are conflicting, but the majority of +medical men believe that the flesh of diseased animals is not wholesome. +There are certain maladies which obviously render meat unsaleable, by +causing a sensible alteration in its quality. For example, blackleg +in cattle and measles in the porcine tribe render the flesh of these +animals, as a general rule, unmarketable, or nearly so. But there are +very serious diseases--often proving rapidly fatal--which, whilst +seriously affecting certain internal organs, do not palpably deteriorate +the quality of the flesh. In such cases are we to rely upon the evidence +of our mere senses in judging of the wholesomeness of the meat? If we +find beef possessing a good color and odour, and firm to the touch, and +_appearing_ to be in every respect healthy flesh, are we under such +circumstances to take it for granted that it must be healthy? This is a +very important question, involving as it does the interests of both the +producers and consumers of animal food. If the flesh of all diseased +animals be unwholesome, a very large number of oxen now sold whilst +laboring under pleuro-pneumonia should not be sent into the market. +This, of course, would be a heavy loss to the stockowner, but a still +heavier one to the meat consumer; because, if there were fewer animals +for sale, the price of meat would ascend, in obedience to the law of +supply and demand. The whole question is, then, well worthy of being +considered in the most careful, unbiassed, and scientific manner; for +at present it is in a state which is the reverse of being satisfactory. + +A large proportion of the animals conducted to the shambles is in a +diseased condition. Professor Gamgee estimates it at no less than +one-fifth. Dr. Letheby, food analyst to the Corporation of London, +condemns weekly about 2,000 pounds weight of flesh; but as his +jurisdiction is limited to the "City," which contains a population of +only about 114,000, the 2,000 pounds of diseased meat are probably only +about 1-30th of the quantity exposed for sale within the whole area of +the metropolis. Making an estimate of the most moderate kind, we may +assume that 30,000 pounds weight of bad meat are weekly offered for +sale in London--_three million pounds weight annually_. + +Many persons have been affected with dysentery and choleraic symptoms +after partaking of butcher's meat of apparently the most healthy kind. +The meat has often been subjected to minute chemical and microscopical +examination, but no poison has been discovered. But these cases are +becoming so frequent that they are exciting uneasiness, and demand an +exhaustive investigation. The unskilful persons who officiate in the +capacity of "clerks of the market" and inspectors of meat can only judge +of the quality of flesh that is obviously inferior to the eye, nose, or +touch; but are there not cases where the flesh may appear to be good, +and yet contain some subtle malign principle? It is an ascertained fact +that young or "slink" veal very frequently gives rise to diarrhoea, +more especially when that disease is epidemic. Dr. Parkes, in his +celebrated work on Hygiene, page 162 (second edition), states that +"the flesh of the pig sometimes produced diarrhoea--a fact I have had +occasion to notice in a regiment in India, and which has often been +noticed by others. The flesh is, probably, affected by the unwholesome +garbage on which the pig feeds." Menschell states that 44 persons were +afflicted with anthrax after eating the flesh of oxen affected with +carbuncular fever. Dr. Kesteren, in the _Medical Times_ for March, 1864, +mentions a case where twelve persons were affected with choleraic +symptoms after the use of pork not obviously diseased. At Newtownards, +county of Down, several persons died after eating veal in which no +poisonous matter of any kind could be detected. One instance has come +under my own notice where a man, two dogs, and a pig died after eating +the flesh of an animal killed whilst suffering from splenic apoplexy. +Several butchers have lost their lives in consequence of the blood of +diseased animals being allowed to come in contact with abrasions or +recently received wounds on their arms. The flesh of over-driven animals +is stated by Professor Gamgee to produce a most serious skin disease, +although the meat appeared to be perfectly healthy. The Belgian Academy +of Medicine has decided that the flesh of animals suffering from +carbuncular fever is unwholesome, and its sale in that country is +prohibited. + +Many persons have died in Germany and a few in England from a disease +produced by eating pork containing a small internal parasite termed +_trichina spiralis_. I have recently met with a case of _trichiniasis_ +in the human subject. The body of the unfortunate person--who had +been an inmate of the South Dublin Union Workhouse--was found to +contain thousands of the trichinæ. In Iceland a large proportion of +the population suffers from a parasitic disease traceable to the use +of the flesh of sheep and cattle in which flukes abound. + +Pleuro-pneumonia is in this country the disease which most frequently +affects the ox. It is probable that about 5 per cent. of these animals +sold in Dublin are more or less affected by this malady. There are two +forms of pleuro-pneumonia--the sporadic, or indigenous, and the foreign, +or contagious. It is the latter form which has become the scourge of the +ox tribe in this country, though unknown here until the year 1841, when +it appeared as an epizoötic, and carried off vast numbers of animals. + +The contagious pleuro-pneumonia is an extremely severe inflammatory +disease, and is produced--not in the same way that common pleuro-pneumonia +is, by exposure to excessive cold, &c.--but by a blood poison received +from an infected animal. In the congestive stage of the disease there is +no structural alteration in the organs of the animal, and if well bled +its flesh might (probably) be safely eaten; but when a large portion of +the lungs becomes solidified, and rendered incapable of purifying the +blood, is it not doubtful, to say the least, that the blood or flesh is +perfectly wholesome? The blood, during the life of the animal, is in a +state of fermentation; there is extreme fever, and the animal presents +all the characteristic symptoms of acute disease. On being killed, the +flesh, if the disease be of a fortnight's duration, will usually be +extremely dark, but in a less advanced stage of the malady the flesh +will generally present a healthy appearance. Is it really so? That +is the question which science has to determine. Going upon a broad +principle, I can hardly conceive that so serious a disease as +pleuro-pneumonia does not injuriously affect the quality of the flesh. +It is no argument to say that thousands consume such flesh, and yet +enjoy good health. Millions of people drink water and breathe air that +are extremely impure, and yet they do not speedily die. It is one thing +to be poisonous, another to be unwholesome. The flesh of animals killed +whilst suffering from lung distemper is not directly poisonous, but who +can prove that it is not, like bad water, unwholesome? + +As analyst to the city of Dublin, I am almost daily called upon to +inspect meat suspected to be unwholesome; and I have always condemned +as being unfit for human food:-- + + 1. Animals slaughtered at the time of bringing forth their young. + + 2. Oxen affected with pleuro-pneumonia, when pus is present in the + lungs, or the flesh obviously affected; animals suffering from + murrain, black-quarter, and the different forms of anthrax. + + 3. Animals in an anæmic, or wasted condition. + + 4. Meat in a state of putrefaction. + +During the present year about 20,000 pounds weight of meat have been +seized and condemned in the city of Dublin. + + +SECTION II. + +MILK. + +Milk is a peculiar fluid secreted by the females of all animals +belonging to the class _Mammalia_; and, being designed for the +nourishment of their offspring, contains all the constituents which +enter into the composition of the animal body. + +The milk of different animals varies very much in color, taste, and +nutritive value. That of the cow is a little heavier than water--its +specific gravity being, on the average, about 1·030, water being +1·000. It is composed of three constituents--namely, butter, curd, and +whey--each of which is also composed of a number of substances. These +three constituents are of unequal weight, or specific gravity, and their +separation is the chief process carried on in the dairy. The butter is +the lightest and the curd is the heaviest constituent. + +The following table represents the composition of the milk of different +animals:-- + + COMPOSITION OF THE MILK OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS. + + 1,000 PARTS CONTAIN-- + + ------+---------+--------+------------+--------+-------+-------+------- + | Specific| | | | | | + | Gravity,| Water. | Solid | Cheesy | Sugar.|Butter.|Mineral + | or | |Ingredients.| Matter.| | |Matter. + | Density.| | | | | | + ------+---------+--------+------------+--------+-------+-------+------- + Woman | 1032·67 | 889·08 | 110·92 | 39·30 | 43·68 | 26·66 | 1·30 + Cow | 1030 | 864·20 | 135·80 | 48·80 | 47·70 | 31·30 | 6·00 + Goat | 1033·53 | 844·90 | 155·10 | 35·14 | 36·91 | 56·87 | 6·18 + Ewe | 1040·98 | 832·32 | 167·68 | 69·78 | 39·43 | 51·31 | 7·16 + Mare | 1033·74 | 904·30 | 95·70 | 33·35 | 32·76 | 24·36 | 5·23 + Ass | 1034·57 | 890·12 | 109·88 | 35·65 | 50·46 | 18·53 | 5·24 + Bitch | 1041·62 | 772·08 | 227·92 | 116·88 | 15·29 | 87·95 | 7·80 + ------+---------+--------+------------+--------+-------+-------+------- + +Milk examined through a microscope is a colorless fluid, containing a +large number of little vesicles, or bags, filled with butter--a mixture +of oily and fatty matters. When the milk stands for some time, the +globules, being lighter than the other constituents, ascend to the top, +and, mixed with a certain proportion of milk, are removed as cream. +The curd is termed in scientific parlance _casein_, and is in fresh milk +in a state of solution--that is to say, is dissolved in milk in the same +way that we dissolve sugar in water. When milk becomes sour, either +naturally or by the addition of rennet, it can no longer hold casein in +solution, and the curd consequently separates. Casein is the substance +which forms the basis of cheese. The substance that remains after the +removal of the butter and cheese is called _serum_, or whey, and is +composed of a sweetish substance termed _sugar of milk_, and certain +saline bodies, termed the ash, dissolved in water. + +The butter and the sugar of milk are employed in the animal economy in +the production of fat, and are what have been styled by physiologists +_heat-producers_ and _fat-formers_. The casein resembles the gluten of +wheat in composition; it belongs to the class of food substances termed +_flesh-formers_. The ash, or mineral part of the milk, is chiefly +employed in forming the bones of the young animals it is destined to +nourish. + +The quality of milk is influenced by the quantity and quality of the +food given to the animal. The milk of cows fed on distillery wash, +turnip, and mangel tops, coarse herbage, and other kinds of inferior +food, is always of inferior quality. Hence it is of great importance +that dairy stock be kept in good old pastures in summer, and fed on +Swedish turnips, mangel-wurtzel, and oil-cake during winter. It is true +economy to supply dairy cows with abundance of nutritious food; and it +should be constantly borne in mind that the milk from two well-fed cows +will give more butter than can be obtained from the produce of three +badly-fed animals. + +The butter is the constituent of milk which is most affected by the +nature and amount of the animal's food; and butter is precisely the +article which is of the greatest importance to the Irish dairy farmer, +as the quantity of cheese prepared in this country is inconsiderable. +When, therefore, it is found that a cow pastured on inferior land, or +badly fed in the byre, yields a large supply of milk of a high specific +quantity (which, however, is rarely the case), it must not be concluded +that the result is satisfactory; for if such milk be tested by the +lactometer it will certainly be found wanting in butter. The average +composition of English milk, according to Way, is:-- + + Water 87·02 + Butter 3·23 + Casein 4·48 + Sugar of milk 4·67 + Ash 0·60 + ------ + 100·00 + +In several analyses of milk published by Professor Voelcker, the highest +proportion of butter is stated to be 7·62. In that of cows kept on +poor and over-stocked pastures less than 2 per cent. was found. I have +examined in my capacity of Food Analyst to the City of Dublin several +hundred samples of milk, in not one of which have I found the proportion +of butter to amount to more than 5·6 per cent. In no sample did I find +a higher per-centage of solid matter than 13·15, or (when pure) lower +than 12·08. The quality of the food of the milch cow exercises a great +influence on the quality and yield of her milk. Aliments rich in fat and +sugar favor the production of butter, and augment the supply of milk. +Locust-beans, malt, and molasses are good milk-producing foods; but the +chief condition in the production of milk rich in butter is simply that +the animals which yield it must be fed with abundance of nutritious +food. Nor must it be supposed that the richness of milk is due to the +smallness of the yield, for whenever the quality of the secretion is +inferior, it is almost certain to be deficient in quantity. Those cows +which give the richest milk, generally yield the largest quantity. + +_Yield of Milk._--According to Boussingault, a cow daily yields on the +average 10·4 parts of milk per 1,000 parts of her weight. Morton, in his +"Cyclopædia of Agriculture," p. 621, states that Mr. Young, a Scotch +dairy keeper, obtained 680 gallons per cow per annum. Voelcker found +that some common dairy stock gave each of them fifty-two pints of milk +per diem, whilst three pedigree cows yielded respectively forty-nine +pints. + +Professor Wilson gives the following information on this point:-- + + Our principal dairy breeds are the Ayrshire, the Channel Islands, + the Short-horn, the Suffolk, and the Kerry. Some published returns + of two dairies of Ayrshire cows give the annual milk produce per + cow at 650 and 632 gallons respectively. Three returns of dairies, + consisting wholly of Short-horns, show a produce of 540 gallons, + 630 gallons, and 765 gallons respectively, or an average of 625 + gallons per annum for each cow. In two dairies, where half-bred + Short-horns were kept, the yield was 810 and 866 gallons + respectively for each cow. In four dairies in Ireland, where pure + Kerrys and crosses with Short-horns and Ayrshires were kept, the + annual produce per cow was returned at 500 gallons, 600 gallons, + 675 gallons, and 740 gallons respectively; or an average, on the + four dairies, of 630 gallons per annum for each cow. A dairy of + "pure Kerrys" gave an average of 488 gallons per cow, and another + of the larger Irish breed gave an average of 583 gallons per head + per annum. In the great London dairies, now well-nigh extinguished + by the ravages of the cattle disease, these returns are greatly + exceeded. The cows kept are large framed Short-horns and Yorkshire + crosses, which, by good feeding, bring the returns to nearly + 1,000 gallons per annum for each cow kept. The custom in these + establishments is to dispose of a cow directly her milk falls + below two gallons a-day, and buy another in her place. + + The following milk return of one of our best managed dairy farms + (Frocester Court) shows the relative produce of cows in the + successive years of their milking. The first lot was bought in + at two-years old; all the others at three years:-- + + No. of Cows. Year of Milk. Produce per head. + + 8 1st 317 gals. + 15 1st 472 " + 14 2nd 353 " + 15 3rd 616 " + 20 4th 665 " + 18 5th 635 " + 9 6th 708 " + 15 Old 651 " + + The maximum reliable milk produce that we have recorded was that + of a single cow belonging to the keeper of the gaol at Lewes, the + details of which were authenticated by the Board of Agriculture. + In eight consecutive years she gave 9,720 gallons, or at the rate + of more than 1,210 gallons per annum. In one year she milked 328 + days, and gave 1,230 gallons, which yielded 540 lbs. of butter, + or at the rate of 1 lb. of butter to 22-3/4 lb. of milk. In the + early part of the present year (1866) a return was published of + the produce of a cow in a Vermont (U.S.) dairy, which was stated + to have given, in the previous year, a butter yield of 504 lbs., + at the rate of 1 lb. of butter to 20 lbs. of milk.[25] + + +_Preserved Milk._--Various plans have been proposed to render milk more +portable, and to preserve it sweet for days and even months. Mr. Borden +of Connecticut, United States, prepares a concentrated milk by boiling +the fluid down in vacuo, at a temperature under 140° Fahrenheit, mixing +the resulting solid with sugar, and rapidly placing the compound in +tins, which are then hermetically sealed. It is said that solidified +milk prepared by this process remains sweet for many months. In France, +solidified and concentrated milk are largely prepared; and it is certain +that London and other large towns will yet be supplied with milk +rendered portable and more stable, by the removal of a large proportion +of its water. In many parts of Ireland pure milk could be bought at from +7d. to 8d. per gallon. I do not despair to see factories established in +such places for the manufacture of preserved milk as a substitute for +the dear and impure fluid sold under the name of milk in London and +other large cities. It is stated that solidified milk prepared in +Switzerland is now sold in London. + + +SECTION III. + +BUTTER. + +_History of Butter._--The very general use of butter as an article of +food is demonstrated by the familiar saying--"We should not quarrel with +our bread and butter"; yet this article, now so commonly used throughout +the greater part of Europe, was either unknown or but imperfectly known +to the ancients. In the English translation of the Holy Scriptures the +word butter does certainly frequently occur; but the Hebrew original +is _chamea_, which, according to the most eminent Biblical critics, +signifies cream, or thick, sour milk. In the 20th chapter of Job the +following passage occurs:--"He shall not see the rivers, the floods, the +brooks of honey and butter." Now, we can conceive streams of thin cream, +but we cannot imagine a river of butter. The oldest mention of butter +is found in the works of Herodotus. In the description of the Scythians +given by this ancient author, reference is made to their practice of +violently shaking the milk of their mares, for the purpose of causing a +solid fatty matter to ascend to its surface, which, when removed from +the milk, they considered a delicious article of food. Hippocrates, who +wrote a little later than Herodotus, describes, but in clearer language, +the manufacture of butter by the Scythians; he also alludes to the +preparation of cheese by the same people. The word, butter, does not +occur in any of Aristotle's writings, and although mention is made of it +in the works of Anaxandrides, Plutarch, and Ælian, it is evident that +they considered it only in the light of a curious substance, employed +partly as an article of food, partly as a medicinal salve, by certain +barbarous nations. About the second or third century, butter was but +little known to the Greeks and Romans, and there is no reason to believe +that it was ever generally used as an article of food by the classic +nations of antiquity; it is noteworthy, that the inhabitants of the +south of Europe even at the present time use butter in very small +quantities, which, indeed, is often sold for medicinal purposes in the +apothecaries' shops in Italy, Spain, and Portugal. From the foregoing +statements it is evident that the butter manufacture can lay no claim to +a classic origin; but that it took its rise in the countries of savage, +of semi-civilised, and barbarous nations. It is probable that the Greeks +were made acquainted with butter by the Thracians, Phrygians, and +Scythians; and that the knowledge of this substance was conveyed to +Rome by visitors from Germany. During the middle ages the practice of +butter-making spread throughout Northern, Central, and Western Europe; +but in many parts the commodity was very scarce and highly valued, +notwithstanding its being almost, if not quite, in a semi-fluid state, +instead of possessing the firm consistence of the butter of the present +day. + +_Irish Butter._--Butter is produced in such large quantities in Ireland +that, after the home demand has been supplied, there remains a large +excess--so considerable, indeed, as to constitute one of the more +important of our few commercial staples. The precise quantity of butter +which, during late years, has been annually exported from Ireland is +unknown. The greater part of the commodity is sent to trans-Channel +ports; and, there being no duty on butter in the cross-Channel trade +since 1826, we have no means of accurately estimating the amount of our +exports to Great Britain. If, however, we refer to the statistics of our +commerce for the period beginning in 1787, and ending in 1826, we shall +find that the exportation of butter was enormous, and that a large +proportion of that commodity consumed by the army and navy was supplied +from the dairies of Ireland. During the three years ended on the 5th of +January, 1826, the average annual amount of butter exported was as +follows:-- + + cwts. + + To Great Britain 441,226 + To foreign countries 51,637 + +Of late years the exportation to foreign and colonial countries has +fallen off; still the export trade is very considerable, probably +amounting to 450,000 cwts. per annum. During the year 1867, the imports +of foreign butter into Great Britain amounted to 1,142,262 cwts. + +I have quoted the above statistics for the purpose of demonstrating +the great importance of the butter trade to this country. Not only is a +large proportion of the agricultural community pecuniarily interested in +the production of this article, but the exportation is the chief cause +of the commercial prosperity of a city, which, in point of population, +ranks third in the kingdom. If butter, then, be an article of so much +importance, it is obvious that the greatest care should be taken in its +preparation, and that the efforts of both scientific and practical men +should be directed towards the best mode of improving its quality. If +the principles involved in the production of butter were thoroughly +understood, and generally known, I believe that such terms as "seconds," +"thirds," and "fourths," would speedily fall into disuse; that there +would be only one kind of butter sent into the market; and that the +article would always be of the best quality, in other words, "firsts." + +_Composition of Butter._--The composition and quality of butter depend +to a great extent upon the condition of the milk or cream from which it +is prepared, and on the skill and cleanliness of the dairy-maid. It +consists essentially of fatty and oily matters, but it is always found +in combination with casein (cheesy matter) and water. The following +analyses, made by Mr. Way, late consulting chemist to the Royal +Agricultural Society of England, shows its composition:-- + + INGREDIENTS PER CENT. + + 1. 2. 3. + + Fatty matters 82·70 79·67 79·12 + Casein 2·45 3·38 3·37 + Water 14·85 16·95 17·51 + +No. 1 analysis shows the composition of a specimen obtained from the +well-known Mr. Horsfall's dairy. It was made from raw cream. The other +specimens were the produce of a Devonshire dairy, and were prepared from +scalded cream. In several specimens of well-made and unsalted Irish +butter which I have analysed, I found the proportion of casein or cheesy +matter never to exceed 1 per cent., whilst in the analysis above stated +the centesimal amount is on the average more than 3 per cent. + +The fatty matter is composed of two substances--one, a solid, termed +_margarin_; the other fluid, and styled by chemists _elaine_. The solid +fat is identical in composition with the solid fat of the human body. +The elaine is peculiar to milk, but it differs very slightly from +_olein_, or fluid fat. The relative proportions of the fluid and solid +fats vary with the seasons. According to Braconnot, the solid fat forms +in summer 40 per cent. of the butter, but in winter the proportion rises +to 65. This decrease in the proportion of the liquid fat in winter is +the cause of the greater hardness of the butter in that season, which is +often incorrectly attributed solely to the cold. + +The cheesy and acid matters contained in butter are by no means +essential; on the contrary, if it were quite free from them, it might +be retained with little or no salt for a very long period without +becoming rancid. The cheesy matter contains nitrogen; and nearly all +the substances into which this element enters as a constituent are +remarkably prone to decomposition. Yeast, and ferments of every +kind--gunpowder, fulminating silver, chloride of nitrogen--and almost +every explosive compound, contain this element. The cheesy matter is +a very nitrogenous body, and in presence of air and moisture not only +rapidly decomposes, or decays, itself, but induces by mere contact a +like state of decomposition in other substances--such, for instance, as +fat, sugar, and starch, which naturally have no tendency to change their +state. Bearing the foregoing facts in mind, it is obvious that the chief +precautions to be observed in the manufacture of butter are:--Firstly, +to separate to as great an extent as practicable the casein from the +butter; and, secondly, as in practice a small portion of the curd +remains in the butter, to prevent it from undergoing any change--at +least for a prolonged period. How these desiderata may best be +accomplished I shall now proceed to point out. + +_The Butter Manufacture._--The theory of the process of churning is very +simple. By violently agitating the milk or cream the little vesicles, or +bags containing the butter, are broken, and, the fatty matter adhering, +_lumps of butter_ are formed. The operation of churning also introduces +atmospheric air into the milk, which, aided by the high temperature to +which the fluid is raised, converts a portion of the _sweet_ sugar of +milk into the _sour_ lactic acid. By the alteration produced in this way +in the composition of the milk, it is no longer capable of holding the +casein in solution, and the curd therefore separates. + +The churn and other vessels in which the milk is placed cannot be kept +too clean. No amount of labor bestowed on the scalding and scrubbing +of the vessels is excessive. When wood is the material used in the +milk-pans the utmost care should be taken in cleaning them, as the +porous nature of the material favors the retention of small quantities +of the milk. A simple washing will not suffice to clean such vessels. +They must be thoroughly scrubbed and afterwards well scalded with +_boiling_ water. Tin pans are preferable to wooden ones, as they are +more easily cleaned, but in their turn they are inferior to glass +vessels, which ought to supersede every other kind. Earthenware, lead, +and zinc pans are in rather frequent use. The last-mentioned material +is easily acted upon by the lactic acid of the sour milk, and is, +therefore, objectionable. It is a matter of great importance that the +dairy should not be situated near a pig-stye, sewer, or water-closet, +the effluvia from which would be likely to taint the milk. It is +surprising how small a quantity of putrescent matter is sufficient +to taint a whole churn of milk; and as it has been demonstrated that +the almost inappreciable emanations from a cesspool are capable of +conferring a bad flavor on milk, it is in the highest degree important +to remove from the churn and milk-pail every trace of the sour milk. I +go further, it is even desirable that no one whose hands have a tendency +to perspire should be allowed to manipulate in the dairy; and it should +be constantly borne in mind that the dairy-maid's fingers and hot water +should be on the most intimate visiting terms. + +Butter is made either from cream--sour and sweet--or from whole milk +which has stood sufficiently long to become distinctly sour. It is +asserted by some makers that butter prepared from whole milk, or +from scalded cream, contains a large proportion of curd. If this be +true--which I greatly doubt--it is a serious matter, for such butter +would speedily become rancid in consequence of the casein acting as +a ferment. I believe that experience points to an exactly opposite +conclusion. From the results of careful inquiries I feel no hesitation +in asserting that the butter should not be made from the cream, but from +the _whole milk_. When made from the cream alone it is much more likely +to acquire a bad taste, and is generally wanting in keeping qualities. +I have no doubt but that in the process of churning the whole milk there +is a large amount of lactic acid formed, and a much higher temperature +attained, than in the churning of cream; consequently, the separation of +caseous matter must be more perfectly effected in the former than in the +latter case. It is a mistake to think that there is very little casein +in cream: out of 7 or 8 lbs. of thick cream only a couple of pounds of +butter are obtainable; the rest is made up of water, casein, and sugar +of milk. The yield of butter is greater when the whole milk is churned +than when the cream alone is operated upon, and, what is of great +importance, the quality of the butter is uniform during the whole year. +The labor of churning whole milk is, of course, much greater than if the +cream alone were employed, but the increased yield and unvarying quality +of the butter more than compensate for the extra expenditure of labor. + +The proper temperature of the milk or cream is a point of great +practical importance. If the fluid be too warm or too cold the buttery +particles will only by great trouble be made to cohere; and the quality +of the butter is almost certain to be inferior. When the whole milk +is operated on, the temperature should be from 55 to 60 degs. of +Fahrenheit's thermometer; and if cream be employed the temperature +should never exceed 55 degs. nor be lower than 50 degs. Hence it follows +that in summer the dairy should be kept cooler, and in winter warmer, +than the atmosphere. The temperature of milk is raised or lowered as may +be found necessary, by the addition of hot or cold water--in performing +which operations properly, a good thermometer is indispensable; one +should always be kept in the dairy, and should be so constructed as to +admit of being plunged into the milk. In some dairies the water, instead +of being mixed with the milk, is put into a tub in which the churn is +placed. There is a good kind of churn, which consists of two cylinders, +the one within the other--the interval between them being intended for +the reception of hot or cold water. The influence of temperature upon +the production of butter has been placed beyond all doubt by numerous +carefully-conducted experiments. Mr. Horsfall, a celebrated dairy +farmer, in discussing this question, sums up as follows:--"By a series +of carefully-conducted experiments at varying temperatures, I am of +opinion that a correct scale of the comparative yield of butter at +different temperatures might be arrived at; as thus: From a very low +degree of temperature little or no butter; from a temperature of about +38 degs., 16 oz. from 16 quarts of milk; ditto, 45 degs., 21 oz. from 16 +quarts of milk; ditto, 55 degs., 26 to 27 oz. from 16 quarts of milk." +This is a higher yield of butter than, I suspect, most dairymen get: but +Mr. Horsfall's cows being of the best kind for milking, and well fed, +the milk is, of course, rich in butter; and his experiments prove that +even the richest milk will not throw up its butter unless at a certain +temperature. + +In the churning of cream the motion should be slow at first until the +cream is thoroughly broken up. In churning milk the agitation should +neither be violent nor irregular; about 40 or 50 motions of the plunger +or board per minute will be sufficient. In steam-worked churns the +motion is often excessively rapid, and the separation of the butter +is effected in a few minutes; but the article obtained in this hasty +way very quickly becomes rancid, and must be disposed of at once. An +hour's churning of sour cream appears in general to produce good butter. +Sweet cream and whole milk require a longer period--the latter about 3 +hours--but in any case prolonged churning is certain, by incorporating +cheesy matter with the butter, to produce an inferior article. + +Sweet milk becomes sour, evolves a considerable quantity of gas during +churning, and its temperature ascends four or five degrees. Oxygen is +unquestionably absorbed, and it is probable that a portion of the sugar +of milk is converted into acid products. + +I have already stated that even the most carefully prepared butter +contains a small proportion of casein and sugar of milk. This casein +is the good genius of the cheese-maker, but the evil genius of the +butter manufacturer. How? In this way:--When butter containing a +notable proportion of casein and sugar of milk is exposed to the air, +the following changes take place: the casein passes into a state of +fermentation, and acting upon the sugar of milk, converts it, firstly +into the bad-flavored lactic acid, and secondly into the bad odorous +butyric, capric, and caproic acids. The first of these compounds in a +state of purity emits an odor resembling a mixture of vinegar and rancid +butter; the second possesses an odor resembling that of a goat--hence +the name _capric_; the third has an odor like that of perspiration. In +addition to these acids, there is another simultaneously generated--the +caprylic, but it does not unpleasantly affect the olfactory nerve. +The casein also injuriously affects the fatty constituents of the +butter; under its influence they absorb oxygen from the air, and become +converted into strong-smelling compounds. The washing of butter is +intended to free it from the casein and unaltered cream, and the more +perfectly it is freed from those impurities the better will be its +flavor, and the longer it will remain without becoming rancid. Some +people believe that too much water injures the quality and lessens the +quantity of butter. It cannot do the former, because the essential +constituents of butter are totally insoluble in water; it may do the +latter, but, if it do, so much the better, because the loss of weight +represents the amount of impurities--milk, sugar of milk, &c.--removed. + +I have already remarked that butter is so susceptible of taint that even +a perspiring hand is sufficient to spoil it; naturally cool hands should +alone be allowed to come in contact with this delicate commodity, and +the hands should be made thoroughly clean by repeated washings with warm +water and oatmeal--the use of soap in the lavatory of the dairymaid +being highly objectionable. Wooden spades are now being commonly made +use of in manipulating the butter, and there is no good reason why they +should not come into universal use. + +The yield of butter per cow is subject to great variation. Some breeds +of the animal are remarkable as milkers; such, for instance, as the +Alderneys and Kerrys--indeed, I may say all the small varieties of the +bovine race. There are instances of cows yielding upwards of twenty +pounds of butter per week, but these are extraordinary cases. In Holland +a good cow will produce, during the summer months, more than 180 lbs. +of butter. In these countries I think the average annual yield of a +cow is not more than 170 lbs. It sometimes happens that cows yield +a large quantity of milk and a small amount of butter, but it far more +frequently occurs that the cow which gives most milk also yields most +butter. + +An estimate of the amount of butter contained in milk may be made by +determining the amount of cream. This may be effected by means of an +instrument termed a _lactometer_, which is simply a glass tube about +five inches long, and graduated into a hundred parts. The specimen to be +examined is poured into this tube up to zero or 0, and allowed to stand +for twelve hours in summer and sixteen or eighteen in winter. At the end +of that time the cream will have risen to the top, and its per-centage +may be easily seen. In good milk the cream will generally extend 11 to +15 degrees down from 0. This instrument, although very useful, is not +reliable in every case, especially in detecting the adulteration of +milk. + +I have already stated that the complete separation of the butter from +the other constituents of the milk is never accomplished in the dairy. +Now although the proportion of curd in the butter is very small--rarely +more than two per cent. and often not a fourth of one per cent.--yet it +is more than sufficient, under a certain condition, to cause the butter +to become speedily rancid. That condition is simply contact with the +air. If the curd, before it becomes dry and firm, is subjected to the +influence of the air, it rapidly passes into a state of fermentation, +which is very soon communicated to the fatty and saccharine constituents +of the butter (substances not spontaneously liable to sudden changes in +composition) and those peculiar compounds--such, for example, as butyric +and capric acids, are generated, which confer upon rancid butter its +characteristic and very disagreeable odor and flavor. The fermentation +of the curd is prevented by incorporating common salt with the butter, +and by preventing, so far as possible, the access of air to the +vessels in which the article is placed. If fresh butter be placed in +water--which apparently protects it from the influence of the air--it +will soon become rancid. The reason of this is, that water always +contains air, which differs in composition, though derived, from the +atmosphere, by being very rich in oxygen. Now, it is precisely this +oxygen which effects those undesirable changes in the casein, or curd, +to which I have so repeatedly referred; hence its presence in a +concentrated state in water causes that fluid to produce an injurious +effect on the butter placed in it. A saturated solution of salt contains +very little air, and, so long as the curd is immersed therein, it +undergoes no change. The salt, too, acts as a decided preservative; for +although it was long considered to be capable of preserving animal +matters, merely by virtue of its property of absorbing water from them +(the presence of water being a condition in the decomposition of organic +matter), it has lately been shown to possess very antiseptic properties. + +The mixing of the salt with the butter is effected in the following +manner:--The butter, after being well washed, in order to free it from +the butter-milk, is spread out in a tub, and the salt shaken over it; +the butter is then turned over on the salt by the lower part of the palm +of the hand, and rubbed down until a uniform mixture is attained. A good +plan in salting is to mix in only one half of the quantity of salt, make +up the butter in lumps, and set them aside until the following day; a +quantity of milk is certain to exude, which is to be poured off, and +then the rest of the salt may be incorporated with the butter. + +According to butter-makers, the quality of the article is greatly +dependent on the quality of the salt used in preserving it. I think +there is a good deal of truth in this belief, and I therefore recommend +that only the very best and _driest_ salt should be used in the dairy. +Common salt is essentially composed of the substance termed by chemists +chloride of sodium, but it often contains other saline matters (chloride +of magnesium, &c.), some of which have a tendency to absorb moisture +from the air, and to dissolve in the water so obtained. These salts are +termed _deliquescent_, from the Latin _deliquere_, to melt down. When, +therefore, common salt becomes damp by mere exposure to the air, it is +to be inferred that it contains impurities which, as they possess a very +bitter taste, would, if mixed with butter, confer a bad flavor upon it. +The impurities of salt may be almost completely removed by placing about +a stone weight of it in any convenient vessel, pouring over it a quart +of boiling water, and mixing thoroughly the fluid and solid. In an hour +or two the whole is to be thrown upon a filter made of calico, when the +water will pass through the filter, carrying with it all the impurities, +and the purified salt, in fine crystals, will remain upon the filter. +The solution need not be thrown away: boiled down to dryness it may be +given as salt to cattle; or, if added in solution to the dung-heap, it +will augment the fertilising power of that manure. + +The proportion of salt used in preserving butter varies greatly. When +the butter is intended for immediate use, I believe a quarter of an +ounce of salt to the pound is quite sufficient; but when designed for +the market, about half an ounce of salt to the pound of butter will be +sufficient. Irish butter at one time commanded the highest price in the +home and foreign markets, but latterly it has fallen greatly in public +estimation; indeed, at the present moment the price of Irish butter at +London is nearly twenty shillings per cwt. under that of the Dutch +article. It is really painful to be obliged to admit that the Irish +farmer is solely to blame for this remarkable depreciation in the value +of one of our best agricultural staples. In a word, by the stupid (and +_recent_) practice of putting into butter four times the quantity of +salt necessary to its preservation, the Irish dairy farmers--or at least +the great majority of them--have completely ruined the reputation of +Irish butter in those very markets in which, at one time, the Cork +brand on a firkin was sufficient to dispose of its contents at the +very highest price. It is a great mistake to think that the greater the +quantity of salt which can be incorporated with the butter, the greater +will be the profit to the producer. No doubt, every pound of salt sold +as a constituent of butter realises a profit of two thousand per cent.; +but then the addition of every pound of that substance, after a certain +quantity, to the cwt. of butter depreciates the value of the latter to +such an extent as to far more than neutralise the gain on the sale of +salt at the price of butter. In the county of Carlow, less salt is used +in preserving butter than is the case in the county of Cork and the +adjacent counties; the price, therefore, which the Carlow commodity +commands in the London market is higher than that of the Cork butter: +but in every part of Ireland the proportion of salt added to the butter +is excessive. + +The results of the analyses of butter supplied to the London market, +made by the _Lancet_ Analytical Commission, showed that the proportion +of salt varied from 0·30 to 8·24 per cent. The largest proportion of +salt found in fresh butter was 2·21 and the least 0·30. In salt butter +the highest proportion of salt was 8·24 and the lowest 1·53. The butter +which contained most salt was also generally largely adulterated with +water. Indeed, in several samples the amount of this constituent reached +so high as nearly 30 per cent. Nothing is easier than the incorporation +of water with salt butter. The butter is melted, and whilst cooling the +salt and water are added, and the mixture kept constantly stirred until +quite cold. In this way nearly 50 per cent. of water may be added to +butter; but of course the quality of the article will be of the very +worst kind. + +A correspondent of the _Lancet_ states that, on awakening about +three o'clock in the morning at the house in which he was lodging, he +perceived a light below the door of his room; and apprehending a fire, +he hurried down stairs, and was not a little surprised to discover the +whole family engaged in manipulating butter. He was informed in a jocose +way that they were making Epping butter! For this purpose they used +inferior Irish butter, which, by repeated washings, was freed from its +excessive amount of salt; after which it was frequently bathed in sweet +milk, the addition of a little sugar being the concluding stroke in the +process. This "sweet fresh butter from Epping" was sold at a profit of +100 per cent. Our dairy farmers might take a hint from this anecdote. +Does it not prove that the mere removal of the salt added to Irish +butter doubles the value of the article? + +It is as necessary to pay attention to the packing of butter as it is +to its salting. If old firkins be employed, great care should be taken +in cleaning them, and if the staves be loose, the firkins should be +steeped in hot water, in order to cause the wood to swell, and thereby +to bring the edges of the staves into close contact. New firkins often +communicate a disagreeable odour to the butter. In order to guard +against this, it is the practice in many parts to fill the firkins with +very moist garden mould, which, after the lapse of a few days, is thrown +out, and the firkin thoroughly scrubbed with hot water, rinsed with the +same fluid in a cold state, and finally rubbed with salt, just before +being used. + +In packing the butter, the chief object to be kept in view is the +exclusion of air. In order to accomplish this, the lumps of butter +should be pressed firmly together, and also against the bottom and sides +of the vessel. When the products of several churnings are placed in the +same firkin, the surface of each churning should be furrowed, so that +the next layer may be mixed with it. A firkin should never be filled in +a single operation. About six inches of butter of each churning will +be quite sufficient, and in a large dairy two or more firkins can be +gradually but simultaneously filled. I strongly recommend the removal +of the pickle jar from the dairy. When the layers of butter have been +carried up to within an inch or so of the top of the firkin, the space +between the surface of the butter and the edge of the vessel should be +filled with fine dry salt, instead of pickle. A common mistake made is +the holding over for too long a time of the butter: the sooner this +article can be disposed of the better, for _it never improves by age_. + + * * * * * + +[Footnote 23: From two Greek words, signifying odour and soup.] + +[Footnote 24: "A New Inquiry, fully illustrated by coloured engravings +of the heart, lungs, &c., of the Diseased Prize Cattle lately exhibited +at the Smithfield Cattle Club, 1857." By Frederick James Gant, M.R.C.S. +London, 1858.] + +[Footnote 25: Professor John Wilson's Report of the Agricultural +Exhibition, Aarhuus, 1867.] + + + + +PART V. + +ON THE COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF VEGETABLE FOODS. + + +SECTION I. + +THE MONEY VALUE OF FOOD SUBSTANCES. + +The flesh-forming principles of food are, as I have already stated, +almost identical with the principal nitrogenous constituents of animals. +Unlike the non-plastic substances, they are convertible into each other +with little, if any, loss either of matter or of force. Not many +years since it was the fashion to estimate the nutritive value of a +food-substance by its proportion of nitrogen; but this method--not yet +quite abandoned--was based on erroneous views, and yielded results very +far from the truth. No doubt all the more concentrated and valuable +kinds of food are rich in nitrogenous principles; but there are other +varieties, the nutritive value of which is very low, and yet their +proportion of nitrogen is very high. This point requires explanation. +Both the plastic and the non-plastic materials of food exist in two +distinct states--in one of which they are easily digestible, and in the +other either altogether unassimilable or so nearly so as to be almost +useless. Thus, for example, the cellular tissue of plants, when newly +formed, is to a great extent digestible, whilst the old woody fibre is +nearly, if not quite, incapable of assimilation. Gelatine, which in raw +bones is easily digested in the stomachs of the carnivora, loses a large +proportion of its nutritive value on being subjected to the action of +steam. Again, a portion of the nitrogen of young succulent plants is in +a form not sufficiently organic to admit of its being assimilated to +the animal body. But, independently of these strong objections to the +method of estimating the nutritive value of food by its per-centage of +flesh-formers, there are many other reasons which as clearly prove the +fallacy of this rule. If we were, for instance, to estimate the value +of albumen according to the tables of food equivalents which were +constructed some years ago by Boussingault and other chemists, we would +find one pound weight of it to be equivalent to four pounds weight of +oil-cake, or to twelve pounds weight of hay; yet, it is a fact that +a horse would speedily die if confined to a purely albuminous diet, +whereas hay is capable of supporting the animal's life for an indefinite +period. + +It is clear, then, from what I have stated, that neither the amount of +flesh-formers, nor of fat-formers, contained in a given quantity of a +substance is a measure of its nutritive value; nevertheless it would +be incorrect to infer from this that the numerous analyses of feeding +substances which have been made are valueless. On the contrary, I am +disposed to believe that the composition of these substances, when +correctly stated by the chemist, enables the physiologist to determine +pretty accurately their relative alimentary value. Theory is certainly +against the assumption that food is valuable in proportion to its +content of nitrogen; nor has practice less strongly disproved its truth. +An illustration drawn from the nutrition of plants will make this matter +more apparent. Every intelligent agriculturist knows that guano contains +nitrogen and phosphoric acid; both substances are indispensable to the +development of plants, and therefore it would be incorrect to estimate +the manurial value of the guano in proportion to the quantity of +nitrogen it was capable of yielding. If the value of manures were +determined only by their per-centage of nitrogen--a mode by which +certain chemists still estimate the nutritive value of food--then +woollen rags would be worth more than bones, and bones would be more +valuable than superphosphate of lime. The truth is, that the analysis of +feeding stuffs and manures is sometimes of little value if the condition +in which the constituents of these substances exist be undetermined. For +example, the analysis of one manure may show it to contain 40 per cent. +of phosphate of lime, and three per cent. of ammonia, whilst, according +to analysis, another fertiliser may include 20 per cent. of phosphate of +lime, and two per cent. of ammonia. Viewed by this light solely, the +first manure would be considered the more valuable of the two, whereas +it might, in reality, be very much inferior. If the phosphate of lime +in the manure, containing 40 per cent. of that body, were derived from +coprolites or apatite, and its ammonia from horns, the former would be +worth little or nothing, and the latter, by reason of its exceedingly +slow evolution from the horns, would possess a very low value. If, on +the contrary, the phosphate of lime, in the manure comparatively poor +in phosphate, were a constituent of bones, and its ammonia ready formed +(say as sulphate of ammonia), then, its value, both commercial and +manurial, would be far greater than the other. + +In estimating the money value of an article of food, we should omit +such considerations as the relative adjustment of its flesh-formers and +fat-formers, and its suitability to particular kinds of animals, as well +as to animals in a certain stage of development. The manure supplied to +plants contains several elements indispensable to vegetable nutrition; +and, although the agriculturist most commonly purchases all these +elements combined in the one article, still he frequently buys each +ingredient separately. Ammonia is one of these principles, and, whether +it be bought _per se_, or as a constituent of a compound manure, the +price it commands is invariable. This principle should prevail in the +purchase of food: each constituent of which should have a certain value +placed upon it; and the sums of all the values of the constituents would +then be the value of the article of food taken as a whole. There are, no +doubt, practical difficulties in the way which prevent this method of +valuation from giving more than approximatively correct results; but +are there not precisely similar difficulties in the way of the correct +estimation of the value of a manure according to its analysis? There +are several constituents of food, the money value of which is easily +determinable: these are sugar, starch, and fat. No matter what substance +they are found in, the nutritive value of each varies only within very +narrow limits. The value of cellulose and woody fibre is not so easily +ascertained, as it varies with the age and nature of the vegetable +structure in which these principles occur. There is little doubt but +that the cellulose and fibre of young grass, clover, and other succulent +plants, are, for the most part, digestible; and we should not be far +astray if we were to assume that four pounds weight of soft fibre and +cellulose are equivalent to three pounds weight of starch. As to old +hard fibre, we are not in a position to say whether or not it possesses +any nutrimental value worth taking into account. The estimation of the +value of the flesh-forming materials is far more difficult than that of +sugar, starch, pectine compounds, and fat. The nitrogenous constituents +of food must be in a highly elaborated state before they are capable +of being assimilated. In seeds--in which vegetable substances attain +their highest degree of development--they probably exist in the most +digestible form, whilst much of the nitrogen found in the stems and +leaves of succulent plants, is either in a purely mineral state, or in +so low a degree of elaboration as to be unavailable for the purpose of +nutrition. But even plastic materials, in a high degree of organisation, +present many points of difference, which greatly affect their relative +alimental value; for example, many of them are naturally associated with +substances possessing a disagreeable flavor: and as their separation +from these substances is often practically impossible, the animal that +consumes both will not assimilate the plastic matters so well as if +they were endowed with a pleasant flavor. In seeds and other perfectly +matured vegetable structures, the flesh-formers may exist in different +degrees of availability. The nitrogen of the _testa_, or covering of +the seeds, will hardly be so assimilable as that which exists in their +cotyledons. The solubility of the flesh-formers--provided they be +highly elaborated--is a very good criterion of their nutritive power. +In linseed the muscle-forming substances are more soluble than in +linseed-cake--the heat which is generally employed in the extraction of +oil from linseed rendering the plastic materials of the resultant _cake_ +less soluble, and diminishing thereby their digestibility, as practice +has proved. + +From the considerations which I have now entered into, it is obvious +that the chemical analysis of food substances as generally performed, +though of great utility, does not afford strictly accurate information +as to their commercial value, and still less reliable in relation to +their nutritive power. At the same time, they as clearly establish +the feasibility of analyses being _made_ whereby the money value of +feeding-stuffs may be estimated with tolerable exactitude. Let the +chemist determine the presence and relative amounts of the ingredients +of food-substances, and--if it be possible so to do with a degree of +exactness that would render the results useful--place on each a money +value. This done, let the physiologist and the feeder combine the food +in such proportions as they may find best adapted to the nature, age, +and condition of the animal to be fed. + +It is to be regretted that the market price of feeding stuffs is not, +in consequence of our defective knowledge, strictly determined by their +nutritive value, for if such were the case, the feeder would merely have +to adapt each to the nature and condition of his stock. Even amongst +practical men there prevails, unfortunately, great diversity of opinion +as to the relative nutritive value of the greater number of food +substances; and I am quite certain that many of these command higher +prices than others which in no respect are inferior. It would lead me +too far from my immediate subject were I to enter minutely into the +consideration of such questions as--whether an acre of grass yields more +or less nutriment than an acre of turnips? I shall merely describe the +composition and properties of grass and of turnips, and of the various +other important food substances, and compare their nutritive power, so +far as comparisons are admissible; but I shall say but little on the +subject of the various economic and other conditions which affect the +production of forage plants. When I shall have described the chemical +nature and physical condition of the various articles of food, and the +results of actual feeding experiments made with them, the feeder will +then be in a position to determine which are the most economical to +produce or to purchase. + + +SECTION II. + +PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS OF VEGETABLES. + +The saccharine, or amylaceous substances constitute the most abundant +of the proximate constituents of plants. They are composed of carbon, +hydrogen, and oxygen. I shall briefly describe the more important +members of this group of substances, namely, starch, sugar, inulin, +gum, pectin, and cellulose. + +_Starch_, or _fecula_, occurs largely in dicotyledonous seeds, peas, +&c., and still more abundantly in certain monocotyledonous seeds, such +as wheat and barley. It constitutes the great bulk of many tubers and +roots--for example, the potato and tapioca. It consists of flattened +ovate granules, which vary in size according to the plant. In the +beetroot they are 1/3500 of an inch in diameter, whilst in _tous les +mois_ they are nearly 1/200 of an inch in diameter. Most of the starch +granules are marked by a series of concentric rings. Starch is heavier +than water, and is insoluble in that fluid when cold; neither is it +dissolved by alcohol or ether. When heated in water having a temperature +of at least 140° Fahrenheit, it increases greatly in volume, and +acquires a gelatinous consistence. When the water is allowed to cool, +a portion of the starch becomes insoluble, whilst another portion +remains in solution; the latter form of starch is sometimes termed +_amidin_, from the French word for starch, _amidon_. When dry starch +is heated to 400° Fahr., it is converted, without any change in its +composition, into a soluble gum-like substance, termed _dextrin_, +or British gum. On being boiled in diluted sulphuric acid it is +converted into a kind of sugar; and the same effect is produced by +fermentation--for example, in the germination of seeds. Fresh rice +contains 82, wheat 60, and potatoes 20 per cent. of starch. This +substance constitutes a nutritious and easily digestible food, but +alone cannot support life. Arrowroot is only a pure form of starch. + +_Sugar_ occurs less abundantly in plants than starch. There are several +varieties of this substance, of which the kinds termed cane sugar +(_sucrose_) and grape sugar (_glucose_), are only of importance to +agriculturists. The former enters largely into the composition of the +sugar-cane, the beetroot, the sugar-maple, the sorgho grass, pumpkins, +carrots, and a great variety of other plants. Grape sugar is found in +fruits, especially when dried--raisins and figs--in malted corn, and +in honey. In the sugar-cane there is 18 per cent., and in the beetroot +10 per cent. of sugar. + +_Cane sugar_, when pure, consists of minute transparent crystals. It is +1-6/10 heavier than water, and is soluble in one-third of its weight +of that fluid. By long-continued boiling in water it is changed into +uncrystallizable sugar, or treacle, by which its flavor is altered, but +its sweetening power increased. + +_Grape sugar_ crystallizes in very small cubes, of inferior color as +compared with cane sugar crystals. It dissolves in its own weight of +water, being three times less soluble than sucrose. In sweetening power +one part of cane sugar is equal to 2-1/2 parts of grape sugar; but there +is probably little if any difference, between the nutritive power of the +two substances. + +_Inulin_ is a substance somewhat resembling starch. It does not occur +in large quantities. It is met with in the roots of the dandelion, +chicory, and many other plants. + +_Gum_ is an abundant constituent of plants. The kind termed gum +arabic, so largely employed in the arts, is a very pure variety of this +substance. Common gums are said to be essentially composed of a very +weak acid--_gummic_, or _arabic_ acid--united with lime and potash. +The solution of gum is very slightly acid, and has a mucilaginous, +ropy consistence: it is almost tasteless. _Mucilage_, or _bassorin_, +is simply a modified form of gum, which, though insoluble in water, +forms a gelatinous mixture with that fluid. It exudes from certain +trees--the cherry for example--and exists largely in linseed and other +seeds. Gums are nutritious foods, but it is probable that they are not +equal in alimental power to equal weights of starch or sugar. + +_Vegetable jelly_, or _pectin_, is almost universally diffused +throughout the vegetable kingdom. It is owing to its presence that the +juices of many fruits and roots possess the property of gelatinizing. +It is soluble in water, but prolonged boiling destroys its viscous +property. _Pectose_ is a modification of pectin; it is insoluble in +water. According to Fremy, the hardness of green fruits is due to the +presence of pectose; which is also found in the cellular tissue of +turnips, carrots, and various other roots. + +_Cellulose_ is a fibrous or cellular tissue, allied in composition to +starch. It is the most abundant constituent of plants, and forms the +very ground-work of the vegetable mechanism. Linen, cotton, and the +pith of the elder and other trees are nearly pure forms of cellulose. +Ligneous, or woody tissue (_lignin_) is indurated cellulose, hardened +by age. It is almost identical in composition with cellulose. Pure +cellulose is white, colorless, tasteless, insoluble in water, oil, +alcohol, or ether. It is heavier than water. Sulphuric acid is capable +of converting it into grape, or starch sugar. In its fresh and succulent +state cellulose is digestible and nutritious; but in the form of +ligneous tissue it opposes a very great resistance to the action of the +digestive fluids. Digestible cellulose is probably equal in nutritive +power to starch. + +_Oils and fats_ occur abundantly in vegetables, more particularly in +their seeds. In the seeds of many cruciferous plants the proportion +of fat and oil exceeds 35 per cent. The oils and fats termed _fixed_ +are those which possess the greatest interest to agriculturists; the +_volatile oils_ being those which confer on certain plants their +fragrant odour. There are a great variety of vegetable oils, but +the proximate constituents of most of them are chiefly _stearin_, +_margarin_, _olein_, and _palmitin_. + +_Stearin_ is a white crystalline substance, sparingly soluble in alcohol +and ether, but insoluble in water. There are two or three modifications +of this substance, but they do not essentially differ from each other. +The melting point varies from 130° to 160° Fahr. Stearin is the most +abundant of the fats. + +_Margarin_ presents the appearance of pearly scales. It is the solid fat +present in olive oil, and it is also met with in a great variety of fats +and oils. It melts at 116° Fahr. + +_Olein_ is the fluid constituent of oils and fatty substances. It +resists an extreme degree of cold, without solidifying. There are +several modifications of this body--the olein of olive oil being +somewhat different from that of castor oil; the olein of linseed is +sometimes termed _linolien_. + +_Palmitin._--This fat occurs in many plants, but as it makes up the +great bulk of palm oil, it has been termed palmitin. It is white, and +may be obtained in feathery-like masses. Its melting point varies from +114° to 145°, there being, according to Duffy, three modifications of +this substance. + +The fats and oils are lighter than water. They contain far more carbon +and hydrogen, and less oxygen, than are found in the sugars and +starches. They all consist of acids (stearic, palmitic, &c.) united with +glycerine. On being boiled with potash or soda, the latter take the +place of the glycerine, which is set free, and a _soap_ is produced. +The fatty acids strongly resemble the fats. In nutritive power, one part +of fat is equal to 2-1/2 parts of starch or sugar. + +The Albuminous substances contain, in addition to the elements found +in starch, nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus. _Albumen_, _fibrin_, and +_legumin_ constitute the three important members of the "Nitrogenous" +constituents of plants. + +_Albumen_ is an uncrystallizable substance. It is soluble in water, +unless when heated to 140 deg. Fahr., at which temperature it coagulates, +_i.e._, becomes solid and insoluble. The _gluten_ of wheat is composed +chiefly of albumen, and of bodies closely allied to that substance. + +_Fibrin_, when dried, is a hard, horny, yellow, solid body. It contains +a little more oxygen than is found in albumen. This substance is best +known as a constituent of animals, and it does not appear to be abundant +in plants. The portion of the gluten of wheat-flour, which is insoluble +in boiling alcohol, is considered by Liebig and Dumas to be coagulated +fibrin. + +In the seeds of leguminous and a few other kinds of plants large +quantities of a substance termed _legumin_ are found. It resembles the +casein, or cheesy ingredient of milk; indeed, some chemists consider it +to be identical in composition with that substance. When pure, it is +pearly white, insoluble in boiling water, but soluble in cold water and +in vinegar. The saline matters found in plants are always associated +with the albuminous bodies; the latter, therefore, form the bones as +well as the muscles of animals. + +A great many substances are found in plants, such as wax, mannite, +"extractive matter," citric, malic, and other acids, of the nutritive +value of which very little is known. The substances described in this +section constitute, however, at least 95 per cent. of the weight of the +vegetable matters used as food by live stock. + + +SECTION III. + +GREEN FOOD. + +_The Grasses._--More than one-half the area of Great Britain and Ireland +is under pasture; the grasses, therefore, constitute the most important +and abundant food used by live stock. The composition of the natural +and artificial grasses is greatly influenced by the nature of the soil +on which they are grown, and by the climatic conditions under which +they are developed. Many of them are almost worthless, whilst others +possess a high nutritive value. Amongst the most useful natural +grasses may be enumerated Italian rye-grass, Meadow barley, Annual +Meadow-grass, Crested dogstail-grass, Cocksfoot-grass, Timothy or +Meadow catstail-grass, and Sweet vernal-grass. Amongst grasses of medium +quality I may mention common Oatlike-grass, Meadow foxtail grass, Smooth +and rough stalked Meadow-grass, and Waterwhorl-grass. There are very +many grasses which are almost completely innutritious, and which ought, +under no circumstances, to be tolerated, although too often they make +up the great bulk of the herbage of badly-managed meadows and pastures. +Such grasses are, the Meadow soft-grass, Creeping soft-grass, False +brome-grass, and Upright brome-grass. The rough-stalked Meadow-grass, +though spoken favorably of by some farmers, is hardly worthy of +cultivation, and the same may be said of many of the grasses which have +a place in our meadows and pastures. (See "Analyses of Natural Grasses +in a Fresh State, by Dr. Voelcker," on next page.) + +The _Schræder brome_ is a perennial lately introduced into France. It +is described as an exceedingly valuable forage crop, and one which is +admirably adapted for the feeding of dairy cows. It would be desirable +to give it a trial in these countries. The composition (which is very +peculiar) of this plant is stated to be as follows, when dry:-- + + ANALYSIS OF SCHRÆDER BROME HAY. + + Water 16·281 + Nitrogenous matters 23·443 + Fat 3·338 + Starch gum, &c. 22·549 + Cellulose (fibre) 19·843 + Ashes 14·546 + ------- + Total 100·000 + + + ANALYSES OF NATURAL GRASSES IN A FRESH STATE, BY DR. VOELCKER. + + +---------------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | KEY: | + | A.--Water. | + | B.--Albuminous or Flesh-forming Principles. | + | C.--Fatty Matters. | + | D.--Respiratory Principles: Starch, Gum, Sugar. | + | E.--Woody Fibre. | + | F.--Mineral Matter or Ash. | + | G.--Date of Collection. | + +-----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-----+-------+ + | | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | F. | G. | + +-----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-----+-------+ + |Anthoxanthum odoratum-- | | | | | | | | + | Sweet-scented vernal grass |80·35| 2·00| ·67| 8·54| 7·15| 1·24|May 25| + |Alopecurus pratensis-- | | | | | | | | + | Meadow foxtail grass |80·20| 2·44| ·52| 8·59| 6·70| 1·55|June 1| + |Arrhenatherum avenaceum-- | | | | | | | | + | Common oat-like grass |72·65| 3·54| ·87| 11·21| 9·37| 2·36|July 17| + |Avena flavescens-- | | | | | | | | + | Yellow oat-like grass |60·40| 2·96| 1·04| 18·66| 14·22| 2·72|June 29| + |Avena pubescens-- | | | | | | | | + | Downy oat-grass |61·50| 3·07| ·92| 19·16| 13·34| 2·01|July 11| + |Briza media-- | | | | | | | | + | Common quaking grass |51·85| 2·93| 1·45| 22·60| 17·00| 4·17|June 29| + |Bromus erectus-- | | | | | | | | + | Upright brome grass |59·57| 3·78| 1·35| 33·19 | 2·11| " 23| + |Bromus mollis-- | | | | | | | | + | Soft brome grass |76·62| 4·05| ·47| 9·04| 8·46| 1·36| May 8| + |Cynosurus cristatus-- | | | | | | | | + | Crested dogstail grass |62·73| 4·13| 1·32| 19·64| 9·80| 2·38|June 21| + |Dactylus glomerata-- | | | | | | | | + | Cocksfoot grass |70·00| 4·06| ·94| 13·30| 10·11| 1·54| " 13| + | Ditto, seeds ripe |52·57|10·93| ·74| 12·61| 20·54| 2·61|July 19| + |Festuca duriuscula-- | | | | | | | | + | Hard fescue grass |69·33| 3·70| 1·02| 12·46| 11·83| 1·66|June 13| + |Holcus lanatus-- | | | | | | | | + | Soft meadow grass |69·70| 3·49| 1·02| 11·92| 11·94| 1·93| " 29| + |Hordeum pratense-- | | | | | | | | + | Meadow barley |58·85| 4·59| ·94| 20·05| 13·03| 2·54|July 11| + |Lolium perenne-- | | | | | | | | + | Darnel grass |71·43| 3·37| ·91| 12·08| 10·06| 2·15|June 8| + |Lolium italicum-- | | | | | | | | + | Italian rye-grass |75·61| 2·45| ·80| 14·11| 4·82| 2·21| " 13| + |Phleum pratense-- | | | | | | | | + | Meadow catstail grass |57·21| 4·86| 1·50| 22·85| 11·32| 2·26| | + |Poa annua-- | | | | | | | | + | Annual meadow grass |79·14| 2·47| ·71| 10·79| 6·30| ·59| May 28| + |Poa pratensis-- | | | | | | | | + | Smooth-stalked meadow grass|67·14| 3·41| ·86| 14·15| 12·49| 1·95|June 11| + |Poa trivialis-- | | | | | | | | + | Rough-stalked ditto |73·60| 2·58| ·97| 10·54| 10·11| 2·20| " 18| + |Grass from water meadow |87·58| 3·22| ·81| 3·98| 3·13| 1·28|Apr. 30| + | Ditto, second crop |74·53| 2·78| ·52| 11·17| 8·76| 2·24|June 26| + |Annual rye-grass |69·00| 2·96| ·69| 12·89| 12·47| 1·99| " 8| + +-----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-----+-------+ + + Most of the grasses here mentioned were analysed when in flower. + + +_Tussac Grass_ (_Dactylis cæspitus_) is recommended as an excellent +plant to grow on very poor, wet, or mossy soils.[26] It is an evergreen +grass, somewhat resembling coltsfoot. It is relished by cattle. + + ANALYSIS OF TUSSAC GRASS BY JOHNSTONE. + + Lower part. Upper part. + + Water 86·09 75·17 + Flesh-formers 2·47 4·79 + Sugar, gum, &c. 4·62 6·81 + Woody fibre (with a little albumen) 5·68 11·86 + Ash 1·14 1·37 + ------ ------ + Total 100·00 100·00 + +The "artificial grasses" embrace the clovers, vetches, lucerne, and +a few other plants, some of which are seldom cultivated. + + ANALYSES OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF CLOVER, BY DR. ANDERSON. + + +--------------------------------------------- + | KEY: + | A.--Water. + | B.--Dry Substances. + | C.--Ash. + | D.--Nitrogenised Substances. + | E.--Ash. + | F.--Nitrogenised Matters. + | + ------------------------+-----------------------------+--------------- + | Per-centage in the | Per-centage + | Fresh Clover. | in Dry Clover. + +-------+-------+------+------+-------+------- + | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | F. + ------------------------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+------- + Red clover-- | | | | | | + Trifolium pratense: | | | | | | + 1. From English seed | 85·30 | 14·70 | 1·30 | 2·31 | 8·90 | 15·87 + 2. From German seed | | | | | | + (from the Rhine) | 81·68 | 18·32 | 1·49 | 2·81 | 8·15 | 15·50 + 3. From French seed | 83·51 | 16·49 | 1·95 | 2·25 | 11·82 | 13·56 + 4. From American seed | 79·98 | 21·02 | 1·58 | 2·87 | 8·05 | ... + 5. From Dutch seed | ... | ... | ... | ... | 8·82 | 12·43 + Cowgrass-- | | | | | | + Trifolium medium:[27] | | | | | | + Variety, | | | | | | + " Duke of Norfolk | 77·39 | 22·61 | 2·73 | 2·25 | 12·09 | 10·19 + " common | 81·76 | 18·24 | 1·92 | 3·19 | 10·53 | 14·37 + Crimson clover, | | | | | | + Trifolium incarnatum: | | | | | | + From French seed | 82·56 | 17·44 | 1·88 | 3·25 | 10·81 | 18·56 + Yellow clover-- | | | | | | + Medicago lupulina: | | | | | | + From English seed | 77·38 | 22·62 | 2·02 | 3·50 | 8·95 | 15·44 + From French seed | 78·60 | 21·40 | 1·75 | 2·94 | 8·18 | 13·69 + ------------------------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+------- + +_Clover_ is very rich in flesh-forming and heat-producing substances. +There are several varieties of this plant, of which the Alsike Clover +appears to be the most valuable, as it contains a high proportion of +organic matter and gives the largest acreable produce. The nature of the +soil influences, to a great extent, the composition of this plant: this +no doubt accounts for the somewhat discrepant result of the analyses of +it made by Way, Voelcker, and Anderson. + +The composition of the Vetch, Sainfoin, and Lucerne, resembles very +closely that of the Clover: indeed, it appears to me that all these +leguminous plants are nearly equally valuable as green forage, but that +the best adapted for hay is the Clover. In the following table the +composition of these plants is shown:-- + + ANALYSES OF CLOVER, BY DR. VOELCKER. + + ---------------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+--------- + | I. | II. | III. | IV. | V. + | Red | White |Yellow | Alsike. | Bokhara + |Clover.|Clover.|Clover.| Clover. | Clover. + +-------+-------+-------+---------+--------- + Water | 80·64 | 83·65 | 77·57 | 76·67 | 81·30 + | | | | | + Soluble in Water-- | | | | | + _a._ Organic substances | 6·35 | 4·98 | 8·26 | 4·91 | 6·80 + _b._ Inorganic substances| 1·55 | 1·13 | 1·40 | 1·33 | 1·54 + | | | | | + Insoluble in water-- | | | | | + _a._ Impure vegetable | | | | | + fibre | 11·04 | 9·80 | 12·17 | 16·36 | 10·01 + _b._ Inorganic matters | | | | | + (ash) | 0·42 | 0·44 | 0·60 | 0·73 | 0·35 + +-------+-------+-------+---------+--------- + |100·00 |100·00 |100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 + ---------------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+--------- + + ANALYSES OF LUCERNE, SAINFOIN, AND VETCH. + + ---------------------------------------+----------+-----------+-------- + | I. | II. | III. + | Lucerne. | Sainfoin. | Vetch. + +----------+-----------+-------- + Water | 73·41 | 77·32 | 82·16 + | | | + Soluble in Water | | | + _a._ Organic substances | 9·43 | 8·00 | 6·07 + _b._ Inorganic substances | 2·33 | 1·20 | 1·07 + | | | + Insoluble in water | | | + _a._ Impure vegetable fibre | 14·08 | 12·95 | 10·23 + _b._ Inorganic matters (ash) | 0·75 | 0·53 | 0·47 + +----------+-----------+-------- + | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 + ---------------------------------------+----------+-----------+-------- + +The artificial grasses are, on the whole, more nutritious than the +natural grasses; but I should explain that the analyses of the natural +grasses which I have quoted refer to those plants in what may be almost +termed their wild state: under the influence of good cultivation--when +irrigated or top-dressed with abundance of appropriate manure--their +analyses would indicate a higher nutritive value. The grasses, and more +especially the so-called artificial grasses, are more nutritious and +digestible when young. In old clover the proportion of insoluble woody +fibre is often so considerable as to greatly detract from the alimental +value of the plant. + +The _Lentils_, the _Birdsfoot_, the _Trefoil_, and the _Melilot_ are +leguminous plants which occasionally are found as constituents of forage +crops. Lentils are extensively cultivated on the Continent, and are +the only kind of these plants the chemistry of which has been at all +studied. The straw contains 7 per cent. of flesh-formers. + +_The Yellow Lupine_ is cultivated rather extensively in Germany, +France, and Belgium, partly for feeding purposes, partly to furnish a +green manure. Its seeds constitute a nutritious article of food for man, +and its stems and leaves are given to cattle. An attempt was made a few +years ago to introduce its cultivation, as a field crop, into England, +and very satisfactory results attended the first trials made with it. +Mr. Kimber, who has cultivated this crop, states that it is likely to +prove valuable on light sandy soils, where the ordinary green fodder +crops are not easily cultivated. The produce per acre obtained in +Mr. Kimber's trial was about nineteen tons. Cattle and sheep relish +the Yellow Lupine, but according to Mr. Kimber, pigs reject it. +Professor Voelcker examined this plant, and found that it resembled in +composition the ordinary artificial grasses, except in one respect, +namely, a remarkable deficiency in sugar. Altogether, it is not so rich +in nutriment as any of the commonly cultivated leguminous plants; but +as it can be cultivated on a very poor soil, and gives a good return, +it is probable that the Yellow Lupine will yet become a common crop in +Britain. The following table exhibits the results of Dr. Voelcker's +analysis. + + COMPOSITION OF YELLOW LUPINES (CUT DOWN IN A GREEN STATE). + + In natural state. Dried at 212°F. + + Water 89·20 + Oil ·37 3·42 + [*] Soluble albuminous compounds 1·37 12·68 + Soluble mineral (saline) substances ·61 5·64 + [+] Insoluble albuminous compounds 1·01 9·35 + Sugar, gum, bitter extractive matter, + and digestible fibre 3·96 36·68 + Indigestible woody fibre (cellulose) 3·29 30·48 + Insoluble mineral matters ·19 1·75 + ------ ------ + 100·00 100·00 + [* Containing nitrogen ·22 2·03] + [+ Containing nitrogen ·16 1·48] + + +_Rib grass plantain_ (_Plantago lanceolata_) is one of those plants, the +value of which for forage purposes is questionable. Many persons believe +it to be a useful food. Its composition, which looks favorable, is as +follows:-- + + Water 84·78 + Albuminous matters 2·18 + Fatty matters 0·56 + Starch, gum, &c. 6·08 + Woody fibre 5·10 + Mineral matter 1·30 + +The grasses, natural and artificial, are occasionally affected by a +formidable and well-known fungus, the _ergot_. Italian rye-grass is the +most liable to the ravages of this pest, and there are on record several +cases in which ergotted rye-grass proved fatal to the animal fed upon +it. Clover and the various leguminous plants appear more liable to the +ergot disease than the natural grasses (except rye-grass), but I have +on several occasions noticed this fungus on the spikelets of _Hordeum +pratense_, _Festuca pratense_, and _Bromus erectus_. It has also been +noticed that rye-grass rapidly developed under the influence of liquid +manure is so rank that young animals fed upon it are poisonously +affected. Alderman Mechi states that in July, 1864, ten out of his +thirty Shorthorn calves died in consequence of eating the heads of +Italian rye-grass, and that the survivors' health was seriously injured. +He was also unfortunate with his lambs, which, during the same month, +were folded on Italian rye-grass. "Four days ago," writes the Alderman, +"it was sewaged, having been prior to the former growth also guanoed. +In four days it had grown from four to five inches, was of an intense +green, and pronounced to be, by sharp practical men, just the food for +lambs. Well, we put on our lambs, taking care to do so in the evenings +after they had been well fed. My bailiff accompanied them, and, within +five minutes, turning accidentally round, he saw two of the lambs with +their heads in the air staggering (stomach staggers it is called) and +frothing at the mouth. He immediately saw the mischief, removed the +lambs, and on their way back to a bare fold some of them vomited the +Italian rye-grass that they had just eaten, accompanied by frothy slime; +others brought it up during the night. Some of them trembled, gaped, +and showed all the same symptoms that my calves had done, such as rapid +pulse, &c. Two or three of them are rather queer to-day. I hope that +Professor Simmonds or some capable person will tell us how this is? If +we mow this grass, bring it home, and cut it into chaff, all which tends +to heat or dry it, it becomes wholesome food. The same remarks apply in +degree to very succulent tares. If the Italian grass is brought home and +given long and quite fresh to the calves, it will kill them. It does not +appear to injure old ewes as it does lambs or shearlings. The dry +weather has something to do with it. In wet weather the evil is much +diminished, or disappears." + +It is probable that the juice of this poisonous herbage was extremely +rich in matters only semi-organised, and perhaps abounded in the crude +substances from which the vegetable tissues are elaborated. Such +rank grass as this was should not be used until it has attained to a +tolerably developed state: in mature plants the juices contain more +highly organised matters than are found in young vegetables. + +The _Sorghuo_, _or Holcus Saccharatus_.--This plant, introduced to +the notice of the British farmer but a few years ago, is only grown +in these countries in small quantities. It is very rich in sugar, and +cattle relish it greatly. Its composition, according to Dr. Voelcker, +is as follows:-- + + Water 81·80 + Albuminous matters 1·53 + Insoluble ditto 0·66 + Sugar 5·85 + Wax and fatty matter 2·55 + Mucilage, pectin, and digestible matters 2·59 + Indigestible woody fibre 4·03 + Mineral matter 0·99 + ------ + 100·00 + +The plants referred to in the above analysis were cut in September. +It is found that the composition of the plant is very different at +different seasons. + +_Green Rye_ is employed as a forage crop, for which purpose it is well +adapted. It is about equal in nutritive power to clover. According to +Dr. Voelcker its composition is as follows:-- + + Water 75·423 + Flesh-formers 2·705 + Fatty matter 0·892 + Gum, pectin, sugar, &c. 9·134 + Woody-fibre 10·488 + Mineral matter 1·358 + ------- + 100·000 + +_Buckwheat_ is occasionally cut in a green state and used as food for +stock. Its composition, according to Einhof and Crome, is as follows:-- + + Water 82·5 + Nitrogenous compounds 0·2 + Extractive matters 2·6 + Starch, &c. 4·7 + Cellulose 10·0 + ----- + 100·0 + +Rape is one of our most valuable plants for stock feeding. Two varieties +are cultivated in these countries--the summer rape (_Brassica Campestris +oleifera_) and winter rape (_Brassica rapus_). The great utility of +rape arises from the circumstance of its being generally obtained as a +_stolen_ crop; for otherwise it is not quite equal to other plants that +might be substituted for it--cabbages, &c. This plant is very rich in +oily matters, and has been found well adapted both for the feeding of +cattle and the fattening of sheep. Its composition, according to +Voelcker, is shown in this table:-- + + COMPOSITION OF GREEN RAPE. + + Water 87·050 + Flesh-formers 3·133 + Fatty matters 0·649 + Other respiratory substances 4·000 + Woody fibre 3·560 + Mineral matter (ash) 1·608 + ------- + 100·000 + +With respect to the value of rape for the feeding of stock in spring, +Mr. Rham makes the following remarks:-- + + If the crop is very forward it may be slightly fed off, but in + general it is best to let it remain untouched till spring. In the + end of March and the beginning of April it will be a great help + to the ewes and lambs. It will produce excellent food till it + begins to be in flower, when it should immediately be ploughed up. + The ground will be found greatly recruited by this crop, which has + taken nothing from it, and has added much by the dung and urine of + the sheep. Whatever be the succeeding crop, it cannot fail to be + productive; and if the land is not clean, the farmer must have + neglected the double opportunity of destroying weeds in the + preceding summer, and in the early part of spring. If the rape is + fed off in time, it may be succeeded by barley or oats, with clover + or grass seeds, or potatoes, if the soil is not too wet. Thus no + crop will be lost, and the rape will have been a clear addition to + the produce of the land. Any crop which is taken off the land in a + green state, especially if it be fed off with sheep, may be repeated + without risk of failure, provided the land be properly tilled; but + where cole or rape have produced seed, they cannot be profitably + sown in less than five or six years after on the same land. The + cultivation of rape or cole for spring food cannot be too strongly + recommended to the farmers of heavy clay soils. + + +_The Mustard Plant_ is occasionally used as food for sheep, for which +purpose its composition shows it to be well adapted. Voelcker's analysis +proves it to be very rich, relatively, in muscle-forming elements and in +mineral matters; it might, therefore be with advantage combined with +food relatively deficient in these principles. + + COMPOSITION OF FRESH MUSTARD. + + Water 86·30 + Albuminous matters 2·87 + Non-nitrogenous matters (gum, sugar, oil, &c.) 4·40 + Woody fibre 4·39 + Ash 2·04 + ------ + 100·00 + +_The Prickly Comfrey_ has been recommended as a good forage plant. +It yields an abundant crop--or rather crops, for it may be cut several +times in the year. The plant is a handsome one, and it might combine the +useful with the ornamental if it were cultivated on demesne or villa +farms. Dr. Voelcker states its composition to be as follows:-- + + Water 88·400 + Flesh-forming substances 2·712 + Heat and fat-producing matters 6·898 + Ash 1·990 + ------- + 100·000 + +_Chicory_ is used as a forage crop on the Continent, and Professor John +Wilson surmises that it may yet be generally cultivated for this purpose +in Great Britain. At present it is rarely grown except for the sake of +its roots, which are used as partial substitutes for, or adulterants of, +coffee. + + COMPOSITION OF CHICORY, ACCORDING TO ANDERSON. + + Fresh roots. Fresh leaves. + + Water 80·58 90·94 + Nitrogenous matters 1·72 1·01 + Non-nitrogenous substances 16·39 6·63 + Ash 1·31 1·42 + ------ ------ + 100·00 100·00 + +_Yarrow_ (_Achillæa millefolium_) is usually regarded as a weed, but +sheep are very fond of it, and when they can get it, never fail to eat +it greedily. It possesses astringent properties. Some writers have +recommended it as a good crop for warrens and sands. Its composition, +according to Way, is as follows:-- + + DRIED YARROW. + + Albuminous matter 10·34 + Fatty matters 2·51 + Starch, gum, &c. 45·46 + Woody fibre 32·69 + Mineral matter 9·00 + ------ + 100·00 + +_Melons_ and _Marrows_ have been used, but to a very limited extent, as +food for stock. Mr. Blundell advocates their use in seasons of drought. +He states that he has obtained more than forty tons per acre of both +melons and marrows. They are relished by horses, oxen, sheep, and pigs. +Mr. Blundell's advocacy has not been attended with much success, but it +would be desirable to give these vegetables a further trial. + +Dr. Voelcker's analysis of the cattle melon shows that it contains:-- + + Water 92·98 + Albuminous matters 1·53 + Oil ·73 + Sugar, gum, &c. 2·51 + Fibre 1·65 + Ash ·60 + ------ + 100·00 + +_The Cabbage._--The composition of the Drumhead Cabbage has been studied +by Dr. Anderson. He found a larger proportion of nutriment in the outer +leaves than in the "heart," and ascertained that the young plants were +richer in nutriment than those more advanced in age. His results show +the desirability of cultivating the open-leaved, rather than the compact +varieties of this plant. + + ANALYSIS OF THE CABBAGE.--BY DR. ANDERSON. + + Outer leaves. Heart leaves. + + Water 91·08 94·48 + Compounds containing nitrogen 1·63 0·94 + Compounds destitute of nitrogen, + such as gum, sugar, fibre, &c. 5·06 4·08 + Ash (mineral matter) 2·23 0·50 + ------ ------ + 100·00 100·00 + +According to Fromberg, the composition of the whole plant is as +follows:-- + + Water 93·40 + Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming compounds 1·75 + Non-nitrogenous substances such as gum, sugar, &c. 4·05 + Mineral matter 0·80 + ------ + 100·00 + +Dr. Voelcker, who has more recently analysed the cattle cabbage, +furnishes us with the following details of its composition:-- + + COMPOSITION OF CABBAGE LEAVES (OUTSIDE GREEN LEAVES). + + Water 83·72 + Dry matter 16·28 + ------ + 100·00 + +The fresh and the dry matter consisted of:-- + + Fresh Dry matter. + Matter. Per cent. + + [*] Protein compounds 1·65 10·19 + Non-nitrogenous matter 13·38 82·10 + Mineral matter 1·25 7·71 + ----- ------ + 16·28 100·00 + [* Containing nitrogen ·26 1·63] + +In the following table the results of a more elaborate analysis of the +_heart_ and inner leaves are shown:-- + + COMPOSITION OF HEART AND INNER LEAVES. + + In natural state. Dry. + + Water 89·42 + Oil ·08 ·75 + [*] Soluble protein compounds 1·19 11·24 + Sugar, digestible fibres, &c. 7·01 66·25 + Soluble mineral matter ·73 6·89 + [+] Insoluble protein compounds ·31 2·93 + Woody fibre 1·14 10·77 + Insoluble mineral matter ·12 1·17 + ------ ------ + 100·00 100·00 + [* Containing nitrogen ·19 1·79] + [+ Containing nitrogen ·05 ·47] + +If I were asked what plant I considered the most valuable for forage, +I certainly should pronounce an opinion in favor of cabbage. This crop +yields a much greater return than that afforded by the Swedish turnip, +and it is richer in nutritive matter. Cabbages are greedily eaten by +sheep and cattle, and the butter of cows fed upon them is quite free +from the disagreeable flavor which it so often possesses when the food +of the animal is chiefly composed of turnips. If the cabbage admitted of +storing, no more valuable crop could be cultivated as food for stock. + +Mr. John M'Laren, of Inchture, Scotland, gives in the "Transactions of +the Highland Agricultural Society of Scotland for 1857," a report on the +feeding value of cabbage, which is highly favorable to that plant:-- + + On the 1st December, 1855 (says the reporter), two lots of + Leicester wethers, bred on the farm, and previously fed alike, + each lot containing ten sheep, were selected for the trial by + competent judges, and weighed. Both lots were put into a field + of well-sheltered old lea, having a division between them. All + the food was cut and given them in troughs, three times a day. + They had also a constant supply of hay in racks. + + At the end of the trial, on the 1st of March, 1856, the sheep + were all re-weighed, sent to the Edinburgh market, and sold same + day, but in their separate lots. As I had no opportunity of + getting the dead weights, I requested Mr. Swan, the salesman, to + give his opinion on their respective qualities. This was to the + effect that no difference existed in their market value, but that + the sheep fed on turnips would turn out the best quality of mutton, + with most profit for the butcher. Both lots were sold at the same + price, viz., 52s. 6d. During the three months of trial, we found + that each lot consumed about the same weight of food--viz., 8 tons + 13 cwt. 47 lb. of cabbage, being at the rate of 21-1/3 lbs. per day + for each sheep, and 8 tons 10 cwt. 7 lb. Swedes, being at the rate + of 20-9/10 lb. per day. + + It will be seen, by referring to the table (see next page), that in + this trial the Swede has proved of higher value for feeding purposes + than the cabbage, making 11 st. 4 lb. of gain in weight, whilst the + cabbage made 10 st. 9 lb. At the same time, 3 cwt. 40 lb. less food + were consumed; and taking the mutton gained at 6d. per lb., the + Swedes consumed become worth 9s. 3-1/4d. per ton, while the gain on + the cabbage, at the same rate, makes them worth 8s. 7d. per ton. + But from the great additional weight of the one crop grown over the + other, the balance, at the prices, c., mentioned, is in favor of the + cabbage by £1 15s. 11-3/4d. per acre. + + +These results certainly speak strongly in favor of the cabbage; but the +weight of the acreable crop of cabbages stated in the table appears to +be unusually great. So heavy a crop is rarely obtained. + +_Furze_ (_Gorse, or Whins_).--Notwithstanding the natural historical +knowledge of Goldsmith, his poetical description of the furze is far +from accurate. This plant, instead of being "unprofitably gay," deserves +to rank amongst the most valuable vegetables cultivated for the use of +the domestic animals. It grows and flourishes under conditions which +most injuriously affect almost every other kind of fodder and green +crop. Prolonged drought in spring and early summer not unfrequently +renders the hay crop a scanty one; while autumn and winter frosts change +the nutriment of the mangels and turnips into decaying and unwholesome +matter. Under such circumstances as these, the maintenance of cattle in +good condition is very expensive, unless in places where a supply of +furze is available. This plant is rather improved than otherwise by +exposure to a temperature which would speedily destroy a mangel or a +turnip; and, although it thrives best when abundantly supplied with +rain, it can survive an exceedingly prolonged drought without sustaining +much injury. + + TABLE + + SHOWING THE DIFFERENCE OF WEIGHT GROWN ON AN ACRE OF CABBAGE AND AN + ACRE OF SWEDES, AND THE VALUE OF EACH FOR FEEDING. + + +-----+-------+---------+---------+--------+--------+--------------+--------+ + | No. | | Weight | Weight | |Value of| Total Weight | | + | Of | | of | of | | Gain | of Food | Value | + |Sheep| Kinds | Ten | Ten | | taking | consumed | of Food| + | In | of | Sheep, | Sheep, | Gain. | Mutton | in |consumed| + |Each | Food. |1st Dec.,|1st Mar.,| | at 6d. | Three Months | per | + |Lot. | | 1855. | 1856. | |per lb. | by each lot. | Ton. | + +-----+-------+---------+---------+--------+--------+--------------+--------+ + | | | st. lb. | st. lb. | st. lb.| £ s. d.|tons. cwt. lb.|s. d. | + | 10 |Cabbage| 90 10 | 101 5 | 10 9 | 3 14 6 | 8 13 47 |8 7 | + | | | | | | | | | + | 10 |Swedes | 89 3 | 100 7 | 11 4 | 3 19 0 | 8 10 7 |9 3-1/4| + +-----+-------+---------+---------+--------+--------+--------------+--------+ + + +-----+-------+----------+------------+----------+-------------+------------+ + | No. | | Total | | | | | + | Of | | Weight | Value | Extra | Free | Balance | + |Sheep| Kinds | per | of each | Cost on | Value | in favor | + | In | of | Acre | Crop | each Crop| of each | of | + |Each | Food. | of each | per Acre. | per Acre.| Crop | Cabbage | + |Lot. | | Crop. | | | per Acre. | per Acre. | + +-----+-------+----------+------------+----------+-------------+------------+ + | | |tons. cwt.| £ s. d. | £ s. d.| £ s. d. | £ s. d. | + | 10 |Cabbage| 42 14 | 18 6 6 | 4 10 11 | 13 15 7 | | + | | | | | | | 1 15 11-3/4| + | 10 |Swedes | 26 12 | 12 6 7-1/4| 0 7 0 | 11 19 7-1/4 | | + +-----+-------+----------+------------+----------+-------------+------------+ + +The furze is a member of the family _Leguminosæ_, which includes so many +useful plants, such as, for example, the pea, the bean, and the clovers. +There are three varieties of it met with in this country--namely, the +common furze, _Ulex europæus_, the dwarf furze, _Ulex nanus_, and the +Irish, or upright furze, _Ulex strictus_. + +The common furze is a hardy shrub, and grows luxuriantly at an elevation +far higher than the limits of cereal cultivation. It flourishes on any +kind of soil which is moderately dry, and heavy crops may easily be +raised on uplands almost incapable of producing grass. The dwarf furze +is never cultivated, but as it grows at a still greater elevation, and +on a poorer soil than the larger varieties, it might be profitably +cultivated on very high uplands. The Irish furze yields a softer and +less prickly food than the other kinds, but as it does not usually bear +seed, and must therefore be propagated by cuttings, its cultivation has +hitherto been limited to but a few localities. + +The produce of an acre of furze appears to be at least equal to that +of an acre of good meadow. The Rev. Mr. Townsend of Aghada, county of +Cork--the most zealous and successful advocate for the cultivation of +this plant--informed me that he had obtained so much as 14 tons per +acre; a fact which proves that the furze is a plant which is well +deserving of the attention of the farmer. + +Furze is an excellent food for every kind of stock. Cattle, although +they may at first appear not to relish its prickly shoots, soon acquire +a fondness for it. I have known several instances of herds being fed +almost if not entirely on the bruised plant, and to keep in good +condition. The late Professor Murphy, of Cork, stated that on the farm +of Mr. Boulger, near Mallow, thirty-five cows were fed on crushed furze, +which they "devoured voraciously." Each animal received daily from four +to six stones of the crushed plant, to which were added a little turnip +pulp and a small quantity of oats. The milk and butter yielded by these +cows were considered excellent. In a letter addressed to me by a very +intelligent feeder, Mr. John Walsh,[28] of Stedalt, county of Dublin, +the following remarks in relation to this subject are made:-- + + I had lately an opportunity of seeing a herd of cattle of about + sixty head, of which twenty had been fed with furze prepared with + my machine for about six weeks before being put out to grass. The + condition of these was so superior that I pointed out every one of + them, one after the other, out of the herd. The owner of the cattle + had made the same observation; it was new to him but not to me. + + +Furze is seldom given to sheep or pigs, but I believe that it might with +advantage enter into the dietary of those animals. Some of my friends +who have lately tried it with pigs report favorably as to its effects. +Horses partly fed upon this plant keep in good condition; it is usually +given to them cut merely into lengths of half an inch or an inch, but it +would be better to give it to them finely bruised. A horse during the +night will eat a much larger quantity of coarsely cut furze than of the +well bruised article, because he is obliged to expend a great deal of +muscular power in bruising the furze, and must, consequently, use an +additional quantity of the food to make up for the corresponding waste +of tissue. + +Until quite recently, the chemistry of the furze was very little +studied. The analysis of this plant made many years ago by Sprengel +gave results which, in the present advanced condition of agricultural +chemistry, are quite valueless. The late Professor Johnston merely +determined its amount of water, organic matter, and ash. I believe I was +the first to make a complete investigation into the composition of this +plant according to the methods of modern chemical analysis. I made two +examinations. The first was of shoots cut on the 25th April, 1860, on +the lands of Mr. Walsh of Stedalt, near Balbriggan, in the county of +Dublin. The shoots were, in great part, composed of that year's growth, +with a small proportion of the shoots of the previous year. They were +very moist, and their spines, or thorns, were rather soft. Their +centesimal composition was as follows:-- + + Water 78·05 + Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles 2·18 + Fat-forming principles (oil, starch, sugar, gum, &c.) 8·20 + Woody fibre 10·17 + Mineral matter (ash) 1·40 + ------ + 100·00 + +The second analysis was made of furze cut on the 15th August, 1862. +The following were the results obtained:-- + + Water 72·00 + Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles 3·21 + Oil 1·18 + Other fat-forming principles (starch, gum, &c.) 8·20 + Woody fibre 13·33 + Mineral matter 2·08 + ------ + 100·00 + +The specimen was allowed to lie for a few days in a dry room, so that +it lost a little water whilst in my possession, before it was subjected +to analysis. + +The sample cut in August contained a larger amount of nutriment than +the specimen analysed in the spring; but its constituents appeared to +be much less soluble in water, and therefore, less digestible. + +Professor Blyth, of the Queen's College, Cork, has more recently made +a very elaborate analysis of furze, grown in the county of Cork, which +gave results still more favorable to the plant than those arrived at +by me--probably because the specimens furnished to him were drier than +mine. + + ANALYSIS OF FRESH FURZE, BY DR. BLYTH. + + 100 parts contain:-- + + _Matters readily soluble in water and easily digested._ + + [*] Albuminous, or flesh-forming compounds 1·68 + Fat and heat-producing, or respiratory elements, + viz., sugar, gum, &c. &c. 7·83 + Ash 0·83 + ----- + Total matters soluble in water 10·34 + [* Containing nitrogen 0·265] + + _Matters insoluble in water._ + + Oil 2·14 + [+] Albuminous, or flesh-producing compounds 2·83 + Fat and heat-producing, or respiratory elements 1·00 + Woody fibre 28·80 + Ash 3·23 + ----- + Total matters insoluble in water 38·00 + Water, expelled at 212 51·50 + ----- + 99·48 + Total nitrogen in plant 0·71 + Total albuminous, or flesh-producing compounds 4·51 + Total respiratory, or heat and fat-producing compounds 8·83 + Total ash 4·06 + The ash contains in 100 parts:-- + Potash 20·00 + Phosphoric acid 8·72 + [+ Containing nitrogen 0·445] + +If the large per-centage of water be deducted, the dry, nutritive +matters can then be more readily compared with the amount of the same +substances in other feeding articles:-- + + _Composition of 100 parts of furze dried at 212°. Matters soluble in + water in the dry furze._ + + [*] Albuminous compounds 3·47 + Respiratory elements 16·15 + Ash 1·71 + ------ + Total matters soluble in water 21·33 + [* Containing nitrogen 0·546] + + + _Matters insoluble in water in the dry furze._ + + Oil 4·41 + [+] Albuminous compounds 5·84 + Respiratory elements 2·06 + Woody fibre 59·38 + Ash 6·66 + ------ + Total matters insoluble in water 78·35 + ----- + 99·68 + + Total nitrogen in dry furze 1·46 + Total albuminous compounds 9·13 + Total respiratory elements 18·20 + Total ash 8·36 + [+ Containing nitrogen 0·917] + + _Composition of ash per cent._ + + Potash 20·00 + Phosphoric Acid. 8·72 + +The results of these analyses show that dry furze contains an amount +of nutriment equal to that found in dry grass. The nature of its +composition resembles, as might be expected, that of its allied plants, +vetches, &c., and therefore it exceeds the grasses in its amount of +ready formed fatty matter. + + +SECTION IV. + +STRAW AND HAY. + +_Straw._--At the present time, when the attention of the farmer is +becoming more and more devoted to the production of meat, it is very +desirable that his knowledge of the exact nutritive value of the various +feeding substances should be more extensive than it is. No doubt, most +feeders are practically acquainted with the relative value of corn and +oil-cake--of Swedish turnips and white turnips; but their knowledge of +the food equivalents of many other substances is still very defective. +For example, every farmer is not aware that Indian corn is a more +economical food than beans for fattening cattle, and less so for beasts +of burthen. Locust-beans, oat-dust, malt-combings, and many other +articles, occasionally consumed by stock, have not, as yet, determinate +places assigned to them in the feeder's scale of food equivalents. + +The points involved in the economic feeding of stock are not quite +so simple as some farmers, more especially those of the amateur +class, appear to believe. There are many feeders who sell their +half-finished cattle at a profit, and yet they cannot, without loss, +convert their stock into those obese monsters which are so much +admired at agricultural shows. The complete fattening of cattle is +a losing business with some feeders, and a profitable one with others. +Stall-feeding is a branch of rural economy which, perhaps more than any +other, requires the combination of "science with practice;" yet how few +feeders are there who have the slightest knowledge of the composition of +food substances, or who are agreed as to the feeding value, absolute or +relative, of even such well-known materials as oil-cake, straw, or oats! +"It is thus seen how inexact are the equivalents which are understood to +be established for the different foods used for the maintenance of the +animals. It is equally plain, when we reflect on the different methods +pursued for the preservation of the animals, that we are still far +from having attained that perfection towards which our efforts tend. +Visit one hundred farms, taken by chance in different parts of the +country, and you will find in each, methods directly opposite--a totally +peculiar manner of managing the stalls; you will see, in short, that the +conditions of food, of treatment, and of hygiene, remain not understood +in seven-eighths of rural farms."[29] + +The straws of the cereal and leguminous plants are a striking +illustration of the erroneous opinions and practices which prevail +amongst agriculturists with respect to particular branches of their +calling. The German farmers regard straw as the most valuable +constituent of home-made fertilisers, and their leases in general +prohibit their selling off the straw produced on their farms. Yet +chemical analysis has clearly proved that the manurial value of straw is +perfectly insignificant, and that, as a constituent of stable manure, it +is chiefly useful as an absorbent of the liquid egesta of the animals +littered upon it. As food for stock, straw was at one time regarded by +our farmers as almost perfectly innutritious; some even went so far as +to declare that it possessed no nutriment whatever, and even those who +used it, did so more with the view of correcting the too watery nature +of turnips, than with the expectation of its being assimilated to the +animal body. Within the last few years, however, straw has been largely +employed by several of the most intelligent and successful feeders in +England, who report so favorably upon it as an economical feeding stuff, +that it has risen considerably in the estimation of a large section +of the agricultural public. Now, even without adopting the very high +opinion which Mechi and Horsfall entertain relative to the nutritive +power of straw, I am altogether disposed to disagree with those who +affirm that its application should be restricted to manurial purposes. +Unless under circumstances where there is an urgent demand for straw as +litter, that article should be used as food for stock, for which purpose +it will be found, if of good quality, and given in a proper state, a +most economical kind of dry fodder--equal, if not superior to hay, when +the prices of both articles are considered. + +The composition of straw is very different from that of grain. +The former contains no starch, but it includes an exceedingly high +proportion of woody fibre; the latter is in great part composed of +starch, and contains but an insignificant amount of woody fibre. Dr. +Voelcker, the consulting chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society of +England, and Dr. Anderson, chemist to the Highland and Agricultural +Society of Scotland, have made a large number of analyses of the straws +of the cereal and leguminous plants, the results of which are of the +highest interest to the agriculturist. In the following tables the more +important results of these investigations are given:-- + + ANALYSES OF STRAW, BY DR. VOELCKER. + + +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + | | | | | | | + | | No. 1. | No. 2. | No. 3. | No. 4. | No. 5. | + | | | | | | | + | | Wheat, | Wheat, | Barley,| Barley,| Oat, | + | |just ripe | over | dead |not too | cut | + | | and well | ripe. | ripe. | ripe. | green. | + | |harvested.| | | | | + +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + | Water | 13·33 | 9·17 | 15·20 | 17·50 | 16·00 | + | Albumen, and other | | | | | | + | protein compounds:-- | | | | | | + | _a_. Soluble in water | 1·28 | 0·06 | 0·68 | \ | 5·51 | + | | | | | }5·73 | | + | _b_. Insoluble in water| 1·65 | 2·06 | 3·75 | / | 2·98 | + | | | | | | | + | Oil | 1·74 | 0·65 | 1·36 | 1·17 | 1·57 | + | Sugar, mucilage, | | | | | | + | extractive matters, | | | | | | + | &c. (soluble in water) | 4·26 | 3·46 | 2·24 |\ | 16·04 | + | Digestible woody | | | | \ | | + | fibre and cellulose | 19·40 |\ | 5·97 | }71·44| 26·34 | + | Indigestible | | }82·26 | | / | | + | fibre &c. | 54·13 |/ | 66·54 |/ | 24·86 | + | Inorganic matter:-- | | | | | | + | _a._ Soluble | 1·13 | 1·29 | 2·88 | \ | 5·76 | + | | | | | }4·52 | | + | _b._ Insoluble | 3·08 | 1·05 | 0·38 | / | 0·94 | + | +----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + | | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | + +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + + +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + | | | | | | | + | | No. 6. | No. 7. | No. 8. | No. 9. | No. 10.| + | | | | | | | + | | Oat, cut | Oat, | Bean. | Pea. | Flax | + | | when | over | | | Chaff. | + | | fairly | ripe. | | | | + | | ripe. | | | | | + +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + | Water | 16·00 | 16·00 | 19·40 | 16·02 | 14·60 | + | Albumen, and other | | | | | | + | protein compounds:-- | | | | | | + | _a_. Soluble in water | 2·62 | 1·29 | 1·51 | 3·96 | \ | + | | | | | | }4·75 | + | _b_. Insoluble in water| 1·46 | 2·36 | 1·85 | 5·90 | / | + | | | | | | | + | Oil | 1·05 | 1·25 | 1·02 | 2·34 | 2·82 | + | Sugar, mucilage, | | | | | | + | extractive matters, | | | | | | + | &c. (soluble in water) | 10·57 | 3·19 | 4·18 | 8·32 | 8·72 | + | Digestible woody | | | | | | + | fibre and cellulose | 30·17 | 27·75 | 2·75 | 17·74 | 18·56 | + | Indigestible | | | | | | + | fibre &c. | 31·78 | 41·82 | 65·58 | 42·79 | 43·12 | + | Inorganic matter:-- | | | | | | + | _a._ Soluble | 3·64 | 2·26 | 2·31 | 2·72 | 4·07 | + | | | | | | | + | _b._ Insoluble | 2·71 | 4·08 | 1·40 | 2·21 | 3·36 | + | +----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + | | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | + +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + + [.·.] This table contains in a condensed form all the results of + Voelcker's analyses of the straws which are given in his paper published + in the _Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England_, vol. xxii., + part 2. 1862. + + Nos. 5, 6, and 7 were analysed shortly after being cut, when they + contained a high proportion of water. They have, therefore, been + calculated to contain 16 per cent. of moisture so as to arrive at + accurate relative results. + + + ANALYSES OF STRAW, BY DR. ANDERSON. + + +----------------+-----------------+---------+-----------------+--------+ + | | | | | | + | | | Wheat | | Barley | + | | Wheat from | from | Barley from | from | + | | East Lothian. | Kent. | East Lothian. | Kent. | + | | | | | | + | | | | | | + | +--------+--------+---------+--------+--------+--------+ + |Water | 10·62 | 10·93 | 11·15 | 11·44 | 11·15 | 11·10 | + |Flesh-formers-- | | | | | | | + | Soluble | 0·86 | 0·37 | 1·37 | 1·42 | 0·39 | 0·66 | + | Insoluble | 0·51 | 1·12 | 1·00 | 1·54 | 1·12 | 1·98 | + |Oil | 0·80 | 1·00 | 1·50 | 0·97 | 0·88 | 1·05 | + | | | | | | | | + |Respiratory | | | | | | | + | elements-- | | | | | | | + | Soluble | 2·68 | 6·68 | 5·26 | 3·22 | 6·11 | 4·56 | + | Insoluble | 44·88 | 36·43 | 38·79 | 35·56 | 38·38 | 27·95 | + |Woody fibre | 32·88 | 34·78 | 35·01 | 41·34 | 36·62 | 47·53 | + |Ash | 6·20 | 8·04 | 6·32 | 4·21 | 5·62 | 4·85 | + | +--------+--------+---------+--------+--------+--------+ + | | 99·43 | 99·35 | 100·40 | 99·70 | 100·27 | 99·68 | + +----------------+--------+--------+---------+--------+--------+--------+ + + +----------------+---------------+--------+----------+---------+--------+ + | | | Oat | Oat from | | Oat | + | | Sandy Oat | from | 850 feet |Oat from | from | + | | from | Sea | above |Mellhill,| Kent | + | | East Lothian. | level |Sea level,|Inchture,| (White | + | | | East | East |Scotland.| one | + | | |Lothian.| Lothian. | | side.) | + | +-------+-------+--------+----------+---------+--------+ + |Water | 11·70 | 10·95 | 12·60 | 11·28 | 11·70 | 10·55 | + |Flesh-formers-- | | | | | | | + | Soluble | 0·40 | 1·03 | 0·67 | 0·92 | 0·95 | 0·33 | + | Insoluble | 0·93 | 0·43 | 0·38 | 0·39 | 1·21 | 0·33 | + |Oil | 1·45 | 0·77 | 1·25 | 1·36 | 1·60 | 1·00 | + | | | | | | | | + |Respiratory | | | | | | | + | elements-- | | | | | | | + | Soluble | 10·12 | 6·90 | 7·16 | 7·42 | 12·01 | 6·23 | + | Insoluble | 33·52 | 34·77 | 24·28 | 29·55 | 23·35 | 30·95 | + |Woody fibre | 35·36 | 38·73 | 48·49 | 44·40 | 45·27 | 47·40 | + |Ash | 6·36 | 6·28 | 5·11 | 5·07 | 3·95 | 3·62 | + | +-------+-------+--------+----------+---------+--------+ + | | 99·84 | 99·86 | 99·94 | 100·39 | 100·14 | 100·41 | + +----------------+-------+-------+--------+----------+---------+--------+ + + [.·.] This table is compiled from Dr. Anderson's paper in the + Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland + for March, 1862. + + +Many very important conclusions are deducible from the facts recorded +in these valuable tables. We learn from them that straw is more +nutritious when it is cut in the ripe state than when it is permitted +to over-ripen, and that _green_ straw contains a far greater amount of +nutriment than is found even in the ripe article. It appears also that +the least nutritious kind of straw equals the best variety of turnips in +its amount of flesh-forming principles, and greatly exceeds them in its +proportion of fat-forming elements. We further learn that in general the +different kinds of straw will be found to stand in the following order, +the most nutritious occupying the highest, and the least nutritious the +lowest place:-- + + 1. Pea-haulm. + 2. Oat-straw. + 3. Bean-straw with the pods. + 4. Barley-straw. + 5. Wheat-straw. + 6. Bean-stalks without the pods. + +It is a matter to be regretted that we possess so little accurate +knowledge of the chemical composition of the plants cultivated in +Ireland. No doubt the analyses of English grown wheat, beans, mangels, +and other plants, serve to give us a general idea of the nature of those +vegetables when produced in this country. But this kind of information, +though very important, must necessarily be defective, as differences +in climate modify--often to a considerable extent--the composition of +almost every vegetable. Thus, the results of Anderson's analyses prove +Scotch oats to be superior, as a feeding stuff, to Scotch barley, +whilst, according to Voelcker and the experience of most English +feeders, the barley of parts of England is superior to its oats. It +follows, then, that whilst the results of the analyses of straw, made by +Voelcker and Anderson are of great interest to the Irish farmer, they +would be still more important to him had the straw to which they relate +been the produce of Irish soil. In order, therefore, to enable the Irish +farmer to form a correct estimate of the value of his straw, we should +put him in possession of a more perfect knowledge of its composition +than that which is derivable from the investigations to which I have +referred. The straws of the cereals--which alone are used here to any +extent--should be analysed as carefully and as frequently as those of +Great Britain have been; and if such were done, I have no doubt but that +the results would indicate a decided difference in composition between +the produce of the two countries. Some time ago I entered upon what, at +the time, I had intended should be a complete investigation into the +composition of Irish straws; but which want of time prevented me from +making more than a partial one. The results are given in the following +tables:-- + + ANALYSES OF IRISH OAT-STRAW. + + --------------------------------+--------+------------------------------ + | No. 1. |Obtained in the Dublin Market. + |From Co.+---------+---------+---------- + |Wicklow.| No. 2. | No. 3. | No. 4. + --------------------------------+--------+---------+---------+---------- + Water | 14·00 | 14·00 | 14·00 | 14·00 + Flesh-forming principles-- | | | | + _a._ Soluble in water | 4·08 | 2·02 | 2·04 | 1·46 + _b._ Insoluble in water | 2·09 | 3·16 | 3·00 | 2·23 + Oil | 1·84 | 1·40 | 1·26 | 1·00 + Sugar, gum, and other | | | | + fat-forming matters | 13·79 | 12·67 | 10·18 | 11·16 + Woody fibre | 59·96 | 61·79 | 65·45 | 65·29 + Mineral matter | 4·24 | 4·96 | 4·07 | 4·86 + +--------+---------+---------+---------- + | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 + --------------------------------+--------+---------+---------+---------- + +All the specimens of oats, the analyses of which are given in the +preceding table, are assumed to contain 14 per cent. of water, in order +the more correctly to compare their nutritive value. No. 1 contained +18·23 per cent. of water; No. 2, 12·90; No. 3, 12·74; and No. 4, 12·08. +Oat straw, before its removal from the field, often contains nearly half +its weight of water; but after being for some time stacked, the +proportion of moisture rarely exceeds 14 per cent. + + ANALYSES OF IRISH WHEAT-STRAW. + + -----------------------+--------+-------+-------+----------------------- + | No. 1. | No. 2.|No. 3. | + | Green, | | | Obtained in the Dublin + |changing| | | Markets. + | to | | Over | + | yellow.| Ripe. | Ripe. +----------------------- + | County |County |County | | | + |Kildare.|Dublin.|Dublin.| No. 4.| No. 5.| No. 6. + -----------------------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- + Water | 13·00 | 13·15| 12·14| 10·88| 11·22| 12·12 + Flesh-forming | | | | | | + principles-- | | | | | | + _a._ Soluble in | | | | | | + water | 1·25 | 0·98| 0·44| 0·06| 0·42| 0·30 + _b._ Insoluble in | | | | | | + water | 1·26 | 1·40| 1·41| 1·90| 1·00| 1·76 + Oil | 1·22 | 1·13| 1·14| 0·90| 1·17| 1·08 + Sugar, gum, and other | | | | | | + fat-forming matters | 4·18 | 3·98| 3·88| 4·08| 3·89| 4·30 + Woody fibre | 75·84 | 76·17| 77·76| 78·67| 79·18| 77·15 + Mineral matter (ash) | 3·25 | 3·19| 3·23| 3·51| 3·12| 3·29 + +--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- + | 100·00 | 100·00| 100·00| 100·00| 100·00| 100·00 + -----------------------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- + +The results of these analyses are somewhat different from those arrived +at by Voelcker and Anderson. They show that properly harvested Irish +oat and wheat straws are far more valuable than those of Scotland, and +somewhat less nutritive than those produced in England. They also +show that wheat-straw is allowed to over-ripen, by which a very large +proportion of its nutritive principles is eliminated and altogether +lost, and a considerable part of the remainder converted into an +insoluble, and therefore less easily digestible state. Nor is there any +advantage to the grain gained by allowing it to remain uncut after the +upper portion of the stem has changed from a green to a yellowish color; +on the contrary, it also loses a portion--often a very considerable +one--of its nitrogenous, or flesh-forming constituents. It has been +clearly proved that wheat cut when green, yields a greater amount of +grain, and of a better quality too, than when it is allowed to ripen +fully; yet, how often do we not see fields of wheat in this country +allowed to remain unreaped for many days, and even weeks, after the +crop has attained to its full development! + +The oat-straw obtained in the Dublin Market proved less valuable than +the green straw which I selected myself from a field of oats; but the +discrepancy between them was far less than between the nearly ripe +wheat-straw and the straw of that plant purchased in Dublin. During +visits which I have paid in harvest-time to the North of Ireland, I +noticed that the oats were generally cut whilst green, whereas wheat was +almost invariably left standing for at least a week after its perfect +maturation, probably for the following reasons:--Firstly, because +oats are more liable to shed their seed; secondly, because there is +a greater breadth of that crop to be reaped, which necessitates an +early beginning; and, lastly, because most farmers know that over-ripe +oat-straw is worth but little for feeding purposes, as compared with +the greenish-yellow article. + +As compared with white turnips, the nutritive value of oat-straw stands +very high, for whilst the former contains but little more than 1 per +cent. of flesh-formers, and less than 5 per cent. of fat-formers, the +latter includes about 4 per cent. of flesh-formers, and 13 per cent. of +fat-formers. Again, whilst the amount of woody fibre in turnips is only +about 3 per cent., that substance constitutes no less than 60 per cent. +of oat-straw. In comparison with hay--taking into consideration the +prices of both articles--oat-straw also stands high, as will be seen +by comparing the following analyses of common meadow hay with that of +properly harvested straw:-- + + Meadow Hay. Oat Straw. + + Water 14·61 14·00 + Flesh-forming constituents 8·44 6·17 + Respiratory and fatty matters 43·63 15·63 + Woody fibre 27·16 59·96 + Mineral matter (ash) 6·16 4·24 + ------ ------ + 100·00 100·00 + +Woody fibre is as abundant a constituent of the straw of the cereals +as starch is of their seeds, and if the two substances were equally +digestible, straw would be a very valuable food--superior even to the +potato. At one time it was the general belief that woody fibre was +incapable of contributing in the slightest degree to the nutrition of +animals, but the results of recent investigations prove that it is, to a +certain extent, digestible. In the summer of 1859 two German chemists, +Stöckhardt and Sussdorf, made a series of experiments, with the view +of ascertaining whether or not the cellulose[30] of the food of the +sheep is assimilated by that animal. The results of this inquiry are of +importance, seeing that they clearly prove that even the hardest kind of +cellulose--_sclerogen_, in fact--is capable of being assimilated by the +Ruminants. The animals selected were two wethers, aged respectively five +and six years. They were fed--firstly, upon hay alone; secondly, upon +hay and rye-straw; thirdly upon hay and the sawdust of poplar wood, +which had been exhausted with lye (to induce the sheep to eat the +sawdust, it was found necessary to mix through it some rye-bran and a +little salt); fourthly, hay and pine-wood sawdust, to which was added +bran and salt; fifthly, spruce sawdust, bran and salt; sixthly, hay, +pulp of linen rags (from the paper-maker), and bran. The experiments +were carried on from July till November, excepting a short time, during +which the animals were turned out on pasture-land, to recover from the +injurious effects of the fifth series of experiments--produced probably +by the resin of the spruce. The animals, together with their food, +drink, and egesta, were weighed daily. The amount of cellulose in the +food was determined, and the proportion of that substance in the egesta +was also ascertained; and as there was a considerable discrepancy +between the two amounts, it was evident that the difference represented +the weight of the cellulose assimilated by the animals. In this way it +was ascertained that from 60 to 70 per cent. of the cellulose of hay, +40 to 60 per cent. of the cellulose of straw, 45 to 50 per cent. of the +cellulose of the poplar wood, 30 to 40 per cent. of the cellulose of the +pine, and 80 per cent. of the cellulose of the paper pulp was digested. + +In stating the results of his analyses of the straws, Professor Voelcker +sets down as "digestible" that portion of the cellulose which he found +to be soluble in dilute acids and alkaline solutions; but he admits that +the solvents in the stomach might dissolve a larger amount. The results +of the experiments of Stöckhardt and Sussdorf prove that 80 per cent. of +the cellulose of paper (the altered fibre of flax) is assimilable, and +it is, therefore, not unreasonable to infer that the cellulose of a more +palatable substance than paper might be altogether digestible. + +The facts which I have adduced clearly prove that the straws of the +cereals possess a far higher nutritive power than is commonly ascribed +to them; that when properly harvested they contain from 20 to 40 per +cent. of undoubted nutriment; and lastly, that it is highly probable +that their so-called indigestible woody fibre is to a great extent +assimilable. + +The composition of cellulose is nearly, if not quite, identical with +that of starch, and it may therefore be assumed to be equal in nutritive +power to that substance--that is, it will, if assimilated, be converted +into four-tenths of its weight of fat. Now as cellulose forms from +six-tenths to eight-tenths of the weight of straws, it is evident that +if the whole of this substance were digestible, straws would be an +exceedingly valuable fattening food. When straw in an unprepared state +is consumed, there is no doubt but that a large proportion of its +cellulose remains unappropriated--nay more, it is equally certain that +the hard woody fibre protects, by enveloping them, the soluble and +easily digestible constituents of the straw from the action of the +_gastric juice_. I would, therefore, recommend that straw should be +either cooked or fermented before being made use of; in either of these +states its constituents are far more digestible than when the straw +is merely cut, or even when it is in the form of chaff. An excellent +mode of treating straw is to reduce it to chaff, subject it to the +action of steam, and mix it with roots and oil-cake or corn. Mr. +Lawrence, of Cirencester, one of the most intelligent agriculturists +in England, cooks his chaff, which he largely employs, in the following +manner:--"We find that, taking a score of bullocks together fattening, +they consume, per head per diem, 3 bushels of chaff mixed with just half +a hundred-weight of pulped roots, exclusive of cake or corn; that is to +say, rather more than 2 bushels of chaff are mixed with the roots, and +given at two feeds, morning and evening, and the remainder is given +with the cake, &c., at the middle day feed, thus:--We use the steaming +apparatus of Stanley, of Peterborough, consisting of a boiler in the +centre, in which the steam is generated, and which is connected by a +pipe on the left hand with a large galvanised iron receptacle for +steaming food for pigs, and on the right with a large wooden tub lined +with copper, in which the cake, mixed with water, is made into a thick +soup. Adjoining this is a slate tank of sufficient size to contain one +feed for the entire lot of bullocks feeding. Into this tank is laid +chaff, about one foot deep, upon which a few ladles of soup are thrown +in a _boiling state_; this is thoroughly mixed with the chaff with a +three-grained fork, and pressed down firm; and this process is repeated +until the slate tank is full, when it is covered down for an hour or two +before feeding time. The soup is then found entirely absorbed by the +chaff, which has become softened, and prepared for ready digestion." +A cheap plan is to mix the straw with sliced roots, moisten the mass +with water, and allow it to remain until a slight fermentation has set +in. This process effectually softens and disintegrates, so to speak, the +woody fibre, and sets free the stores of nutritious matters which it +envelopes. Some farmers who hold straw in high estimation, prefer giving +it just as it comes from the field; they base this practice on the +belief that Ruminants require a bulky and solid food, and that their +digestive powers are quite sufficient to effect the solution of all the +useful constituents of the straw. It may be quite true that cattle, as +asserted, can extract more nutriment out of straw than horses can, but +that merely proves the greater power of their digestive organs. No doubt +the food of the Ruminants should be bulky; but I am quite sure that +cooked or fermented straw is sufficiently so to satisfy the desire of +those animals for quantity in their food. + +So far as I can learn, all the carefully conducted feeding experiments +to test the value of straw which have been made, have yielded results +highly favorable to that article. Mr. Blundell, in a paper on "The Use +and Abuse of Straw," read before the Botley (Hampshire) Farmer's Club, +states that in his experience he found straw to be more economical than +its equivalent of roots or oil-cake, in the feeding of all kinds of +cattle:-- + + I find (says Mr. Blundell) that dairy cows, in the winter months, + if fed on large quantities of roots, particularly mangels and + carrots, will refuse to eat straw almost entirely, and become + very lean; but they will always eat a full portion of sweet, + well-harvested straw, when they get a small and moderate allowance + of roots, say, for an ordinary-sized cow, 15 lbs. of mangel three + times per day, the roots being given whole, just in the state they + come from the store heap. Again, calves and yearlings being fed + with roots in the same way, will eat a large quantity of straw, and + when they have been kept under cover I have had them in first-rate + condition for many years past. Also, in fattening beasts, when they + get a fair allowance of roots, say 65 to 70 lbs. per day, with + from 3 to 4 lbs. of cake or meal in admixture, they will eat straw + with great avidity, and do well upon it, and make a profit. It is, + however, often the case that bullocks receive 100 lbs., or upwards, + of roots per day, with a large quantity of cake or meal, often + 10 or 12 lbs. per day; they will not then look at straw, and are + obliged to be fed with hay. The cost price of these quantities + and kinds of food stands so high that the animals do not yield a + profit; for although they may make meat a little faster, yet the + proportionate increase is nothing compared to the increased cost + of the feeding materials used. + + +Mr. Blundell gives us also the tabulated results of one of his +experiments, which prove that by the use of straw there is to be +obtained something more than manure by the feeding of stock:-- + + COST OF FEEDING AN OX PER WEEK WITH STRAW, ETC., + ACCORDING TO MR. BLUNDELL. + + s. d. + 4 lbs. of oil-cake per day, + or 38 lbs. per week, at £10 per ton 2 6 + 64 lbs. of roots ditto, + or 4 cwt. ditto, at 13s. 4d. ditto 2 8 + 20 lbs. of straw feeding, + or 1-1/4 cwt. ditto, at 30s. ditto 1 10-1/2 + 20 lbs. of straw litter, + or 1-1/4 cwt. ditto, at 15s. ditto 0 11 + + Attendance, &c., per week 0 1 + ---------- + 8 0-1/2 + Deduct value of manure, per week 1 3-1/2 + ---------- + 6 9 + Increased value of ox per week 10 0 + Deduct cost of feeding 6 9 + ---------- + 3 3 + +If we now turn to the study of the composition of straw regarded from +an economic point of view, we shall find that the theoretical deductions +therefrom harmonise with the results of actual feeding experiments. Let +us assume that 100 parts of oat-straw contain on an average-- + + 1 part of oil, + 4 parts of flesh-formers, + 10 parts of sugar, gum, and other fat-formers, and + 30 parts of digestible fibre; + +and if the price of the straw be 30s. per ton, we shall have at that +cost the following quantities of digestible substances:-- + + ONE TON OF OAT-STRAW, AT 30s., CONTAINS:-- + + lbs. + + [31] Oil 22·4 + Flesh-forming principles 89·6 + Sugar, gum, and other fat-forming substances 224·0 + Digestible fibre 672·0 + ------- + 1,008·0 + [32] Total amount of fat-formers, calculated as starch 952·0 + Add flesh-formers 89·6 + ------- + Total amount of nutritive matter 1,041·6 + +We shall now compare this table with a similar one in relation to the +composition of linseed cake, which will place the greater comparative +value of straw in a clearer light. + +A fair sample of linseed-cake contains, centesimally-- + + Flesh-formers 26 + Oil 12 + Gum, mucilage, sugar, &c. 34 + Woody fibre 6 + + ONE TON OF LINSEED CAKE, AT £11, CONTAINS:-- + + lbs. + + Flesh-forming principles 582·4 + Oil 268·8 + Gum, sugar, and other fat-formers 761·6 + Woody fibre 74·4 + ------- + 1,687·2 + Total amount of fat-formers, calculated as starch 1,508·0 + Add flesh-formers 582·4 + ------- + Total amount of nutriment 2,090·4 + +These comparisons are very instructive and important. We learn from +them that we pay £11 for 2,000 lbs. of nutriment, when we purchase a +ton of linseed-cake, whereas, when we invest 30s. in a ton of straw, we +receive 1,000 lbs. of digestible aliment. It cannot be said that I have +strained any points in favour of the straw; on the contrary, I believe +that when that article is cut in proper season and well harvested, +its composition will be found far superior to that detailed in the +comparative analysis. It must be borne in mind, too, that I take no +account of the 30 per cent. of the so-called indigestible woody fibre +which straw contains, and which, I believe, is partly assimilable +under ordinary circumstances, and could be rendered nearly altogether +digestible by proper treatment; on the other hand, I have assumed that +the woody fibre of the oil-cake is completely digestible, although +I believe it is in reality less so than the fibre of straw. + +It is an important point in the composition of oil-cakes, that they +contain a large proportion of ready-formed fatty matters which can, +with but little alteration, be at once transmuted into animal fat. +There are some individuals of the genus _Homo_ to whose stomachs fat, +_per se_, is intolerable; nevertheless, as a general rule, fatty +substances exercise a favorable influence in the process of digestion, +and, either in a separate state, or intimately commingled with other +aliments, constitute a large proportion of the food of man. Digestion in +the lower animals is, no doubt, similarly promoted by mixing with the +aliments which are to be subjected to that process, a due proportion of +oily or fatty matter. Straw is relatively deficient in the flesh-forming +principles, and abounds in the fat-forming elements--of which, however, +the most valuable, oil, is the least abundant. Now, if we add to straw +a due proportion of some substance very rich in flesh-formers and oil, +the compound will possess in nicely adjusted proportions all the +elements of nutrition. Perhaps the best kind of food which we could +employ for this purpose is linseed meal. It contains about 24 per +cent. of flesh-formers, 35 per cent. of a very bland oil, and 24 per +cent. of gum, sugar, and mucilage. Linseed-cake may be substituted for +linseed-meal; but the meal, though its cost is 15 per cent. greater, is, +I believe, rather the better article of the two. Its flesh-formers are +more soluble, and its oil thrice more abundant and far more palatable +than the same principles in most samples of oil-cake. An important +point, too, is, that linseed, unlike linseed-cake, is not liable to +adulteration. As linseed possesses laxative properties it cannot be +largely employed; the addition, however, of bean-meal--the binding +tendency of which is well known--to a diet partly composed of linseed +will neutralise, so to speak, the relaxing influence of the oily seed. +If oil-cakes be used as an adjunct to straw, rape-cake will be found +more economical than linseed-cake. If it be free from mustard, well +steamed, and flavored with a little treacle, or a small quantity of +locust-beans, it will be readily consumed, and even relished, by dairy +and fattening stock. + +_Hay._--There is no food substance more variable or more complex than +hay, for under that term are included, not only mixtures of grasses, +but also of leguminous plants--clover, for example. The herbage of no +two meadows is exactly alike; and the composition of the meadow plants +is so greatly modified by differences of climate, soil, and mode of +culture, that we have nothing to excite our wonder in the extreme +variability of hay. + +The composition of the hay made from clover, lucerne, and various other +kinds of artificial grasses, is shown in the table--which is based on +the results of Way's analyses:-- + + COMPOSITION OF THE HAY OF ARTIFICIAL GRASSES. + + +------------------------------------------- + | KEY: + | A.--Flesh-forming Substances. + | B.--Fatty Matters. + | C.--Respiratory Substances. + | D.--Woody Fibre. + | E.--Ash. + | F.--Water. + -----------------------------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+----- + | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | F. + +-------+------+-------+-------+------+----- + Trifolium pratense-- | | | | | | + Red clover | 18·79 | 3·06 | 37·06 | 16·46 | 7·97 | 16·6 + Trifolium pratense perenne-- | | | | | | + Purple clover | 15·98 | 3·41 | 35·35 | 21·63 | 6·96 | " + Trifolium incarnatum-- | | | | | | + Crimson clover | 13·83 | 3·11 | 31·25 | 26·99 | 8·15 | " + Trifolium medium-- | | | | | | + Cowgrass | 20·27 | 2·97 | 30·30 | 20·12 | 9·67 | " + Do., second specimen | 15·64 | 3·98 | 41·38 | 15·70 | 6·64 | " + Trifolium procumbens-- | | | | | | + Hop trefoil | 17·07 | 3·89 | 36·55 | 18·88 | 6·94 | " + Trifolium repens-- | | | | | | + White trefoil | 15·63 | 3·65 | 33·37 | 22·11 | 8·57 | " + Vicia sativa-- | | | | | | + Common Vetch | 19·68 | 2·55 | 32·87 | 22·82 | 5·42 | " + Vicia sepium-- | | | | | | + Bush vetch | 19·23 | 2·40 | 27·62 | 25·87 | 8·21 | " + Onobrychis sativa-- | | | | | | + Sainfoin | 15·38 | 2·51 | 38·30 | 20·59 | 6·56 | " + Medicago sativa-- | | | | | | + Lucerne | 10·63 | 2·30 | 33·47 | 28·51 | 8·42 | " + Medicago lupulina-- | | | | | | + Yellow clover | 20·50 | 3·38 | 27·76 | 22·66 | 9·03 | " + Plantago lanceolata-- | | | | | | + Rib grass | 11·91 | 3·06 | 33·58 | 27·56 | 7·23 | " + Poterium sanguisorba-- | | | | | | + Burnet | 13·96 | 3·34 | 39·50 | 19·89 | 6·64 | " + Achillea millefolium-- | | | | | | + Millefoil | 8·62 | 2·09 | 37·88 | 27·24 | 7·50 | " + +-------+------+-------+-------+------+----- + Mean | 15·81 | 3·18 | 34·42 | 22·47 | 7·59 | 16·6 + -----------------------------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+----- + +Very many analyses of hay have been made by British and Continental +chemists, the results of which are of great interest to the +agriculturist. The composition of the natural and artificial grasses, +which is shown in the tables given in pages 158-9 will, if we reduce +their per-centage of water to 16, give us an approximation to the +composition of hay. If the herbage, too, be sown in the proper time, and +the hay-making process be skilfully conducted, there will be but little +difference, except in the amount of water, between the plants in their +fresh and dry state; but owing to inopportune wet weather, and +carelessness in manipulation, excellent herbage is not unfrequently +converted into inferior hay. + +According to Dr. Voelcker, the average composition of meadow-hay, as +deduced from the results of twenty-five analyses, is as follows:-- + + Water 14·61 + Flesh-forming constituents 8·44 + Respiratory and fatty matters 43·63 + Woody fibre 27·16 + Mineral matter (ash) 6·16 + ------ + 100·00 + +Dr. Anderson's analysis of meadow-hay, one year old, and of inferior +quality, gave the following results:-- + + Water 13·13 + Flesh-forming matters 4·00 + Non-nitrogenous substances 77·61 + Mineral matter 5·26 + ------ + 100·00 + +The results of the investigations of Way prove that the herbage of +water-grass meadows is more nutritious than that of dry meadows--results +perfectly harmonious with the experience of practical men. + +It is a somewhat general belief, that the aftermath, or second cutting, +is less nutritious than the first cutting; but there appears to be no +chemical difference between the two crops, provided they be saved under +equally favorable conditions. According to Dr. Anderson, the composition +of clover-hay of the second cutting is as follows:-- + + Water 16·84 + Flesh-forming principles 13·52 + Non-nitrogenous matters 64·43 + Mineral matter (ash) 5·21 + ------ + 100·00 + +I have already shown the importance of reaping in proper season--not +less necessary is it to mow before the plants ripen fully, and even +before they flower. The results of the experiments of Stöckhardt, +Hellreigel, and Wolff, in relation to this point, are very interesting, +and are well worthy of reproduction here. + + RESULTS OF STÖCKHARDT'S AND HELLREIGEL'S EXPERIMENTS. + + --------------------------+-----------------------++----------------------- + | Stem. || Leaves. + +-------+---------------||-------+--------------- + | | Hay. || | Hay. + | Water +--------+------|| Water +--------+------ + | in |Flesh- | || in |Flesh- | + | Fresh |forming | Ash. || Fresh |forming | Ash. + | Plant.|Matters.| || Plant.|Matters.| + +-------+--------+------||-------+--------+------ + Clover cut on the | | | || | | + 4th June, quite young | 82·80 | 13·16 | 9·71 || 83·50 | 27·17 | 9·42 + 23rd " ready for cutting| 81·72 | 12·72 | 9·00 || 82·68 | 27·69 | 9·00 + 9th July, beginning to | | | || | | + flower | 82·41 | 12·40 | 6·12 || 77·77 | 15·83 | 10·46 + 29th July, full flower | 78·30 | 9·28 | 4·63 || 70·80 | 19·20 | 9·58 + 21st August, ripe | 69·40 | 6·75 | 4·82 || 65·70 | 18·94 | 12·33 + --------------------------+-------+--------+------++-------+--------+------ + + RESULTS OF WOLFF'S EXPERIMENT. + + -------------+------------------------------++----------------------------- + | Red Clover. || Alsike Clover. + +--------------+---------------++---------------+------------- + | Beginning | Full || Beginning | Full + | to flower, | flower, || to flower, | flower, + | 11th June. | 25th June. || 23rd June. | 29th June. + +--------------+---------------++-------+-------+------+------ + |Fresh.| Hay. | Fresh.| Hay. || Fresh.| Hay. |Fresh.| Hay. + +------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+------+------ + | pct. | pct. | pct. | pct. || pct. | pct. | pct. | pct. + Water | 83·07| 16·66 | 76·41 | 10·66 || 86·98 | 16·66 | 82·60| 16·66 + Ash | 1·43| 7·04 | 1·67 | 5·90 || 1·12 | 7·17 | 1·45| 6·94 + Woody fibre | 4·24| 20·87 | 8·88 | 37·37 || 3·79 | 24·26 | 5·11| 24·47 + Nutritive | | | | || | | | + substances | 11·26| 55·43 | 13·04 | 46·07 || 8·11 | 51·91 | 10·84| 51·93 + -------------+------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+------+------ + +During the operation of converting the grass--"natural" or +"artificial"--into hay, there is more or less loss of nutritive matter +sustained by fermentation, the dispersion of the smaller leaves by the +wind, and other agencies. But this unavoidable loss is trivial when +compared with the prodigious waste sustained, in Ireland at least, by +allowing the hay to remain too long in cocks in the field. "Within the +last three or four years," says Mr. Baldwin, of the Glasnevin Albert +Model Farm, "we have made agricultural tours through twenty-five of +the thirty-two counties of Ireland; and from careful consideration +of the subject, and having in some instances used a tape-line and +weighing-machine to assist our judgment, we have come to the conclusion +that one-twentieth of the hay-crop of Ireland is permitted to rot +in field-cocks. The portion on the ground, as well as that on the +outside of the cocks, is too often only fit for manure. And the loss +of aftermath, and of the subsequent year's crop (if hay or pasture), +suffers to the extent of from sixpence to one shilling per acre. If we +unite all these sources, the loss sustained annually in this country is +something serious to contemplate. On an average, for all Ireland, it is +not under 20 per cent., or a fifth of the actual value of the crop." +This is a startling statement; but I do not believe it to be an +exaggeration of the actual state of things. + +_Damaged Hay and Straw._--Damaged corn and potatoes, so much injured as +to be unfit for human food, are generally given, and with apparently +good results, to the inferior animals. The "meat manufacturing +machines," as the edible varieties of the domesticated animals are now +generally termed, are not very dainty in their choice of food; and +vegetable substances which would excite the disgust of the lords of the +creation are rendered nutritious and agreeable by being reorganised in +the mechanisms of oxen, sheep, and pigs. + +Now, although it is pretty generally known that musty corn and +diseased potatoes form good feeding stuffs, it is not so patent whether +or not the natural food of stock, such as hay and straw in a diseased +state, is proper food for those animals. This question is worthy of +consideration. Firstly, I shall describe the nature of the diseases +which most frequently affect fodder; these are, "mildew" and "mould." +These diseases are produced by the ravages of minute and very low forms +of vegetable life, termed by the botanists _epiphytical fungi_. The +mildew (_Puccinia graminis_) generally attacks the grasses when they are +growing, and is more frequently met with on rich and heavily manured +soils. In localities where heavy night-fogs and dews are of common +occurrence, this pest often destroys whole crops. On the other hand, in +light, sandy, and well-drained soils, and in warm and dry districts, +the mildew is a rare visitant. The "blue mould" (_Aspergillis glaucus_) +attacks hay and straw in the stack or rick, and without any regard to +their origin--no matter whether they were the produce of the wettest or +the dryest, the warmest or the coldest of soils. The chief condition +in the existence of the blue mould is excessive moisture. If the hay or +straw be too green and succulent when put up, or if rain get at them +in the rick, the mould is very likely to make its appearance, and the +well-known odor termed _musty_ will speedily be developed. + +Neither the mildew nor the mould can, strictly speaking, be regarded as +parasites, such as, for example, the flax-dodder, which feeds upon the +healthy juices of the plant to which it is attached. It appears to me +that the tissues and juices of the fodder-plants decay _first_, and then +the mould or the mildew appears and feeds upon the decomposing matter. +Now, as these vegetables belong to a poisonous class of fungi, it is +more than probable that they convert the decomposing substance of the +straw or hay into unwholesome, if not poisonous matter; and it is not +unlikely but that the disagreeable odor which they evolve is designed by +nature as a sign to the lower animals not to partake of mouldy food. +There is no doubt but that most animals will instinctively reject fodder +in this state; and the question arises, ought this odour to be destroyed +or disguised, in order to induce the animals to eat the damaged stuff? +The experience of most feeders who have largely consumed mouldy provender +is, that although cattle may be induced to eat it, they never thrive +upon such stuff if it form a heavy item in their diet. The reason of +this is obvious. The nitrogenous portion of the straw is that which is +chiefly assimilated by the fungi. And as this constituent is the one +which contributes to the formation of muscle, and is naturally extremely +deficient in straw and hay--more particularly the former--it follows +that the animals fed upon mouldy fodder cannot elaborate it into lean +flesh (muscle). + +In the case of young stock, mouldy fodder is altogether inadmissible, +for these animals require abundance of flesh-forming materials--precisely +those which the fungi almost completely remove from the diseased fodder. + +As large quantities of mouldy or mildewed provender are at the present +moment to be found in many farmsteads, and as they are unsaleable, +and must therefore be made use of in some way at home, it is well to +consider the best way to dispose of them. In the case of straw, the +greater portion will be required for litter, and if the whole of the +damaged article can be disposed of in this way so much the better. If, +however, there is more than is necessary for the bedding of the stock, +it may be used in conjunction with sound fodder, but always in a cooked +state. The greater part, if not the whole, of the diseased nitrogenous +part of the straw is soluble in warm water, so that if the fodder be +well steamed the poisonous matter will be eliminated to such an extent +as to leave the article almost as wholesome as good straw, but not so +nutritious. The straw cleansed in this way will be very deficient in +flesh-forming, though not in fat-forming power, and this fact should +be duly considered when the other items of the animal's food are +being weighed out. Beans, malt-combs, and linseed-cake are rich in +muscle-forming principles, and are consequently suitable adjuncts to +damaged fodder; but the latter should never constitute the staple food, +or be given unmixed with some sweet provender. + +When the fodder is considerably damaged it becomes, after steaming, +nearly as tasteless as sawdust. To this kind of stuff the addition of a +small amount of some flavorous material is very useful. For damaged hay, +Mr. Bowick recommends the following mixture:-- + + Fenugreek (powdered) 112 parts. + Pimento 4 " + Aniseed 4 " + Caraways 4 " + Cummin 2 " + +A pinch of this compound will render agreeably-flavored the most insipid +kinds of fodder. + +Mr. Bowick states that he had fed large numbers of bullocks on damaged +hay, flavored with this compound, and that their health was not thereby +injured in the slightest degree. + + +SECTION V. + +ROOTS AND TUBERS. + +The important part which the so-called root crops play in the modern +systems of agriculture, has secured for them a large share of the +attention of the chemist, so that our knowledge of their composition +and relative nutritive value is very extensive. As compared with most +other articles of food, the roots, as they are popularly called, of +potatoes, turnips, mangels, carrots, and such like plants, contain a +high proportion of water, and are not very nutritious; indeed, with the +exception of the potato, none of them contain 20 per cent. of solid +matter, and some not more than five per cent. They are, however, easily +produced in great quantities, which compensates for their low nutritive +value. I shall consider each of the more important roots separately. + +_The Turnip._--There are numerous varieties of this plant, which differ +from each other in the relative proportions and total amount of their +constituents, and even in different individuals of the same variety +there is considerable variation in composition; hence the difficulty +which has been felt by those who have endeavored to assign to this plant +its relative nutritive value. From the average results of a great number +of experiments, conducted both in the laboratory and the feeding-house, +it is concluded that turnips are the most inferior roots produced in the +field. The Swedish turnips are the most valuable kind: they contain a +higher proportion of solid matter than the other varieties, and they are +firmer and store better. The average composition of five varieties of +turnips, as deduced from the results of the analyses of Anderson and +Voelcker, is shown in the following table:-- + + ANALYSES OF TURNIPS. + + ----------------------------+-------+-------+--------+---------+------- + |Swedish| White |Aberdeen|Purpletop|Norfolk + |Turnip.| Globe.|Yellows.|Yellows. |Bell. + +-------+-------+--------+---------+------- + Water | 89·460| 90·430| 90·578| 91·200 | 92·280 + Albuminous, or | | | | | + flesh-forming substances | 1·443| 1·143| 1·802| 1·117 | 1·737 + Non-nitrogenous, or | | | | | + fat-forming substances | | | | | + (fat, gum, sugar, &c.) | 5·932| 5·457| 4·622| 4·436 | 2·962 + Woody fibre | 2·542| 2·342| 2·349| 2·607 | 2·000 + Mineral matter (ash) | 0·623| 0·628| 0·649| 0·640 | 1·021 + +-------+-------+--------+---------+------- + |100·000|100·000| 100·000| 100·000 |100·000 + ----------------------------+-------+-------+--------+---------+------- + +The _Greystone Turnip_ is a variety which has only quite recently been +introduced. It is stated to be an uncommonly productive crop, usually +yielding returns from 30 to 50 per cent. greater than those obtained +from other varieties of the turnip. The composition of the Greystone +turnip appears to be inferior, so that probably it is not, after all, +a more economical plant than the ordinary kinds of turnips. + + DR. ANDERSON'S ANALYSIS OF THE GREYSTONE TURNIP. + + No. 1. No. 2. + Grown on Clay. Grown on Sand. + + Water 93·84 94·12 + Oil 0·26 0·34 + Soluble albuminous matters 0·35 0·56 + Insoluble ditto 0·20 0·18 + Soluble respiratory matters 2·99 2·32 + Insoluble ditto (chiefly fibre) 1·73 1·85 + Ash 0·63 0·63 + ------ ------ + 100·00 100·00 + +It was at one time the fashion--not yet become quite obsolete--to regard +the proportion of nitrogen in the turnip as the measure of the nutritive +value of the bulb; but the fallacy of this opinion has been shown by +several late investigators, and more particularly by the results of +one of the numerous series of feeding experiments conducted by Mr. +Lawes. Many bulbs exceedingly rich in nitrogen are very deficient +in nutritive power--partly from a deficiency in the other elements of +nutrition--partly because most of their nitrogen is in so low a degree +of elaboration as to be incapable of assimilation by animals. The value +of a food-substance does not merely depend upon the amount and the +relative proportion of its constituents, but also, and to a very great +extent, upon their easy assimilability. There is but little doubt that +the nutritive matters contained in the Swedish turnip when the bulb is +fresh are very crude. By storing, certain chemical changes take place +in the bulb, which render it more nutritious and palatable. A large +proportion of the non-nitrogenous matters exist in the fresh root as +pectin; but this substance, if the bulb be preserved for a couple of +months, becomes in great part converted into sugar, which is one of the +most palatable and fattening ingredients of cattle-food. By storing, +too, the bulbs lose a portion of their excessive amount of water, and +become less bulky, which is unquestionably a desideratum. These facts +suggest the necessity for cultivating the earlier varieties of the +turnip, for it may be fairly doubted if a late-grown crop, left +for consumption in the field, ever, even under the most favorable +circumstances, attains its perfect development. At the same time it +must not be forgotten that turnips _fully matured_ in the field rather +deteriorate than otherwise after a few weeks' storage. + +Many agriculturists consider that there is a strict relation between the +specific gravity, or comparative weight of the bulb, and its nutritive +value; others believe that a very large turnip must necessarily be +inferior in feeding qualities to a small one; whilst not a few maintain +that neither its size nor its specific gravity is an indication of its +feeding qualities. Dr. Anderson, who has specially investigated a +portion of this subject, states that "the specific gravity of the whole +turnip cannot be accepted as indicating its real nutritive value, the +proportion of air in the cells being the determining element in such +results; that there is no constant relation between the specific gravity +of, and the nitrogen compounds in, the bulb; and that such relation +does exist between the specific gravity of the expressed juice and +the nitrogen compounds and solid constituents." Dr. Anderson allows, +however, that the best varieties of the turnip have the highest specific +gravity; which admission--coupled with the fact admitted by all +experimenters that the heavy roots store best--lead me to adopt the +opinions of those who consider great specific gravity as one of the +favorable indications of its nutritive value. With respect to size, +I prefer bulbs of moderate dimensions; the monsters that win the prizes +at our agricultural shows--and which, in general, are _forced_--are +inferior in feeding qualities, are always _spongy_, and almost +invariably rot when stored. + +The composition of the turnip is influenced not only by the nature of +the soil on which it is grown, but also by that of the manure applied +to it. The most reliable authorities are agreed that turnips raised on +Peruvian guano are watery, and do not keep well; but that with a mixture +of Peruvian guano and superphosphate of lime, with phospho-guano, or +with farmyard manure supplemented with a moderate amount of guano, the +most nutritious and firm bulbs are produced. + +Turnip-tops have been analysed by Voelcker, with the following +results:-- + + ONE HUNDRED PARTS CONTAIN-- + + White. Swedish. + + Water 91·284 88·367 + Nitrogen compounds 2·456 2·087 + Non-nitrogenous matters (gum, sugar, &c.) 0·648 1·612 + Ditto, as woody fibre 4·092 5·638 + Mineral matter 1·520 2·296 + ------- ------- + 100·000 100·000 + +These figures apparently show that the tops of turnips are more +valuable than their bulbs; but, in the absence of any feeding +experiments made to determine the point, we believe they are less so, +as a very large proportion of the solid matter in the tops of turnips +is in too low a degree of elaboration to be assimilable. Their high +proportions of nitrogen and mineral matter constitute them, however, +a very useful manure--nearly twice as valuable as the bulbs; this +fact should be borne in mind when turnips are sold off the land. + +_The Mangel-wurtzel_ is one of the most valuable of our green crops. +Its root is more nutritious than the turnip, occupying a position in +the scale of food equivalents midway between that bulb and the parsnip. +Mangels, when fresh, possess a somewhat acrid taste, and act as a +laxative when given to stock; but after a few months' storing they +become sweet and palatable, and their _scouring_ property completely +disappears. + +Although the mangel is one of the most nutritious articles of food +which can be given to cattle, yet it is stated on the best authority +that sheep do not thrive upon it. Voelcker, who has investigated this +subject, informs us that a lot of sheep which he fed on a limited +quantity of hay and an unlimited quantity of mangels, did not, during a +period of four months, increase in weight, whilst another lot of sheep +supplied with a small quantity of hay, and Swedish turnips _ad libitum_ +increased on an average 2-1/2 lbs. weekly. I believe the experience of +the greater number of feeders agrees with the results of Dr. Voelcker's +experiment. + +The chemistry of the mangel-wurtzel has been thoroughly studied by Way +and Ogston, Fromberg, Wolff, Anderson, and Voelcker. According to the +last-named chemist, its average composition is as follows:-- + + Water 87·78 + Flesh-forming matters 1·54 + Sugar 6·10 + Gum, pectin, &c. 2·50 + Woody fibre 1·12 + Mineral matter (ash) 0·96 + ------ + 100·00 + +It is difficult to accurately determine by a comparative trial the +relative feeding properties of mangels and turnips, for the former +are only in a fit state to be given to the animals when the latter +are deteriorating. However, by comparing the composition of the two +substances, and the results obtained from numerous feeding experiments, +it would appear, that on the average 75 lbs. weight of mangels are equal +to 100 lbs. weight of turnips. Of the different varieties of the mangel +the long yellow appears to be the most nutritious, and the long red the +least so. + +The leaves of the mangel--some of which are occasionally pulled and used +for feeding purposes, during the growth of the bulb--are an excellent +feeding substance: their composition indicates a nutritive value but +little inferior to that of the root; but as their constituents cannot be +in a highly elaborated condition, it is probable they are not more than +equal to half their weight of the bulbs. + +One _questio vexata_ of the many which at present occupy the attention +of the agricultural world is, whether or not the leaves of mangels may +be removed with advantage during the latter part of the development of +the plants. This practice prevailed rather extensively a few years since, +but latterly it has fallen somewhat into disuse. + +Those who adopt this plan urge, as its advantages, that a large quantity +of food is obtained at a time when it is urgently needed, and that +instead of the removal of the leaves exercising an injurious influence +on the development of the roots, the latter are actually increased in +size. + +In 1859 an experimental investigation was carried out at the Glasnevin +Model Farm, with the view of throwing new light on the question. The +outside leaves were very gradually removed on different occasions--from +the 12th August to the 15th October. In this way five tons of leaves per +statute acre were removed, and subsequently made use of for feeding +purposes. The experiment was conducted on a field of four acres, of +which the produce of 12 drills, each 200 yards in length, was left +untouched. The result was that the produce of the roots of the untouched +plants was only 40 tons 8 cwt. 6 qrs. per acre, whilst the roots of the +plants which had been partly denuded of their leaves weighed at the rate +of 45 tons 1 cwt. This experiment afforded results which are apparently +favorable to the practice of stripping the leaves; but it is to be +regretted that it was not rendered more complete by an analysis of the +roots, as a great bulk of roots does not necessarily imply a great +weight of dry food, and it is just possible, though not very probable, +that the roots of the stripped mangels contained a larger proportion of +water than those of the untouched plants. + +The results of the experiments of Buckman, and of Professor Wolff, of +the Royal Agricultural College at Hohenheim, are at direct variance with +those obtained at Glasnevin. Both of these experimenters found that the +removal of the leaves occasioned a diminution in the produce of the +roots to the amount of 20 per cent. Nor was this the only loss, for it +was found by the German professor that the roots of the untouched plants +possessed a far higher nutritive value than those of the stripped +mangels. + +When doctors differ, who is to decide? Here we have high authorities in +the agricultural world at direct variance on a matter of fact. The names +of Buckman and Wolff are a sufficient guarantee that the experimental +results which they announce are trustworthy, and I can testify, from +observation, that no field experiments could be more carefully conducted +than those carried out at the Albert Model Farm. We can only, then, +under the circumstances, admit that both Mr. Boyle, on the one side, +and Professors Buckman and Wolff on the other, are correct in their +statements of fact; but as it is evident both cannot be right in the +general inferences therefrom, it is desirable that the subject should be +still further investigated, and the truth be placed beyond doubt. It is +a question which appears so simple that one is at a loss to account for +the discrepant opinions in relation to it which prevail. "Let nothing +induce the growers," says Mr. Paget, in a paper on the cultivation of +the mangel, "to strip the leaves from the plant before taking up the +root. A series of careful experiments has convinced me that by so doing +we borrow food at a most usurious interest." "Although," says Mr. Boyle, +"the practice of stripping has been followed for many years on the farm +without any perceptible injury to the crop, these results, showing so +considerable an addition to the crop from taking off the leaves, were +hardly anticipated." It certainly does appear somewhat at variance with +our notion of the functions of the leaves of plants, that their partial +removal could possibly cause an increase in the weight of the roots; +but granting such to be the fact, it is not altogether _theoretically_ +inexplicable. We know that highly nitrogenous manure has a tendency to +increase the development of the leaves of turnips at the _expense_ of +the roots. Gardeners, too, not unfrequently remove some of the buds from +their fruit trees, lest the excessive development of foliage should +retard or check the _growth_ of the fruit. _Theoretically_ an excessive +development of the leaves of the mangel may be inimical to the growth +of the root. Probably, too, it may be urged, the outer leaves, which +soon become partially disorganised and incapable of elaborating mineral +matter into vegetable products, prevent the access of light to the more +vigorous inner leaves. In conclusion, I may say of this subject that it +is worthy of further elucidation; and I would suggest to my readers, +and more especially to the managers of the various model farms, the +desirability of fully testing the matter. + +The _White Beet_ is a congener of the mangel. It is largely grown on the +continent as a sugar-producing plant, but is seldom cultivated in these +countries. It produces about 15 tons of roots per acre, and its roots on +the average contain-- + + Water 83·0 + Sugar 10·0 + Flesh-formers 2·5 + Fat-formers 1·5 + Fibre 2·0 + Ash 1·0 + ----- + 100·0 + +This plant is deserving of more extensive growth in Great Britain. + +The _Parsnip_ is, after the potato, the most valuable of roots. It +differs from the turnip and the mangel in containing a high proportion +of starch, and but little sugar; and its flesh-forming constituents are +largely made up of casein, instead of, as in the case of the turnip, +albumen. + +The average composition of the parsnip is as follows:-- + + Water 82·00 + Flesh-forming principles 1·30 + Fat-formers (starch, sugar, &c.) 7·75 + Woody fibre 8·00 + Mineral matter (ash) 0·95 + ------ + 100·00 + +The parsnip is extensively grown in many foreign countries, on +account of its valuable feeding properties. As a field-crop it is but +little cultivated in Great Britain, and its use is--if we except the +table--almost restricted to pigs. Its food equivalent is about double +that of the turnip; that is, one pound of parsnips is equal to two +pounds of turnips. + +The _Carrot_ bears a close resemblance to the parsnip, from which, +however, it differs, containing no starch, and being somewhat inferior +in nutritive value. According to Voelcker, its average composition is +as follows:-- + + Water 88·50 + Flesh-formers 0·60 + Fat-formers (including woody fibre) 10·18 + Mineral matter (ash) 0·72 + ------ + 100·00 + +As carrots contain a high proportion of fat-forming matters, and a low +per-centage of flesh-forming substances, they are better adapted for +fattening purposes. Dairy stock greedily eat them; and they are given +with great advantage to horses out of condition. + +_Kohl-Rabi._--This plant, though early introduced into the agriculture +of these countries, has made but little progress in the estimation +of the farmer. It belongs to the order and genus which include the +turnip, but differs widely from that plant in its mode of growth. Its +bulb--which is formed by an enormous development of the overground +stem--is, according to some authorities, less liable than the turnip +to injury from frost. It is subject to no diseases, save anbury and +clubbing; and, owing to its position above the soil, it can be readily +eaten off by sheep. The bulbs store better than Swedes, and, according +to some farmers, keep even better than mangels. With respect to the +flavor of this bulb, there is some difference of opinion. Professor +Wilson, of Edinburgh, quotes several eminent feeders to prove that +"whether in the fold for sheep, in the yard for cattle, or in the +stables for horses, it will generally be preferred to the other +descriptions of homegrown keep." Mr. Baldwin, on the contrary, states +that although good food for sheep, it is too hard-fleshed for old ewes, +and that carrots are better food for horses, and Swedish turnips for +cattle. + +An accurately conducted comparative trial to test the nutritive value +of the Kohl-rabi, was conducted at the Glasnevin Model Farm, under the +direction of Mr. Baldwin. The experiment was commenced in January, 1863. +Four oxen were selected, and divided into two lots. Nos. 1 and 2 (Lot 1) +were fed on Kohl-rabi, oil-cake, and hay, and Nos. 3 and 4 (Lot 2) on +Swedish turnips, oil-cake, and hay. As the animals supplied with the +Kohl-rabi did not appear to relish it, and as it was desirable to +gradually accustom them to the change of food, the experiment did not +really commence till the 12th January. On that date the weights of the +animals were as follows:-- + + cwt. st. | cwt. st. + | + Lot 1. {No. 1. 10 1 | Lot 2. {No. 3. 7 5 + {No. 2. 7 4 | {No. 4. 10 2 + ------- | ------- + 17 5 | 17 7 + +The lots, therefore, counterpoised each other pretty fairly. From the +12th to the 28th January they received the following quantities of food +per diem:-- + + 1. 2. 3. 4. + + Roots stones 7-1/2 6 6 7-1/2 + Oil cake pounds 4-1/2 3 3 4-1/2 + Hay pounds 10-1/2 10-1/2 10-1/2 10-1/2 + +The animals fed upon the Kohl-rabi evinced from the first a +disinclination to it, but they nevertheless ate it before their meal of +oil-cake was supplied to them. On the morning of the 28th January they +were put upon the dietary shown in the table, and which induced them to +eat the Kohl-rabi more quickly. + + 1. 2. 3. 4. + + At 6.30 a.m. {Roots, Stones 3 2-1/2 2-1/2 3-1/2 + {Cake, lbs. 1-1/2 1 1 1 + + At 12.30 a.m. {Roots, Stones 3 2-1/2 2-1/2 3-1/2 + {Cake, lbs. 1-1/2 1 1 1 + + At 6.30 p.m. {Roots, Stones 3 2-1/2 2-1/2 3-1/2 + {Cake, lbs. 1-1/2 1 1 1 + + At 9.30 p.m. Hay, lbs. 7 7 7 7 + +On the 11th February the cattle were again weighed, when their increase +was found to be as follows:-- + + Weight on Weight on Increase in + Jan. 12. Feb. 11. 30 days. + + cwt. st. cwt. st. st. + + 1} Lot 1, fed on Kohl-rabi,} 10 1 10 4 3 + 2} &c. } 7 4 7 6 2 + --- + Total 5 + + 3} Lot 2, fed on Swedes, } 7 5 8 3 6 + 4} &c. } 10 2 10 7-1/4 5-1/2 + ------ + Total 11-1/2 + +The results of this experiment show that the animals fed upon Swedish +turnips, hay, and oil-cake, increased in weight at a rate more than +100 per cent. greater than the lot supplied with equal quantities of +Kohl-rabi, hay, and oil-cake. The superiority of the Swedish turnips was +rendered more evident by the results of subsequent experiments. Nos. 1 +and 4 were not tried after the 11th February; but Nos. 2 and 3 were kept +under experiment. No. 2 was put on Swedes, and No. 3 on mangel-wurtzel, +and after an interval of a fortnight No. 2 had increased much more than +they had done on Kohl-rabi. + +Specimens of the Kohl-rabi and Swedish turnips employed in this +experiment were submitted to me for analysis by Mr. Baldwin, and yielded +the following results:-- + + Swedish + Kohl-rabi. Turnip. + + Water 87·62 88·84 + Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles 2·24 1·66 + Non-nitrogenous, or fat-forming principles 7·78 6·07 + Woody fibre 1·34 2·73 + Mineral matter (ash) 1·22 0·70 + ------ ------ + 100·00 100·00 + +These results show a slight superiority of the Kohl-rabi over the Swedish +turnip; the great difference in their nutritive power, as shown by Mr. +Baldwin's experimental results, must therefore be due to the superior +flavor and digestibility of the turnip. + +Dr. Anderson's analysis of Kohl-rabi afforded results more favorable to +the highly nutritive character assigned by some feeders to that bulb +than those arrived at by me. The bulbs, it should however be remarked, +were grown, no doubt with great care, by Messrs. Lawson and Son, the +well-known seedsmen:-- + + ANALYSIS OF KOHL-RABI, BY DR. ANDERSON. + + Bulbs. Tops. + + Water 86·74 86·68 + Flesh-forming principles 2·75 2·37 + Fat-forming principles 8·62 8·29 + Woody fibre 0·77 1·21 + Mineral matter 1·12 1·45 + ------ ------ + 100·00 100·00 + +The _Radish_ is a plant which deserves a place amongst our field crops, +though hitherto its cultivation has been restricted to the garden. At +one time its leaves were boiled and eaten, but in these latter days they +are subjected to neither of these processes. The root, however, in its +raw state, is, as every one is aware, considered one of the dainties of +the table. + +Many of those who devote themselves to the important study of dietetics, +consider the use of raw vegetables to be objectionable; but be their +objections groundless, or the reverse, it is certain that a vegetable +which, like the radish, may be eaten raw with apparently good results, +cannot be otherwise than a good article of food when cooked. I once +tried the experiment of eating matured radishes, not as a salad, but +cooked like any other boiled vegetable, and I must say that I found +their flavor rather agreeable than otherwise. Boiled radishes--roots and +tops--form excellent feeding for pigs. How could it be otherwise? for +what is good for the family of man must surely be a luxury to the swine +tribe. I have known horses to eat radishes greedily, and I am certain +that they would prove acceptable to all the animals of the farm. But +it may be asked, why it is that I recommend the use of radishes as +food for stock, when there are already so many more nutritious roots +at our disposal--turnips, mangels, and potatoes. Simply for this +reason:--Between the departure of the roots and the advent of the +grasses, there is a kind of interregnum.[33] Now we want a good tuberous, +bulbous, or tap-rooted plant to fill up this interregnum. Such a plant +we have in the radish. The root is certainly a small one, but then it +grows so rapidly that a good supply can be had within thirty days from +the sowing of the seed, and a crop can be matured before the time for +sowing turnips. Two crops may be easily obtained from land under +potatoes--one before the tops cover the ground, the other after the +tubers have been dug out. The yield of radishes, judging from the +produce in the garden, would be at least six tons of roots and three +tons of tops. I would suggest, then, that the radish should at once +get a fair chance as a stolen crop. If it succeed as such, it will +not be the first gift of the gardener to the husbandman. Was not the +mangel-wurtzel once known only as the produce of the garden? + +The composition of the radish indicates a nutritive value less than that +of the white turnip. I have analysed both the root and the tops, and +obtained the following results:-- + + ANALYSIS OF THE RADISH. + + Root. Tops. + + Water 95·09 94·30 + Flesh-forming principles 0·52 0·75 + Fat-formers (starch, gum, fat, &c.) 1·06 1·16 + Woody fibre 2·22 2·36 + Mineral matter (ash) 1·11 1·43 + ------ ------ + 100·00 100·00 + +The _Jerusalem Artichoke_ has long been cultivated as a field-crop on +the Continent, and in certain localities the breadth occupied by it +is very considerable. The French term the tuberous root of this plant +_poitre de terre_, or _topin ambour_; and although they expose it for +sale in the markets, it is not much relished by our lively neighbours, +who are so remarkable for their _cuisiniere_. As food for cattle, +however, the French agricultural writers state it to be excellent. +It is much relished by horses, dairy cows, and pigs; store horned-stock +also eat it when seasoned with a little salt, and appear to enjoy it +amazingly when permitted to pull up the roots from the soil. The green +tops are also given to sheep and cattle, and, it is stated, are readily +eaten by those animals. + +The Jerusalem artichoke (_Helianthus Tuberoses_) differs from its half +namesake, the common artichoke, and resembles the potato in being +valuable chiefly for its tubers. It is perennial, and attains on the +Continent a height varying from 7 to 10 feet. In this country its +dimensions are less. The stem is erect, thick, coarse, and covered with +hairs. It is a native of Mexico, and although introduced 200 years ago +into Europe, it can hardly be said to be acclimatised, since it very +seldom flowers, and never develops seed. The plant is therefore +propagated by cuttings from its tubers, each containing one or two eyes; +or if the tubers be very small, which is often the case, a whole one is +planted. The tubers possess great vitality, and remain in the ground +during the most severe frosts, without sustaining the slightest injury. +For this reason it is usual to devote a corner of the garden to the +cultivation of the Jerusalem artichoke; for, no matter how completely +the crop may appear to have been removed from the soil, portions of the +tubers will remain and shoot up into plants during the following season. +This peculiarity of the plant it is likely may prove an obstacle to its +having a place assigned to it in the rotation system. + +The question now presents itself--What are the peculiar advantages which +the crop possesses which should commend it to the notice of the British +farmer? I shall try to answer the question. + +1st. No green crop (except furze) can be grown in so great a variety of +soils; except marshy or wet lands, there is no soil in which it refuses +to grow. + +2nd. It does not suffer from disease, is very little affected by the +ravages of insects, is completely beyond the influence of cold, and may +remain either above or below ground for a long time without undergoing +any injurious changes in composition. + +3rd. It gives a good return, when we consider that it requires very +little manure, and but little labor in its management. + +At Bechelbronn, the farm of the celebrated Boussingault, the average +yield is nearly eleven tons per acre, but occasionally over fourteen +tons is obtained. Donoil, a farmer of Bailiere, in the department of +Haut-loire, states that he fed sheep exclusively on the tops and tubers +of this plant, and that he estimated his profits at £23 per hectare +(£9 3s. 4d. per acre). The soil was very inferior. Donoil terms it +third-rate, and it does not appear to have been manured even once +during the fifteen years it was under Jerusalem artichoke. I fear our +artificial manure manufacturers will hardly look with a favorable eye +on the advent of a crop into our agriculture which can get on so well +without the intervention of any fertilising agents. Indeed, several of +the French writers state that little or no manure is necessary for this +plant. But this can hardly be the case; for it is evident that a crop +which, according to Way and Ogston, removes 35 lbs. of mineral matter +per ton from the soil, or three times as much potash as turnips do, must +certainly be greatly benefited by the application of manure. And I have +no doubt but that the Jerusalem artichoke, if well manured and grown +in moderately fertile soil, would produce a much heavier crop than our +Continental neighbors appear to get from it. + +4th. The Jerusalem artichoke may be cultivated with advantage in places +where ordinary root-crops either fail or thrive badly. In such cases +the ground should be permanently devoted to this crop. Kade gives an +instance where a piece of indifferent ground had for thirty-three years +produced heavy crops of this plant, although during that time neither +manure nor labor had been applied to it. In Ireland the potato has been +grown under similar circumstances. + +The nutritive constituents of tubers of the Jerusalem artichoke bear +a close resemblance in every respect, save one, to those of the +potato. Both contain about 75 per cent. of water, about 2 per cent. +of flesh-forming substances, and 20 per cent. of non-nitrogenous, or +fat-forming and heat-giving elements. In one respect there is a great +difference--namely, that sugar makes up from 8 to 12 per cent. of the +Jerusalem artichoke, whilst there is but a small proportion of that +substance in the potato. + +The large quantity of sugar contained in this root is no doubt the cause +of its remarkable keeping properties in winter, and it also readily +accounts for the avidity with which most of the domesticated animals +eat it. + +On the whole, then, I think that the facts I have brought forward +relative to the advantages which the Jerusalem artichoke presents as a +farm crop, justify the recommendation that it should get a fair trial +from the British farmer, who is now so much interested in the production +of suitable forage for stock. + + COMPOSITION OF (DRY) JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE + + Albuminous matters 4·6 + Fatty matters 0·4 + Starch, gum, &c. 19·8 + Sugar 69·5 + Fibre and ash 5·7 + ----- + 100·0 + +The _Potato_, regarded from every point of view, is by far the most +important of the plants which are cultivated for the sake of their +roots. Its tubers form the chief--almost sole--pabulum of many millions +of men, enter more or less into the dietary of most civilised peoples, +and constitute a large proportion of the food of the domesticated +animals. The great importance of this plant, arising from its enormous +consumption, has caused its composition to be very minutely studied by +many British, Continental, and American chemists. With respect to its +nutritive properties, the least favorable results were obtained by the +American chemists, Hardy and Henry, and the most by the European +chemists. + +The flesh-forming principles vary from 1 per cent., as found by Hardy, +to 2·41 per cent., the mean results of the analyses of Krocker and +Horsford. The proportion of starch in different varieties of the potato +also varies, but not to the same degree as the nitrogenous principles. +In new potatoes, only 5 per cent. has been found; in ash-leaved kidneys, +9·50 per cent.; and in different kinds of cups, from 15 to 24 per cent. +The amount of starch is also influenced by the soil, the manure, the +climate, and the various other conditions under which the plant is +developed. The proportion of starch increases during the growth, and +diminishes during the storage of the tubers. + +Dr. Anderson is the most recent investigator into the composition of the +potato; the chief results of his inquiries are given in the following +table:-- + + ANALYSIS OF THE POTATO BY DR. ANDERSON. + + --------------+--------+----------+-------------+-------+-------+------- + |Regents.|Dalmahoys.|Skerry-blues.|White |Orkney |Flukes. + | | | |Rocks. |Reds. | + +--------+----------+-------------+-------+-------+------- + Water | 76·32 | 75·91 | 76·60 | 75·93 | 78·57 | 74·41 + Starch | 12·21 | 12·58 | 11·79 | 12·77 | 10·85 | 12·55 + Sugar, &c. | 2·75 | 2·93 | 3·09 | 2·17 | 2·78 | 2·89 + Flesh-formers | | | | | | + soluble | 2·16 | 2·10 | 1·90 | 1·88 | 1·48 | 1·98 + insoluble | 0·21 | 0·15 | 0·16 | 0·24 | 0·21 | 0·20 + Fibre | 5·53 | 5·21 | 5·41 | 5·55 | 5·93 | 6·71 + Ash | 0·88 | 0·81 | 0·94 | 1·04 | 0·98 | 0·98 + +--------+----------+-------------+-------+-------+------- + | 100·06 | 99·69 | 99·89 | 99·58 |100·80 | 99·72 + --------------+--------+----------+-------------+-------+-------+------- + +The potato is relatively deficient in flesh-forming matters, and contains +the respiratory elements in exceedingly high proportions; hence it is +well adapted for fattening purposes, and in this respect is equal to +double its weight of the best kind of turnips. When used as food for +man, it should be supplemented by some more fatty or nitrogenous +substance--such, for example, as flesh, oatmeal, or peas. Buttermilk, +a fluid which is rich in nitrogen, is an excellent supplement to +potatoes, and compensates to a great extent for the deficiency of those +tubers in muscle-forming matters. If, then, the potato is destined to +retain its place as the "national esculent" of the Irish, I trust their +national beverage may be--so far at least as the masses of the people +are concerned--buttermilk, and _not_ whiskey. + +Potatoes so far diseased as to be unsuited for use as food for man, may +be given with advantage to stock. They may be used either in a raw or +uncooked state, but the latter is the preferable form. Sheep do not like +them at first, but on being deprived of turnips they acquire a taste +for them; on a daily allowance, composed of 1 lb. of oil-cake or corn, +and an unlimited quantity of potatoes, they fatten rapidly. Cattle +thrive well on a diet composed of equal parts of turnips and diseased +potatoes, and do not require oil-cake. The evening feed of horses may +advantageously be composed of potatoes and turnips. If raw, the potatoes +should be given in a very limited quantity--four or five pounds; in the +cooked state, however, they may be given in abundance, but the animals +should not, after their meal, be permitted to drink water for some +hours. As a feeding substance, diseased potatoes, unless they be very +much injured, are equal to twice their weight of white turnips; it is +certain that they do not injure the health or impair the condition of +the animals which feed upon them. + + +SECTION VI. + +SEEDS. + +In seeds the elements of nutrition exist not only in the most highly +elaborated, but also in the most concentrated state; hence their +nutritive value is greater than that of any other class of food +substances. + +_Wheat Grain_ is the most valuable of seeds, as it contains, in admirably +adjusted proportions, the bone, the fat, and the muscle-forming +principles. In the form of bread, it has been, not inaptly, termed the +"staff of life," for no other grain is so well adapted, _per se_, for +the sustenance of man; and many millions of human beings subsist almost +exclusively on it. The lower animals are in general fed upon the grain +of oats, of barley, and of the leguminous plants, and the use of wheat +is almost completely restricted to the human family. + +Wheat grain, by the processes of grinding and sifting, is resolvable +into two distinct parts--bran and flour. In twenty-four analyses made +by Boussingault, the proportion of the bran was from 13·2 to 38·5 +per cent. and that of the flour from 61·5 to 86·8 per cent. The floury +part is of very complex structure; it includes starch, gluten, albumen, +oil, gum, gummo-gelatinous matter, sugar,[34] and various saline matters. +The gluten and albumen constitute the nitrogenous, or flesh-forming +principles of flour, and make up from 16 to 20 per cent. of that +substance; the non-nitrogenous, or fat-forming elements, such as +starch and gum, form from 74 to 82 per cent. According to Payen, the +proportion of gluten diminishes towards the centre of the seed, from +which it follows that the part of the grain nearest the husk is the +most nutritious--so far at least as muscle-making is concerned. The +desire on the part of the public for very white bread has led to the +_fine_ dressing of Wheat-grain, and consequently to the separation from +that substance of a very large proportion of one of its most nutritious +constituents. Crude gluten may be obtained by kneading the dough of +flour in a muslin bag under a small current of water; the starch, or +fecula, and the gum, are carried away by the water, and the gluten in +an impure form remains as an elastic viscous substance, which on drying +becomes hard and brittle. It is to the gluten of flour that its property +of panification, or bread-making, is due. On the addition of a ferment, +a portion of the starch is converted into sugar and carbonic acid gas, +and the latter causes the gluten to expand into the little cells, or +vesicles, which confer upon baked bread its light, spongy texture. + + ANALYSES OF WHEAT. + + 1. 2. 3. 4. + + Whole + Grain. Flour. Bran. Husk. + + Water 15·00 14·0 13 13·9 + Flesh-formers 12·00 11·0 14 14·9 + Fat-formers 68·50 73·5 55 55·8 + Woody fibre 2·75 0·7 12 9·7 + Mineral matter 1·75 0·8 6 5·7 + ------ ----- --- ----- + 100·00 100·0 100 100·0 + + _Nos. 1, 2, and 3.--The mean results of a great number of analyses._ + + _No. 4.--By_ MILLON. + +_Over-ripening of Grain._--The final act of vegetation is the production +of seed, after the performance of which function many plants, having +accomplished their destined purpose, perish. The grasses (which include +the cereals) are _annuals_, or plants which have but a year's existence, +consequently their development ceases so soon as they have produced +their seed. When wheat, oats, and the other cereals, attain to this +final point in their growth, the circulation of their sap ceases, +their color changes from green to yellow, and they undergo certain +changes which destroy their power of assimilating mineral matter, and +consequently render them no longer capable of increasing their weight. + +The proper time for cutting wheat and the other cereals is immediately +after their grain has been fully matured. When the green color of the +straw just below the ears changes to yellow, the grain, be it ripe or +unripe at the time, cannot afterwards be more fully developed. This is +rendered impossible in consequence of the disorganisation of the upper +part of the stem--indicated by, but not the result of, its altered +hue--which cuts off the supply of sap to the ears, and the latter do +not possess the power of absorbing nutriment from the air. + +When the vital processes which are incessantly going on in the growing +plants are brought to a close, the purely chemical forces come into +operation. If the seed be perfectly matured and allowed to remain +ungathered, it is attacked in wet weather by the oxygen of the air, a +portion of its carbon is burned off, some of its starch is converted +into sugar, and in extreme cases it germinates and becomes _malty_. +But not only is the seed liable to injury from the elements; it is also +exposed to the ravages of the feathered tribe, and no matter how well +a field of corn may be watched, or how great the number of _scarecrows_ +erected in it, there is always a certain diurnal loss, occasioned by the +ravages of birds. + +It is not only necessary that ripe corn should be cut as soon as +possible, but it is sometimes desirable to reap it before it becomes +fully matured. When the grain is intended for consumption as food, the +less bran it contains the better. Now the bran, as is well known, forms +the integument, or covering of the vital constituents of the seed; and +it is the last part of the organ to be perfected. The growth of the +seed for several days before its perfect development, is confined to +the _testa_ or covering. Now as this is the least valuable part of the +article, its increase is matter of but little moment; and when it is +excessive it renders the grain less valuable in the eyes of the miller. +That the cutting of the grain before it is perfectly ripe is attended +with a good result, is clearly proved by the results of an experiment +recorded in Johnston's "Agricultural Chemistry." A crop of wheat was +selected; one-third was cut twenty days before it was ripe; another +third ten days afterwards; and the remaining portion when its grain had +been fully matured. The relative produce in grain of the three portions +taken, as stated above, was as 1, 1·325, and 1·260. The following table +exhibits the relative proportions of their constituents:-- + + In 100 parts of the grain cut at + 20 days. 10 days. Dead ripe. + + Flour 74·7 79·1 72·2 + Sharps 7·2 5·5 11·0 + Bran 17·5 13·2 16·0 + ---- ---- ---- + 99·4 97·8 99·2 + + The flour contained gluten 9·3 9·9 9·6 + +The results of this experiment, and of the general experience of +intelligent growers, show that grain cut a week or ten days before it is +perfectly ripe contains more flour, and of a better quality, too, than +is found in either ripe or very unripe seed. But this is not the only +advantage, for the straw of the green, or rather of the greenish-yellow +corn, is fully twice as valuable for feeding purposes as that of the +over-ripe cereals. There is an extraordinary decrease in the amount +of the albuminous constituents of the stems of the cereals during the +last two or three weeks of their maturation, and as there is not a +corresponding increase of those materials in the seed, they must be +evolved in some form or other from the plants. + +There can be only one object attained by allowing the seed to fully +ripen itself, and that is the insurance of its more perfect adaptability +to the purpose of reproduction. When the _testa_ is thick it best +protects the germ of the future plant enclosed in it from the ordinary +atmospheric influences until it is placed under the proper conditions +for its germination. + +_Wheat, a costly food._--It occasionally happens that the wheat harvest +is so abundant, that many feeders give large quantities of this grain to +their stock. Now, as Indian corn is at least 25 per cent. cheaper than +wheat, even when the price of the latter is at its _minimum_, I believe +that it is always more economical to sell the wheat raised on the farm, +and to purchase with the proceeds of its sale an equivalent of Indian +corn, which is a more fattening kind of food. + +_Bran_ is, with perhaps the exception of malt-dust, the most nutritious +of the refuse portions of grains. It is usually given to horses, and +owing to its high proportion of nitrogen, is, perhaps, better expended +in the bodies of those hard-working animals, than in those of pigs and +cows--animals that occasionally come in for a share of this valuable +feeding-stuff. It should be borne in mind that bran commonly acts as +a slight laxative, and that it is less digestible than flour, a large +portion of it usually passing through the animal's body unchanged. +This drawback to the use of bran may be obviated by either cooking or +fermenting the article, or by combining it with beans or some other +kind of binding food. + + AVERAGE ANALYSES OF GRAIN. + + --------------+-------+------+-----+--------+------+-----+--------+------ + | | | | |Indian| | Rye |Buck- + |Barley.| Bere.|Oats.|Oatmeal.| Corn.|Rice.|(Irish).|wheat. + +-------+------+-----+--------+------+-----+--------+------ + Water | 16·0 | 14·25| 14·0| 13·00 | 14·5 | 14·0| 16·0 | 14·19 + Flesh-formers | 10·5 | 10·10| 11·5| 16·00 | 10·0 | 5·3| 9·0 | 8·58 + Fat-formers | 67·0 | 64·60| 64·5| 68·00 | 69·0 | 78·5| 66·0 | 51·91 + Woody fibre | 3·5 | 9·03| 7·0| 1·75 | 5·0 | 2·5| 8·0 | 23·12 + Mineral matter| 3·0 | 2·02| 3·0| 1·25 | 1·5 | 0·7| 1·0 | 2·20 + +-------+------+-----+--------+------+-----+--------+------ + | 100·0 |100·00|100·0| 100·00 |100·0 |100·0| 100·0 |100·00 + --------------+-------+------+-----+--------+------+-----+--------+------ + +_Barley_ is inferior in composition to wheat. As a feeding stuff, the +English farmers assign to it a higher, and the Scotch farmers a lower, +place than oats, which, perhaps, merely proves that in Scotland the oat +thrives better than the barley, and in England the barley better than +the oat. Barley-meal is extensively used by the English feeders, and +with excellent results. Where _barley-dust_ can be obtained it is a far +cheaper feeding stuff than the meal. Barley husks should never be given +to animals unless in a cooked or fermented state. + +_Oat Grain_ is, perhaps, the most valuable of the concentrated foods +which are given to fattening stock. When it is cheap it will be found +a more economical feeding stuff than linseed-cake, and, unlike that +substance, can be used without the fear of adulteration. Oats are equal +to wheat in their amount of flesh-forming matters; but their very high +proportion of indigestible woody fibre detracts from their nutritive +value. Oat-meal is more nutritious than wheat-meal; and oat-flour, +especially if finely dressed, greatly excels wheat-flour in its +nutrimental properties, because, unlike the latter, the finer it is the +greater is its amount of flesh-formers. Bread made of oat-flour is very +heavy, and is far less palatable than the bread of wheat. Oat-meal has +been found to contain nearly 20 per cent. of nitrogenous matters. The +white oat is more nutritious than the black, and the greatest amount of +aliment is found in the grain which has not been allowed to over-ripen +in the field. Oat husk is very inferior to the bran of wheat. Toppings +are seldom worth the price at which they are sold. + +_Indian Corn_ has been highly extolled as a fattening food for stock, +and its chemical composition would seem to justify the high opinion +which practical men have formed of its relative nutritive value. In the +United States, the feeding of horses on Indian corn and hay has been +found very successful; but in these countries oats will be found a more +economical food. For fattening purposes Indian corn appears exceedingly +well adapted, as it contains more ready-formed fat--4·5 per cent.--than +is found in most of the other grains, and, on an average, 70 per cent. +of starch. Pigs thrive well on this grain. The Galatz round yellow grain +is somewhat superior to the American flat yellow seed. + +_Rye_ is not extensively cultivated in this country, but on the +Continent it is raised in large quantities. In the north of Europe +it forms a considerable proportion of the food of both man and the +domesticated animals. In Holland it is commonly consumed by horses, but +in England there has always been a prejudice against the use of this +grain as food for the equine tribe. It has been highly recommended for +dairy stock, five pounds of rye-meal, with a sufficiency of cut straw, +constituting, it is stated, a dietary on which cows yield a maximum +supply of milk. Irish-grown rye contains less starch, and more +flesh-formers and oil, than the Black Sea grain. + +_Rice_, although it forms the chief pabulum of nearly one-third of +the human family, is the least nutritious of the common food grains. +Rice-dust, an article obtained in cleaning rice for European consumption, +is said to promote the flow of milk when given to cows. It is sold in +large quantities in Liverpool, where, according to Voelcker, it often +commands a higher price than it is worth. + +_Buckwheat_ is chiefly used as a food for game and poultry. + +_Malted Corn._--During a late session of Parliament a Bill was passed to +exempt from duty malt intended to be used as food for cattle. As feeders +may now become their own maltsters, it may be of some use to them to +have here a _résumé_ of this Bill:-- + + 1. Any person giving security and taking out a licence may make + malt in a malt-house approved by the Excise for the purpose; and + all malt so made and mixed with linseed-cake or linseed-meal as + directed, shall be free from duty. + + 2. The security required is a bond to Her Majesty, with sureties + to the satisfaction of the Excise, not to take from any such + malt-house any malt except duly mixed with material prescribed + by the Act. + + 3. The malt-house must be properly named upon its door. + + 4. All malt made in it shall be deposited in a store-room, and + shall be conveyed to and from the room upon such notice as the + officer of Excise shall appoint. + + 5. The maltster shall provide secure rooms in his malt-house, + to be approved in writing by the supervisor, for grinding the + malt made by him in such malt-house, and mixing and storing the + same when mixed; and all such rooms shall be properly secured + and kept locked by the proper officer of Excise. + + 6. All malt before removal from the malt-house shall be ground + and thoroughly mixed with one-tenth part at least of its weight + of ground linseed-cake or linseed-meal, and ground to such a + degree of fineness and in such manner as the commissioners shall + approve, and mixed together in a quantity not less than forty + bushels at a time in the presence of an officer of Excise. + + 7. The maltster shall keep account of the quantity of all malt + mixed as aforesaid which he shall from time to time send out or + deliver from his malt-house, with the dates and addresses of the + person for whom such mixed malt shall be so sent or delivered. + + 8. If any person shall attempt to separate any malt from any + material with which the same shall have been mixed as aforesaid, + or shall use this malt for the brewing of beer or distilling of + spirits, he shall forfeit the sum of £200. + + 9 and 10. The penalties of existing Acts are recited. + + 11. This Act shall continue and be in force for five years. + + +Some samples of malt and barley examined in May, 1865, by Dr. Voelcker +for the Central Anti-Malt Tax Association, afforded the following +results:-- + + -------------------------+-------+--------------------------------------- + |Barley | Malt marked + |marked | + | No. 1.| No. 5.| No. 7.| No. 9.|No. 14.|No. 16. + -------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- + Moisture | 11·76| 8·72| 7·43| 7·76| 8·35| 7·06 + Sugar | 3·75| 4·29| 5·48| 7·85| 9·46| 9·86 + Starch and dextrine | 70·40| 71·03| 69·70| 67·57| 67·53| 67·67 + [*] Albuminous compounds | | | | | | + (flesh-forming matters)| 7·75| 8·44| 8·81| 9·37| 8·60| 8·31 + Woody fibre (cellular) | 4·46| 5·22| 6·38| 5·38| 4·14| 5·11 + Mineral matter (ash) | 1·88| 2·30| 2·20| 2·07| 1·92| 1·99 + +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- + | 100·00| 100·00| 100·00| 100·00| 100·00| 100·00 + [* Containing nitrogen] | 1·24| 1·35| 1·41| 1·50| 1·38| 1·33 + -------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- + +A great deal has been said and written in favor of malt as a feeding +stuff, but I greatly doubt its alleged decided superiority over barley; +and until the results of accurately conducted comparative experiments +made with those articles incontestably prove that superiority, I think +it is somewhat a waste of nutriment to convert barley into malt for +feeding purposes. The gentlemen who verbally, or in writing, refer +so favorably to malt, acknowledge, with one or two exceptions, that +their experience of the article is limited. Mr. John Hudson, of +Brandon, states that he made a comparative experiment, the results +of which proved the superiority of malt. But, in fact, the only +properly-conducted experiments to determine the relative values of malt +and barley were those made some years ago by Dr. Thompson, of Glasgow, +by the direction of the Government, and those recently performed by Mr. +Lawes, both producing results unfavorable to the malt. The issue of Dr. +Thompson's investigations proved that milch cows fed on barley yielded +more milk and butter than when supplied with an equal weight of malt. + +I do not deny the probability that malt, owing to its agreeable flavor +and easy solubility, may be a somewhat better feeding stuff than barley; +and that, weight for weight, it may produce a somewhat greater increase +in the weight of the animals fed upon it: but although a pound-weight of +malt may be better than a pound-weight of barley, I am quite satisfied +that a pound's worth of barley will put up more flesh than a pound's +worth of malt. Barley-seeds consist of water, starch, nitrogenous +substances--such as gluten and albumen--fatty substances, and saline +matter. The amount of starch is considerable, being sometimes about +70 per cent. In the process of malting (which is simply the germination +of the seed under peculiar conditions), a portion of the starch is +converted into sugar and gum, the grain increases in size and becomes +friable when dried, and the internal structure of the seed is completely +broken up. During these changes a partial decomposition of the solid +matter of the seeds takes place, and a large amount of nutriment is +dissipated, chiefly in the form of carbonic acid gas. From the results +of the experience of the maltster, and of special experiments made by +scientific men, it would appear that a ton of barley will produce only +16 cwt. of malt. Allowance must, however, be made for the difference +between the amount of water contained in barley and in malt, the latter +being much drier. According to Mr. E. Holden, the centesimal loss +sustained in malting may be stated thus:-- + + Water 6·00 + Organic matter 12·52 + Saline matter 0·48 + ------ + 100·00 + +Dr. Thompson[35] sets down the loss of nutriment (exclusive of that +occasioned by kiln-drying), as follows:-- + + Carried off by the steep 1·5 + Dissipated on the floor 3·0 + Roots separated by cleaning 3·0 + Waste 0·5 + --- + 8·0 + +We may say, then, that by the malting of barley we lose at least 2-1/2 +cwt. of solid nutriment out of every ton of the article, and this loss +falls heaviest on the nitrogenous, or flesh-forming constituents of +the grain. When there are added to this loss the expense of carting +the grain to and from the malt-house, and the maltster's charge for +operating upon it (I presume in this case that the feeder is not his own +maltster), it will be found that two tons of malt will cost the farmer +nearly as much as three tons of barley; and he will then have to solve +the problem--_Whether or not malt is 40 or 50 per cent. more valuable +as a feeding-stuff than barley_. + +The difference in value between barley and malt is generally 14s. per +barrel; but it is sometimes more or less, according to the supply and +demand. Barley, well malted, will lose on the average 25 per cent. of +its weight, the loss depending, to some extent, upon the degree to which +the process is carried, and on the germinating properties of the barley. +Barley malted for roasters ought not to lose more than 21 per cent. of +its original weight--53 lbs. to the barrel. The heavier the barley the +less it loses in malting; a barrel of 224 lbs., and value from 15s. to +16s., ought to produce a barrel of malt of 196 lbs., value 29s. to 30s. + +If we deduct from the cost of a barrel of malt the amount of duty at +present levyable upon it, the price of the article will be still nearly +50 per cent. greater than that of an equal weight of barley. The cheaper +barley is the greater will be the relative cost of malt. The maltster's +charge for converting a barrel of barley into malt is about 4s.; so +that if the price of the grain be so low as 12s. per barrel, which it +sometimes is, the cost of malting it would amount to 33 per cent. of its +price. Then, the diminution in the weight of, and the cost of carting +the grain, must be taken into account; and when the whole expense +attendant upon the process of malting is ascertained, it will be found +that I have not exaggerated in stating that a ton of malt costs as much +as a ton and a half of barley. + +If the consumer of malt germinate the seeds himself, he may probably, +if he require large quantities of the article, produce it at a somewhat +cheaper rate than if he bought it from the maltster; but few persons who +have the slightest knowledge of the vexatious restrictions of the Inland +Revenue authorities would be likely to place his premises under the +_espionage_ of an excise officer. + +As the superiority of malt over barley (if such be really the case) must +be chiefly due to the looseness of its texture, which allows the juices +of the stomach to act readily upon it, barley in a cooked state might be +found quite as nutritious: It would not be fair to institute comparisons +between dense hard barley-seeds and the easily soluble malted grains. +During the cooking of barley a portion of the starch is changed into +sugar, but in this case with only an inappreciable waste of nutriment. +When the cooking process is continued for a few hours, a considerable +amount of sugar is formed, and the barley acquires a very sweet flavor. + +When the malt for cattle question was under discussion, I made a little +experiment in relation to it, the results of which are perhaps of +sufficient interest to mention:--Two pounds weight of barley-meal were +moistened with warm water; after standing for three hours more water was +added, and sufficient heat applied to cause the fluid to boil. After +fifteen minutes' ebullition, a few ounces of the pasty-like mass which +was produced were removed, thoroughly dried, and on being submitted +to analysis yielded six per cent. of sugar. The addition of a small +quantity of malt to barley undergoing the process of cooking will +rapidly convert the starch into sugar. + +Barley is naturally a well-flavored grain, and all kinds of stock eat +it with avidity. It may be rendered still more agreeable if properly +cooked, and this process will, by disintegrating its hard, fibrous +structure, set free its stores of nutriment. I incline strongly to +the opinion that barley, when well boiled, is almost, if not quite, +as digestible as malt. + +A serious disadvantage in the use of malt is, that it must be consumed, +it is said, in combination with 10 per cent. of its weight of linseed-meal +or cake. Now, malt is a very laxative food, and so is linseed; and if +the diet of stock were largely made up of these articles the animals +would, sooner or later, suffer from diarrhoea. In such case, then, +the addition of bean-meal, or of some other binding food, would become +necessary, and the compound of malt, linseed, and bean-meal thereby +formed would certainly prove anything but an economical diet. + +_Malt Combs._--I should mention that a portion of the nutriment which +the barley loses in malting passes into the radicles, or young roots, +which project from the seeds, and are technically known by the term +"combs," "combings," or "dust." At present these combs are separated +from the malt, but if the latter be intended for feeding purposes this +separation is unnecessary, and in such case the barley will not be so +much deteriorated. The combs, which constitute about 4 per cent. of the +weight of the malt, are sometimes employed as a feeding stuff. I have +made an analysis of malt-combings for the County of Kildare Agricultural +Society, and have obtained the following results:-- + + 100 PARTS CONTAINED-- + + Water 8·42 + [*] Flesh-forming (albuminous) substances 21·50 + Digestible fat-forming substances (starch, sugar, + gum, &c.) 53·47 + Indigestible woody fibre 8·57 + [+] Saline matter (ash) 8·04 + ------ + 100·00 + + [* Yielding nitrogen 3·44] + [+ Containing potash 1·35 + Containing phosphoric acid 1·74] + +This article was sold as a manure at £3 6s. per ton--a sum for which it +was not good value; but as a feeding substance it was probably worth £4 +or £5 per ton. Its composition indicates a high nutritive power; but it +is probable that its nitrogenous matters are partly in a low degree of +elaboration, which greatly detracts from its alimental value. + +In conclusion, then, I would urge the following points upon the +attention of the farmer:-- + +1st. Before using malt for feeding purposes, wait until you learn the +general results of the experience of other farmers with that article. +The manufacture of malt for feeding purposes is rapidly on the decline, +instead of, as had been anticipated, on the increase. + +2nd. Should you experiment with barley and malt, use equal money's worth +of each, and employ the barley in a cooked state. + +3rd. Use malt-combings as a feeding stuff, and not as a manure. They are +good value for at least £3 10s. per ton. + +4th. Bear in mind that a ton of barley contains more saline matter than +an equal weight of malt; consequently, that stock fed upon barley will +produce a manure richer in potash and phosphates than those supplied +with malt. + +_Leguminous Seeds._--The seeds of the bean, of the pea, and of several +other leguminous plants, are largely made use of as food for both man +and the domesticated animals. They all closely resemble each other in +composition, but in that respect differ considerably from the grains of +the _Cerealiæ_, for whilst the latter contain on an average 12 per cent. +of flesh-formers, beans and peas contain 24 per cent. The flesh-forming +constituent of the leguminous seeds is not gluten, as in the grain +of the cereals, but a substance termed _legumin_, which so closely +resembles the cheesy matter of milk that it has also received the name +of _vegetable casein_. Indeed, the Chinese make a factitious cheese out +of peas, which it is difficult to discriminate from the article of +animal origin. + +_Beans_ are used as fattening food for cattle, for which purpose they +should be ground into meal, as otherwise a large proportion of their +substance would pass through the animal's body unchanged. It is not good +economy to give a fattening bullock more than 3 or 4 lbs. weight per +diem; a larger proportion is apt to induce constipation. The very small +proportion of ready-formed fat, the moderate amount of starch, and the +exceedingly high per-centage of flesh-formers which beans contain, prove +that they are better adapted as food for beasts of burthen than for the +fattening of stock. Oats, Indian corn, or oil-cake, will be found to +produce a greater increase of meat than equal money's worth of beans +or peas, and I would therefore recommend the restriction of leguminous +seeds, under ordinary circumstances, to horses and bulls. It has been +stated, on good authority, that when oats are given whole to horses, +a large proportion passes unchanged through the animal's body, but that +on the addition of beans, the oats are thoroughly digested. + + COMPOSITION OF LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. + + --------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+---------- + | Common|Foreign| Peas.|Lentils.| Winter + | Beans.| Beans.| | | Tares + | | | | |(foreign). + --------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+---------- + Water | 13·0 | 14·5 | 14·0 | 13·0 | 15·5 + Flesh-formers | 25·5 | 23·0 | 23·5 | 24·0 | 26·5 + Fat-formers | 48·5 | 48·7 | 50·0 | 50·5 | 47·5 + Woody fibre | 10·0 | 10·0 | 10·0 | 10·0 | 9·0 + Mineral matter | 3·0 | 3·8 | 2·5 | 2·5 | 1·5 + --------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+---------- + | 100·0 | 100·0 | 100·0 | 100·0 | 100·0 + --------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+---------- + +_Oil Seeds._--The seeds of a great variety of plants, such as the flax, +hemp, rape, mustard, cotton, and sunflower, are exceedingly rich in oil, +some of them containing nearly half their weight of that substance. Of +these oil-seeds there are many which might with advantage be employed as +fattening, food, although one only--linseed--has come into general use +for that purpose. + +_Rape-seeds_ closely resemble linseeds in composition, but they are +considerably cheaper. They contain an acrid substance, but the large +proportion of oil with which it is associated almost completely +disguises its unpleasant flavor. + +_Linseed_ is one of the most valuable kinds of food which could be given +to fattening animals. Its exceedingly high proportion of ready-formed +fatty matter, the great comparative solubility of its constituents, and +its mild and agreeable flavor, constitute it an article superior to +linseed cake. The laxative properties of linseed are very decided; it +should therefore be given only in moderate quantities. As peas and +beans exercise, as I have already stated, a relaxing influence upon +the bowels, a mixture of linseed and peas or beans would be an +excellent compound, the laxative influence of the one being corrected +by the binding tendency of the other. Linseed being one of the most +concentrated feeding stuffs in use, it will be found an excellent +addition to bulky food, such as chaff and turnips. Linseed oil has +been used as a fattening food, but there is nothing to be gained by +expressing seeds for the purpose of using their oil as a feeding +material. When hay is scarce, and straw abundant, the latter may be +made almost as nutritious as the former by mixing it with linseed, and +steaming the compound. A stone of linseed and two cwt. of oat-straw +chaff, when properly cooked, constitute a most economical and +nutritious food. + +Mr. Horne, who experimented with linseed two or three years ago, +obtained results highly favorable to the nutritive value of that +article. Six bullocks were selected, and each animal placed in a +separate box. They were fed with cut roots--at first Swedes, then +mangels and Swedes, and lastly, mangels alone: in addition, there were +supplied to each 6 lbs. rough meadow-hay reduced to chaff, and 5 lbs. +oil-cake, or value to that amount. They were divided into three lots, +two in each. Lot 1 had 5 lbs. oil-cake for each animal; lot 2, barley +and wheat-meal, equal in value to the 5 lbs. oil-cake; and lot 3, an +equal money's worth of bruised linseed. The oil-cake cost £10 16s. per +ton, the mixture of barley and wheat £8 15s. per ton, and the bruised +linseed £13 per ton. The experiment lasted 112 days, and at its close +the results, which proved very favorable to the bruised linseed, were +as follows:-- + + Increase in + live weight. + + Lot 1. Oil-cake 637 lbs. + Lot 2. Wheat and barley-meal 667 lbs. + Lot 3. Bruised linseed 718 lbs. + +During the 112 days each bullock consumed 5 cwt. oil-cake (or an +equivalent amount of linseed or wheat and barley), 6 cwt. hay, and +90 cwt. of roots. The average increase in each animal's weight was +337 lbs. = 224 lbs. _dead_ weight. The economic features of this +experiment are best shown in the following figures:-- + + FOOD CONSUMED. + + £ s. d. + + 5 cwt. oil-cake, at 10s. 6d. per cwt. 2 12 6 + 6 cwt. hay, at 3s. per cwt. 0 18 0 + 16 weeks' attendance, at 6d. per week 0 8 0 + --------- + £3 18 6 + --------- + Gained 16 stones per week, at 8s. per stone 6 8 0 + --------- + Balance to pay for 90 cwt. of roots 2 9 6 + +The manure obtained afforded a good profit. + +The seed-pods, or, as they are termed, the _bolls_ of the flax, +have been recommended as an excellent feeding stuff. They are not +so nutritious as linseed, but they are cheaper, and when produced +on the farm must be an economical food. Mr. Charley, an intelligent +stock-feeder in the county of Antrim, and an eminent authority in every +subject in relation to flax, strongly recommends the use of flax-bolls. +He says:-- + + The cost of rippling is considerable; but I believe, for + every £1 expended, on an average a return is realised of £2, + particularly on a farmstead where many horses and cattle are + regularly kept. The flax-bolls contain much more nourishment + than the linseed-cake from which the oil has, of course, been + expressed, and they form a most valuable addition to the warm + food prepared during winter for the animals just named. I believe + they have also a highly beneficial effect in warding off internal + disease, owing, no doubt, to the soothing and slightly purgative + properties of the oil contained in the seed. The change made in + the appearance of the animals receiving some of the bolls in their + steamed food is very apparent after a few weeks' trial; and the + smoothness and sleekness of their shining coats plainly show the + benefit derived. Is it not surprising, with this fact before our + eyes, that many agriculturists--indeed, I fear the majority--persist + in the old-fashioned system of taking the flax to a watering-place + with its valuable freight of seed unremoved, and plunge the sheaves + under water, losing thereby, _in the most wanton manner_, rich + feeding materials, worth from £1 to £3 per statute acre? + + +In the following table, the composition of all the more important +oil-seeds is given:-- + + COMPOSITION OF OIL-SEEDS, ACCORDING TO DR. ANDERSON. + + --------------------------+---------+----------+----------+--------------- + | | | | Cotton-seed + |Linseed. |Rape-seed.|Hemp-seed.|(decorticated). + +---------+----------+----------+--------------- + | | | | + Water | 7·50 | 7·13 | 6·47 | 6·57 + | | | | + Oil | 34·00 | 36·81 | 31·84 | 31·24 + | | | | + Albuminous compounds | | | | + (Flesh-formers) | 24·44 | 21·50 | 22·60 | 31·86 + | | | | + Gum, mucilage, sugar, &c. | \ | 18·73 | \ | 14·12 + | }30·73 | | }32·72 | + Woody-fibre | / | 6·86 | / | 7·30 + | | | | + Mineral matter (ash) | 3·33 | 8·97 | 6·37 | 8·91 + +---------+----------+----------+--------------- + | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 + --------------------------+---------+----------+----------+--------------- + +_Fenugreek-seed_ is used very extensively in the preparation of +"Condimental food." It is often given to horses out of condition. +Sheep have been liberally supplied with this food, which, however, +it is stated, communicates a disagreeable flavor to the mutton. +It contains, according to Voelcker, the following:-- + + Water 11·994 + Flesh-formers 26·665 + Starch, gum, and pectin 37·111 + Sugar 2·220 + Fatty and oily matters 8·320 + Woody fibre 10·820 + Inorganic matter 2·870 + ------- + 100·000 + + +SECTION VII. + +OIL-CAKES, AND OTHER ARTIFICIAL FOODS. + +Oil-seeds, on being subjected to considerable pressure, part with +a large proportion of their oil, the remaining part of that fluid, +together with the various other ingredients of the seeds, constitute +the substances so well known to agriculturists under the name of +oil-cakes. These cakes contain a larger proportion of ready-formed +fatty matter than is found in any other feeding stuff, and an amount +of flesh-forming principles far greater than that yielded by corn, +or even by beans; the manure, too, which is produced by the cattle fed +upon some of them, is often good value for nearly half the sum expended +on the food. + +The principal kinds of oil-cake employed for feeding purposes are the +following:--Linseed-cake, Rape-cake, and cotton-seed cake. Poppy cake is +not much in use. Their average composition, deduced from the results of +numerous analyses made by Voelcker, Anderson, and myself, are shown in +the following table:-- + + AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF OIL-CAKES. + + ---------------------------+---------+------+------------+------- + | Linseed | |Decorticated| + | Cake, | Rape | Cottonseed | Poppy + | English.| Cake.| Cake. | Cake. + +---------+------+------------+------- + Water | 12 | 11 | 9 | 12 + Flesh-forming principles | 28 | 30 | 38 | 32 + Oil | 10 | 11 | 13 | 6 + Gum, mucilage, &c. | 34 | 30 | 23 | 30 + Woody fibre | 10 | 10 | 9 | 9 + Mineral matter (ash) | 6 | 8 | 8 | 1 + +---------+------+------------+------- + | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 + ---------------------------+---------+------+------------+------- + +_Linseed Cake._--Within the last quarter of a century great attention +has been given to the feeding of stock, and the effects are observable +in the improved quality and greatly increased weight of the animals. +In the year 1839 the average weight of the horned beasts from Ireland +sold in the London market was only 650 lbs., whereas at the present +time their average weight is about 740 lbs. This remarkable advance +in the production of meat is in great part due to the cattle being more +liberally supplied with food, and that, too, of a more concentrated +nature. The practice of feeding animals destined for the shambles +exclusively on roots containing 90 and even 95 per cent. of water, which +once prevailed so generally in this country, is now limited to the +farmsteads of a few old-fashioned feeders; and the necessity for the +admixture of highly-nutritious aliment with the bulky substances which +form the staple food of stock is almost universally recognised. + +Of concentrated foods used for fattening stock, none stands higher in +the estimation of the farmer than linseed-cake, although it appears to +me that the price of the article is somewhat too high in relation to +its amount of nutriment, and that corn, if its price be moderate, is +a more economical food. Straw, turnips, and mangels form the bone and +sinew of the animals, and enable them to carry on the vital operations +which are essential to their existence. Oil-cake and similar foods are +supplemental, and contribute directly to the animal's increase, so that +their nutritive value appears to be greater than it really is. If an +animal were fed exclusively upon oil-cake, the greater part of it would +be appropriated to the reparation of the waste of the body, and the rest +would be converted into permanent flesh--the animal's "increase." The +addition of straw would produce a still further increase in the animal's +weight--an increase which would be directly proportionate to the amount +of straw consumed. Thus it will be seen that, whatever the staple food +may be, it will have to sustain the life of the animal, and will be +principally expended for that purpose, whereas the supplemental food +will be chiefly, if not entirely, made use of in increasing the weight +of flesh. To me it appears manifestly incorrect to consider, as feeders +practically do, the value of linseed-cake to be seven or eight times +greater than that of oat-straw, and twenty times greater than that of +roots. Let us assume the case of an animal fed upon roots, straw, and +oil-cake. Seventy-five per cent. of its food, say, is expended in +repairing the waste of its body, and 25 per cent. is stored up in its +increase. Now, if the three kinds of food contributed proportionately +to the reparation of the body and to its increase, the roots and straw +would be found to possess a far higher nutritive value, in relation to +the oil-cake, than is usually ascribed to them. + +But it may be asked why straw, if it be relatively a much more +economical feeding stuff than oil-cake, is not employed to the complete +exclusion of the latter. I have already given an answer to such a +question, namely, that animals thrive better on a diet composed partly +of bulky, partly of concentrated aliments. This much, however, is +certain, that animals can be profitably fed upon roots and straw, whilst +it is equally certain that to feed them upon oil-cake alone (assuming +them to thrive upon such a diet) would entail a very heavy loss upon +the feeder. At the same time it must be admitted that the oil of the +linseed-cake exercises in all probability a beneficial influence on the +digestion of the animal, so that the nutritive value of the article may +be somewhat higher than its mere composition would indicate. + +The quantity of oil-cake given to fattening stock varies from 2 lbs. to +14 lbs. per diem. I believe there is no greater mistake made by feeders +than that of giving excessive quantities of this substance to stock. If +their object in so doing be to enrich their manure-heap, they would find +it far more economical to add the cake directly to the manure--or rather +of adding rape-cake to it, for this variety of cake is fully as valuable +for manurial purposes as the linseed-cake, and is nearly 50 per cent. +cheaper. A larger quantity of oil-cake than 7 lbs. daily should not be +given to even the largest-sized milch cows or fattening bullocks. If a +larger amount be employed, it will pass unchanged through the animal's +body. Young cattle may with advantage be supplied with from 1 to 3 lbs., +according to their size, and from 1/2 to 1 lb. will be a sufficient +quantity for sheep. Intelligent feeders have remarked, that cattle which +had been always supplied with a moderate allowance of this food fattened +more readily upon it, during their finishing stage, than did stock which +had not been accustomed to its use. + +_Adulteration of Linseed Cake._--The great drawback to the use of +linseed-cake is the liability of the article to be adulterated. The +sophistication is sometimes of a harmless nature, if we except its +injurious effect on the farmer's pocket; but not unfrequently the +substances added to the cakes possess properties which completely unfit +them to be used as food. Amongst the injurious substances found in +linseed and linseed-cake I may mention the seeds of the purging-flax, +darnel, spurry, corn-cockle, curcus-beans, and castor-oil beans. +Several of these seeds are highly drastic purgatives, and they have +been known to cause intense inflammation of the bowels of animals fed +upon oil-cake, of which they composed but a small proportion. Amongst +the adulterations of linseed-cake, which lower its nutritive value +without imparting to it any injurious properties, are the seeds of +the cereals and the grasses, bran, and flax-straw. Little black seeds +belonging to various species of _Polygonum_, are very often present +in even good cakes; they are very indigestible, but otherwise are not +injurious. Rape-cake is stated to be occasionally used as adulterant +of the more costly linseed, but I have never met with an admixture of +the two articles. + +The only way in which a correct estimate of the value of linseed-cake +can be arrived at is by a combined microscopical and chemical analysis; +but as the feeder is not always disposed to incur the cost of this +process, he should make himself acquainted with the characteristic +of the genuine cake, in order to be able to discriminate, as far as +possible, between it and the sophisticated article. I will indicate a +few of the more prominent features of cake of excellent quality, and +point out a few simple and easily-performed tests, which may serve +to detect the existence of gross adulteration. Good cake is hard, of +a reddish-brown color, uniform in appearance, and possesses a rather +pleasant flavor and odour. The adulterated cake is commonly of a greyish +hue, and has a disagreeable odour. A weighed quantity of the cake--say +100 grains--in the state of powder should be formed into a paste with +an ounce of water; if it be good, the paste will be light colored, +moderately stiff, and endowed with a pleasant odour and flavor. If the +paste be thin, the presence of bran, or of grass seeds, is probable. +The latter are easily seen through a magnifying-glass; indeed, most +of them are readily recognisable by the unassisted eye: they may, +therefore, be picked out, and their weight determined. Sand--a frequent +adulterant--may be detected by mixing a small weighed quantity of the +powdered cake with about twelve times its weight of water, allowing the +mixture to stand for half an hour, and collecting and weighing the sand +which will be found at the bottom of the vessel employed. If there be +bran present it will be found lying on the sand, and its structure +is sufficiently distinct to admit of its detection by a mere glance. +There are a great variety of linseed-cakes in the market, of which +the home-made article is the best. On the Continent the oil-seeds are +subjected to the action of heat in order to obtain from them a greater +yield of oil. Their cakes, therefore, contain less oil, and their +flesh-forming principles are less soluble, in comparison with British +linseed-cake. Next to our home-made oil-cakes, the American is the +best. Indeed, I have met with some American cakes which were equal to +the best English. + +_Rape Cake._--The use of rape-cake was limited almost completely to the +fertilising of the soil until the late Mr. Pusey, in a paper published +in the tenth volume of the _Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of +England_, advocated its employment as a substitute for the more costly +linseed-cake. The recommendation of this distinguished agriculturist +has not been disregarded; and since his time the use of this cake as a +feeding stuff has been steadily on the increase, and at the present time +its annual consumption is not far short of 50,000 tons. + +In relation to the nutritive value of rape-cake there exists considerable +diversity of opinion. Certain feeders assert that animals fed upon it go +out of condition; others, whilst admitting that stock thrive upon it, +maintain the economic superiority of linseed-cake; whilst a third +set believe rape-cake to be the most economical of feeding-stuffs. +How are we to account for these great differences of opinion--not +amongst _theorists_, be it observed, but amongst practical men? +It is not difficult to explain them away satisfactorily. Rape-cake +and linseed-cake are about equally rich in muscle and fat-forming +principles; and, supposing both to be equally well-flavored, there can +be no doubt but that one is just as nourishing as the other. But it so +happens that a large proportion of the rape-cake which comes into the +British market possesses a flavor which renders it very disagreeable +to animals. One variety--namely, the East Indian--is almost poisonous, +whilst the very best kind is slightly inferior to linseed-cake. Now, if +an experiment with a very inferior kind of rape-cake and a good variety +of linseed-cake were tried, who can doubt but that the results would be +very unfavorable to the former article? Mr. Callan,[36] of Rathfarnham, +county Dublin; Mr. Bird,[37] of Renton Barns, and some other feeders, +who found rape-cake to be worse than useless, experimented, in all +probability, with an adulterated article, for they do not appear to +have had the cake analysed. On the other hand, those whose experience +with rape-cake has proved favorable, must have employed the article +in a genuine state, fresh, and moderately well-flavored. It is +noteworthy that amongst the advocates for the use of rape-cake as +a substitute--partly or entirely--for the more costly linseed-cake, +are to be found the most successful feeders in England and Scotland. +Horsfall, Mechi, Lawrence, Bond, Hope, and many other feeders of equal +celebrity, have assigned to rape-cake the highest place, in an economic +point of view, amongst the concentrated feeding stuffs. Mr. Mechi +says:--"I invariably give to all my animals as much rape-cake as they +choose to eat, however abundant their roots or green food may be. It +pays in many ways, and not to do this is a great pecuniary mistake. +Even when fed on green rape, they will eat rape-cake abundantly. +My cattle are now under cover, eating the steamed chaff, rape-cake, +malt-combs, and bran, all mixed together in strict accordance with +the proportions named by Mr. Horsfall in the _Journal of the Royal +Agricultural Society_, vol. xviii., p. 150,[38] which I find by far +the most profitable mode of feeding bullocks and cows." Mr. Hope, of +Edinburgh, states that rape-cake is the best substitute for turnips, +and that, excepting cases where spurious kinds had been used, he never +knew bullocks or milch cows to refuse it. This gentleman states that +it is best given in combination with locust-beans, or a mixture of +locust-beans and Indian corn; and suggests the proportions set down +in the tables as the best adapted for lean cattle; but I think about +two-thirds of the quantities would be quite sufficient. + + Feed per week. Per week. + + lbs. s. d. + + Rape-cake at £5 15s. per ton 8 2 10-1/2 + Do. do. 10 3 7 + Mixture of two-thirds rape-cake and + one-third locust-beans £6 8 3 0 + Do. do. 10 3 9 + Rape-cake, locust-beans, and Indian + Corn in equal proportions 8 3 2-1/2 + Do. do. 10 3 11-1/4 + +An intelligent Scotch dairy farmer bears the following testimony in +favor of this cake:-- + + I have tried pease-meal, bean-meal, oat-meal, and linseed-cake, + and after carefully noting the results, I consider rape-cake, + weight for weight, at least equal to any of them for milch cows; + and if I give the same money value for each, I get at least + one-third more produce, and the butter is always of a very + superior quality. Two years ago, I took some of my best oats + (41 lbs. per bushel), and ground them for the cows, and although + I was at about one-third more expense, I lost fully one-third of + the produce that I had by using rape-cake. I always dissolve it + by pouring boiling water on it, and give each cow 6 lbs. daily. + I have tried a larger quantity, and found I was fully repaid for + the extra expense. I generally use it the most of the summer, + but always during the spring months. A number of my neighbours + who have tried it all agree that it is the best and cheapest + feed for milch cows they have used.--_North British Agriculturist_, + Edinburgh, February 29, 1860. + + +The best kinds of rape-cake come from Germany and Denmark. When +neither too old nor too fresh, and of a pale-green color, these +foreign cakes are tolerably well-flavored, and are but slightly +inferior to good linseed-cake. Most varieties of this cake, however, +contain a small proportion of acrid matter, which often renders them +more or less distasteful to stock, more particularly to cattle. This +substance may be rendered quite innocuous by steaming or boiling the +cake; either of these processes will also, according to Mr. Lawrence, +destroy the disagreeable flavor which mustard-seed--a frequent +adulterant of rape-cake--confers upon that article. Molasses or treacle +is an excellent adjunct to the cake, as it serves in a great measure to +correct its somewhat unpleasant flavor. Carob, or locust-beans, answer, +perhaps better, the same purpose. It is better, as a general rule, +to give less rape-cake than linseed-cake, unless the pale-green kind +to which I have referred is obtainable; that variety may be largely +employed. The animals should be gradually accustomed to its use. At +first, in the case of bullocks, they should get only 1 lb. per diem, +and the quantity should be gradually increased to about 4 lbs.; but +I would not advise, under any circumstances, a larger daily allowance +than 5 lbs. Given in moderate amounts, it will, supposing it to be of +fair quality, be found to give a better return in meat than almost any +other kind of concentrated food; and, what is of great importance, it +will not injuriously affect the animal's health. "Our experience of the +use of rape-cake," says Mr. Lawrence, "thus used (cooked), extends over +a period of ten years of feeding from 20 to 24 bullocks annually. We +have not had a single death during that period, and the animals have +been remarkably free from any kind of ailment." + +Rape-cake of good quality possesses a dark-green color (the greener +the better), and when broken exhibits a mottled aspect--yellowish and +dark-brown spots. Sometimes a tolerably good specimen has a brownish +color; but the German and Danish cakes are always of a greenish hue. +The odor is stronger than that of linseed-cake, and differs but little +from that of rape-oil. The only serious adulteration of rape-cake +is the addition to it of mustard-seed--sometimes accidentally--less +frequently, as I believe, intentionally. This sophistication admits of +easy detection. Scrape into small particles about half an ounce of the +cake, add six times its weight of water, form the solid and liquid +into a paste, and allow the mixture to stand for a few hours. If the +cake contain mustard the characteristic odor of that substance will be +evolved, and its intensity will afford a rough indication of the amount +of the adulterant. As some specimens of genuine rape-cake possess a +somewhat pungent odor, care must be taken not to confound it with that +of mustard; but, indeed, it is not difficult to discriminate the latter. +The paste of rape-cake which contains an injurious proportion of +mustard, has a very pungent flavor. Rape-cake improves somewhat if kept +for say six months; but old cake is worse than the fresh article. + +_Cottonseed Cake_ is one of the most valuable feeding stuffs that +have come into use of late years. Its chemical composition shows it +to be about equal to that of the best linseed-cake, and as its price +is much lower than that of the latter, it may be fairly considered +a more economical food. These remarks apply only to the shelled, or +decorticated seed-cake, for the article prepared from the whole seed is +of very inferior composition, and should never be employed. The use of +the cake made from the whole seed has proved fatal in many instances, +not from its possessing any poisonous quality, but in consequence +of its hard, indigestible husk, accumulating in, and inflaming, the +animal's bowels. + +The composition of this cake varies somewhat. The following analysis of +a sample from one of the Western States of North America, imported by +Messrs. G. Seagrave and Co., of Liverpool, was made by me:-- + + COMPOSITION OF DECORTICATED COTTON-SEED CAKE. + + Water 8·20 + Oil 10·16 + Albuminous, or flesh-forming principles 40·25 + Gum, sugar, &c. 21·10 + Fibre 9·23 + Ash (mineral matter) 11·06 + ------ + 100·00 + +In some specimens so much as 16 per cent. of oil has been found. The +purchaser of cotton-seed cake should be certain that it is not old and +mouldy, which is frequently the case. The recently prepared cake has +a very yellow color, which becomes fainter as the cake becomes older. +Freshness is a very desirable quality in nearly every kind of cake. +I have known animals to have a greater relish for, and thrive better +upon, home-made linseed-cake than upon cake of foreign manufacture of +superior composition, but of greater age. + +_Palm-nut Meal, or Cake_ is a very valuable fattening food. It is +extremely rich in ready-formed fatty matters, but at the same time it is +not very deficient in albuminous substances. Its strong flavor is rather +a drawback to its use in the case of all the farm animals, except pigs. +This difficulty may, however, be got over by using the cake in moderate +quantities, and by combining it with other food possessed of a good +flavor. Reports of practical trials made with this food appear to have +almost uniformly given very favorable results. This food is only three +or four years in use. The first samples that came into my hand were +richer in fatty matters than those which I have recently examined. +The average results of eight analyses made from 1864 to 1866 were +as follows:-- + + 100 PARTS CONTAINED-- + + Water 7·48 + Albuminous matters 17·26 + Fatty substances 21·59 + Gum, sugar, &c. 32·14 + Fibre 17·18 + Mineral matter 4·35 + ------ + 100·00 + +This year I have not found more than 17 per cent. of fat in any sample +of palm-nut cake. One specimen which I analysed for Mr. J. G. Alexander, +seed merchant, of Dublin, had the following composition:-- + + Water 9·24 + Albuminous matters 19·28 + Fatty matters 9·36 + Gum, starch, fibre, &c. 53·22 + Mineral matters 8·90 + ------ + 100·00 + +But although inferior samples are occasionally met with, I may say +of palm-nut cake that on the whole it is a food which deserves to be +largely used, and which at its present price is the most economical +source of fat. To milch-cows and fattening cattle about 3 lbs. per diem +may be given; 1/4 lb. will be sufficient for young sheep, whilst pigs +may be very liberally supplied with this food. + +The _Locust, or Carob Bean_, is now largely used by the stock-feeder. +It is extremely rich in sugar, and is therefore an excellent fattening +and milk-producing food. It is used largely in the preparation of the +sweet kinds of artificial food for cattle. It is not well adapted for +young animals, owing to its deficiency of albuminous matters. The +following analysis shows the average composition of this food:-- + + Water 14 + Sugar 50 + Albuminous matters 8 + Oil 1 + Gum, &c. 20 + Woody fibre 5 + Ash 2 + --- + 100 + +_Dates_ have been used, but only in very small quantities, as cattle +food. Their composition is not constant, some samples being greatly +inferior in nutritive power to others; they are rich in sugar, +and if they were obtained in sufficient quantities they might, like +carob-beans, come into general use with the stock-feeder. They contain +about 2 per cent. of flesh-formers, 10 per cent. of fat-formers (chiefly +sugar), and 2 per cent. of mineral matter. + +Distillery and brewery dregs (or wash) are chiefly used by dairymen. +According to Dr. Anderson, an imperial gallon (700,000 grains) of +distillery wash (from a distillery near Edinburgh) contained 4,130 +grains of organic matter, and 276 grains of mineral substances. +He considers that 15 gallons of this stuff were equal in nutritive +materials to 100 pounds of turnips. The following is the centesimal +composition of brewery wash:-- + + Water 75·85 + Albuminous matters 0·62 + Gummy matters 1·06 + Other organic matter (husks, &c.) 21·28 + Mineral matters 1·19 + ------ + 100·00 + +_Molasses_ constitute a very fattening food, sometimes, but not +often, given to stock. Treacle and molasses are composed of +non-crystallisable sugar, cane-sugar, water, and saline and other +impurities. The composition of average specimens of molasses, as +imported, is as follows:-- + + + Cane-sugar 50 + Non-crystallisable sugar and grape-sugar 25 + Water, saline matter, and organic impurities 25 + --- + 100 + +If admitted duty free, molasses would be a much more economical food +than it now is, but at its present price it must be regarded as a mere +flavoring food. + +Mr. T. Cooke Burroughs, a West Suffolk feeder, who used treacle in 1864, +gives the following mode of mixing it with other food:-- + + My plan has been (and is still carried on) to give to each + bullock per day (divided into three meals) one pint of treacle + dissolved in two gallons of water, and sprinkled, by means of + a garden water-pot, over four bushels of cut chaff (two-thirds + straw and one-third hay) amongst which a quarter of a peck of + meal (barley and wheat) is mixed, the animals also having free + access to water. The cost of the treacle and meal together + is about 3s. per bullock per week. My bullocks (two-year old + Shorthorns) have grown and thrived upon the above diet to my + utmost satisfaction; and even during the present dry and warm + weather they evince no lingering after roots or grass. I am well + aware that the use of treacle for neat stock is no new discovery + of my own, as I learnt the system while on a visit to a friend + in Norfolk, where some graziers have used it in combination with + roots during many years past. Perhaps flax-seed (linseed) boiled + into a jelly and used in a similar way, may be a more profitable + "substitute for roots" than treacle; but the preparation of it is + attended with more expense and trouble. + + +SECTION VIII. + +CONDIMENTAL FOOD. + +Although every farmer may not have used, there are few who have not +heard of "Thorley's Condimental Food for Cattle." This nostrum is a +compound of some of the ordinary foods with certain well-known aromatic +and carminative substances. It possesses a very agreeable flavor, and it +is therefore much relished by horses, and indeed by every kind of stock. +The price of this compound was at first so much as £60 per ton; but +owing to competition, and perhaps to the attacks made upon the +enormously high price of this article, it is now to be obtained at +prices varying from £12 to £24 per ton. + +The inventor of condimental food, and the numerous fabricators of that +compound, claim for it merits of no ordinary nature. Its use, they +assert, not only maintains the animals fed upon it in excellent health, +but it also exercises so remarkable an action upon the adipose tissues +that fat accumulates to an immense extent. Moreover, it is said that an +animal supplied with a very moderate daily modicum of this wonderful +compound, will consume less of its ordinary food, though rapidly +becoming fat. + +Now, if these assertions were perfectly, or even approximatively, +true, Mr. Thorley would be well deserving of a niche in the temple of +fame, and stock-feeders would ever regard him as a benefactor to his +own and the bovine species; but I fear that Mr. Thorley's imagination +outstripped his reason when he described in such glowing terms the +wonderful virtues of his tonic food. + +Mr. J. B. Lawes, of Rothamstead, than whom there is no more accurate +experimenter in agricultural practice, states that he made many careful +trials with Thorley's food, and that he never found it to exercise +the slightest influence upon the nutrition of the animals fed upon it. +In his report upon this subject, Mr. Lawes, after describing the +experiments which he made, sums up as follows:-- + + There is nothing therefore in the above results to recommend the + use of Thorley's condiment with inferior fattening food, to those + who feed pigs for profit. In fact, the following balance-sheet of + the experiment shows that, in fattening for twelve weeks, there + was a balance of £1 10s. 11d. in favor of the lot fed without + Thorley's food, notwithstanding that one of the pigs in that lot + did badly throughout the experiment, as above stated. + + LOT 1.--WITH BARLEY-MEAL AND BRAN. + + £ s. d. + + 4 pigs bought in at 41s. 6d. each 8 6 0 + 1,860-3/4 lbs. barley, at 37s. 6d. per + quarter of 416 lbs., including grinding 8 7 8-3/4 + 1,024-3/4 lbs. bran at 5s. 6d. per cwt. 2 10 3-3/4 + ------------ + 19 4 0-1/2 + 88 stone 5 lbs. of pork sold at 4s. 4d. + per stone, sinking the offal 19 4 0-1/2 + + LOT 2.--WITH BARLEY-MEAL, BRAN, AND THORLEY'S FOOD. + + £ s. d. + + 4 pigs bought in at 41s. 6d. each 8 6 0 + 1,862-3/4 lbs. barley, at 37s. 6d. per + quarter of 416 lbs., including grinding 8 7 10-1/4 + 1,020-3/4 lbs. bran at 5s. 6d. per cwt. 2 10 1-1/2 + 105 lbs. Thorley's food at 40s. per cwt. 1 17 6 + ------------ + 21 1 5-3/4 + 90 stone 1 lb. pork sold at 4s. 4d. + per stone, sinking the offal 19 10 6-1/2 + ------------ + 1 10 11-1/4 + +The results of these experiments with pigs, in which Thorley's condiment +was used with inferior fattening food, may be summed up as follows:-- + + 1. The addition of Thorley's condimental food increased the + amount of food consumed by a given weight of animal within + a given time. + + 2. When Thorley's condiment was given it required more food + to produce a given amount of increase in live-weight. + + 3. In fattening for twelve weeks there was a difference of + £1 10s. 11d. on the lot of 4 pigs in favor of barley-meal + and bran alone, over barley-meal, bran, and Thorley's food + in addition. + + +At a meeting of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of +England, held some time ago, the subject of the nutrimental value of +condimental cattle food was discussed. As there is scarcely any kind of +quackery, from spirit manifestations to Holloway's pills, that has not +got its believers, there were, as might have been anticipated, some +voices raised at this meeting in favor of Thorley's food; but the +_sense_ of the meeting was decidedly against it. Professor Simonds +pronounced it to be worthless. + +Although the greater number of equine proprietors and feeders of stock +are too sensible to throw their money away in the purchase of those +costly foods, still there are by no means an insignificant number who +employ it, under the idea that it preserves the health of the animals; +these stuffs are also highly appreciated by many grooms and herds. +Now, for the information of all believers, I may state that there is +no mystery whatever in the nature of condimental cattle foods. They +consist in substance of such matters as linseed-cake, Indian corn, +rice, bean-meal, locust-beans, and malt-combings. These substances +are flavored by the addition of turmeric-root, ginger, coriander-seed, +carraway-seed, fenugreek-seed, aniseed, liquorice, and similar +substances. In addition to the nutritive and flavorous articles employed +in the manufacture of these foods, purely medicinal substances are also +made use of with the idea that they would prove useful in maintaining +the health and stimulating the appetite of the animals. These medicinal +ingredients constitute but a small proportion of the compound, although +they add considerably to the cost of manufacture. The following is a +formula for a condimental food, which in every respect will be found +fully equal, if not superior, to the ordinary high-priced articles. + + cwt. qrs. lbs. + + Linseed-meal, or cake 7 0 0 + Locust beans (ground) 8 0 0 + Indian corn 4 1 0 + Powdered turmeric 0 1 4 + Ginger 0 0 3 + Fenugreek-seed 0 0 2 + Gentian 0 0 10 + Cream of tartar 0 0 2 + Sulphur 0 0 20 + Common salt 0 0 10 + Coriander-seed 0 0 5 + ----------------- + One ton. + +A ton of condimental food manufactured according to this formula will +cost only about the same amount as an equal weight of linseed, and will +produce an effect fully equal to that of the food which at one time was +sold at £60 per ton. + +Whatever may be the medicinal virtues of these foods, or however +appropriate the term "condimental" which has been applied to them, +it is quite certain that their whilom designation "concentrated" +was a misnomer. Their composition shows that they possess a degree of +nutritive power considerably below that of linseed-cake, and but little, +if at all, superior to that of Indian corn. + +The following analytical statement, which I published some years ago, +will give an insight into the nature of these articles:-- + + ANALYSES OF CONDIMENTAL FOOD. + + Thorley's. Bradley's. + + Water 12·00 12·09 + Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles 14·92 10·36 + Oil 6·08 5·80 + Gum, sugar, mucilage, &c. 56·86 60·21 + Woody fibre 5·46 5·32 + Mineral matter (ash) 4·68 6·22 + ------ ------ + 100·00 100·00 + +As a ton of linseed-cake contains a greater amount of nutriment than +an equal quantity of condimental food, the latter should be clearly +proved to possess very valuable specific virtues, in order to induce the +feeder to use it extensively. Cattle and horses out of condition may be +benefited by its carminative and tonic properties; but if they are, it +surely must be a bad practice to feed healthy animals upon a substance +which is a remedy in disease. It is asserted, and probably with some +degree of truth, that when dainty, over-fed stock loathe their food, +they are induced to eat greedily by mixing the "condimental" with their +ordinary food. If such really be the case, let the feeder compound the +article himself, and effect thereby a saving of perhaps 50 or 80 per +cent. in the cost of it. A good condimental food, rich in actual +nutriment, and pleasantly flavored, is no doubt a compound which might +be used with advantage; but it should be sold at a moderate and fair +price. + + * * * * * + +[Footnote 26: See Transactions of Highland and Agricultural Society of +Scotland for 1852.] + +[Footnote 27: Zig-zag clover, or Marl grass? Cowgrass is _Trifolium +pratense perenne_.] + +[Footnote 28: This gentleman has invented an exceedingly simple but +effective furze-bruiser, which I hope soon to see in general use.] + +[Footnote 29: H. Le Docte, in _Journal de la Société Centrale +d'Agriculture de Belgique_.] + +[Footnote 30: Cellulose is the term applied to the chemical substance +which forms woody fibre. The latter is made up of very minute +spindle-shaped tubes. In young and succulent plants these tubes are +often lined with layers of soft cellulose. In many plants--such as +trees--in a certain stage of development, the substance lining the cells +is very hard, and is termed _lignin_, or _sclerogen_. This substance is +merely a modification of cellulose; and both resemble in composition +sugar and starch so closely that, by heating them with sulphuric acid, +they may be converted into sugar.] + +[Footnote 31: One part of oil is equal to 2-1/2 parts of starch--that is, +2-1/2 parts of starch are expended in the production of +1 part of fat.] + +[Footnote 32: No difference is here assumed between the nutritive value +of sugar and starch.] + +[Footnote 33: Unless when Kohl-rabi is cultivated, for the bulbs of this +plant may be preserved in good condition up to June. I have advocated +the cultivation of the radish as a food crop in the "Agricultural +Review" for 1861.] + +[Footnote 34: According to some chemists, sugar does not exist in ripe +grain, but is produced in it, during the process of analysis, by the +action of the re-agents employed and the influence of the air.] + +[Footnote 35: Report to Government on feeding cattle with Malt, 1844.] + +[Footnote 36: _Monthly Agricultural Review_, Dublin, February, 1859.] + +[Footnote 37: _Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society +of Scotland,_ October, 1858.] + +[Footnote 38: 3 lbs. of rape-cake, 3/4 lb. malt combs, 3/4 lb. bran, +steamed together with a sufficient quantity of straw.] + + +SECTION IX.--ANALYSES OF THE ASHES OF PLANTS. + +(_Extracted from the Author's "Chemistry of Agriculture."_) + +Those numbers marked with an asterisk refer to 100 parts of the +substance in its natural or undried state; the remaining numbers +refer to 100 parts when dried. + + +----------------------+-------+---------------+-------+-------+-------+ + | | | Flax. | | | | + | | +-------+-------+ | | White | + | | Rape | | | Peas. | Kidney| Turnip| + | | Seed. | Stalk.| Seed. | | Beans.| Seed. | + +----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + |Potash | 25·18 | 34·96 | 32·55 | 43·09 | 36·83 | 21·91 | + |Soda | ... | ... | 2·51 | ... | 18·40 | 1·23 | + |Lime | 12·91 | 15·87 | 9·45 | 4·77 | 7·75 | 17·40 | + |Magnesia | 11·39 | 3·68 | 16·23 | 8·06 | 6·33 | 8·74 | + |Sesquioxide of Iron | 0·62 | 4·84 | 0·38 | ... | 2·24 | 1·95 | + | " Manganese | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | + |Sulphuric Acid | 0·53 | 4·99 | 1·43 | 0·44 | 3·96 | 7·10 | + |Muriatic Acid | 0·11 | ... | ... | 1·96 | ... | ... | + |Carbonic Acid | 2·20 | 13·39 | ... | ... | ... | 0·82 | + |Phosphoric Acid | 45·95 | 8·48 | 35·99 | 40·56 | 11·60 | 40·17 | + |Silica | 1·11 | 5·60 | 1·46 | 0·79 | 4·09 | 0·67 | + |Chloride of Potassium | ... | 7·65 | ... | ... | ... | ... | + |Chloride of Sodium | ... | 0·54 | ... | ... | 2·80 | ... | + | +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | Total |100·00 |100·00 |100·00 | 99·67 |100·00 | 99·99 | + | Per-centage of Ash | 4·51 | 5·00 | 3·05 | 5·21 | 0·68 | 3·98 | + | | | | | | * | | + +----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + + +----------------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+--------+ + | | | | | | | + | | Turnip | | Mangel | | | + | | Bulb |Cucumber.| Wurtzel|Potatoes | Hop | + | | (Swede).| | Seed. |(tubers).|Flowers.| + +----------------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+--------+ + |Potash | 39·82 | 47·52 | 16·08 | 35·15 | 19·41 | + |Soda | 10·86 | ... | 6·86 | 5·77 | 0·70 | + |Lime | 12·75 | 6·31 | 13·42 | 2·14 | 14·15 | + |Magnesia | 4·68 | 4·26 | 15·22 | 2·69 | 5·34 | + |Sesquioxide of Iron | 0·89 | ... | 0·40 | 1·79 | 2·41 | + | " Manganese | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | + |Sulphuric Acid | 13·15 | 4·60 | 3·64 | 3·29 | 8·28 | + |Muriatic Acid | 3·68 | ... | ... | ... | 2·26 | + |Carbonic Acid | ... | ... | 13·85 | 17·14 | 11·01 | + |Phosphoric Acid | 6·69 | 18·03 | 13·35 | 20·70 | 14·64 | + |Silica | 7·05 | 7·12 | 1·86 | 3·00 | 18·56 | + |Chloride of Potassium | ... | 4·19 | ... | 1·84 | ... | + |Chloride of Sodium | ... | 9·06 | 15·30 | 6·49 | 2·95 | + | +---------+---------+--------+---------+--------+ + | Total | 99·57 | 100·09 | 99·98 | 100·00 | 99·71 | + | Per-centage of Ash | 7·60 | 0·63 | 6·58 | | 6·05 | + | | | * | | | | + +----------------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+--------+ + +The number marked with an asterisk refers to 100 parts of the +substance in its natural or undried state; the remaining numbers +refer to 100 parts when dried. + + +----------------------+--------+--------+--------+------+-------------+ + | | | | |Husks | Rye. | + | |Cauli- |Hopeton |Potato | of +-------------+ + | |flowers.|Oats |Oats. |Potato|Grain.|Straw.| + | | |(Grain).|(Grain).|Oats. | | | + +----------------------+--------+--------+--------+------+------+------+ + |Potash | 34·39 | 20·65 | \ | 2·23| 31·76| 17·36| + | | | | }31·56| | | | + |Soda | 14·79 | ... | / | 8·97| 4·45| 0·31| + |Lime | 2·96 | 10·28 | 5·32| 4·30| 2·92| 9·06| + |Magnesia | 2·38 | 7·82 | 8·69| 2·35| 10·13| 2·41| + |Sesquioxide of Iron | 1·69 | 3·85 | 0·88| 0·32| 0·82| 1·36| + | " Manganese | ... | 0·42 | ... | ... | ... | ... | + |Sulphuric Acid | 11·16 | ... | ... | 4·30| 1·46| 0·83| + |Muriatic Acid | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·46| + |Carbonic Acid | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | + |Phosphoric Acid | 27·85 | 50·44 | 49·19| 0·66| 47·29| 3·82| + |Silica | 1·92 | 4·40 | 1·87| 74·18| 0·17| 64·50| + |Chloride of Potassium | ... | 1·03 | ... | ... | ... | ... | + |Chloride of Sodium | 2·86 | ... | 0·35| 2·39| ... | ... | + | +--------+--------+--------+------+------+------+ + | Total | 100·00 | 98·89 | 97·86| 99·70|100·00|100·11| + | Per-centage of Ash | 0·71 | | 2·22| | 2·30| 2·60| + | | * | | | | | | + +----------------------+--------+--------+--------+------+------+------+ + + +----------------------+-------+---------------------------------------+ + | | | Grasses (in flower). | + | | Hay. +---------------------------------------+ + | | |Bromus |Lolium | Annual | Avena | + | | |erectus.|perenne.|Ryegrass.|flavesceus.| + +----------------------+-------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+ + |Potash | 20·80 | 20·33 | 24·67 | 28·99 | 36·06 | + |Soda | 10·85 | ... | ... | 0·87 | 0·73 | + |Lime | 8·24 | 10·38 | 9·64 | 6·82 | 7·98 | + |Magnesia | 4·01 | 4·99 | 2·85 | 2·59 | 3·07 | + |Sesquioxide of Iron | 1·83 | 0·26 | 0·21 | 0·28 | 2·40 | + | " Manganese| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | + |Sulphuric Acid | 2·11 | 5·46 | 5·20 | 3·45 | 4·00 | + |Muriatic Acid | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | + |Carbonic Acid | 0·68 | 0·55 | 0·49 | ... | ... | + |Phosphoric Acid | 15·43 | 7·53 | 8·73 | 10·07 | 9·31 | + |Silica | 30·01 | 38·48 | 27·13 | 41·79 | 35·20 | + |Chloride of Potassium | ... | 10·63 | 13·80 | ... | ... | + |Chloride of Sodium | 5·09 | 1·38 | 7·25 | 5·11 | 1·25 | + | +-------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+ + | Total | 99·05 | 99·99 | 99·97 | 99·97 | 100·00 | + | Per-centage of Ash | | 5·21 | 7·54 | 6·45 | 5·20 | + | | | | | | | + +----------------------+-------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+ + +Those numbers marked with an asterisk refer to 100 parts of the +substance in its natural or undried state; the remaining numbers +refer to 100 parts when dried. + + +----------------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+ + | | | |Kohl-rabi, from| + | | Broccoli. | Cow Cabbage. | chalk soil. | + | +-------+-------+-------+-------+---------------+ + | | Root. |Leaves.|Leaves.|Stalk. |Leaves.| Tuber.| + +----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + |Potash | 47·16 | 22·10 | 40·86 | 40·93 | 9·31 | 36·27 | + |Soda | ... | 7·55 | 2·43 | 4·05 | ... | 2·84 | + |Lime | 4·70 | 28·44 | 15·01 | 10·61 | 30·31 | 10·20 | + |Magnesia | 3·93 | 3·43 | 2·39 | 3·85 | 3·62 | 2·36 | + |Sesquioxide of Iron | ... | ... | 0·77 | 0·41 | 5·50 | 0·38 | + | " Manganese | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | + |Sulphuric Acid | 10·35 | 16·10 | 7·27 | 11·11 | 10·63 | 11·43 | + |Muriatic Acid | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | + |Carbonic Acid | ... | ... | 16·68 | 6·33 | 8·97 | 10·24 | + |Phosphoric Acid | 25·83 | 19·81 | 12·52 | 19·57 | 9·43 | 13·46 | + |Silica | 1·81 | 2·83 | 1·66 | 1·04 | 9·57 | 0·82 | + |Chloride of Potassium | 6·22 | ... | ... | ... | 5·99 | ... | + |Chloride of Sodium |a trace| ... | ... | 2·08 | 6·66 | 11·90 | + | +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | Total |100·00 |100·26 | 99·99 | 99·98 | 99·99 | 99·90 | + | Per-centage of Ash | 1·01 | 1·70 | 0·70 | 1·24 | 18·54 | 8·09 | + | | * | * | * | * | | | + +----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + + +----------------------+----------+-----------------+------------------+ + | | | | | + | | Wheat | Wheat. | Barley. | + | | (Grain). +--------+--------+---------+--------+ + | | | Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw. | + +----------------------+----------+--------+--------+---------+--------+ + |Potash | 29·51 | 25·92 | 10·78 | 32·02 | 14·37 | + |Soda | 10·61 | ... | ... | 1·21 | 0·28 | + |Lime | 0·99 | 3·80 | 2·44 | 3·39 | 8·50 | + |Magnesia | 10·60 | 12·27 | 3·23 | 10·99 | 1·70 | + |Sesquioxide of Iron | ... | 1·12 | 0·54 | 0·15 | 0·20 | + | " Manganese | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | + |Sulphuric Acid | 0·09 | ... | 1·77 | ... | 2·22 | + |Muriatic Acid | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | + |Carbonic Acid | ... | 4·43 | 6·01 | 0·48 | 1·25 | + |Phosphoric Acid | 47·55 | 43·44 | 3·69 | 29·92 | 4·22 | + |Silica | 0·11 | 7·16 | 64·84 | 21·12 | 62·89 | + |Chloride of Potassium | ... | 1·03 | 3·96 | ... | ... | + |Chloride of Sodium | 0·54 | ... | 0·42 | 0·72 | 4·37 | + | +----------+--------+--------+---------+--------+ + | Total | 100·00 | 99·17 | 99·68 | 100·00 | 100·00 | + | Per-centage of Ash | 2·32 | 1·645 | 5·252 | 2·22 | 5·49 | + | | | | | | | + +----------------------+----------+--------+--------+---------+--------+ + + + + +APPENDIX. + + +Whilst this Work was passing through the press, a valuable Report on +Agricultural Statistics was issued by the Board of Trade. The following +statistics, collected from this Report, are here given, because they +modify the statements made in page 5:-- + + POPULATION, AREA, ACREAGE UNDER CROPS, ETC., AND NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK, + IN THE UNITED KINGDOM IN 1867. + + +-------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | | | | | + | | | | | | + | | England. | Wales. | Scotland. | Ireland. | + | | | | | | + | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + |Population (1866) | 20,276,494 | 1,187,103 | 3,136,057 | 5,571,971| + | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + |Area (in Statute Acres) | 32,590,397 | 4,734,486 |19,639,377 | 20,322,641| + | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + |Under Corn Crops | 7,399,347 | 521,404 | 1,364,029 | 2,115,137| + | " Green Crops | 2,691,734 | 138,387 | 668,042 | 1,432,252| + | " Bare Fallow | 753,210 | 86,257 | 83,091 | 26,191| + | " Grass--Clover, &c.,| 2,478,117 | 300,756 | 1,211,101 | 1,658,451| + | Under Rotation | | | | | + |Permanent Pasture, | | | | | + | not broken up in | | | | | + | Rotation[39] | 9,545,675 | 1,472,359 | 1,053,285 | 10,057,072| + | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + |Per-centage of | | | | | + | Acreage:[40]-- | | | | | + |Under Corn Crops | 32·3 | 20·7 | 31·1 | 13·6 | + | " Green Crops | 11·7 | 5·5 | 15·3 | 9·2 | + | " Bare Fallow | 3·3 | 3·4 | 1·9 | ·2 | + | " Grass--Clover, &c.,| | | | | + | under Rotation | 10·8 | 11·9 | 27·7 | 10·7 | + |Permanent Pasture[41] | 41·6 | 58·5 | 24·0 | 64·7 | + | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + |Number of Cattle | 3,469,026 | 544,538 | 979,470 | 3,702,378| + | " of Sheep | 19,798,337 | 2,227,161 | 6,893,603 | 4,826,015| + | " of Pigs | 2,548,755 | 229,917 | 188,307 | 1,233,893| + | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + |Number of Live Stock | | | | | + | to every 100 Acres | | | | | + | under Crops, Fallow, | | | | | + | and Grass:-- | | | | | + | Cattle | 15·1 | 21·6 | 22·4 | 23·8 | + | Sheep | 86·3 | 88·4 | 157·4 | 31·1 | + | Pigs | 11·1 | 9·1 | 4·3 | 7·9 | + +-------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + + +-------------------------+------------+-----------------------+-----------+ + | | | Channel Islands. | | + | | Isle of +-----------+-----------+ Total for | + | | Man. | | Guernsey, | United | + | | | Jersey. | &c. | Kingdom | + | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + |Population (1866) | 52,469 | 55,613 | 35,365 | 30,315,072| + | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + |Area (in Statute Acres) | 180,000 | 28,717 | 17,967 | 77,513,585| + | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + |Under Corn Crops | 27,039 | 2,827 | 2,157 | 11,431,940| + | " Green Crops | 12,670 | 5,636 | 3,075 | 4,951,796| + | " Bare Fallow | 1,990 | 2,550 | 709 | 953,998| + | " Grass--Clover, &c.,| 26,884 | 3,250 | 874 | 5,679,433| + | Under Rotation | | | | | + |Permanent Pasture, | | | | | + | not broken up in | | | | | + | Rotation[39] | 15,915 | 6,092 | 6,143 | 22,156,541| + | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + |Per-centage of | | | | | + | Acreage:[40]-- | | | | | + |Under Corn Crops | 32·0 | 13·9 | 16·7 | 25·1 | + | " Green Crops | 15·0 | 27·6 | 23·7 | 10·9 | + | " Bare Fallow | 2·4 | 12·5 | 5·5 | 2·1 | + | " Grass--Clover, &c.,| | | | | + | under Rotation | 31·8 | 16·0 | 6·7 | 12·4 | + |Permanent Pasture[41] | 18·8 | 30·0 | 47·4 | 48·7 | + | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + |Number of Cattle | 18,672 | 10,081 | 7,308 | 8,731,473| + | " of Sheep | 70,958 | 529 | 1,348 | 33,817,951| + | " of Pigs | 7,706 | 5,804 | 6,718 | 4,221,100| + | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + |Number of Live Stock | | | | | + | to every 100 Acres | | | | | + | under Crops, Fallow, | | | | | + | and Grass:-- | | | | | + | Cattle | 22·1 | 49·5 | 56·4 | 19·2 | + | Sheep | 84·0 | 2·6 | 10·4 | 74·3 | + | Pigs | 9·1 | 28·5 | 51·8 | 9·3 | + +-------------------------+------------+-----------------------+-----------+ + + * * * * * + +[Footnote 39: Exclusive of heath or mountain land.] + +[Footnote 40: The per-centage of acreage is exclusive of Hops in Great +Britain, and Flax in Ireland.] + +[Footnote 41: Including under Flax, 253,105 acres.] + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Stock-Feeder's Manual, by +Charles Alexander Cameron + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STOCK-FEEDER'S MANUAL *** + +***** This file should be named 25520-8.txt or 25520-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/5/2/25520/ + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, David Garcia and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + 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