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+Project Gutenberg's The Stock-Feeder's Manual, by Charles Alexander Cameron
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Stock-Feeder's Manual
+       the chemistry of food in relation to the breeding and
+       feeding of live stock
+
+Author: Charles Alexander Cameron
+
+Release Date: May 19, 2008 [EBook #25520]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STOCK-FEEDER'S MANUAL ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, David Garcia and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images produced by Core Historical
+Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: PRIZE YEARLING SHORT-HORN BULL, "VICTOR EMMANUEL,"
+
+THE PROPERTY OF LORD TALBOT DE MALAHIDE,
+
+Was awarded the First Prize in his Section (there being sixteen
+competitors), at the Show of the Royal Agricultural Society, held
+at Belfast, in August, 1861. Calved June 24, 1860; sire, Prince
+Duke the Second (16,731); dam, Turfoida, by Earl of Dublin (10,178);
+gd., Rosina, by Gray Friar (9,172); ggd., Hinda, by Little John (4,232).]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE STOCK-FEEDER'S MANUAL.
+
+
+  THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD IN RELATION TO
+  THE BREEDING AND FEEDING OF LIVE STOCK.
+
+
+BY CHARLES A. CAMERON, Ph.D., M.D.,
+
+    Licentiate of the King and Queen's College of Physicians
+    in Ireland; Honorary Corresponding Member of the New York
+    State Agricultural Society; Member of the Agricultural
+    Society of Belgium; Professor of Hygiene or Political
+    Medicine in the Royal College of Surgeons; Professor of
+    Chemistry and Natural Philosophy in Steevens' Hospital
+    and Medical College; Lecturer on Chemistry in the Ledwich
+    School of Medicine; Analyst to the City of Dublin; Chemist
+    to the County of Kildare Agricultural Society, the Queen's
+    County Agricultural Society, c.; Member of the International
+    Jury of the Paris Exhibition, 1867; Editor of the
+    "Agricultural Review;" one of the Editors of the "Irish
+    Farmer's Gazette;" Author of the "Chemistry of Agriculture,"
+    "Sugar and the Sugar Duties," &c. &c.
+
+
+  LONDON AND NEW YORK:
+  CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN.
+  1868.
+
+[_All rights reserved._]
+
+
+
+  LONDON
+  CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN, BELLE SAUVAGE WORKS,
+  LUDGATE HILL, E. C.
+
+
+
+  THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE
+  Dedicated
+  TO
+
+  THE RIGHT HONORABLE
+  THE LORD TALBOT DE MALAHIDE, F.R.S.,
+  _President of the Royal Irish Academy, &c. &c. &c._,
+
+  ONE OF THE MOST ENLIGHTENED AND LIBERAL PROMOTERS
+  OF AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENTS.
+
+  THE AUTHOR IS UNDER MANY OBLIGATIONS TO HIS LORDSHIP, FOR
+  WHICH HE CAN MAKE NO RETURN SAVE THIS PUBLIC ACKNOWLEDGMENT
+  OF HIS INDEBTEDNESS.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+Some papers on the Chemistry of Food, read before the Royal Agricultural
+Society of Ireland and the Athy Farmers' Club, and a few articles on the
+Management of Live Stock, published in the _Weekly Agricultural Review_,
+constitute the basis of this Work. It describes the nature of the food
+used by the domesticated animals, explains the composition of the animal
+tissues, and treats generally upon the important subject of nutrition.
+The most recent analyses of all the kinds of food usually consumed by
+the animals of the farm are fully stated; and the nutritive values of
+those substances are in most instances given. Some information is
+afforded relative to the breeds and breeding of live stock; and a
+division of the Work is wholly devoted to the consideration of the
+economic production of "meat, milk, and butter."
+
+Within the last twenty years the processes of chemical analysis have
+been so much improved, that the composition of organic bodies is now
+determined with great accuracy. The analyses of foods made from twenty
+to fifty years ago, possess now but little value. In this Work the
+analyses of vegetables quoted are chiefly those recently performed by the
+distinguished Scotch chemist, Dr. Thomas Anderson, and by Dr. Voelcker.
+The Author believes that in no other Work of moderate size are there so
+many analyses of food substances given, and ventures to hope that the
+success of this Work may fully justify the belief that a "handy" book
+containing such information as that above mentioned, is much required
+by stock feeders.
+
+  _102, Lower Baggot Street, Dublin_,
+    April, 1868.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+                                                                   PAGE
+
+INTRODUCTION: History of Agriculture--Agricultural Statistics--Imports
+  of Live Stock
+
+                                                                      1
+
+PART I. ON THE GROWTH AND COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS.
+
+SECTION I. ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE. Functions of Plants. Animal
+  Life.--SECTION II. COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. Elements of
+  Organic Bodies. Proximate Composition of Organic Substances.--SECTION III.
+  USE OF FAT IN THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. Fatty Food necessary in Cold Climates.
+  Fat Equivalents.--SECTION IV. RELATION BETWEEN THE COMPOSITION OF AN
+  ANIMAL AND THAT OF ITS FOOD. Tables of Experimental Results.--SECTION V.
+  RELATION BETWEEN THE QUANTITY OF FOOD CONSUMED BY AN ANIMAL AND
+  THE INCREASE OF ITS WEIGHT, OR OF THE AMOUNT OF ITS WORK. Weights
+  of Foods necessary to sustain a Man's Life for twenty-four hours.
+  Value of Manure.
+
+                                                                      8
+
+PART II. ON THE BREEDING AND BREEDS OF STOCK.
+
+SECTION I. THE BREEDING OF STOCK.--SECTION II. THE BREEDS OF STOCK.
+  The Form of Animals. _Breeds of the Ox._ Shorthorns. Devons.
+  Herefords. Ayrshires. Polled Cattle. Kyloes. Long-horned.
+  Kerrys. Alderneys. _Sheep._ The Leicester. Lincoln. Cotswold.
+  Cheviot. Southdown. Shropshire. Blackfaced. _Breeds of the
+  Pig._ Berkshire. Yorkshire. _Breeds of the Horse._ Clydesdales.
+  Suffolk Punch. Hunters and Racers.
+
+                                                                     47
+
+PART III. ON THE MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCK.
+
+SECTION I. THE OX. Breeding Cows. Wintering of Young Stock. Shelter
+  of Stock. Milch Cows. Stall Feeding. Cost of Maintaining Animals.
+  Cooking and Bruising Food. Value for Feeding Purposes of various
+  Foods. Bedding Cattle.--SECTION II. THE SHEEP. Breeding Ewes.
+  Yeaning. Rearing of Lambs. Sheep Feeding. Sheep Dips.--SECTION III. THE
+  PIG. Young Pigs. Store Pigs. Fattening Pigs.--SECTION IV. THE HORSE.
+  Foals. Dietaries for the Horse.
+
+                                                                     74
+
+PART IV. MEAT, MILK, AND BUTTER.
+
+SECTION I. MEAT. Quality of Meat. Is very Fat Meat Unwholesome?
+  Diseased Meat.--SECTION II. MILK. Composition of Milk of Different
+  Animals. Yield of Milk. Preserved Milk.--SECTION III. BUTTER. History
+  of Butter. Irish Butter. Composition of Butter. The Butter
+  Manufacture.
+
+                                                                    112
+
+PART V. ON THE COMPOSITION AND VALUE OF VEGETABLE FOODS.
+
+SECTION I. THE MONEY VALUE OF FOOD SUBSTANCES.--SECTION II. PROXIMATE
+  CONSTITUENTS OF VEGETABLES. Starch. Sugar. Inulin. Gum. Pectin.
+  Cellulose. Oils and Fats. Stearin. Margarin. Olein. Palmitin.
+  Albumen. Fibrin. Legumin.--SECTION III. GREEN FOOD. The
+  Grasses. Schroeder Brome. Tussac Grass. The Clovers. Leguminous
+  Plants--Vetch, Sainfoin, &c. The Yellow Lupine. Rib Grass Plantain.
+  Ergot in Grasses. Holcus Saccharatus. Green Rye. Buckwheat. Rape.
+  Mustard. Comfrey. Chicory. Yarrow. Melons and Marrows. Cabbage.
+  Furze.--SECTION IV. STRAW AND HAY. _Straw._ Anderson's, Voelcker's,
+  and Cameron's Analyses of Straws. Feeding Experiments with Straw.
+  Relative Values of Straw and Oil-cake. _Hay._ Composition of the
+  Hay of different Grasses. Over-ripening of Hay. Damaged Hay and
+  Straw.--SECTION V. ROOTS AND TUBERS. _Turnips._ Swedish. White
+  Globe. Aberdeen Yellow. Purple-top. Norfolk Bell. Greystone.
+  Turnip Tops. Analyses of Turnips. Mangel Wurtzel. Chemistry of
+  the Mangel. Stripping Leaves off the Mangel. Beet-root. Parsnip.
+  Carrot. Kohl-rabi. Analyses of Kohl-rabi. Radish. The Radish as
+  a Field Crop. Composition of Radish. Jerusalem Artichoke: Advantages
+  of Cultivating it. Analysis of Jerusalem Artichoke. Potato: Analyses
+  of six varieties. Feeding Value of Potatoes.--SECTION VI. SEEDS. _Wheat._
+  Analyses of Wheat, Flour, Bran, and Husks. Over-ripening of
+  Grain. Wheat a Costly Food. Analyses of Barley, Oat Grain, Indian
+  Corn, Rye, Rice, Rice-dust, and Buckwheat. Malted Corn. Voelcker's
+  Analyses of Malt and Barley. Experiments of Thompson, Lawes, &c.,
+  with Malt. Malt Combings. _Leguminous Seeds._ Beans. Composition
+  of Common Beans, Foreign Beans, Peas. Lentils and Winter Tares.
+  _Oil Seeds._ Rape Seeds. Experiments with Rapeseed. Flax Bolls.
+  Composition of Linseed, Rape-seed, Hemp-seed, and Cotton-seed.
+  Fenugreek Seed.--SECTION VII. OIL-CAKES AND OTHER ARTIFICIAL FOODS.
+  Composition of Linseed, Rape-seed, Cotton-seed, and Poppy-seed
+  Cake. Linseed-cake. Adulteration of Linseed-cake. Rape-cake.
+  Feeding Experiments with Rape-cake. Adulterations of Rape-cake.
+  Cotton-seed Cake. Analyses of Decorticated Cotton-seed Cake.
+  Palm-nut Meal: its Composition and Nutritive Properties. Locust,
+  or Carob Bean: its Composition. Dates. Brewers' Dregs and
+  Distillery Wash. Molasses and Treacle.--SECTION VIII. CONDIMENTAL FOOD.
+  Lawes' Experiments with Thorley's Food. Analyses of Condimental
+  Food. Formula for a Tonic Food.--SECTION IX. TABLES OF THE ANALYSES
+  OF THE ASHES OF PLANTS.
+
+                                                                    147
+
+APPENDIX. AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. Numbers of Live Stock in the United
+  Kingdom. Value of the Agriculture Products of Great Britain.
+
+                                                                    254
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+When Virgil composed his immortal "Bucolics," and Varro indited his
+profound Essays on Agriculture, the inhabitants of the British Islands
+were almost completely ignorant of the art of cultivating the soil.
+The rude spoils torn from the carcasses of savage animals protected the
+bodies of their hardly less savage victors; and the produce of the chase
+served almost exclusively to nourish the hardy frames of the ancient
+Celtic hunters. In early ages wild beasts abounded in the numerous and
+extensive forests of Britain and Ireland; but men were few, for the
+conditions under which the maintenance of a dense population is possible
+did not then exist. As civilisation progressed, men rapidly multiplied,
+and the demand for food increased. The pursuit of game became merely the
+pastime of the rich; and tame sheep and oxen furnished meat to the lowly
+as well as to the great. Nor were the fruits of the earth neglected; for
+during the latter days of the dominion of the Romans, England raised
+large quantities of corn. Gradually the food of the people, which at
+first was almost purely animal, became chiefly vegetable. The shepherds,
+who had supplanted the hunters, became less numerous than the tillers of
+land; and the era of tillage husbandry began.
+
+At present the great mass of the rural population of these countries
+subsist almost exclusively upon vegetable aliment--a diet which poverty,
+and not inclination, prescribes for them. Were the flesh of animals
+the staple food of the British peasantry, their numbers would not be
+nearly so large as they now are, for a given area of land is capable of
+sustaining a far larger number of vegetarians than of meat eaters. The
+Chinese are by no means averse to animal food, but they are so numerous,
+that they are in general obliged to content themselves on a purely
+vegetable diet.
+
+In the manufacturing districts of Great Britain, there are several
+millions of people whose condition in relation to food is somewhat
+different from that of the small farmer and agricultural laborer. The
+artizans employed in our great industries are comparatively well paid
+for their toil; and the results of their labor place within their reach
+a fair share of animal food. This section of the population is rapidly
+increasing, and consequently is daily augmenting the demand for meat.
+The rural population is certainly not increasing; rather the reverse.
+Less manual labor is now expended in the operations of agriculture, and
+even horses are retiring before the advance of the steam plough. The
+only great purely vegetable-feeding class is diminishing, and the upper,
+the middle, and the artizan classes--the beef and mutton eating sections
+of society--are rapidly increasing. It is clear, then, that we are
+threatened with a revival of the pastoral age, and that in one way, at
+least, we are returning to the condition of our ancestors, whose staple
+food consisted of beef, mutton, and pork.
+
+And here two questions arise. How long shall we be able to supply the
+increasing demand for meat? How long shall we be able to compete with
+the foreign feeders? These are momentous queries for the British farmer,
+and I trust they may be solved in a satisfactory manner. At any time
+during the present century the foreign or colonial grower of wheat could
+have undersold the British producer of that article, were the latter not
+protected by a tariff; but cattle could not, as a general rule, be
+imported into Great Britain at a cheaper rate than they could be
+produced at home. Were there no corn imported, it is certain that the
+price of bread would be greater than it is now, even if the grain
+harvests had been better than they have been for some years past. A bad
+cereal harvest in England raises the price of flour, but only to a small
+and strictly limited extent, because, practically, there is no limit
+to the amount of bread-stuffs procurable from abroad. When, on the
+contrary, the turnip crop fails, or that excessive drought greatly
+curtails the yield of grass, the price of meat and butter increases
+greatly, and is but slightly modified by the importation of foreign
+stock.
+
+Hitherto the difficulty of transit has been so great that we have only
+derived supplies of live stock from countries situated at a short
+distance, such as Holstein and Holland. Vast herds of cattle are fed
+with but little expense in America, and myriads of sheep are maintained
+cheaply in Australia; but the immense distances which intervene between
+our country and those remote and sparsely populated regions have,
+hitherto, prevented the superabundant supply of animal food produced
+therein from being available to the teeming population of the British
+Isles. Should, however, any cheap mode of conveying live stock, or even
+their flesh, from those and similarly circumstanced countries be
+devised, it might render the production of meat in Britain a far less
+profitable occupation than it is now. That we are increasing the area
+from whence we draw our supplies of live stock is evident from the fact,
+that within the last two years enormous numbers of horned stock have
+been imported from Spain. In that extensive country there are noble
+breeds of the ox; and it would appear that very large numbers of animals
+could be annually exported, without depriving the inhabitants of a due
+supply of bovine meat. As Spain is not very distant, it is likely that
+this traffic will be increased, and that in a short time we shall be as
+well supplied with Spanish beef as we are now provided with French
+flour. Meat is at present dear, and is likely to continue so for some
+time; but still it is evident that, sooner or later, the British feeders
+will come into keen competition with the foreign producer of meat, and
+that the price of their commodity will consequently fall. The mere
+probability of such a state of things, were there no other reason,
+should induce the feeder to devote increased attention to the
+improvement of his stock, and to discover more economical methods of
+feeding them. There is still much to be learned relative to the precise
+nutritive values of the various feeding stuffs. The proper modes of
+cooking, or otherwise preparing, food, are still to be satisfactorily
+determined; and there are many very important questions in relation to
+the breeding of stock yet unanswered.
+
+It is but fair to admit that the farmer is earnestly endeavouring to
+improve his art, and that he is willing, nay anxious, to obtain the
+co-operation of scientific men, in order to increase his knowledge of
+the theory as well as the practice of his ancient calling. Indeed, he
+not only admits the utility of science in agriculture, but often places
+an undue degree of value upon the theories of the chemist, of the
+botanist, and of the geologist. This is encouraging to the men of
+science; but, on the other hand, they must admit that by far the greater
+portion of the sum of human knowledge has been derived from the
+experience and observation of men utterly unacquainted with science, in
+the ordinary signification of that term. This portion of our knowledge
+is also, in its practical application, the most valuable. In the most
+important branch of industry--agriculture--the labors of the purely
+scientific man have as yet borne but scant fruit; whilst the unaided
+efforts of the husbandman have reclaimed from sterility extensive
+tracts, and caused them to "blossom as the rose." That practical men
+should have done so much, and scientific men so little, for agriculture,
+may easily be explained. Countless millions of men, during many
+thousands of years, have incessantly been occupied in improving the
+processes of mechanical agriculture, which, as an _art_, has
+consequently been brought to a high degree of perfection: but scientific
+agriculture is a creation of almost our own time, and the number of its
+cultivators is, and always has been, very small; all its theories cannot,
+therefore, justly claim that degree of confidence which, as a rule, is
+only reposed in the opinions founded on the experience of practical
+workers in the field and in the feeding-house. Still, the farmer has
+derived a great amount of useful information from the chemist and
+physiologist; and they alone can explain to him the causes of the
+various phenomena which the different branches of his art present. There
+was a time when it was the fashion of the man of science to look down
+with contempt, from the lofty pedestal on which he placed himself, upon
+the lessons of practical experience read to him by the cultivator of the
+soil; whilst at the same time the farmer treated as foolish visionaries
+those who applied the teachings of science to the improvement of their
+art. But this time has happily passed away. The scientific man no longer
+despises the knowledge of the mere farmers, but turns to good account
+the information derivable from their experience; whilst the farmer, on
+the other side, has ceased to speak in contemptuous terms of mere "book
+learning." It is to this happy combination of the theorist with the
+practical man that the recent remarkable advance in agriculture is
+chiefly due; and to it we may confidently look for improvement in the
+economic production of meat and butter, and for the enlargement of our
+knowledge of the relative value of food substances.
+
+  STATEMENT OF THE NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
+
+  ---------+------------------------------------+
+           |         Enumerated, 1866.          |
+           +-----------+------------+-----------+
+           |  Cattle.  |   Sheep.   |   Pigs.   |
+           +-----------+------------+----+------+
+  England  | 3,307,034 | 15,124,541 | 2,066,299 |
+  Wales    |   541,401 |  1,668,663 |   191,604 |
+  Islands  |    17,700 |     57,685 |    22,887 |
+  Scotland |   937,411 |  5,255,077 |   219,716 |
+  Ireland  | 3,493,414 |  3,688,742 | 1,299,893 |
+           +-----------+------------+-----------+
+    Total  | 8,316,960 | 25,794,708 | 3,800,399 |
+  ---------+-----------+------------+-----------+
+
+  ---------+------------------------------------+
+           |          Estimated, 1865.          |
+           +-----------+------------+-----------+
+           |  Cattle.  |   Sheep.   |  Pigs.    |
+           +-----------+------------+-----------+
+  England  | 3,422,165 | 18,691,088 | 2,363,724 |
+  Wales    |   ----    |    ----    |   ----    |
+  Islands  |   ----    |    ----    |   ----    |
+  Scotland |   974,437 |  5,683,168 |   146,354 |
+  Ireland  | 3,493,414 |  3,688,742 | 1,299,893 |
+           +-----------+------------+-----------+
+    Total  | 7,890,016 | 28,062,998 | 3,809,971 |
+  ---------+-----------+------------+-----------+
+
+
+  STATEMENT OF THE POPULATION AND NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK IN THE
+  UNITED KINGDOM AND VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES, ACCORDING TO
+  THE LATEST RETURNS.
+
+  +--------------+-------+----------+------------------------------+----------+----------+
+  |              |Date of|Population|           Cattle.            |          |          |
+  | Countries.   |Returns|according |---------+---------+----------+  Sheep.  |  Pigs.   |
+  |              |of Live|to Latest |  Cows.  |  Other  |  Total.  |          |          |
+  |              |Stock. |Returns.  |         | Cattle. |          |          |          |
+  +--------------+-------+----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |United Kingdom|1865-66|29,070,932|3,286,308|5,030,652| 8,316,960|25,795,708| 3,802,399|
+  |Russia        |1859-63|74,139,394|    ...  |    ...  |25,444,000|45,130,800|10,097,000|
+  |Denmark Proper|  1861 | 1,662,734|  756,834|  361,940| 1,118,774| 1,751,950|   300,928|
+  |Sleswig       |  1861 |   421,486|  217,751|  172,250|   390,001|   362,219|    87,867|
+  |Holstein      |  1861 |   561,831|  198,310|   92,062|   290,372|   165,344|    82,398|
+  |Sweden        |  1860 | 3,859,728|1,112,944|  803,714| 1,916,658| 1,644,156|   457,981|
+  |Prussia       |  1862 |18,491,220|3,382,703|2,251,797| 5,634,500|17,428,017| 2,709,709|
+  |Hanover       |  1861 | 1,880,070|    ...  |    ...  |   949,179| 2,211,927|   554,056|
+  |Saxony        |  1861 | 2,225,240|  411,563|  226,897|   638,460|   371,986|   270,462|
+  |Wurtemburg    |  1861 | 1,720,708|  466,758|  490,414|   957,172|   683,842|   216,965|
+  |Grand Duchy   |       |          |         |         |          |          |          |
+  | of Baden     |  1861 | 1,429,199|  348,418|  273,068|   621,486|   177,322|   307,198|
+  | "  Hesse     |  1863 |   853,315|  187,442|  129,211|   316,653|   231,787|   195,596|
+  | "  Nassau    |  1864 |   468,311|  116,421|   84,224|   200,645|   152,584|    65,979|
+  |     Mecklenb.|       |          |         |         |          |          |          |
+  | "  Schwerin  |  1857 |   539,258|  197,622|   69,215|   266,837| 1,198,450|   157,522|
+  | "  Oldenburg |  1852 |   279,637|    ...  |    ...  |   219,843|   295,322|    87,336|
+  |Holland       |  1864 | 3,618,459|  943,214|  390,673| 1,333,887|   930,136|   294,636|
+  |Belgium       |  1856 | 4,529,461|    ...  |    ...  | 1,257,649|   583,485|   458,418|
+  |France        |  1862 |37,386,313|5,781,465|8,415,895|14,197,360|33,281,592| 5,246,403|
+  |Spain         |  1865 |15,658,531|    ...  |    ...  | 2,904,598|22,054,967| 4,264,817|
+  |Austria       |  1863 |36,267,648|6,353,086|7,904,030|14,257,116|16,964,236| 8,151,608|
+  |Bavaria       |  1863 | 4,807,440|1,530,626|1,655,356| 3,185,882| 2,058,638|   926,522|
+  |United States |  1860 |31,445,080|8,728,862|8,182,813|16,911,475|23,317,756|32,555,267|
+  +--------------+-------+----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+
+  NUMBERS OF THE LIVE STOCK IMPORTED INTO GREAT BRITAIN
+  DURING THE ELEVEN MONTHS ENDED 31st NOVEMBER, 1867.
+
+  Bullocks, bulls, and cows                              150,518
+  Calves                                                  20,720
+  Sheep and lambs                                        504,514
+  Pigs                                                    45,566
+                                                        --------
+                                                         721,318
+
+  AMOUNT OF ANIMAL FOOD IMPORTED DURING SAME PERIOD.
+
+  Bacon and hams                              cwts.      452,132
+  Salt beef                                    "         163,638
+  Salt pork                                    "         123,257
+  Butter                                       "       1,000,095
+  Lard                                         "         213,599
+  Cheese                                       "         798,267
+  Eggs                                               373,042,000
+
+I am indebted to Professor Ferguson, Chief of the Veterinary Department
+of the Irish Privy Council Office, for the following statement:--
+
+  RETURN OF HORNED CATTLE EXPORTED FROM THE SEVERAL IRISH
+  PORTS AT WHICH VETERINARY INSPECTORS HAVE BEEN APPOINTED,
+  AND CERTIFIED AS FREE FROM DISEASE, FROM THE 18th OF
+  NOVEMBER, 1866, TO THE 16th OF NOVEMBER, 1867 (52 WEEKS).
+
+  Fat Stock                                              187,483
+  Store Stock                                            317,331
+  Breeding and Dairy Stock                                36,599
+                                                        --------
+            Total                                        541,413
+                                                        ========
+
+
+
+
+PART I.
+
+ON THE GROWTH AND COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE.
+
+_Functions of Plants._--It is the primary function of plants to convert
+the inorganic matter of the soil and air into organised structures
+of a highly complex nature. The food of plants is purely mineral, and
+consists chiefly of water, carbonic acid, and ammonia. Water is composed
+of the elements oxygen and hydrogen; carbonic acid is a compound of
+oxygen and carbon; and ammonia is formed of hydrogen and nitrogen. These
+four substances are termed the _organic elements_, because they form by
+far the larger portion--sometimes the whole--of organic bodies. The
+combustible portion of plants and animals is composed of the organic
+elements; the incombustible part is made up of potassium, sodium, and
+the various other elements enumerated in another page. The organic
+elements are furnished chiefly by the atmosphere, and the incombustible
+matters are supplied by the soil.
+
+Water in the state of vapor forms, according to the temperature and
+other conditions of the atmosphere, from a half per cent. to four and a
+half per cent. of the weight of that fluid--about 1·25 per cent. being
+the average; carbonic acid exists in it to the extent of 1/2000th; and
+ammonia forms a minute portion of it--according to Dr. Angus Smith, one
+grain weight in 412·42 cubic feet of air (of a town), or 0·000453 per
+cent. It is remarkable that the most abundant constituents of atmospheric
+air--oxygen and nitrogen--are not assimilable by plants, although these
+elements enter largely into the composition of vegetable substances. In
+the soil, also, the part which ministers to the wants of vegetables is
+relatively quite insignificant in amount.
+
+Plants are unendowed with organs of locomotion, their food must
+therefore be within easy reach. Every breeze wafts gaseous nutriment to
+their expanded leaves, and their rootlets ramify throughout the soil in
+search of appropriate mineral aliment. But no matter how abundant, or
+however easy of reach may be the food of plants, the vegetable organism
+is incapable of partaking of it unless under the influence of light.
+Exposed to this potent stimulus, the plant collects the gaseous carbonic
+acid and the vaporous water, solidifies them, decomposes them, and
+combines their elements into new and organised forms. In effecting these
+changes--in conferring vitality upon the atoms of lifeless matter--the
+plant acts merely as the _mechanism_, the light is the _force_. As the
+work performed by the steam-engine is proportionate to the amount of
+force developed by the combustion of the fuel beneath its boiler,
+so is the rapidity of the elaboration of organic substances by plants
+proportionate to the amount of sunlight to which they are exposed. It is
+an axiom that matter is indestructible; we may alter its form as often
+as we please, but we cannot destroy a particle of it. It is the same
+with _force_: we may convert one kind of it into another--heat into
+light, or magnetism into electricity--but our power ends there; we can
+only cause force, or _motion_, to pass from one of its conditions to
+another, but its _quantity_ can never be diminished by the power of man.
+
+The principle of the Conservation of the Forces gives us a clear
+explanation of the fact that animals can obtain their food only through
+the medium of the vegetable kingdom. Plants are stationary mechanisms;
+they have no need to develop motive power, as animals have, in moving
+themselves from place to place. Their temperature is, we may say, the
+same as that of the medium in which they exist. Such beings as plants
+do not, therefore, require the expenditure of force to maintain their
+vitality; on the contrary, their mechanisms are, for a beneficent
+purpose, constructed for the _accumulation_ of force. The growing
+plant absorbs, together with carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, a
+proportionate amount of light, heat, and the various other subtile
+forces which have their abiding place in the sun-beam--
+
+                              "That golden chain,
+  Whose strong embrace holds heaven and earth and main."
+
+Co-incidentally with the conversion of the mineral constituents of the
+food of plants into organised structures--albumen, fibre, and such
+like substances--the light, and the heat, and the various other forces
+likewise suffer a change. Although the precise nature of the new force
+into which they are converted is still a mystery--one, too, which may
+never be revealed to us--still we know sufficient of it to satisfy
+us that it can only exist in connection with organic or organised
+structures. It is owing to its presence that the elements of these
+structures (the natural state of which is mineral) are bound together
+in what may be aptly designated a constrained state; or, as Liebig
+aptly expresses it, like the matter in a bent spring. So long as the
+organic structure retains its form, it will be a reservoir of latent
+force--which will manifest itself in some form during the recoil of the
+atoms of the matter forming the structure to their original mineral, or
+statical condition: so the bent spring, when the pressure is removed,
+returns to its original straight form.
+
+_Animal Life._--The chief manifestation of the life of a plant is the
+accumulation of force; very different are the functions of animal life.
+It is only by the continuous _expenditure_ of force that the vitality of
+animals is preserved; the heat of a man's body, his power of locomotion,
+the performance of his daily toil, even his very faculty of thought, are
+all dependent upon, and to a great extent proportionate to, the amount
+of organised matter disorganised in his body. It is by the conversion
+of this organised matter into its original mineral state of water,
+carbonic acid, and ammonia, that the force originally expended in
+arranging, through the agency of plants, its atoms, is again restored,
+chiefly in the form of heat and animal motive power.
+
+Animals, as a class, are completely dependent upon vegetables for
+their existence. There is every reason to believe that the most lowly
+organised beings in the scale of animal life, even those of so
+simple a structure as to have been long regarded as vegetables or as
+plant-animals, are incapable of organising mineral matter. The so-called
+vegetative life of animals--for I believe the term to be exceedingly
+inexact--is applied to their growth, that is, to the increase in their
+weight. This increase takes place by their power of reorganising, or
+of assimilating to the nature of their own organisms, certain of the
+substances elaborated by plants, and destined to become food for
+animals.
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.
+
+_Elements of Organic Bodies._--The number of distinct kinds of
+substances--each distinguishable from all the others by the peculiarity
+of its properties, taken as a whole--is exceedingly great, yet all
+these substances are resolvable into a very small number of bodies.
+As an illustration, I shall take a well-known substance, common
+green copperas, or, as the chemists term it, protosulphate of iron.
+By submitting this compound to the process termed chemical analysis,
+two other kinds of matter may be obtained from it, namely, oxide of iron
+and oil of vitrol, or sulphuric acid. If we continued this process--if
+we submitted the acid and the oxide to analysis--we could separate the
+former into sulphur and oxygen, and the latter into iron and oxygen.
+Now, by these means we could demonstrate the compound nature of
+copperas; we could prove that it was _proximately_ composed of sulphuric
+acid and oxide of iron; and, _ultimately_, of iron, sulphur, and oxygen.
+
+Iron, sulphur, and oxygen, are elementary, or simple bodies. They cannot
+be decomposed; they cannot be analysed. Torture them as we will in our
+crucibles; expose them as we please to the highest temperature of a wind
+furnace, or to the more intense heat evolved by a powerful galvanic
+battery; subject them to the influence of any agent, or force, or
+process we may choose, and still they will yield nothing but iron,
+sulphur, and oxygen: hence these undecomposable bodies are regarded as
+_elements_, or simple substances. So far as our knowledge extends, there
+are about sixty-six of these undecomposable bodies, of which about one
+half occurs in but exceedingly minute quantities, and a considerable
+number of the others exists in comparatively small amounts. As by far
+the greater proportion of compounds is made up of two or more of about
+a dozen elementary bodies, it would at first sight appear as if the
+distinct kinds of compounds which exist, or which may be called into
+existence by the chemist, must be limited to, at most, a realisable
+number; but the fact is there is no practical limit to the variety of
+substances which may be artificially formed. Every difference in the
+mode of the arrangement of the constituent atoms of a compound, causes
+its metamorphosis into another kind of substance. To prove that the
+number of these changes is bounded by no narrow limits, I need but refer
+to the rules of Permutation, which demonstrate that twelve letters of
+the alphabet may be arranged in no fewer than 479,000,000 different
+ways.[1] The elements are the letters of Nature's alphabet, their
+compounds are the words of the language of Creation. The combinations
+of sounds and of signs which express the ideas and sensations of man may
+be limited to millions; but numberless are the hieroglyphs by which the
+Divine wisdom and beneficence is inscribed on the pages of the
+magnificent volume of Nature.
+
+Of the sixty-six elementary bodies, not more than a dozen occur
+commonly in animal and vegetable substances; these are Oxygen, Hydrogen,
+Nitrogen, Carbon, Sulphur, Phosphorus, Chlorine, Silicium, Potassium,
+Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, and Iron. In addition to these, Iodine, and
+sometimes Bromine, are found in plants which grow in or near the sea;
+and the former element has also been detected in some of the lower
+animals, and in land plants. Manganese, Lithium, Cæsium, Rubidium,
+and a few others of the simple bodies, occasionally occur in plants and
+animals, but I believe their presence therein is always accidental.
+
+_Proximate Composition of Animal Substances._--The differences between
+vegetable and animal substances are often more apparent than real.
+Indeed many of the more important of these substances are almost
+identical in composition. The albumen which coagulates when the juices
+of vegetables are boiled, is identical with the albumen of the white
+of eggs; the fibrine of wheat is in no respect chemically different
+from the fibrine, or clot, of the blood; and, lastly, the legumine,
+or _vegetable caseine_, of peas is almost indistinguishable from the
+curd of milk, or _animal caseine_. But not only has chemical research
+demonstrated the identity of the albumen, fibrine, and caseine of
+vegetables with three of the more important constituents of animals, it
+has gone a step further, and proved that they differ from each other in
+but a few unimportant respects. They are unquestionably convertible into
+each other[2] within the animal organism; and their functions, as elements
+of nutrition, are almost, if not quite, identical.
+
+Exclusive of the blood, which contains the elements of every part of
+the body, the animal organism is composed of three distinct classes of
+substances--namely, _nitrogenous_, _non-nitrogenous_, and _mineral_.
+All of these constituents, or substances capable of being converted
+into them, must exist in the food. Certain articles, for example, milk,
+contains all of them; but in others, for instance, butter, only one of
+these substances is found. The nitrogenous part of the body embraces the
+muscles, or lean flesh, the gelatine of the bones, and the skin and its
+appendages--such as hair and horns; the non-nitrogenous constituents are
+its fat and oil; and its mineral matter is found chiefly in the bony
+framework. These constituents are not, however, isolated: the mineral
+matter, no doubt, accumulates in certain parts, but in small quantities
+it is found in every portion of the body; and although the fat forms a
+distinct tissue, the muscles of the leanest animal are never free from
+a sensible proportion of it.
+
+Albumen, fibrine, and caseine are the principal nitrogenous constituents
+of food, and as they are employed in the reparation of the nitrogenous
+tissues of the animal body, they have been termed _flesh-formers_.
+
+The fat and oil of animals are derived either from vegetable oil and
+fat, or from some such substance as starch or sugar. The constituents
+of food which form fat are termed _fat-formers_, and sometimes
+_heat-givers_ or _respiratory elements_, from the notion that their
+slow combustion in the animal body is the chief cause of its high
+temperature.
+
+The mineral elements of the body are furnished principally by the
+varieties of food which contain nitrogen. The whey of milk is rich in
+them; but they do not exist in pure butter, in starch, or in sugar.
+
+Fat is a much more abundant constituent of the animal body than is
+generally supposed, That this substance should constitute the greater
+portion of the weight of an obese pig seems probable enough; but few
+are aware that even in a lean sheep there is 50 per cent. more fat than
+lean.
+
+For a very accurate knowledge of the relative proportions of the fatty,
+nitrogenous, and mineral constituents of the carcasses of animals used
+as human food, we are indebted to Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert. Before
+these investigators turned their attention to this subject, it had
+scarcely attracted the notice of scientific men; but a notion appears to
+have been current, amongst non-scientific people, at least, that in all,
+save the fattest animals, the lean flesh greatly preponderated over the
+fat. That this idea was unsustained by a foundation of fact, has been
+clearly proved by the results of an investigation[3] undertaken a few
+years ago by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert--an investigation which I cannot
+avoid characterising as one of the most laborious and apparently
+trustworthy on record. The mere statement of the results of this inquiry
+occupies 187 pages of one of the huge volumes of the Transactions of the
+Royal Society--a fact which best indicates the immensity of the labour
+which these gentlemen imposed upon themselves, and which, independently
+of their other and numerous contributions to scientific agriculture,
+entitles their names to most honourable mention in the annals of
+science.
+
+I shall now briefly advert to a few of the more important facts
+established by Lawes and Gilbert. From a large number of oxen, sheep,
+and pigs, on which feeding experiments were being conducted, ten
+individuals were selected. These were, a fat calf, a half-fat ox, a
+moderately fat ox, a fat lamb, a store sheep, a half-fat old sheep, a
+fat sheep, a very fat sheep, a store pig, and a fat pig. These animals
+were killed, and the different organs and parts of their bodies were
+separately weighed and analysed. The results were, that, with the
+exception of the calf, all the animals contained, respectively, more fat
+than lean. The fat ox and the fat lamb contained each three times as
+much fat as lean flesh, and the proportion of the fatty matters to the
+nitrogenous constituents of the carcass of the very fat sheep was as 4
+to 1. In the pig the fat greatly preponderated over the lean; the store
+pig containing three times as much, and the fat pig five times as much
+fat as lean.
+
+That part of the animal which is consumed as food by man, is termed the
+_carcass_ by the butcher, and contains by far the greater portion of
+the fat of the animal. The _offal_, in the language of the butcher,
+constitutes those parts which are not commonly consumed as human food,
+at least by the well-to-do classes. In calves, oxen, lambs, and sheep,
+the offal embraces the skin, the feet, and the head, and all the
+internal organs, excepting the kidneys and their fatty envelope. The
+offal of the pig is made up of all the internal organs, excepting the
+kidneys and kidney fat. It is the relative proportion of fat in the
+carcasses analysed by Lawes and Gilbert that I have stated; but as the
+nitrogenous matters occur in greatest quantity in the offal, it is
+necessary that the relative proportions of the constituents of the body,
+taken as a whole, should be considered. On an average, then, it will be
+found that a fat fully-grown animal will contain 49 per cent. of water,
+33 per cent. of dry fat, 13 per cent. of dry nitrogenous matter--muscles
+separated from fat, hide, &c.--and 3 per cent. of mineral matter. In a
+lean animal the average proportions of the various constituents will be
+54 per cent. of water, 25-1/2 per cent. dry fat, 17 per cent. of dry
+nitrogenous substances, and 3-1/2 per cent. of mineral matter. In the
+following table these proportions are set forth.
+
+
+  SUMMARY OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE TEN ANIMALS--SHOWING THE
+  PER-CENTAGES OF MINERAL MATTER, DRY NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS,
+  FAT, TOTAL DRY SUBSTANCE, AND WATER.
+
+  1st. In Fresh Carcass. 2nd. In Fresh Offal (equal Sum of Parts,
+  excluding Contents of Stomachs and Intestines). 3rd. In Entire
+  Animal (Fasted Live-weight, including therefore the weight of
+  Contents of Stomachs and Intestines).
+
+                              +-----------------------------------------+
+                              | KEY:                                    |
+                              | A.--Mineral matter.                     |
+                              | B.--Dry nitrogenous compounds.          |
+                              | C.--Fat.                                |
+                              | D.--Dry substance.                      |
+                              | E.--Water.                              |
+                              | F.--Contents of viscera.                |
+                              |                                         |
+  ----------------------------+-----------------------------------------+
+                              | Per cent. in Carcass.                   |
+     DESCRIPTION              +--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+      OF ANIMAL.              |    A.  |    B.  |   C.  |   D.  |   E.  |
+  ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+  Fat calf                    |   4·48 |   16·6 |  16·6 |  37·7 |  62·3 |
+  Half-fat ox                 |   5·56 |   17·8 |  22·6 |  46·0 |  54·0 |
+  Fat ox                      |   4·56 |   15·0 |  34·8 |  54·4 |  45·6 |
+  Fat lamb                    |   3·63 |   10·9 |  36·9 |  51·4 |  48·6 |
+  Store sheep                 |   4·36 |   14·5 |  23·8 |  42·7 |  57·3 |
+  Half-fat old sheep          |   4·13 |   14·9 |  31·3 |  50·3 |  49·7 |
+  Fat sheep                   |   3·45 |   11·5 |  45·4 |  60·3 |  39·7 |
+  Extra fat sheep             |   2·77 |    9·1 |  55·1 |  67·0 |  33·0 |
+  Store pig                   |   2·57 |   14·0 |  28·1 |  44·7 |  55·3 |
+  Fat pig                     |   1·40 |   10·5 |  49·5 |  61·4 |  38·6 |
+  ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+  Means of all                |   3·69 |   13·5 |  34·4 |  51·6 |  48·4 |
+  ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+  Means of 8 of the half-fat, |        |        |       |       |       |
+  fat, and very fat animals   |   3·75 |   13·3 |  36·5 |  53·6 |  46·4 |
+  ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+  Means of 6 of the fat,      |        |        |       |       |       |
+  and very fat animals        |   3·38 |   12·3 |  39·7 |  55·4 |  44·6 |
+  ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+
+  ----------------------------+-----------------------------------------+
+                              | Per cent. in Offal.                     |
+     Description              +--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+      of Animal.              |    A.  |    B.  |   C.  |   D.  |   E.  |
+  ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+  Fat calf                    |   3·41 |   17·1 |  14·6 |  35·1 |  64·9 |
+  Half-fat ox                 |   4·05 |   20·6 |  15·7 |  40·4 |  59·6 |
+  Fat ox                      |   3·40 |   17·5 |  26·3 |  47·2 |  52·8 |
+  Fat lamb                    |   2·45 |   18·9 |  20·1 |  41·5 |  58·5 |
+  Store sheep                 |   2·19 |   18·0 |  16·1 |  36·3 |  63·7 |
+  Half-fat old sheep          |   2·72 |   17·7 |  18·5 |  38·9 |  61·1 |
+  Fat sheep                   |   2·32 |   16·1 |  26·4 |  44·8 |  55·2 |
+  Extra fat sheep             |   3·64 |   16·8 |  34·5 |  54·9 |  45·1 |
+  Store pig                   |   3·07 |   14·0 |  15·0 |  32·1 |  67·9 |
+  Fat pig                     |   2·97 |   14·8 |  22·8 |  40·6 |  59·4 |
+  ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+  Means of all                |   3·02 |   17·2 |  21·0 |  41·2 |  58·8 |
+  ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+  Means of 8 of the half-fat, |        |        |       |       |       |
+  fat, and very fat animals   |   3·12 |   17·4 |  22·4 |  42·9 |  57·1 |
+  ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+  Means of 6 of the fat,      |        |        |       |       |       |
+  and very fat animals        |   3·03 |   16·9 |  24·1 |  44·0 |  56·0 |
+  ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+
+  ----------------------------+-----------------------------------------+
+                              | Per cent. in Entire Animal.             |
+     Description              +------+------+------+------+------+------+
+      of Animal.              |  A.  |  B.  |  C.  |  D.  |  F.  |  E.  |
+  ----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  Fat calf                    | 3·80 | 15·2 | 14·8 | 33·8 | 3·17 | 63·8 |
+  Half-fat ox                 | 4·66 | 16·6 | 19·1 | 40·3 | 8·19 | 51·5 |
+  Fat ox                      | 3·92 | 14·5 | 30·1 | 48·5 | 5·98 | 45·5 |
+  Fat lamb                    | 2·94 | 12·3 | 28·5 | 43·7 | 8·54 | 47·8 |
+  Store sheep                 | 3·16 | 14·8 | 18·7 | 36·7 | 6·00 | 57·3 |
+  Half-fat old sheep          | 3·17 | 14·0 | 23·5 | 40·7 | 9·05 | 50·2 |
+  Fat sheep                   | 2·81 | 12·2 | 35·6 | 50·6 | 6·02 | 43·4 |
+  Extra fat sheep             | 2·90 | 10·9 | 45·8 | 59·6 | 5·18 | 35·2 |
+  Store pig                   | 2·67 | 13·7 | 23·3 | 39·7 | 5·22 | 55·1 |
+  Fat pig                     | 1·65 | 10·9 | 42·2 | 54·7 | 3·97 | 41·3 |
+  ----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  Means of all                | 3·17 | 13·5 | 28·2 | 44·9 | 6·13 | 49·0 |
+  ----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  Means of 8 of the half-fat, |      |      |      |      |      |      |
+  fat, and very fat animals   | 3·23 | 13·3 | 29·9 | 46·4 | 6·26 | 47·3 |
+  ----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  Means of 6 of the fat,      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
+  and very fat animals        | 3·00 | 12·7 | 32·8 | 48·5 | 5·48 | 46·0 |
+  ----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+USE OF FAT IN THE ANIMAL ECONOMY.
+
+As fat forms so large a portion of the body, it is evident that
+the part it plays in the animal economy must be a most important one.
+The general opinion which prevails amongst scientific men as to its
+physiological functions was originated by the celebrated Liebig.
+According to his theory, the food of animals includes two distinct kinds
+of substances--_plastic_[4] and _non-plastic_. The plastic materials are
+composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and a little sulphur
+and phosphorus. Albumen, fibrine, and casein are plastic elements of
+nutrition; they form the lean flesh, or muscles, the membranes, and
+cartilages, the gelatine of the bones, the skin, the hair, and, in
+short, every part of the body which contains nitrogen. The _non-plastic_
+elements of nutrition include fat, oil, starch, sugar, gum, and certain
+constituents of fruits, such as pectine.
+
+All non-plastic substances--and of each kind there are numerous
+varieties--are capable of conversion, in the animal mechanism, into fat
+and oil. The non-plastic food substances do not contain nitrogen, hence
+they are commonly termed non-nitrogenous elements. The oily and fatty
+matters contain a large proportion of carbon, their next most abundant
+component is hydrogen, and they contain but little oxygen. Unlike the
+plastic elements, they are--except the fats of the brain and nervous
+tissue--altogether destitute of sulphur and phosphorus. The starchy,
+saccharine, and gummy substances are composed of the same elements as
+the fatty bodies, but they contain a higher proportion of oxygen.
+According to Liebig, fat is used in the animal economy as a source of
+internal heat. We all know that it is a most combustible body, and that
+during its inflammation the most intense heat is developed. It is less
+evident, but not less true, that heat is evolved during its slow
+oxidation, or decay.
+
+The more rapidly a body burns, the greater is the amount of heat evolved
+by it in a _given time_; but the total amount of heat developed by a
+specific weight of the body is the same, whether the combustion takes
+place rapidly or slowly. An experiment performed with phosphorus
+illustrates the case perfectly. If we burned two pieces of equal weight,
+the one in oxygen, the other in atmospheric air, we should find that the
+former would emit a light five times as brilliant as that evolved by the
+latter, for the simple reason that its combustion would be five times as
+rapid. The white, vapor-like matter into which phosphorus is converted
+by its combustion, is termed _phosphoric acid_. It is composed of
+phosphorus and oxygen. In forming an ounce of this compound, by the
+direct oxidation, or combustion of phosphorus, the amount of force,
+either as heat, or as heat and light, evolved is precisely the same,
+whether the time expended in the process be a minute or a month.[5] If,
+in the experiment I have described, we were to substitute two pieces of
+fat for the fragments of phosphorus, the results would be precisely
+similar. The fat burned in oxygen gas would emit intense light and heat;
+but the total amount of these forces evolved would be neither greater
+nor less than that developed during the slower and therefore less
+brilliant combustion of the fat in ordinary atmospheric air. Now, as we
+can demonstrate that an ounce of fat will emit a certain amount of heat,
+if burned within a minute of time, and that neither a larger nor a
+smaller amount will be developed if the combustion of the fat extend
+over a period of five minutes, I think we may fairly assume that the
+amount of heat evolved by the complete oxidation of a specific quantity
+of fat is constant under all conditions, except, as I have already
+explained, at high temperatures, when a portion of the heat is converted
+into light.
+
+In the animal organism fat is burned. The process of combustion no
+doubt is a very slow one, but still the total amount of heat evolved
+is just the same as if the fat were consumed in a furnace. When the
+fat constituting a candle is burned, what becomes of it? Its elements,
+carbon and hydrogen (we may disregard its small amount of oxygen)
+combine with the oxygen of the air, and form carbonic acid gas and
+water. What becomes of the fat consumed within the animal body? It also
+is converted into carbonic acid gas and water. It is not difficult
+to prove these statements to be facts. A candle will not burn in
+atmospheric air which has been deprived of its oxygen, because there is
+no substance present with which the elements of the taper can combine,
+consequently the process of combustion cannot go on. Now, a man may in
+one respect be compared with this taper. He is partly made up of fat;
+that fat is consumed by the oxygen of the air, and the heat developed
+thereby keeps the body warm. In the process of respiration oxygen is
+introduced into the lungs, and from thence, by means of the blood
+vessels, is conveyed throughout every part of the body. In some way, at
+present not thoroughly understood, the elements of the fat combine with
+the oxygen, and are converted into carbonic acid gas and water, which
+are exhaled from the lungs and from the surface of the body.
+
+Fat is a constituent of both animals and plants. The animal derives a
+portion of its fat directly from the vegetable; but it possesses the
+power of forming this substance from other organic bodies, such, for
+example, as starch. Plants elaborate fat directly from the
+minerals--carbonic acid gas, and water.
+
+I have already explained that the growth of plants is, _cæteris
+paribus_, directly proportionate to the amount of sunlight to which
+they are exposed. Not less certainly is the force which constitutes the
+sun-beam expended in grouping mineral atoms into organic forms, than is
+the heat which converts water into steam. But in neither case is the
+force destroyed. When the vaporous steam is condensed into the liquid
+water, all the heat is restored, and becomes palpable. By the ultimate
+decomposition of vegetable substances all the force expended on their
+production is liberated, and, in some form, becomes manifest.
+
+When the fat formed in the mechanisms of plants is decomposed in
+the animal organism, two results follow:--The atoms of the fat are
+re-converted to their original mineral, or statical conditions of
+carbonic acid gas and water; and the force which maintained them in
+their organic state is set free as heat, and its equivalent, motive
+power.
+
+One of the most useful instruments which the ingenuity of man has
+devised, is the Thermometer. It is so familiarly known that I need
+not describe it. This instrument does not enable us to estimate the
+actual quantity of heat contained in a substance, but it indicates
+the proportion of that subtile element which is _sensible_--that is
+recognisable by the sense of touch. The dusky Hindu, clad in his single
+cotton garment, and the Laplander in his suit of fur, are placed under
+the most opposite conditions in relation to the heat of the sun--the
+Indian is exposed during the whole year to Sol's most ardent beams,
+whilst but a scant share of its genial rays goes to warm the body of
+the Laplander. Now, if we placed the bulb of a thermometer beneath the
+tongue of a Hindu, we would find the mercury to stand at 98 degrees on
+Fahrenheit's scale, and if we repeated the experiment on a Laplander,
+we would obtain an identical result. Numerous experiments of this
+nature have been made on individuals in most parts of the world, and
+the results have proved that the temperature of the blood of man is
+98 degrees Fahrenheit, whether he be in India or at Nova Zembla, on
+the _steppes_ of Russia, or the elevated _plateaus_ of America. This
+invariability[6] of the temperature of the bodies of men and of all
+other warm-blooded animals, appears the more wonderful when it it is
+considered that the range of the temperature of the medium in which
+they exist exceeds 200 degrees Fahrenheit. In India, the mercury in the
+thermometer has been observed to stand at 145 degrees in the direct
+sunlight, and at 120 degrees in the shade. In high latitudes the
+temperature is sometimes so low as 100 degrees below zero. A Russian
+army, in an expedition to China, in 1839, was exposed for several
+successive days to a temperature of 42 degrees below zero, and suffered
+severely in consequence.
+
+The facts which I have cited clearly prove that the animal body
+possesses the power of generating, or, to speak more correctly,
+liberating heat, either from portions of its own mechanism or from
+substances placed within that mechanism.
+
+At one time it was the general belief amongst physiologists that one
+portion of the food consumed by an animal was employed in repairing
+the waste of its body, and the remaining part was burned as fuel,
+evolving heat just in the same way as if it had been consumed in a
+furnace. It was this theory that led to the classification of food into
+flesh-formers, and heat-givers. It is now doubted if any portion of the
+food be really burned in this way; and I, for one, think it far more
+probable that, before its conversion into carbonic acid gas and water
+(whereby, according to this theory, it develops the heat which keeps the
+body warm), it first becomes assimilated, that is, becomes an integral
+part of the animal body--blood, fat, muscle. Perhaps we would be
+nearer the truth if we were to assume that heat is evolved during the
+decomposition of both the nitrogenous and fatty constituents of the
+body.
+
+The constantly recurring contractions of the muscles must alone be a
+source of much heat. The development of animal motive power is said to
+be strictly proportionate to the amount of muscular tissue decomposed.
+As the nitrogen of the latter is almost completely excreted under the
+form of urea, the quantity of the latter daily eliminated from the
+body of an animal is a measure of the decomposed muscular tissue, and
+consequently of the amount of muscular power generated in the animal
+organism.[7] The correspondence between the amount of the motive power
+of an animal, and the quantity of effete nitrogen excreted from the
+body, is limited to laboring men and to the lower animals. Strange as
+it may appear, it is an incontrovertible fact that men whose pursuits
+require the constant exercise of the intellectual faculties--lawyers,
+writers, statesmen, students, scientific men, and other
+brain-workers--excrete more urea than do men engaged in the most
+physically laborious occupations. An activity of thoughts and ideas
+involves a corresponding destruction of the tissues, and these require,
+for their reparation, the consumption of food. Here, then, we have a
+physical meaning for the common expression--"food for thought."
+
+That the amount of heat developed in the animal organism, is
+proportionate to the quantity of fatty matters (or of substances capable
+of forming them) supplied to it in the shape of food, is a proposition
+which admits of easy demonstration. The natives of warm regions do not
+require the generation of much heat within their bodies, because the
+temperature of the medium in which they exist is generally as high as,
+or higher than, that of their blood. But as they must consume food for
+the purpose of repairing the waste of their nitrogenous tissues, and as
+every kind of food contains heat-producing elements, an excess of heat
+is developed within their bodies, which, if allowed to accumulate, would
+speedily produce fatal results. The means by which nature removes this
+superabundant heat are admirably simple, as indeed all its contrivances
+are. The skin is permeated with millions of pores, and through these
+openings a large quantity of vapor is given off, and carries with it the
+surplus heat. The pores are the orifices of minute convoluted tubes
+which lie beneath the skin, and when straightened measure each about the
+tenth of an inch, or, according to a writer in the _British and Foreign
+Medico-Chirurgical Review_ (1859, page 349), the one-fifteenth of an
+inch in length. According to Erasmus Wilson, the number of these tubes
+which open into every square inch of the surface of the body is 2,800.
+The total number of square inches on the surface of an average sized man
+is 2,500, consequently the surface of his body is drained by not less
+than twenty-eight miles of tubing, furnished with 7,000,000 openings.
+The cooling of the body, by the evaporation of water from it, admits of
+explanation by well-known natural laws. Water, in the state of vapor,
+occupies a space 1,700 fold greater than it does in its liquid
+condition. It is heat which causes its vaporous form, but it ceases to
+be heat when it has accomplished this change in the condition of the
+liquid; for, suffering itself an alteration, it passes into another form
+of force--mechanical, or motive power. The heat generated within the
+body is absorbed by the liquid water, the conversion of the latter into
+vapor follows, and both the heat and the water, in their altered forms,
+escape through the pores.
+
+_Fatty food necessary in cold climates._--As a grave objection against
+the chemical theory of heat, it has been urged that rice--the pabulum of
+hundreds of millions of the inhabitants of tropical regions--contains an
+exceedingly high proportion of heat-giving substances. I have, however,
+great doubt as to rice ever forming the exclusive food of those people,
+without their health being impaired in consequence of the deficiency in
+that substance of the plastic elements of nutrition. Indeed I believe
+it is a great mistake to assert that the natives of India live almost
+exclusively on rice. This article, no doubt, forms a large proportion of
+their food, but it is supplemented with pulse (the produce of leguminous
+plants), which is rich in flesh-forming materials, also with dried fish,
+butter, and various kinds of vegetable and animal food rich in nitrogen.
+The innutritious nature of rice is clearly shown by its chemical
+composition, and so large a quantity of it must the Hindu consume in
+order to repair the waste of his body, that his stomach sometimes
+acquires prodigious dimensions; hence the term "pot-bellied," so often
+applied to the Indian ryot. I doubt very much, however, if the stomach
+of the Hindu, large as it is, could accommodate a quantity of rice, the
+combustion of which would produce a very excessive development of heat.
+This substance, when cooked, contains a high proportion of water, the
+evaporation of which carries off a large amount of the heat generated
+by the combustion of its respiratory constituents. The amount of motive
+power developed by the Hindu is small as compared with that which the
+European is capable of exerting; hence he has less necessity for a
+highly nitrogenous diet. On the whole, then, I am disposed to think
+that the food of the natives of tropical climates contains sufficient
+nitrogenous matters to effectually build up and keep in repair their
+bodies; it also appears clear to me that the amount of heat developed
+in their bodies is not excessive, and that it is readily disposed of
+in converting the water, which enters so largely into their diet, into
+vapor. The proportion of plastic to non-plastic elements in the diet
+of the Hindu and of the well-fed European, is probably as follows:--
+
+                     Nitrogenous.            Non-nitrogenous
+                                         (calculated as starch.)
+
+  Hindu                   1         to                9
+  European                1         to                8
+
+
+This statement does not quite correspond with Liebig's, who estimates
+the proportion of nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous substances in rice as
+10 to 123, in beef as ten to seventeen, and in veal as ten to one. The
+results of Lawes and Gilbert's investigations, already alluded to, have,
+however, dispelled the illusion that the plastic constituents of flesh
+exceed its non-plastic. In the potato, which at one time constituted
+more of the food of the Irish peasantry than rice does that of the
+Hindu, the proportion of plastic to non-plastic materials is as 10 to
+110. The results of some analyses of the food grains consumed in the
+Presidency of Madras, made by Professor Mayer, of the University of
+Madras, clearly prove that the food of the inhabitants of that part of
+India is of a far more highly nitrogenous character than is generally
+supposed. That the Hindu, who subsists exclusively on rice, exhibits
+all the symptoms of deficient nutrition, is a fact to which numerous
+competent observers have testified.
+
+A slight consideration of the facts which I have mentioned leads to the
+conclusion that the food of the inhabitants of very cold regions is
+required to produce a large amount of heat. Melons, rice, and other
+watery vegetable productions, however delicious to the palate of the
+Hindu, would be rejected with disgust by the Esquimaux, whilst the train
+oil, blubber, and putrid seal's flesh which the children of the icy
+North consider highly palatable, would excite the loathing of the East
+Indian. On this subject I may appositely quote the following remarks by
+Dr. Kane, the Arctic explorer:--"Our journeys have taught us the wisdom
+of the Esquimaux appetite, and there are few among us who do not relish
+a slice of raw blubber, or a chunk of frozen walrus beef. The liver of
+a walrus (awuktanuk), eaten with little slices of his fat--of a verity
+it is a delicious morsel. Fire would seem to spoil the curt, pithy
+expression of vitality which belongs to its uncooked juices. Charles
+Lamb's roast pig was nothing to awuktanuk. I wonder that raw beef is not
+eaten at home. Deprived of extraneous fibre, it is neither indigestible
+nor difficult to masticate. With acids and condiments, it makes a salad
+which an educated palate cannot help relishing; and as a powerful and
+condensed heat-making and anti-scorbutic food, it has no rival. I make
+this last broad assertion after carefully considering its truth. The
+natives of South Greenland prepare themselves for a long journey, by a
+course of frozen seal. At Upper Navik they do the same with the narwhal,
+which is thought more heat-making than the seal; while the bear, to use
+their own expression, is 'stronger travel than all.' In Smith's Sound,
+where the use of raw meat seems almost inevitable from the modes of
+living of the people, walrus holds the first rank. Certainly this
+pachyderm (Cetacean?) whose finely condensed tissue and delicately
+permeating fat (oh! call it not blubber) assimilate it to the ox, is
+beyond all others, and is the best _fuel_ a man can swallow." The
+gastronomic capabilities of the Esquimaux and of other northern races,
+and their fondness for fatty food, are exhibited in a sufficiently
+strong light in the following statements:--
+
+Captain Parry weighed and presented to an Esquimaux lad the following
+articles:--
+
+                                                         lb.  oz.
+
+  Frozen seahorse flesh                                   4    4
+  Wild seahorse flesh                                     4    4
+  Bread and bread dust                                    1   12
+  Rich gravy soup                                         1    4
+  Water                                                  10    0
+  Strong grog                                         1 tumbler.
+  Raw spirits                                    3 wine glasses.
+
+This large quantity of food, which the lad did not consider excessive,
+was consumed by him within twenty-four hours. According to Captain
+Cochrane a reindeer suffices but for one repast for three Yakutis, and
+five of them will devour at a sitting a calf weighing 200 lbs. Mr.
+Hooper, one of the officers of the _Plover_, in his narrative of their
+residence on the shores of Arctic America, states that "one of the
+ladies who visited them was presented, as a jest, with a small tallow
+candle, called a purser's dip. It was, notwithstanding, a very pleasant
+joke to the damsel, who deliberately munched it up with evident relish,
+and finally drew the wick between her set teeth to clean off any
+remaining morsels of fat."
+
+The partiality for certain kinds of food, and disgust at other
+varieties, which particular races of men exhibit, is an instinct which
+they cannot avoid obeying. Instead of exciting our disgust, as it too
+frequently does, it should exalt our admiration of the infinite wisdom
+of the Creator, who by simply adapting man's desire for particular kinds
+of food to the external conditions under which he is placed, enables him
+to occupy and "subdue the earth" from the Equator to the Poles.
+
+The food of human beings and of the lower animals who inhabit cold
+countries is nearly exclusively composed of animal substances.
+The flesh, fat, and oil of animals occupy less space than do the
+corresponding elements of vegetables; consequently the nutriment they
+afford is more concentrated, and a larger quantity can be stowed away
+without inconvenience in the stomach. The heat-forming constituents of
+these substances constitute not only the chief part of their bulk, but
+they are also capable of evolving a greater amount of heat than any
+other of the respiratory elements. One pound of dry fat will develop as
+much heat as two and a half pounds of dry starch, and the fattest flesh
+includes four times as much plastic materials as rice. The diet of
+people all over the world, unless under circumstances which prevent the
+gratification of the natural appetite, establishes the intimate relation
+which subsists between cold and food. The appetite of man is at a
+minimum at the Equator, and at a maximum within the Arctic circle. The
+statements as to the voracity of Hottentots and Bosjesmans, recorded in
+the narratives of travellers, do not in the slightest degree affect the
+general rule that more is eaten in cold climates than in hot regions.
+These are mere records of gluttony, and it would not be difficult to
+find parallel cases in our own country. Gluttony is an abnormal
+appetite, and the greater part of the food devoured under its unnatural,
+and generally unhealthy stimulus is not applied to the wants of the body.
+
+The bodies of animals are heated masses of matter, and are subject to
+the ordinary laws of _radiation_. Every substance radiates its heat, and
+receives in return a portion of that emitted from surrounding bodies. If
+two bodies of unequal temperature be placed near each other, the warmer
+of the two will radiate a portion of its heat to the colder, and will
+receive some of the heat of the latter in return; but as the warmer body
+will emit more heat than it will receive, the result will be, that after
+a time, the length of which will depend on the nature of the bodies,
+both will acquire the same temperature. In very warm climates the bodies
+of animals derive from the sun, and from the heated bodies surrounding
+them, more heat than they give in return; and were it not for their
+internal cooling apparatus, which I have described, the heat so absorbed
+would prove fatal. In every climate, on the contrary, where the
+temperature is lower than 98°, or "blood heat," the bodies of animals
+lose more heat by radiation than they receive by the same means. The
+philosophy of the _clothing_ of men and the _sheltering_ of the lower
+animals is now evident. It is not only necessary that heat should be
+developed within the body, but also that its wasteful expenditure should
+be prevented. The latter is effected by interposing between the warm
+body and the cold air some substances (such as fur or wool) which do not
+readily permit the transmission of heat--_non-conductors_ as they are
+termed. The close down of the eider duck is destined to protect its
+bosom from the chilling influence of the icy waters of the North Polar
+Sea, and the quadrupeds of the dreary Arctic Circle are sheltered by
+thick fur coverings from the piercing blasts of its long winter.
+
+_Fat Equivalents._--Whilst it is quite certain that neither nerves nor
+muscles can be elaborated exclusively out of fat, starch, sugar, or any
+other non-nitrogenous substance, it is almost equally clear that fat may
+be formed out of nitrogenous tissue. The quantity of fat, however, which
+is produced in the animal mechanism, from purely nitrogenous food
+appears to be relatively very small. No animal is capable of subsisting
+solely on muscle-forming materials, no matter how abundantly supplied.
+The food of the Carnivora contains a large proportion of fat, and the
+nutriment of the Herbivora is largely made up of starch and other
+fat-formers. Dogs, geese, and other animals fed exclusively upon albumen
+or white of egg rapidly decreased in weight, and after presenting all
+the symptoms of starvation, died in three or four weeks.[8] The fat of
+the bodies of the Carnivora is almost entirely formed--and probably with
+little if any alteration--from the fatty constituents of their food.
+Herbivorous animals, on the contrary, derive nearly all their fat from
+starch, sugar, gum, cellulose, and other non-nitrogenous, but not fatty,
+materials.
+
+Although starch is convertible into fat, it is not to be understood that
+a pound weight of one of these bodies is equivalent to an equal quantity
+of the other. During the conversion of starch into fat, the greater
+number of its constituent atoms is converted into water and carbonic
+acid gas. The greater number of the more important metamorphoses of
+organised matter, which take place in the animal organum, is the result
+of either oxidation or fermentation: in the conversion of starch or
+sugar into fat or oil, both of these processes, it is stated, take
+place; a portion of the hydrogen is converted by oxidation into water,
+and by fermentation carbonic acid gas is formed, which removes both
+oxygen and carbon. Perhaps in the formation of fat fermentation is alone
+employed--a portion of the oxygen being removed as water, and another
+portion as carbonic acid. The chief difference between the ultimate
+composition of starch and fat is, that the latter contains a much larger
+proportion of hydrogen and carbon. The knowledge of the exact quantity
+of starch required for the formation of a given amount of fat is of
+importance in enabling us to estimate the relative feeding value of both
+substances. Certain difficulties stand in the way of our acquiring an
+accurate knowledge on this point. Not only are there several distinct
+kinds of fat, but the precise formula, or atomic constitution of each,
+is as yet veiled in doubt. There are three fats which occur in man
+and the domesticated animals, and in vegetables. These are stearine,
+margarine, and oleine. The relative proportions of these vary in each
+animal: thus, in man and in the goose margarine is the most abundant
+fat, whilst oleine[9] exists in the pig in a greater proportion than in
+man, the sheep, or the ox. The composition of the animal fats does not,
+however, vary much; and this fact, together with other considerations,
+have led chemists to assume that two-and-a-half parts of starch are
+required for the production of one part of the mixed fats of the
+different animals. Grape sugar and the pectine bodies--substances which
+form a large proportion of the food of the Herbivora--contain more
+oxygen and hydrogen than exist in starch, and, consequently, are not
+capable of forming so large an amount of fat as an equal weight of
+starch. We may assume, then, that 2·50 parts of starch, 2·75 parts of
+sugar, or 3 parts of the pectine bodies, are equivalent to 1 part of
+fat.
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+RELATION BETWEEN THE COMPOSITION OF AN ANIMAL AND THAT OF ITS FOOD.
+
+I have already stated that the results of the admirable investigations
+of Lawes and Gilbert prove that the non-nitrogenous constituents of the
+carcasses of oxen, sheep, and pigs exceed in weight their nitrogenous
+elements. This fact is suggestive of many important questions. What
+relation is there between the composition of an animal and that of
+its food? Should an animal whose body contains three times as much
+fat as lean flesh, be supplied with food containing three times
+as much fat-formers as flesh-formers? To these questions there is
+some difficulty in replying. There _is_ a relationship between the
+composition of the body of an animal and that of its food; but the
+relationship varies so greatly that it is impossible to determine with
+any degree of accuracy the quantity of fat-formers which is required to
+produce a given weight of fat in animals, taken _in globo_. If, however,
+we deal with a particular animal placed under certain conditions, it is
+then possible to ascertain the amount of fat which a given weight of
+non-plastic food will produce. For the greater part of our knowledge
+on this point, as on so many others, in the feeding of stock, we are
+indebted to Lawes and Gilbert. In the case of sheep fed upon fattening
+food these inquirers found that every 100 lbs. of dry[10] non-nitrogenous
+substances consumed by them produced, on an average, an increase of 10
+lbs. in the weight of their fat. In the case of pigs, also, supplied
+with food, the proportion of non-nitrogenous matters appropriated to
+the animal's increase was double that so applied in the bodies of the
+sheep. As the food supplied to these animals contained but a very small
+proportion of ready-formed fat, it was inferred that four-fifths of the
+fat of the increase was derived from the sugar, starch, cellulose, and
+pectine bodies.
+
+These tables exhibit in a condensed form the results of one of the
+elaborate series of experiments in relation to this point carried out
+by Lawes and Gilbert:--
+
+  ESTIMATED AMOUNT OF CERTAIN CONSTITUENTS STORED UP IN _INCREASE_,
+  FOR 100 PARTS OF EACH CONSUMED IN FOOD BY FATTENING SHEEP.
+
+                      +--------------------------------------------------------
+                      | KEY:
+                      | A.--No. of Animals.
+                      | B.--Mineral matter (ash).[11]
+                      | C.--Nitrogenous compounds (dry).
+                      | D.--Non-nitrogenous substance.
+                      | E.--Total dry substance.
+                      |
+  --------------------+------------------------------------+-------------------
+                                                           |  Amount of each
+                                                           | Class in Increase
+                                                           |for 100 of the same
+           GENERAL PARTICULARS OF THE EXPERIMENTS.         | consumed in Food.
+  --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+----
+                      |   |         |   Description of     |    |    |    |
+                      |   |         |   Fattening Food.    |    |    |    |
+                      |   |         |-------------+--------|    |    |    |
+                      |   |         |   Given     | Given  |    |    |    |
+                      |   |         | in limited  |  ad    |    |    |    |
+         BREED.       | A.|Duration.|  quantity.  |libitum.| B. | C. | D. | E.
+  --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+----
+                                        Class I.
+  --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+----
+                      |   |wks. dys.|Oilcake and  |Swedish |    |    |    |
+                      |   |         |clover chaff.|turnips.|    |    |    |
+  Cotswolds           | 46| 19    5 |      "      |   "    |3·98|4·43|11·6|9·60
+  Leicesters          | 40| 20    0 |      "      |   "    |3·15|3·39|12·0|9·48
+  Cross-bred wethers  | 40| 20    0 |      "      |   "    |3·24|3·60|11·6|9·31
+  Cross-bred ewes     | 40| 20    0 |      "      |   "    |3·25|3·60|11·8|9·40
+  Hants Downs         | 40| 26    0 |      "      |   "    |3·40|4·28|10·3|8·49
+  Sussex Downs        | 40| 26    0 |      "      |   "    |3·30|4·16|10·3|8·44
+  --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+----
+                                             Means         |3·39|3·91|11·3|9·12
+  =========================================================+====+====+====+====
+                               Class III.--(Series 1.)
+  --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+----
+                      |   |         |             |Swedish |    |    |    |
+                      |   |         |             |turnips.|    |    |    |
+  Hants Downs         | 5 | 13    6 |Oilcake.     |   "    |4·16|4·01|11·1|9·33
+                      | 5 | 13    6 |Oats.        |   "    |5·73|7·07|10·0|9·45
+                      | 5 | 13    6 |Clover chaff.|   "    |3·98|7·44| 9·0|8·49
+  --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+---------+----+----
+                                             Means         |4·62|6·17|10·0|9·09
+  =========================================================+====+====+====+====
+                               Class IV.--(Series 2.)
+  --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+----
+                      |   |         |             | Clover |    |    |    |
+                      |   |         |             | chaff. |    |    |    |
+  Hants Downs         | 5 | 19    1 |Oilcake.     |   "    |1·69|2·20| 6·3|5·07
+                      | 5 | 19    1 |Linseed.     |   "    |1·81|2·32| 6·2|5·19
+                      | 5 | 19    1 |Barley.      |   "    |1·75|2·82| 5·7|5·00
+                      | 5 | 19    1 |Malt.        |   "    |1·46|2·17| 5·3|4·61
+  --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+----
+                                             Means         |1·68|2·38| 5·9|4·97
+  =========================================================+====+====+====+====
+                               Class V.--(Series 4.)
+  --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+----
+                      |   |         |             |Mangolds|    |    |    |
+  Hants Downs         | 4 | 10    0 |Barley ground|   "    |3·80|5·65| 9·8|8·91
+                      | 5 | 10    0 |Malt, ground,|   "    |4·04|6·18|10·4|9·49
+                      |   |         |& malt dust. |        |    |    |    |
+                      | 4 | 10    0 |Barley ground|   "    |3·72|6·35| 8·9|8·28
+                      |   |         | and steeped.|        |    |    |    |
+                      | 4 | 10    0 |Malt, ground |   "    |2·95|4·34| 9·3|8·23
+                      |   |         |and steeped, |        |    |    |    |
+                      |   |         |& malt dust. |        |    |    |    |
+                      | 5 | 10    0 |Malt, ground,|   "    |3·46|5·46| 9·1|8·25
+                      |   |         |& malt dust. |        |    |    |    |
+  --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+----
+                                             Means         |3·59|5·60| 9·5|8·63
+  ---------------------------------------------------------+----+----+----+----
+                                             Means of all  |3·27|4·41| 9·4|8·06
+  =========================================================+====+====+====+====
+
+
+  ESTIMATED AMOUNT OF CERTAIN CONSTITUENTS STORED UP IN _INCREASE_,
+  FOR 100 OF EACH CONSUMED IN FOOD, BY FATTENING PIGS.
+
+             +-----------------------------------------------------------------
+             | KEY:
+             | A.--No. of Animals.
+             | B.--Mineral matter (ash).
+             | C.--Nitrogenous compounds (dry).
+             | D.--Non-nitrogenous substance.
+             | E.--Total dry substance.
+             | F.--Fat.
+             |
+  -----------+----------------------------------------+------------------------
+                                                      |  Amount of each Class
+                                                      |    in Increase for
+        GENERAL PARTICULARS OF THE EXPERIMENTS.       |    100 of the same
+                                                      |   consumed in Food.
+  --+--------+----------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+---
+    |        |     Description of Fattening Food.     |    |     |    |    |
+    |        |--------------------+-------------------|    |     |    |    |
+    |        |      Given in      |      Given        |    |     |    |    |
+  A.|Duration|limited quantities. |   ad libitum.     | B. |  C. | D. | E. | F.
+  ==+========+====================+===================+====+=====+====+====+===
+                           The Analysed "Fat Pig."[12]
+  --+--------+----------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+---
+    | weeks  |                                        |    |     |    |    |
+  1 |  10    |Mixture of bran 1, bean and lentil-meal |2·66| 7·76|17·6|14·9|405
+    |        |  2, and barley-meal 3 parts, ad libitum|    |     |    |    |
+  ==+========+========================================+====+=====+====+====+===
+                              Series I.
+  --+--------+--------------------+-------------------+----+-----+----+----+---
+  3 |   8    |None.               |Bean & lentil-meal.|0·68| 4·88|25·3|17·5|621
+  3 |   "    |Indian-meal.        |  "                |1·86| 6·39|23·7|17·9|477
+  3 |   "    |Indian-meal and bran|  "                |0·33| 5·02|21·1|16·1|362
+  3 |   "    |None.               |Indian meal.       |2·09| 9·28|20·9|18·6|300
+  3 |   "    |Bean and lentil-meal|  "                |0·99| 9·18|20·9|18·4|324
+  3 |   "    |Bran.               |  "                |2·35|12·10|20·3|18·7|300
+  3 |   "    |Bean, lentil-meal,  |  "                |2·71|10·03|21·3|18·5|307
+    |        |  and bran.         |  "                |    |     |    |    |
+    |        |                    +-------------------|    |     |    |    |
+  3 |   "    |Bean, lentil-meal, Indian-meal, bran,   |0·22| 5·65|21·1|16·8|362
+    |        |  ad libitum.                           |    |     |    |    |
+  --+--------+----------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+---
+                                      Means           |0·74| 7·82|21·8|17·8|382
+  ====================================================+====+=====+====+====+===
+                              Series II.
+  --+--------+--------------------+-------------------+----+-----+----+----+---
+  3 |   8    |None.               |Bean & lentil-meal.|3·20| 3·12|26·5|18·2|801
+  3 |   "    |Barley-meal.        |  "                |0·16| 4·65|19·2|14·7|575
+  3 |   "    |Bran.               |  "                |0·16| 3·99|21·2|15·2|547
+  3 |   "    |Barley-meal and bran|  "                |0·75| 4·57|20·1|15·6|514
+  3 |   "    |None.               |Barley-meal.       |0·56|10·09|18·5|16·9|574
+  3 |   "    |Bean and lentil-meal|  "                |0·53| 6·57|21·1|17·5|620
+  3 |   "    |Bran.               |  "                |0·49| 9·79|18·9|16·9|506
+  3 |   "    |Bean, lentil-meal,  |  "                |4·33| 4·49|22·7|18·0|578
+    |        |  and bran.         |                   |    |     |    |    |
+    |        |                    +-------------------|    |     |    |    |
+  6 |   "    |Mixture of bran 1, barley-meal 2, and   |0·27| 5·65|20·4|16·1|495
+    |        |  bean lentil-meal 3 parts, ad libitum. |    |     |    |    |
+  6 |   "    |Mixture of bran 1, bean lentil-meal 2,  |1·58| 8·10|21·1|17·6|515
+    |        |  barley-meal 3 parts, ad libitum.      |    |     |    |    |
+  --+--------+----------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+---
+                                      Means           |0·59| 6·10|21·0|16·7|572
+  ====================================================+====+=====+====+====+===
+                              Series III.
+  --+--------+--------------------+-------------------+----+-----+----+----+---
+  4 |   8    |Dried Cod Fish.     |Bran & Indian-meal |1·06| 5·06|24·3|18·1|315
+    |        |                    | (equal parts).    |    |     |    |    |
+  4 |   "    |  "                 |Indian-meal.       |0·26| 8·16|25·6|20·9|352
+  --+--------+--------------------+-------------------+----+-----+----+----+---
+                                      Means           |0·66| 6·61|24·9|19·5|333
+  ====================================================+====+=====+====+====+===
+                              Series IV.
+  --+--------+--------------------+-------------------+----+-----+----+----+---
+  3 |   10   |Lentil-meal & bran. |Sugar.             |3·07| 9·30|19·4|16·9|
+  3 |    "   |  "                 |Starch.            |3·18| 9·36|19·4|16·9|
+  3 |    "   |  "                 |Sugar & starch.    |4·06|10·78|17·7|16·1|
+    |        |                    +-------------------|    |     |    |    |
+  3 |    "   |Lentils, bran, sugar, starch, ad libitum|4·80| 9·96|18·7|16·5|
+  --+--------+----------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----|---
+                                      Means           |3·78| 9·85|18·8|16·6|
+  ----------------------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+---
+                                      Means of all    |0·58| 7·34|21·2|17·3|472
+  ====================================================+====+=====+====+====+===
+
+The larger appropriation of the non-nitrogenous constituents of its food
+by the pig, as compared with the sheep, must not be attributed solely to
+its greater tendency to fatten, but partly to the far more digestible
+nature of the food supplied to it.
+
+
+SECTION V.
+
+RELATION BETWEEN THE QUANTITY OF FOOD CONSUMED BY AN ANIMAL, AND THE
+INCREASE IN ITS WEIGHT, OR OF THE AMOUNT OF ITS WORK.
+
+The manifestations of that wondrous and mysterious principle, _life_,
+are completely dependent upon the decomposition of organised matter. Not
+an effort of the mind, not a motion of the body, can be accomplished
+without involving the destruction of a portion of the tissues. In a
+general sense we may regard the fat of the animal to be its store of
+fuel, and its lean flesh to be the source of its motive power. As the
+evolution of heat within the body is proportionate to the quantity of
+fat consumed, so also is the amount of force developed in the animal
+mechanism in a direct ratio to the proportion of flesh decomposed.
+The quantity of fat burned in the body is estimated by the amount of
+carbonic acid gas expired from the lungs and perspired through the skin;
+the proportion of flesh disorganised is ascertained by the quantity of
+urea eliminated in the liquid egesta. The amount of urea excreted daily
+by a man is influenced by the activity of his mind, as well as by that
+of his body. A man engaged in physical labor wears out more of his body
+than one who does no work; and a man occupied in a pursuit involving
+intense mental application, consumes a greater proportion of his tissue
+than the man who works only with his body.[13] In each of these cases,
+there is a different amount of tissue disorganised, and consequently a
+demand for different amounts of food, with which to repair the waste.
+But all the food consumed by a man is not devoted to the reparation of
+the tissue worn out in the operations of thinking and working. A human
+being whose mind is a perfect blank, and who performs no bodily work,
+excretes a large quantity of urea, the representative of an equivalent
+amount of worn-out flesh. In fact the greater part of the food consumed
+by a man serves merely to sustain the functions of the body--the
+circulation of the blood--the action of the heart--the movements of the
+muscles concerned in respiration--in a word, the various motions of the
+body which are independent of the will. According to Professor Haughton,
+about three-fourths of the food of a working man of 150 lbs. weight, are
+used in merely keeping him _alive_, the remaining fourth is expended in
+the production of mechanical force, constituting his daily toil.
+
+In the nutrition of the lower animals, as in that of man, the amount of
+food made use of by a particular individual depends upon its age, its
+weight, the amount of work it performs, and probably its temper. As
+three-fourths of the weight of the food of a laboring man are expended
+in merely keeping him alive, it is obvious that the withholding of the
+remaining fourth would render him incapable of working. An amount of
+food which adequately maintains the vital and mechanical powers of three
+men, serves merely to keep four alive. It is the same with the horse,
+the ox, and every other animal useful to man: each makes use of a
+certain amount of food, _for its own purposes_; all that is consumed
+beyond that is applied for the benefit of its owner. Let us take the
+case of two of our most useful quadrupeds--the horse and the ox. The
+horse is used as an immediate source of motive power. For this purpose
+food is supplied to it, the greater portion of which is consumed in
+keeping the animal alive, and the rest for the development of its motive
+power. Abundance of food is as necessary to the natural mechanism,
+the horse, as fuel is to the artificial mechanism, the steam-engine.
+In each case the amount of force developed is, within certain limits,
+proportionate to the quantity of vegetable or altered vegetable matter
+consumed. The greater portion of the ox's food is also consumed in
+keeping its body alive, and the rest, instead of being expended in the
+development of motive power, accumulates as surplus stores of flesh,
+which in due time are applied to the purpose of repairing the organisms
+of men. It is evident then, that the greater sufferer from the deficient
+supply of food to animals is their owner. That they cannot be _taught_
+to _fast_ is a fact which does not appear very patent to some minds.
+The man who sought by gradually reducing the daily quantum of his
+horse's provender to accustom it to work without eating, was justly
+punished for his ignorant cruelty. The day before the horse's allowance
+was to be reduced to pure water, and when its owner's hope appeared
+certain of speedy realisation, the animal died. There are men who act
+almost as foolishly as the parsimonious horse owner in this fable did;
+and who are as properly punished as he was. Such men are to be found in
+the farmers who overstock their sheep pastures, and whose "lean kine"
+are the _laughing stock_ of their more intelligent neighbours.
+
+The weight of a working full-grown horse does not vary from day
+to day, as the weight of its egesta is equal to that of its food.
+The desideratum in the case of the working animal is that its food
+should be as thoroughly decomposed as possible, and the force pent
+up in it liberated within the animal's body: as an ox, on the contrary,
+increases in weight from day to day, it is desirable that as little as
+possible of its food should be disorganised. The wasteful expenditure
+of the animal's fat may be obviated by shelter, and the application of
+artificial heat: the retardation of the destruction of its flesh is even
+more under our control; for, as active muscular exertion involves the
+decomposition of tissue, we have merely to diminish the activity of
+the motions which cause this waste. This, in practice, is effected by
+stall-feeding. Confined within the narrow boundaries of the stall, the
+muscular action of the animal is reduced to a minimum, or limited to
+those uncontrollable actions which are conditions in the maintenance
+of animal life.
+
+The proportion of the food of oxen, sheep, and pigs, which is
+consumed in maintaining their vital functions, has not been accurately
+ascertained; probably, as in the case of man, it is strictly
+proportionate to the animal's weight. We can determine the amount
+of plastic food consumed by an animal during a given period: we can
+ascertain the increase (if any) in the weight of its body; and finally,
+we can weigh and analyse its egesta. With these data it is comparatively
+easy to ascertain the quantity of food which produced the increase in
+the animal's weight; but they do not enable us to determine the amount
+expended in keeping it alive, because the egesta might be largely made
+up of unappropriated food--organised matter which had done no work in
+the animal body. When we come to know the precise quantity of nitrogen,
+in a purely, or nearly pure, mineral form[14] excreted by an animal,
+then we shall be in a position to estimate the proportion of its food
+expended in sustaining the essential vital processes which continuously
+go on in its body. But although we are in ignorance as to the precise
+quantity of flesh-formers expended in keeping the animal alive, we know
+pretty accurately the amount which is consumed in producing a given
+weight of its flesh, or rather in causing a certain increase in its
+weight. This knowledge is the result of numerous investigations, of
+which by far the most valuable are those of Lawes and Gilbert. These
+experimenters found that fattening pigs stored up about 7-1/2 per
+cent. of the plastic materials of their food, whilst sheep accumulated
+somewhat less than 5 per cent. That is, 92-1/2 out of every 100 lbs.
+weight of the nitrogenous food of the pig, and 95 out of every 100 lbs.
+of that of the sheep, are eliminated in the excretions of those animals.
+
+It appears from the results of Lawes and Gilbert's experiments, that
+pigs store up in their _increase_ about 20 per cent., sheep 12 per
+cent., and oxen 8 per cent. of their (dry) food. The relative increase
+of the fatty, nitrogenous, and mineral constituents whilst fattening,
+are shown in this table.
+
+  ---------------------+-------------------------------------------------
+                       |Estimated per cent. in Increase whilst Fattening.
+  CASES.               +--------+-----------+-----------+----------------
+                       |Mineral |Nitrogenous|           |
+                       | matter |matter     | Fat (dry).| Total dry
+                       |(ash).  |(dry).     |           | substance.
+  ---------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+----------------
+  Average of  98 oxen  | 1·47   |  7·69     |  66·2     |  75·4
+  Average of 348 sheep | 1·80   |  7·13     |  70·4     |  79·53
+  Average of  80 pigs  | 0·44   |  6·44     |  71·5     |  78·40
+  ---------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+----------------
+
+The quantity of food consumed daily by an animal is, as might be expected,
+proportionate to the weight of its body. The pig consumes, for every 100
+lbs. of its weight, from 26 to 30 lbs. of food, the sheep 15 lbs., and
+the ox 12 to 13 lbs. These figures and the statements which I have made
+relative to the proportions of fat and plastic elements in the animals'
+bodies, apply to them in their fattening state, and when the food is
+of a highly nutritious character. The calf and the young pig will
+make use--to cause their increase--of a larger portion of nitrogenous
+matters. The sheep, however, being early brought to maturity, will, even
+when very young, store up the plastic and non-plastic constituents of
+its food, in nearly the same relative proportions that I have mentioned.
+
+As it is the food taken into the body that produces heat and motion, it
+might at first sight appear an easy matter to determine the amount of
+heat or of motion which a given weight of a particular kind of food is
+capable of producing within the animal mechanism. But this performance
+is not so easy a task as it appears to be. In the first place, all of
+the food may not be perfectly oxidised, though thoroughly disorganised
+within the body; secondly, as animals rarely subsist on one kind of
+food, it is difficult, when they are supplied with mixed aliments, to
+determine which of them is the most perfectly decomposed. But though the
+difficulties which I have mentioned, and many others, render the task
+of determining the nutritive values of food substances difficult, the
+problem is by no means insoluble, and, in fact, is in a fair way of
+being solved. Professor Frankland, in a paper published in the number
+of the _Philosophical Magazine_ for September, 1866, determines the
+relative alimental value of foods by ascertaining the quantity of heat
+evolved by each when burned in oxygen gas. From the results of these
+researches he has constructed a table, showing the amount of food
+necessary to keep a man alive for twenty-four hours. The following
+figures, which I select from this table, are of interest to the
+stock-feeder:--
+
+
+                      Weight necessary to sustain a
+                      man's life for twenty-four hours.
+
+  Kinds of Food.                 Ounces.
+
+  Potatoes                       13·4
+  Apples                         20·7
+  Oatmeal                         3·4
+  Flour                           3·5
+  Pea Meal                        3·5
+  Bread                           6·4
+  Milk                           21·2
+  Carrots                        25·6
+  Cabbage                        31·8
+  Butter                          1·8
+  Lump Sugar                      3·9
+
+These figures show the relative calefacient, or heat-producing powers of
+the different foods named _outside_ the body; but there is some doubt as
+to their having the same relative values when burned _within_ the body.
+The woody fibre of the carrots and cabbages is very combustible in the
+coal furnace, but it is very doubtful if more than 20 or 30 per cent. of
+this substance is ever burned in the _animal furnace_. However, such
+inquiries as those carried out by Frankland possess great value; and
+tables constructed upon their results cannot fail to be useful in the
+drawing up of dietary scales, whether for man or for the inferior
+animals.
+
+I may here remark, that in my opinion the nutritive value of food admits
+of being very accurately determined by the adoption of the following
+method:--
+
+1. The animal experimented upon to be supplied daily with a weighed
+quantity of food, the composition and calefacient value of which had
+been accurately determined. 2. The gases, vapors, and liquid and solid
+egesta thrown off from its body to be collected, analysed, and the
+calefacient[15] value of the combustible portion of them to be determined.
+3. The increase (if any) of the weight of the animal to be ascertained.
+4. The difference between the amount of heat evolvable by the foods
+before being consumed, and that actually obtained by the combustion
+of the egesta into which they were ultimately converted, would be the
+amount actually set free and rendered available within the body. The
+calculations would be somewhat affected by an increase in the weight
+of the animal's body; but it would not be difficult to keep the weight
+stationary, or nearly so, and there are other ways of getting over
+such a difficulty. An experiment such as this would be a costly one,
+and could not be properly conducted unless by the aid of an apparatus
+similar to that employed by Pettenkofer in his experiments on
+respiration. This apparatus, which was made at the expense of the King
+of Bavaria, cost nearly £600.
+
+_Value of Manure._--It is a complication in the question of the
+economic feeding of the farm animals that the value of their manure
+must be taken into account. Of the three classes of food constituents,
+two--the mineral and nitrogenous--are recoverable in the animal's body
+and manure; the non-nitrogenous is partly recoverable in the fat.
+I shall take the case of a sheep, which will consume weekly per 100
+lbs. of its weight, 12 lbs. of fat-formers, and 3 lbs. of flesh-formers.
+Twelve per cent. of the fat-formers will be retained in the _increase_,
+but the rest will be expended in keeping the animal warm, and the
+products of its combustion--carbonic acid and water--will be useless to
+the farmer. It is, therefore, desirable to diminish as much as possible
+the combustion of fatty matter in the animal's body; and this is
+effected, as I have already explained, by keeping it in a warm place.
+Of the flesh-forming substance only five per cent. is retained in the
+increase, the rest is partly consumed in carrying on the movements of
+the animal--partly expelled from its body unaltered, or but slightly
+altered, in composition. The solid excrement of the animal contains
+all the undigested food; but of this only the mineral and nitrogenous
+constituents are valuable as manure. The nitrogen of the plastic
+materials which are expended in maintaining the functions of the body is
+eliminated from the lungs, through the skin, and by the kidneys--perhaps
+also, but certainly only to a small extent, by the rectum.
+
+The food consumed by an animal is disposed of in the following way:--A
+portion passes unchanged, or but slightly altered, through the body;
+another part is assimilated and subsequently disorganised and ejected;
+the rest is converted into the carcass of the animal at the time of its
+death. The undigested food and aliment which had undergone conversion
+into flesh and other tissues, and subsequent disorganisation, constitute
+the excrements, or manure, of the animal. The richer in nitrogen and
+phosphoric acid the food is, the more valuable will be the manure; so
+that the money value of a feeding stuff is not determinable merely by
+the amount of flesh which it makes, but also, and to a great extent,
+by the value of the manure into which it is ultimately converted.
+
+Corn and oil-cakes are powerful fertilisers of the soil; but the three
+principles which constitute their manurial value--namely, nitrogen
+(ammonia), phosphoric acid, and potash--are purchasable at far lower
+prices in guano and other manures. Nevertheless, many farmers believe
+that the most economical way to produce good manure is to feed their
+stock with concentrated aliment, in order to greatly increase the value
+of their excreta. They consider that a pound's worth of oil-cake, or of
+corn, will produce at least a pound's worth of meat, and that the manure
+will be had for nothing, or, rather, will be the profit of the business.
+The richer food is in nitrogen and phosphoric acid, the more valuable
+will be the manure it yields. It follows, therefore, that if two kinds
+of feeding stuff produce equal amounts of meat, that the preference
+should be given to that which contains the more nitrogen and phosphoric
+acid. Mr. Lawes, who has thrown light upon this point, as well as upon
+so many others, has made careful estimates of the value of the manure
+produced from different foods.  They are given in the following table:--
+
+  TABLE
+
+  Showing the estimated value of the manure obtained on the
+  consumption of one ton of different articles of food; each
+  supposed to be of good quality of its kind.
+
+                                               Estimated Money Value
+      Description of Food.                     of the Manure from
+                                               One Ton of each Food.
+
+   1. Decorticated cotton-seed cake               £6   10   0
+   2. Rape-cake                                    4   18   0
+   3. Linseed-cake                                 4   12   0
+   4. Malt-dust                                    4    5   0
+   5. Lentils                                      3   17   0
+   6. Linseed                                      3   13   0
+   7. Tares                                        3   13   6
+   8. Beans                                        3   13   6
+   9. Peas                                         3    2   6
+  10. Locust beans                                 1    2   6(?)
+  11. Oats                                         1   14   6
+  12. Wheat                                        1   13   0
+  13. Indian corn                                  1   11   6
+  14. Malt                                         1   11   6
+  15. Barley                                       1    9   6
+  16. Clover-hay                                   2    5   0
+  17. Meadow-hay                                   1   10   0
+  18. Oat-straw                                    0   13   6
+  19. Wheat-straw                                  0   12   6
+  20. Barley-straw                                 0   10   6
+  21. Potatoes                                     0    7   0
+  22. Mangolds                                     0    5   0
+  23. Swedish turnips                              0    4   3
+  24. Common turnips                               0    4   0
+  25. Carrots                                      0    4   0
+
+All the saline matter contained in the food is either converted into
+flesh, or is recoverable in the form of manure, but a portion of its
+nitrogen appears to be lost by respiration and perspiration. Reiset
+states that 100 parts of the nitrogen of food given to sheep upon
+which he experimented, were disposed of as follows:--
+
+
+  Recovered in the excreta                                 58·3
+  Recovered in the meat, tallow, and skin                  13·7
+  Lost in respiration                                      28·0
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100·00
+
+Haughton's experiments, performed upon men, gave results which proved
+that no portion of the nitrogen of their food was lost by perspiration
+or by respiration. Barral, on the contrary, asserts that nitrogen
+is given off from the bodies of both man and the inferior animals.
+Boussingault states that horses, sheep, and pigs exhale nitrogen.
+A cow, giving milk, on which he had experimented, lost 15 per cent.
+of the nitrogen of its food by perspiration. The amount of nitrogen
+which Reiset states that sheep exhale is exceedingly great, and it
+is difficult to reconcile his results with those obtained by Voit,
+Bischoff, Regnault, Pettenkofer, and Haughton. Of course, men and sheep
+are widely different animals; but still it is unlikely that all the
+nitrogen of the food of man should be recoverable in his egesta, whilst
+nearly a third of the nitrogen of the food of the sheep should be
+dissipated as gas. I think further experiments are necessary before this
+point can be regarded as settled; and it is probable that it will yet be
+found that all, or nearly all, of the nitrogen of the food of animals is
+recoverable in their egesta.
+
+Regarding, then, an animal as a mechanism by which meat is to be
+"manufactured," five economic points in relation to it demand the
+feeder's attention: these are--the first cost of the mechanism, the
+expense of maintaining the mechanism in working order, the price of
+the raw materials intended for conversion into meat, the value of the
+meat, and the value of the manure. In proportion to the attention given
+to these points, will be the feeder's profits; but they are, to some
+extent, affected by the climatic, geographic, and other conditions under
+which the farm is placed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Footnote 1: If the elements were only capable of combining with each
+other in simple ratios, the number of their combinations would be as
+limited as that of the letters of the alphabet; but as one, two, or
+more atoms of oxygen can combine with one, two, or more atoms of
+other elements, we can assign no limits to the number of _possible_
+combinations. There are hundreds of distinct substances formed of but
+two elements, namely, hydrogen and carbon.]
+
+[Footnote 2: In a paper by Professor Sullivan, of Dublin, the conversion
+of one of these substances into another _outside_ the animal mechanism,
+is almost incontrovertibly proved.]
+
+[Footnote 3: _Experimental Inquiry into the Composition of some of
+the Animals Fed and Slaughtered as Human Food._ By John Bennet Lawes,
+F.R.S., F.C.S., and Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D., F.C.S. _Philosophical
+Transactions of the Royal Society._ Part II., 1860.]
+
+[Footnote 4: From the Greek _plasso_, "to form." Plastic materials are
+sometimes termed _formative_ elements; both terms imply the belief that
+they are capable of giving shape, or form, not only to themselves, but
+also to other kinds of matter not possessed of formative power.]
+
+[Footnote 5: The slow conversion of phosphorus into phosphoric acid
+takes place in the animal organism; its gradual oxidation in the open
+air gives rise only to an imperfectly oxidised body--_phosphorous acid_.
+But the latter fact does not invalidate the general proposition, that
+the heat emitted by a substance undergoing the process of oxidation is
+proportionate to the amount of oxygen with which it combines, and is not
+influenced by the length of time occupied by the process, further than
+this, that if the oxidation be _very_ rapidly effected, a portion of the
+heat will be converted into an _equivalent_ amount of light.]
+
+[Footnote 6: This statement is not absolutely correct, but the range
+of variation is confined within such narrow limits as to be quite
+insignificant.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Doubt has recently been thrown on the truth of this belief
+by Frankland, Fick, and Wislicenus.]
+
+[Footnote 8: The results of Savory's experiments on rats appear to prove
+that animals can live on food destitute of fat, sugar, starch, or any
+other fat-forming substance. I think, however, that animals could hardly
+thrive on purely nitrogenous food. The conclusions which certain late
+writers, who object to Liebig's theory of animal heat, have deduced from
+Savory's investigations, appear to me to be quite unfounded.]
+
+[Footnote 9: So termed because it is the basis of the common oils; the
+fluid portion of fat is composed of oleine.]
+
+[Footnote 10: The term _dry_ is applied to the _solid_ constituents of
+the food. Thus, a pig fed with 100 lbs. of potatoes would be said to
+have been supplied with 25 lbs. of dry potatoes, because water forms
+75 per cent. of the weight of those tubers.]
+
+[Footnote 11: The amounts of "mineral matter" are too high, owing to the
+adventitious matters (dirt) retained by the wool.]
+
+[Footnote 12: This pig was completely analysed by Lawes and Gilbert.]
+
+[Footnote 13: The results of recent and accurately conducted
+investigations prove that men engaged in occupations requiring the
+highest exercise of the intellectual faculties, require more nutritious
+food, and even a greater quantity of nutriment, than the hardest worked
+laborers, such as paviours, and navvies. I have been assured by an
+extensive manufacturer, that on promoting his workmen to situations of
+_greater_ responsibility but _less_ physically laborious than those
+previously filled by them, he found that they required more food and
+that, too, of a better quality. This change in their appetite was
+not the result of increased wages, which in most cases remained the
+same--the decrease in the amount of labour exacted being considered in
+most cases a sufficient equivalent for the increased responsibility
+thrown upon them.]
+
+[Footnote 14: As ammonia, urea, uric acid, or hippuric acid; all of which
+are nearly or perfectly mineralised substances.]
+
+[Footnote 15: The excrements of animals are capable of evolving, by
+combustion, enormous amounts of heat.]
+
+
+
+
+PART II.
+
+ON THE BREEDING AND BREEDS OF STOCK.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+THE BREEDING OF STOCK.
+
+_Cross Breeding._--For many years past feeders have zealously occupied
+themselves in the improvement of their stock, and the result of their
+labors is observable in the marked superiority of the breeds of the
+present day over their ancestors in the last century. The improvement
+of animals designed as food for man is effected by keeping them on a
+liberal dietary, by selecting only the best individuals for sires and
+dams, and by combining the excellencies of two or more varieties of a
+species in one breed. A species consists of a number of animals which
+exhibit so many points of resemblance, that they are regarded by the
+great majority of naturalists to be the descendants of a single pair.
+If we except the believers in the hypotheses relative to the origin
+of existing varieties of animals and plants, propounded by Lamarck,
+Darwin, and other naturalists of the "advanced school," there is a
+general belief in the immutability of species. The individuals of an
+existing species, say dogs, can never acquire the peculiar features
+of another species; nor can their descendants, if we except hybrids,
+ever become animals in which the characteristics of the dog tribe are
+irrecognisable. By various influences, such as, for example, differences
+in food and climate, and domestication, a species may be split into
+_varieties_, or _breeds_, all of which, however, retain the more
+important characteristics of the primordial type. There appears to be
+no limit to the varieties of dogs, yet one can perceive by a glance that
+there is no specific difference between the huge Mont St. Bernard dog
+and the diminutive poodle, or between the sparse greyhound and the burly
+mastiff. All the varieties of our domestic fowl have been traced to
+a common origin--the wild Indian fowl (_Gallus bankiva_). Even Darwin
+admits that all the existing kinds of horses are, in all probability,
+the descendants of an original stock; and it is generally agreed that
+the scores of varieties of pigeons own a common ancestor in the rock
+pigeon (_Columba livia_).
+
+As certain individuals are grouped by naturalists into species, so
+particular species, which in habits and general appearance resemble each
+other, are arranged under the head of genus. The horse, the ass, and the
+zebra are formed on nearly the same anatomical plan; they are therefore
+classed together, and designated the genus _Equus_, a term derived from
+the Latin word _equus_, a horse--that animal being regarded as the type,
+or perfect member of the group. Thus the horse, in the nomenclature of
+the naturalist, is termed _Equus caballus_; the ass, _Equus asinus_; and
+the zebra, _Equus zebra_. By a further extension of this principle of
+classification, very closely allied genera are united under the term
+of _family_.
+
+The different varieties of the same species breed, as might be
+anticipated, freely together; but it frequently happens that two
+individuals of different species pair, and produce an animal which
+inherits some of the properties of each of its progenitors. These
+half-breeds are termed _hybrids_, or _mules_, and we have familiar
+examples of them in the common mule and the jennet. As a general rule,
+animals exhibit a disinclination to breed with other than members of
+their own species; and although the interference of man may overcome
+this natural repugnance, he can only effect the fruitful congress of
+individuals belonging to closely allied species, being members of the
+same genus. Hybrids in the genus _Equus_ are very common. A cross has
+been produced between the he-goat and the ewe; the camel and the
+dromedary have bred together; and Buffon succeeded in producing a hybrid
+in which three animals were represented--namely, the bison, the zebu,
+and the ox. On the other hand, attempts to effect a cross between
+animals belonging to different families have generally failed; nor is
+it at all probable that a cross will ever be produced between the pig
+and the sheep, between the horse and the cow, or, most unlikely of all,
+between the dog and the cat.
+
+It is the general belief that hybrids are sterile, or, at least, that
+they are incapable of propagation _inter se_. This may be true with
+respect to the hybrids of species not very closely allied; but that
+there are exceptions to the rule is quite clear from Roux's experiments
+with hares and rabbits. This gentleman, who is, or was, the president
+of a French agricultural society, but who makes no profession of
+scientific knowledge, has succeeded, after several failures, in producing
+a fruitful cross between the rabbit and the hare. This hybrid has
+received the name of leporide (from the Latin _leporinus_, pertaining to
+a hare), and it is different from former crosses, in being five parts
+hare, and three parts rabbit. M. Roux has bred this hybrid during the
+last eighteen years, and has not observed the slightest appearance
+of decay of race manifest itself up to the present, so that, for all
+practical purposes, the leporide may be regarded as an addition to the
+distinct species of animals. The leporide fattens rapidly, and with but
+little expenditure of food. Sold at the age of four months, it realises,
+in France, a price four times greater than that commanded by a rabbit of
+the same age; and at a year old it weighs on an average ten pounds, and
+sometimes as much as sixteen pounds. It breeds at four months, continues
+thirty days in gestation, and yearly produces five or six litters of
+from five to eight young. To produce this hybrid is by no means
+difficult. A leveret, just old enough to dispense with the maternal
+nutriment, should be placed with a few doe rabbits of his own age,
+apart from other animals. He will soon become familiar with the does,
+and when they attain the age of puberty, all the rabbits save one or two
+should be removed. Speedily those left with the hare will become with
+young, upon which they should be removed, and replaced by others. After
+this the hare should be kept in a hutch by himself, and a doe left with
+him at night only. As the hare is naturally a very shy animal, it will
+only breed when perfect quietness prevails. The half-bred produced in
+the first instance should now be put to the hare, and a cross, three
+parts hare, and one part rabbit, obtained. The permanent breed should
+then be obtained by crossing the quadroon doe leporide, if I may use the
+term, with the half-bred buck.
+
+I have directed attention to the production of the leporide because
+I believe that the problems in relation to it, which have been solved
+by M. Roux, have an important bearing upon the breeding of animals
+of greater importance than hares and rabbits. Here we find a race of
+animals produced by the fusion of two species, which naturally exist in
+a state of mutual enmity, and which differ in many important respects.
+The hare and the rabbit are respectively of but little value as food, at
+least they are of no importance to the feeder; yet a cross between them
+turns out to be an excellent meat-producing animal, which may be reared
+with considerable profit to the feeder. It is thus clearly shown that
+two kinds of animals, neither of which is of great utility, may give
+rise to an excellent cross, if their blood, so to speak, be blended in
+proper proportions. A half-bred animal may be less valuable than its
+parents, but a quadroon may greatly excel its progenitors. The goat
+and sheep are so closely related that they are classed by naturalists
+under one head--_Capridæ_. Some kinds of sheep have hair like goats, and
+certain varieties of goats have fleeces that closely resemble those on
+the sheep. There are sheep with horns, and goats without those striking
+appendages. The Cape of Good Hope goat might easily be mistaken for a
+sheep. It would seem, judging by the results of Roux's experiments, that
+there is no great difficulty in the way of obtaining a cross between the
+sheep and the goat. I do not mean an ordinary half-breed, but a prolific
+hybrid similar to the leporide. Of course, it is impossible, _a priori_,
+to say whether or not such a hybrid race, supposing it produceable,
+would be valuable; but as goats can find a subsistence on mountains
+where sheep would starve, it is possible that an animal, essentially a
+sheep, but with a streak of goat blood in it, could be profitably kept
+on very poor uplands. Whether a race of what we might term _caprides_ be
+formed or not we have derived most suggestive information from M. Roux's
+experiments, which I hope may be turned to account in what is by far the
+most important field of enquiry, the judicious crossing of varieties of
+the same species.
+
+It is a _quæstio vexata_ whether or not the parents generally exercise
+different influences upon the shape and size of their offspring. Mr.
+Spooner supports the supposition--a very popular one--that the sire
+gives shape to the external organs, whilst the dam affects the internal
+organisation. I have considerable doubt as to the probability of this
+theory. The children who spring from the union of a white man with a
+negress possess physical and intellectual qualities which are nearly if
+not quite the _mean_ of their parents; but the offspring of parents,
+both of the same race--be it Caucasian, Mongolian, or Indian--frequently
+conform, intellectually and corporeally, to either of their progenitors.
+Thus, of the children of a tall, thin, dark man, and a short, fat,
+fair woman, some will be like their father, and the others will
+resemble their mother, or, perhaps, all may "take after" either parent.
+Sometimes a child appears to be in every respect unlike its parents,
+and occasionally the likeness of an ancestor appears in a descendant, in
+whom no resemblance to his immediate progenitors can be detected. It is
+highly probable that both parents exercise, under most circumstances, a
+joint influence upon the qualities of their offspring, but that one of
+them may produce so much greater an effect that the influence of the
+other is not recognisable, except perhaps to a very close observer. But
+I doubt very much that any particular organ of the offspring is, as a
+rule, more liable to the influence of the sire than of the dam, or _vice
+versâ_; and the breeder who believes that the sire alone is concerned in
+moulding the external form of the offspring, and who consequently pays
+no attention to this point in the dam, will often find himself out in
+his reckonings. In order to be certain of a satisfactory result, the dam
+should in every respect be equal to the sire. In practice, however, this
+is not always the case, for as sires are so few as compared with the
+number of dams, the greatest efforts have been directed towards the
+improvement of the former.
+
+There is, or ought to be, a familiar maxim with breeders, that "like
+begets like, or the likeness of an ancestor." This is a "wise saw," of
+which there are many "modern instances:" the excellencies or defects of
+sire or dam are certain to be transmitted through several generations,
+though they may not appear in all. As a general rule, good animals will
+produce a good, and defective animals a defective, offspring, but it
+sometimes happens that a bull or cow, of the best blood, is decidedly
+inferior, whilst really good animals are occasionally the produce of
+parents of "low degree." If the defects or excellencies of animals were
+ineradicable there would be no need for the science of breeding; but by
+the continual selection of only the most superior animals for breeding
+purposes the defects of a species gradually disappear, and the good
+qualities are alone transmitted. As, however, animals that are used as
+food for man are to some extent in an abnormal condition, the points
+which may be excellencies in that state, would not have been such in the
+original condition of the animal. We find, therefore, that the improved
+breeds of oxen and sheep exhibit some tendency to revert to their
+original condition, and it is only by close attention to the diet,
+breeding, and general management of these animals that this tendency can
+be successfully resisted. Sometimes, however, an animal of even the best
+breed will "return to nature," or will acquire some undesirable quality;
+such an animal should be rejected for breeding purposes, for its defects
+would in all probability be transmitted to its descendants, near or
+remote. A case, which admirably illustrates this point, is recorded in
+the _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1813, and it is sufficiently
+interesting to be mentioned here:--
+
+    Seth Wright, who possessed a small farm on the Charles River,
+    about sixteen miles from Boston, had a small flock, consisting
+    of fifteen ewes and one ram. One of these ewes, in 1791, produced
+    a singular-shaped male lamb. Wright was advised to kill his former
+    ram and keep this new one in place of it; the consequence was, the
+    formation of a new breed of sheep, which gradually spread over a
+    considerable part of New England, but the introduction of the Merino
+    has nearly destroyed them again. This new variety was called the
+    Otter, or "Ankon" breed. They are remarkable for the shortness of
+    their legs, and the crookedness of their forelegs, like an elbow.
+    They are much more feeble and much smaller than the common sheep,
+    and less able to break over low fences; and this was the reason
+    of their being continued and propagated.
+
+
+Here we have an instance of an animal propagating a defect through
+a great number of descendants, though it had not acquired it from
+its own ancestors. It is, however, probable that occasionally a male
+descendant of this short-legged ram possessed considerably longer organs
+of locomotion than the founder of his breed; and, consequently, if
+selected for breeding purposes might become the founder of a long-legged
+variety, in which, however, a couple of pairs of short-legs would
+occasionally present themselves. I have a notion that the higher animals
+are in the scale of being, the greater is their tendency to transmit
+their acquired good or bad habits to their posterity. Dogs are, perhaps,
+the most intelligent of the inferior animals, and it is well known
+that they transmit to their offspring their acquired as well as their
+natural habits. I doubt very much that those most stupid of creatures,
+guinea-pigs, possess this property in any sensible degree; or, indeed,
+that like the canine tribe, they can be readily made to acquire
+artificial peculiarities: but there once flourished a "learned pig,"
+and it would be worth inquiring whether or not its descendants, like the
+descendants of the trained setter, and pointer, were at all benefited by
+the education of their ancestor. I shall conclude this part of my subject
+in the words of Professor Tanner: "In all cases where the breed has been
+carefully preserved pure, great benefit will result from doing so. The
+character of a breed becomes more and more concentrated and confirmed in
+a pedigree animal, and this character is rendered more fully hereditary
+in proportion to the number of generations through which it has been
+transmitted. By the aid of pedigree, purity of blood may be insured, and
+a systematic plan adopted by which we can perpetuate distinct families,
+and thereby obtain a change of blood without its being a cross. It is
+evident that any one adopting a systematic arrangement will be able to
+do this more effectually than another without this aid. This is the more
+important when the number of families is small, as is the case with
+Devons and Herefords, especially the former. The individual animals from
+which the Devons are descended are very limited in number, and in a few
+hands; but, with some honourable exceptions, little attention is given
+to this point. The importance is rendered evident by the decreasing size
+of the breed, the number of barren heifers, and the increased delicacy
+of constitution shown in the stock of many breeders of that district who
+are not particular in this respect. The contrast between such herds,
+and those in which more care and judgment are exercised, renders the
+advantages of attention to pedigree very evident; for here the strength
+of constitution is retained, together with many of the advantages of
+this valuable breed."
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+THE BREEDS OF STOCK.
+
+The nature of the animal determines, as I have already stated, the
+proportion of its food carried off in its increase; but this point is
+also greatly influenced by its _variety_, or _breed_. Certain breeds
+which have for a long period been kept on bulky food, and obliged
+to roam in quest of it, appear to have acquired a normal tendency to
+_leanness_. No doubt, if they were supplied with highly nutritious
+food for many successive generations, these breeds might eventually
+exhibit as great a tendency to fatten as they now do to remain in a
+lean condition. As it is, the horned cattle of Kerry, Wales, and some
+other regions, rarely become fat, no matter how abundantly they may be
+supplied with fattening food. On the other hand, the Herefords, but more
+especially the Shorthorns, exhibit a natural disposition to obesity, and
+such animals alone should be stall-fed. It is noteworthy that animals
+which are naturally disposed to yield abundance of milk are often the
+best adapted for fattening; but it would appear that the continuous
+use of highly fattening food, and the observance of the various other
+conditions in the _forcing_ system, diminish the activity of the lacteal
+secretion, and increase the tendency to fatness in the races of the
+bovine tribe. The Shorthorns were at one time famous for their milking
+capabilities, but latterly their galactophoric reputation has greatly
+declined. Still I am disposed to believe, that if some of those animals
+were placed under conditions favorable to the improvement of dairy
+stock, herds of Shorthorn milch cows could be obtained which would vie
+in their own line with the famous fat-disposed oxen of the same breed.
+
+In sheep the tendency to early maturity and to fatten is greatly
+influenced by the breed. The Leicester, even when kept on inferior
+pasture, fattens so rapidly that in eighteen months it is fit for the
+butcher; whilst the Merino, though supplied with excellent herbage, must
+be preserved for nearly four years before it is ready for the shambles.
+The crossing of good herds has resulted in the development of numerous
+varieties, all remarkable for their aptitude to fatten and to arrive
+early at maturity. The Leicester--itself supposed to be a cross--has
+greatly improved the Lincoln, and the Hampshire and Southdown have
+produced an excellent cross. Of course, each breed and cross has its
+admirers; indeed, the differences of opinion which prevail in relation
+to the relative merits of the Lincoln and the Leicester--the Southdown
+and the Shropshiredown--the Dorset and the Somerset--occasionally
+culminate into newspaper controversies of an exceedingly ascerb
+character. There is no doubt but that particular breeds of sheep
+thrive in localities and under conditions which are inimical to other
+varieties; but still it is equally evident that, _cæteris paribus_, one
+kind of sheep will store up in its increase a larger proportion of its
+food than another kind, and will arrive earlier at maturity. It is the
+knowledge of this fact which has led to the great estimation in which
+are held some half-dozen out of the numerous breeds and cross-breeds
+of that animal. In 1861 an interesting experiment was made by the
+Parlington Farmers' Club with the object of testing the relative merits
+of several varieties of sheep. The results are shown in the tables:--
+
+  TABLE I.
+
+  ----------------+------------------------------------+-----------------------
+                  | Live Weight of Six Wethers         |Weights gained
+                  | when Shorn, 26th February, 1862.   |during the time of
+                  |       +--------------------------- |Feeding from the
+                  |       | Weight of Mutton when      |11th November, 1861,
+  Description of  |       | Slaughtered.               |to 14th February, 1862.
+  Class of Sheep. |       |       +------+------+------+-------+-------+-------
+                  |       |       |Weight|Weight|Weight|       |       |
+                  |       |       |  of  |  of  |  of  |In Live|  In   | In
+                  |       |       |Tallow| Wool.|Pelts.|Weight.|Mutton.| Wool.
+  ----------------+-------+-------+------+------+------+-------+-------+-------
+                  |st. lb.|st. lb.|   lb.|   lb.|   lb.|st. lb.|st. lb.|lb. oz.
+  Cross from      |       |       |      |      |      |       |       |
+    the Teeswater | 85  3 | 53  1 |   106|    43|    85| 13  7 | 8   6 | 14  5
+                  |       |       |      |      |      |       |       |
+  North Sheep     | 83 12 | 53 12 |    96|43-1/2|    83| 12 11 | 8   3 | 14  8
+                  |       |       |      |      |      |       |       |
+  Lincolns        | 92  1 | 59 12 |   105|    66|   103| 16  1 |10   7 | 22  0
+                  |       |       |      |      |      |       |       |
+  South Downs     | 71  0 | 47  7 |97-1/4|    28|65-3/4| 11 13 | 8   0 |  9  5
+                  |       |       |      |      |      |       |       |
+  Shropshire Downs| 85  6 | 53  1 |   103|42-1/2|    91| 15 11 | 9  12 | 14  3
+                  |       |       |      |      |      |       |       |
+  Leicesters      | 80  9 | 53  4 |90-1/2|    44|78-1/2| 14 10 | 9  10 | 14 11
+                  |       |       |      |      |      |       |       |
+  Cotswolds       | 76  5 | 47  6 |    79|    54|    90| 12  6 | 7  11 | 18  0
+  ----------------+-------+-------+------+------+------+-------+-------+-------
+
+
+  TABLE II.
+
+  -----------------+--------------------------------------------+-----------+
+                   | Value of the preceding                     | Food      |
+  Description      | Mutton and Wool so gained.                 | consumed  |
+  of Sheep.        +----------------------+---------------------+ during    |
+                   | Price of the Mutton. | Price of the Wool.  | time of   |
+                   |                      |                     | Feeding.  |
+  -----------------+-------+--------------+-------+-------------+-----+-----+
+                   |       |              |       |             |Swd. |Lnd. |
+                   | p. lb.|              | p. lb.|             |Tnp. |Cke. |
+                   +-------+              +-------+             +-----+-----+
+                   | d.    | £   s. d.    |  d.   | £  s. d.    | st. | lb. |
+  Teeswater, Cross | 6     | 2  19  0     | 18    | 1  1  6     | 978 | 300 |
+  North Shropshire | 6     | 2  17  6     | 17-1/2| 1  1  1-3/4 | 914 | 300 |
+  Lincolnshire[16] | 5-3/4 | 3  10  5-1/4 | 18    | 1 13  0     | 936 | 363 |
+  Southdowns       | 6-1/2 | 3   0  8     | 17    | 0 13  2-1/2 | 684 | 300 |
+  Shropshire       | 6-1/4 | 3  11 10-1/2 | 17-1/2| 1  0  7-3/4 | 924 | 300 |
+  Leicester        | 5-3/4 | 3   5  2     | 18    | 1  2  0     | 877 | 300 |
+  Cotswolds        | 6     | 2  14  6     | 18    | 1  7  0     | 926 | 300 |
+  -----------------+-------+--------------+-------+-------------+-----+-----+
+
+  -----------------+------------------+--------------+----------------------+
+                   | Value of the     |              | Value of Food        |
+                   | Food, Calculating| Value of     | deducted from Value  |
+  Description      | Turnips at 6s.   | the Mutton   | of Mutton and Wool,  |
+  of Sheep.        | 8d., and Cake at | and Wool.    | showing real value of|
+                   | £10 10s. per ton.|              | the different sheep. |
+  -----------------+------------------+--------------+----------------------+
+                   |                  |              |                      |
+                   |                  |              |                      |
+                   |                  |              |                      |
+                   |   £  s.  d.      | £   s. d.    |    £   s.  d.        |
+  Teeswater, Cross |   3  8  10-1/2   | 4   0      6 |    0  11   7         |
+  North Shropshire |   3  6   2-1/2   | 3  18  7-3/4 |    0  12   5         |
+  Lincolnshire[16] |   3 13   0-1/4   | 5   3  5-1/4 |    1  10   5         |
+  Southdowns       |   2 16   7-1/2   | 3  13 10-1/2 |    0  17   3         |
+  Shropshire       |   3  6   7-3/4   | 4  12  6-1/4 |    1   5  10         |
+  Leicester        |   3  4   8       | 4   7      2 |    1   2   6         |
+  Cotswolds        |   3  6   8-1/2   | 4   1      6 |    0  14   9-1/2     |
+  -----------------+------------------+--------------+----------------------+
+
+These results, taken with the customary _grain of salt_, tell well for
+the improved Lincoln; they also clearly show the aptitude to fatten,
+without much loss in offal, of the Leicester;[17] and they commend to the
+lover of good mutton the Shropshire and South-Downs.
+
+In the sixteenth volume of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society
+of England, Mr. Lawes gives some valuable information relative to the
+comparative fattening qualities of different breeds of sheep. The
+following table, on this author's authority, shows the average food
+consumed in producing 100 lbs. increase in live weight:--
+
+  Breed.                    Oil Cake.     Clover.      Swedes.
+
+  Sussex                    297-1/4       285-1/2      3·835-3/4
+  Hampshire                 291-1/2       261-1/4      3·966-3/4
+  Cross-bred Wethers        264-1/2       251-3/4      3·725-1/4
+      Do.    Ewes           263-1/2       250-1/4      3·671
+  Leicesters                263-3/4       251-1/4      3·761
+  Cotswolds                 253-1/2       216-3/4      3·557-1/2
+
+Some breeds are profitably kept in certain localities, where other kinds
+would not pay so well: for example, the Devons, according to Mr. Smith,
+are better adapted than larger breeds for "converting the produce of
+cold and hilly pastures into meat." It is remarkable that nearly all the
+best existing breeds of oxen and sheep are crosses. Major Rudd states
+that the dam of Hubback, the famous founder of pure improved Shorthorns,
+owed her propensity to fatten to an admixture of Kyloe blood, and also
+that the sire of Hubback had a stain of Alderney, or Normandy blood.
+Although the Rudd account of the ancestry of Hubback is not accepted by
+all the historians of this splendid breed of cattle, there is no doubt
+but that the breed owes its origin as much to judicious crossing as to
+careful selection of sires and dams. It must not, however, be imagined
+that there are no good pure races of stock. There is a perfectly pure,
+but now scarce, tribe of Kerry oxen, admirably adapted to poor uplands.
+The excellent Southdown sheep, though in every respect immensely
+superior to their ancestors in the last century, have not attained to
+their present superior state by crossing. The high value placed by
+breeders upon good sires and dams in the approved breeds of stock is
+shown by the large sums which they frequently realise at sales, or when
+the former are let out for service. Bakewell received in one season for
+the use of a ram 400 guineas each from two breeders, and they did not
+retain the animal during the whole season. Several hundred guineas have
+lately been more than once paid for a celebrated tup. Colonel Towneley's
+Shorthorn bull, Master Butterfly, was, not long since, disposed of to an
+Australian buyer for £1,260. At the sale of Mr. Bates's stock in 1850,
+a stock of Shorthorns, including calves, brought on the average £116 5s.
+per head. At the Earl Ducie's sale in 1852, a three year old
+cow--Duchess--realised 700 guineas.
+
+The color of an animal is, to some extent, a criterion of the purity
+of its breed. Roan is a favourite hue with the breeders of Shorthorns.
+There have been celebrated sires and dams of that breed perfectly white;
+but that color, or rather absence of color, is now somewhat unpopular,
+partly from the idea that it is a sign of weakness of constitution--a
+notion for which there appears to me to be no foundation in fact.
+The slightest spot of black, or even a very dark shade, is regarded
+to be a blemish of the most serious kind when observed on the pelt
+of a Shorthorn. The Herefords are partly white, partly red; the Devon
+possesses in general a deep red hue; the Suffolks are usually of a dun
+or faint reddish tint; the Ayrshires are commonly spotted white and red;
+and the Kerrys are seen in every shade between a jet black and a deep
+red. Uniformity in color would be most desirable in the case of each
+variety, and this object could easily be attained if breeders devoted
+some attention to it.
+
+_The Form of Animals._--The functions of an animal are arranged by
+Bichat, an eminent physiologist, into two classes--those relating to
+its nutrition, and those exhibited by its muscular and mental systems.
+The first class of functions comprise the _vegetative_, or organic life
+of the animal, and the second class constitute its _relative_ life.
+Adopting this arrangement, we may say, then, that those animals in which
+the vegetative life is far more energetic than the relative life are
+best suited for the purposes of the feeder. In tigers, wolves, and dogs
+the relative life predominates over the vegetative; the muscles are
+almost constantly in a high degree of tension, and the processes of
+nutrition are in constant requisition to supply the waste of muscle.
+On the other hand, in oxen, sheep, and pigs, at least when in a state
+of domesticity, the muscles are not highly developed; they do not
+largely tax the vegetative processes, and, consequently, the substances
+elaborated under the influence of the vegetative life rapidly increase.
+The form of an animal is therefore mainly determined by the activity of
+its relative life. In a greyhound, the nervous power of which is highly
+developed, the muscles are large and well-knit, the stomach, intended
+for the reception of concentrated nutriment only, is small, and the
+lungs are exceedingly capacious. In such an animal the arrangements for
+the rapid expenditure of nervous power must be perfect. It is not merely
+necessary that its muscles should be large and powerful, its lungs must
+also admit of deep inspirations of oxygen, whereby the motive power
+wielded by these muscles may be rapidly generated. Now, an animal
+exactly opposite in organisation to the greyhound would, according
+to theory, be just the kind to select for the production of meat.
+The greyhound and the horse expend all their food in the production
+of motive power; the ox and the sheep, being endowed with but a feeble
+muscular organisation, use a smaller proportion of their food for
+carrying on the functions of their relative life, consequently, the
+weight of their bodies is augmented by the surplus nutriment. It is
+clear, then, that an animal of a lymphatic temperament, an indolent
+disposition, a low degree of nervous power, and a tendency to rapid
+growth, is the _beau ideal_ of a "meat-manufacturing machine." Now, as
+the larger the lungs of an animal are, the greater is its capacity for
+"burning," or consuming its tissues, one might suppose that small lungs
+would be a _desideratum_ in an ox, or other animal destined for the
+shambles. This appears to be Liebig's opinion, for in one of his
+books he states that "a narrow chest (small lungs) is considered by
+experienced agriculturists a sure sign, in pigs, for example, of easy
+fattening; and the same remark applies to cows, in reference to the
+produce of milk--that is, of butter." On this subject Professor Tanner
+makes the following remarks, in his excellent Essay on Breeding and
+Rearing Cattle:[18]--"In our high-bred animals we find a small liver
+and a small lung, accompanied with a gentle and peaceful disposition.
+Now, these conditions, which are so desirable for producing fat, are
+equally favorable for yielding butter. The diminished organs economise
+the consumption of the carbonaceous matters in the blood, hence, more
+remains for conversion into fat, but equally prepared for yielding
+cream, if the tendency of the animal is equally favorable to the same."
+One would imagine, from the foregoing passage, that Mr. Tanner and Baron
+Liebig coincided in believing small lungs necessary to rapid fattening;
+but in another part of his essay, Tanner thus describes one of the
+points indicative of a tendency to fatten early:--"The chest should be
+bold and prominent, wide and deep, furnished with a deep but not coarse
+dewlap." On comparing the two passages which I have quoted from Tanner's
+essay, a contradiction is apparent. Mr. Bowly, Major Rudd, and other
+eminent breeders and feeders, appear to regard a capacious chest as the
+best sign of a fattening property which an animal could show. Lawes and
+Gilbert have recorded the weights of the viscera of a number of animals
+which, though supplied with equal quantities of the same kind of food,
+attained to different degrees of fatness. On carefully scrutinising
+these records, I failed to perceive any constant relation between the
+weight of their lungs and their tendency to fatten rapidly. Some animals
+with large lungs converted a larger proportion of their food into meat
+than others with smaller respiratory organs, and _vice versâ_. In a
+state of nature, there is no doubt but that the lungs of the ox and of
+the sheep are moderately large; and it is evident that in their case, as
+well as in that of man, over-feeding and confinement tend to diminish
+their muscular energy, and, of course, to decrease the capacity of the
+lungs. That such a practice does not tend to the improvement of the
+health of an animal is perfectly evident, but then the perfect ox of
+nature is very different from the perfect ox of man. The latter is
+a wide departure from the original type of its species: any marked
+development of its nervous system is undesirable; and it is valuable
+in proportion as its purely vegetative functions are most strongly
+manifested. A young bullock, therefore, of this kind would, no doubt,
+be the most economical kind to rear, provided that it was perfectly
+healthy, and capable of assimilating the liberal amount of food supplied
+to it. But it rarely happens that a young animal with a weakly chest
+turns out other than a scrofulous or otherwise diseased adult. On the
+whole, then, I am disposed to believe that whilst naturally small-lunged
+species may be more prone to fatten than large-chested ones, it is not
+the case that small-chested individuals fatten more rapidly than larger
+lunged individuals of the same kind.
+
+The conditions under which oxen, sheep, and pigs have been so long
+maintained in civilised countries, must have diminished the capacity of
+their chests in relation to other parts of their bodies; and it may be
+fairly doubted if any good could result by reducing to still smaller
+dimensions those most important organs. Probably the lungs and hearts of
+the improved breeds of stock are already too small, and that it is only
+the individuals which are least affected in this respect that answer to
+Mr. Bowly's description of a fat-disposed beast. Whether or not small
+lungs are desirable in a bullock or milch cow, it is certain that a ram
+or a bull should be possessed of a capacious chest, for otherwise he
+will have but little vigour, and will be likely to produce a weakly
+offspring. A sire should be a perfectly developed animal in every
+respect--sound lungs and heart, and not over fat. It is sufficient that
+it belongs to a good fattening breed; but to produce offspring with a
+tendency to fatness and early maturity, it is not necessary that the
+sire should himself be obese. It is to be regretted that so many sires
+of the Shorthorns and other improved varieties should be used for
+breeding purposes, when their hearts and lungs have become, by
+over-feeding the animals, unfitted for the proper discharge of their
+function. The progeny of such sires must _naturally_ inherit the
+_acquired taint_ of their diseased progenitors, and prove weakly and
+unhealthy animals.
+
+With respect to the general outline structure of a bull, he should have
+a small, well-set head, rounded ribs, straight legs, small bones, and
+sound internal organs. The following are considered to be the best
+points in a Shorthorn bull:--A short and moderately small head, with
+tapering muzzle and broad forehead, furnished with short, white,
+curved, graceful looking horns; bright, yet mild, large eyes, placed in
+prominent orbits; dilated nostrils, and flesh-colored nose, and long,
+thin ears. The neck should be broad, deep, and muscular, sloping in a
+graceful line from the shoulder to the head. The chest should be wide,
+deep, projecting, but level in front. The shoulders should be oblique,
+the blades well set in towards the ribs. The forelegs should be stout,
+muscular above the knee, and slender below it; the hind legs should be
+slender to the hock, and from thence increase in thickness to the
+buttocks, which should be well developed. The carcass should be well
+rounded at each side, but level on the back and on the belly. There
+should be no hollows between the shoulder and the ribs, the line from
+the highest part of the shoulder to the insertion of the tail should be
+a perfect level. The flank should be full, the loins broad, and the tail
+finely formed and only partially covered with hair. The skin is a prime
+point: it must be covered with hair of a roan, or other _fashionable_
+color, and communicate to the hand of the experienced feeler, a peculiar
+sensation, which it is impossible to describe. With regard to this
+point, I cannot do better than quote the words of an experienced
+"handler":--
+
+"A nice or good judge of cattle or sheep, with a slight touch of the
+fingers upon the fatting points of the animal--viz., the hips, rump,
+ribs, flanks, breast, twist, shoulder score, &c. will know immediately
+whether it will make fat or not, and in which part it will be the
+fattest. I have often wished to convey in language that idea or
+sensation we acquire by the touch or feel of our fingers, which enables
+us to form a judgment when we are handling an animal intended to be
+fatted, but I have as often found myself unequal to that wish. It is
+very easy to know where an animal is fattest which is already made fat,
+because we can evidently feel a substance or quantity of fat--all those
+parts which are denominated the fatting points; but the difficulty is to
+explain how we know or distinguish animals, in a lean state, which will
+make fat and which will not--or rather, which will make fat in such
+points or parts, and not in others--which a person of judgment (_in
+practice_) can tell, as it were, instantaneously. I say _in practice_,
+because I believe that the best judges _out of practice_ are not able to
+judge with precision--at least, I am not. We say this beast _touches_
+nicely upon its ribs, hips, &c., &c., because we find a mellow, pleasant
+feel on those parts; but we do not say soft, because there are some of
+this same sort of animals which have a soft, loose handle, of which we
+do not approve, because, though soft and loose, have not the mellow feel
+above mentioned. For though they both handle soft and loose, yet we know
+that the one will make fat and the other will not; and in this lies the
+difficulty of the explanation. We clearly find a particular kindliness
+or pleasantness in the feel of the one much superior to the other, by
+which we immediately conclude that this will make fat, and the other not
+so fat; and in this a person of judgment, and _in practice_, is very
+seldom mistaken."
+
+In many respects the good points in a Shorthorn cow resemble those in
+the male of that breed, but in others there is considerable difference.
+As I have described in prose the excellencies which a bull should
+possess, I will now give a poetical summary of the good points of a cow
+of that breed, extracted from the _Journal of Agriculture_, and composed
+evidently by an excellent breeder and poet, Mr. Carr:--
+
+  The following features constitute, I trow,
+  The beau ideal of a short-horn cow:--
+  Frame massive, round, deep-barrell'd, and straight-back'd;
+  Hind quarters level, lengthy, and well pack'd;
+  Thighs wide, flesh'd inwards, plumb almost to hock;
+  Twist deep, conjoining thighs in one square block;
+  Loin broad and flat, thick flesh'd, and free from dip;
+  Back ribs "well home," arch'd even with the hip;
+  Hips flush with back, soft-cushion'd, not too wide;
+  Flanks full and deep, well forward on the side;
+  Fore ribs well-flesh'd, and rounded like a drum;
+  Fore flanks that even with the elbow come;
+  Crop "barrell'd" flush with shoulders and with side;
+  Girth large and round--not deep alone, but wide;
+  Shoulders sloped back, thick cover'd wide at chine;
+  Points snug, well-flesh'd, to dew-lap tapering fine;
+  Neck vein fill'd up to well-clothed shoulder-point;
+  Arm full above, turn'd in at elbow-joint;
+  Legs short and straight, fine boned 'neath hock and knee;
+  Belly cylindrical, from drooping free;
+  Chest wide between the legs, with downward sweep;
+  Brisket round, massive, prominent, and deep;
+  Neck fine at head, fast thickening towards its base;
+  Head small, scope wide, fine muzzle and dish'd face;
+  Eyes prominent and bright, yet soft and mild;
+  Horns waxy, clear, of medium size, unfiled;
+  Tail fine, neat hung, rectangular with back;
+  Hide soft, substantial, yielding, but not slack;
+  Hair furry, fine, thick set, of colour smart;
+  Udder well forward, with teats wide apart.
+  These points proportion'd well delight the eye
+  Of grazier, dairyman, and passer-by;
+  And these to more fastidious minds convey
+  Appearance stylish, feminine, and gay.
+
+
+_Breeds of the Ox._--The Shorthorned cattle are now generally regarded
+as the most valuable breed in these countries. They are the descendants
+of a short-horned breed of cattle which existed for centuries in the
+north-east of England. They were not held in much estimation, their
+flesh being coarse; but the cows of this breed yielded abundance of
+milk. In the eighteenth century this breed, it is said, was greatly
+improved by a large infusion of blood from Dutch Shorthorns: but it is
+very doubtful that any such event took place, for during that period
+the importation of cattle into Great Britain was prohibited by very
+stringent laws. The present race of Shorthorns owe most of their
+valuable qualities to the brothers, Charles and Robert Colling, of the
+county of Durham. The former was the more successful breeder, and
+established the celebrated breed of Ketton Shorthorns. His whole process
+appears to have consisted in the careful selection of parents, and in
+"close" breeding. He must, however, have been an admirable judge of the
+good points of the ox, for beginning with animals not worth more on an
+average than £10 each, he produced in less than a quarter of a century
+a stock worth on the average £150 each. The most famous bull of Charles
+Colling's was Comet. The sale of this animal realised the handsome sum
+of 1,000 guineas. The bull Hubback is said by many writers to have been
+the great improver of Shorthorn blood. He was bought by Robert Colling
+for the trifling sum of £8; but although this animal was kept by both
+Collings for three years, there is good reason to believe that they made
+but little use of him. It would appear, indeed, that to the cows first
+used by the Collings--Lady Maynard, and young Strawberry--many of the
+good qualities of this breed are traceable. Shorthorns are now to be
+found in almost every part of the United Kingdom, capable of maintaining
+heavy stock. In Ireland the breed has been greatly improved, and it is
+gradually supplanting most of the other varieties.
+
+Shorthorn males have a short, wide head, covered very often with short
+curly hair; the muzzle is taper; the ear rather long and narrow; the eye
+large, and bright, and mild. The shape is symmetrical, the carcass deep,
+the back level, ribs spreading out widely, and the limbs fine. The color
+is a mixture of red and white, sometimes a rich roan. The females are
+not so large in the head, which tapers more, and the neck is much
+thinner.
+
+The DEVONS are not so large as the Shorthorns. Their shape is
+symmetrical; fine head, horns of medium size, often tapering gracefully;
+rich red or orange red color; fore-quarters rather oblique. The meat of
+this breed is much esteemed: they yield excellent milk, but in rather
+limited quantity; and the bullocks answer the plough much better than
+many other kinds do. These animals arrive early at maturity.
+
+The HEREFORDS are a rather small-boned breed; their horns are medium
+sized, straight or slightly curved upwards; their color is dark red;
+neat shoulders, thin thighs, and wide sirloin. They fatten well, but are
+not generally kept on dairy farms. In many respects they resemble the
+Devons.
+
+The AYRSHIRES have a tapering head, fine neck, and large, bony, but not
+coarse carcass; flat ribs; short and rather ugly horns; their skin is
+soft, and covered with hair, which is usually red and white in spots.
+The Ayrshire cows are invaluable for dairy purposes.
+
+The POLLED ANGUS, POLLED ABERDEENS, and POLLED GALLOWAYS are very large
+cattle, with big heads, unfurnished with horns. Their color is in
+general a decided black, but occasionally it exhibits a mixture of black
+and white. Their flesh is in general not of the best quality, but some
+of their crosses with Shorthorns yield excellent meat, and at an early
+age, too.
+
+The KYLOES are a breed peculiar to the Highlands of Scotland. They are
+rather rough, but very picturesque animals, covered with long, shaggy
+hair. Their horns are rather long, and curve upwards. Their hair is
+differently colored--red, yellow, dun, and black, the latter being the
+prevailing hue. No variety of the ox yields a sweeter meat than the
+Kyloes, and other mountain breeds of these countries. The animals,
+however, arrive slowly to maturity, and in this respect there is great
+room for improvement. These mountain-bred animals are now transferred
+in large numbers to lowland tillage farms, where the fattening process
+is more expeditiously performed. There are excellent crosses between
+Shorthorn bulls and Highland cows.
+
+LONGHORNED CATTLE are rapidly advancing towards extinction. At one time
+they were the chief breed kept by most farmers. In general they may be
+regarded as an inferior variety, being slow feeders, and producing
+rather coarse beef. They are, however, capable of great improvement, as
+instanced in the case of Bakewell's celebrated Longhorn herds.
+
+The KERRYS are a diminutive breed, peculiar to Ireland. They have small
+heads, fine necks, fine horns of medium length, and curved upwards near
+their summits. They have a soft skin; the hair is generally black,
+interspersed with a few white streaks; sometimes their color is red, and
+occasionally brown. They are a very hardy race, being indigenous to
+mountains. Their flesh is very good, more especially if the animals have
+been kept on fattening food. The Kerrys are good milch cows.
+
+The ALDERNEYS are a small race of oxen with deer-like faces. They
+exhibit various shades of red, white, brown, and roan. No cows yield
+better milk, or larger quantities of that fluid.
+
+_Sheep._--The different breeds of sheep are classified under three
+heads--viz., _Long-woolled_, _Short-woolled_, and _Middle-woolled_.
+
+The LEICESTER is, perhaps, the most celebrated breed of sheep reared in
+these countries. It was immensely improved by Bakewell about a century
+ago, and the breed is often termed the Dishley, after the name of
+Bakewell's residence. This sheep has a wide, clean head, broad forehead,
+fine eyes, long, thin ears, thick neck, round body, deep chest,
+straight, broad back, high ribs, and muscular thighs. The wool is long,
+very thick, and fine. At from fifteen to eighteen months old, the
+Leicester weighs from 25 to 30 lbs. per quarter; but a fat animal often
+weighs from 38 to 40 lbs. per quarter. The fleece weighs from 6 to 8
+lbs. This breed is well adapted for Ireland. It is reared on very poor
+land: but in order to maintain its good quality, this sheep requires
+abundance of food, and also good shelter during the winter.
+
+The LINCOLN is distinguished for its large bones and strong muscles.
+Originally a gaunt and ugly animal, it has of late years been much
+improved. Indeed, the prices lately realised by Lincoln sheep are
+extremely high. The Lincoln has a long, white face, long body, and thick
+legs. The wool is long, thick, and moderately fine. The flesh of the
+Lincoln is lean, owing to its great muscular development. At fifteen
+months old it yields about 30 lbs. weight per quarter. It is said that
+a Lincoln wether has attained the weight of 304-1/2 lbs. The average
+weight of the wool of a hogget is 9-1/2 lbs.
+
+The COTSWOLD breed arose in the Cotswold hills, in Gloucestershire.
+In this variety the skeleton is large, the chest capacious, the back
+broad and straight, and the ribs well arched. It has good quarters,
+and a finely-arched neck. It is distinguished by a large tuft of
+wool--"fore-top," on the forehead. It fattens early, and produces about
+25 lbs. per quarter when fifteen months old, and 40 lbs. when two years
+old. The wool is rather coarse; its yield is about 8 lbs.
+
+The CHEVIOT has a long body, long face, long legs, and long ears. The
+chest projects slightly, and is rather narrow. The forehead is bare of
+wool; the legs and face are white, sometimes approaching to a dun shade.
+Weight from 70 to 80 lbs.; weight of fleece, from 3 to 4 lbs. The wool
+is of excellent quality, and is used largely in the manufacture of
+tweeds. The Cheviot is a mountain sheep, and, as might be expected, its
+flesh is well flavored. There are several crosses of the Cheviot with
+the Leicester, the Southdown, and the Shropshire.
+
+The SOUTHDOWN is generally regarded as the best breed for wool reared in
+these countries. It is indigenous to the chalk hills of Kent, Sussex,
+Hampshire, and Dorsetshire. It has a small head; its back is broad and
+straight; the ribs spring out at nearly right angles from the vertebræ.
+It is rather light in the fore-quarters, and full in the hind quarters.
+Its chest is pretty deep; its face and legs are grey or brown. The wool
+of the Southdown is short, and extremely fine; the fleece weighs about 3
+lbs. This sheep arrives early at maturity. It weighs at 15 months old
+about 80 lbs. The flesh is very well flavored.
+
+THE SHROPSHIRE is said to combine in itself the good qualities of the
+Southdown, the Cotswold, and the Leicester. It resembles the Southdown
+more than any other breed, having the same grey, or brownish grey hue,
+and a similar shape. It is, however, larger than the Southdown, and
+yields a larger quantity of wool. This breed is becoming a great
+favorite in both England and Ireland.
+
+The BLACK-FACED sheep is peculiar to Scotland. It is equipped with
+horns, has a bold long face, and possesses a tuft of wool on its
+forehead; its limbs are strong, and its body is somewhat long. The wool
+of this breed is very coarse, the fleece weighs about 3-1/2 lbs. The
+average weight of this sheep is 75 lbs., the quality of the mutton is
+excellent, but it is long before it becomes matured. There are several
+other breeds of the sheep, but they are of far less importance than
+those which I have described.
+
+_Breeds of the Pig._--There are several breeds of this useful animal, of
+which those known as BERKSHIRE and YORKSHIRE appear to be the greatest
+favorites. The Berkshire is black or dusky brown, very rarely reddish
+brown. It has a very small head. Its sides are extremely deep, and its
+legs very short. There are several sub-varieties of the Yorkshire. This
+breed is white, has a compact body, and very broad sides. The head is
+very small, somewhat like that of the Berkshire. Both Berkshire and
+Yorkshire pigs attain to the enormous weight of 1,000 lbs. The old Irish
+"racer" pig is the least profitable kind to keep, but fortunately it is,
+as a pure breed, nearly extinct.
+
+_Breeds of the Horse._--There are a great many breeds of horses. The
+Shetland pony is so small, that many specimens are no larger than a
+Newfoundland dog; on the other hand, Clydesdale horses sometimes attain
+to almost elephantine proportions. There is a wide difference between
+the bull-like Suffolk Punch and the greyhound-like _racer_. The English
+and Irish racer is said to owe its origin to a cross between the old
+English light-legged breed and the Arabian. The most valuable kind of
+carriage horse is the joint product of the draught-horse and the racer.
+The dray-horse of these countries has a large share of Flemish blood in
+him. The best horses for agricultural purposes are unquestionably the
+CLYDESDALE and the SUFFOLK PUNCH. The latter is perhaps to be preferred
+in most instances, especially on light lands. Very light and feeble
+horses are the most expensive variety on almost any kind of farm; for
+whilst they consume nearly as much food as the most powerful animals,
+and are therefore nearly as costly, they are incapable of effectively
+performing their work. A large proportion of the farm horses used by the
+small farmers of Ireland are totally unsuited for tillage purposes. On
+the other hand, there is no need to employ horses equal in size to the
+ponderous creatures that draw brewers' carts. Moderate sized horses,
+with well rounded, compact bodies, and muscular but not too heavy limbs,
+are the kind best adapted for farm purposes. In Ireland, where there are
+not fewer than 600,000 horses, a considerable infusion of blood from
+Clydesdales and Suffolk Punches is much required.
+
+_Hunters and Racers._--There is a strong tendency in the human mind to
+look with a regretful feeling to the past, and to compare it to the
+disadvantage of the present. It is a general belief with most people
+that the old time was the best time; that the seasons were more genial
+formerly; that provisions were cheaper and more abundant; that men were
+taller, and stouter, and healthier; that, in a word, everything was
+better in the days of yore than it is now, and that degeneracy and
+effeteness are the prevailing characteristics of our age. Philosophers,
+statists, and political economists tell us that all this regret for the
+"good old time" is mis-spent sympathy; for that we are in every respect
+superior--in physique, health, morals, and wealth--to our ancestors. On
+the whole, I rather incline myself to this comfortable philosophy; but
+we must admit that we have not progressed in all things since the times
+of our fathers.
+
+In a work entitled "A Comparative View of the Form and Character of the
+English Racer and Saddle Horse during the Last and Present Centuries,"
+published by Hookham, of Old Bond Street, London, it is proved very
+clearly that the English race-horse has sadly degenerated. The author
+very properly traces the cause of its decay to the avarice of the
+turfites: they look upon the noble animal as a mere gambling machine;
+and they sacrifice all its other qualities to the excessive development
+of that one which is likely to put money in their pockets. Formerly,
+gentlemen kept horses for their own sakes--for their admiration and
+enjoyment of one of the most beautiful, docile, and useful of animals.
+They were incessant in their efforts to develop into perfection all the
+really valuable points in the animal; and the result was, that the
+English and Irish racer of the last century was unmatched for strength,
+speed, and endurance. Models of this splendid race of horses are seldom
+to be found at the present time; but there are, perhaps, sporting men
+living who saw them in the celebrated Mambrino, Sweet Briar, and Sweet
+William. Those horses possessed compact bodies, capacious lungs, strong
+loins, large joints, and enormous masses of muscular tissue on the
+shoulder-blades and arms. They were good weight-carrying hunters as well
+as racers, and they could carry eight stones over a six miles heat,
+or twelve stones over a four miles one. The Irish horses, at least,
+were capable of safely carrying thirteen stones over what would now be
+considered a very ugly ditch, and could get over a long steeplechase in
+a style which would astonish the owners of the modern "weeds." Since the
+distance to be traversed by competing horses has been reduced from the
+old-fashioned three heats of four miles each to a single run of a mile
+or two, and also since the weight imposed upon the animals has been
+reduced to six or seven stones, from ten to twelve, the anatomical
+structure of the race-horse has undergone a remarkable and serious
+alteration. The back has become very long, the sides flat, the loins
+weak, the limbs long and very thin; and this alteration in structure has
+been attended by weakness of constitution and a remarkable tendency
+to disease. The modern horse has attained to a remarkable degree of
+rapidity of locomotion, but it has been at the expense of its vigor,
+endurance, and health; it can run with great velocity for a short
+distance, but in a four-mile heat, and mounted by a man of average
+weight, a mediocre horse of the style of the middle of the last century
+would come to the post long before the winner of the last St. Leger.
+
+The decay of the breed of horses in this country is a serious matter,
+and the attention of all who are interested in the preservation of this
+animal should be earnestly and promptly directed towards discovering
+the means of regeneration. My remarks are directed towards racers and
+hunters. The quality of speed which they possess has been developed
+to an extent which is incompatible with the development of equally
+essential properties. Encouragement should be given to the production of
+weight-carrying hunters; steeple-chasing should be restored to its old
+state, when only a powerful horse had a chance of success. The quality
+of speed should be promoted in the animal up to a certain point; but
+when the development of this attribute begins to cause a loss of
+strength and endurance, it is high time to check it. There are a few
+horses at present which are strong and moderately fast: why should not
+steeple-chasing be of the kind which would call this style of animal
+into competition? Only a "weed" can now enter with any probability of
+success at a race of this kind; and when he has won it, of what use
+is he as a good hunter? What we want are good, stout, healthy horses,
+capable of carrying, in good style, twelve stones weight over a rough
+country; and the object of steeple-chasing should be the production of
+such a race of horses.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Footnote 17: Improved by Leicester blood.]
+
+[Footnote 18: The object of the first breeders of the Leicester was
+to produce a sheep which would yield a great carcass, and small offal
+weight. So far as the results of these experiments go, I think the idea
+of the founder of this breed has been realised.]
+
+[Footnote 19: "Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of
+Scotland," for July, 1860.]
+
+
+
+
+PART III.
+
+ON THE MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCK.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+THE OX.
+
+_Breeding Cows._--The period of gestation in the cow is about nine
+months. The earliest time at which it is at all safe to breed from these
+animals is when they are one year and eight months old. Shorthorns breed
+early, whilst the mountain varieties are seldom in calf before they are
+three years old. The practice of very early breeding, though approved of
+by some extensive rearers of stock, is not to be commended for sound
+physiological reasons. Cows calve at all times of the year; but the most
+favorable time is near the end of winter, or in early spring. The cows
+should at this time be in fair condition--neither too fat nor too lean.
+Parturition should take place in a roomy, covered place, provided with
+abundance of clean litter. If such a place be not available, a nice
+paddock close to the house must answer. After having given birth to
+the calf, the cow should receive an oatmeal drink, or some warm and
+nutritious mash, and afterwards be liberally fed. The cow is usually
+allowed to run dry four or five weeks before calving: this period should
+not be curtailed; on the contrary, it would be better to extend it to
+six weeks, so as not to allow her condition to become too poor.
+
+_The Wintering of Young Stock._--There are certain localities wherein
+the rearing of young stock is one of the easiest tasks which devolve
+upon the farmer. Well-drained and shady fields, yielding abundance of
+sound herbage, and through which streams of _pure_ water unceasingly
+flow, are just the proper _locale_ for economically feeding young
+animals. But there are districts in which those favorable conditions do
+not exist; yet they are not better adapted to other uses. It is only the
+feeders of young stock in wet, moory, sandy, or undrained, heavy soils
+who really have cause for anxiety and incessant watchfulness. In rearing
+a calf the great object is to cause a rapid and uninterrupted increase
+in the weight of its body. At first the food of the animal should be
+furnished solely from the maternal founts; but at an early stage of its
+existence--about the third or fourth week--other food may wholly, or in
+part, be substituted for the natural aliment. It is important that no
+great interval should elapse between the hours of feeding. The digestive
+apparatus of the young animal is small, and its powers of assimilation
+are very energetic. The food with which it is supplied should,
+therefore, be given in moderate quantities, and very frequently. This
+is, in fact, what takes place when the calf is allowed free access to
+its dam; for the instant it feels a desire for aliment, the supply is at
+once available. Of course, there may be objections to this plan on the
+score of economy; but as a general rule, too much liberality cannot be
+exercised in feeding growing animals; and there is nothing more certain
+than that the calf which is illiberally fed will never be developed into
+a valuable, matured animal. When carefully tended from their birth,
+comfortably housed in winter, and abundantly supplied with nutritious
+food, it is sometimes wonderful the rapid progress which young stock
+make. Mr. Wright mentions a remarkable case of early maturity, which
+occurred in his own herd. A young steer, one year old, exhibited all the
+development of an animal twice its age. This bullock had been suckled
+for three months, whereby it had not only kept its calf-flesh, but
+gained and retained a step in advance. Its weight when only a year old
+was no less than 50 stones; and as the price of beef at the time was 8s.
+9d. per stone, live weight, the carcass of the animal was worth £21 17s.
+6d. Mr. Wright offers this fact as a suggestive one to "those farmers who
+think of bringing up their calves on old milk, or who would otherwise
+stint their growth."
+
+Supposing, then, that we have young stock which had been liberally
+treated when in their "baby" state, how are we to most economically
+maintain them throughout the winter? In the first place, they should be
+kept in warm sheds, and well sheltered from both rain and wind. Some
+authorities contend that exercise is necessary to young stock, and deny
+that a proper development of the muscles (lean flesh) can take place if
+they are cooped up like fattening turkeys during the winter. There is
+some truth in this opinion; and if the animals be designed for breeding
+or dairy purposes, their freedom of motion should only be partially
+restrained. On the other hand, if they be intended for an early
+introduction to the shambles, the less exercise they get the greater
+will be the profit on their keep. I have known cases where animals were
+closely housed for seven months, and yet their health did not appear
+to suffer in the slightest degree. In fact, so predominant are the
+vegetative functions of the ruminants over their nervous attributes,
+that the only essential conditions of their existence are adequate
+supplies of good air and food. That the health of these animals does
+occasionally suffer when the motions of their bodies are reduced to a
+_minimum_ is quite true; but in most of these instances the real cause
+is, not the want of exercise, but the want of pure air. The greatest
+care should, therefore, be taken in the ventilation of the places where
+stock, whether old or young, are kept; and no economy of space or heat
+will compensate for the want of wholesome air. Under the fallacious idea
+that exposure to cold renders young stock hardy, many farmers turn them
+out to eat straw in the open fields in frosty weather. Treatment of this
+kind, instead of being productive of good, almost invariably lays the
+foundation of disease, which will manifest itself at some stage of the
+animal's growth. There are a few favored localities, such as those to
+which I have already alluded, where yearlings may be occasionally allowed
+a turn through the fields in winter; but on cold clays, wet moors, and
+sandy soils the young stock should never be permitted to leave their
+sheds or courts from the time they are housed till late in the spring.
+
+Young stock are best fed on good meadow hay and turnips, with a moderate
+supplement of oil-cake; this, however, is expensive feeding in many
+farms, and a little filling-in may be done with cheaper or more easily
+obtainable stuffs. A mixture of cut chaff, with pulped mangels, is a
+good substitute for the more costly hay; and particularly in the case
+of animals intended for breeding or for the dairy. The roots should be
+pulped, and allowed to remain until, owing to a slight fermentation,
+they become warm. This change takes place in from twenty-four hours to
+sixty hours, according to the temperature; but the fermentation should
+not be carried farther than the earliest stage. The heated pulp should
+then be thoroughly mixed with the chaff, and the compound, after an
+hour or two, will be ready for use. A little chopped hay--no matter if
+inferior or slightly mildewed--may be substituted for the chaff, and
+turnips employed instead of the mangels, but the latter are the more
+desirable roots.
+
+Until lately, the use of oil-cake was confined to fattening animals,
+but latterly it is freely given to calves, even when they are only
+a month old; and there is no doubt but that it is a suitable and
+economical food for store stock. It is, however, sometimes given in
+excess: from half a pound to two and a half pounds daily will be
+sufficient for animals under one year; and this addition to their food
+will be found to exercise a beneficial influence on them when they
+are placed in stalls for finishing. The experience of several eminent
+breeders has proved that fattening beasts, which had in their youth
+a supply of oil-cake, or its equivalent, invariably store up a larger
+portion of their food than those which had been reared on hay and roots
+only.
+
+Mr. George Stodart, of Cultercullen, an Aberdeenshire farmer, describes,
+in the _Irish Farmer's Gazette_, his method of rearing calves:--
+
+    I occupy (says Mr. Stodart) a farm of 380 acres. I usually rear
+    twenty-four calves yearly, and buy in sixteen one-year-olds.
+    I generally breed from cross cows (the same as mentioned above),
+    served by a pure Shorthorn bull. When the calves are dropped I put
+    two calves to suck one cow for six months. In autumn, spring calves
+    are put into the house upon turnips and straw, with about 1 lb. of
+    oil-cake per day to each, until they are put out to grass in spring
+    following, at which time they are one year old. Then, of course,
+    they have grass in summer, and at the approach of winter they are
+    again housed upon turnips and straw, which bring them to be two
+    years old in spring. Now they are sent out to the best grass, and
+    again brought into the house at the beginning of September, and
+    fed on turnips and straw until the end of November or middle of
+    December, when they usually fetch from £25 to £32 a-head. This
+    year (1864), however, they will average £32. a-head. Before selling
+    I give each 3-1/2 lbs. of oil-cake per day for six weeks, and during
+    this time they have swede turnips; at other times yellow. We give as
+    much turnips at all times as they can eat.
+
+
+Mr. Bowick, in his excellent paper on the rearing of calves, published
+in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, gives the following
+information on this subject:--
+
+    We consider it desirable to allow the calf to remain with its
+    dam for the first three or four days after calving.
+
+    Not much trouble is generally experienced in getting it to take
+    to the pail. We find it better to miss the evening's meal, and
+    next morning a very little attention induces the majority of them
+    to partake of what is set before them. At most the guidance of the
+    fingers may be wanted for the first meal or two.
+
+    As regards the quantity of milk which is needful to keep a
+    moderately bred Shorthorn calf in a thriving condition, we have
+    found the following allowance to come pretty near the mark,
+    although the appetite of calves varies, both in individuals and
+    at different times with the same animal:--
+
+    1st week with the dam; or 4 quarts per day, at two meals.
+
+    2nd to 4th week, 5 to 6 quarts per day, at two meals.
+
+    4th to 6th week, 6 to 7 quarts per day, at two meals.
+
+    And the quantity need not, during the ensuing six weeks (after
+    which it is weaned), exceed a couple of gallons per day. This
+    implies that the calf is fed upon new milk only, and that no
+    other feeding liquids are employed. But, in addition to the above,
+    the calf will, towards the fourth week, begin to eat a little
+    green hay; and in a week or two later, some sliced roots, or meal,
+    or finely crushed cake, mixed with hay-chaff; and, if really good,
+    creditable beasts are wanted--such as will realise £25 a-head from
+    the butcher when turned two and a half years old--a little cake
+    or meal in their early days will be found a desirable investment.
+    In fact, we doubt not but 1 lb. of cake per day to the calf will
+    make as much flesh as triple the quantity of cake at any period
+    of after life. As regards meal, if that is given with the chaff,
+    we prefer oatmeal, or barley-meal, or wheaten flour, but not the
+    meal of beans or pease. Others may see it differently, but we
+    believe beans to be too heating for any class of young stock. For
+    roots, the best we know of is the carrot, grated and mixed with
+    the chaff, or sliced thin with a knife and given alone. It is also,
+    of all roots, the one which we find them most fond of, and which
+    they will most readily take to. As soon as they can eat them
+    freely, an immediate reduction in the supply of milk may be made.
+
+    In most articles it holds good in the end that "the best is the
+    cheapest." So with the rearing of calves; the best class of food,
+    or that above referred to, is found to give the greatest ultimate
+    satisfaction. But practically the question often is, how to rear
+    good calves with comparatively little new milk, a condition which
+    circumstances often render almost imperative; for where dairy
+    produce, in any other form, is the chief object, the calves stand
+    in a secondary position, and are treated accordingly. But let us
+    ask whether you cannot rear good stock under such circumstances
+    also? We believe that this may be, and often is done. We manage to
+    turn out from twenty-five to thirty calves annually--such as will
+    pass muster anywhere--and never use at any one time more than six
+    gallons of new milk daily. For this purpose, as well as to obtain
+    a regular supply of milk for other purposes, the calves are allowed
+    to come at different periods, extending from October to May. Hence
+    the calf-house has generally a succession of occupants throughout
+    the season; and as one lot are ready to be removed, and placed loose
+    in a small hovel, with yard attached, others fill their places.
+    We begin with new milk from the pail, which is continued for a
+    fortnight after leaving the cow. Then skim-milk--boiled, and allowed
+    to cool to the natural warmth--is substituted to the extent of
+    one-third of the allowance. In another week the new milk is reduced
+    to half, and at the same time, not before, boiled linseed is added
+    to the mess.[20] As soon as they take freely to this food, the new
+    milk may be replaced with that from the dairy, and the calf is
+    encouraged to indulge in a few sliced carrots and the other dry
+    foods named.
+
+
+Mr. Murray, of Overstone, thus states the expense of rearing the calf
+until it is two years old, when, after the weaning process is completed,
+it is turned out to grass:--
+
+    During the summer they have the run of a grass paddock during
+    the day, but return regularly to their yards at night; the
+    following winter they are kept in larger yards, and which contain
+    a greater number of animals. Their bill of fare for this winter is
+    2 lbs. of oil-cake, half a bushel of cut roots, with cut chaff _ad
+    libitum_. The chaff has a small quantity of flour or pollard mixed
+    with it, is moistened with water, and the whole mass turned over;
+    this is done the day previous to using it. By this means they eat
+    the chaff with more relish, and moistening it prevents the flour
+    being wasted. They are put to grass the following summer, generally
+    from the 15th to the 20th of May, or as soon as the pastures are in
+    a state to receive them; they remain there on second-rate land till
+    about the end of October, when they are brought home and tied up in
+    the stalls. The daily allowance is then 4 lbs. linseed-cake, 4 lbs.
+    flour--3/4 bean, 1/4 barley--1 bushel of cut roots with cut chaff;
+    the flour and chaff is mixed as already described. At about the end
+    of December the quantity of cake is increased to 8 lbs., and the
+    flour to 6 lbs.; this they continue to receive till they are sold
+    to the butcher during the months of March and April, when they
+    weigh, on an average, 90 stones of 8 lbs. per bullock, and under
+    two years and six months old. At this season of the year beef
+    generally makes 5s. per stone--we often make 9s.--but taking that
+    as an average would make the value of each beast £22 10s. The cost
+    of keeping to this age will be as follows:--
+
+                                                               £  s. d.
+
+    One calf                                                   2  0  0
+    Milk, &c., nine weeks                                      1  5  0
+    Cake, grass, &c., forty-three weeks, at 1s. 6d.            3  4  6
+    Second year, November till May, cake, flour,
+      roots, &c., 2s. 6d. per week, for twenty-six weeks       3  5  0
+    May till November, grass, twenty-six weeks, at 2s. 6d.     3  5  0
+    Third year, November till April, twenty weeks, at 8s.      8  0  0
+                                                             ---------
+                                                             £20 19  6
+
+    Which leaves a gain to each animal of £1 10s. 6d., besides the
+    manure.
+
+_Shelter of Stock._--The great diminution of temperature, and the
+falling off in the supply of herbage, that are coincident with the
+close of the autumn, render it necessary to remove our cattle from the
+open fields, and provide them with some sort of shelter during the
+winter months and early part of the spring.
+
+The particular period at which this change of quarters takes place of
+course varies, and is, in fact, altogether dependent upon the character
+of the season. There are some years in which there is, so to speak, a
+kind of relapse of the summer, November being bright and warm, instead
+of, as is usually the case, cold and foggy. In such a year there is some
+herbage to be picked up until the very end of December. On the other
+hand, the latter part of October is often very wet, and October frosts
+are by no means uncommon. Tempestuous, biting winds in November, or
+torrents of rain, or both, tell severely upon the poor animals in the
+fields, even where there is abundance of herbage; and hence, should such
+weather take place at the latter part of October, the true economy would
+be to remove the animals at once to sheltered places.
+
+Nothing lowers the temperature of the surface so rapidly as a cold wind.
+Captain Parry, one of the explorers of the Arctic regions, states that
+his men, when well clothed, suffered no inconvenience on exposure to the
+low temperature of 55 degrees below zero, provided the air was perfectly
+calm; but the slightest breeze, when the air was at this temperature,
+caused the painful sensation produced by intense cold. I could adduce
+the experience of many practical men in favor of the plan of affording
+shelter to animals, but more especially to those kept in situations
+much exposed to winds. Mr. Nesbit relates a case bearing on this
+point:--A farmer in Dorsetshire put up twenty or thirty sheep, under
+the protection of a series of upright double hurdles lined with straw,
+having as a sort of roof, or lean-to, a single hurdle, also lined with
+straw. A like number of sheep, of the same weight, were fed in the open
+field, without shelter of any kind. Each set was fed with turnips _ad
+libitum_. The result was, that those without shelter increased in weight
+1 lb. per week for each sheep, whilst those under shelter, although they
+consumed less food, increased respectively 3 lbs. per week.
+
+As a general rule, the latter part of October, or early in November, is
+the time for the removal of live stock from the pastures to the shelter
+of the farmstead. In England and Scotland the transference is seldom
+delayed after these dates; but in Ireland it is no uncommon thing to see
+the animals grazing very much later in the year--a circumstance which
+the lateness and mildness of our climate account for. But whatever the
+date may be, the importance of such shelter is universally recognised,
+even by those who most neglect it and are least acquainted with the
+principles upon which its necessity depends. The more important of these
+principles have already been explained, but they may be here summarised
+as follows:--
+
+1. A certain amount of warmth is an indispensable condition for the
+maintenance of the life of animals.
+
+2. The internal heat of the bodies of animals is supplied by the
+chemical combination which takes place between the oxygen of the
+atmospheric air which they inspire and certain of the constituents
+(carbon and hydrogen) of the food which they consume, or, to speak more
+accurately, of the tissues of their bodies, which are formed out of
+their food. It is very much in the same way in which our houses are
+heated by the burning of coal, turf, or wood in their fire-places, since
+the heat derived in the latter case is obtained from a similar source as
+in the former one--namely, by the union of the oxygen of the air with
+the carbon and hydrogen of the fuel. The only real difference between
+the two kinds of combustion is, that in respiration the process is
+conducted with an extreme degree of slowness, whilst in the ordinary
+fire the combinations take place rapidly, and the heat being evolved
+in a much shorter time is proportionately the more intense.
+
+3. The temperature of the external parts of the animal body varies with
+the nature and quantity of the food supplied to it, and also depends
+upon the state of the weather and the character of the protection
+afforded to it.
+
+The colder the air, the greater will be the quantity of food required,
+and the more complete the shelter. In other words, a diminution of
+temperature, no matter how caused, will necessitate an increased amount
+of food and more perfect shelter, in order to maintain at the proper
+degree of heat the fluids of the body. It is only the external parts of
+the body that become cold: so long as the animal is in health its blood
+always maintains the same degree of temperature; but in cold weather the
+blood is subjected to a greater cooling power than it is in warm
+weather, and this cooling power it can only resist by taxing more
+extensively the heat-producing resources of the body.
+
+4. Exposure to wet, even in warm weather, will tend to reduce the
+temperature of the body, since the conversion of water into vapor can
+only be effected at the expense of heat, which heat must be in great
+part extracted from the body of the animal itself.
+
+5. No possible increase of food, however nutritious it may be, can
+suffice to keep up the due warmth and healthy condition of the animal
+frame in winter, if shelter from cold and rain be not simultaneously
+effected. On the contrary, an animal well protected from the winter
+blasts will require much less food than if it were placed in an exposed
+position. The reason of this is, that the amount of food which an animal
+exposed to great cold consumes to maintain the temperature of its body
+would, under opposite conditions, be stored up in the form of permanent
+"increase"--beef or mutton for the butcher, in fact.
+
+The fat-forming constituents of the food of stock are in no case
+converted into permanent fat, except when they exceed in quantity the
+amount required to keep up the internal heat of the animal; but when
+this is constantly reduced by exposure to a wintry temperature, the
+food becomes insufficient for even that purpose, no matter how much
+aliment is given. What, then, must not be the condition of the
+unfortunate animals whose fate it is to be the property of a farmer
+who neither shelters them from the weather nor provides them with a
+sufficient quantity of nourishing food!
+
+_Milch Cows._--When dairy-farming is conducted on pure pastures, the
+cows are altogether dependent upon the grasses; and in winter, the
+animals suffer much from scarcity of food. This is the very worst system
+of cow-keeping, but it is prevalent amongst many small farmers in
+Ireland, and is to be met with even in England and Scotland. I am
+strongly of opinion that it would be far more economical to keep cows
+(and other cattle) altogether in the house, and feed them with cut
+grass, than to allow them to remain out altogether in the field. There
+are several disadvantages resulting from the depasturing of cows. In the
+warm weather, the animals are greatly annoyed by the attacks of flies:
+there is a considerable waste of muscle, caused by the movements of
+the animals whilst in search of their food; and the excrements of the
+animals and their footmarks injure a large portion of the grass. It may
+be somewhat troublesome and expensive to cut the grass, and convey it
+from the field to the house; but the labor and the cost will be more
+than repaid by the greatly-increased yield of food. A grass-field,
+mowed, will produce from 20 to 30 per cent. more food than it would if
+it were trampled upon and soiled by cattle. Exercise for an hour or two
+in the cool of the evening, or early in the morning (during the hot
+weather), will be quite sufficient to keep the animals in health. This
+may be taken in a field, better in a paddock, best of all in a roomy
+yard. When cattle are supplied with cut grass, or clover, care should
+be taken not to give it to them when very wet, for otherwise there is
+danger of the excessively moist herbage producing the _hoove_. Neither
+should large quantities of the green food be given to them--the supply
+should be "little and often." Should the food be too succulent, the
+addition of a little straw will correct its laxative effects. When
+the stock is about passing from the winter keep to summer food, the
+transition should be gradual; a well-made compound of straw or hay with
+grass (natural or artificial) is much relished by cows. A supply of
+good water is absolutely necessary; but sufficient attention to this
+important point is seldom given. Cooked food is well adapted for milch
+cows. Mangels, kohl-rabi, and cabbages are each of them better food than
+turnips, as the latter is apt to impart a disagreeable flavour to the
+butter. Three feeds in the day is a sufficient number for cows. The
+first meal should be early in the morning, and may consist of roots,
+mixed with straw or hay. Some feeders prefer using dry fodder, or cooked
+food of some kind, and not raw roots. The second meal is given at
+mid-day, and the third in the evening. The daily allowance of roots
+varies from 2 to 8 stones, depending upon the quantities of other foods
+used. Mr. Horsfall's diet is as follows:--Hay, 9 lbs.; rape-cake, 6
+lbs.; malt-combs, 1 lb.; bran, 1 lb.; roots, 28 lbs. These substances
+are mixed and cooked, and the animals receive them in a warm state.
+In addition to this food, Mr. Horsfall's cows get bean-meal--a cow in
+full milk 2 lbs., others from 1/2 lb. to 1-1/2 lbs.; cost per week per
+cow, 8s. 7d.[21] Mr. Alcock, of Skipton, feeds his cows as follows:--Raw
+mangels, 20 lbs.; carob beans, 3 lbs.; bran and malt-combs, 1-3/4 lbs.;
+bean-meal, 3-1/2 lbs.; rape-cake, 3 lbs.; per diem. A steamed mixture
+of wheat and bean straws and shells of oats _ad libitum_. Oats, to the
+extent of 2 or 3 lbs. daily, are an excellent food for cows.
+
+An important point in dairy economics is the feeding of the cows at
+_regular_ intervals. If the usual time for the feed be allowed to pass,
+the animals are almost certain to become very uneasy--to _worry_; and
+every feeder knows, or ought to know, that a fretting beast will neither
+fatten nor yield milk satisfactorily. The cow-house ought to be kept as
+clean as possible; and the excreta, therefore, should be removed several
+times a day.
+
+Mr. Harvey, of Glasgow, has probably one of the largest dairies
+in the world. His cow byres, 56 yards long, and from 12 to 24 feet
+wide--according as one or two rows of cows are to be accommodated--stand
+closely packed, the whole surface of the ground being thus covered by
+a kind of roof. From 900 to 1,000 cows are constantly in milk. They are
+fed during winter partly on steamed turnips (7 tons being steamed daily
+in order to give one meal daily to 900 cows), partly on coarse hay, of
+which, as of straw, they get between 20 and 30 lbs. a day each. They are
+also fed on draff, of which they receive half a bushel daily each; on
+Indian corn meal, of which they have 3 lbs. daily each; and on pot-ale,
+of which they receive three times a day nearly as much as they will
+consume, _i.e._, from 6 to 10 gallons daily. During the summer they are
+let out, a byreful at a time, for half a day to grass, and on coming
+in receive their spent malt and still liquor, and hay in addition. They
+are managed, cleaned, and fed by two men to each byre holding about 100
+cows. The milking is done three times a day, by women who take charge
+of 13 cows in full milk, or double that number in half milk, apiece.
+Between 4 and 5 o'clock a.m. (taking the winter management), the byres
+are cleaned out, and the cows receive a "big shovelful" of draff
+apiece, and half their steamed turnips and meal, and a "half stoupful,"
+(probably 2 gallons) of pot-ale. They are milked very early. At 7 they
+receive their fodder-straw or hay. At 10 they get a "full stoupful"
+(probably 3 or 4 gallons) of pot-ale. They are milked at noon. At 2
+p.m., or thereabouts, they are foddered again, and at 4 p.m. receive
+the same food as at the morning meal. They are again milked at 5 to 6,
+cleaned out and left till morning. The average produce is stated to be
+2 gallons a day per cow.
+
+Mrs. Scott, of Weekston, Peebles, who keeps one of the best managed
+dairy farms in the United Kingdom, thus conducts her operations in
+the winter:--At 6 o'clock in the morning the cows are well wiped or
+scrubbed, have their bedding removed, and receive each about 4 or 5 lbs.
+of straw. At 8 o'clock the cows are milked, and Mrs. Scott examines each
+to ascertain whether or not the milk-maid has left any fluid in the
+udder--and woe betide the careless maid if her work has been carelessly
+done! At 10 o'clock a barrowful of turnips is divided amongst three
+cows, and when these roots are not available, a quantity of peas or bean
+meal, with a pint of cold water, takes their place. At 1 o'clock the
+cows are allowed out to be watered, and during their absence from the
+byre it is thoroughly cleansed and ventilated. When the state of the
+weather prevents the cows from being turned out, they receive twice a
+day a handful of oatmeal diffused throughout three pints of water--a
+handful of salt being given in the first of these drinks. When the cows
+return to the byre, they receive each about 4 or 5 lbs. of straw, and at
+4 or 5 o'clock an evening meal of turnips equal to their morning feed.
+At 8 o'clock a "windling" of meadow hay is given to each pair of cows,
+the quantity being always regulated according to the requirements of
+each cow. The cows upon calving receive, in addition to this allowance
+of hay, half a pailful of boiled turnips, mixed with a quart of peas
+or bean-meal. This mess is given in a lukewarm state. Mrs. Scott's
+system may be thus epitomised: Regularity in feeding; sufficient but
+not excessive food; regularity in milking; and minute attention to
+cleanliness and ventilation.
+
+_Stall-feeding._--What becomes of the 90 per cent. of the weight of
+the non-nitrogenous constituents of the food of the sheep, and of the
+80 per cent. of that of the nutriment of the pig, which they consume
+but do not store up? I have already partly answered this question. This
+portion of the food is chiefly expended in the production of the heat
+with which the high temperature of the animal's body is maintained. Part
+of it, no doubt, passes unchanged through its body, either owing to its
+indigestibility, or to its being given in excess. The quantity of
+non-nitrogenous matters consumed by a man is influenced greatly by the
+temperature of the air which he habitually breathes, and by the nature
+of the artificial covering of his body; there may be other conditions
+at present unknown to us, but these are amongst the chief ones. Now, as
+there is sufficient reason to lead us to believe that the consumption
+of carbonaceous food by the lower animals is influenced in the same
+way by the temperature of the medium in which they exist, the question
+naturally suggests itself, would it not be cheaper to maintain the heat
+of the animal by burning the carbon of cheap coal or turf outside its
+body, than by consuming the carbon of costly fat within it? The answer
+to this question is not so simple as at first sight it appears to be. We
+must not consider that, because 10 lbs. weight of carbon, as coal, costs
+but a penny, whilst an equal weight of the same element in starch costs
+twenty pence, heat may be furnished to a fattening animal twenty times
+cheaper by the combustion of coal than by that of starch. No doubt the
+amount of heat evolved by the conversion of a pound-weight of carbon
+into carbonic acid is the same, whether it be a constituent of starch or
+of coal; but the application of the heat so produced is less under our
+control in the latter case. All the heat evolved during the combustion
+of the starch within the animal's body is made use of; whilst a very
+large proportion of that developed by the combustion of coal in a
+furnace cannot in practice be applied to the purpose of heating the
+animal's body.
+
+It is only the handiwork of the Creator which is perfect, and no machine
+constructed by the skill of man, for the direction of force, can rival
+that wondrous heat-producing, force-directing mechanism--the animal
+organism. According to Dumas, the combustion of about 2-1/2 lbs. of
+carbon in a steam-engine is required to generate sufficient force to
+convey a man from the level of the sea to the summit of Mont Blanc; but
+a man will ascend the mountain in two days, and burn in his mechanism
+only half a pound of carbon. There is no machine in which heat and
+force are more completely made available than the animal organism; and
+were it not--thanks to the influence of antediluvian sunshine--that
+the carbon of fuel in these countries is so very much cheaper than the
+carbon of food, there is no doubt but that the cheapest mode of keeping
+an animal warm would be to allow it to burn its carbon within its
+body. As the matter stands, however, there is no question as to the
+advisability of keeping fattening animals in a warm place. If the
+temperature of the stall be equal to that of the animal's body there
+will be less food consumed in the increase of its fat; because less of
+the fat-forming materials will be expended in the production of heat.
+In this sense, therefore, heat is an equivalent to food, but only within
+certain limits; because heat is developed in large quantity within the
+animal body independently of the temperature of the air. There is,
+therefore, no object to be attained by having the stalls heated beyond
+70 or 80 degrees. Indeed, it is to be questioned whether or not stalls
+artificially heated are ever properly ventilated. If they be not, the
+health of the animal will suffer, and its appetite--so essential a point
+in fattening stock--will become impaired. We may conclude--firstly,
+that animals, when fattening, should be kept at a temperature not under
+70 degrees nor above 90 degrees Fahrenheit; secondly, that the mode of
+heating must be such that there is as little wasteful combustion of fuel
+as is possible under the circumstances; and, lastly, that no motives of
+economy of fuel should prevent the feeding places from being thoroughly
+ventilated.
+
+Stall-feeding is not so extensively carried on in Ireland as it is in
+Great Britain. There is a general impression that it does not pay in the
+former country; but if such be the case, it is simply owing to the want
+of skill on the part of the Irish feeders.
+
+The cattle intended for stall-feeding should be removed (if out) from
+the field in October, and put into the house, or court, or crib, or
+hammel, as the case may be. They are fed upon roots, straw, hay, grain,
+and artificial food. The greatest skill is required in their treatment.
+It is a nice point to determine which foods are the most economical,
+and also to ascertain in what foods excessive proportions of certain
+nutritive elements exist. Sufficient food should be given; but any
+approach to waste should be avoided. Three feeds a day are usually
+given, and should be supplied at the same hours each day. For about two
+weeks the animals are furnished with white turnips _ad libitum_; but
+after the expiration of that time they receive Swedish turnips, straw,
+and grain, or oil-cake. Late in the season mangels will replace turnips.
+Almost every extensive feeder now uses oil-cakes in large quantities;
+but when oats are low in price, they will in general be found a cheap
+equivalent for a large proportion of the oil-cake. Different feeders
+have different dietaries, and the nature of the aliments supplied to
+fattening stock depends very much upon the market prices of food-stuffs,
+and the locality in which the feeding-house is situated. The following
+dietaries are but examples of the methods of feeding adopted in
+different districts and by different persons:--
+
+Mr. McCombie, of Tillyfour, fattens from 300 to 400 beasts annually,
+and obtained for them in 1861 £35 per head. He never exceeds 4 lbs. of
+oil-cake per diem, nor 2 lbs. of bruised oats, for each beast. He gives
+as much turnip and straw as they can consume. He realises £12 per acre
+in feeding on Aberdeen and Swedish turnips.
+
+"For fatting cattle," says Mr. Edmonds, of Cirencester, "I should
+recommend two parts hay and one part straw, or in forward animals
+three parts hay and one part straw cut in chaff. Those of average size
+will eat somewhere about five bushels per day, with 4 lbs. to 5 lbs.
+oil-cake, and half a peck of mixed meal, barley and peas, or beans, and,
+if cheap, a proportion of wheat also, to be increased to one peck per
+day in a month or six weeks after they have come to stall, the oil-cake
+and meal to be boiled in water for half-an-hour or three-quarters, and
+thrown in the form of rich soup over the chaff, and well mixed, to which
+add a little salt."
+
+Colonel M'Douall, of Logan, Wigtonshire, gives 3 lbs. of bean-meal and
+3 lbs. of cut straw cooked together, and 84 lbs. of Swedish turnips.
+
+According to the researches of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, an ox weighing
+1,400 lbs. ought to gain 20 lbs. weekly when fed under cover with 8 lbs.
+of crushed oil-cake, 13 lbs. of chopped clover hay, and 47 lbs. of
+turnips. The chemical constituents (in a dried state) of this allowance
+are as follows:--
+
+                                            Ounces.
+
+  Fat-formers, or heat givers                 232
+  Flesh-formers                                55
+  Mineral matter                               29
+
+_Cost of Maintaining Animals._--The animal mechanism, which exhibits
+the least tendency to fatten, is the most costly to keep in repair, in
+relation to the work performed by it. If, for example, a sheep store up
+in its increase one-fifth of its food, then the remaining four-fifths
+are expended in preserving it alive, and their cost represents, so to
+speak, the expense of preserving the animal's body in repair. If another
+sheep store up only one-tenth of its food, then the cost of its
+maintenance may be said to be double that of the animal which retains
+the larger proportion of its nutriment in the form of flesh. Of course
+in both cases the value of the manure will to a great extent compensate
+for the cost of the food expended in merely keeping the animal alive;
+but that does not affect the proposition, that the less food expended by
+an animal in carrying on its vital functions the more valuable is it as
+a "meat-manufacturing machine." From the moment it is brought into the
+world until it is "ripe" for the shambles, an animal should steadily
+increase in weight: every week that it does not store up a portion of
+its food in permanent increase is the loss of a week's food to the
+feeder; for all the fodder consumed during that time by the animal is,
+so to speak, devoted to its own private purposes. Sheep overcrowded
+on pastures, milch cows on "short commons," calves kept on bulky
+innutritious food, are all so many sources of positive loss to the
+feeder--and as many proofs that he who aspires to be a successful
+producer of meat, must, in one respect at least, be a devout believer
+in the doctrine of Progressive Development.
+
+_Cooking and Bruising Food._--The cooking, or the otherwise preparing,
+of the food of the domesticated animals is a subject which until
+recently was completely ignored by the vast majority of stock feeders.
+It is now, however, beginning to attract a fair amount of attention; and
+no doubt ere long the best modes of treating the food of cattle will be
+discovered.
+
+As might be expected from our limited experience of the subject, there
+exists considerable difference of opinion relative to the proper method
+of cooking cattle food; and there are many very extensive feeders who
+object to the plan altogether, and contend that as the food of the
+inferior animals is naturally supplied to them in a raw condition,
+it would be quite unnatural to give it to them in a cooked state.
+
+Whatever difference of opinion there may be with regard to the propriety
+of cooking the food of stock, we believe there ought not to be a doubt
+as to the desirability of mechanically treating the harder kinds of
+feeding stuff. It is quite evident that a horse fed upon hard grains of
+oats and wiry fibres of uncut hay or straw must expend no inconsiderable
+proportion of his motive power in the process of mastication. After a
+hard day's work of eight or ten hours he has before him the laborious
+task of reducing to a pulp from 12 lbs. to 20 lbs. weight of exceedingly
+hard and tough vegetable matter; and as this operation is carried on
+during the hours which should be devoted to rest, the repose of the
+animal is to some extent interfered with. Indeed, it not unfrequently
+happens that a horse, after a hard day's work, is too tired to chew his
+food properly; he consequently bolts his oats, a large proportion of
+which, as a matter of course, passes unchanged through the animal's
+body.
+
+In order to render fully effective the motive power of the horse, it is
+absolutely necessary to pay attention to the condition, as well as to
+the quantity and quality of his nutriment. The force wasted by a horse
+in the comminution of his food, when composed of whole oats and uncut
+hay and straw, cannot, at the lowest estimate, be less than that which
+he expends in an hour of ordinary work, such as, for example, in
+ploughing. The preparation of his food by means of water or steam power,
+or even by animal motive power, would economise by at least 50 per cent.
+the labor expended in its mastication; and this would be equivalent to
+nearly half a day's work in each week, and, consequently, a clear gain
+of so much labor to the owner of the animal. In the present time of
+water-power and steam-power corn-mills, one man is able to grind the
+flour necessary for the support of several thousand men; in early ages
+the labor of one person in the grinding of wheat served but to supply
+the wants of twenty others. In both cases machinery was employed
+for reducing the grain to flour; but in the one case, the mechanisms
+employed were more than a hundred times more effective than in the
+other. But even the most imperfect flour mill is by far a more
+economical system of comminuting corn than the jaws of animals; and if
+every man were obliged, as the horse is, to grind his corn by means of
+his teeth alone, he would find his powers for the performance of other
+kinds of labor considerably lessened.
+
+It has been urged as an objection to the use of bruised oats by horses,
+that they exercise in that state a laxative influence upon the animal's
+bowels. I doubt very much that such is frequently the case, when the
+animal is fed only upon oats and hay and straw; but even if the oats
+produce such an effect, the addition of a small proportion of beans--the
+binding properties of which are well known--will obviate the
+disadvantage.
+
+The desirability of mechanically acting upon soft food is not so
+apparent as the necessity for the bruising of oats is. Roots are so
+easily masticable that if they are rendered more so there is danger of
+their being so hastily swallowed as to escape thorough insalivation,
+which is so necessary to ensure perfect digestion. To guard against this
+danger, perhaps the best way would be to give pulped mangels and turnips
+mixed with cut straw; a mixture which could not easily be bolted.
+Mr. Charles Lawrence, of Cirencester, who is a great advocate for the
+cooking of food, and has frequently published his experience of the
+benefits derivable therefrom, thus describes his method of combining
+pulped roots with dry fodder:--
+
+    We find that, taking a score of bullocks together fattening,
+    they consume per head per diem three bushels of chaff, mixed
+    with just half a cwt. of pulped roots, exclusive of cakes of
+    corn; that is to say, rather more than two bushels of chaff
+    are mixed with the roots, and given at two feeds, morning and
+    evening, and the remainder is given with the cake, &c., at the
+    middle-day feed, thus:--We use the steaming apparatus of Stanley,
+    of Peterborough, consisting of a boiler in the centre, in which
+    the steam is generated, and which is connected by a pipe on the
+    left hand with a large galvanised iron receptacle for steaming
+    food for pigs, and on the right with a large wooden tub, lined
+    with copper, in which the cake, mixed with water, is made into
+    a thick soup. Adjoining this is a slate tank, of sufficient size
+    to contain one feed for the entire lot of bullocks feeding. Into
+    this tank is laid chaff with a three-grained fork, and pressed
+    down firmly; and this process is repeated until the slate tank
+    is full, when it is covered down for an hour or two before
+    feeding time. The soup is then found entirely absorbed by the
+    chaff, which has become softened and prepared for ready digestion.
+
+
+Mr. Wright, near Dunbar, gives the following account of an experiment
+with pulped roots and straw and oil-cake. It appears to prove the
+superiority of mixed foods over the same foods consumed separately:--
+
+    Two lots of year-old cattle were fed; the one in the usual
+    way--sliced turnips and straw, _ad libitum_--the others with
+    the minced turnips, mixed with cut straw. The first lot consumed
+    daily 84 lbs. sliced turnips, 1 lb. oil-cake, 1 lb. rape-cake,
+    1/2 lb. bean-meal, broken small and mixed with a little salt,
+    and what straw they liked. The second lot ate, each, daily,
+    50 lbs. minced turnips, 1 lb. oil-cake, 1 lb. rape-cake, 1/2 lb.
+    bean-meal, and a little salt, the whole being mixed with double
+    the bulk of cut straw or wheat chaff. In spring, the lot of
+    cattle which had the mixed food were in good condition, and
+    equally well grown as others, though they had consumed in five
+    months two tons less of roots apiece. The reporter does not
+    advise the mincing process to be commenced when cattle are very
+    forward in condition, as any change of food requires a certain
+    time to accustom the animals to it, and in the meantime fat
+    cattle are apt to fall off in condition. It ought to be begun
+    when they are young and lean.
+
+
+Mr. Duckham, of Baysham Court, Ross, Herefordshire, says:--
+
+    The advantages of pulping roots for cattle are--1st, Economy
+    of food; for the roots being pulped and mixed with the chaff,
+    either from threshing or cut hay or straw, the whole is consumed
+    without waste, the animals not being able to separate the chaff
+    from the pulped roots, as is the case when the roots are merely
+    sliced by the common cutter, neither do they waste the fodder as
+    when given without being cut.
+
+    2. The use of ordinary hay or straw. After being mixed with the
+    pulp for about twelve hours, fermentation commences, and this
+    soon renders the most mouldy hay palatable, and animals eat with
+    avidity that which they would otherwise reject. This fermentation
+    softens the straw, makes it more palatable, and puts it in a state
+    to assimilate more readily with the other food. In this respect
+    I think the pulper of great value, particularly upon corn farms
+    where large crops of straw are grown, and where there is a limited
+    acreage of pasture, as by its use the pastures may be grazed, the
+    expensive process of haymaking reduced, and, consequently, an
+    increased number of cattle kept. I keep one-third more, giving
+    the young stock a small quantity of oil-cake, which I mix with
+    the chaff, &c.
+
+    3. Choking is utterly impossible, and I have only had one case of
+    hoove in three years, and that occurred when the mixture had not
+    fermented.
+
+    4. There is an advantage in mixing the meal with the chaff and
+    pulped roots for fattening animals, as thereby they cannot separate
+    it, and the moisture from the fermentation softens the meal and
+    ensures its thorough digestion, whereas, when given in a dry state
+    without any mixture, frequently a great portion passes away in the
+    manure.
+
+
+On the value of the process for a grazing farm with but a small quantity
+of plough-land, Mr. Corner, of Woodlands, Holford, Bridgewater, thus
+speaks:--
+
+    My plan is, first commencing with the grazing beasts, to cut about
+    an equal quantity of hay and straw and mix with a sufficient
+    quantity of roots (mostly mangel) to well moisten the chaff; and as
+    the beasts advance in condition, I lessen the straw and increase
+    the hay, and in their further progress I mix--in addition to all
+    hay, chaff, and roots--from 6 to 10 lb. per day to each bullock of
+    barley and bean-meal, according to its size--and I have them large
+    sometimes. I sold last week for the London market a lot of Devon
+    oxen of very prime quality, averaging in weight upwards of 100 stone
+    imperial each.
+
+    For my horses, cows, yearlings, and oxen--the latter to be kept in
+    a thriving condition, and turned to grass, and kept through the
+    summer for Christmas, 1860--I cut nearly all straw, with a very
+    small quantity of hay, and this the offal of the rick. These also
+    have as many pulped roots as will moisten the chaff, except the
+    horses, and to them I give, along with bruised oats, just enough
+    roots to keep their bowels in a proper condition. To the two or
+    three-year-old beasts I give some long straw and a part chaff,
+    and the offal (if any) of the food of the above lots of stock.
+
+    My farm is but a small one--under 200 acres. My predecessor always
+    mowed nearly all the pastures for hay, which is about half the
+    farm, and with this scarcely ever grazed any beasts, and kept but
+    very few sheep. Since my occupation I scarcely ever exceed ten acres
+    of meadow with one field of seeds for hay. I keep from 250 to 300
+    large-size Leicester sheep, and graze from 20 to 25 large-size
+    beasts a year, with other breeding stock in proportion.
+
+    I consider the pulping of roots is better for fatting pigs than
+    anything else. My plan is to have a large two-hogshead vat as near
+    the pulping machine as possible, so as to fill it with a malt
+    shovel as it comes from the machine; at the same time I keep a lad
+    sprinkling meal (either barley or Indian corn) with the roots; and
+    this is all done in fifteen or twenty minutes. It is then ready for
+    use, to be carried to the pigs in the stalls alongside the fatting
+    beasts. I never could fatten a pig with profit until I used pulped
+    roots.
+
+
+Although the practice of cooking food has been advocated by several
+eminent feeders, it has been condemned by others. Mr. Lawes is not
+favorable to the cooking of food unless when it is scarce. The results
+of Colonel M'Douall's experiments go to prove that cattle can be more
+economically kept upon a mixture of raw and cooked foods than upon
+either raw or cooked fodder given separately. One meal of cooked food
+and two feeds of raw turnips gave better results than three feeds of
+raw turnips; whilst two cooked feeds and a raw one resulted in a loss.
+
+The fermentation of food, if not the best, is certainly the cheapest
+mode of preparing it. If the process be not pushed too far the loss of
+nutriment sustained is inconsiderable. When a mixture of straw and roots
+is fermented, the hard fibres of the latter are, to a great extent,
+broken up, and the nutrient particles which they envelop are fully
+exposed to the action of the solvent juices of the stomach.
+
+A great advantage in cooking or fermenting food is that the most
+rubbishy materials can be used up. Indeed, as a general rule, the better
+soft food is, the less the necessity for cooking it; but washed out hay
+and hard, over-ripened straw are of but little value, except when cooked
+and given in combination with some agreeably-flavored substance.
+
+
+  VALUE FOR FEEDING PURPOSES OF VARIOUS FOODS.[22]
+
+                  +--------------------------------------------------------+
+                  | KEY:                                                   |
+                  | A.--Starch, Sugar, &c.                                 |
+                  | B.--Oil, Starch, &c., computed as Oil.                 |
+                  | C.--Weight.                                            |
+                  | D.--Value.                                             |
+                  | E.--Value of Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid, and Potash.    |
+                  | F.--Deduct Nitrogen for perspiration.                  |
+                  | G.--Net Value for Manure.                              |
+                  |                                                        |
+  +---------------+------------------+-------------------------------------+
+  |               |       COST.      | 100 LBS. CONTAIN.                   |
+  |               +----------+-------+------+-------+-------+--------------+
+  |  MATERIAL.    |          |       |      |       |       |   Nitrogen.  |
+  |               |          |  Per  |      |       |       |              |
+  |               |    Per   |  100  |      |       |       +------+-------+
+  |               |    ton.  |  lbs. | Oil. |   A.  |   B.  |  C.  |   D.  |
+  +---------------+----------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+
+  |               |  £  s. d.| s. d. | lbs. |  lbs. |  lbs. | lbs. |  d.   |
+  |               |          |       |      |       |       |      |       |
+  |Meadow-hay     |  4  0  0 | 3  7  | 2·68 | 39·75 | 24·63 | 1·48 | 10·62 |
+  |               |          |       |      |       |       |      |       |
+  |Wheat-straw    |  1 15  0 | 1  7  | 0·50 | 32·0  | 18·50 | 0·42 |  3·0  |
+  |               |          |       |      |       |       |      |       |
+  |Swedish Turnips|  4 10  0 | 4  0  | 2·0  | 60·0  | 35·0  | 2·40 | 17·28 |
+  |               |          |       |      |       |       |      |       |
+  |Oil-cake       |  9  6  8 | 8  4  |12·0  | 38·0  | 33·0  | 5·0  | 36·0  |
+  |               |          |       |      |       |       |      |       |
+  |Beans          |  9  6  8 | 8  4  | 2·0  | 42·0  | 25·30 | 4·45 | 32·0  |
+  |               |          |       |      |       |       |      |       |
+  |Indian Meal    |  9  6  8 | 8  4  | 7·0  | 60·0  | 40·0  | 2·25 | 16·20 |
+  |               |          |       |      |       |       |      |       |
+  |Carob, or      |          |       |      |       |       |      |       |
+  |  Locust Bean  |  9  6  8 | 8  4  | 6·76 | 57·0  | 35·0  | 0·64 |  3·75 |
+  +---------------+----------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+
+
+  +---------------+---------------------------+----------------------------+
+  |               | 100 LBS. CONTAIN.         |                            |
+  |               +-------------+-------------+----------+-------+---------+
+  |  MATERIAL.    |  Phosphoric |   Potash.   |          |       |         |
+  |               |     Acid.   |             |          |       |         |
+  |               +------+------+------+------+          |       |         |
+  |               |  C.  |   D. |  C.  |  D.  |     E.   |   F.  |   G.    |
+  +---------------+------+------+------+------+----------+-------+---------+
+  |               | lbs. |  d.  | lbs. |  d.  | s. d.    | d.    | s. d.   |
+  |               |      |      |      |      |          |       |         |
+  |Meadow-hay     | 0·90 | 1·35 | 1·50 | 4·50 | 1  4-1/2 | 2-1/12| 1 2-1/4 |
+  |               |      |      |      |      |          |       |         |
+  |Wheat-straw    | 0·14 | 0·21 | 0·65 | 2·16 | 0  5     |   1/2 | 0 5     |
+  |               |      |      |      |      |          |       |         |
+  |Swedish Turnips| 0·80 | 1·20 | 2·25 | 6·75 | 2  1-1/4 | 3-1/2 | 1 9-3/4 |
+  |               |      |      |      |      |          |       |         |
+  |Oil-cake       | 2·25 | 3·37 | 1·75 | 5·25 | 3  8-1/2 | 7-1/4 | 3 1-3/4 |
+  |               |      |      |      |      |          |       |         |
+  |Beans          | 0·86 | 1·29 | 1·11 | 3·33 | 3  0-1/2 | 6-1/2 | 2 6     |
+  |               |      |      |      |      |          |       |         |
+  |Indian Meal    | 0·19 | 0·28 | 0·17 | 0·51 | 1  5     | 3-1/4 | 1 1-3/4 |
+  |               |                    |      |          |       |         |
+  |Carob, or      |     No analysis    |      |          |       |         |
+  |  Locust Bean  |       of ash.      |      |say 5-3/4 |   --  | 0 5     |
+  +---------------+--------------------+------+----------+-------+---------+
+
+_Bedding Cattle._--Instead of wasting straw in bedding cattle, it would
+be much better to pass it through their bodies. If straw must be used
+for litter, let it be employed as economically as possible. Good
+substitutes, wholly or in part, for straw bedding may be found in
+sawdust, ashes, tan and ferns. Leaves of trees if procurable in
+quantity constitute an excellent litter.
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+THE SHEEP.
+
+The management of sheep varies greatly--depending upon the breeds of
+the animal, the localities in which they are reared and fattened, and
+various economic conditions. The tupping season varies of course with
+the country: in Ireland it commences about the middle of September and
+lasts for two months; in England and parts of Scotland, the season is
+about a month earlier. The best kinds of sheep admit of being very early
+put to breed. Both ram and ewe are ready for this purpose when about
+fifteen months old. One ram is sufficient for about 80 ewes. The
+breeding flock should be in a sound, healthy condition, and the ram
+ought to be as near perfection as possible. The condition of the sire
+ought to be good, but at the same time it is not desirable to have him
+over fat. The more striking indications of good health in the sheep are
+dry eyes, red gums, sound teeth, smooth, oily skin, and regular
+rumination. The color of the excreta should be natural.
+
+_Breeding Ewes._--After the tupping season, which generally lasts for
+a month, the sheep are usually put on a pasture, which need not be
+very rich. In cold situations ample shelter should be afforded to the
+breeding flocks; and in severe weather they should, if possible, be
+removed to sheds. When snow covers the ground, the animals must be
+supplied with turnips, or cooked food of some kind. At such time a
+little oil-cake will be found very useful.
+
+_Yeaning._--In March the yeaning season sets in; and as this time
+approaches, the food of the animals should be improved, and the greatest
+care must be taken of them. The shepherd should be unceasing in his
+watchfulness, frequently examining every individual animal. The lambing,
+if possible, ought to take place in sheds, or some covered place.
+
+_Rearing of Lambs._--Delicate lambs require great care. Very weak ones
+often require to be hand fed. Should a mother die, her offspring may be
+placed with another ewe; on the other hand, should a lamb perish, its
+mother may be appointed to rear one of another ewe's twins (if such
+be available). The ram lambs, not intended for breeding purposes, are
+subjected to a necessary mutilation when they are about three weeks old.
+If this operation be performed later, there is great danger that fatal
+inflammatory action may set in; on the other hand, a lamb much younger
+than three weeks is hardly strong enough to bear the pain of the
+operation. The tails of the lambs are shortened about the same time;
+but it would be better in the case of the rams not to perform both
+operations on the same day. These operations are best performed during
+moist or cloudy weather; if they must be done on frosty or stormy
+days, the lambs should be kept under shelter for two or three days, as
+otherwise the cold might induce inflammation. The lambs remain with
+their mothers for about four months, after which they are weaned, and
+put upon a good pasture. When the herbage is poor, oil-cake, say 1/4 lb.
+daily, or some other nutritious food, should be used to supplement it.
+During the summer and part of the autumn the young stock, as a rule,
+subsist upon grass; but many flock-masters give them other kinds of food
+in addition. As winter approaches, the young sheep on tillage farms
+receive soft turnips, and sometimes a little hay or straw. The allowance
+of oil-cake may be increased to 1/2 lb., or if corn be cheap, it may be
+substituted for the oil-cake. After Christmas Swedish turnips are used.
+
+Mr. Mechi gives the following information on the subject of rearing
+lambs during a season when roots are scarce:--
+
+
+    Two hundred lambs, which cost 22s. 6d. each on September 12th,
+    were kept on leas and stubble until November 3rd, then on
+    turnips until December 19th, when fifty of them were drafted to
+    another flock getting a little cotton-cake. On the 3rd of February
+    fatting commenced with linseed-cake in addition to cut Swedes. On
+    the 7th of April the fifty tegs were put on rye with mangels, and
+    they were sold on the 4th of May at 61s. each.
+
+    The remaining 150 lambs were wintered as stores at little cost,
+    on inferior turnips uncut; they were put on rye from March 8th
+    till May 4th, when they were valued at 48s. each.
+
+    The district just referred to became so exhausted of its stock,
+    that at some of the later fairs the number of lambs and of ewes
+    exhibited was less than one-fourth of the average. But in Essex,
+    on six adjoining farms, including that from which I write, the
+    number of sheep wintered has been greater than these heavy lands
+    ever carried before. This has been effected by the extension of
+    a system of management often practised on heavy land, that of
+    eking out a scanty supply of green food by a liberal allowance
+    of straw, chaff, and grain; which happily were good in quality,
+    as well as plentiful and low in price in 1864.
+
+    By these means we were enabled last winter to keep 1,500 sheep
+    on about 650 acres of arable, and 350 acres of dry upland
+    pasture--chiefly park surrounding a mansion. The arable land
+    does not very well bear folding in winter, as a preparation for
+    spring corn. Neither climate nor soil are favorable to turnips,
+    and notwithstanding our efforts in assisting Nature, our crops
+    of turnips, rape, or Swedes, are never first-rate, and sometimes
+    very bad. Strong stubbles, good beans, clover-seed, and mangel,
+    are the specialities of the locality, and they indicate heavy
+    land, corn-growing, and yard-feeding. Sheep have been generally
+    "conspicuous by their absence," though even the heavy-land farmer
+    is glad to winter a yard of them instead of cattle, that he may
+    keep some, at least, of the stock that pays best.
+
+    In the autumn of 1864 our root crops consisted of some white
+    turnips and rape, eaten by the ewes in September, and of a very
+    bad crop of mangel, the whole of which was reserved for the ewes
+    at lambing-time. In this predicament we wintered about 1,000
+    half-bred lambs, more than 400 ewes, and some fatting sheep.
+    All, except the fatting sheep, were folded on the stubbles, and
+    allowed a daily run on the park of about an hour for each flock.
+    The freshest grass was reserved for the ewes, and a very meagre
+    bite remained for the lambs; in fact, except for a few weeks
+    in autumn, the parks afforded them little or nothing except
+    exercise and water.
+
+    The flocks were divided between three separate farms, and their
+    food was prepared at the respective homesteads. The treatment
+    was in every respect similar; we shall therefore only notice in
+    detail the management at one farm.
+
+    The following details are taken from our "Live Stock Book:"--
+
+    EXTRACTS FROM STOCK BOOK.
+
+    _Lambs._
+
+    Payments.                                                   Remarks.
+
+    _November 4th, 1864._
+                                                      £  s. d.
+
+    352 lambs, cost at date, 30s. 9-1/2d. each       542  2  3    (a)
+    _Cost of keeping 24 weeks to April 21, 1865_:--               (b)
+    Corn and cake, as per granary book               245 16  9    (c)
+    Cutting 25 tons of chaff, at 6s.                   7 13  0    (d)
+    Grinding 96 qrs. 6 bshls. of corn, at 9d.          3 12  6
+    Attendance, at 19s. 10d. per week                 23 16  0    (e)
+    Horse labor, at 6s. per week                       7  4  0
+    Coal, 3s. 2d. per week                             3 16  0    (f)
+    Use of 21 troughs, at 3d. each per month           1 11  6    (g)
+    Use of 180 hurdles, at 1d. each per month          4 10  0
+    1-1/2 cwt. of rock salt                            0  4  6
+                                                    ==========
+                                                    £840  6  6
+
+    Remarks.
+
+    (a) Total cost of keeping 352 lambs for 24 weeks, £298 4s. 3d.
+    (b) Cost per head, 16s. 11d.
+    (c) Cost, food only, 14s. 11d.
+    (d) Value of the manure, reckoned at one-fifth the cost of the
+        corn and cake, £49 3s. 4d.
+    (e) Cost of the lambs, per head, £2 7s. 8d.
+    (f) Value of manure, per head, 2s. 10d.
+    (g) No charge made for the straw-chaff eaten on the land.
+
+
+    The tegs would probably have been sold at a profit in April;
+    they were, however, put on grass and clover, and were fattened
+    in the summer.
+
+    _September 29th._--352 lambs in the parks, on a little cotton-cake
+    and some oats, until November 4th, when they were folded on a wheat
+    stubble. Gave them 5 bushels of meal daily, mixed with 468 lb. of
+    straw chaff. Cost 3-1/2d. each per week for meal.
+
+    _December 20th._--Increased the food to 6-1/2 bushels of meal and
+    1 bushel of oil-cake.
+
+    _December 18th._--
+
+                                                        lb.
+
+    2-3/4 bushels of maize crushed and boiled           143
+    4-1/2 bushels of mixed meal                         200
+    1 bushel of oil-cake                                 50
+                                                        ---
+                                                        393
+                                                        ===
+
+
+    Cost 5-1/2d. per week for corn and cake; chaff, 2-1/4 lb. each,
+    between these and the ewes, the lambs eating rather less than
+    2 lb. each.
+
+    Eight pounds of rock-salt licked up by the 352 lambs per week.
+
+    _January 23rd._--The food was increased to 7-1/2 bushels of meal,
+    2 bushels of oil-cake, and 2 bushels of rape-cake.
+
+    Mixture of Corn.
+
+    Wheat                     4 parts.
+    Barley                    4   "
+    Oats                      2   "
+    Maize                     4   "
+
+    Cost per stone (14 lb.)
+                              s.   d.
+    Wheat                     1    0
+    Barley                    0   10
+    Oats                      1    0
+    Maize                     0   10
+    Oil-cake                  1    4-1/4
+    Rape-cake                 0    9
+
+
+_Sheep Feeding._--In Ireland sheep are often exclusively fed on grass;
+but in most cases the addition of other food is desirable, and more
+especially is it necessary during winter. When confined to roots, sheep,
+on an average, consume about 26 lbs. daily, unless when under shelter,
+which diminishes the quantity by from five to ten per cent. Some sheep
+on which Dr. Voelcker experimented were fed as follows:--
+
+                                                 lbs.   ounces.
+
+  Mangel wurtzel                                  19    8
+  Chopped clover hay                               1      3/10
+  Linseed cake                                     0    4-8/100
+                                                  --------------
+                                       Total      20   15-38/100
+
+On this diet four sheep were maintained from the 22nd of March until
+the 10th of May, a period of forty-seven days. The weights were as
+follows:--
+
+                             22nd Mar.     10th May.      Gain.
+
+  No. 1                         153         170-1/2       17-1/2
+  No. 2                         134         151-1/2       17-1/2
+  No. 3                         170         187           17-1/2
+  No. 4                         136         155           19
+
+This experiment shows that the sheep can increase in weight on a daily
+allowance of food, much less than is usually given to them; but it will
+be found that growing sheep will usually consume a greater quantity of
+food than that used by Dr. Voelcker's fattening animals.
+
+Sheep washing is performed before the animal is shorn. It is a process
+which should never be neglected, as dirty wool is certain to bring a
+less price than the same quality would if clean. After being washed,
+sheep should be kept in dry pasture for about ten days in order to allow
+the loss of yolk removed by the washing to be repaired; they will then
+be in proper condition for the shearer.
+
+_Sheep Dips_ are used for the purpose of removing parasites from the
+animal's skin. They often contain arsenic, or bichloride of mercury
+(corrosive sublimate), which are very objectionable ingredients. The
+glycerine sheep dip, prepared by Messrs. Hendrick and Guerin, of London,
+is a safe mixture, as it is free from mineral poisons, whilst the tar
+substances which it includes, act as a powerful cleanser of the skin,
+without injuriously affecting the yolk of the wool.
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+THE PIG.
+
+In the breeding of pigs, as in the breeding of other kinds of stock,
+great care should be taken in the selection of both sire and dam. A good
+pig should have a small head, short nose, plump cheek, a compact body,
+short neck, and thin but very hairy skin, and short legs. The black
+breed is considered to be more hardy than the white; and pure--all black
+or all white--colors as a rule indicate the purest blood.
+
+The sow should not be bred from until she is a year old, and the boar
+especially should not be employed at an earlier age. Although one boar
+is sometimes left with forty pigs and even a greater number, he will not
+be able to serve more than a dozen about the same time, if vigorous
+progeny be expected. The sow's regular period of gestation is 113 days;
+she can have two litters a year, and in each there are from five to
+fourteen young. Moderate sized litters are the best, the young of very
+numerous ones being often weakly. The best time to rear young pigs is
+during the warm or mild parts of the year.
+
+During gestation the sow should be liberally fed, but not with excessive
+amounts. The food at this time should rather excel in quality than in
+quantity; but so soon as she begins to nurse, her allowance must be
+increased, and may be rendered more stimulating. For a week or so before
+farrowing, the sow ought to be kept alone. Its sty should not be too
+small--not less than 8 or 10 feet square--for pigs require good air in
+abundance as well as other animals.
+
+The straw used for litter should neither be too abundant nor too long;
+in the latter case some of the young might be covered by it, and
+escaping the notice of the sow, might unconsciously be crushed by the
+latter. If the young are very feeble, it may become necessary to
+hand-feed them. Some sows eat their young: and when they have this
+habit, the better plan is to cease breeding from them; for it appears to
+be incurable. After parturition some bran and liquid or semi-liquid food
+should be given to the sow.
+
+_Young Pigs_ subsist exclusively on their mother's milk but for a short
+time. In two or three weeks they may receive skimmed or butter-milk from
+the dairy. At a month old such of them as are not designed for breeding
+purposes may be subjected to the usual mutilations; and at from five to
+six weeks old the young are weaned, and converted into _stores_.
+
+_Store Pigs_, when young, are best fed upon skimmed milk, oatmeal,
+and potatoes, in a cooked state. When they are approaching three months
+old, they may be supplied with raw food, if the weather be warm;
+but in winter, cooked and warm food will be found the more economical.
+Cabbages, roots, potatoes, and all kinds of grain that are cheap are
+used in pig feeding. The number of meals varies from six or seven in the
+case of very young animals, to three in the case of those nearly ready
+for fattening. Store pigs should be allowed a few hours' exercise daily
+in a paddock, or field, or at least in a large yard.
+
+The dietaries of store pigs vary greatly, for these animals being
+omnivorous readily eat almost every kind of food. Mr. Baldwin, of Bredon
+House, near Birmingham, an extensive pig breeder, gave (in 1862) stores
+the following allowance:--At three months old, a quart of peas, Egyptian
+beans, or Indian corn. He considered English beans to be too _heating_
+for young pigs. The animals were allowed the _run_ of a grass field.
+On this diet the stores were kept until they were eight months old
+(increasing at the average rate of five pounds per week), after which
+they were allowed an extra half-pint of corn. He calculated the weekly
+cost as follows:--Dry food, 1s.; grass, 2d.; man's time, 1d.; total, 1s.
+3d. These results yielded a profit of 1s. per week per pig, pork being
+at the time 6d. per lb. Some feeders give young store pigs half-a-pint
+of peas, mixed with pulped mangel, and the quantum of peas is gradually
+increased to one pint per diem. All kinds of food-refuse from the house
+are welcomed by the pig. Skins, dripping, damaged potatoes, cabbage,
+&c., may be given to them; but they should not be altogether substituted
+for the ordinary food-stuffs. Coal-dust, cinders, mortar rubbish, and
+similar substances are often swallowed by pigs, and sometimes even
+given to them by the feeder. In certain cases Lawes and Gilbert found
+that superphosphate of lime was a useful addition to the food of pigs.
+A little salt should invariably be given, more especially if mangels
+(which are rich in salt) do not enter into the animals' dietary.
+
+_Fattening Pigs._--For some time before store pigs are put up to be
+fattened, the quality and quantity of their food should be increased,
+for it is not economy to put a rather lean animal suddenly upon a very
+fattening diet. The sty should be well supplied with clean litter, and
+should be darkened. Three feeds per diem will be a sufficient number,
+and the remains (if any) of one should be removed from the trough before
+the fresh feed is put into it. The feeding trough (which should be made
+of iron) should be so constructed that the animals cannot place their
+fore feet in it. The pig is naturally a clean animal, and therefore
+it should be washed occasionally, as there is every reason to believe
+that such a procedure will tend to promote the animal's health. It
+should be supplied with clean water.
+
+In Stephen's "Book of the Farm," it is stated that two pecks of
+steamed potatoes, and 9 lbs. of barley-meal, given every day to a pig
+weighing from 24 to 28 stones, will fatten it perfectly in nine weeks.
+Barley-meal is largely used in England as food for pigs. It is given
+generally in the form of a thin paste, and in large quantities. Lawes
+and Gilbert found that 1 cwt. of barley-meal given to pigs increased
+their weight by 22-1/2 lbs. Indian meal is fully equal, if it is not
+superior to barley-meal, as food for pigs; and for this purpose it is
+far more extensively employed in Ireland. Every kind of grain given to
+pigs should be ground and cooked. In Scotland pigs are often fattened
+solely on from 28 to 35 lbs. of barley-meal weekly, and mangels or
+turnips _ad libitum_. Pollard is a good food for pigs, being rich in
+muscle-forming materials; it is a good addition to very fatty or starchy
+food. A mixture of pollard and palm-nut meal is an excellent fattening
+food. Potatoes are now so dear, that they are seldom--unless the very
+worst and diseased kinds--used in pig feeding. They should never be
+given raw. The more inferior feeding-stuffs should be used up first in
+the fattening of pigs, and the more valuable and concentrated kinds
+during the latter part of the process.
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+THE HORSE.
+
+The horse is subject to many diseases, not a few of which arise from the
+defective state of his stable. The best kinds of stables are large and
+lofty, well ventilated and drained, smoothly paved, and well provided
+with means for admitting the direct sunlight. The walls should be
+whitewashed occasionally, and for disinfecting and general sanitary
+purposes, four ounces of chloride of lime (bleaching powder) mixed with
+each bucket of whitewash, will be found extremely useful.
+
+Farm horses are kept in stalls, which should not be less than six feet
+wide, and (exclusive of rack and rere passage) 10 feet long. For hunters
+and thorough-breds, _loose boxes_ are now generally used.
+
+The mare commences to breed at four years, and the period of gestation
+is 340 days. She may be worked until within a fortnight of the time at
+which parturition is expected to occur. After foaling, the mare should
+be turned into a grass field (unless the weather is severe) and kept
+there idly for three or four weeks.
+
+_Foals_ are kept with their mothers until they are about five or six
+months old: after weaning, their food must be tender and nutritious--well
+bruised oats, cut hay, bean or oatmeal mashes; carrots are very
+suitable.
+
+Working horses are fed chiefly upon oats and hay, which undoubtedly are
+the best foods for these animals, both being rich in muscle-forming
+materials. Bruised oats are far more economical than the whole grains:
+and if the animals eat too rapidly, that habit is easily overcome by
+mixing chopped straw or hay with the grain.
+
+According to Playfair, a horse not working can subsist and remain in
+fair condition on a daily allowance of 12 lbs. of hay and 5 lbs. of
+oats. According to the same authority, a working horse should receive
+14 lbs. of hay, 12 lbs. of oats, and 2 lbs. of beans.
+
+Beans are a very concentrated food, rich in flesh-formers, and are,
+therefore, well adapted for sustaining hard-working horses. They are
+rather _binding_; but this property is easily neutralised by combining
+the beans with some laxative food. Turnips, carrots, furze, and various
+other foods are given to the horse, often in large quantities. The
+following are some among the many dietaries on which this animal
+is kept:--
+
+Professor Low's formula is, 30 to 35 lbs. of a mixture of equal parts
+of chopped straw, chopped hay, bruised grain, and steamed potatoes.
+
+The daily rations of horses of the London Omnibus Company, are 16 lbs.
+of bruised oats, 7-1/2 lbs. of cut hay, and 2-1/2 lbs. of chopped straw.
+
+Stage coach-horses in the United States receive daily about 19 lbs. of
+Indian meal and 13 lbs. of cut hay.
+
+Mr. Robertson, of Clandeboye, near Belfast, gives the following
+information on the subject of horse-keeping:--
+
+    The year we divide into three periods--October, November to
+    May inclusive, June to September inclusive. During the first
+    period, the horses get about 18 lb. of chaff and 12 lb. of
+    crushed oats and beans; "10-1/2 oats and 1-1/2 beans" per head
+    per day. During the second period they get about 15 lb. of hay
+    chaff, 12 lb. of crushed oats and beans, and about 3 gallons
+    of boiled turnips per head per day. During the third period
+    they were turned out to graze during the night. In the day time,
+    whilst in the stable, each animal is allowed about 50 lb. of cut
+    clover, and about 12 lb. of crushed oats and beans per day. The
+    feeding is all under the charge of one person. He uses his own
+    discretion in feeding the animals, though he is not allowed to
+    exceed the quantities named. The horses to which I allude are the
+    same on which the experiments commenced two years ago--six cart
+    horses, one cart pony, and one riding horse. From Sept. 1, 1865,
+    to and including August 31, 1866, the cost of maintaining these
+    horses in good working condition; keeping the carts, harness,
+    &c., in repair; shoeing, c., was as follows:--
+
+    Oats, 14 tons, at 16s. per cwt.                 £112   0   0
+    Beans, 2 tons, at 18s. per cwt.                   18   0   0
+    Hay, 13 tons, at 30s. per ton                     19  10   0
+    Green Clover                                      15   0   0
+    Turnips                                            5   0   0
+    Night grazing                                     18   0   0
+    Engine, cutting chaff, crushing oats, &c.          7   4   0
+    Attendance                                        26   0   0
+    Blacksmith                                        12   0   0
+    Saddler                                           12   0   0
+    Carpenter                                         10   0   0
+    Five per cent. interest on value, £110             5  10   0
+    Depreciation in value 10 per cent.                11   0   0
+                                                    ------------
+                                                    £271   4   0
+    Deduct cost of riding horse                       35   0   0
+                                                    ------------
+                                                    £236   4   0
+
+
+    £33 11s. 10d. per head; if we suppose the available working
+    days to be 300, allowing 13 for wet days, holidays, &c., the
+    daily cost will be 2s. 2-1/2d.; to this if we add 1s. 8d.,
+    the wages of the driver, we shall have a total of 3s. 10-1/2d.
+    as the cost of a horse, cart, and driver per day. I would only
+    add, in conclusion, that the horses are kept in good working
+    condition; and, as a proof of their good health under this
+    system, I may state that during the past two years we have not
+    had occasion to require the services of a veterinary surgeon.
+
+
+Musty hay or straw should not be given to horses. Furze is said to be
+a heating food; but it is very nutritious, and when young, may be given
+as _part_ of the food of the horse.
+
+Boiled turnips and mangels are often given in winter; but they are
+not sufficiently nutritious to constitute a substantial portion of the
+animal's diet. Oil-cake is occasionally given to horses; but seldom in
+larger quantities than 1-1/2 lbs. per diem. On the whole, experience is
+in favor of occasionally giving cooked food to horses; and the practice
+meets with the full approval of the veterinarian. To most kinds of food
+for horses, the addition of one or two ounces of salt is necessary.
+
+In the _Agricultural Gazette_ for November 25, 1865, the following
+instructive tables are given:--
+
+  STABLE FEEDING DURING AUTUMN.
+
+  ---+-------------------------+---------+---------+------+-----------+------
+     | Name and Address        |         |         |      | Clover,   |Weekly
+  No.| of Authorities.         |  Hay.   |  Oats.  |Beans.|   &c.     | Cost.
+  ---+-------------------------+---------+---------+------+-----------+------
+     |                         |  lb.    |  lb.    | lb.  |           | s. d.
+     |                         |         |         |      |           |
+   1 | W. Gater, Botley        |  168    |  63*    | 32*  |  ...      |12  0
+   2 | W. C. Spooner           |  112    |  84     | 24   |  ...      |11  0
+   3 | T. Aitken, Spalding.    |  ...    |  37-1/2 | ...  | ad lib.   | 7  6?
+   4 |     "        "          |  ...    |  37-1/2 | 35   | ad lib.   |10  O?
+   5 | T. P. Dods, Hexham.     |  ...    | 105     | ...  | ad lib.   |10  6?
+   6 |    "          "         | ad lib. | 105     | ...  |  ...      |10  6?
+     |                         |         |         |      | Straw     |
+   7 | A. Ruston, I. of Ely.   | ad lib. |  84     | 10   | ad lib.   | 9  0
+     |                         |  1/2    |         |      | 1/2 Bran. |
+     |                         |         |         |      | 1/3 bush. |
+   8 | A. Simpson, Beauly      |  168    |  70     | 14   | 24 lb.    |10  0
+     |                         |         |         |      | Straw.    |
+   9 | H. J. Wilson, Mansfield |  ...    |  52-1/2 | ...  | ad lib.   | 7  3?
+  10 |        "       "        |   42    |  87-1/2 | ...  | ad lib.   | 9  0
+  ---+-------------------------+---------+---------+------+-----------+------
+  In this table the asterisk (*) means that the grain is crushed or ground.
+
+
+  STABLE FEEDING DURING WINTER.
+
+  ---+------------------+------+-------+------+--------+---------+------+------
+  No.|Name and Address. | Hay. | Oats. |Beans.| Roots. |Sundries.|Straw.|Weekly
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      | Cost.
+  ---+------------------+------+-------+------+--------+---------+------+------
+     |                  |  lb. | lb.   | lb.  |  lb.   |    lb.  |  lb. | s. d.
+   1 |Professor Low     |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |  --Elements of   |      |       |      |Potatoes|         |      |
+     |  Agriculture     |  56* | 56*   | ...  |  56+   |   ...   |  56* | 6  6
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+   2 |H. Stephens       |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |  --Book of the   |      |       |      |Turnips |         |      |
+     |  Farm            | 112  | 35    | ...  | 112    |   ...   |  ... | 6  0
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+   3 |J. Gibson, Woolmet|      |       |      |Potatoes|         |      |
+     |  --H. Soc. 1850  | ...  | 84    | ...  | 217+   |   217+  | 112  | 9  0
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+   4 |--Binnie,         |      |       |      | Barley |         | ad   |
+     |  Seaton          | ...  | 70*   |  28* | 243+   |    42+  | lib. |11  6
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+   5 |--Thomson,        |      |       |      |        |         | ad   |
+     |  Hangingside     | ...  | 84    |  14  | 336    |    14   | lib. | 9  6
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+   6 |W. C. Spooner,    |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |  Ag. Soc. Journ. |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |  vol. ix.        | ...  | 63    | ...  |  42    |   ...   | 196  | 4  9
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+   7 |T. Aitken,        | ad   |       |      |        |         | ad   |
+     |  Spalding,       | lib. |       |      |        |         | lib. |
+     |  Lincolnshire    | (2/3)| 37    |  35  | ...    |   ...   |(1/3) | 9  0
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+   8 |G. W. Baker,      |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |  Woburn,         |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |  Bedfordshire    | ...  | 60*   |  20* | ...    |   ...   | ...  | 9  8
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+   9 |R. Baker,         |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |  Writtle, Essex  |  70  | 42    | ...  | ...    |   ...   | 140  | 5  0
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  10 |J. Coleman,       |      |       |      |        |         | ad   |
+     |  Cirencester     | ...  | 84    |  16  | ...    |   ...   | lib. | 7  3
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  11 |T. P. Dods,       |      |       |      |        |         | ad   |
+     |  Hexham          | ...  | 95    | ...  |  56    |   ...   | lib. | 8  0
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  12 |J. Cobban,        |      |       |      |        | Linseed | ad   |
+     |  Whitfield       |  84* | 60*   | ...  | ...    |  3-1/2  | lib.*| 7  3
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  13 |S. Druce, jun.,   |      |       |      | Swedes |         | 2    |
+     |  Ensham          | 112  | 52    | ...  |  70    |   ...   | bu.* | 7  0
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |                  | ad   |       |      |        |         | ad   |
+  14 |C. Howard,        | lib. |       |      |        |         | lib. |
+     |  Biddenham       | (2/3)| 52    |  17  |  84    |   ...   | 1/3* | 8  6?
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  15 |J. J. Mechi,      |      |       |      |M.Wurzel|         | ad   |
+     |  Tiptree.        |  49* | 70*   | ...  | 210    |   ...   | lib.*| 7  6
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  16 |W. J. Pope,       |      |       |      |        |         | ad   |
+     |  Bridport        |   2* | 84    | ...  | ...    |   ...   | lib. | 9  0?
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  17 |S. Rich,          |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |  Didmarton,      |      |       |      |        | Grains  | ad   |
+     |  Gloucestershire | 168  | 63    | ...  | ...    | 2 bush. | lib. |10  8
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  18 |H. E. Sadler,     |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |  Lavant, Sussex  | 140  | 84    | ...  | ...    |   ...   | ...  | 9  9
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  19 |J. Morton,        |      |       |      |Carrots |         | ad   |
+     |  Whitfield Farm  | ...  |126    | ...  | 350    |   ...   | lib. |10  9
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  20 |E. H.  Sandford,  |      |       |      |        |  Bran   | ad   |
+     |  Dover           |  56  | 42    | ...  | ...    |    12   | lib. | 5  6
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  21 |A. Simpson,       |      |       |      |        |Tail Corn| ad   |
+     |  Beauly, N.B.    | ...  | 49    |   7  | 105    |    21   | lib.*| 5  6
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  22 |H. J. Wilson,     |      |       |      |        |  Bran   | ad   |
+     |  Mansfield       |  42  | 52-1/2| ...  | ...    |    21   | lib. | 6  6?
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  23 |F. Sowerby,       |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |  Aylesby, North  |      |       |      |        |         | ad   |
+     |  Lincolnshire    | 112  | 28    | Cut Oat Sheaf.|   ...   | lib.*| 8  0?
+  ---+------------------+------+-------+------+--------+---------+------+------
+  Where an asterisk (*) is attached to any item, it is to be understood
+  that the corn has been bruised or ground, or the hay or straw has been
+  cut into chaff. Where a dagger (+) is appended, the article so marked
+  has been boiled or steamed. A mark of interrogation (?) indicates that
+  the result so marked is uncertain, owing to some indefiniteness in the
+  account given.
+
+
+On feeding horses with pulped roots, Mr. Slater, of Weston Colville,
+Cambridgeshire, says:--
+
+    I give all my cart horses a bushel per day of pulped mangel, mixed
+    with straw and corn-chaff. I begin in September, and continue using
+    them all winter and until late in the summer, nearly, if not quite,
+    all the year round, beginning, however, with smaller quantities,
+    about a peck, and then half a bushel, the first week or two, as too
+    many of the young-growing mangel would not suit the stock. I believe
+    pulped mangels, with chaff, are the best, cheapest, and most healthy
+    food horses can eat. I always find my horses miss them when I have
+    none, late in the summer. I give them fresh ground every day. Young
+    store beasts, colts, &c., do well with them.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Footnote 20: Five pounds of linseed will make about seven gallons of
+gruel, and suffice for five good-sized calves; considerable allowance
+must, however, be made for differences of quality in the linseed, that
+from India not being gelatinous enough, and therefore boiling hard,
+instead of "coming down kindly."]
+
+[Footnote 21: "Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society," vol. xxxix.]
+
+[Footnote 22: From Mr. Horsfall's Essay on Dairy Management, in "Journal
+of Royal Agricultural Society," vol. xviii., part i.]
+
+
+
+
+PART IV.
+
+MEAT, MILK, AND BUTTER.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+MEAT.
+
+No one ought to feel a greater interest in the subject of meat in
+all its branches than the stock feeder. Just in proportion as this
+kind of food is agreeable to the taste, easily digestible, and rich in
+nutriment, will the demand for it increase. The quality of meat is, in
+fact, a primary consideration with the producer of that article; and he
+whose beef and mutton are the most tender and the best flavored will
+make the most profit.
+
+_Quality of Meat._--The flesh of herbivorous animals is composed of
+muscular and adipose (fatty) tissues. The muscles consist of bundles of
+elastic fibres (_fibrine_), enclosed in an albuminous tissue formed of
+little vessels, termed cells, and intimately commingled with water, and
+a mixture of albuminous, fatty, and saline matters. The leanest flesh
+(muscles) contains fat, but the latter accumulates in certain parts of
+the body--often to such an extent as to seriously interfere with the
+functions of life. The red color of flesh is due to a rather large
+proportion of blood, which it contains in minute vessels; and the slight
+acidity of its juice is owing to the presence of _inosinic_ acid, and
+probably of several other acids. The agreeable odour of meat, when it
+is subjected to the process of cooking, is developed from a complex
+substance termed _osmazome_.[23] This constituent varies in nature and
+quantity in the different animals--hence the variety in flavor and odour
+of their flesh--and its amount increases with the age of the animal.
+The albumen of the muscles, and their fatty and saline constituents,
+are digestible; but it is generally believed that the elastic fibres,
+and the horny cellular tissue which binds them into bundles, are not
+assimilable. It is more certain that the crystalline substances found in
+flesh, such as, for example, _kreatine_, are incapable of ministering to
+the nutrition of animals.
+
+The composition of flesh varies very much--that of a very obese pig
+containing more than half its weight of fat, whilst in some specimens
+of "jerked beef," imported from Monte Video, scarcely 5 per cent. of
+that substance was found. The flesh of a fat ox has on an average the
+following composition:--
+
+                                                 Per cent.
+
+  Water                                             45
+  Fatty substances                                  35
+  Lean flesh, or muscle                             15
+  Mineral matters                                    5
+                                                   ---
+            Total                                  100
+
+I have examined for Dr. Morgan several specimens of the corned beef
+recently prepared in South America, by "Morgan's process." The following
+were the average results of three analyses:--
+
+                                                 Per cent.
+
+  Water                                             40
+  Fatty matters                                     21
+  Lean, or muscular flesh                           27
+  Mineral matters (chiefly common salt)             12
+                                                   ---
+            Total                                  100
+
+It may not here be out of place to direct attention to the composition
+of a kind of animal food extensively purchased by the poorer classes,
+and known under the term of slink veal. It is the flesh of calves that
+are killed on the first day of their existence, and also, I have reason
+to believe, that of very immature animals--of calves that have never
+breathed. The flesh is of a very loose texture naturally, and is still
+further puffed out by air, which is usually supplied from the lungs of
+the operator. This kind of meat, though regarded as a delicacy by some
+people, is not held in much estimation, otherwise its price would be
+higher than it is. It is at present sold at about 4d. or 5d. per pound,
+sometimes even at a lower rate. Apart from the disgusting process of
+"blowing" veal, so generally adopted, the use of this food is extremely
+objectionable, owing to its great tendency to produce diarrhoea. To
+the truth of this assertion every physician who has studied the subject
+of dietetics can testify. I have analysed a specimen of it (purchased
+from a person who admitted that it was part of a calf a day old), and
+obtained the following results:--
+
+100 parts contain--
+
+                                                Per cent.
+
+  Water                                          72·25
+  Fat                                             6·17
+  Lean flesh                                     18·46
+  Mineral matter                                  3·12
+                                                ------
+  Total                                         100·00
+
+I believe that a large portion of the lean flesh is indigestible; and
+altogether I may safely say of this kind of meat that it is, especially
+during the prevalence of cholera, an unsafe article of diet. Of course
+these observations do not apply to _fed_ veal, the only kind which
+respectable butchers, as a rule, offer for sale.
+
+Young meat is richer in soluble albumen and poorer in fibrine and
+fat than the matured flesh of the same animal. The flesh of the goat
+contains _hircic_ acid, which renders it almost uneatable, but this
+substance is either altogether absent from, or present but in minute
+proportion in, the well-flavored meat of the kid. The flesh of game
+contains abundance of osmazome, a substance which is somewhat deficient
+in that of the domestic fowl.
+
+Owing to the marked individuality which man exhibits in the selection of
+his food, and to the intimate relationship subsisting between food and
+the organism it nourishes, it is impossible to arrange the alimental
+substances in the strict order of their nutritive values. You can bring
+a horse to the water, but you cannot compel him to drink it; you can
+swallow any kind of food you please, but you cannot force your stomach
+to digest it. It is, therefore, vain to tell a man that a certain kind
+of food is shown by chemical analysis to be nutritious, when his stomach
+tells him unmistakeably that it is poisonous, and refuses to digest it.
+In the matter of dietetics Nature is a safer guide than the chemist.
+Many substances, when viewed only in the light shed upon them by
+chemical analysis, appear to be rich in the elements of nutrition, yet
+when they are introduced into the stomachs of certain individuals, they
+disarrange the digestive organs, and sometimes cause the whole system to
+go out of order. Every day we see exemplified the truth of the proverb,
+that "one man's meat is another man's poison." There are persons who
+relish and readily digest fat pork, and yet they cannot eat a single
+egg with impunity; others enjoy and easily assimilate eggs, but their
+stomachs cannot tolerate a particle of fat bacon.
+
+It is not merely the composition of an aliment and its adaptability to
+the organism which determine its nutritive value--its digestibility
+and flavor are points which affect it. There are few people in these
+countries who are disposed to quarrel with beef; but no one would
+prefer the leg of an elderly milch cow to the sirloin of a well-fed
+three-year-old bullock: yet if our selection were to be determined by
+the analysis of the two kinds of beef, we would be just as likely to
+prefer the one as the other. No doubt the relative tenderness of meats
+may be ascertained by experiments conducted _outside_ the body; but
+tenderness is not in every case synonymous with easy digestibility.
+Veal contains more soluble albumen, and is, consequently, far more
+tender than beef; yet, as every one knows, it is less digestible. It is
+curious that maturity renders the flesh of some animals more digestible,
+and that of others less digestible. Flavor has something to do with
+these differences. Beef is richer than veal in the agreeably flavorous
+osmazome, and the flesh of the kid is destitute of the disagreeable
+odour of the fully-developed goat. The superiority of wild-fowl over the
+domesticated birds is solely owing to the finer flavor of their flesh.
+
+The habits of animals, and the nature of their food, affect the
+quality of their flesh. Exercise increases the amount of osmazome, and
+consequently renders the meat more savory. The mutton of Wicklow, Wales,
+and other mountainous regions is remarkably sweet, because the animals
+that furnish it are almost as nimble as goats, and skip from crag to
+crag in quest of their food. The fatty mutton, with pale muscle, which
+is so abundant in our markets, is furnished by very young animals forced
+prematurely into full development. Those animals have abundance of food
+placed within easy reach; their muscular activity is next to _nil_,
+and the result is, that their flesh contains less than its natural
+proportion of savory ingredients. It is the same with all other animals.
+The flesh of the tame rabbit is very insipid, whilst that of the wild
+variety is well flavored. Wild fowls cooped up, and rapidly fattened,
+lose their characteristic flavor; and when the domesticated birds become
+wild their flesh becomes less fatty, and acquires all the peculiarities
+of game. Ducks, whether wild or tame, ordinarily yield goodly meat;
+but the flesh of some of those that feed on fish smacks strongly of
+cod-liver oil. Birds which subsist partly on aromatic berries assimilate
+the odour as well as the nutriment of their food. The flesh of grouse
+has very commonly a slight flavor of heather. Foster states that in
+Tahiti pigs are fed upon fruit, which renders their fat very bland and
+their flesh like veal. Animals subjected to certain kinds of mutilation
+fatten more rapidly than they do in their natural state. Capons increase
+in weight more rapidly than cocks, poulards than hens, bullocks than
+bulls, and cows deprived of their ovaries than perfect cows. Why it is
+that the flesh of mutilated animals should be fatter and more tender
+than that of whole animals, we know not; we only know that such is the
+fact. The hunting of animals renders their flesh more tender; the cause
+assigned is, that the great exertion of the muscles liquefies their
+fibrine, which is the toughest of their constituents. The meat of
+animals brought very early to maturity is seldom so valuable as the
+naturally developed article. Lawes and Gilbert state that portions of
+a sheep that had been fattened upon _steeped_ barley and mangels, and
+which gave a very rapid increase, yielded several per cent. less of
+cooked meat, and lost more, both in dripping and by the evaporation of
+water, than the corresponding portions of a sheep which had been fed
+upon _dry_ barley and mangels, and which gave only about half the
+amount of gross increase within the same period of time.
+
+Although the digestibility and flavor of meat (and of every other kind
+of food) affect its nutritive value, these points are in general of far
+less importance than its composition. Potatoes are not so nutritious as
+peas, because they contain a smaller amount of fat and flesh-formers;
+but they are more digestible. Fish contains less solid matter than
+flesh, and is less nutritious, yet a cut of turbot will be, in general,
+more easily digested than an equal weight of old beef. The fact is, that
+digestibility and flavor are only of great importance to dyspeptic
+persons. In the healthy digestive organs a pound weight of (dry) food
+of inferior flavor and slow digestibility will be just as useful as the
+same weight of well-flavored and easily assimilable aliment, provided
+all other conditions be alike. If the food be eaten with a relish, and
+tolerated by the stomach, its digestibility will not, except in extreme
+cases, affect in a very sensible degree its nutritiveness.
+
+Were one question in animal nutrition satisfactorily answered, it
+would then be comparatively easy to arrange aliments in the order of
+their nutritive value. That question is--What are the proper relative
+proportions of the fat-forming and flesh-forming constituents of our
+food? It is constantly urged, that the food of the Irish peasantry
+contains an excess of the fat-forming materials in relation to the
+muscle-forming substances; and the remedy suggested is, that their
+staple article of food--potatoes--should be supplemented with flesh,
+peas, and such like substances, in which, it is supposed, the elements
+of nutrition are more fairly balanced. In potatoes, the proportion of
+fat-formers (calculated as fat) is about five times as much as that
+of the flesh-formers; but these principles exist in the same relative
+proportions in the fat bacon with which the potato-eater loves
+to supplement his bulky food. In bread we find the proportion of
+fat-formers to be only 2-1/2 times as much as that of the flesh-formers,
+whilst, according to Lawes and Gilbert, the edible portion of the
+carcass of a fat sheep contains 6-1/2 times as much fat as nitrogenous
+(flesh-forming) compounds. It is evident, then, that meat such as, for
+example, the beef recently imported from Monte Video, from which the
+fatty elements of nutrition are almost completely absent, cannot be
+a suitable adjunct to a farinaceous food.
+
+There is evidence to prove that in the animal food consumed by the
+population of these countries, the proportion of fatty to nitrogenous
+matters is greater than in the seeds of cereal and leguminous plants,
+and but little less than in potatoes. "It would appear to be
+unquestionable," say Lawes and Gilbert, "therefore, that the influence
+of our staple _animal foods_, to supplement our otherwise mainly
+farinaceous diet, is, on the large scale, to _reduce_, and _not to
+increase_, the relation of the _assumed_ flesh-forming material to the
+more peculiarly respiratory and fat-forming capacity, so to speak, of
+the food consumed." It must be remembered, too, that the fat _formers_
+are ready _formed_ in animal food, whereas they exist chiefly in the
+form of starch, gum, sugar, and such-like substances in vegetables.
+According to theory, 2-1/2 parts of starch are equivalent to, _i.e._,
+convertible into, 1 part of fat; but it is not certain whether the force
+which effects this change is derivable from the 2-1/2 parts of starch,
+or from the destruction of tissue, or of another portion of food. If
+there be a tax on the system in order to convert starch into fat, it
+is evident that 2-1/2 parts of starch, though convertible into, are not
+equivalent in nutritive value to one part of fat.
+
+It is quite certain that millions of healthy, vigorous men have
+subsisted for years exclusively on potatoes; but it is no less clear
+that a diet of meat and potatoes enables the laborer to work harder
+and longer than if his food were composed solely of potatoes. But we
+have seen that the relation between the flesh-forming and fat-forming
+elements is nearly the same in both potatoes and meat; so that the
+superiority of a meat or mixed diet cannot be chiefly owing, contrary to
+the generally received opinion, to a greater abundance of flesh-forming
+materials. As the proportion of flesh-formers to fat-formers is so much
+greater in wheaten or oaten bread than in potatoes, and as peas and
+other vegetables rich in nitrogenous compounds are practically found to
+be an excellent supplement to potatoes, it is probable that the latter
+may be somewhat relatively deficient in flesh-forming capacity. It is,
+however, in all probability the great bulk of a potato diet, and its
+total want of ready formed fat, that render the addition to it of animal
+food so very desirable. The concentrated state in which the ingredients
+of flesh exist, the intimate way in which they are intermixed, their
+agreeable flavor, and their (in general) ready and almost complete
+digestibility, appear to be the principal points in which a meat diet
+excels a vegetable regimen. There may be others, which, though less
+evident, are, perhaps, of equal importance. At all events, the general
+experience of mankind testifies to the superiority of a mixed animal
+and vegetable diet over a purely vegetable one.
+
+_Is very Fat Meat wholesome?_--The enormous and rapidly increasing
+demand for meat which characterises the food markets of these days,
+has reacted in a remarkable manner upon the nature of the animals that
+supply it. Formerly the animals that furnished pork, mutton, and beef,
+were allowed to attain the age of three years old and upwards before
+they were considered to be "ripe" for the butcher; but now sheep and pigs
+are perfectly _matured_ at the early age of one year, and two-year-old
+oxen furnish a large quota of the "roast beef of old England." The
+so-called improvement of stock is simply the forcing of them into an
+unnatural degree of fatness at an early age; and this end is attained
+by dexterous selection and crossing of breeds, by avoidance of cold, by
+diminishing as much as possible their muscular activity, and lastly,
+and chiefly, by over-feeding them with concentrated aliments.
+
+Every one knows that a man so obese as to be unable to walk cannot be
+in a healthy state; yet many feeders of stock look upon the monstrously
+fat bulls and cows of cattle show prize celebrity as normal types of the
+bovine tribe. It requires but little argument to refute so fallacious
+a notion. No doubt it is desirable to encourage the breeding of those
+varieties of animals which exhibit the greatest disposition to fatten,
+and to arrive early at maturity; but the forcing of individual animals
+into an unnatural state of obesity, except for purely experimental
+purposes, is a practice which cannot be too strongly deprecated. If
+breeders contented themselves with handing over to the butcher their
+huge living blocks of fat, the matter would not perhaps be very serious;
+but, unfortunately, it is too often the practice to turn them to account
+as sires and dams. Were I a judge at a cattle show, I certainly should
+disqualify every extremely fat animal entered for competition amongst
+the breeding stock. Unless parents are healthy and vigorous, their
+progeny are almost certain to be unhealthy and weakly; and it is
+inconceivable that an extremely obese bull and an unnaturally fat cow
+could be the progenitors of healthy offspring. We should by all means
+improve our live stock; but we should be careful not to overdo the
+thing. If we must have gaily-decked ponderous bulls and cows at our fat
+cattle exhibitions, let us condemn to speedy immolation those unhappy
+victims to a most absurd fashion; but in the name of common sense let
+us leave the perpetuation of the species to individuals in a normal
+state, whose muscles are not replaced by fat, whose hearts are not
+hypertrophied, and whose lungs are capable of effectively performing
+the function of respiration.
+
+Mr. Gant, in a small volume[24] devoted wholly to the subject, describes
+the serious functional and structural disarrangements which over-feeding
+produces in stock. He found the heart of a one-year old Southdown
+wether, fattened according to the _high-pressure system_, to be little
+more than a mass of fat. In several other young, but so-called "matured"
+sheep, he found more or less fatty degeneration of the heart, and
+extensively spread disease of the liver and of the lungs. A four-year
+old Devon heifer, exhibited by the late Prince Consort at a Smithfield
+show, was found to be in a highly diseased state. It was slaughtered,
+and of course its flesh sold at a high price as "prize beef," but its
+internal organs came into Mr. Gant's possession. The substance of both
+ventricles of the heart had undergone all but complete conversion into
+fat; one of its muscles was broken up, and many of the fibres of the
+others were ruptured. In another animal the muscular fibres of the
+heart had given way to so great an extent that if the thin lining
+membrane (_endocardium_) had burst, death would have instantly ensued.
+The slightest exertion was likely to cause this catastrophe; but,
+fortunately enough in this case, the animal was not capable of exertion,
+for though under three years of age, it weighed upwards of 200 stones:
+this animal had received for some time before its exhibition, the
+liberal allowance of 21 lbs. of oil-cake (besides other food) per diem.
+"A pen of three pigs," says Mr. Gant, "belonging to his Royal Highness
+the Prince Consort, happened to be placed in a favorable light for
+observation, and I particularly noticed their condition. They lay
+helpless on their sides, with their noses propped up against each
+other's backs, as if endeavouring to breathe more easily, but their
+respiration was loud, suffocating, and at long intervals. Then you heard
+a short catching snore, which shook the whole body of the animal, and
+passed with the motion of a wave over its fat surface, which, moreover,
+felt cold. I thought how much the heart under such circumstances must
+be laboring to propel the blood through the lungs and throughout the
+body. The gold medal pigs of Mr. Moreland were in a similar condition,
+if anything, worse; for they snored and gasped for breath, their mouths
+being opened, as well as their nostrils dilated, at each inspiration.
+From a pig we only expect a grunt, but not a snore. These animals,
+only twelve months and ten days old, were marked '_improved_ Chilton
+breed.' They, with their fellows just mentioned, of eleven months and
+twenty-three days, had early come to grief. Three pigs of the black
+breed were in a similar state, at seven months three weeks and five
+days, yet such animals 'the judges highly commended.'"
+
+Dr. Brinton denies the accuracy of several of Mr. Gant's statements
+relative to the structural changes in the muscles of obese animals;
+but I do not think that he has succeeded in disproving the principal
+assertions made by the latter.
+
+There is conclusive evidence to prove that one of the effects of the
+present mode of fattening beasts is disease of the internal organs
+of the animals; but it is by no means certain that the flesh of those
+diseased animals is as unwholesome food as some writers assert it to
+be. The flesh of an over-fattened animal differs from that of a lean, or
+moderately fat one, in containing an exceedingly high proportion of fat;
+but it has not been proved that the fat of prize animals differs from
+the fat of lean kine, or that it is less wholesome or nutritious. Be the
+flesh of those exceedingly fat animals unwholesome or not, there are
+thousands, ay, millions of persons, to whom its greasy quality renders
+it peculiarly acceptable; and as for those who dislike fat--they do
+not usually invest their money in the flesh of prize sheep or oxen.
+At the same time, it must not be understood that all, or even a large
+proportion of fully matured stock is in a diseased state; though in most
+of them the vital and muscular powers are undoubtedly exceedingly low.
+
+There is no doubt but that sheep and oxen, from three to five years old,
+moderately fat, and fairly exercising their locomotive powers, furnish
+the most savory, and, perhaps, the most nutritious meat: but if such
+were the only kind of meat in demand, it may be fairly doubted that the
+supply would be equal to it. The produce of meat in these countries has
+been rapidly increasing for many years past; and the weight of meat
+annually supplied from a given area of land is now from 80 to 100 per
+cent. greater than it furnished thirty or forty years ago. It is chiefly
+by means of the so-called forcing system that the produce of meat has
+been so considerably increased. If this system were abandoned, the
+production would be greatly diminished, and the consequently high price
+of the article would place it beyond the reach of the masses of the
+population. Besides, it has not been proved that the flesh of the
+animals brought early to maturity is much inferior, except somewhat in
+flavor, to the meat of three-year-old beasts. There is, no doubt, plenty
+of unwholesome meat offered for sale, but it is that of animals which
+were affected by diseases as likely to attack the young as the old. On
+the whole, then, we may say of the improved system of fattening stock,
+that it produces a maximum amount of meat on a given area of land; that
+the meat so produced is, except in rare cases, perfectly wholesome; that
+it is capable of supplying the ingredient--fat--which is almost wholly
+absent from a vegetable diet; and, finally, that it places animal food
+within the reach of the working classes.
+
+_Diseased Meat._--The losses occasioned to stockowners by the diseases
+of live stock are far greater than is generally supposed. It has been
+calculated that in the six years ending 1860, the value of the horned
+stock lost by disease amounted to £25,934,650. Pleuro-pneumonia was the
+chief cause of these losses. Exclusive of the enormous losses occasioned
+by the ravages of the rinderpest, the annual loss by disease in live
+stock in these countries for some years past cannot be much under
+£6,000,000 sterling.
+
+Whether it is owing to the somewhat abnormal condition under which the
+domesticated animals are placed, or to causes which operate upon them
+when in a state of nature, it is certain that they are remarkably prone
+to disease. It is extremely difficult to get a horse six years old that
+is not a roarer or a whistler, or "weak on his pins," or in some way or
+other unsound. Oxen, sheep, and pigs have almost as many maladies
+afflicting them as human flesh is heir to, notwithstanding the short
+period of life which they are permitted to enjoy.
+
+It is a very serious question whether or not the flesh of animals that
+have been killed while they are in a diseased condition is injurious to
+health. The opinions on this point are conflicting, but the majority of
+medical men believe that the flesh of diseased animals is not wholesome.
+There are certain maladies which obviously render meat unsaleable, by
+causing a sensible alteration in its quality. For example, blackleg
+in cattle and measles in the porcine tribe render the flesh of these
+animals, as a general rule, unmarketable, or nearly so. But there are
+very serious diseases--often proving rapidly fatal--which, whilst
+seriously affecting certain internal organs, do not palpably deteriorate
+the quality of the flesh. In such cases are we to rely upon the evidence
+of our mere senses in judging of the wholesomeness of the meat? If we
+find beef possessing a good color and odour, and firm to the touch, and
+_appearing_ to be in every respect healthy flesh, are we under such
+circumstances to take it for granted that it must be healthy? This is a
+very important question, involving as it does the interests of both the
+producers and consumers of animal food. If the flesh of all diseased
+animals be unwholesome, a very large number of oxen now sold whilst
+laboring under pleuro-pneumonia should not be sent into the market.
+This, of course, would be a heavy loss to the stockowner, but a still
+heavier one to the meat consumer; because, if there were fewer animals
+for sale, the price of meat would ascend, in obedience to the law of
+supply and demand. The whole question is, then, well worthy of being
+considered in the most careful, unbiassed, and scientific manner; for
+at present it is in a state which is the reverse of being satisfactory.
+
+A large proportion of the animals conducted to the shambles is in a
+diseased condition. Professor Gamgee estimates it at no less than
+one-fifth. Dr. Letheby, food analyst to the Corporation of London,
+condemns weekly about 2,000 pounds weight of flesh; but as his
+jurisdiction is limited to the "City," which contains a population of
+only about 114,000, the 2,000 pounds of diseased meat are probably only
+about 1-30th of the quantity exposed for sale within the whole area of
+the metropolis. Making an estimate of the most moderate kind, we may
+assume that 30,000 pounds weight of bad meat are weekly offered for
+sale in London--_three million pounds weight annually_.
+
+Many persons have been affected with dysentery and choleraic symptoms
+after partaking of butcher's meat of apparently the most healthy kind.
+The meat has often been subjected to minute chemical and microscopical
+examination, but no poison has been discovered. But these cases are
+becoming so frequent that they are exciting uneasiness, and demand an
+exhaustive investigation. The unskilful persons who officiate in the
+capacity of "clerks of the market" and inspectors of meat can only judge
+of the quality of flesh that is obviously inferior to the eye, nose, or
+touch; but are there not cases where the flesh may appear to be good,
+and yet contain some subtle malign principle? It is an ascertained fact
+that young or "slink" veal very frequently gives rise to diarrhoea,
+more especially when that disease is epidemic. Dr. Parkes, in his
+celebrated work on Hygiene, page 162 (second edition), states that
+"the flesh of the pig sometimes produced diarrhoea--a fact I have had
+occasion to notice in a regiment in India, and which has often been
+noticed by others. The flesh is, probably, affected by the unwholesome
+garbage on which the pig feeds." Menschell states that 44 persons were
+afflicted with anthrax after eating the flesh of oxen affected with
+carbuncular fever. Dr. Kesteren, in the _Medical Times_ for March, 1864,
+mentions a case where twelve persons were affected with choleraic
+symptoms after the use of pork not obviously diseased. At Newtownards,
+county of Down, several persons died after eating veal in which no
+poisonous matter of any kind could be detected. One instance has come
+under my own notice where a man, two dogs, and a pig died after eating
+the flesh of an animal killed whilst suffering from splenic apoplexy.
+Several butchers have lost their lives in consequence of the blood of
+diseased animals being allowed to come in contact with abrasions or
+recently received wounds on their arms. The flesh of over-driven animals
+is stated by Professor Gamgee to produce a most serious skin disease,
+although the meat appeared to be perfectly healthy. The Belgian Academy
+of Medicine has decided that the flesh of animals suffering from
+carbuncular fever is unwholesome, and its sale in that country is
+prohibited.
+
+Many persons have died in Germany and a few in England from a disease
+produced by eating pork containing a small internal parasite termed
+_trichina spiralis_. I have recently met with a case of _trichiniasis_
+in the human subject. The body of the unfortunate person--who had
+been an inmate of the South Dublin Union Workhouse--was found to
+contain thousands of the trichinæ. In Iceland a large proportion of
+the population suffers from a parasitic disease traceable to the use
+of the flesh of sheep and cattle in which flukes abound.
+
+Pleuro-pneumonia is in this country the disease which most frequently
+affects the ox. It is probable that about 5 per cent. of these animals
+sold in Dublin are more or less affected by this malady. There are two
+forms of pleuro-pneumonia--the sporadic, or indigenous, and the foreign,
+or contagious. It is the latter form which has become the scourge of the
+ox tribe in this country, though unknown here until the year 1841, when
+it appeared as an epizoötic, and carried off vast numbers of animals.
+
+The contagious pleuro-pneumonia is an extremely severe inflammatory
+disease, and is produced--not in the same way that common pleuro-pneumonia
+is, by exposure to excessive cold, &c.--but by a blood poison received
+from an infected animal. In the congestive stage of the disease there is
+no structural alteration in the organs of the animal, and if well bled
+its flesh might (probably) be safely eaten; but when a large portion of
+the lungs becomes solidified, and rendered incapable of purifying the
+blood, is it not doubtful, to say the least, that the blood or flesh is
+perfectly wholesome? The blood, during the life of the animal, is in a
+state of fermentation; there is extreme fever, and the animal presents
+all the characteristic symptoms of acute disease. On being killed, the
+flesh, if the disease be of a fortnight's duration, will usually be
+extremely dark, but in a less advanced stage of the malady the flesh
+will generally present a healthy appearance. Is it really so? That
+is the question which science has to determine. Going upon a broad
+principle, I can hardly conceive that so serious a disease as
+pleuro-pneumonia does not injuriously affect the quality of the flesh.
+It is no argument to say that thousands consume such flesh, and yet
+enjoy good health. Millions of people drink water and breathe air that
+are extremely impure, and yet they do not speedily die. It is one thing
+to be poisonous, another to be unwholesome. The flesh of animals killed
+whilst suffering from lung distemper is not directly poisonous, but who
+can prove that it is not, like bad water, unwholesome?
+
+As analyst to the city of Dublin, I am almost daily called upon to
+inspect meat suspected to be unwholesome; and I have always condemned
+as being unfit for human food:--
+
+    1. Animals slaughtered at the time of bringing forth their young.
+
+    2. Oxen affected with pleuro-pneumonia, when pus is present in the
+       lungs, or the flesh obviously affected; animals suffering from
+       murrain, black-quarter, and the different forms of anthrax.
+
+    3. Animals in an anæmic, or wasted condition.
+
+    4. Meat in a state of putrefaction.
+
+During the present year about 20,000 pounds weight of meat have been
+seized and condemned in the city of Dublin.
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+MILK.
+
+Milk is a peculiar fluid secreted by the females of all animals
+belonging to the class _Mammalia_; and, being designed for the
+nourishment of their offspring, contains all the constituents which
+enter into the composition of the animal body.
+
+The milk of different animals varies very much in color, taste, and
+nutritive value. That of the cow is a little heavier than water--its
+specific gravity being, on the average, about 1·030, water being
+1·000. It is composed of three constituents--namely, butter, curd, and
+whey--each of which is also composed of a number of substances. These
+three constituents are of unequal weight, or specific gravity, and their
+separation is the chief process carried on in the dairy. The butter is
+the lightest and the curd is the heaviest constituent.
+
+The following table represents the composition of the milk of different
+animals:--
+
+  COMPOSITION OF THE MILK OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS.
+
+  1,000 PARTS CONTAIN--
+
+  ------+---------+--------+------------+--------+-------+-------+-------
+        | Specific|        |            |        |       |       |
+        | Gravity,| Water. |   Solid    | Cheesy | Sugar.|Butter.|Mineral
+        |   or    |        |Ingredients.| Matter.|       |       |Matter.
+        | Density.|        |            |        |       |       |
+  ------+---------+--------+------------+--------+-------+-------+-------
+  Woman | 1032·67 | 889·08 |   110·92   |  39·30 | 43·68 | 26·66 | 1·30
+  Cow   | 1030    | 864·20 |   135·80   |  48·80 | 47·70 | 31·30 | 6·00
+  Goat  | 1033·53 | 844·90 |   155·10   |  35·14 | 36·91 | 56·87 | 6·18
+  Ewe   | 1040·98 | 832·32 |   167·68   |  69·78 | 39·43 | 51·31 | 7·16
+  Mare  | 1033·74 | 904·30 |    95·70   |  33·35 | 32·76 | 24·36 | 5·23
+  Ass   | 1034·57 | 890·12 |   109·88   |  35·65 | 50·46 | 18·53 | 5·24
+  Bitch | 1041·62 | 772·08 |   227·92   | 116·88 | 15·29 | 87·95 | 7·80
+  ------+---------+--------+------------+--------+-------+-------+-------
+
+Milk examined through a microscope is a colorless fluid, containing a
+large number of little vesicles, or bags, filled with butter--a mixture
+of oily and fatty matters. When the milk stands for some time, the
+globules, being lighter than the other constituents, ascend to the top,
+and, mixed with a certain proportion of milk, are removed as cream.
+The curd is termed in scientific parlance _casein_, and is in fresh milk
+in a state of solution--that is to say, is dissolved in milk in the same
+way that we dissolve sugar in water. When milk becomes sour, either
+naturally or by the addition of rennet, it can no longer hold casein in
+solution, and the curd consequently separates. Casein is the substance
+which forms the basis of cheese. The substance that remains after the
+removal of the butter and cheese is called _serum_, or whey, and is
+composed of a sweetish substance termed _sugar of milk_, and certain
+saline bodies, termed the ash, dissolved in water.
+
+The butter and the sugar of milk are employed in the animal economy in
+the production of fat, and are what have been styled by physiologists
+_heat-producers_ and _fat-formers_. The casein resembles the gluten of
+wheat in composition; it belongs to the class of food substances termed
+_flesh-formers_. The ash, or mineral part of the milk, is chiefly
+employed in forming the bones of the young animals it is destined to
+nourish.
+
+The quality of milk is influenced by the quantity and quality of the
+food given to the animal. The milk of cows fed on distillery wash,
+turnip, and mangel tops, coarse herbage, and other kinds of inferior
+food, is always of inferior quality. Hence it is of great importance
+that dairy stock be kept in good old pastures in summer, and fed on
+Swedish turnips, mangel-wurtzel, and oil-cake during winter. It is true
+economy to supply dairy cows with abundance of nutritious food; and it
+should be constantly borne in mind that the milk from two well-fed cows
+will give more butter than can be obtained from the produce of three
+badly-fed animals.
+
+The butter is the constituent of milk which is most affected by the
+nature and amount of the animal's food; and butter is precisely the
+article which is of the greatest importance to the Irish dairy farmer,
+as the quantity of cheese prepared in this country is inconsiderable.
+When, therefore, it is found that a cow pastured on inferior land, or
+badly fed in the byre, yields a large supply of milk of a high specific
+quantity (which, however, is rarely the case), it must not be concluded
+that the result is satisfactory; for if such milk be tested by the
+lactometer it will certainly be found wanting in butter. The average
+composition of English milk, according to Way, is:--
+
+  Water                                87·02
+  Butter                                3·23
+  Casein                                4·48
+  Sugar of milk                         4·67
+  Ash                                   0·60
+                                      ------
+                                      100·00
+
+In several analyses of milk published by Professor Voelcker, the highest
+proportion of butter is stated to be 7·62. In that of cows kept on
+poor and over-stocked pastures less than 2 per cent. was found. I have
+examined in my capacity of Food Analyst to the City of Dublin several
+hundred samples of milk, in not one of which have I found the proportion
+of butter to amount to more than 5·6 per cent. In no sample did I find
+a higher per-centage of solid matter than 13·15, or (when pure) lower
+than 12·08. The quality of the food of the milch cow exercises a great
+influence on the quality and yield of her milk. Aliments rich in fat and
+sugar favor the production of butter, and augment the supply of milk.
+Locust-beans, malt, and molasses are good milk-producing foods; but the
+chief condition in the production of milk rich in butter is simply that
+the animals which yield it must be fed with abundance of nutritious
+food. Nor must it be supposed that the richness of milk is due to the
+smallness of the yield, for whenever the quality of the secretion is
+inferior, it is almost certain to be deficient in quantity. Those cows
+which give the richest milk, generally yield the largest quantity.
+
+_Yield of Milk._--According to Boussingault, a cow daily yields on the
+average 10·4 parts of milk per 1,000 parts of her weight. Morton, in his
+"Cyclopædia of Agriculture," p. 621, states that Mr. Young, a Scotch
+dairy keeper, obtained 680 gallons per cow per annum. Voelcker found
+that some common dairy stock gave each of them fifty-two pints of milk
+per diem, whilst three pedigree cows yielded respectively forty-nine
+pints.
+
+Professor Wilson gives the following information on this point:--
+
+    Our principal dairy breeds are the Ayrshire, the Channel Islands,
+    the Short-horn, the Suffolk, and the Kerry. Some published returns
+    of two dairies of Ayrshire cows give the annual milk produce per
+    cow at 650 and 632 gallons respectively. Three returns of dairies,
+    consisting wholly of Short-horns, show a produce of 540 gallons,
+    630 gallons, and 765 gallons respectively, or an average of 625
+    gallons per annum for each cow. In two dairies, where half-bred
+    Short-horns were kept, the yield was 810 and 866 gallons
+    respectively for each cow. In four dairies in Ireland, where pure
+    Kerrys and crosses with Short-horns and Ayrshires were kept, the
+    annual produce per cow was returned at 500 gallons, 600 gallons,
+    675 gallons, and 740 gallons respectively; or an average, on the
+    four dairies, of 630 gallons per annum for each cow. A dairy of
+    "pure Kerrys" gave an average of 488 gallons per cow, and another
+    of the larger Irish breed gave an average of 583 gallons per head
+    per annum. In the great London dairies, now well-nigh extinguished
+    by the ravages of the cattle disease, these returns are greatly
+    exceeded. The cows kept are large framed Short-horns and Yorkshire
+    crosses, which, by good feeding, bring the returns to nearly
+    1,000 gallons per annum for each cow kept. The custom in these
+    establishments is to dispose of a cow directly her milk falls
+    below two gallons a-day, and buy another in her place.
+
+    The following milk return of one of our best managed dairy farms
+    (Frocester Court) shows the relative produce of cows in the
+    successive years of their milking. The first lot was bought in
+    at two-years old; all the others at three years:--
+
+    No. of Cows.    Year of Milk.    Produce per head.
+
+        8               1st             317 gals.
+       15               1st             472  "
+       14               2nd             353  "
+       15               3rd             616  "
+       20               4th             665  "
+       18               5th             635  "
+        9               6th             708  "
+       15               Old             651  "
+
+    The maximum reliable milk produce that we have recorded was that
+    of a single cow belonging to the keeper of the gaol at Lewes, the
+    details of which were authenticated by the Board of Agriculture.
+    In eight consecutive years she gave 9,720 gallons, or at the rate
+    of more than 1,210 gallons per annum. In one year she milked 328
+    days, and gave 1,230 gallons, which yielded 540 lbs. of butter,
+    or at the rate of 1 lb. of butter to 22-3/4 lb. of milk. In the
+    early part of the present year (1866) a return was published of
+    the produce of a cow in a Vermont (U.S.) dairy, which was stated
+    to have given, in the previous year, a butter yield of 504 lbs.,
+    at the rate of 1 lb. of butter to 20 lbs. of milk.[25]
+
+
+_Preserved Milk._--Various plans have been proposed to render milk more
+portable, and to preserve it sweet for days and even months. Mr. Borden
+of Connecticut, United States, prepares a concentrated milk by boiling
+the fluid down in vacuo, at a temperature under 140° Fahrenheit, mixing
+the resulting solid with sugar, and rapidly placing the compound in
+tins, which are then hermetically sealed. It is said that solidified
+milk prepared by this process remains sweet for many months. In France,
+solidified and concentrated milk are largely prepared; and it is certain
+that London and other large towns will yet be supplied with milk
+rendered portable and more stable, by the removal of a large proportion
+of its water. In many parts of Ireland pure milk could be bought at from
+7d. to 8d. per gallon. I do not despair to see factories established in
+such places for the manufacture of preserved milk as a substitute for
+the dear and impure fluid sold under the name of milk in London and
+other large cities. It is stated that solidified milk prepared in
+Switzerland is now sold in London.
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+BUTTER.
+
+_History of Butter._--The very general use of butter as an article of
+food is demonstrated by the familiar saying--"We should not quarrel with
+our bread and butter"; yet this article, now so commonly used throughout
+the greater part of Europe, was either unknown or but imperfectly known
+to the ancients. In the English translation of the Holy Scriptures the
+word butter does certainly frequently occur; but the Hebrew original
+is _chamea_, which, according to the most eminent Biblical critics,
+signifies cream, or thick, sour milk. In the 20th chapter of Job the
+following passage occurs:--"He shall not see the rivers, the floods, the
+brooks of honey and butter." Now, we can conceive streams of thin cream,
+but we cannot imagine a river of butter. The oldest mention of butter
+is found in the works of Herodotus. In the description of the Scythians
+given by this ancient author, reference is made to their practice of
+violently shaking the milk of their mares, for the purpose of causing a
+solid fatty matter to ascend to its surface, which, when removed from
+the milk, they considered a delicious article of food. Hippocrates, who
+wrote a little later than Herodotus, describes, but in clearer language,
+the manufacture of butter by the Scythians; he also alludes to the
+preparation of cheese by the same people. The word, butter, does not
+occur in any of Aristotle's writings, and although mention is made of it
+in the works of Anaxandrides, Plutarch, and Ælian, it is evident that
+they considered it only in the light of a curious substance, employed
+partly as an article of food, partly as a medicinal salve, by certain
+barbarous nations. About the second or third century, butter was but
+little known to the Greeks and Romans, and there is no reason to believe
+that it was ever generally used as an article of food by the classic
+nations of antiquity; it is noteworthy, that the inhabitants of the
+south of Europe even at the present time use butter in very small
+quantities, which, indeed, is often sold for medicinal purposes in the
+apothecaries' shops in Italy, Spain, and Portugal. From the foregoing
+statements it is evident that the butter manufacture can lay no claim to
+a classic origin; but that it took its rise in the countries of savage,
+of semi-civilised, and barbarous nations. It is probable that the Greeks
+were made acquainted with butter by the Thracians, Phrygians, and
+Scythians; and that the knowledge of this substance was conveyed to
+Rome by visitors from Germany. During the middle ages the practice of
+butter-making spread throughout Northern, Central, and Western Europe;
+but in many parts the commodity was very scarce and highly valued,
+notwithstanding its being almost, if not quite, in a semi-fluid state,
+instead of possessing the firm consistence of the butter of the present
+day.
+
+_Irish Butter._--Butter is produced in such large quantities in Ireland
+that, after the home demand has been supplied, there remains a large
+excess--so considerable, indeed, as to constitute one of the more
+important of our few commercial staples. The precise quantity of butter
+which, during late years, has been annually exported from Ireland is
+unknown. The greater part of the commodity is sent to trans-Channel
+ports; and, there being no duty on butter in the cross-Channel trade
+since 1826, we have no means of accurately estimating the amount of our
+exports to Great Britain. If, however, we refer to the statistics of our
+commerce for the period beginning in 1787, and ending in 1826, we shall
+find that the exportation of butter was enormous, and that a large
+proportion of that commodity consumed by the army and navy was supplied
+from the dairies of Ireland. During the three years ended on the 5th of
+January, 1826, the average annual amount of butter exported was as
+follows:--
+
+                                    cwts.
+
+  To Great Britain                 441,226
+  To foreign countries              51,637
+
+Of late years the exportation to foreign and colonial countries has
+fallen off; still the export trade is very considerable, probably
+amounting to 450,000 cwts. per annum. During the year 1867, the imports
+of foreign butter into Great Britain amounted to 1,142,262 cwts.
+
+I have quoted the above statistics for the purpose of demonstrating
+the great importance of the butter trade to this country. Not only is a
+large proportion of the agricultural community pecuniarily interested in
+the production of this article, but the exportation is the chief cause
+of the commercial prosperity of a city, which, in point of population,
+ranks third in the kingdom. If butter, then, be an article of so much
+importance, it is obvious that the greatest care should be taken in its
+preparation, and that the efforts of both scientific and practical men
+should be directed towards the best mode of improving its quality. If
+the principles involved in the production of butter were thoroughly
+understood, and generally known, I believe that such terms as "seconds,"
+"thirds," and "fourths," would speedily fall into disuse; that there
+would be only one kind of butter sent into the market; and that the
+article would always be of the best quality, in other words, "firsts."
+
+_Composition of Butter._--The composition and quality of butter depend
+to a great extent upon the condition of the milk or cream from which it
+is prepared, and on the skill and cleanliness of the dairy-maid. It
+consists essentially of fatty and oily matters, but it is always found
+in combination with casein (cheesy matter) and water. The following
+analyses, made by Mr. Way, late consulting chemist to the Royal
+Agricultural Society of England, shows its composition:--
+
+  INGREDIENTS PER CENT.
+
+                        1.      2.      3.
+
+  Fatty matters       82·70   79·67   79·12
+  Casein               2·45    3·38    3·37
+  Water               14·85   16·95   17·51
+
+No. 1 analysis shows the composition of a specimen obtained from the
+well-known Mr. Horsfall's dairy. It was made from raw cream. The other
+specimens were the produce of a Devonshire dairy, and were prepared from
+scalded cream. In several specimens of well-made and unsalted Irish
+butter which I have analysed, I found the proportion of casein or cheesy
+matter never to exceed 1 per cent., whilst in the analysis above stated
+the centesimal amount is on the average more than 3 per cent.
+
+The fatty matter is composed of two substances--one, a solid, termed
+_margarin_; the other fluid, and styled by chemists _elaine_. The solid
+fat is identical in composition with the solid fat of the human body.
+The elaine is peculiar to milk, but it differs very slightly from
+_olein_, or fluid fat. The relative proportions of the fluid and solid
+fats vary with the seasons. According to Braconnot, the solid fat forms
+in summer 40 per cent. of the butter, but in winter the proportion rises
+to 65. This decrease in the proportion of the liquid fat in winter is
+the cause of the greater hardness of the butter in that season, which is
+often incorrectly attributed solely to the cold.
+
+The cheesy and acid matters contained in butter are by no means
+essential; on the contrary, if it were quite free from them, it might
+be retained with little or no salt for a very long period without
+becoming rancid. The cheesy matter contains nitrogen; and nearly all
+the substances into which this element enters as a constituent are
+remarkably prone to decomposition. Yeast, and ferments of every
+kind--gunpowder, fulminating silver, chloride of nitrogen--and almost
+every explosive compound, contain this element. The cheesy matter is
+a very nitrogenous body, and in presence of air and moisture not only
+rapidly decomposes, or decays, itself, but induces by mere contact a
+like state of decomposition in other substances--such, for instance, as
+fat, sugar, and starch, which naturally have no tendency to change their
+state. Bearing the foregoing facts in mind, it is obvious that the chief
+precautions to be observed in the manufacture of butter are:--Firstly,
+to separate to as great an extent as practicable the casein from the
+butter; and, secondly, as in practice a small portion of the curd
+remains in the butter, to prevent it from undergoing any change--at
+least for a prolonged period. How these desiderata may best be
+accomplished I shall now proceed to point out.
+
+_The Butter Manufacture._--The theory of the process of churning is very
+simple. By violently agitating the milk or cream the little vesicles, or
+bags containing the butter, are broken, and, the fatty matter adhering,
+_lumps of butter_ are formed. The operation of churning also introduces
+atmospheric air into the milk, which, aided by the high temperature to
+which the fluid is raised, converts a portion of the _sweet_ sugar of
+milk into the _sour_ lactic acid. By the alteration produced in this way
+in the composition of the milk, it is no longer capable of holding the
+casein in solution, and the curd therefore separates.
+
+The churn and other vessels in which the milk is placed cannot be kept
+too clean. No amount of labor bestowed on the scalding and scrubbing
+of the vessels is excessive. When wood is the material used in the
+milk-pans the utmost care should be taken in cleaning them, as the
+porous nature of the material favors the retention of small quantities
+of the milk. A simple washing will not suffice to clean such vessels.
+They must be thoroughly scrubbed and afterwards well scalded with
+_boiling_ water. Tin pans are preferable to wooden ones, as they are
+more easily cleaned, but in their turn they are inferior to glass
+vessels, which ought to supersede every other kind. Earthenware, lead,
+and zinc pans are in rather frequent use. The last-mentioned material
+is easily acted upon by the lactic acid of the sour milk, and is,
+therefore, objectionable. It is a matter of great importance that the
+dairy should not be situated near a pig-stye, sewer, or water-closet,
+the effluvia from which would be likely to taint the milk. It is
+surprising how small a quantity of putrescent matter is sufficient
+to taint a whole churn of milk; and as it has been demonstrated that
+the almost inappreciable emanations from a cesspool are capable of
+conferring a bad flavor on milk, it is in the highest degree important
+to remove from the churn and milk-pail every trace of the sour milk. I
+go further, it is even desirable that no one whose hands have a tendency
+to perspire should be allowed to manipulate in the dairy; and it should
+be constantly borne in mind that the dairy-maid's fingers and hot water
+should be on the most intimate visiting terms.
+
+Butter is made either from cream--sour and sweet--or from whole milk
+which has stood sufficiently long to become distinctly sour. It is
+asserted by some makers that butter prepared from whole milk, or
+from scalded cream, contains a large proportion of curd. If this be
+true--which I greatly doubt--it is a serious matter, for such butter
+would speedily become rancid in consequence of the casein acting as
+a ferment. I believe that experience points to an exactly opposite
+conclusion. From the results of careful inquiries I feel no hesitation
+in asserting that the butter should not be made from the cream, but from
+the _whole milk_. When made from the cream alone it is much more likely
+to acquire a bad taste, and is generally wanting in keeping qualities.
+I have no doubt but that in the process of churning the whole milk there
+is a large amount of lactic acid formed, and a much higher temperature
+attained, than in the churning of cream; consequently, the separation of
+caseous matter must be more perfectly effected in the former than in the
+latter case. It is a mistake to think that there is very little casein
+in cream: out of 7 or 8 lbs. of thick cream only a couple of pounds of
+butter are obtainable; the rest is made up of water, casein, and sugar
+of milk. The yield of butter is greater when the whole milk is churned
+than when the cream alone is operated upon, and, what is of great
+importance, the quality of the butter is uniform during the whole year.
+The labor of churning whole milk is, of course, much greater than if the
+cream alone were employed, but the increased yield and unvarying quality
+of the butter more than compensate for the extra expenditure of labor.
+
+The proper temperature of the milk or cream is a point of great
+practical importance. If the fluid be too warm or too cold the buttery
+particles will only by great trouble be made to cohere; and the quality
+of the butter is almost certain to be inferior. When the whole milk
+is operated on, the temperature should be from 55 to 60 degs. of
+Fahrenheit's thermometer; and if cream be employed the temperature
+should never exceed 55 degs. nor be lower than 50 degs. Hence it follows
+that in summer the dairy should be kept cooler, and in winter warmer,
+than the atmosphere. The temperature of milk is raised or lowered as may
+be found necessary, by the addition of hot or cold water--in performing
+which operations properly, a good thermometer is indispensable; one
+should always be kept in the dairy, and should be so constructed as to
+admit of being plunged into the milk. In some dairies the water, instead
+of being mixed with the milk, is put into a tub in which the churn is
+placed. There is a good kind of churn, which consists of two cylinders,
+the one within the other--the interval between them being intended for
+the reception of hot or cold water. The influence of temperature upon
+the production of butter has been placed beyond all doubt by numerous
+carefully-conducted experiments. Mr. Horsfall, a celebrated dairy
+farmer, in discussing this question, sums up as follows:--"By a series
+of carefully-conducted experiments at varying temperatures, I am of
+opinion that a correct scale of the comparative yield of butter at
+different temperatures might be arrived at; as thus: From a very low
+degree of temperature little or no butter; from a temperature of about
+38 degs., 16 oz. from 16 quarts of milk; ditto, 45 degs., 21 oz. from 16
+quarts of milk; ditto, 55 degs., 26 to 27 oz. from 16 quarts of milk."
+This is a higher yield of butter than, I suspect, most dairymen get: but
+Mr. Horsfall's cows being of the best kind for milking, and well fed,
+the milk is, of course, rich in butter; and his experiments prove that
+even the richest milk will not throw up its butter unless at a certain
+temperature.
+
+In the churning of cream the motion should be slow at first until the
+cream is thoroughly broken up. In churning milk the agitation should
+neither be violent nor irregular; about 40 or 50 motions of the plunger
+or board per minute will be sufficient. In steam-worked churns the
+motion is often excessively rapid, and the separation of the butter
+is effected in a few minutes; but the article obtained in this hasty
+way very quickly becomes rancid, and must be disposed of at once. An
+hour's churning of sour cream appears in general to produce good butter.
+Sweet cream and whole milk require a longer period--the latter about 3
+hours--but in any case prolonged churning is certain, by incorporating
+cheesy matter with the butter, to produce an inferior article.
+
+Sweet milk becomes sour, evolves a considerable quantity of gas during
+churning, and its temperature ascends four or five degrees. Oxygen is
+unquestionably absorbed, and it is probable that a portion of the sugar
+of milk is converted into acid products.
+
+I have already stated that even the most carefully prepared butter
+contains a small proportion of casein and sugar of milk. This casein
+is the good genius of the cheese-maker, but the evil genius of the
+butter manufacturer. How? In this way:--When butter containing a
+notable proportion of casein and sugar of milk is exposed to the air,
+the following changes take place: the casein passes into a state of
+fermentation, and acting upon the sugar of milk, converts it, firstly
+into the bad-flavored lactic acid, and secondly into the bad odorous
+butyric, capric, and caproic acids. The first of these compounds in a
+state of purity emits an odor resembling a mixture of vinegar and rancid
+butter; the second possesses an odor resembling that of a goat--hence
+the name _capric_; the third has an odor like that of perspiration. In
+addition to these acids, there is another simultaneously generated--the
+caprylic, but it does not unpleasantly affect the olfactory nerve.
+The casein also injuriously affects the fatty constituents of the
+butter; under its influence they absorb oxygen from the air, and become
+converted into strong-smelling compounds. The washing of butter is
+intended to free it from the casein and unaltered cream, and the more
+perfectly it is freed from those impurities the better will be its
+flavor, and the longer it will remain without becoming rancid. Some
+people believe that too much water injures the quality and lessens the
+quantity of butter. It cannot do the former, because the essential
+constituents of butter are totally insoluble in water; it may do the
+latter, but, if it do, so much the better, because the loss of weight
+represents the amount of impurities--milk, sugar of milk, &c.--removed.
+
+I have already remarked that butter is so susceptible of taint that even
+a perspiring hand is sufficient to spoil it; naturally cool hands should
+alone be allowed to come in contact with this delicate commodity, and
+the hands should be made thoroughly clean by repeated washings with warm
+water and oatmeal--the use of soap in the lavatory of the dairymaid
+being highly objectionable. Wooden spades are now being commonly made
+use of in manipulating the butter, and there is no good reason why they
+should not come into universal use.
+
+The yield of butter per cow is subject to great variation. Some breeds
+of the animal are remarkable as milkers; such, for instance, as the
+Alderneys and Kerrys--indeed, I may say all the small varieties of the
+bovine race. There are instances of cows yielding upwards of twenty
+pounds of butter per week, but these are extraordinary cases. In Holland
+a good cow will produce, during the summer months, more than 180 lbs.
+of butter. In these countries I think the average annual yield of a
+cow is not more than 170 lbs. It sometimes happens that cows yield
+a large quantity of milk and a small amount of butter, but it far more
+frequently occurs that the cow which gives most milk also yields most
+butter.
+
+An estimate of the amount of butter contained in milk may be made by
+determining the amount of cream. This may be effected by means of an
+instrument termed a _lactometer_, which is simply a glass tube about
+five inches long, and graduated into a hundred parts. The specimen to be
+examined is poured into this tube up to zero or 0, and allowed to stand
+for twelve hours in summer and sixteen or eighteen in winter. At the end
+of that time the cream will have risen to the top, and its per-centage
+may be easily seen. In good milk the cream will generally extend 11 to
+15 degrees down from 0. This instrument, although very useful, is not
+reliable in every case, especially in detecting the adulteration of
+milk.
+
+I have already stated that the complete separation of the butter from
+the other constituents of the milk is never accomplished in the dairy.
+Now although the proportion of curd in the butter is very small--rarely
+more than two per cent. and often not a fourth of one per cent.--yet it
+is more than sufficient, under a certain condition, to cause the butter
+to become speedily rancid. That condition is simply contact with the
+air. If the curd, before it becomes dry and firm, is subjected to the
+influence of the air, it rapidly passes into a state of fermentation,
+which is very soon communicated to the fatty and saccharine constituents
+of the butter (substances not spontaneously liable to sudden changes in
+composition) and those peculiar compounds--such, for example, as butyric
+and capric acids, are generated, which confer upon rancid butter its
+characteristic and very disagreeable odor and flavor. The fermentation
+of the curd is prevented by incorporating common salt with the butter,
+and by preventing, so far as possible, the access of air to the
+vessels in which the article is placed. If fresh butter be placed in
+water--which apparently protects it from the influence of the air--it
+will soon become rancid. The reason of this is, that water always
+contains air, which differs in composition, though derived, from the
+atmosphere, by being very rich in oxygen. Now, it is precisely this
+oxygen which effects those undesirable changes in the casein, or curd,
+to which I have so repeatedly referred; hence its presence in a
+concentrated state in water causes that fluid to produce an injurious
+effect on the butter placed in it. A saturated solution of salt contains
+very little air, and, so long as the curd is immersed therein, it
+undergoes no change. The salt, too, acts as a decided preservative; for
+although it was long considered to be capable of preserving animal
+matters, merely by virtue of its property of absorbing water from them
+(the presence of water being a condition in the decomposition of organic
+matter), it has lately been shown to possess very antiseptic properties.
+
+The mixing of the salt with the butter is effected in the following
+manner:--The butter, after being well washed, in order to free it from
+the butter-milk, is spread out in a tub, and the salt shaken over it;
+the butter is then turned over on the salt by the lower part of the palm
+of the hand, and rubbed down until a uniform mixture is attained. A good
+plan in salting is to mix in only one half of the quantity of salt, make
+up the butter in lumps, and set them aside until the following day; a
+quantity of milk is certain to exude, which is to be poured off, and
+then the rest of the salt may be incorporated with the butter.
+
+According to butter-makers, the quality of the article is greatly
+dependent on the quality of the salt used in preserving it. I think
+there is a good deal of truth in this belief, and I therefore recommend
+that only the very best and _driest_ salt should be used in the dairy.
+Common salt is essentially composed of the substance termed by chemists
+chloride of sodium, but it often contains other saline matters (chloride
+of magnesium, &c.), some of which have a tendency to absorb moisture
+from the air, and to dissolve in the water so obtained. These salts are
+termed _deliquescent_, from the Latin _deliquere_, to melt down. When,
+therefore, common salt becomes damp by mere exposure to the air, it is
+to be inferred that it contains impurities which, as they possess a very
+bitter taste, would, if mixed with butter, confer a bad flavor upon it.
+The impurities of salt may be almost completely removed by placing about
+a stone weight of it in any convenient vessel, pouring over it a quart
+of boiling water, and mixing thoroughly the fluid and solid. In an hour
+or two the whole is to be thrown upon a filter made of calico, when the
+water will pass through the filter, carrying with it all the impurities,
+and the purified salt, in fine crystals, will remain upon the filter.
+The solution need not be thrown away: boiled down to dryness it may be
+given as salt to cattle; or, if added in solution to the dung-heap, it
+will augment the fertilising power of that manure.
+
+The proportion of salt used in preserving butter varies greatly. When
+the butter is intended for immediate use, I believe a quarter of an
+ounce of salt to the pound is quite sufficient; but when designed for
+the market, about half an ounce of salt to the pound of butter will be
+sufficient. Irish butter at one time commanded the highest price in the
+home and foreign markets, but latterly it has fallen greatly in public
+estimation; indeed, at the present moment the price of Irish butter at
+London is nearly twenty shillings per cwt. under that of the Dutch
+article. It is really painful to be obliged to admit that the Irish
+farmer is solely to blame for this remarkable depreciation in the value
+of one of our best agricultural staples. In a word, by the stupid (and
+_recent_) practice of putting into butter four times the quantity of
+salt necessary to its preservation, the Irish dairy farmers--or at least
+the great majority of them--have completely ruined the reputation of
+Irish butter in those very markets in which, at one time, the Cork
+brand on a firkin was sufficient to dispose of its contents at the
+very highest price. It is a great mistake to think that the greater the
+quantity of salt which can be incorporated with the butter, the greater
+will be the profit to the producer. No doubt, every pound of salt sold
+as a constituent of butter realises a profit of two thousand per cent.;
+but then the addition of every pound of that substance, after a certain
+quantity, to the cwt. of butter depreciates the value of the latter to
+such an extent as to far more than neutralise the gain on the sale of
+salt at the price of butter. In the county of Carlow, less salt is used
+in preserving butter than is the case in the county of Cork and the
+adjacent counties; the price, therefore, which the Carlow commodity
+commands in the London market is higher than that of the Cork butter:
+but in every part of Ireland the proportion of salt added to the butter
+is excessive.
+
+The results of the analyses of butter supplied to the London market,
+made by the _Lancet_ Analytical Commission, showed that the proportion
+of salt varied from 0·30 to 8·24 per cent. The largest proportion of
+salt found in fresh butter was 2·21 and the least 0·30. In salt butter
+the highest proportion of salt was 8·24 and the lowest 1·53. The butter
+which contained most salt was also generally largely adulterated with
+water. Indeed, in several samples the amount of this constituent reached
+so high as nearly 30 per cent. Nothing is easier than the incorporation
+of water with salt butter. The butter is melted, and whilst cooling the
+salt and water are added, and the mixture kept constantly stirred until
+quite cold. In this way nearly 50 per cent. of water may be added to
+butter; but of course the quality of the article will be of the very
+worst kind.
+
+A correspondent of the _Lancet_ states that, on awakening about
+three o'clock in the morning at the house in which he was lodging, he
+perceived a light below the door of his room; and apprehending a fire,
+he hurried down stairs, and was not a little surprised to discover the
+whole family engaged in manipulating butter. He was informed in a jocose
+way that they were making Epping butter! For this purpose they used
+inferior Irish butter, which, by repeated washings, was freed from its
+excessive amount of salt; after which it was frequently bathed in sweet
+milk, the addition of a little sugar being the concluding stroke in the
+process. This "sweet fresh butter from Epping" was sold at a profit of
+100 per cent. Our dairy farmers might take a hint from this anecdote.
+Does it not prove that the mere removal of the salt added to Irish
+butter doubles the value of the article?
+
+It is as necessary to pay attention to the packing of butter as it is
+to its salting. If old firkins be employed, great care should be taken
+in cleaning them, and if the staves be loose, the firkins should be
+steeped in hot water, in order to cause the wood to swell, and thereby
+to bring the edges of the staves into close contact. New firkins often
+communicate a disagreeable odour to the butter. In order to guard
+against this, it is the practice in many parts to fill the firkins with
+very moist garden mould, which, after the lapse of a few days, is thrown
+out, and the firkin thoroughly scrubbed with hot water, rinsed with the
+same fluid in a cold state, and finally rubbed with salt, just before
+being used.
+
+In packing the butter, the chief object to be kept in view is the
+exclusion of air. In order to accomplish this, the lumps of butter
+should be pressed firmly together, and also against the bottom and sides
+of the vessel. When the products of several churnings are placed in the
+same firkin, the surface of each churning should be furrowed, so that
+the next layer may be mixed with it. A firkin should never be filled in
+a single operation. About six inches of butter of each churning will
+be quite sufficient, and in a large dairy two or more firkins can be
+gradually but simultaneously filled. I strongly recommend the removal
+of the pickle jar from the dairy. When the layers of butter have been
+carried up to within an inch or so of the top of the firkin, the space
+between the surface of the butter and the edge of the vessel should be
+filled with fine dry salt, instead of pickle. A common mistake made is
+the holding over for too long a time of the butter: the sooner this
+article can be disposed of the better, for _it never improves by age_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Footnote 23: From two Greek words, signifying odour and soup.]
+
+[Footnote 24: "A New Inquiry, fully illustrated by coloured engravings
+of the heart, lungs, &c., of the Diseased Prize Cattle lately exhibited
+at the Smithfield Cattle Club, 1857." By Frederick James Gant, M.R.C.S.
+London, 1858.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Professor John Wilson's Report of the Agricultural
+Exhibition, Aarhuus, 1867.]
+
+
+
+
+PART V.
+
+ON THE COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF VEGETABLE FOODS.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+THE MONEY VALUE OF FOOD SUBSTANCES.
+
+The flesh-forming principles of food are, as I have already stated,
+almost identical with the principal nitrogenous constituents of animals.
+Unlike the non-plastic substances, they are convertible into each other
+with little, if any, loss either of matter or of force. Not many
+years since it was the fashion to estimate the nutritive value of a
+food-substance by its proportion of nitrogen; but this method--not yet
+quite abandoned--was based on erroneous views, and yielded results very
+far from the truth. No doubt all the more concentrated and valuable
+kinds of food are rich in nitrogenous principles; but there are other
+varieties, the nutritive value of which is very low, and yet their
+proportion of nitrogen is very high. This point requires explanation.
+Both the plastic and the non-plastic materials of food exist in two
+distinct states--in one of which they are easily digestible, and in the
+other either altogether unassimilable or so nearly so as to be almost
+useless. Thus, for example, the cellular tissue of plants, when newly
+formed, is to a great extent digestible, whilst the old woody fibre is
+nearly, if not quite, incapable of assimilation. Gelatine, which in raw
+bones is easily digested in the stomachs of the carnivora, loses a large
+proportion of its nutritive value on being subjected to the action of
+steam. Again, a portion of the nitrogen of young succulent plants is in
+a form not sufficiently organic to admit of its being assimilated to
+the animal body. But, independently of these strong objections to the
+method of estimating the nutritive value of food by its per-centage of
+flesh-formers, there are many other reasons which as clearly prove the
+fallacy of this rule. If we were, for instance, to estimate the value
+of albumen according to the tables of food equivalents which were
+constructed some years ago by Boussingault and other chemists, we would
+find one pound weight of it to be equivalent to four pounds weight of
+oil-cake, or to twelve pounds weight of hay; yet, it is a fact that
+a horse would speedily die if confined to a purely albuminous diet,
+whereas hay is capable of supporting the animal's life for an indefinite
+period.
+
+It is clear, then, from what I have stated, that neither the amount of
+flesh-formers, nor of fat-formers, contained in a given quantity of a
+substance is a measure of its nutritive value; nevertheless it would
+be incorrect to infer from this that the numerous analyses of feeding
+substances which have been made are valueless. On the contrary, I am
+disposed to believe that the composition of these substances, when
+correctly stated by the chemist, enables the physiologist to determine
+pretty accurately their relative alimentary value. Theory is certainly
+against the assumption that food is valuable in proportion to its
+content of nitrogen; nor has practice less strongly disproved its truth.
+An illustration drawn from the nutrition of plants will make this matter
+more apparent. Every intelligent agriculturist knows that guano contains
+nitrogen and phosphoric acid; both substances are indispensable to the
+development of plants, and therefore it would be incorrect to estimate
+the manurial value of the guano in proportion to the quantity of
+nitrogen it was capable of yielding. If the value of manures were
+determined only by their per-centage of nitrogen--a mode by which
+certain chemists still estimate the nutritive value of food--then
+woollen rags would be worth more than bones, and bones would be more
+valuable than superphosphate of lime. The truth is, that the analysis of
+feeding stuffs and manures is sometimes of little value if the condition
+in which the constituents of these substances exist be undetermined. For
+example, the analysis of one manure may show it to contain 40 per cent.
+of phosphate of lime, and three per cent. of ammonia, whilst, according
+to analysis, another fertiliser may include 20 per cent. of phosphate of
+lime, and two per cent. of ammonia. Viewed by this light solely, the
+first manure would be considered the more valuable of the two, whereas
+it might, in reality, be very much inferior. If the phosphate of lime
+in the manure, containing 40 per cent. of that body, were derived from
+coprolites or apatite, and its ammonia from horns, the former would be
+worth little or nothing, and the latter, by reason of its exceedingly
+slow evolution from the horns, would possess a very low value. If, on
+the contrary, the phosphate of lime, in the manure comparatively poor
+in phosphate, were a constituent of bones, and its ammonia ready formed
+(say as sulphate of ammonia), then, its value, both commercial and
+manurial, would be far greater than the other.
+
+In estimating the money value of an article of food, we should omit
+such considerations as the relative adjustment of its flesh-formers and
+fat-formers, and its suitability to particular kinds of animals, as well
+as to animals in a certain stage of development. The manure supplied to
+plants contains several elements indispensable to vegetable nutrition;
+and, although the agriculturist most commonly purchases all these
+elements combined in the one article, still he frequently buys each
+ingredient separately. Ammonia is one of these principles, and, whether
+it be bought _per se_, or as a constituent of a compound manure, the
+price it commands is invariable. This principle should prevail in the
+purchase of food: each constituent of which should have a certain value
+placed upon it; and the sums of all the values of the constituents would
+then be the value of the article of food taken as a whole. There are, no
+doubt, practical difficulties in the way which prevent this method of
+valuation from giving more than approximatively correct results; but
+are there not precisely similar difficulties in the way of the correct
+estimation of the value of a manure according to its analysis? There
+are several constituents of food, the money value of which is easily
+determinable: these are sugar, starch, and fat. No matter what substance
+they are found in, the nutritive value of each varies only within very
+narrow limits. The value of cellulose and woody fibre is not so easily
+ascertained, as it varies with the age and nature of the vegetable
+structure in which these principles occur. There is little doubt but
+that the cellulose and fibre of young grass, clover, and other succulent
+plants, are, for the most part, digestible; and we should not be far
+astray if we were to assume that four pounds weight of soft fibre and
+cellulose are equivalent to three pounds weight of starch. As to old
+hard fibre, we are not in a position to say whether or not it possesses
+any nutrimental value worth taking into account. The estimation of the
+value of the flesh-forming materials is far more difficult than that of
+sugar, starch, pectine compounds, and fat. The nitrogenous constituents
+of food must be in a highly elaborated state before they are capable
+of being assimilated. In seeds--in which vegetable substances attain
+their highest degree of development--they probably exist in the most
+digestible form, whilst much of the nitrogen found in the stems and
+leaves of succulent plants, is either in a purely mineral state, or in
+so low a degree of elaboration as to be unavailable for the purpose of
+nutrition. But even plastic materials, in a high degree of organisation,
+present many points of difference, which greatly affect their relative
+alimental value; for example, many of them are naturally associated with
+substances possessing a disagreeable flavor: and as their separation
+from these substances is often practically impossible, the animal that
+consumes both will not assimilate the plastic matters so well as if
+they were endowed with a pleasant flavor. In seeds and other perfectly
+matured vegetable structures, the flesh-formers may exist in different
+degrees of availability. The nitrogen of the _testa_, or covering of
+the seeds, will hardly be so assimilable as that which exists in their
+cotyledons. The solubility of the flesh-formers--provided they be
+highly elaborated--is a very good criterion of their nutritive power.
+In linseed the muscle-forming substances are more soluble than in
+linseed-cake--the heat which is generally employed in the extraction of
+oil from linseed rendering the plastic materials of the resultant _cake_
+less soluble, and diminishing thereby their digestibility, as practice
+has proved.
+
+From the considerations which I have now entered into, it is obvious
+that the chemical analysis of food substances as generally performed,
+though of great utility, does not afford strictly accurate information
+as to their commercial value, and still less reliable in relation to
+their nutritive power. At the same time, they as clearly establish
+the feasibility of analyses being _made_ whereby the money value of
+feeding-stuffs may be estimated with tolerable exactitude. Let the
+chemist determine the presence and relative amounts of the ingredients
+of food-substances, and--if it be possible so to do with a degree of
+exactness that would render the results useful--place on each a money
+value. This done, let the physiologist and the feeder combine the food
+in such proportions as they may find best adapted to the nature, age,
+and condition of the animal to be fed.
+
+It is to be regretted that the market price of feeding stuffs is not,
+in consequence of our defective knowledge, strictly determined by their
+nutritive value, for if such were the case, the feeder would merely have
+to adapt each to the nature and condition of his stock. Even amongst
+practical men there prevails, unfortunately, great diversity of opinion
+as to the relative nutritive value of the greater number of food
+substances; and I am quite certain that many of these command higher
+prices than others which in no respect are inferior. It would lead me
+too far from my immediate subject were I to enter minutely into the
+consideration of such questions as--whether an acre of grass yields more
+or less nutriment than an acre of turnips? I shall merely describe the
+composition and properties of grass and of turnips, and of the various
+other important food substances, and compare their nutritive power, so
+far as comparisons are admissible; but I shall say but little on the
+subject of the various economic and other conditions which affect the
+production of forage plants. When I shall have described the chemical
+nature and physical condition of the various articles of food, and the
+results of actual feeding experiments made with them, the feeder will
+then be in a position to determine which are the most economical to
+produce or to purchase.
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS OF VEGETABLES.
+
+The saccharine, or amylaceous substances constitute the most abundant
+of the proximate constituents of plants. They are composed of carbon,
+hydrogen, and oxygen. I shall briefly describe the more important
+members of this group of substances, namely, starch, sugar, inulin,
+gum, pectin, and cellulose.
+
+_Starch_, or _fecula_, occurs largely in dicotyledonous seeds, peas,
+&c., and still more abundantly in certain monocotyledonous seeds, such
+as wheat and barley. It constitutes the great bulk of many tubers and
+roots--for example, the potato and tapioca. It consists of flattened
+ovate granules, which vary in size according to the plant. In the
+beetroot they are 1/3500 of an inch in diameter, whilst in _tous les
+mois_ they are nearly 1/200 of an inch in diameter. Most of the starch
+granules are marked by a series of concentric rings. Starch is heavier
+than water, and is insoluble in that fluid when cold; neither is it
+dissolved by alcohol or ether. When heated in water having a temperature
+of at least 140° Fahrenheit, it increases greatly in volume, and
+acquires a gelatinous consistence. When the water is allowed to cool,
+a portion of the starch becomes insoluble, whilst another portion
+remains in solution; the latter form of starch is sometimes termed
+_amidin_, from the French word for starch, _amidon_. When dry starch
+is heated to 400° Fahr., it is converted, without any change in its
+composition, into a soluble gum-like substance, termed _dextrin_,
+or British gum. On being boiled in diluted sulphuric acid it is
+converted into a kind of sugar; and the same effect is produced by
+fermentation--for example, in the germination of seeds. Fresh rice
+contains 82, wheat 60, and potatoes 20 per cent. of starch. This
+substance constitutes a nutritious and easily digestible food, but
+alone cannot support life. Arrowroot is only a pure form of starch.
+
+_Sugar_ occurs less abundantly in plants than starch. There are several
+varieties of this substance, of which the kinds termed cane sugar
+(_sucrose_) and grape sugar (_glucose_), are only of importance to
+agriculturists. The former enters largely into the composition of the
+sugar-cane, the beetroot, the sugar-maple, the sorgho grass, pumpkins,
+carrots, and a great variety of other plants. Grape sugar is found in
+fruits, especially when dried--raisins and figs--in malted corn, and
+in honey. In the sugar-cane there is 18 per cent., and in the beetroot
+10 per cent. of sugar.
+
+_Cane sugar_, when pure, consists of minute transparent crystals. It is
+1-6/10 heavier than water, and is soluble in one-third of its weight
+of that fluid. By long-continued boiling in water it is changed into
+uncrystallizable sugar, or treacle, by which its flavor is altered, but
+its sweetening power increased.
+
+_Grape sugar_ crystallizes in very small cubes, of inferior color as
+compared with cane sugar crystals. It dissolves in its own weight of
+water, being three times less soluble than sucrose. In sweetening power
+one part of cane sugar is equal to 2-1/2 parts of grape sugar; but there
+is probably little if any difference, between the nutritive power of the
+two substances.
+
+_Inulin_ is a substance somewhat resembling starch. It does not occur
+in large quantities. It is met with in the roots of the dandelion,
+chicory, and many other plants.
+
+_Gum_ is an abundant constituent of plants. The kind termed gum
+arabic, so largely employed in the arts, is a very pure variety of this
+substance. Common gums are said to be essentially composed of a very
+weak acid--_gummic_, or _arabic_ acid--united with lime and potash.
+The solution of gum is very slightly acid, and has a mucilaginous,
+ropy consistence: it is almost tasteless. _Mucilage_, or _bassorin_,
+is simply a modified form of gum, which, though insoluble in water,
+forms a gelatinous mixture with that fluid. It exudes from certain
+trees--the cherry for example--and exists largely in linseed and other
+seeds. Gums are nutritious foods, but it is probable that they are not
+equal in alimental power to equal weights of starch or sugar.
+
+_Vegetable jelly_, or _pectin_, is almost universally diffused
+throughout the vegetable kingdom. It is owing to its presence that the
+juices of many fruits and roots possess the property of gelatinizing.
+It is soluble in water, but prolonged boiling destroys its viscous
+property. _Pectose_ is a modification of pectin; it is insoluble in
+water. According to Fremy, the hardness of green fruits is due to the
+presence of pectose; which is also found in the cellular tissue of
+turnips, carrots, and various other roots.
+
+_Cellulose_ is a fibrous or cellular tissue, allied in composition to
+starch. It is the most abundant constituent of plants, and forms the
+very ground-work of the vegetable mechanism. Linen, cotton, and the
+pith of the elder and other trees are nearly pure forms of cellulose.
+Ligneous, or woody tissue (_lignin_) is indurated cellulose, hardened
+by age. It is almost identical in composition with cellulose. Pure
+cellulose is white, colorless, tasteless, insoluble in water, oil,
+alcohol, or ether. It is heavier than water. Sulphuric acid is capable
+of converting it into grape, or starch sugar. In its fresh and succulent
+state cellulose is digestible and nutritious; but in the form of
+ligneous tissue it opposes a very great resistance to the action of the
+digestive fluids.  Digestible cellulose is probably equal in nutritive
+power to starch.
+
+_Oils and fats_ occur abundantly in vegetables, more particularly in
+their seeds. In the seeds of many cruciferous plants the proportion
+of fat and oil exceeds 35 per cent. The oils and fats termed _fixed_
+are those which possess the greatest interest to agriculturists; the
+_volatile oils_ being those which confer on certain plants their
+fragrant odour. There are a great variety of vegetable oils, but
+the proximate constituents of most of them are chiefly _stearin_,
+_margarin_, _olein_, and _palmitin_.
+
+_Stearin_ is a white crystalline substance, sparingly soluble in alcohol
+and ether, but insoluble in water. There are two or three modifications
+of this substance, but they do not essentially differ from each other.
+The melting point varies from 130° to 160° Fahr. Stearin is the most
+abundant of the fats.
+
+_Margarin_ presents the appearance of pearly scales. It is the solid fat
+present in olive oil, and it is also met with in a great variety of fats
+and oils. It melts at 116° Fahr.
+
+_Olein_ is the fluid constituent of oils and fatty substances. It
+resists an extreme degree of cold, without solidifying. There are
+several modifications of this body--the olein of olive oil being
+somewhat different from that of castor oil; the olein of linseed is
+sometimes termed _linolien_.
+
+_Palmitin._--This fat occurs in many plants, but as it makes up the
+great bulk of palm oil, it has been termed palmitin. It is white, and
+may be obtained in feathery-like masses. Its melting point varies from
+114° to 145°, there being, according to Duffy, three modifications of
+this substance.
+
+The fats and oils are lighter than water. They contain far more carbon
+and hydrogen, and less oxygen, than are found in the sugars and
+starches. They all consist of acids (stearic, palmitic, &c.) united with
+glycerine. On being boiled with potash or soda, the latter take the
+place of the glycerine, which is set free, and a _soap_ is produced.
+The fatty acids strongly resemble the fats. In nutritive power, one part
+of fat is equal to 2-1/2 parts of starch or sugar.
+
+The Albuminous substances contain, in addition to the elements found
+in starch, nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus. _Albumen_, _fibrin_, and
+_legumin_ constitute the three important members of the "Nitrogenous"
+constituents of plants.
+
+_Albumen_ is an uncrystallizable substance. It is soluble in water,
+unless when heated to 140 deg. Fahr., at which temperature it coagulates,
+_i.e._, becomes solid and insoluble. The _gluten_ of wheat is composed
+chiefly of albumen, and of bodies closely allied to that substance.
+
+_Fibrin_, when dried, is a hard, horny, yellow, solid body. It contains
+a little more oxygen than is found in albumen. This substance is best
+known as a constituent of animals, and it does not appear to be abundant
+in plants. The portion of the gluten of wheat-flour, which is insoluble
+in boiling alcohol, is considered by Liebig and Dumas to be coagulated
+fibrin.
+
+In the seeds of leguminous and a few other kinds of plants large
+quantities of a substance termed _legumin_ are found. It resembles the
+casein, or cheesy ingredient of milk; indeed, some chemists consider it
+to be identical in composition with that substance. When pure, it is
+pearly white, insoluble in boiling water, but soluble in cold water and
+in vinegar. The saline matters found in plants are always associated
+with the albuminous bodies; the latter, therefore, form the bones as
+well as the muscles of animals.
+
+A great many substances are found in plants, such as wax, mannite,
+"extractive matter," citric, malic, and other acids, of the nutritive
+value of which very little is known. The substances described in this
+section constitute, however, at least 95 per cent. of the weight of the
+vegetable matters used as food by live stock.
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+GREEN FOOD.
+
+_The Grasses._--More than one-half the area of Great Britain and Ireland
+is under pasture; the grasses, therefore, constitute the most important
+and abundant food used by live stock. The composition of the natural
+and artificial grasses is greatly influenced by the nature of the soil
+on which they are grown, and by the climatic conditions under which
+they are developed. Many of them are almost worthless, whilst others
+possess a high nutritive value. Amongst the most useful natural
+grasses may be enumerated Italian rye-grass, Meadow barley, Annual
+Meadow-grass, Crested dogstail-grass, Cocksfoot-grass, Timothy or
+Meadow catstail-grass, and Sweet vernal-grass. Amongst grasses of medium
+quality I may mention common Oatlike-grass, Meadow foxtail grass, Smooth
+and rough stalked Meadow-grass, and Waterwhorl-grass. There are very
+many grasses which are almost completely innutritious, and which ought,
+under no circumstances, to be tolerated, although too often they make
+up the great bulk of the herbage of badly-managed meadows and pastures.
+Such grasses are, the Meadow soft-grass, Creeping soft-grass, False
+brome-grass, and Upright brome-grass. The rough-stalked Meadow-grass,
+though spoken favorably of by some farmers, is hardly worthy of
+cultivation, and the same may be said of many of the grasses which have
+a place in our meadows and pastures. (See "Analyses of Natural Grasses
+in a Fresh State, by Dr. Voelcker," on next page.)
+
+The _Schræder brome_ is a perennial lately introduced into France. It
+is described as an exceedingly valuable forage crop, and one which is
+admirably adapted for the feeding of dairy cows. It would be desirable
+to give it a trial in these countries. The composition (which is very
+peculiar) of this plant is stated to be as follows, when dry:--
+
+  ANALYSIS OF SCHRÆDER BROME HAY.
+
+  Water                             16·281
+  Nitrogenous matters               23·443
+  Fat                                3·338
+  Starch gum, &c.                   22·549
+  Cellulose (fibre)                 19·843
+  Ashes                             14·546
+                                   -------
+         Total                     100·000
+
+
+  ANALYSES OF NATURAL GRASSES IN A FRESH STATE, BY DR. VOELCKER.
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | KEY:                                                                      |
+  | A.--Water.                                                                |
+  | B.--Albuminous or Flesh-forming Principles.                               |
+  | C.--Fatty Matters.                                                        |
+  | D.--Respiratory Principles: Starch, Gum, Sugar.                           |
+  | E.--Woody Fibre.                                                          |
+  | F.--Mineral Matter or Ash.                                                |
+  | G.--Date of Collection.                                                   |
+  +-----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-----+-------+
+  |                             | A.  | B.  | C.  |  D.  |  E.  | F.  |  G.   |
+  +-----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-----+-------+
+  |Anthoxanthum odoratum--      |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Sweet-scented vernal grass |80·35| 2·00|  ·67|  8·54|  7·15| 1·24|May  25|
+  |Alopecurus pratensis--       |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Meadow foxtail grass       |80·20| 2·44|  ·52|  8·59|  6·70| 1·55|June  1|
+  |Arrhenatherum avenaceum--    |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Common oat-like grass      |72·65| 3·54|  ·87| 11·21|  9·37| 2·36|July 17|
+  |Avena flavescens--           |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Yellow oat-like grass      |60·40| 2·96| 1·04| 18·66| 14·22| 2·72|June 29|
+  |Avena pubescens--            |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Downy oat-grass            |61·50| 3·07|  ·92| 19·16| 13·34| 2·01|July 11|
+  |Briza media--                |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Common quaking grass       |51·85| 2·93| 1·45| 22·60| 17·00| 4·17|June 29|
+  |Bromus erectus--             |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Upright brome grass        |59·57| 3·78| 1·35|    33·19    | 2·11| "   23|
+  |Bromus mollis--              |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Soft brome grass           |76·62| 4·05|  ·47|  9·04|  8·46| 1·36| May  8|
+  |Cynosurus cristatus--        |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Crested dogstail grass     |62·73| 4·13| 1·32| 19·64|  9·80| 2·38|June 21|
+  |Dactylus glomerata--         |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Cocksfoot grass            |70·00| 4·06|  ·94| 13·30| 10·11| 1·54| "   13|
+  |  Ditto, seeds ripe          |52·57|10·93|  ·74| 12·61| 20·54| 2·61|July 19|
+  |Festuca duriuscula--         |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Hard fescue grass          |69·33| 3·70| 1·02| 12·46| 11·83| 1·66|June 13|
+  |Holcus lanatus--             |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Soft meadow grass          |69·70| 3·49| 1·02| 11·92| 11·94| 1·93| "   29|
+  |Hordeum pratense--           |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Meadow barley              |58·85| 4·59|  ·94| 20·05| 13·03| 2·54|July 11|
+  |Lolium perenne--             |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Darnel grass               |71·43| 3·37|  ·91| 12·08| 10·06| 2·15|June  8|
+  |Lolium italicum--            |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Italian rye-grass          |75·61| 2·45|  ·80| 14·11|  4·82| 2·21| "   13|
+  |Phleum pratense--            |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Meadow catstail grass      |57·21| 4·86| 1·50| 22·85| 11·32| 2·26|       |
+  |Poa annua--                  |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Annual meadow grass        |79·14| 2·47|  ·71| 10·79|  6·30|  ·59| May 28|
+  |Poa pratensis--              |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Smooth-stalked meadow grass|67·14| 3·41|  ·86| 14·15| 12·49| 1·95|June 11|
+  |Poa trivialis--              |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Rough-stalked ditto        |73·60| 2·58|  ·97| 10·54| 10·11| 2·20| "   18|
+  |Grass from water meadow      |87·58| 3·22|  ·81|  3·98|  3·13| 1·28|Apr. 30|
+  |  Ditto, second crop         |74·53| 2·78|  ·52| 11·17|  8·76| 2·24|June 26|
+  |Annual rye-grass             |69·00| 2·96|  ·69| 12·89| 12·47| 1·99| "    8|
+  +-----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-----+-------+
+
+  Most of the grasses here mentioned were analysed when in flower.
+
+
+_Tussac Grass_ (_Dactylis cæspitus_) is recommended as an excellent
+plant to grow on very poor, wet, or mossy soils.[26] It is an evergreen
+grass, somewhat resembling coltsfoot. It is relished by cattle.
+
+  ANALYSIS OF TUSSAC GRASS BY JOHNSTONE.
+
+                                          Lower part.   Upper part.
+
+  Water                                      86·09         75·17
+  Flesh-formers                               2·47          4·79
+  Sugar, gum, &c.                             4·62          6·81
+  Woody fibre (with a little albumen)         5·68         11·86
+  Ash                                         1·14          1·37
+                                            ------        ------
+            Total                           100·00        100·00
+
+The "artificial grasses" embrace the clovers, vetches, lucerne, and
+a few other plants, some of which are seldom cultivated.
+
+  ANALYSES OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF CLOVER, BY DR. ANDERSON.
+
+                          +---------------------------------------------
+                          | KEY:
+                          | A.--Water.
+                          | B.--Dry Substances.
+                          | C.--Ash.
+                          | D.--Nitrogenised Substances.
+                          | E.--Ash.
+                          | F.--Nitrogenised Matters.
+                          |
+  ------------------------+-----------------------------+---------------
+                          | Per-centage in the          | Per-centage
+                          | Fresh Clover.               | in Dry Clover.
+                          +-------+-------+------+------+-------+-------
+                          |   A.  |   B.  |  C.  |  D.  |   E.  |  F.
+  ------------------------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+-------
+  Red clover--            |       |       |      |      |       |
+   Trifolium pratense:    |       |       |      |      |       |
+    1. From English seed  | 85·30 | 14·70 | 1·30 | 2·31 |  8·90 | 15·87
+    2. From German seed   |       |       |      |      |       |
+        (from the Rhine)  | 81·68 | 18·32 | 1·49 | 2·81 |  8·15 | 15·50
+    3. From French seed   | 83·51 | 16·49 | 1·95 | 2·25 | 11·82 | 13·56
+    4. From American seed | 79·98 | 21·02 | 1·58 | 2·87 |  8·05 |  ...
+    5. From Dutch seed    |  ...  |  ...  |  ... |  ... |  8·82 | 12·43
+  Cowgrass--              |       |       |      |      |       |
+   Trifolium medium:[27]  |       |       |      |      |       |
+    Variety,              |       |       |      |      |       |
+     " Duke of Norfolk    | 77·39 | 22·61 | 2·73 | 2·25 | 12·09 | 10·19
+     " common             | 81·76 | 18·24 | 1·92 | 3·19 | 10·53 | 14·37
+  Crimson clover,         |       |       |      |      |       |
+   Trifolium incarnatum:  |       |       |      |      |       |
+    From French seed      | 82·56 | 17·44 | 1·88 | 3·25 | 10·81 | 18·56
+  Yellow clover--         |       |       |      |      |       |
+   Medicago lupulina:     |       |       |      |      |       |
+    From English seed     | 77·38 | 22·62 | 2·02 | 3·50 |  8·95 | 15·44
+    From French seed      | 78·60 | 21·40 | 1·75 | 2·94 |  8·18 | 13·69
+  ------------------------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+-------
+
+_Clover_ is very rich in flesh-forming and heat-producing substances.
+There are several varieties of this plant, of which the Alsike Clover
+appears to be the most valuable, as it contains a high proportion of
+organic matter and gives the largest acreable produce. The nature of the
+soil influences, to a great extent, the composition of this plant: this
+no doubt accounts for the somewhat discrepant result of the analyses of
+it made by Way, Voelcker, and Anderson.
+
+The composition of the Vetch, Sainfoin, and Lucerne, resembles very
+closely that of the Clover: indeed, it appears to me that all these
+leguminous plants are nearly equally valuable as green forage, but that
+the best adapted for hay is the Clover. In the following table the
+composition of these plants is shown:--
+
+  ANALYSES OF CLOVER, BY DR. VOELCKER.
+
+  ---------------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------
+                             |   I.  |  II.  | III.  |   IV.   |    V.
+                             |  Red  | White |Yellow | Alsike. | Bokhara
+                             |Clover.|Clover.|Clover.| Clover. | Clover.
+                             +-------+-------+-------+---------+---------
+  Water                      | 80·64 | 83·65 | 77·57 |  76·67  |  81·30
+                             |       |       |       |         |
+  Soluble in Water--         |       |       |       |         |
+    _a._ Organic substances  |  6·35 |  4·98 |  8·26 |   4·91  |   6·80
+    _b._ Inorganic substances|  1·55 |  1·13 |  1·40 |   1·33  |   1·54
+                             |       |       |       |         |
+  Insoluble in water--       |       |       |       |         |
+    _a._ Impure vegetable    |       |       |       |         |
+         fibre               | 11·04 |  9·80 | 12·17 |  16·36  |  10·01
+    _b._ Inorganic matters   |       |       |       |         |
+         (ash)               |  0·42 |  0·44 |  0·60 |   0·73  |   0·35
+                             +-------+-------+-------+---------+---------
+                             |100·00 |100·00 |100·00 | 100·00  | 100·00
+  ---------------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------
+
+  ANALYSES OF LUCERNE, SAINFOIN, AND VETCH.
+
+  ---------------------------------------+----------+-----------+--------
+                                         |    I.    |    II.    |  III.
+                                         | Lucerne. | Sainfoin. | Vetch.
+                                         +----------+-----------+--------
+  Water                                  |  73·41   |   77·32   |  82·16
+                                         |          |           |
+  Soluble in Water                       |          |           |
+    _a._ Organic substances              |   9·43   |    8·00   |   6·07
+    _b._ Inorganic substances            |   2·33   |    1·20   |   1·07
+                                         |          |           |
+  Insoluble in water                     |          |           |
+    _a._ Impure vegetable fibre          |  14·08   |   12·95   |  10·23
+    _b._ Inorganic matters (ash)         |   0·75   |    0·53   |   0·47
+                                         +----------+-----------+--------
+                                         |  100·00  |  100·00   | 100·00
+  ---------------------------------------+----------+-----------+--------
+
+The artificial grasses are, on the whole, more nutritious than the
+natural grasses; but I should explain that the analyses of the natural
+grasses which I have quoted refer to those plants in what may be almost
+termed their wild state: under the influence of good cultivation--when
+irrigated or top-dressed with abundance of appropriate manure--their
+analyses would indicate a higher nutritive value. The grasses, and more
+especially the so-called artificial grasses, are more nutritious and
+digestible when young. In old clover the proportion of insoluble woody
+fibre is often so considerable as to greatly detract from the alimental
+value of the plant.
+
+The _Lentils_, the _Birdsfoot_, the _Trefoil_, and the _Melilot_ are
+leguminous plants which occasionally are found as constituents of forage
+crops. Lentils are extensively cultivated on the Continent, and are
+the only kind of these plants the chemistry of which has been at all
+studied. The straw contains 7 per cent. of flesh-formers.
+
+_The Yellow Lupine_ is cultivated rather extensively in Germany,
+France, and Belgium, partly for feeding purposes, partly to furnish a
+green manure. Its seeds constitute a nutritious article of food for man,
+and its stems and leaves are given to cattle. An attempt was made a few
+years ago to introduce its cultivation, as a field crop, into England,
+and very satisfactory results attended the first trials made with it.
+Mr. Kimber, who has cultivated this crop, states that it is likely to
+prove valuable on light sandy soils, where the ordinary green fodder
+crops are not easily cultivated. The produce per acre obtained in
+Mr. Kimber's trial was about nineteen tons. Cattle and sheep relish
+the Yellow Lupine, but according to Mr. Kimber, pigs reject it.
+Professor Voelcker examined this plant, and found that it resembled in
+composition the ordinary artificial grasses, except in one respect,
+namely, a remarkable deficiency in sugar. Altogether, it is not so rich
+in nutriment as any of the commonly cultivated leguminous plants; but
+as it can be cultivated on a very poor soil, and gives a good return,
+it is probable that the Yellow Lupine will yet become a common crop in
+Britain. The following table exhibits the results of Dr. Voelcker's
+analysis.
+
+  COMPOSITION OF YELLOW LUPINES (CUT DOWN IN A GREEN STATE).
+
+                                      In natural state.   Dried at 212°F.
+
+  Water                                      89·20
+  Oil                                          ·37              3·42
+  [*] Soluble albuminous compounds            1·37             12·68
+  Soluble mineral (saline) substances          ·61              5·64
+  [+] Insoluble albuminous compounds          1·01              9·35
+  Sugar, gum, bitter extractive matter,
+    and digestible fibre                      3·96             36·68
+  Indigestible woody fibre (cellulose)        3·29             30·48
+  Insoluble mineral matters                    ·19              1·75
+                                            ------            ------
+                                            100·00            100·00
+  [* Containing nitrogen                       ·22              2·03]
+  [+ Containing nitrogen                       ·16              1·48]
+
+
+_Rib grass plantain_ (_Plantago lanceolata_) is one of those plants, the
+value of which for forage purposes is questionable. Many persons believe
+it to be a useful food. Its composition, which looks favorable, is as
+follows:--
+
+  Water                         84·78
+  Albuminous matters             2·18
+  Fatty matters                  0·56
+  Starch, gum, &c.               6·08
+  Woody fibre                    5·10
+  Mineral matter                 1·30
+
+The grasses, natural and artificial, are occasionally affected by a
+formidable and well-known fungus, the _ergot_. Italian rye-grass is the
+most liable to the ravages of this pest, and there are on record several
+cases in which ergotted rye-grass proved fatal to the animal fed upon
+it. Clover and the various leguminous plants appear more liable to the
+ergot disease than the natural grasses (except rye-grass), but I have
+on several occasions noticed this fungus on the spikelets of _Hordeum
+pratense_, _Festuca pratense_, and _Bromus erectus_. It has also been
+noticed that rye-grass rapidly developed under the influence of liquid
+manure is so rank that young animals fed upon it are poisonously
+affected. Alderman Mechi states that in July, 1864, ten out of his
+thirty Shorthorn calves died in consequence of eating the heads of
+Italian rye-grass, and that the survivors' health was seriously injured.
+He was also unfortunate with his lambs, which, during the same month,
+were folded on Italian rye-grass. "Four days ago," writes the Alderman,
+"it was sewaged, having been prior to the former growth also guanoed.
+In four days it had grown from four to five inches, was of an intense
+green, and pronounced to be, by sharp practical men, just the food for
+lambs. Well, we put on our lambs, taking care to do so in the evenings
+after they had been well fed. My bailiff accompanied them, and, within
+five minutes, turning accidentally round, he saw two of the lambs with
+their heads in the air staggering (stomach staggers it is called) and
+frothing at the mouth. He immediately saw the mischief, removed the
+lambs, and on their way back to a bare fold some of them vomited the
+Italian rye-grass that they had just eaten, accompanied by frothy slime;
+others brought it up during the night. Some of them trembled, gaped,
+and showed all the same symptoms that my calves had done, such as rapid
+pulse, &c. Two or three of them are rather queer to-day. I hope that
+Professor Simmonds or some capable person will tell us how this is? If
+we mow this grass, bring it home, and cut it into chaff, all which tends
+to heat or dry it, it becomes wholesome food. The same remarks apply in
+degree to very succulent tares. If the Italian grass is brought home and
+given long and quite fresh to the calves, it will kill them. It does not
+appear to injure old ewes as it does lambs or shearlings. The dry
+weather has something to do with it. In wet weather the evil is much
+diminished, or disappears."
+
+It is probable that the juice of this poisonous herbage was extremely
+rich in matters only semi-organised, and perhaps abounded in the crude
+substances from which the vegetable tissues are elaborated. Such
+rank grass as this was should not be used until it has attained to a
+tolerably developed state: in mature plants the juices contain more
+highly organised matters than are found in young vegetables.
+
+The _Sorghuo_, _or Holcus Saccharatus_.--This plant, introduced to
+the notice of the British farmer but a few years ago, is only grown
+in these countries in small quantities. It is very rich in sugar, and
+cattle relish it greatly. Its composition, according to Dr. Voelcker,
+is as follows:--
+
+  Water                                                    81·80
+  Albuminous matters                                        1·53
+  Insoluble ditto                                           0·66
+  Sugar                                                     5·85
+  Wax and fatty matter                                      2·55
+  Mucilage, pectin, and digestible matters                  2·59
+  Indigestible woody fibre                                  4·03
+  Mineral matter                                            0·99
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100·00
+
+The plants referred to in the above analysis were cut in September.
+It is found that the composition of the plant is very different at
+different seasons.
+
+_Green Rye_ is employed as a forage crop, for which purpose it is well
+adapted. It is about equal in nutritive power to clover. According to
+Dr. Voelcker its composition is as follows:--
+
+  Water                                                   75·423
+  Flesh-formers                                            2·705
+  Fatty matter                                             0·892
+  Gum, pectin, sugar, &c.                                  9·134
+  Woody-fibre                                             10·488
+  Mineral matter                                           1·358
+                                                         -------
+                                                         100·000
+
+_Buckwheat_ is occasionally cut in a green state and used as food for
+stock. Its composition, according to Einhof and Crome, is as follows:--
+
+  Water                                                     82·5
+  Nitrogenous compounds                                      0·2
+  Extractive matters                                         2·6
+  Starch, &c.                                                4·7
+  Cellulose                                                 10·0
+                                                           -----
+                                                           100·0
+
+Rape is one of our most valuable plants for stock feeding. Two varieties
+are cultivated in these countries--the summer rape (_Brassica Campestris
+oleifera_) and winter rape (_Brassica rapus_). The great utility of
+rape arises from the circumstance of its being generally obtained as a
+_stolen_ crop; for otherwise it is not quite equal to other plants that
+might be substituted for it--cabbages, &c. This plant is very rich in
+oily matters, and has been found well adapted both for the feeding of
+cattle and the fattening of sheep. Its composition, according to
+Voelcker, is shown in this table:--
+
+  COMPOSITION OF GREEN RAPE.
+
+  Water                                                   87·050
+  Flesh-formers                                            3·133
+  Fatty matters                                            0·649
+  Other respiratory substances                             4·000
+  Woody fibre                                              3·560
+  Mineral matter (ash)                                     1·608
+                                                         -------
+                                                         100·000
+
+With respect to the value of rape for the feeding of stock in spring,
+Mr. Rham makes the following remarks:--
+
+    If the crop is very forward it may be slightly fed off, but in
+    general it is best to let it remain untouched till spring. In the
+    end of March and the beginning of April it will be a great help
+    to the ewes and lambs. It will produce excellent food till it
+    begins to be in flower, when it should immediately be ploughed up.
+    The ground will be found greatly recruited by this crop, which has
+    taken nothing from it, and has added much by the dung and urine of
+    the sheep. Whatever be the succeeding crop, it cannot fail to be
+    productive; and if the land is not clean, the farmer must have
+    neglected the double opportunity of destroying weeds in the
+    preceding summer, and in the early part of spring. If the rape is
+    fed off in time, it may be succeeded by barley or oats, with clover
+    or grass seeds, or potatoes, if the soil is not too wet. Thus no
+    crop will be lost, and the rape will have been a clear addition to
+    the produce of the land. Any crop which is taken off the land in a
+    green state, especially if it be fed off with sheep, may be repeated
+    without risk of failure, provided the land be properly tilled; but
+    where cole or rape have produced seed, they cannot be profitably
+    sown in less than five or six years after on the same land. The
+    cultivation of rape or cole for spring food cannot be too strongly
+    recommended to the farmers of heavy clay soils.
+
+
+_The Mustard Plant_ is occasionally used as food for sheep, for which
+purpose its composition shows it to be well adapted. Voelcker's analysis
+proves it to be very rich, relatively, in muscle-forming elements and in
+mineral matters; it might, therefore be with advantage combined with
+food relatively deficient in these principles.
+
+  COMPOSITION OF FRESH MUSTARD.
+
+  Water                                                    86·30
+  Albuminous matters                                        2·87
+  Non-nitrogenous matters (gum, sugar, oil, &c.)            4·40
+  Woody fibre                                               4·39
+  Ash                                                       2·04
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100·00
+
+_The Prickly Comfrey_ has been recommended as a good forage plant.
+It yields an abundant crop--or rather crops, for it may be cut several
+times in the year. The plant is a handsome one, and it might combine the
+useful with the ornamental if it were cultivated on demesne or villa
+farms. Dr. Voelcker states its composition to be as follows:--
+
+  Water                                                   88·400
+  Flesh-forming substances                                 2·712
+  Heat and fat-producing matters                           6·898
+  Ash                                                      1·990
+                                                         -------
+                                                         100·000
+
+_Chicory_ is used as a forage crop on the Continent, and Professor John
+Wilson surmises that it may yet be generally cultivated for this purpose
+in Great Britain. At present it is rarely grown except for the sake of
+its roots, which are used as partial substitutes for, or adulterants of,
+coffee.
+
+  COMPOSITION OF CHICORY, ACCORDING TO ANDERSON.
+
+                                      Fresh roots.     Fresh leaves.
+
+  Water                                  80·58             90·94
+  Nitrogenous matters                     1·72              1·01
+  Non-nitrogenous substances             16·39              6·63
+  Ash                                     1·31              1·42
+                                        ------            ------
+                                        100·00            100·00
+
+_Yarrow_ (_Achillæa millefolium_) is usually regarded as a weed, but
+sheep are very fond of it, and when they can get it, never fail to eat
+it greedily. It possesses astringent properties. Some writers have
+recommended it as a good crop for warrens and sands. Its composition,
+according to Way, is as follows:--
+
+  DRIED YARROW.
+
+  Albuminous matter                      10·34
+  Fatty matters                           2·51
+  Starch, gum, &c.                       45·46
+  Woody fibre                            32·69
+  Mineral matter                          9·00
+                                        ------
+                                        100·00
+
+_Melons_ and _Marrows_ have been used, but to a very limited extent, as
+food for stock. Mr. Blundell advocates their use in seasons of drought.
+He states that he has obtained more than forty tons per acre of both
+melons and marrows. They are relished by horses, oxen, sheep, and pigs.
+Mr. Blundell's advocacy has not been attended with much success, but it
+would be desirable to give these vegetables a further trial.
+
+Dr. Voelcker's analysis of the cattle melon shows that it contains:--
+
+  Water                                  92·98
+  Albuminous matters                      1·53
+  Oil                                      ·73
+  Sugar, gum, &c.                         2·51
+  Fibre                                   1·65
+  Ash                                      ·60
+                                        ------
+                                        100·00
+
+_The Cabbage._--The composition of the Drumhead Cabbage has been studied
+by Dr. Anderson. He found a larger proportion of nutriment in the outer
+leaves than in the "heart," and ascertained that the young plants were
+richer in nutriment than those more advanced in age. His results show
+the desirability of cultivating the open-leaved, rather than the compact
+varieties of this plant.
+
+  ANALYSIS OF THE CABBAGE.--BY DR. ANDERSON.
+
+                                         Outer leaves.  Heart leaves.
+
+  Water                                      91·08         94·48
+  Compounds containing nitrogen               1·63          0·94
+  Compounds destitute of nitrogen,
+    such as gum, sugar, fibre, &c.            5·06          4·08
+  Ash (mineral matter)                        2·23          0·50
+                                            ------        ------
+                                            100·00        100·00
+
+According to Fromberg, the composition of the whole plant is as
+follows:--
+
+  Water                                                    93·40
+  Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming compounds                   1·75
+  Non-nitrogenous substances such as gum, sugar, &c.        4·05
+  Mineral matter                                            0·80
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100·00
+
+Dr. Voelcker, who has more recently analysed the cattle cabbage,
+furnishes us with the following details of its composition:--
+
+  COMPOSITION OF CABBAGE LEAVES (OUTSIDE GREEN LEAVES).
+
+  Water                                      83·72
+  Dry matter                                 16·28
+                                            ------
+                                            100·00
+
+The fresh and the dry matter consisted of:--
+
+                                             Fresh     Dry matter.
+                                            Matter.     Per cent.
+
+  [*] Protein compounds                       1·65         10·19
+  Non-nitrogenous matter                     13·38         82·10
+  Mineral matter                              1·25          7·71
+                                             -----        ------
+                                             16·28        100·00
+  [* Containing nitrogen                       ·26          1·63]
+
+In the following table the results of a more elaborate analysis of the
+_heart_ and inner leaves are shown:--
+
+  COMPOSITION OF HEART AND INNER LEAVES.
+
+                                       In natural state.    Dry.
+
+  Water                                      89·42
+  Oil                                          ·08           ·75
+  [*] Soluble protein compounds               1·19         11·24
+  Sugar, digestible fibres, &c.               7·01         66·25
+  Soluble mineral matter                       ·73          6·89
+  [+] Insoluble protein compounds              ·31          2·93
+  Woody fibre                                 1·14         10·77
+  Insoluble mineral matter                     ·12          1·17
+                                            ------        ------
+                                            100·00        100·00
+  [* Containing nitrogen                       ·19          1·79]
+  [+ Containing nitrogen                       ·05           ·47]
+
+If I were asked what plant I considered the most valuable for forage,
+I certainly should pronounce an opinion in favor of cabbage. This crop
+yields a much greater return than that afforded by the Swedish turnip,
+and it is richer in nutritive matter. Cabbages are greedily eaten by
+sheep and cattle, and the butter of cows fed upon them is quite free
+from the disagreeable flavor which it so often possesses when the food
+of the animal is chiefly composed of turnips. If the cabbage admitted of
+storing, no more valuable crop could be cultivated as food for stock.
+
+Mr. John M'Laren, of Inchture, Scotland, gives in the "Transactions of
+the Highland Agricultural Society of Scotland for 1857," a report on the
+feeding value of cabbage, which is highly favorable to that plant:--
+
+    On the 1st December, 1855 (says the reporter), two lots of
+    Leicester wethers, bred on the farm, and previously fed alike,
+    each lot containing ten sheep, were selected for the trial by
+    competent judges, and weighed. Both lots were put into a field
+    of well-sheltered old lea, having a division between them. All
+    the food was cut and given them in troughs, three times a day.
+    They had also a constant supply of hay in racks.
+
+    At the end of the trial, on the 1st of March, 1856, the sheep
+    were all re-weighed, sent to the Edinburgh market, and sold same
+    day, but in their separate lots. As I had no opportunity of
+    getting the dead weights, I requested Mr. Swan, the salesman, to
+    give his opinion on their respective qualities. This was to the
+    effect that no difference existed in their market value, but that
+    the sheep fed on turnips would turn out the best quality of mutton,
+    with most profit for the butcher. Both lots were sold at the same
+    price, viz., 52s. 6d. During the three months of trial, we found
+    that each lot consumed about the same weight of food--viz., 8 tons
+    13 cwt. 47 lb. of cabbage, being at the rate of 21-1/3 lbs. per day
+    for each sheep, and 8 tons 10 cwt. 7 lb. Swedes, being at the rate
+    of 20-9/10 lb. per day.
+
+    It will be seen, by referring to the table (see next page), that in
+    this trial the Swede has proved of higher value for feeding purposes
+    than the cabbage, making 11 st. 4 lb. of gain in weight, whilst the
+    cabbage made 10 st. 9 lb. At the same time, 3 cwt. 40 lb. less food
+    were consumed; and taking the mutton gained at 6d. per lb., the
+    Swedes consumed become worth 9s. 3-1/4d. per ton, while the gain on
+    the cabbage, at the same rate, makes them worth 8s. 7d. per ton.
+    But from the great additional weight of the one crop grown over the
+    other, the balance, at the prices, c., mentioned, is in favor of the
+    cabbage by £1 15s. 11-3/4d. per acre.
+
+
+These results certainly speak strongly in favor of the cabbage; but the
+weight of the acreable crop of cabbages stated in the table appears to
+be unusually great. So heavy a crop is rarely obtained.
+
+_Furze_ (_Gorse, or Whins_).--Notwithstanding the natural historical
+knowledge of Goldsmith, his poetical description of the furze is far
+from accurate. This plant, instead of being "unprofitably gay," deserves
+to rank amongst the most valuable vegetables cultivated for the use of
+the domestic animals. It grows and flourishes under conditions which
+most injuriously affect almost every other kind of fodder and green
+crop. Prolonged drought in spring and early summer not unfrequently
+renders the hay crop a scanty one; while autumn and winter frosts change
+the nutriment of the mangels and turnips into decaying and unwholesome
+matter. Under such circumstances as these, the maintenance of cattle in
+good condition is very expensive, unless in places where a supply of
+furze is available. This plant is rather improved than otherwise by
+exposure to a temperature which would speedily destroy a mangel or a
+turnip; and, although it thrives best when abundantly supplied with
+rain, it can survive an exceedingly prolonged drought without sustaining
+much injury.
+
+  TABLE
+
+  SHOWING THE DIFFERENCE OF WEIGHT GROWN ON AN ACRE OF CABBAGE AND AN
+  ACRE OF SWEDES, AND THE VALUE OF EACH FOR FEEDING.
+
+  +-----+-------+---------+---------+--------+--------+--------------+--------+
+  | No. |       | Weight  | Weight  |        |Value of| Total Weight |        |
+  | Of  |       |  of     |   of    |        |  Gain  |   of Food    | Value  |
+  |Sheep| Kinds |  Ten    |  Ten    |        | taking |   consumed   | of Food|
+  | In  |  of   | Sheep,  | Sheep,  |  Gain. | Mutton |     in       |consumed|
+  |Each | Food. |1st Dec.,|1st Mar.,|        | at 6d. | Three Months |  per   |
+  |Lot. |       |  1855.  |  1856.  |        |per lb. | by each lot. |  Ton.  |
+  +-----+-------+---------+---------+--------+--------+--------------+--------+
+  |     |       | st. lb. | st. lb. | st. lb.| £ s. d.|tons. cwt. lb.|s. d.   |
+  | 10  |Cabbage| 90  10  | 101  5  | 10   9 | 3 14 6 |  8   13   47 |8  7    |
+  |     |       |         |         |        |        |              |        |
+  | 10  |Swedes | 89   3  | 100  7  | 11   4 | 3 19 0 |  8   10    7 |9  3-1/4|
+  +-----+-------+---------+---------+--------+--------+--------------+--------+
+
+  +-----+-------+----------+------------+----------+-------------+------------+
+  | No. |       |  Total   |            |          |             |            |
+  | Of  |       |  Weight  |    Value   |   Extra  |    Free     |   Balance  |
+  |Sheep| Kinds |   per    |   of each  |  Cost on |    Value    |  in favor  |
+  | In  |  of   |  Acre    |     Crop   | each Crop|   of each   |     of     |
+  |Each | Food. | of each  |  per Acre. | per Acre.|    Crop     |   Cabbage  |
+  |Lot. |       |  Crop.   |            |          |  per Acre.  |  per Acre. |
+  +-----+-------+----------+------------+----------+-------------+------------+
+  |     |       |tons. cwt.| £  s. d.   | £  s.  d.| £  s. d.    | £ s. d.    |
+  | 10  |Cabbage| 42   14  | 18 6  6    | 4  10 11 | 13 15 7     |            |
+  |     |       |          |            |          |             | 1 15 11-3/4|
+  | 10  |Swedes | 26   12  | 12 6  7-1/4| 0   7  0 | 11 19 7-1/4 |            |
+  +-----+-------+----------+------------+----------+-------------+------------+
+
+The furze is a member of the family _Leguminosæ_, which includes so many
+useful plants, such as, for example, the pea, the bean, and the clovers.
+There are three varieties of it met with in this country--namely, the
+common furze, _Ulex europæus_, the dwarf furze, _Ulex nanus_, and the
+Irish, or upright furze, _Ulex strictus_.
+
+The common furze is a hardy shrub, and grows luxuriantly at an elevation
+far higher than the limits of cereal cultivation. It flourishes on any
+kind of soil which is moderately dry, and heavy crops may easily be
+raised on uplands almost incapable of producing grass. The dwarf furze
+is never cultivated, but as it grows at a still greater elevation, and
+on a poorer soil than the larger varieties, it might be profitably
+cultivated on very high uplands. The Irish furze yields a softer and
+less prickly food than the other kinds, but as it does not usually bear
+seed, and must therefore be propagated by cuttings, its cultivation has
+hitherto been limited to but a few localities.
+
+The produce of an acre of furze appears to be at least equal to that
+of an acre of good meadow. The Rev. Mr. Townsend of Aghada, county of
+Cork--the most zealous and successful advocate for the cultivation of
+this plant--informed me that he had obtained so much as 14 tons per
+acre; a fact which proves that the furze is a plant which is well
+deserving of the attention of the farmer.
+
+Furze is an excellent food for every kind of stock. Cattle, although
+they may at first appear not to relish its prickly shoots, soon acquire
+a fondness for it. I have known several instances of herds being fed
+almost if not entirely on the bruised plant, and to keep in good
+condition. The late Professor Murphy, of Cork, stated that on the farm
+of Mr. Boulger, near Mallow, thirty-five cows were fed on crushed furze,
+which they "devoured voraciously." Each animal received daily from four
+to six stones of the crushed plant, to which were added a little turnip
+pulp and a small quantity of oats. The milk and butter yielded by these
+cows were considered excellent. In a letter addressed to me by a very
+intelligent feeder, Mr. John Walsh,[28] of Stedalt, county of Dublin,
+the following remarks in relation to this subject are made:--
+
+    I had lately an opportunity of seeing a herd of cattle of about
+    sixty head, of which twenty had been fed with furze prepared with
+    my machine for about six weeks before being put out to grass. The
+    condition of these was so superior that I pointed out every one of
+    them, one after the other, out of the herd. The owner of the cattle
+    had made the same observation; it was new to him but not to me.
+
+
+Furze is seldom given to sheep or pigs, but I believe that it might with
+advantage enter into the dietary of those animals. Some of my friends
+who have lately tried it with pigs report favorably as to its effects.
+Horses partly fed upon this plant keep in good condition; it is usually
+given to them cut merely into lengths of half an inch or an inch, but it
+would be better to give it to them finely bruised. A horse during the
+night will eat a much larger quantity of coarsely cut furze than of the
+well bruised article, because he is obliged to expend a great deal of
+muscular power in bruising the furze, and must, consequently, use an
+additional quantity of the food to make up for the corresponding waste
+of tissue.
+
+Until quite recently, the chemistry of the furze was very little
+studied. The analysis of this plant made many years ago by Sprengel
+gave results which, in the present advanced condition of agricultural
+chemistry, are quite valueless. The late Professor Johnston merely
+determined its amount of water, organic matter, and ash. I believe I was
+the first to make a complete investigation into the composition of this
+plant according to the methods of modern chemical analysis. I made two
+examinations. The first was of shoots cut on the 25th April, 1860, on
+the lands of Mr. Walsh of Stedalt, near Balbriggan, in the county of
+Dublin. The shoots were, in great part, composed of that year's growth,
+with a small proportion of the shoots of the previous year. They were
+very moist, and their spines, or thorns, were rather soft. Their
+centesimal composition was as follows:--
+
+  Water                                                    78·05
+  Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles                  2·18
+  Fat-forming principles (oil, starch, sugar, gum, &c.)     8·20
+  Woody fibre                                              10·17
+  Mineral matter (ash)                                      1·40
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100·00
+
+The second analysis was made of furze cut on the 15th August, 1862.
+The following were the results obtained:--
+
+  Water                                                    72·00
+  Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles                  3·21
+  Oil                                                       1·18
+  Other fat-forming principles (starch, gum, &c.)           8·20
+  Woody fibre                                              13·33
+  Mineral matter                                            2·08
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100·00
+
+The specimen was allowed to lie for a few days in a dry room, so that
+it lost a little water whilst in my possession, before it was subjected
+to analysis.
+
+The sample cut in August contained a larger amount of nutriment than
+the specimen analysed in the spring; but its constituents appeared to
+be much less soluble in water, and therefore, less digestible.
+
+Professor Blyth, of the Queen's College, Cork, has more recently made
+a very elaborate analysis of furze, grown in the county of Cork, which
+gave results still more favorable to the plant than those arrived at
+by me--probably because the specimens furnished to him were drier than
+mine.
+
+  ANALYSIS OF FRESH FURZE, BY DR. BLYTH.
+
+  100 parts contain:--
+
+  _Matters readily soluble in water and easily digested._
+
+  [*] Albuminous, or flesh-forming compounds                1·68
+  Fat and heat-producing, or respiratory elements,
+     viz., sugar, gum, &c. &c.                              7·83
+  Ash                                                       0·83
+                                                           -----
+  Total matters soluble in water                                 10·34
+       [* Containing nitrogen                               0·265]
+
+  _Matters insoluble in water._
+
+  Oil                                                       2·14
+  [+] Albuminous, or flesh-producing compounds              2·83
+  Fat and heat-producing, or respiratory elements           1·00
+  Woody fibre                                              28·80
+  Ash                                                       3·23
+                                                           -----
+  Total matters insoluble in water                               38·00
+  Water, expelled at 212                                         51·50
+                                                                 -----
+                                                                 99·48
+  Total nitrogen in plant                                   0·71
+  Total albuminous, or flesh-producing compounds            4·51
+  Total respiratory, or heat and fat-producing compounds    8·83
+  Total ash                                                 4·06
+     The ash contains in 100 parts:--
+  Potash                                                   20·00
+  Phosphoric acid                                           8·72
+       [+ Containing nitrogen                               0·445]
+
+If the large per-centage of water be deducted, the dry, nutritive
+matters can then be more readily compared with the amount of the same
+substances in other feeding articles:--
+
+  _Composition of 100 parts of furze dried at 212°. Matters soluble in
+  water in the dry furze._
+
+  [*] Albuminous compounds                                  3·47
+  Respiratory elements                                     16·15
+  Ash                                                       1·71
+                                                          ------
+  Total matters soluble in water                                 21·33
+       [* Containing nitrogen                               0·546]
+
+
+  _Matters insoluble in water in the dry furze._
+
+  Oil                                                       4·41
+  [+] Albuminous compounds                                  5·84
+  Respiratory elements                                      2·06
+  Woody fibre                                              59·38
+  Ash                                                       6·66
+                                                          ------
+  Total matters insoluble in water                               78·35
+                                                                 -----
+                                                                 99·68
+
+  Total nitrogen in dry furze                               1·46
+  Total albuminous compounds                                9·13
+  Total respiratory elements                               18·20
+  Total ash                                                 8·36
+  [+ Containing nitrogen                                    0·917]
+
+  _Composition of ash per cent._
+
+  Potash                                                   20·00
+  Phosphoric Acid.                                          8·72
+
+The results of these analyses show that dry furze contains an amount
+of nutriment equal to that found in dry grass. The nature of its
+composition resembles, as might be expected, that of its allied plants,
+vetches, &c., and therefore it exceeds the grasses in its amount of
+ready formed fatty matter.
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+STRAW AND HAY.
+
+_Straw._--At the present time, when the attention of the farmer is
+becoming more and more devoted to the production of meat, it is very
+desirable that his knowledge of the exact nutritive value of the various
+feeding substances should be more extensive than it is. No doubt, most
+feeders are practically acquainted with the relative value of corn and
+oil-cake--of Swedish turnips and white turnips; but their knowledge of
+the food equivalents of many other substances is still very defective.
+For example, every farmer is not aware that Indian corn is a more
+economical food than beans for fattening cattle, and less so for beasts
+of burthen. Locust-beans, oat-dust, malt-combings, and many other
+articles, occasionally consumed by stock, have not, as yet, determinate
+places assigned to them in the feeder's scale of food equivalents.
+
+The points involved in the economic feeding of stock are not quite
+so simple as some farmers, more especially those of the amateur
+class, appear to believe. There are many feeders who sell their
+half-finished cattle at a profit, and yet they cannot, without loss,
+convert their stock into those obese monsters which are so much
+admired at agricultural shows. The complete fattening of cattle is
+a losing business with some feeders, and a profitable one with others.
+Stall-feeding is a branch of rural economy which, perhaps more than any
+other, requires the combination of "science with practice;" yet how few
+feeders are there who have the slightest knowledge of the composition of
+food substances, or who are agreed as to the feeding value, absolute or
+relative, of even such well-known materials as oil-cake, straw, or oats!
+"It is thus seen how inexact are the equivalents which are understood to
+be established for the different foods used for the maintenance of the
+animals. It is equally plain, when we reflect on the different methods
+pursued for the preservation of the animals, that we are still far
+from having attained that perfection towards which our efforts tend.
+Visit one hundred farms, taken by chance in different parts of the
+country, and you will find in each, methods directly opposite--a totally
+peculiar manner of managing the stalls; you will see, in short, that the
+conditions of food, of treatment, and of hygiene, remain not understood
+in seven-eighths of rural farms."[29]
+
+The straws of the cereal and leguminous plants are a striking
+illustration of the erroneous opinions and practices which prevail
+amongst agriculturists with respect to particular branches of their
+calling. The German farmers regard straw as the most valuable
+constituent of home-made fertilisers, and their leases in general
+prohibit their selling off the straw produced on their farms. Yet
+chemical analysis has clearly proved that the manurial value of straw is
+perfectly insignificant, and that, as a constituent of stable manure, it
+is chiefly useful as an absorbent of the liquid egesta of the animals
+littered upon it. As food for stock, straw was at one time regarded by
+our farmers as almost perfectly innutritious; some even went so far as
+to declare that it possessed no nutriment whatever, and even those who
+used it, did so more with the view of correcting the too watery nature
+of turnips, than with the expectation of its being assimilated to the
+animal body. Within the last few years, however, straw has been largely
+employed by several of the most intelligent and successful feeders in
+England, who report so favorably upon it as an economical feeding stuff,
+that it has risen considerably in the estimation of a large section
+of the agricultural public. Now, even without adopting the very high
+opinion which Mechi and Horsfall entertain relative to the nutritive
+power of straw, I am altogether disposed to disagree with those who
+affirm that its application should be restricted to manurial purposes.
+Unless under circumstances where there is an urgent demand for straw as
+litter, that article should be used as food for stock, for which purpose
+it will be found, if of good quality, and given in a proper state, a
+most economical kind of dry fodder--equal, if not superior to hay, when
+the prices of both articles are considered.
+
+The composition of straw is very different from that of grain.
+The former contains no starch, but it includes an exceedingly high
+proportion of woody fibre; the latter is in great part composed of
+starch, and contains but an insignificant amount of woody fibre. Dr.
+Voelcker, the consulting chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society of
+England, and Dr. Anderson, chemist to the Highland and Agricultural
+Society of Scotland, have made a large number of analyses of the straws
+of the cereal and leguminous plants, the results of which are of the
+highest interest to the agriculturist. In the following tables the more
+important results of these investigations are given:--
+
+  ANALYSES OF STRAW, BY DR. VOELCKER.
+
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  |                          |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |                          |  No. 1.  | No. 2. | No. 3. | No. 4. | No. 5. |
+  |                          |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |                          |  Wheat,  | Wheat, | Barley,| Barley,|  Oat,  |
+  |                          |just ripe |  over  |  dead  |not too |  cut   |
+  |                          | and well |  ripe. |  ripe. |  ripe. | green. |
+  |                          |harvested.|        |        |        |        |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  | Water                    |   13·33  |   9·17 |  15·20 |  17·50 |  16·00 |
+  | Albumen, and other       |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |  protein compounds:--    |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |   _a_. Soluble in water  |    1·28  |   0·06 |   0·68 | \      |   5·51 |
+  |                          |          |        |        |  }5·73 |        |
+  |   _b_. Insoluble in water|    1·65  |   2·06 |   3·75 | /      |   2·98 |
+  |                          |          |        |        |        |        |
+  | Oil                      |    1·74  |   0·65 |   1·36 |   1·17 |   1·57 |
+  | Sugar, mucilage,         |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |   extractive matters,    |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |   &c. (soluble in water) |    4·26  |   3·46 |   2·24 |\       |  16·04 |
+  | Digestible woody         |          |        |        | \      |        |
+  |   fibre and cellulose    |   19·40  |\       |   5·97 |  }71·44|  26·34 |
+  | Indigestible             |          | }82·26 |        | /      |        |
+  |   fibre &c.              |   54·13  |/       |  66·54 |/       |  24·86 |
+  | Inorganic matter:--      |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |      _a._ Soluble        |    1·13  |   1·29 |   2·88 | \      |   5·76 |
+  |                          |          |        |        |  }4·52 |        |
+  |      _b._ Insoluble      |    3·08  |   1·05 |   0·38 | /      |   0·94 |
+  |                          +----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  |                          |  100·00  | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  |                          |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |                          |  No. 6.  | No. 7. | No. 8. | No. 9. | No. 10.|
+  |                          |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |                          | Oat, cut |  Oat,  |  Bean. |  Pea.  | Flax   |
+  |                          |   when   |  over  |        |        | Chaff. |
+  |                          |  fairly  |  ripe. |        |        |        |
+  |                          |   ripe.  |        |        |        |        |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  | Water                    |   16·00  | 16·00  |  19·40 |  16·02 |  14·60 |
+  | Albumen, and other       |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |  protein compounds:--    |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |   _a_. Soluble in water  |    2·62  |  1·29  |   1·51 |   3·96 | \      |
+  |                          |          |        |        |        |  }4·75 |
+  |   _b_. Insoluble in water|    1·46  |  2·36  |   1·85 |   5·90 | /      |
+  |                          |          |        |        |        |        |
+  | Oil                      |    1·05  |  1·25  |   1·02 |   2·34 |   2·82 |
+  | Sugar, mucilage,         |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |   extractive matters,    |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |   &c. (soluble in water) |   10·57  |  3·19  |   4·18 |   8·32 |   8·72 |
+  | Digestible woody         |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |   fibre and cellulose    |   30·17  | 27·75  |   2·75 |  17·74 |  18·56 |
+  | Indigestible             |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |   fibre &c.              |   31·78  | 41·82  |  65·58 |  42·79 |  43·12 |
+  | Inorganic matter:--      |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |      _a._ Soluble        |    3·64  |  2·26  |   2·31 |   2·72 |   4·07 |
+  |                          |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |      _b._ Insoluble      |    2·71  |  4·08  |   1·40 |   2·21 |   3·36 |
+  |                          +----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  |                          |  100·00  | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+
+  [.·.] This table contains in a condensed form all the results of
+  Voelcker's analyses of the straws which are given in his paper published
+  in the _Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England_, vol. xxii.,
+  part 2. 1862.
+
+  Nos. 5, 6, and 7 were analysed shortly after being cut, when they
+  contained a high proportion of water. They have, therefore, been
+  calculated to contain 16 per cent. of moisture so as to arrive at
+  accurate relative results.
+
+
+  ANALYSES OF STRAW, BY DR. ANDERSON.
+
+  +----------------+-----------------+---------+-----------------+--------+
+  |                |                 |         |                 |        |
+  |                |                 |  Wheat  |                 | Barley |
+  |                |   Wheat from    |  from   |   Barley from   |  from  |
+  |                |  East Lothian.  |  Kent.  |  East Lothian.  |  Kent. |
+  |                |                 |         |                 |        |
+  |                |                 |         |                 |        |
+  |                +--------+--------+---------+--------+--------+--------+
+  |Water           |  10·62 |  10·93 |   11·15 |  11·44 |  11·15 |  11·10 |
+  |Flesh-formers-- |        |        |         |        |        |        |
+  |    Soluble     |   0·86 |   0·37 |    1·37 |   1·42 |   0·39 |   0·66 |
+  |    Insoluble   |   0·51 |   1·12 |    1·00 |   1·54 |   1·12 |   1·98 |
+  |Oil             |   0·80 |   1·00 |    1·50 |   0·97 |   0·88 |   1·05 |
+  |                |        |        |         |        |        |        |
+  |Respiratory     |        |        |         |        |        |        |
+  |  elements--    |        |        |         |        |        |        |
+  |    Soluble     |   2·68 |   6·68 |    5·26 |   3·22 |   6·11 |   4·56 |
+  |    Insoluble   |  44·88 |  36·43 |   38·79 |  35·56 |  38·38 |  27·95 |
+  |Woody fibre     |  32·88 |  34·78 |   35·01 |  41·34 |  36·62 |  47·53 |
+  |Ash             |   6·20 |   8·04 |    6·32 |   4·21 |   5·62 |   4·85 |
+  |                +--------+--------+---------+--------+--------+--------+
+  |                |  99·43 |  99·35 |  100·40 |  99·70 | 100·27 |  99·68 |
+  +----------------+--------+--------+---------+--------+--------+--------+
+
+  +----------------+---------------+--------+----------+---------+--------+
+  |                |               |  Oat   | Oat from |         |  Oat   |
+  |                |   Sandy Oat   | from   | 850 feet |Oat from |  from  |
+  |                |     from      |  Sea   |   above  |Mellhill,|  Kent  |
+  |                | East Lothian. | level  |Sea level,|Inchture,| (White |
+  |                |               |  East  |   East   |Scotland.|  one   |
+  |                |               |Lothian.| Lothian. |         | side.) |
+  |                +-------+-------+--------+----------+---------+--------+
+  |Water           | 11·70 | 10·95 | 12·60  |   11·28  |  11·70  |  10·55 |
+  |Flesh-formers-- |       |       |        |          |         |        |
+  |    Soluble     |  0·40 |  1·03 |  0·67  |    0·92  |   0·95  |   0·33 |
+  |    Insoluble   |  0·93 |  0·43 |  0·38  |    0·39  |   1·21  |   0·33 |
+  |Oil             |  1·45 |  0·77 |  1·25  |    1·36  |   1·60  |   1·00 |
+  |                |       |       |        |          |         |        |
+  |Respiratory     |       |       |        |          |         |        |
+  |  elements--    |       |       |        |          |         |        |
+  |    Soluble     | 10·12 |  6·90 |  7·16  |    7·42  |  12·01  |   6·23 |
+  |    Insoluble   | 33·52 | 34·77 | 24·28  |   29·55  |  23·35  |  30·95 |
+  |Woody fibre     | 35·36 | 38·73 | 48·49  |   44·40  |  45·27  |  47·40 |
+  |Ash             |  6·36 |  6·28 |  5·11  |    5·07  |   3·95  |   3·62 |
+  |                +-------+-------+--------+----------+---------+--------+
+  |                | 99·84 | 99·86 | 99·94  |  100·39  | 100·14  | 100·41 |
+  +----------------+-------+-------+--------+----------+---------+--------+
+
+  [.·.] This table is compiled from Dr. Anderson's paper in the
+  Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland
+  for March, 1862.
+
+
+Many very important conclusions are deducible from the facts recorded
+in these valuable tables. We learn from them that straw is more
+nutritious when it is cut in the ripe state than when it is permitted
+to over-ripen, and that _green_ straw contains a far greater amount of
+nutriment than is found even in the ripe article. It appears also that
+the least nutritious kind of straw equals the best variety of turnips in
+its amount of flesh-forming principles, and greatly exceeds them in its
+proportion of fat-forming elements. We further learn that in general the
+different kinds of straw will be found to stand in the following order,
+the most nutritious occupying the highest, and the least nutritious the
+lowest place:--
+
+  1. Pea-haulm.
+  2. Oat-straw.
+  3. Bean-straw with the pods.
+  4. Barley-straw.
+  5. Wheat-straw.
+  6. Bean-stalks without the pods.
+
+It is a matter to be regretted that we possess so little accurate
+knowledge of the chemical composition of the plants cultivated in
+Ireland. No doubt the analyses of English grown wheat, beans, mangels,
+and other plants, serve to give us a general idea of the nature of those
+vegetables when produced in this country. But this kind of information,
+though very important, must necessarily be defective, as differences
+in climate modify--often to a considerable extent--the composition of
+almost every vegetable. Thus, the results of Anderson's analyses prove
+Scotch oats to be superior, as a feeding stuff, to Scotch barley,
+whilst, according to Voelcker and the experience of most English
+feeders, the barley of parts of England is superior to its oats. It
+follows, then, that whilst the results of the analyses of straw, made by
+Voelcker and Anderson are of great interest to the Irish farmer, they
+would be still more important to him had the straw to which they relate
+been the produce of Irish soil. In order, therefore, to enable the Irish
+farmer to form a correct estimate of the value of his straw, we should
+put him in possession of a more perfect knowledge of its composition
+than that which is derivable from the investigations to which I have
+referred. The straws of the cereals--which alone are used here to any
+extent--should be analysed as carefully and as frequently as those of
+Great Britain have been; and if such were done, I have no doubt but that
+the results would indicate a decided difference in composition between
+the produce of the two countries. Some time ago I entered upon what, at
+the time, I had intended should be a complete investigation into the
+composition of Irish straws; but which want of time prevented me from
+making more than a partial one. The results are given in the following
+tables:--
+
+  ANALYSES OF IRISH OAT-STRAW.
+
+  --------------------------------+--------+------------------------------
+                                  | No. 1. |Obtained in the Dublin Market.
+                                  |From Co.+---------+---------+----------
+                                  |Wicklow.|  No. 2. |  No. 3. |  No. 4.
+  --------------------------------+--------+---------+---------+----------
+  Water                           |  14·00 |  14·00  |  14·00  |  14·00
+  Flesh-forming principles--      |        |         |         |
+    _a._ Soluble in water         |   4·08 |   2·02  |   2·04  |   1·46
+    _b._ Insoluble in water       |   2·09 |   3·16  |   3·00  |   2·23
+  Oil                             |   1·84 |   1·40  |   1·26  |   1·00
+  Sugar, gum, and other           |        |         |         |
+    fat-forming matters           |  13·79 |  12·67  |  10·18  |  11·16
+  Woody fibre                     |  59·96 |  61·79  |  65·45  |  65·29
+  Mineral matter                  |   4·24 |   4·96  |   4·07  |   4·86
+                                  +--------+---------+---------+----------
+                                  | 100·00 | 100·00  | 100·00  | 100·00
+  --------------------------------+--------+---------+---------+----------
+
+All the specimens of oats, the analyses of which are given in the
+preceding table, are assumed to contain 14 per cent. of water, in order
+the more correctly to compare their nutritive value. No. 1 contained
+18·23 per cent. of water; No. 2, 12·90; No. 3, 12·74; and No. 4, 12·08.
+Oat straw, before its removal from the field, often contains nearly half
+its weight of water; but after being for some time stacked, the
+proportion of moisture rarely exceeds 14 per cent.
+
+  ANALYSES OF IRISH WHEAT-STRAW.
+
+  -----------------------+--------+-------+-------+-----------------------
+                         | No. 1. | No. 2.|No. 3. |
+                         | Green, |       |       | Obtained in the Dublin
+                         |changing|       |       |        Markets.
+                         |   to   |       | Over  |
+                         | yellow.| Ripe. | Ripe. +-----------------------
+                         | County |County |County |       |       |
+                         |Kildare.|Dublin.|Dublin.| No. 4.| No. 5.| No. 6.
+  -----------------------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
+  Water                  |  13·00 |  13·15|  12·14|  10·88|  11·22|  12·12
+  Flesh-forming          |        |       |       |       |       |
+    principles--         |        |       |       |       |       |
+    _a._ Soluble in      |        |       |       |       |       |
+          water          |   1·25 |   0·98|   0·44|   0·06|   0·42|   0·30
+    _b._ Insoluble in    |        |       |       |       |       |
+          water          |   1·26 |   1·40|   1·41|   1·90|   1·00|   1·76
+  Oil                    |   1·22 |   1·13|   1·14|   0·90|   1·17|   1·08
+  Sugar, gum, and other  |        |       |       |       |       |
+     fat-forming matters |   4·18 |   3·98|   3·88|   4·08|   3·89|   4·30
+  Woody fibre            |  75·84 |  76·17|  77·76|  78·67|  79·18|  77·15
+  Mineral matter (ash)   |   3·25 |   3·19|   3·23|   3·51|   3·12|   3·29
+                         +--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
+                         | 100·00 | 100·00| 100·00| 100·00| 100·00| 100·00
+  -----------------------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
+
+The results of these analyses are somewhat different from those arrived
+at by Voelcker and Anderson. They show that properly harvested Irish
+oat and wheat straws are far more valuable than those of Scotland, and
+somewhat less nutritive than those produced in England. They also
+show that wheat-straw is allowed to over-ripen, by which a very large
+proportion of its nutritive principles is eliminated and altogether
+lost, and a considerable part of the remainder converted into an
+insoluble, and therefore less easily digestible state. Nor is there any
+advantage to the grain gained by allowing it to remain uncut after the
+upper portion of the stem has changed from a green to a yellowish color;
+on the contrary, it also loses a portion--often a very considerable
+one--of its nitrogenous, or flesh-forming constituents. It has been
+clearly proved that wheat cut when green, yields a greater amount of
+grain, and of a better quality too, than when it is allowed to ripen
+fully; yet, how often do we not see fields of wheat in this country
+allowed to remain unreaped for many days, and even weeks, after the
+crop has attained to its full development!
+
+The oat-straw obtained in the Dublin Market proved less valuable than
+the green straw which I selected myself from a field of oats; but the
+discrepancy between them was far less than between the nearly ripe
+wheat-straw and the straw of that plant purchased in Dublin. During
+visits which I have paid in harvest-time to the North of Ireland, I
+noticed that the oats were generally cut whilst green, whereas wheat was
+almost invariably left standing for at least a week after its perfect
+maturation, probably for the following reasons:--Firstly, because
+oats are more liable to shed their seed; secondly, because there is
+a greater breadth of that crop to be reaped, which necessitates an
+early beginning; and, lastly, because most farmers know that over-ripe
+oat-straw is worth but little for feeding purposes, as compared with
+the greenish-yellow article.
+
+As compared with white turnips, the nutritive value of oat-straw stands
+very high, for whilst the former contains but little more than 1 per
+cent. of flesh-formers, and less than 5 per cent. of fat-formers, the
+latter includes about 4 per cent. of flesh-formers, and 13 per cent. of
+fat-formers. Again, whilst the amount of woody fibre in turnips is only
+about 3 per cent., that substance constitutes no less than 60 per cent.
+of oat-straw. In comparison with hay--taking into consideration the
+prices of both articles--oat-straw also stands high, as will be seen
+by comparing the following analyses of common meadow hay with that of
+properly harvested straw:--
+
+                                       Meadow Hay.       Oat Straw.
+
+  Water                                   14·61            14·00
+  Flesh-forming constituents               8·44             6·17
+  Respiratory and fatty matters           43·63            15·63
+  Woody fibre                             27·16            59·96
+  Mineral matter (ash)                     6·16             4·24
+                                         ------           ------
+                                         100·00           100·00
+
+Woody fibre is as abundant a constituent of the straw of the cereals
+as starch is of their seeds, and if the two substances were equally
+digestible, straw would be a very valuable food--superior even to the
+potato. At one time it was the general belief that woody fibre was
+incapable of contributing in the slightest degree to the nutrition of
+animals, but the results of recent investigations prove that it is, to a
+certain extent, digestible. In the summer of 1859 two German chemists,
+Stöckhardt and Sussdorf, made a series of experiments, with the view
+of ascertaining whether or not the cellulose[30] of the food of the
+sheep is assimilated by that animal. The results of this inquiry are of
+importance, seeing that they clearly prove that even the hardest kind of
+cellulose--_sclerogen_, in fact--is capable of being assimilated by the
+Ruminants. The animals selected were two wethers, aged respectively five
+and six years. They were fed--firstly, upon hay alone; secondly, upon
+hay and rye-straw; thirdly upon hay and the sawdust of poplar wood,
+which had been exhausted with lye (to induce the sheep to eat the
+sawdust, it was found necessary to mix through it some rye-bran and a
+little salt); fourthly, hay and pine-wood sawdust, to which was added
+bran and salt; fifthly, spruce sawdust, bran and salt; sixthly, hay,
+pulp of linen rags (from the paper-maker), and bran. The experiments
+were carried on from July till November, excepting a short time, during
+which the animals were turned out on pasture-land, to recover from the
+injurious effects of the fifth series of experiments--produced probably
+by the resin of the spruce. The animals, together with their food,
+drink, and egesta, were weighed daily. The amount of cellulose in the
+food was determined, and the proportion of that substance in the egesta
+was also ascertained; and as there was a considerable discrepancy
+between the two amounts, it was evident that the difference represented
+the weight of the cellulose assimilated by the animals. In this way it
+was ascertained that from 60 to 70 per cent. of the cellulose of hay,
+40 to 60 per cent. of the cellulose of straw, 45 to 50 per cent. of the
+cellulose of the poplar wood, 30 to 40 per cent. of the cellulose of the
+pine, and 80 per cent. of the cellulose of the paper pulp was digested.
+
+In stating the results of his analyses of the straws, Professor Voelcker
+sets down as "digestible" that portion of the cellulose which he found
+to be soluble in dilute acids and alkaline solutions; but he admits that
+the solvents in the stomach might dissolve a larger amount. The results
+of the experiments of Stöckhardt and Sussdorf prove that 80 per cent. of
+the cellulose of paper (the altered fibre of flax) is assimilable, and
+it is, therefore, not unreasonable to infer that the cellulose of a more
+palatable substance than paper might be altogether digestible.
+
+The facts which I have adduced clearly prove that the straws of the
+cereals possess a far higher nutritive power than is commonly ascribed
+to them; that when properly harvested they contain from 20 to 40 per
+cent. of undoubted nutriment; and lastly, that it is highly probable
+that their so-called indigestible woody fibre is to a great extent
+assimilable.
+
+The composition of cellulose is nearly, if not quite, identical with
+that of starch, and it may therefore be assumed to be equal in nutritive
+power to that substance--that is, it will, if assimilated, be converted
+into four-tenths of its weight of fat. Now as cellulose forms from
+six-tenths to eight-tenths of the weight of straws, it is evident that
+if the whole of this substance were digestible, straws would be an
+exceedingly valuable fattening food. When straw in an unprepared state
+is consumed, there is no doubt but that a large proportion of its
+cellulose remains unappropriated--nay more, it is equally certain that
+the hard woody fibre protects, by enveloping them, the soluble and
+easily digestible constituents of the straw from the action of the
+_gastric juice_. I would, therefore, recommend that straw should be
+either cooked or fermented before being made use of; in either of these
+states its constituents are far more digestible than when the straw
+is merely cut, or even when it is in the form of chaff. An excellent
+mode of treating straw is to reduce it to chaff, subject it to the
+action of steam, and mix it with roots and oil-cake or corn. Mr.
+Lawrence, of Cirencester, one of the most intelligent agriculturists
+in England, cooks his chaff, which he largely employs, in the following
+manner:--"We find that, taking a score of bullocks together fattening,
+they consume, per head per diem, 3 bushels of chaff mixed with just half
+a hundred-weight of pulped roots, exclusive of cake or corn; that is to
+say, rather more than 2 bushels of chaff are mixed with the roots, and
+given at two feeds, morning and evening, and the remainder is given
+with the cake, &c., at the middle day feed, thus:--We use the steaming
+apparatus of Stanley, of Peterborough, consisting of a boiler in the
+centre, in which the steam is generated, and which is connected by a
+pipe on the left hand with a large galvanised iron receptacle for
+steaming food for pigs, and on the right with a large wooden tub lined
+with copper, in which the cake, mixed with water, is made into a thick
+soup. Adjoining this is a slate tank of sufficient size to contain one
+feed for the entire lot of bullocks feeding. Into this tank is laid
+chaff, about one foot deep, upon which a few ladles of soup are thrown
+in a _boiling state_; this is thoroughly mixed with the chaff with a
+three-grained fork, and pressed down firm; and this process is repeated
+until the slate tank is full, when it is covered down for an hour or two
+before feeding time. The soup is then found entirely absorbed by the
+chaff, which has become softened, and prepared for ready digestion."
+A cheap plan is to mix the straw with sliced roots, moisten the mass
+with water, and allow it to remain until a slight fermentation has set
+in. This process effectually softens and disintegrates, so to speak, the
+woody fibre, and sets free the stores of nutritious matters which it
+envelopes. Some farmers who hold straw in high estimation, prefer giving
+it just as it comes from the field; they base this practice on the
+belief that Ruminants require a bulky and solid food, and that their
+digestive powers are quite sufficient to effect the solution of all the
+useful constituents of the straw. It may be quite true that cattle, as
+asserted, can extract more nutriment out of straw than horses can, but
+that merely proves the greater power of their digestive organs. No doubt
+the food of the Ruminants should be bulky; but I am quite sure that
+cooked or fermented straw is sufficiently so to satisfy the desire of
+those animals for quantity in their food.
+
+So far as I can learn, all the carefully conducted feeding experiments
+to test the value of straw which have been made, have yielded results
+highly favorable to that article. Mr. Blundell, in a paper on "The Use
+and Abuse of Straw," read before the Botley (Hampshire) Farmer's Club,
+states that in his experience he found straw to be more economical than
+its equivalent of roots or oil-cake, in the feeding of all kinds of
+cattle:--
+
+    I find (says Mr. Blundell) that dairy cows, in the winter months,
+    if fed on large quantities of roots, particularly mangels and
+    carrots, will refuse to eat straw almost entirely, and become
+    very lean; but they will always eat a full portion of sweet,
+    well-harvested straw, when they get a small and moderate allowance
+    of roots, say, for an ordinary-sized cow, 15 lbs. of mangel three
+    times per day, the roots being given whole, just in the state they
+    come from the store heap. Again, calves and yearlings being fed
+    with roots in the same way, will eat a large quantity of straw, and
+    when they have been kept under cover I have had them in first-rate
+    condition for many years past. Also, in fattening beasts, when they
+    get a fair allowance of roots, say 65 to 70 lbs. per day, with
+    from 3 to 4 lbs. of cake or meal in admixture, they will eat straw
+    with great avidity, and do well upon it, and make a profit. It is,
+    however, often the case that bullocks receive 100 lbs., or upwards,
+    of roots per day, with a large quantity of cake or meal, often
+    10 or 12 lbs. per day; they will not then look at straw, and are
+    obliged to be fed with hay. The cost price of these quantities
+    and kinds of food stands so high that the animals do not yield a
+    profit; for although they may make meat a little faster, yet the
+    proportionate increase is nothing compared to the increased cost
+    of the feeding materials used.
+
+
+Mr. Blundell gives us also the tabulated results of one of his
+experiments, which prove that by the use of straw there is to be
+obtained something more than manure by the feeding of stock:--
+
+  COST OF FEEDING AN OX PER WEEK WITH STRAW, ETC.,
+  ACCORDING TO MR. BLUNDELL.
+
+                                                       s.  d.
+   4 lbs. of oil-cake per day,
+          or 38 lbs. per week, at £10 per ton          2   6
+  64 lbs. of roots ditto,
+          or 4 cwt. ditto, at 13s. 4d. ditto           2   8
+  20 lbs. of straw feeding,
+          or 1-1/4 cwt. ditto, at 30s. ditto           1  10-1/2
+  20 lbs. of straw litter,
+          or 1-1/4 cwt. ditto, at 15s. ditto           0  11
+
+          Attendance, &c., per week                    0   1
+                                                      ----------
+                                                       8   0-1/2
+          Deduct value of manure, per week             1   3-1/2
+                                                      ----------
+                                                       6   9
+          Increased value of ox per week              10   0
+          Deduct cost of feeding                       6   9
+                                                      ----------
+                                                       3   3
+
+If we now turn to the study of the composition of straw regarded from
+an economic point of view, we shall find that the theoretical deductions
+therefrom harmonise with the results of actual feeding experiments. Let
+us assume that 100 parts of oat-straw contain on an average--
+
+   1 part of oil,
+   4 parts of flesh-formers,
+  10 parts of sugar, gum, and other fat-formers, and
+  30 parts of digestible fibre;
+
+and if the price of the straw be 30s. per ton, we shall have at that
+cost the following quantities of digestible substances:--
+
+  ONE TON OF OAT-STRAW, AT 30s., CONTAINS:--
+
+                                                            lbs.
+
+  [31] Oil                                                  22·4
+  Flesh-forming principles                                  89·6
+  Sugar, gum, and other fat-forming substances             224·0
+  Digestible fibre                                         672·0
+                                                         -------
+                                                         1,008·0
+  [32] Total amount of fat-formers, calculated as starch   952·0
+  Add flesh-formers                                         89·6
+                                                         -------
+  Total amount of nutritive matter                       1,041·6
+
+We shall now compare this table with a similar one in relation to the
+composition of linseed cake, which will place the greater comparative
+value of straw in a clearer light.
+
+A fair sample of linseed-cake contains, centesimally--
+
+  Flesh-formers                                               26
+  Oil                                                         12
+  Gum, mucilage, sugar, &c.                                   34
+  Woody fibre                                                  6
+
+  ONE TON OF LINSEED CAKE, AT £11, CONTAINS:--
+
+                                                            lbs.
+
+  Flesh-forming principles                                 582·4
+  Oil                                                      268·8
+  Gum, sugar, and other fat-formers                        761·6
+  Woody fibre                                               74·4
+                                                         -------
+                                                         1,687·2
+  Total amount of fat-formers, calculated as starch      1,508·0
+  Add flesh-formers                                        582·4
+                                                         -------
+  Total amount of nutriment                              2,090·4
+
+These comparisons are very instructive and important. We learn from
+them that we pay £11 for 2,000 lbs. of nutriment, when we purchase a
+ton of linseed-cake, whereas, when we invest 30s. in a ton of straw, we
+receive 1,000 lbs. of digestible aliment. It cannot be said that I have
+strained any points in favour of the straw; on the contrary, I believe
+that when that article is cut in proper season and well harvested,
+its composition will be found far superior to that detailed in the
+comparative analysis. It must be borne in mind, too, that I take no
+account of the 30 per cent. of the so-called indigestible woody fibre
+which straw contains, and which, I believe, is partly assimilable
+under ordinary circumstances, and could be rendered nearly altogether
+digestible by proper treatment; on the other hand, I have assumed that
+the woody fibre of the oil-cake is completely digestible, although
+I believe it is in reality less so than the fibre of straw.
+
+It is an important point in the composition of oil-cakes, that they
+contain a large proportion of ready-formed fatty matters which can,
+with but little alteration, be at once transmuted into animal fat.
+There are some individuals of the genus _Homo_ to whose stomachs fat,
+_per se_, is intolerable; nevertheless, as a general rule, fatty
+substances exercise a favorable influence in the process of digestion,
+and, either in a separate state, or intimately commingled with other
+aliments, constitute a large proportion of the food of man. Digestion in
+the lower animals is, no doubt, similarly promoted by mixing with the
+aliments which are to be subjected to that process, a due proportion of
+oily or fatty matter. Straw is relatively deficient in the flesh-forming
+principles, and abounds in the fat-forming elements--of which, however,
+the most valuable, oil, is the least abundant. Now, if we add to straw
+a due proportion of some substance very rich in flesh-formers and oil,
+the compound will possess in nicely adjusted proportions all the
+elements of nutrition. Perhaps the best kind of food which we could
+employ for this purpose is linseed meal. It contains about 24 per
+cent. of flesh-formers, 35 per cent. of a very bland oil, and 24 per
+cent. of gum, sugar, and mucilage. Linseed-cake may be substituted for
+linseed-meal; but the meal, though its cost is 15 per cent. greater, is,
+I believe, rather the better article of the two. Its flesh-formers are
+more soluble, and its oil thrice more abundant and far more palatable
+than the same principles in most samples of oil-cake. An important
+point, too, is, that linseed, unlike linseed-cake, is not liable to
+adulteration. As linseed possesses laxative properties it cannot be
+largely employed; the addition, however, of bean-meal--the binding
+tendency of which is well known--to a diet partly composed of linseed
+will neutralise, so to speak, the relaxing influence of the oily seed.
+If oil-cakes be used as an adjunct to straw, rape-cake will be found
+more economical than linseed-cake. If it be free from mustard, well
+steamed, and flavored with a little treacle, or a small quantity of
+locust-beans, it will be readily consumed, and even relished, by dairy
+and fattening stock.
+
+_Hay._--There is no food substance more variable or more complex than
+hay, for under that term are included, not only mixtures of grasses,
+but also of leguminous plants--clover, for example. The herbage of no
+two meadows is exactly alike; and the composition of the meadow plants
+is so greatly modified by differences of climate, soil, and mode of
+culture, that we have nothing to excite our wonder in the extreme
+variability of hay.
+
+The composition of the hay made from clover, lucerne, and various other
+kinds of artificial grasses, is shown in the table--which is based on
+the results of Way's analyses:--
+
+  COMPOSITION OF THE HAY OF ARTIFICIAL GRASSES.
+
+                               +-------------------------------------------
+                               | KEY:
+                               | A.--Flesh-forming Substances.
+                               | B.--Fatty Matters.
+                               | C.--Respiratory Substances.
+                               | D.--Woody Fibre.
+                               | E.--Ash.
+                               | F.--Water.
+  -----------------------------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+-----
+                               |   A.  |  B.  |   C.  |   D.  |  E.  |  F.
+                               +-------+------+-------+-------+------+-----
+  Trifolium pratense--         |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Red clover                 | 18·79 | 3·06 | 37·06 | 16·46 | 7·97 | 16·6
+  Trifolium pratense perenne-- |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Purple clover              | 15·98 | 3·41 | 35·35 | 21·63 | 6·96 |   "
+  Trifolium incarnatum--       |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Crimson clover             | 13·83 | 3·11 | 31·25 | 26·99 | 8·15 |   "
+  Trifolium medium--           |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Cowgrass                   | 20·27 | 2·97 | 30·30 | 20·12 | 9·67 |   "
+  Do., second specimen         | 15·64 | 3·98 | 41·38 | 15·70 | 6·64 |   "
+  Trifolium procumbens--       |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Hop trefoil                | 17·07 | 3·89 | 36·55 | 18·88 | 6·94 |   "
+  Trifolium repens--           |       |      |       |       |      |
+    White trefoil              | 15·63 | 3·65 | 33·37 | 22·11 | 8·57 |   "
+  Vicia sativa--               |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Common Vetch               | 19·68 | 2·55 | 32·87 | 22·82 | 5·42 |   "
+  Vicia sepium--               |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Bush vetch                 | 19·23 | 2·40 | 27·62 | 25·87 | 8·21 |   "
+  Onobrychis sativa--          |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Sainfoin                   | 15·38 | 2·51 | 38·30 | 20·59 | 6·56 |   "
+  Medicago sativa--            |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Lucerne                    | 10·63 | 2·30 | 33·47 | 28·51 | 8·42 |   "
+  Medicago lupulina--          |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Yellow clover              | 20·50 | 3·38 | 27·76 | 22·66 | 9·03 |   "
+  Plantago lanceolata--        |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Rib grass                  | 11·91 | 3·06 | 33·58 | 27·56 | 7·23 |   "
+  Poterium sanguisorba--       |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Burnet                     | 13·96 | 3·34 | 39·50 | 19·89 | 6·64 |   "
+  Achillea millefolium--       |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Millefoil                  |  8·62 | 2·09 | 37·88 | 27·24 | 7·50 |   "
+                               +-------+------+-------+-------+------+-----
+         Mean                  | 15·81 | 3·18 | 34·42 | 22·47 | 7·59 | 16·6
+  -----------------------------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+-----
+
+Very many analyses of hay have been made by British and Continental
+chemists, the results of which are of great interest to the
+agriculturist. The composition of the natural and artificial grasses,
+which is shown in the tables given in pages 158-9 will, if we reduce
+their per-centage of water to 16, give us an approximation to the
+composition of hay. If the herbage, too, be sown in the proper time, and
+the hay-making process be skilfully conducted, there will be but little
+difference, except in the amount of water, between the plants in their
+fresh and dry state; but owing to inopportune wet weather, and
+carelessness in manipulation, excellent herbage is not unfrequently
+converted into inferior hay.
+
+According to Dr. Voelcker, the average composition of meadow-hay, as
+deduced from the results of twenty-five analyses, is as follows:--
+
+  Water                                                    14·61
+  Flesh-forming constituents                                8·44
+  Respiratory and fatty matters                            43·63
+  Woody fibre                                              27·16
+  Mineral matter (ash)                                      6·16
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100·00
+
+Dr. Anderson's analysis of meadow-hay, one year old, and of inferior
+quality, gave the following results:--
+
+  Water                                                    13·13
+  Flesh-forming matters                                     4·00
+  Non-nitrogenous substances                               77·61
+  Mineral matter                                            5·26
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100·00
+
+The results of the investigations of Way prove that the herbage of
+water-grass meadows is more nutritious than that of dry meadows--results
+perfectly harmonious with the experience of practical men.
+
+It is a somewhat general belief, that the aftermath, or second cutting,
+is less nutritious than the first cutting; but there appears to be no
+chemical difference between the two crops, provided they be saved under
+equally favorable conditions. According to Dr. Anderson, the composition
+of clover-hay of the second cutting is as follows:--
+
+  Water                                                    16·84
+  Flesh-forming principles                                 13·52
+  Non-nitrogenous matters                                  64·43
+  Mineral matter (ash)                                      5·21
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100·00
+
+I have already shown the importance of reaping in proper season--not
+less necessary is it to mow before the plants ripen fully, and even
+before they flower. The results of the experiments of Stöckhardt,
+Hellreigel, and Wolff, in relation to this point, are very interesting,
+and are well worthy of reproduction here.
+
+  RESULTS OF STÖCKHARDT'S AND HELLREIGEL'S EXPERIMENTS.
+
+  --------------------------+-----------------------++-----------------------
+                            |         Stem.         ||        Leaves.
+                            +-------+---------------||-------+---------------
+                            |       |      Hay.     ||       |      Hay.
+                            | Water +--------+------|| Water +--------+------
+                            |  in   |Flesh-  |      ||  in   |Flesh-  |
+                            | Fresh |forming | Ash. || Fresh |forming | Ash.
+                            | Plant.|Matters.|      || Plant.|Matters.|
+                            +-------+--------+------||-------+--------+------
+  Clover cut on the         |       |        |      ||       |        |
+    4th June, quite young   | 82·80 | 13·16  | 9·71 || 83·50 | 27·17  |  9·42
+    23rd " ready for cutting| 81·72 | 12·72  | 9·00 || 82·68 | 27·69  |  9·00
+    9th July, beginning to  |       |        |      ||       |        |
+      flower                | 82·41 | 12·40  | 6·12 || 77·77 | 15·83  | 10·46
+    29th July, full flower  | 78·30 |  9·28  | 4·63 || 70·80 | 19·20  |  9·58
+  21st August, ripe         | 69·40 |  6·75  | 4·82 || 65·70 | 18·94  | 12·33
+  --------------------------+-------+--------+------++-------+--------+------
+
+  RESULTS OF WOLFF'S EXPERIMENT.
+
+  -------------+------------------------------++-----------------------------
+               |           Red Clover.        ||         Alsike Clover.
+               +--------------+---------------++---------------+-------------
+               | Beginning    |    Full       ||  Beginning    |    Full
+               | to flower,   |   flower,     ||  to flower,   |   flower,
+               | 11th June.   |  25th June.   ||  23rd June.   |  29th June.
+               +--------------+---------------++-------+-------+------+------
+               |Fresh.| Hay.  | Fresh.| Hay.  || Fresh.| Hay.  |Fresh.| Hay.
+               +------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+------+------
+               | pct. | pct.  | pct.  | pct.  || pct.  | pct.  | pct. | pct.
+  Water        | 83·07| 16·66 | 76·41 | 10·66 || 86·98 | 16·66 | 82·60| 16·66
+  Ash          |  1·43|  7·04 |  1·67 |  5·90 ||  1·12 |  7·17 |  1·45|  6·94
+  Woody fibre  |  4·24| 20·87 |  8·88 | 37·37 ||  3·79 | 24·26 |  5·11| 24·47
+  Nutritive    |      |       |       |       ||       |       |      |
+    substances | 11·26| 55·43 | 13·04 | 46·07 ||  8·11 | 51·91 | 10·84| 51·93
+  -------------+------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+------+------
+
+During the operation of converting the grass--"natural" or
+"artificial"--into hay, there is more or less loss of nutritive matter
+sustained by fermentation, the dispersion of the smaller leaves by the
+wind, and other agencies. But this unavoidable loss is trivial when
+compared with the prodigious waste sustained, in Ireland at least, by
+allowing the hay to remain too long in cocks in the field. "Within the
+last three or four years," says Mr. Baldwin, of the Glasnevin Albert
+Model Farm, "we have made agricultural tours through twenty-five of
+the thirty-two counties of Ireland; and from careful consideration
+of the subject, and having in some instances used a tape-line and
+weighing-machine to assist our judgment, we have come to the conclusion
+that one-twentieth of the hay-crop of Ireland is permitted to rot
+in field-cocks. The portion on the ground, as well as that on the
+outside of the cocks, is too often only fit for manure. And the loss
+of aftermath, and of the subsequent year's crop (if hay or pasture),
+suffers to the extent of from sixpence to one shilling per acre. If we
+unite all these sources, the loss sustained annually in this country is
+something serious to contemplate. On an average, for all Ireland, it is
+not under 20 per cent., or a fifth of the actual value of the crop."
+This is a startling statement; but I do not believe it to be an
+exaggeration of the actual state of things.
+
+_Damaged Hay and Straw._--Damaged corn and potatoes, so much injured as
+to be unfit for human food, are generally given, and with apparently
+good results, to the inferior animals. The "meat manufacturing
+machines," as the edible varieties of the domesticated animals are now
+generally termed, are not very dainty in their choice of food; and
+vegetable substances which would excite the disgust of the lords of the
+creation are rendered nutritious and agreeable by being reorganised in
+the mechanisms of oxen, sheep, and pigs.
+
+Now, although it is pretty generally known that musty corn and
+diseased potatoes form good feeding stuffs, it is not so patent whether
+or not the natural food of stock, such as hay and straw in a diseased
+state, is proper food for those animals. This question is worthy of
+consideration. Firstly, I shall describe the nature of the diseases
+which most frequently affect fodder; these are, "mildew" and "mould."
+These diseases are produced by the ravages of minute and very low forms
+of vegetable life, termed by the botanists _epiphytical fungi_. The
+mildew (_Puccinia graminis_) generally attacks the grasses when they are
+growing, and is more frequently met with on rich and heavily manured
+soils. In localities where heavy night-fogs and dews are of common
+occurrence, this pest often destroys whole crops. On the other hand, in
+light, sandy, and well-drained soils, and in warm and dry districts,
+the mildew is a rare visitant. The "blue mould" (_Aspergillis glaucus_)
+attacks hay and straw in the stack or rick, and without any regard to
+their origin--no matter whether they were the produce of the wettest or
+the dryest, the warmest or the coldest of soils. The chief condition
+in the existence of the blue mould is excessive moisture. If the hay or
+straw be too green and succulent when put up, or if rain get at them
+in the rick, the mould is very likely to make its appearance, and the
+well-known odor termed _musty_ will speedily be developed.
+
+Neither the mildew nor the mould can, strictly speaking, be regarded as
+parasites, such as, for example, the flax-dodder, which feeds upon the
+healthy juices of the plant to which it is attached. It appears to me
+that the tissues and juices of the fodder-plants decay _first_, and then
+the mould or the mildew appears and feeds upon the decomposing matter.
+Now, as these vegetables belong to a poisonous class of fungi, it is
+more than probable that they convert the decomposing substance of the
+straw or hay into unwholesome, if not poisonous matter; and it is not
+unlikely but that the disagreeable odor which they evolve is designed by
+nature as a sign to the lower animals not to partake of mouldy food.
+There is no doubt but that most animals will instinctively reject fodder
+in this state; and the question arises, ought this odour to be destroyed
+or disguised, in order to induce the animals to eat the damaged stuff?
+The experience of most feeders who have largely consumed mouldy provender
+is, that although cattle may be induced to eat it, they never thrive
+upon such stuff if it form a heavy item in their diet. The reason of
+this is obvious. The nitrogenous portion of the straw is that which is
+chiefly assimilated by the fungi. And as this constituent is the one
+which contributes to the formation of muscle, and is naturally extremely
+deficient in straw and hay--more particularly the former--it follows
+that the animals fed upon mouldy fodder cannot elaborate it into lean
+flesh (muscle).
+
+In the case of young stock, mouldy fodder is altogether inadmissible,
+for these animals require abundance of flesh-forming materials--precisely
+those which the fungi almost completely remove from the diseased fodder.
+
+As large quantities of mouldy or mildewed provender are at the present
+moment to be found in many farmsteads, and as they are unsaleable,
+and must therefore be made use of in some way at home, it is well to
+consider the best way to dispose of them. In the case of straw, the
+greater portion will be required for litter, and if the whole of the
+damaged article can be disposed of in this way so much the better. If,
+however, there is more than is necessary for the bedding of the stock,
+it may be used in conjunction with sound fodder, but always in a cooked
+state. The greater part, if not the whole, of the diseased nitrogenous
+part of the straw is soluble in warm water, so that if the fodder be
+well steamed the poisonous matter will be eliminated to such an extent
+as to leave the article almost as wholesome as good straw, but not so
+nutritious. The straw cleansed in this way will be very deficient in
+flesh-forming, though not in fat-forming power, and this fact should
+be duly considered when the other items of the animal's food are
+being weighed out. Beans, malt-combs, and linseed-cake are rich in
+muscle-forming principles, and are consequently suitable adjuncts to
+damaged fodder; but the latter should never constitute the staple food,
+or be given unmixed with some sweet provender.
+
+When the fodder is considerably damaged it becomes, after steaming,
+nearly as tasteless as sawdust. To this kind of stuff the addition of a
+small amount of some flavorous material is very useful. For damaged hay,
+Mr. Bowick recommends the following mixture:--
+
+  Fenugreek (powdered)                                112 parts.
+  Pimento                                               4   "
+  Aniseed                                               4   "
+  Caraways                                              4   "
+  Cummin                                                2   "
+
+A pinch of this compound will render agreeably-flavored the most insipid
+kinds of fodder.
+
+Mr. Bowick states that he had fed large numbers of bullocks on damaged
+hay, flavored with this compound, and that their health was not thereby
+injured in the slightest degree.
+
+
+SECTION V.
+
+ROOTS AND TUBERS.
+
+The important part which the so-called root crops play in the modern
+systems of agriculture, has secured for them a large share of the
+attention of the chemist, so that our knowledge of their composition
+and relative nutritive value is very extensive. As compared with most
+other articles of food, the roots, as they are popularly called, of
+potatoes, turnips, mangels, carrots, and such like plants, contain a
+high proportion of water, and are not very nutritious; indeed, with the
+exception of the potato, none of them contain 20 per cent. of solid
+matter, and some not more than five per cent. They are, however, easily
+produced in great quantities, which compensates for their low nutritive
+value. I shall consider each of the more important roots separately.
+
+_The Turnip._--There are numerous varieties of this plant, which differ
+from each other in the relative proportions and total amount of their
+constituents, and even in different individuals of the same variety
+there is considerable variation in composition; hence the difficulty
+which has been felt by those who have endeavored to assign to this plant
+its relative nutritive value. From the average results of a great number
+of experiments, conducted both in the laboratory and the feeding-house,
+it is concluded that turnips are the most inferior roots produced in the
+field. The Swedish turnips are the most valuable kind: they contain a
+higher proportion of solid matter than the other varieties, and they are
+firmer and store better. The average composition of five varieties of
+turnips, as deduced from the results of the analyses of Anderson and
+Voelcker, is shown in the following table:--
+
+  ANALYSES OF TURNIPS.
+
+  ----------------------------+-------+-------+--------+---------+-------
+                              |Swedish| White |Aberdeen|Purpletop|Norfolk
+                              |Turnip.| Globe.|Yellows.|Yellows. |Bell.
+                              +-------+-------+--------+---------+-------
+  Water                       | 89·460| 90·430|  90·578|  91·200 | 92·280
+  Albuminous, or              |       |       |        |         |
+    flesh-forming substances  |  1·443|  1·143|   1·802|   1·117 |  1·737
+  Non-nitrogenous, or         |       |       |        |         |
+    fat-forming substances    |       |       |        |         |
+    (fat, gum, sugar, &c.)    |  5·932|  5·457|   4·622|   4·436 |  2·962
+  Woody fibre                 |  2·542|  2·342|   2·349|   2·607 |  2·000
+  Mineral matter (ash)        |  0·623|  0·628|   0·649|   0·640 |  1·021
+                              +-------+-------+--------+---------+-------
+                              |100·000|100·000| 100·000| 100·000 |100·000
+  ----------------------------+-------+-------+--------+---------+-------
+
+The _Greystone Turnip_ is a variety which has only quite recently been
+introduced. It is stated to be an uncommonly productive crop, usually
+yielding returns from 30 to 50 per cent. greater than those obtained
+from other varieties of the turnip. The composition of the Greystone
+turnip appears to be inferior, so that probably it is not, after all,
+a more economical plant than the ordinary kinds of turnips.
+
+  DR. ANDERSON'S ANALYSIS OF THE GREYSTONE TURNIP.
+
+                                           No. 1.            No. 2.
+                                       Grown on Clay.    Grown on Sand.
+
+  Water                                   93·84              94·12
+  Oil                                      0·26               0·34
+  Soluble albuminous matters               0·35               0·56
+  Insoluble ditto                          0·20               0·18
+  Soluble respiratory matters              2·99               2·32
+  Insoluble ditto (chiefly fibre)          1·73               1·85
+  Ash                                      0·63               0·63
+                                         ------             ------
+                                         100·00             100·00
+
+It was at one time the fashion--not yet become quite obsolete--to regard
+the proportion of nitrogen in the turnip as the measure of the nutritive
+value of the bulb; but the fallacy of this opinion has been shown by
+several late investigators, and more particularly by the results of
+one of the numerous series of feeding experiments conducted by Mr.
+Lawes. Many bulbs exceedingly rich in nitrogen are very deficient
+in nutritive power--partly from a deficiency in the other elements of
+nutrition--partly because most of their nitrogen is in so low a degree
+of elaboration as to be incapable of assimilation by animals. The value
+of a food-substance does not merely depend upon the amount and the
+relative proportion of its constituents, but also, and to a very great
+extent, upon their easy assimilability. There is but little doubt that
+the nutritive matters contained in the Swedish turnip when the bulb is
+fresh are very crude. By storing, certain chemical changes take place
+in the bulb, which render it more nutritious and palatable. A large
+proportion of the non-nitrogenous matters exist in the fresh root as
+pectin; but this substance, if the bulb be preserved for a couple of
+months, becomes in great part converted into sugar, which is one of the
+most palatable and fattening ingredients of cattle-food. By storing,
+too, the bulbs lose a portion of their excessive amount of water, and
+become less bulky, which is unquestionably a desideratum. These facts
+suggest the necessity for cultivating the earlier varieties of the
+turnip, for it may be fairly doubted if a late-grown crop, left
+for consumption in the field, ever, even under the most favorable
+circumstances, attains its perfect development. At the same time it
+must not be forgotten that turnips _fully matured_ in the field rather
+deteriorate than otherwise after a few weeks' storage.
+
+Many agriculturists consider that there is a strict relation between the
+specific gravity, or comparative weight of the bulb, and its nutritive
+value; others believe that a very large turnip must necessarily be
+inferior in feeding qualities to a small one; whilst not a few maintain
+that neither its size nor its specific gravity is an indication of its
+feeding qualities. Dr. Anderson, who has specially investigated a
+portion of this subject, states that "the specific gravity of the whole
+turnip cannot be accepted as indicating its real nutritive value, the
+proportion of air in the cells being the determining element in such
+results; that there is no constant relation between the specific gravity
+of, and the nitrogen compounds in, the bulb; and that such relation
+does exist between the specific gravity of the expressed juice and
+the nitrogen compounds and solid constituents." Dr. Anderson allows,
+however, that the best varieties of the turnip have the highest specific
+gravity; which admission--coupled with the fact admitted by all
+experimenters that the heavy roots store best--lead me to adopt the
+opinions of those who consider great specific gravity as one of the
+favorable indications of its nutritive value. With respect to size,
+I prefer bulbs of moderate dimensions; the monsters that win the prizes
+at our agricultural shows--and which, in general, are _forced_--are
+inferior in feeding qualities, are always _spongy_, and almost
+invariably rot when stored.
+
+The composition of the turnip is influenced not only by the nature of
+the soil on which it is grown, but also by that of the manure applied
+to it. The most reliable authorities are agreed that turnips raised on
+Peruvian guano are watery, and do not keep well; but that with a mixture
+of Peruvian guano and superphosphate of lime, with phospho-guano, or
+with farmyard manure supplemented with a moderate amount of guano, the
+most nutritious and firm bulbs are produced.
+
+Turnip-tops have been analysed by Voelcker, with the following
+results:--
+
+  ONE HUNDRED PARTS CONTAIN--
+
+                                                White.  Swedish.
+
+  Water                                         91·284    88·367
+  Nitrogen compounds                             2·456     2·087
+  Non-nitrogenous matters (gum, sugar, &c.)      0·648     1·612
+  Ditto, as woody fibre                          4·092     5·638
+  Mineral matter                                 1·520     2·296
+                                               -------   -------
+                                               100·000   100·000
+
+These figures apparently show that the tops of turnips are more
+valuable than their bulbs; but, in the absence of any feeding
+experiments made to determine the point, we believe they are less so,
+as a very large proportion of the solid matter in the tops of turnips
+is in too low a degree of elaboration to be assimilable. Their high
+proportions of nitrogen and mineral matter constitute them, however,
+a very useful manure--nearly twice as valuable as the bulbs; this
+fact should be borne in mind when turnips are sold off the land.
+
+_The Mangel-wurtzel_ is one of the most valuable of our green crops.
+Its root is more nutritious than the turnip, occupying a position in
+the scale of food equivalents midway between that bulb and the parsnip.
+Mangels, when fresh, possess a somewhat acrid taste, and act as a
+laxative when given to stock; but after a few months' storing they
+become sweet and palatable, and their _scouring_ property completely
+disappears.
+
+Although the mangel is one of the most nutritious articles of food
+which can be given to cattle, yet it is stated on the best authority
+that sheep do not thrive upon it. Voelcker, who has investigated this
+subject, informs us that a lot of sheep which he fed on a limited
+quantity of hay and an unlimited quantity of mangels, did not, during a
+period of four months, increase in weight, whilst another lot of sheep
+supplied with a small quantity of hay, and Swedish turnips _ad libitum_
+increased on an average 2-1/2 lbs. weekly. I believe the experience of
+the greater number of feeders agrees with the results of Dr. Voelcker's
+experiment.
+
+The chemistry of the mangel-wurtzel has been thoroughly studied by Way
+and Ogston, Fromberg, Wolff, Anderson, and Voelcker. According to the
+last-named chemist, its average composition is as follows:--
+
+  Water                                                    87·78
+  Flesh-forming matters                                     1·54
+  Sugar                                                     6·10
+  Gum, pectin, &c.                                          2·50
+  Woody fibre                                               1·12
+  Mineral matter (ash)                                      0·96
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100·00
+
+It is difficult to accurately determine by a comparative trial the
+relative feeding properties of mangels and turnips, for the former
+are only in a fit state to be given to the animals when the latter
+are deteriorating. However, by comparing the composition of the two
+substances, and the results obtained from numerous feeding experiments,
+it would appear, that on the average 75 lbs. weight of mangels are equal
+to 100 lbs. weight of turnips. Of the different varieties of the mangel
+the long yellow appears to be the most nutritious, and the long red the
+least so.
+
+The leaves of the mangel--some of which are occasionally pulled and used
+for feeding purposes, during the growth of the bulb--are an excellent
+feeding substance: their composition indicates a nutritive value but
+little inferior to that of the root; but as their constituents cannot be
+in a highly elaborated condition, it is probable they are not more than
+equal to half their weight of the bulbs.
+
+One _questio vexata_ of the many which at present occupy the attention
+of the agricultural world is, whether or not the leaves of mangels may
+be removed with advantage during the latter part of the development of
+the plants. This practice prevailed rather extensively a few years since,
+but latterly it has fallen somewhat into disuse.
+
+Those who adopt this plan urge, as its advantages, that a large quantity
+of food is obtained at a time when it is urgently needed, and that
+instead of the removal of the leaves exercising an injurious influence
+on the development of the roots, the latter are actually increased in
+size.
+
+In 1859 an experimental investigation was carried out at the Glasnevin
+Model Farm, with the view of throwing new light on the question. The
+outside leaves were very gradually removed on different occasions--from
+the 12th August to the 15th October. In this way five tons of leaves per
+statute acre were removed, and subsequently made use of for feeding
+purposes. The experiment was conducted on a field of four acres, of
+which the produce of 12 drills, each 200 yards in length, was left
+untouched. The result was that the produce of the roots of the untouched
+plants was only 40 tons 8 cwt. 6 qrs. per acre, whilst the roots of the
+plants which had been partly denuded of their leaves weighed at the rate
+of 45 tons 1 cwt. This experiment afforded results which are apparently
+favorable to the practice of stripping the leaves; but it is to be
+regretted that it was not rendered more complete by an analysis of the
+roots, as a great bulk of roots does not necessarily imply a great
+weight of dry food, and it is just possible, though not very probable,
+that the roots of the stripped mangels contained a larger proportion of
+water than those of the untouched plants.
+
+The results of the experiments of Buckman, and of Professor Wolff, of
+the Royal Agricultural College at Hohenheim, are at direct variance with
+those obtained at Glasnevin. Both of these experimenters found that the
+removal of the leaves occasioned a diminution in the produce of the
+roots to the amount of 20 per cent. Nor was this the only loss, for it
+was found by the German professor that the roots of the untouched plants
+possessed a far higher nutritive value than those of the stripped
+mangels.
+
+When doctors differ, who is to decide? Here we have high authorities in
+the agricultural world at direct variance on a matter of fact. The names
+of Buckman and Wolff are a sufficient guarantee that the experimental
+results which they announce are trustworthy, and I can testify, from
+observation, that no field experiments could be more carefully conducted
+than those carried out at the Albert Model Farm. We can only, then,
+under the circumstances, admit that both Mr. Boyle, on the one side,
+and Professors Buckman and Wolff on the other, are correct in their
+statements of fact; but as it is evident both cannot be right in the
+general inferences therefrom, it is desirable that the subject should be
+still further investigated, and the truth be placed beyond doubt. It is
+a question which appears so simple that one is at a loss to account for
+the discrepant opinions in relation to it which prevail. "Let nothing
+induce the growers," says Mr. Paget, in a paper on the cultivation of
+the mangel, "to strip the leaves from the plant before taking up the
+root. A series of careful experiments has convinced me that by so doing
+we borrow food at a most usurious interest." "Although," says Mr. Boyle,
+"the practice of stripping has been followed for many years on the farm
+without any perceptible injury to the crop, these results, showing so
+considerable an addition to the crop from taking off the leaves, were
+hardly anticipated." It certainly does appear somewhat at variance with
+our notion of the functions of the leaves of plants, that their partial
+removal could possibly cause an increase in the weight of the roots;
+but granting such to be the fact, it is not altogether _theoretically_
+inexplicable. We know that highly nitrogenous manure has a tendency to
+increase the development of the leaves of turnips at the _expense_ of
+the roots. Gardeners, too, not unfrequently remove some of the buds from
+their fruit trees, lest the excessive development of foliage should
+retard or check the _growth_ of the fruit. _Theoretically_ an excessive
+development of the leaves of the mangel may be inimical to the growth
+of the root. Probably, too, it may be urged, the outer leaves, which
+soon become partially disorganised and incapable of elaborating mineral
+matter into vegetable products, prevent the access of light to the more
+vigorous inner leaves. In conclusion, I may say of this subject that it
+is worthy of further elucidation; and I would suggest to my readers,
+and more especially to the managers of the various model farms, the
+desirability of fully testing the matter.
+
+The _White Beet_ is a congener of the mangel. It is largely grown on the
+continent as a sugar-producing plant, but is seldom cultivated in these
+countries. It produces about 15 tons of roots per acre, and its roots on
+the average contain--
+
+  Water                                                     83·0
+  Sugar                                                     10·0
+  Flesh-formers                                              2·5
+  Fat-formers                                                1·5
+  Fibre                                                      2·0
+  Ash                                                        1·0
+                                                           -----
+                                                           100·0
+
+This plant is deserving of more extensive growth in Great Britain.
+
+The _Parsnip_ is, after the potato, the most valuable of roots. It
+differs from the turnip and the mangel in containing a high proportion
+of starch, and but little sugar; and its flesh-forming constituents are
+largely made up of casein, instead of, as in the case of the turnip,
+albumen.
+
+The average composition of the parsnip is as follows:--
+
+  Water                                                    82·00
+  Flesh-forming principles                                  1·30
+  Fat-formers (starch, sugar, &c.)                          7·75
+  Woody fibre                                               8·00
+  Mineral matter (ash)                                      0·95
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100·00
+
+The parsnip is extensively grown in many foreign countries, on
+account of its valuable feeding properties. As a field-crop it is but
+little cultivated in Great Britain, and its use is--if we except the
+table--almost restricted to pigs. Its food equivalent is about double
+that of the turnip; that is, one pound of parsnips is equal to two
+pounds of turnips.
+
+The _Carrot_ bears a close resemblance to the parsnip, from which,
+however, it differs, containing no starch, and being somewhat inferior
+in nutritive value. According to Voelcker, its average composition is
+as follows:--
+
+  Water                                                    88·50
+  Flesh-formers                                             0·60
+  Fat-formers (including woody fibre)                      10·18
+  Mineral matter (ash)                                      0·72
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100·00
+
+As carrots contain a high proportion of fat-forming matters, and a low
+per-centage of flesh-forming substances, they are better adapted for
+fattening purposes. Dairy stock greedily eat them; and they are given
+with great advantage to horses out of condition.
+
+_Kohl-Rabi._--This plant, though early introduced into the agriculture
+of these countries, has made but little progress in the estimation
+of the farmer. It belongs to the order and genus which include the
+turnip, but differs widely from that plant in its mode of growth. Its
+bulb--which is formed by an enormous development of the overground
+stem--is, according to some authorities, less liable than the turnip
+to injury from frost. It is subject to no diseases, save anbury and
+clubbing; and, owing to its position above the soil, it can be readily
+eaten off by sheep. The bulbs store better than Swedes, and, according
+to some farmers, keep even better than mangels. With respect to the
+flavor of this bulb, there is some difference of opinion. Professor
+Wilson, of Edinburgh, quotes several eminent feeders to prove that
+"whether in the fold for sheep, in the yard for cattle, or in the
+stables for horses, it will generally be preferred to the other
+descriptions of homegrown keep." Mr. Baldwin, on the contrary, states
+that although good food for sheep, it is too hard-fleshed for old ewes,
+and that carrots are better food for horses, and Swedish turnips for
+cattle.
+
+An accurately conducted comparative trial to test the nutritive value
+of the Kohl-rabi, was conducted at the Glasnevin Model Farm, under the
+direction of Mr. Baldwin. The experiment was commenced in January, 1863.
+Four oxen were selected, and divided into two lots. Nos. 1 and 2 (Lot 1)
+were fed on Kohl-rabi, oil-cake, and hay, and Nos. 3 and 4 (Lot 2) on
+Swedish turnips, oil-cake, and hay. As the animals supplied with the
+Kohl-rabi did not appear to relish it, and as it was desirable to
+gradually accustom them to the change of food, the experiment did not
+really commence till the 12th January. On that date the weights of the
+animals were as follows:--
+
+                      cwt.  st.    |                   cwt.  st.
+                                   |
+     Lot 1.  {No. 1.   10    1     |   Lot 2.  {No. 3.   7    5
+             {No. 2.    7    4     |           {No. 4.  10    2
+                       -------     |                    -------
+                       17    5     |                    17    7
+
+The lots, therefore, counterpoised each other pretty fairly. From the
+12th to the 28th January they received the following quantities of food
+per diem:--
+
+                                   1.      2.      3.      4.
+
+  Roots                   stones   7-1/2   6       6       7-1/2
+  Oil cake                pounds   4-1/2   3       3       4-1/2
+  Hay                     pounds  10-1/2  10-1/2  10-1/2  10-1/2
+
+The animals fed upon the Kohl-rabi evinced from the first a
+disinclination to it, but they nevertheless ate it before their meal of
+oil-cake was supplied to them. On the morning of the 28th January they
+were put upon the dietary shown in the table, and which induced them to
+eat the Kohl-rabi more quickly.
+
+                                   1.      2.      3.      4.
+
+  At 6.30 a.m.    {Roots, Stones   3       2-1/2   2-1/2   3-1/2
+                  {Cake, lbs.      1-1/2   1       1       1
+
+  At 12.30 a.m.   {Roots, Stones   3       2-1/2   2-1/2   3-1/2
+                  {Cake, lbs.      1-1/2   1       1       1
+
+  At 6.30 p.m.    {Roots, Stones   3       2-1/2   2-1/2   3-1/2
+                  {Cake, lbs.      1-1/2   1       1       1
+
+  At 9.30 p.m.     Hay, lbs.       7       7       7       7
+
+On the 11th February the cattle were again weighed, when their increase
+was found to be as follows:--
+
+                               Weight on   Weight on  Increase in
+                               Jan. 12.    Feb. 11.   30 days.
+
+                               cwt. st.    cwt. st.       st.
+
+  1} Lot 1, fed on Kohl-rabi,}  10   1      10   4         3
+  2}   &c.                   }   7   4       7   6         2
+                                                          ---
+            Total                                          5
+
+  3} Lot 2, fed on Swedes,   }   7   5       8   3         6
+  4}   &c.                   }  10   2      10   7-1/4     5-1/2
+                                                          ------
+            Total                                         11-1/2
+
+The results of this experiment show that the animals fed upon Swedish
+turnips, hay, and oil-cake, increased in weight at a rate more than
+100 per cent. greater than the lot supplied with equal quantities of
+Kohl-rabi, hay, and oil-cake. The superiority of the Swedish turnips was
+rendered more evident by the results of subsequent experiments. Nos. 1
+and 4 were not tried after the 11th February; but Nos. 2 and 3 were kept
+under experiment. No. 2 was put on Swedes, and No. 3 on mangel-wurtzel,
+and after an interval of a fortnight No. 2 had increased much more than
+they had done on Kohl-rabi.
+
+Specimens of the Kohl-rabi and Swedish turnips employed in this
+experiment were submitted to me for analysis by Mr. Baldwin, and yielded
+the following results:--
+
+                                                          Swedish
+                                              Kohl-rabi.  Turnip.
+
+  Water                                         87·62      88·84
+  Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles       2·24       1·66
+  Non-nitrogenous, or fat-forming principles     7·78       6·07
+  Woody fibre                                    1·34       2·73
+  Mineral matter (ash)                           1·22       0·70
+                                               ------     ------
+                                               100·00     100·00
+
+These results show a slight superiority of the Kohl-rabi over the Swedish
+turnip; the great difference in their nutritive power, as shown by Mr.
+Baldwin's experimental results, must therefore be due to the superior
+flavor and digestibility of the turnip.
+
+Dr. Anderson's analysis of Kohl-rabi afforded results more favorable to
+the highly nutritive character assigned by some feeders to that bulb
+than those arrived at by me. The bulbs, it should however be remarked,
+were grown, no doubt with great care, by Messrs. Lawson and Son, the
+well-known seedsmen:--
+
+  ANALYSIS OF KOHL-RABI, BY DR. ANDERSON.
+
+                                              Bulbs.       Tops.
+
+  Water                                       86·74        86·68
+  Flesh-forming principles                     2·75         2·37
+  Fat-forming principles                       8·62         8·29
+  Woody fibre                                  0·77         1·21
+  Mineral matter                               1·12         1·45
+                                             ------       ------
+                                             100·00       100·00
+
+The _Radish_ is a plant which deserves a place amongst our field crops,
+though hitherto its cultivation has been restricted to the garden. At
+one time its leaves were boiled and eaten, but in these latter days they
+are subjected to neither of these processes. The root, however, in its
+raw state, is, as every one is aware, considered one of the dainties of
+the table.
+
+Many of those who devote themselves to the important study of dietetics,
+consider the use of raw vegetables to be objectionable; but be their
+objections groundless, or the reverse, it is certain that a vegetable
+which, like the radish, may be eaten raw with apparently good results,
+cannot be otherwise than a good article of food when cooked. I once
+tried the experiment of eating matured radishes, not as a salad, but
+cooked like any other boiled vegetable, and I must say that I found
+their flavor rather agreeable than otherwise. Boiled radishes--roots and
+tops--form excellent feeding for pigs. How could it be otherwise? for
+what is good for the family of man must surely be a luxury to the swine
+tribe. I have known horses to eat radishes greedily, and I am certain
+that they would prove acceptable to all the animals of the farm. But
+it may be asked, why it is that I recommend the use of radishes as
+food for stock, when there are already so many more nutritious roots
+at our disposal--turnips, mangels, and potatoes. Simply for this
+reason:--Between the departure of the roots and the advent of the
+grasses, there is a kind of interregnum.[33] Now we want a good tuberous,
+bulbous, or tap-rooted plant to fill up this interregnum. Such a plant
+we have in the radish. The root is certainly a small one, but then it
+grows so rapidly that a good supply can be had within thirty days from
+the sowing of the seed, and a crop can be matured before the time for
+sowing turnips. Two crops may be easily obtained from land under
+potatoes--one before the tops cover the ground, the other after the
+tubers have been dug out. The yield of radishes, judging from the
+produce in the garden, would be at least six tons of roots and three
+tons of tops. I would suggest, then, that the radish should at once
+get a fair chance as a stolen crop. If it succeed as such, it will
+not be the first gift of the gardener to the husbandman. Was not the
+mangel-wurtzel once known only as the produce of the garden?
+
+The composition of the radish indicates a nutritive value less than that
+of the white turnip. I have analysed both the root and the tops, and
+obtained the following results:--
+
+  ANALYSIS OF THE RADISH.
+
+                                              Root.        Tops.
+
+  Water                                      95·09         94·30
+  Flesh-forming principles                    0·52          0·75
+  Fat-formers (starch, gum, fat, &c.)         1·06          1·16
+  Woody fibre                                 2·22          2·36
+  Mineral matter (ash)                        1·11          1·43
+                                            ------        ------
+                                            100·00        100·00
+
+The _Jerusalem Artichoke_ has long been cultivated as a field-crop on
+the Continent, and in certain localities the breadth occupied by it
+is very considerable. The French term the tuberous root of this plant
+_poitre de terre_, or _topin ambour_; and although they expose it for
+sale in the markets, it is not much relished by our lively neighbours,
+who are so remarkable for their _cuisiniere_. As food for cattle,
+however, the French agricultural writers state it to be excellent.
+It is much relished by horses, dairy cows, and pigs; store horned-stock
+also eat it when seasoned with a little salt, and appear to enjoy it
+amazingly when permitted to pull up the roots from the soil. The green
+tops are also given to sheep and cattle, and, it is stated, are readily
+eaten by those animals.
+
+The Jerusalem artichoke (_Helianthus Tuberoses_) differs from its half
+namesake, the common artichoke, and resembles the potato in being
+valuable chiefly for its tubers. It is perennial, and attains on the
+Continent a height varying from 7 to 10 feet. In this country its
+dimensions are less. The stem is erect, thick, coarse, and covered with
+hairs. It is a native of Mexico, and although introduced 200 years ago
+into Europe, it can hardly be said to be acclimatised, since it very
+seldom flowers, and never develops seed. The plant is therefore
+propagated by cuttings from its tubers, each containing one or two eyes;
+or if the tubers be very small, which is often the case, a whole one is
+planted. The tubers possess great vitality, and remain in the ground
+during the most severe frosts, without sustaining the slightest injury.
+For this reason it is usual to devote a corner of the garden to the
+cultivation of the Jerusalem artichoke; for, no matter how completely
+the crop may appear to have been removed from the soil, portions of the
+tubers will remain and shoot up into plants during the following season.
+This peculiarity of the plant it is likely may prove an obstacle to its
+having a place assigned to it in the rotation system.
+
+The question now presents itself--What are the peculiar advantages which
+the crop possesses which should commend it to the notice of the British
+farmer? I shall try to answer the question.
+
+1st. No green crop (except furze) can be grown in so great a variety of
+soils; except marshy or wet lands, there is no soil in which it refuses
+to grow.
+
+2nd. It does not suffer from disease, is very little affected by the
+ravages of insects, is completely beyond the influence of cold, and may
+remain either above or below ground for a long time without undergoing
+any injurious changes in composition.
+
+3rd. It gives a good return, when we consider that it requires very
+little manure, and but little labor in its management.
+
+At Bechelbronn, the farm of the celebrated Boussingault, the average
+yield is nearly eleven tons per acre, but occasionally over fourteen
+tons is obtained. Donoil, a farmer of Bailiere, in the department of
+Haut-loire, states that he fed sheep exclusively on the tops and tubers
+of this plant, and that he estimated his profits at £23 per hectare
+(£9 3s. 4d. per acre). The soil was very inferior. Donoil terms it
+third-rate, and it does not appear to have been manured even once
+during the fifteen years it was under Jerusalem artichoke. I fear our
+artificial manure manufacturers will hardly look with a favorable eye
+on the advent of a crop into our agriculture which can get on so well
+without the intervention of any fertilising agents. Indeed, several of
+the French writers state that little or no manure is necessary for this
+plant. But this can hardly be the case; for it is evident that a crop
+which, according to Way and Ogston, removes 35 lbs. of mineral matter
+per ton from the soil, or three times as much potash as turnips do, must
+certainly be greatly benefited by the application of manure. And I have
+no doubt but that the Jerusalem artichoke, if well manured and grown
+in moderately fertile soil, would produce a much heavier crop than our
+Continental neighbors appear to get from it.
+
+4th. The Jerusalem artichoke may be cultivated with advantage in places
+where ordinary root-crops either fail or thrive badly. In such cases
+the ground should be permanently devoted to this crop. Kade gives an
+instance where a piece of indifferent ground had for thirty-three years
+produced heavy crops of this plant, although during that time neither
+manure nor labor had been applied to it. In Ireland the potato has been
+grown under similar circumstances.
+
+The nutritive constituents of tubers of the Jerusalem artichoke bear
+a close resemblance in every respect, save one, to those of the
+potato. Both contain about 75 per cent. of water, about 2 per cent.
+of flesh-forming substances, and 20 per cent. of non-nitrogenous, or
+fat-forming and heat-giving elements. In one respect there is a great
+difference--namely, that sugar makes up from 8 to 12 per cent. of the
+Jerusalem artichoke, whilst there is but a small proportion of that
+substance in the potato.
+
+The large quantity of sugar contained in this root is no doubt the cause
+of its remarkable keeping properties in winter, and it also readily
+accounts for the avidity with which most of the domesticated animals
+eat it.
+
+On the whole, then, I think that the facts I have brought forward
+relative to the advantages which the Jerusalem artichoke presents as a
+farm crop, justify the recommendation that it should get a fair trial
+from the British farmer, who is now so much interested in the production
+of suitable forage for stock.
+
+  COMPOSITION OF (DRY) JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE
+
+  Albuminous matters                                         4·6
+  Fatty matters                                              0·4
+  Starch, gum, &c.                                          19·8
+  Sugar                                                     69·5
+  Fibre and ash                                              5·7
+                                                           -----
+                                                           100·0
+
+The _Potato_, regarded from every point of view, is by far the most
+important of the plants which are cultivated for the sake of their
+roots. Its tubers form the chief--almost sole--pabulum of many millions
+of men, enter more or less into the dietary of most civilised peoples,
+and constitute a large proportion of the food of the domesticated
+animals. The great importance of this plant, arising from its enormous
+consumption, has caused its composition to be very minutely studied by
+many British, Continental, and American chemists. With respect to its
+nutritive properties, the least favorable results were obtained by the
+American chemists, Hardy and Henry, and the most by the European
+chemists.
+
+The flesh-forming principles vary from 1 per cent., as found by Hardy,
+to 2·41 per cent., the mean results of the analyses of Krocker and
+Horsford. The proportion of starch in different varieties of the potato
+also varies, but not to the same degree as the nitrogenous principles.
+In new potatoes, only 5 per cent. has been found; in ash-leaved kidneys,
+9·50 per cent.; and in different kinds of cups, from 15 to 24 per cent.
+The amount of starch is also influenced by the soil, the manure, the
+climate, and the various other conditions under which the plant is
+developed. The proportion of starch increases during the growth, and
+diminishes during the storage of the tubers.
+
+Dr. Anderson is the most recent investigator into the composition of the
+potato; the chief results of his inquiries are given in the following
+table:--
+
+  ANALYSIS OF THE POTATO BY DR. ANDERSON.
+
+  --------------+--------+----------+-------------+-------+-------+-------
+                |Regents.|Dalmahoys.|Skerry-blues.|White  |Orkney |Flukes.
+                |        |          |             |Rocks. |Reds.  |
+                +--------+----------+-------------+-------+-------+-------
+  Water         |  76·32 |    75·91 |    76·60    | 75·93 | 78·57 | 74·41
+  Starch        |  12·21 |    12·58 |    11·79    | 12·77 | 10·85 | 12·55
+  Sugar, &c.    |   2·75 |     2·93 |     3·09    |  2·17 |  2·78 |  2·89
+  Flesh-formers |        |          |             |       |       |
+    soluble     |   2·16 |     2·10 |     1·90    |  1·88 |  1·48 |  1·98
+    insoluble   |   0·21 |     0·15 |     0·16    |  0·24 |  0·21 |  0·20
+  Fibre         |   5·53 |     5·21 |     5·41    |  5·55 |  5·93 |  6·71
+  Ash           |   0·88 |     0·81 |     0·94    |  1·04 |  0·98 |  0·98
+                +--------+----------+-------------+-------+-------+-------
+                | 100·06 |    99·69 |    99·89    | 99·58 |100·80 | 99·72
+  --------------+--------+----------+-------------+-------+-------+-------
+
+The potato is relatively deficient in flesh-forming matters, and contains
+the respiratory elements in exceedingly high proportions; hence it is
+well adapted for fattening purposes, and in this respect is equal to
+double its weight of the best kind of turnips. When used as food for
+man, it should be supplemented by some more fatty or nitrogenous
+substance--such, for example, as flesh, oatmeal, or peas. Buttermilk,
+a fluid which is rich in nitrogen, is an excellent supplement to
+potatoes, and compensates to a great extent for the deficiency of those
+tubers in muscle-forming matters. If, then, the potato is destined to
+retain its place as the "national esculent" of the Irish, I trust their
+national beverage may be--so far at least as the masses of the people
+are concerned--buttermilk, and _not_ whiskey.
+
+Potatoes so far diseased as to be unsuited for use as food for man, may
+be given with advantage to stock. They may be used either in a raw or
+uncooked state, but the latter is the preferable form. Sheep do not like
+them at first, but on being deprived of turnips they acquire a taste
+for them; on a daily allowance, composed of 1 lb. of oil-cake or corn,
+and an unlimited quantity of potatoes, they fatten rapidly. Cattle
+thrive well on a diet composed of equal parts of turnips and diseased
+potatoes, and do not require oil-cake. The evening feed of horses may
+advantageously be composed of potatoes and turnips. If raw, the potatoes
+should be given in a very limited quantity--four or five pounds; in the
+cooked state, however, they may be given in abundance, but the animals
+should not, after their meal, be permitted to drink water for some
+hours. As a feeding substance, diseased potatoes, unless they be very
+much injured, are equal to twice their weight of white turnips; it is
+certain that they do not injure the health or impair the condition of
+the animals which feed upon them.
+
+
+SECTION VI.
+
+SEEDS.
+
+In seeds the elements of nutrition exist not only in the most highly
+elaborated, but also in the most concentrated state; hence their
+nutritive value is greater than that of any other class of food
+substances.
+
+_Wheat Grain_ is the most valuable of seeds, as it contains, in admirably
+adjusted proportions, the bone, the fat, and the muscle-forming
+principles. In the form of bread, it has been, not inaptly, termed the
+"staff of life," for no other grain is so well adapted, _per se_, for
+the sustenance of man; and many millions of human beings subsist almost
+exclusively on it. The lower animals are in general fed upon the grain
+of oats, of barley, and of the leguminous plants, and the use of wheat
+is almost completely restricted to the human family.
+
+Wheat grain, by the processes of grinding and sifting, is resolvable
+into two distinct parts--bran and flour. In twenty-four analyses made
+by Boussingault, the proportion of the bran was from 13·2 to 38·5
+per cent. and that of the flour from 61·5 to 86·8 per cent. The floury
+part is of very complex structure; it includes starch, gluten, albumen,
+oil, gum, gummo-gelatinous matter, sugar,[34] and various saline matters.
+The gluten and albumen constitute the nitrogenous, or flesh-forming
+principles of flour, and make up from 16 to 20 per cent. of that
+substance; the non-nitrogenous, or fat-forming elements, such as
+starch and gum, form from 74 to 82 per cent. According to Payen, the
+proportion of gluten diminishes towards the centre of the seed, from
+which it follows that the part of the grain nearest the husk is the
+most nutritious--so far at least as muscle-making is concerned. The
+desire on the part of the public for very white bread has led to the
+_fine_ dressing of Wheat-grain, and consequently to the separation from
+that substance of a very large proportion of one of its most nutritious
+constituents. Crude gluten may be obtained by kneading the dough of
+flour in a muslin bag under a small current of water; the starch, or
+fecula, and the gum, are carried away by the water, and the gluten in
+an impure form remains as an elastic viscous substance, which on drying
+becomes hard and brittle. It is to the gluten of flour that its property
+of panification, or bread-making, is due. On the addition of a ferment,
+a portion of the starch is converted into sugar and carbonic acid gas,
+and the latter causes the gluten to expand into the little cells, or
+vesicles, which confer upon baked bread its light, spongy texture.
+
+  ANALYSES OF WHEAT.
+
+                              1.        2.         3.        4.
+
+                            Whole
+                            Grain.     Flour.     Bran.     Husk.
+
+  Water                     15·00      14·0        13       13·9
+  Flesh-formers             12·00      11·0        14       14·9
+  Fat-formers               68·50      73·5        55       55·8
+  Woody fibre                2·75       0·7        12        9·7
+  Mineral matter             1·75       0·8         6        5·7
+                           ------     -----       ---      -----
+                           100·00     100·0       100      100·0
+
+  _Nos. 1, 2, and 3.--The mean results of a great number of analyses._
+
+  _No. 4.--By_ MILLON.
+
+_Over-ripening of Grain._--The final act of vegetation is the production
+of seed, after the performance of which function many plants, having
+accomplished their destined purpose, perish. The grasses (which include
+the cereals) are _annuals_, or plants which have but a year's existence,
+consequently their development ceases so soon as they have produced
+their seed. When wheat, oats, and the other cereals, attain to this
+final point in their growth, the circulation of their sap ceases,
+their color changes from green to yellow, and they undergo certain
+changes which destroy their power of assimilating mineral matter, and
+consequently render them no longer capable of increasing their weight.
+
+The proper time for cutting wheat and the other cereals is immediately
+after their grain has been fully matured. When the green color of the
+straw just below the ears changes to yellow, the grain, be it ripe or
+unripe at the time, cannot afterwards be more fully developed. This is
+rendered impossible in consequence of the disorganisation of the upper
+part of the stem--indicated by, but not the result of, its altered
+hue--which cuts off the supply of sap to the ears, and the latter do
+not possess the power of absorbing nutriment from the air.
+
+When the vital processes which are incessantly going on in the growing
+plants are brought to a close, the purely chemical forces come into
+operation. If the seed be perfectly matured and allowed to remain
+ungathered, it is attacked in wet weather by the oxygen of the air, a
+portion of its carbon is burned off, some of its starch is converted
+into sugar, and in extreme cases it germinates and becomes _malty_.
+But not only is the seed liable to injury from the elements; it is also
+exposed to the ravages of the feathered tribe, and no matter how well
+a field of corn may be watched, or how great the number of _scarecrows_
+erected in it, there is always a certain diurnal loss, occasioned by the
+ravages of birds.
+
+It is not only necessary that ripe corn should be cut as soon as
+possible, but it is sometimes desirable to reap it before it becomes
+fully matured. When the grain is intended for consumption as food, the
+less bran it contains the better. Now the bran, as is well known, forms
+the integument, or covering of the vital constituents of the seed; and
+it is the last part of the organ to be perfected. The growth of the
+seed for several days before its perfect development, is confined to
+the _testa_ or covering. Now as this is the least valuable part of the
+article, its increase is matter of but little moment; and when it is
+excessive it renders the grain less valuable in the eyes of the miller.
+That the cutting of the grain before it is perfectly ripe is attended
+with a good result, is clearly proved by the results of an experiment
+recorded in Johnston's "Agricultural Chemistry." A crop of wheat was
+selected; one-third was cut twenty days before it was ripe; another
+third ten days afterwards; and the remaining portion when its grain had
+been fully matured. The relative produce in grain of the three portions
+taken, as stated above, was as 1, 1·325, and 1·260. The following table
+exhibits the relative proportions of their constituents:--
+
+                                  In 100 parts of the grain cut at
+                                  20 days.   10 days.    Dead ripe.
+
+  Flour                             74·7       79·1         72·2
+  Sharps                             7·2        5·5         11·0
+  Bran                              17·5       13·2         16·0
+                                    ----       ----         ----
+                                    99·4       97·8         99·2
+
+  The flour contained gluten         9·3        9·9          9·6
+
+The results of this experiment, and of the general experience of
+intelligent growers, show that grain cut a week or ten days before it is
+perfectly ripe contains more flour, and of a better quality, too, than
+is found in either ripe or very unripe seed. But this is not the only
+advantage, for the straw of the green, or rather of the greenish-yellow
+corn, is fully twice as valuable for feeding purposes as that of the
+over-ripe cereals. There is an extraordinary decrease in the amount
+of the albuminous constituents of the stems of the cereals during the
+last two or three weeks of their maturation, and as there is not a
+corresponding increase of those materials in the seed, they must be
+evolved in some form or other from the plants.
+
+There can be only one object attained by allowing the seed to fully
+ripen itself, and that is the insurance of its more perfect adaptability
+to the purpose of reproduction. When the _testa_ is thick it best
+protects the germ of the future plant enclosed in it from the ordinary
+atmospheric influences until it is placed under the proper conditions
+for its germination.
+
+_Wheat, a costly food._--It occasionally happens that the wheat harvest
+is so abundant, that many feeders give large quantities of this grain to
+their stock. Now, as Indian corn is at least 25 per cent. cheaper than
+wheat, even when the price of the latter is at its _minimum_, I believe
+that it is always more economical to sell the wheat raised on the farm,
+and to purchase with the proceeds of its sale an equivalent of Indian
+corn, which is a more fattening kind of food.
+
+_Bran_ is, with perhaps the exception of malt-dust, the most nutritious
+of the refuse portions of grains. It is usually given to horses, and
+owing to its high proportion of nitrogen, is, perhaps, better expended
+in the bodies of those hard-working animals, than in those of pigs and
+cows--animals that occasionally come in for a share of this valuable
+feeding-stuff. It should be borne in mind that bran commonly acts as
+a slight laxative, and that it is less digestible than flour, a large
+portion of it usually passing through the animal's body unchanged.
+This drawback to the use of bran may be obviated by either cooking or
+fermenting the article, or by combining it with beans or some other
+kind of binding food.
+
+  AVERAGE ANALYSES OF GRAIN.
+
+  --------------+-------+------+-----+--------+------+-----+--------+------
+                |       |      |     |        |Indian|     |  Rye   |Buck-
+                |Barley.| Bere.|Oats.|Oatmeal.| Corn.|Rice.|(Irish).|wheat.
+                +-------+------+-----+--------+------+-----+--------+------
+  Water         |  16·0 | 14·25| 14·0|  13·00 | 14·5 | 14·0|   16·0 | 14·19
+  Flesh-formers |  10·5 | 10·10| 11·5|  16·00 | 10·0 |  5·3|    9·0 |  8·58
+  Fat-formers   |  67·0 | 64·60| 64·5|  68·00 | 69·0 | 78·5|   66·0 | 51·91
+  Woody fibre   |   3·5 |  9·03|  7·0|   1·75 |  5·0 |  2·5|    8·0 | 23·12
+  Mineral matter|   3·0 |  2·02|  3·0|   1·25 |  1·5 |  0·7|    1·0 |  2·20
+                +-------+------+-----+--------+------+-----+--------+------
+                | 100·0 |100·00|100·0| 100·00 |100·0 |100·0|  100·0 |100·00
+  --------------+-------+------+-----+--------+------+-----+--------+------
+
+_Barley_ is inferior in composition to wheat. As a feeding stuff, the
+English farmers assign to it a higher, and the Scotch farmers a lower,
+place than oats, which, perhaps, merely proves that in Scotland the oat
+thrives better than the barley, and in England the barley better than
+the oat. Barley-meal is extensively used by the English feeders, and
+with excellent results. Where _barley-dust_ can be obtained it is a far
+cheaper feeding stuff than the meal. Barley husks should never be given
+to animals unless in a cooked or fermented state.
+
+_Oat Grain_ is, perhaps, the most valuable of the concentrated foods
+which are given to fattening stock. When it is cheap it will be found
+a more economical feeding stuff than linseed-cake, and, unlike that
+substance, can be used without the fear of adulteration. Oats are equal
+to wheat in their amount of flesh-forming matters; but their very high
+proportion of indigestible woody fibre detracts from their nutritive
+value. Oat-meal is more nutritious than wheat-meal; and oat-flour,
+especially if finely dressed, greatly excels wheat-flour in its
+nutrimental properties, because, unlike the latter, the finer it is the
+greater is its amount of flesh-formers. Bread made of oat-flour is very
+heavy, and is far less palatable than the bread of wheat. Oat-meal has
+been found to contain nearly 20 per cent. of nitrogenous matters. The
+white oat is more nutritious than the black, and the greatest amount of
+aliment is found in the grain which has not been allowed to over-ripen
+in the field. Oat husk is very inferior to the bran of wheat. Toppings
+are seldom worth the price at which they are sold.
+
+_Indian Corn_ has been highly extolled as a fattening food for stock,
+and its chemical composition would seem to justify the high opinion
+which practical men have formed of its relative nutritive value. In the
+United States, the feeding of horses on Indian corn and hay has been
+found very successful; but in these countries oats will be found a more
+economical food. For fattening purposes Indian corn appears exceedingly
+well adapted, as it contains more ready-formed fat--4·5 per cent.--than
+is found in most of the other grains, and, on an average, 70 per cent.
+of starch. Pigs thrive well on this grain. The Galatz round yellow grain
+is somewhat superior to the American flat yellow seed.
+
+_Rye_ is not extensively cultivated in this country, but on the
+Continent it is raised in large quantities. In the north of Europe
+it forms a considerable proportion of the food of both man and the
+domesticated animals. In Holland it is commonly consumed by horses, but
+in England there has always been a prejudice against the use of this
+grain as food for the equine tribe. It has been highly recommended for
+dairy stock, five pounds of rye-meal, with a sufficiency of cut straw,
+constituting, it is stated, a dietary on which cows yield a maximum
+supply of milk. Irish-grown rye contains less starch, and more
+flesh-formers and oil, than the Black Sea grain.
+
+_Rice_, although it forms the chief pabulum of nearly one-third of
+the human family, is the least nutritious of the common food grains.
+Rice-dust, an article obtained in cleaning rice for European consumption,
+is said to promote the flow of milk when given to cows. It is sold in
+large quantities in Liverpool, where, according to Voelcker, it often
+commands a higher price than it is worth.
+
+_Buckwheat_ is chiefly used as a food for game and poultry.
+
+_Malted Corn._--During a late session of Parliament a Bill was passed to
+exempt from duty malt intended to be used as food for cattle. As feeders
+may now become their own maltsters, it may be of some use to them to
+have here a _résumé_ of this Bill:--
+
+    1. Any person giving security and taking out a licence may make
+    malt in a malt-house approved by the Excise for the purpose; and
+    all malt so made and mixed with linseed-cake or linseed-meal as
+    directed, shall be free from duty.
+
+    2. The security required is a bond to Her Majesty, with sureties
+    to the satisfaction of the Excise, not to take from any such
+    malt-house any malt except duly mixed with material prescribed
+    by the Act.
+
+    3. The malt-house must be properly named upon its door.
+
+    4. All malt made in it shall be deposited in a store-room, and
+    shall be conveyed to and from the room upon such notice as the
+    officer of Excise shall appoint.
+
+    5. The maltster shall provide secure rooms in his malt-house,
+    to be approved in writing by the supervisor, for grinding the
+    malt made by him in such malt-house, and mixing and storing the
+    same when mixed; and all such rooms shall be properly secured
+    and kept locked by the proper officer of Excise.
+
+    6. All malt before removal from the malt-house shall be ground
+    and thoroughly mixed with one-tenth part at least of its weight
+    of ground linseed-cake or linseed-meal, and ground to such a
+    degree of fineness and in such manner as the commissioners shall
+    approve, and mixed together in a quantity not less than forty
+    bushels at a time in the presence of an officer of Excise.
+
+    7. The maltster shall keep account of the quantity of all malt
+    mixed as aforesaid which he shall from time to time send out or
+    deliver from his malt-house, with the dates and addresses of the
+    person for whom such mixed malt shall be so sent or delivered.
+
+    8. If any person shall attempt to separate any malt from any
+    material with which the same shall have been mixed as aforesaid,
+    or shall use this malt for the brewing of beer or distilling of
+    spirits, he shall forfeit the sum of £200.
+
+    9 and 10. The penalties of existing Acts are recited.
+
+    11. This Act shall continue and be in force for five years.
+
+
+Some samples of malt and barley examined in May, 1865, by Dr. Voelcker
+for the Central Anti-Malt Tax Association, afforded the following
+results:--
+
+  -------------------------+-------+---------------------------------------
+                           |Barley |             Malt marked
+                           |marked |
+                           | No. 1.| No. 5.| No. 7.| No. 9.|No. 14.|No. 16.
+  -------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
+  Moisture                 |  11·76|   8·72|   7·43|   7·76|   8·35|   7·06
+  Sugar                    |   3·75|   4·29|   5·48|   7·85|   9·46|   9·86
+  Starch and dextrine      |  70·40|  71·03|  69·70|  67·57|  67·53|  67·67
+  [*] Albuminous compounds |       |       |       |       |       |
+    (flesh-forming matters)|   7·75|   8·44|   8·81|   9·37|   8·60|   8·31
+  Woody fibre (cellular)   |   4·46|   5·22|   6·38|   5·38|   4·14|   5·11
+  Mineral matter (ash)     |   1·88|   2·30|   2·20|   2·07|   1·92|   1·99
+                           +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
+                           | 100·00| 100·00| 100·00| 100·00| 100·00| 100·00
+  [* Containing nitrogen]  |   1·24|   1·35|   1·41|   1·50|   1·38|   1·33
+  -------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
+
+A great deal has been said and written in favor of malt as a feeding
+stuff, but I greatly doubt its alleged decided superiority over barley;
+and until the results of accurately conducted comparative experiments
+made with those articles incontestably prove that superiority, I think
+it is somewhat a waste of nutriment to convert barley into malt for
+feeding purposes. The gentlemen who verbally, or in writing, refer
+so favorably to malt, acknowledge, with one or two exceptions, that
+their experience of the article is limited. Mr. John Hudson, of
+Brandon, states that he made a comparative experiment, the results
+of which proved the superiority of malt. But, in fact, the only
+properly-conducted experiments to determine the relative values of malt
+and barley were those made some years ago by Dr. Thompson, of Glasgow,
+by the direction of the Government, and those recently performed by Mr.
+Lawes, both producing results unfavorable to the malt. The issue of Dr.
+Thompson's investigations proved that milch cows fed on barley yielded
+more milk and butter than when supplied with an equal weight of malt.
+
+I do not deny the probability that malt, owing to its agreeable flavor
+and easy solubility, may be a somewhat better feeding stuff than barley;
+and that, weight for weight, it may produce a somewhat greater increase
+in the weight of the animals fed upon it: but although a pound-weight of
+malt may be better than a pound-weight of barley, I am quite satisfied
+that a pound's worth of barley will put up more flesh than a pound's
+worth of malt. Barley-seeds consist of water, starch, nitrogenous
+substances--such as gluten and albumen--fatty substances, and saline
+matter. The amount of starch is considerable, being sometimes about
+70 per cent. In the process of malting (which is simply the germination
+of the seed under peculiar conditions), a portion of the starch is
+converted into sugar and gum, the grain increases in size and becomes
+friable when dried, and the internal structure of the seed is completely
+broken up. During these changes a partial decomposition of the solid
+matter of the seeds takes place, and a large amount of nutriment is
+dissipated, chiefly in the form of carbonic acid gas. From the results
+of the experience of the maltster, and of special experiments made by
+scientific men, it would appear that a ton of barley will produce only
+16 cwt. of malt. Allowance must, however, be made for the difference
+between the amount of water contained in barley and in malt, the latter
+being much drier. According to Mr. E. Holden, the centesimal loss
+sustained in malting may be stated thus:--
+
+  Water                                                     6·00
+  Organic matter                                           12·52
+  Saline matter                                             0·48
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100·00
+
+Dr. Thompson[35] sets down the loss of nutriment (exclusive of that
+occasioned by kiln-drying), as follows:--
+
+  Carried off by the steep                                  1·5
+  Dissipated on the floor                                   3·0
+  Roots separated by cleaning                               3·0
+  Waste                                                     0·5
+                                                            ---
+                                                            8·0
+
+We may say, then, that by the malting of barley we lose at least 2-1/2
+cwt. of solid nutriment out of every ton of the article, and this loss
+falls heaviest on the nitrogenous, or flesh-forming constituents of
+the grain. When there are added to this loss the expense of carting
+the grain to and from the malt-house, and the maltster's charge for
+operating upon it (I presume in this case that the feeder is not his own
+maltster), it will be found that two tons of malt will cost the farmer
+nearly as much as three tons of barley; and he will then have to solve
+the problem--_Whether or not malt is 40 or 50 per cent. more valuable
+as a feeding-stuff than barley_.
+
+The difference in value between barley and malt is generally 14s. per
+barrel; but it is sometimes more or less, according to the supply and
+demand. Barley, well malted, will lose on the average 25 per cent. of
+its weight, the loss depending, to some extent, upon the degree to which
+the process is carried, and on the germinating properties of the barley.
+Barley malted for roasters ought not to lose more than 21 per cent. of
+its original weight--53 lbs. to the barrel. The heavier the barley the
+less it loses in malting; a barrel of 224 lbs., and value from 15s. to
+16s., ought to produce a barrel of malt of 196 lbs., value 29s. to 30s.
+
+If we deduct from the cost of a barrel of malt the amount of duty at
+present levyable upon it, the price of the article will be still nearly
+50 per cent. greater than that of an equal weight of barley. The cheaper
+barley is the greater will be the relative cost of malt. The maltster's
+charge for converting a barrel of barley into malt is about 4s.; so
+that if the price of the grain be so low as 12s. per barrel, which it
+sometimes is, the cost of malting it would amount to 33 per cent. of its
+price. Then, the diminution in the weight of, and the cost of carting
+the grain, must be taken into account; and when the whole expense
+attendant upon the process of malting is ascertained, it will be found
+that I have not exaggerated in stating that a ton of malt costs as much
+as a ton and a half of barley.
+
+If the consumer of malt germinate the seeds himself, he may probably,
+if he require large quantities of the article, produce it at a somewhat
+cheaper rate than if he bought it from the maltster; but few persons who
+have the slightest knowledge of the vexatious restrictions of the Inland
+Revenue authorities would be likely to place his premises under the
+_espionage_ of an excise officer.
+
+As the superiority of malt over barley (if such be really the case) must
+be chiefly due to the looseness of its texture, which allows the juices
+of the stomach to act readily upon it, barley in a cooked state might be
+found quite as nutritious: It would not be fair to institute comparisons
+between dense hard barley-seeds and the easily soluble malted grains.
+During the cooking of barley a portion of the starch is changed into
+sugar, but in this case with only an inappreciable waste of nutriment.
+When the cooking process is continued for a few hours, a considerable
+amount of sugar is formed, and the barley acquires a very sweet flavor.
+
+When the malt for cattle question was under discussion, I made a little
+experiment in relation to it, the results of which are perhaps of
+sufficient interest to mention:--Two pounds weight of barley-meal were
+moistened with warm water; after standing for three hours more water was
+added, and sufficient heat applied to cause the fluid to boil. After
+fifteen minutes' ebullition, a few ounces of the pasty-like mass which
+was produced were removed, thoroughly dried, and on being submitted
+to analysis yielded six per cent. of sugar. The addition of a small
+quantity of malt to barley undergoing the process of cooking will
+rapidly convert the starch into sugar.
+
+Barley is naturally a well-flavored grain, and all kinds of stock eat
+it with avidity. It may be rendered still more agreeable if properly
+cooked, and this process will, by disintegrating its hard, fibrous
+structure, set free its stores of nutriment. I incline strongly to
+the opinion that barley, when well boiled, is almost, if not quite,
+as digestible as malt.
+
+A serious disadvantage in the use of malt is, that it must be consumed,
+it is said, in combination with 10 per cent. of its weight of linseed-meal
+or cake. Now, malt is a very laxative food, and so is linseed; and if
+the diet of stock were largely made up of these articles the animals
+would, sooner or later, suffer from diarrhoea. In such case, then,
+the addition of bean-meal, or of some other binding food, would become
+necessary, and the compound of malt, linseed, and bean-meal thereby
+formed would certainly prove anything but an economical diet.
+
+_Malt Combs._--I should mention that a portion of the nutriment which
+the barley loses in malting passes into the radicles, or young roots,
+which project from the seeds, and are technically known by the term
+"combs," "combings," or "dust." At present these combs are separated
+from the malt, but if the latter be intended for feeding purposes this
+separation is unnecessary, and in such case the barley will not be so
+much deteriorated. The combs, which constitute about 4 per cent. of the
+weight of the malt, are sometimes employed as a feeding stuff. I have
+made an analysis of malt-combings for the County of Kildare Agricultural
+Society, and have obtained the following results:--
+
+  100 PARTS CONTAINED--
+
+  Water                                                     8·42
+  [*] Flesh-forming (albuminous) substances                21·50
+  Digestible fat-forming substances (starch, sugar,
+     gum, &c.)                                             53·47
+  Indigestible woody fibre                                  8·57
+  [+] Saline matter (ash)                                   8·04
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100·00
+
+  [* Yielding nitrogen                                      3·44]
+  [+ Containing potash                                      1·35
+     Containing phosphoric acid                             1·74]
+
+This article was sold as a manure at £3 6s. per ton--a sum for which it
+was not good value; but as a feeding substance it was probably worth £4
+or £5 per ton. Its composition indicates a high nutritive power; but it
+is probable that its nitrogenous matters are partly in a low degree of
+elaboration, which greatly detracts from its alimental value.
+
+In conclusion, then, I would urge the following points upon the
+attention of the farmer:--
+
+1st. Before using malt for feeding purposes, wait until you learn the
+general results of the experience of other farmers with that article.
+The manufacture of malt for feeding purposes is rapidly on the decline,
+instead of, as had been anticipated, on the increase.
+
+2nd. Should you experiment with barley and malt, use equal money's worth
+of each, and employ the barley in a cooked state.
+
+3rd. Use malt-combings as a feeding stuff, and not as a manure. They are
+good value for at least £3 10s. per ton.
+
+4th. Bear in mind that a ton of barley contains more saline matter than
+an equal weight of malt; consequently, that stock fed upon barley will
+produce a manure richer in potash and phosphates than those supplied
+with malt.
+
+_Leguminous Seeds._--The seeds of the bean, of the pea, and of several
+other leguminous plants, are largely made use of as food for both man
+and the domesticated animals. They all closely resemble each other in
+composition, but in that respect differ considerably from the grains of
+the _Cerealiæ_, for whilst the latter contain on an average 12 per cent.
+of flesh-formers, beans and peas contain 24 per cent. The flesh-forming
+constituent of the leguminous seeds is not gluten, as in the grain
+of the cereals, but a substance termed _legumin_, which so closely
+resembles the cheesy matter of milk that it has also received the name
+of _vegetable casein_. Indeed, the Chinese make a factitious cheese out
+of peas, which it is difficult to discriminate from the article of
+animal origin.
+
+_Beans_ are used as fattening food for cattle, for which purpose they
+should be ground into meal, as otherwise a large proportion of their
+substance would pass through the animal's body unchanged. It is not good
+economy to give a fattening bullock more than 3 or 4 lbs. weight per
+diem; a larger proportion is apt to induce constipation. The very small
+proportion of ready-formed fat, the moderate amount of starch, and the
+exceedingly high per-centage of flesh-formers which beans contain, prove
+that they are better adapted as food for beasts of burthen than for the
+fattening of stock. Oats, Indian corn, or oil-cake, will be found to
+produce a greater increase of meat than equal money's worth of beans
+or peas, and I would therefore recommend the restriction of leguminous
+seeds, under ordinary circumstances, to horses and bulls. It has been
+stated, on good authority, that when oats are given whole to horses,
+a large proportion passes unchanged through the animal's body, but that
+on the addition of beans, the oats are thoroughly digested.
+
+  COMPOSITION OF LEGUMINOUS SEEDS.
+
+  --------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+----------
+                      | Common|Foreign|  Peas.|Lentils.| Winter
+                      | Beans.| Beans.|       |        |  Tares
+                      |       |       |       |        |(foreign).
+  --------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+----------
+  Water               |  13·0 |  14·5 |  14·0 |   13·0 |   15·5
+  Flesh-formers       |  25·5 |  23·0 |  23·5 |   24·0 |   26·5
+  Fat-formers         |  48·5 |  48·7 |  50·0 |   50·5 |   47·5
+  Woody fibre         |  10·0 |  10·0 |  10·0 |   10·0 |    9·0
+  Mineral matter      |   3·0 |   3·8 |   2·5 |    2·5 |    1·5
+  --------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+----------
+                      | 100·0 | 100·0 | 100·0 |  100·0 |  100·0
+  --------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+----------
+
+_Oil Seeds._--The seeds of a great variety of plants, such as the flax,
+hemp, rape, mustard, cotton, and sunflower, are exceedingly rich in oil,
+some of them containing nearly half their weight of that substance. Of
+these oil-seeds there are many which might with advantage be employed as
+fattening, food, although one only--linseed--has come into general use
+for that purpose.
+
+_Rape-seeds_ closely resemble linseeds in composition, but they are
+considerably cheaper. They contain an acrid substance, but the large
+proportion of oil with which it is associated almost completely
+disguises its unpleasant flavor.
+
+_Linseed_ is one of the most valuable kinds of food which could be given
+to fattening animals. Its exceedingly high proportion of ready-formed
+fatty matter, the great comparative solubility of its constituents, and
+its mild and agreeable flavor, constitute it an article superior to
+linseed cake. The laxative properties of linseed are very decided; it
+should therefore be given only in moderate quantities. As peas and
+beans exercise, as I have already stated, a relaxing influence upon
+the bowels, a mixture of linseed and peas or beans would be an
+excellent compound, the laxative influence of the one being corrected
+by the binding tendency of the other. Linseed being one of the most
+concentrated feeding stuffs in use, it will be found an excellent
+addition to bulky food, such as chaff and turnips. Linseed oil has
+been used as a fattening food, but there is nothing to be gained by
+expressing seeds for the purpose of using their oil as a feeding
+material. When hay is scarce, and straw abundant, the latter may be
+made almost as nutritious as the former by mixing it with linseed, and
+steaming the compound. A stone of linseed and two cwt. of oat-straw
+chaff, when properly cooked, constitute a most economical and
+nutritious food.
+
+Mr. Horne, who experimented with linseed two or three years ago,
+obtained results highly favorable to the nutritive value of that
+article. Six bullocks were selected, and each animal placed in a
+separate box. They were fed with cut roots--at first Swedes, then
+mangels and Swedes, and lastly, mangels alone: in addition, there were
+supplied to each 6 lbs. rough meadow-hay reduced to chaff, and 5 lbs.
+oil-cake, or value to that amount. They were divided into three lots,
+two in each. Lot 1 had 5 lbs. oil-cake for each animal; lot 2, barley
+and wheat-meal, equal in value to the 5 lbs. oil-cake; and lot 3, an
+equal money's worth of bruised linseed. The oil-cake cost £10 16s. per
+ton, the mixture of barley and wheat £8 15s. per ton, and the bruised
+linseed £13 per ton. The experiment lasted 112 days, and at its close
+the results, which proved very favorable to the bruised linseed, were
+as follows:--
+
+                                                    Increase in
+                                                    live weight.
+
+  Lot 1. Oil-cake                                       637 lbs.
+  Lot 2. Wheat and barley-meal                          667 lbs.
+  Lot 3. Bruised linseed                                718 lbs.
+
+During the 112 days each bullock consumed 5 cwt. oil-cake (or an
+equivalent amount of linseed or wheat and barley), 6 cwt. hay, and
+90 cwt. of roots. The average increase in each animal's weight was
+337 lbs. = 224 lbs. _dead_ weight. The economic features of this
+experiment are best shown in the following figures:--
+
+  FOOD CONSUMED.
+
+                                                        £  s.  d.
+
+   5 cwt. oil-cake, at 10s. 6d. per cwt.                2  12  6
+   6 cwt. hay, at 3s. per cwt.                          0  18  0
+  16 weeks' attendance, at 6d. per week                 0   8  0
+                                                       ---------
+                                                       £3  18  6
+                                                       ---------
+  Gained 16 stones per week, at 8s. per stone           6  8   0
+                                                       ---------
+  Balance to pay for 90 cwt. of roots                   2  9   6
+
+The manure obtained afforded a good profit.
+
+The seed-pods, or, as they are termed, the _bolls_ of the flax,
+have been recommended as an excellent feeding stuff. They are not
+so nutritious as linseed, but they are cheaper, and when produced
+on the farm must be an economical food. Mr. Charley, an intelligent
+stock-feeder in the county of Antrim, and an eminent authority in every
+subject in relation to flax, strongly recommends the use of flax-bolls.
+He says:--
+
+    The cost of rippling is considerable; but I believe, for
+    every £1 expended, on an average a return is realised of £2,
+    particularly on a farmstead where many horses and cattle are
+    regularly kept. The flax-bolls contain much more nourishment
+    than the linseed-cake from which the oil has, of course, been
+    expressed, and they form a most valuable addition to the warm
+    food prepared during winter for the animals just named. I believe
+    they have also a highly beneficial effect in warding off internal
+    disease, owing, no doubt, to the soothing and slightly purgative
+    properties of the oil contained in the seed. The change made in
+    the appearance of the animals receiving some of the bolls in their
+    steamed food is very apparent after a few weeks' trial; and the
+    smoothness and sleekness of their shining coats plainly show the
+    benefit derived. Is it not surprising, with this fact before our
+    eyes, that many agriculturists--indeed, I fear the majority--persist
+    in the old-fashioned system of taking the flax to a watering-place
+    with its valuable freight of seed unremoved, and plunge the sheaves
+    under water, losing thereby, _in the most wanton manner_, rich
+    feeding materials, worth from £1 to £3 per statute acre?
+
+
+In the following table, the composition of all the more important
+oil-seeds is given:--
+
+  COMPOSITION OF OIL-SEEDS, ACCORDING TO DR. ANDERSON.
+
+  --------------------------+---------+----------+----------+---------------
+                            |         |          |          | Cotton-seed
+                            |Linseed. |Rape-seed.|Hemp-seed.|(decorticated).
+                            +---------+----------+----------+---------------
+                            |         |          |          |
+  Water                     |    7·50 |    7·13  |     6·47 |     6·57
+                            |         |          |          |
+  Oil                       |   34·00 |   36·81  |    31·84 |    31·24
+                            |         |          |          |
+  Albuminous compounds      |         |          |          |
+    (Flesh-formers)         |   24·44 |   21·50  |    22·60 |    31·86
+                            |         |          |          |
+  Gum, mucilage, sugar, &c. | \       |   18·73  |  \       |    14·12
+                            |  }30·73 |          |   }32·72 |
+  Woody-fibre               | /       |    6·86  |  /       |     7·30
+                            |         |          |          |
+  Mineral matter (ash)      |    3·33 |    8·97  |     6·37 |     8·91
+                            +---------+----------+----------+---------------
+                            |  100·00 |  100·00  |   100·00 |   100·00
+  --------------------------+---------+----------+----------+---------------
+
+_Fenugreek-seed_ is used very extensively in the preparation of
+"Condimental food." It is often given to horses out of condition.
+Sheep have been liberally supplied with this food, which, however,
+it is stated, communicates a disagreeable flavor to the mutton.
+It contains, according to Voelcker, the following:--
+
+  Water                                                   11·994
+  Flesh-formers                                           26·665
+  Starch, gum, and pectin                                 37·111
+  Sugar                                                    2·220
+  Fatty and oily matters                                   8·320
+  Woody fibre                                             10·820
+  Inorganic matter                                         2·870
+                                                         -------
+                                                         100·000
+
+
+SECTION VII.
+
+OIL-CAKES, AND OTHER ARTIFICIAL FOODS.
+
+Oil-seeds, on being subjected to considerable pressure, part with
+a large proportion of their oil, the remaining part of that fluid,
+together with the various other ingredients of the seeds, constitute
+the substances so well known to agriculturists under the name of
+oil-cakes. These cakes contain a larger proportion of ready-formed
+fatty matter than is found in any other feeding stuff, and an amount
+of flesh-forming principles far greater than that yielded by corn,
+or even by beans; the manure, too, which is produced by the cattle fed
+upon some of them, is often good value for nearly half the sum expended
+on the food.
+
+The principal kinds of oil-cake employed for feeding purposes are the
+following:--Linseed-cake, Rape-cake, and cotton-seed cake. Poppy cake is
+not much in use. Their average composition, deduced from the results of
+numerous analyses made by Voelcker, Anderson, and myself, are shown in
+the following table:--
+
+  AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF OIL-CAKES.
+
+  ---------------------------+---------+------+------------+-------
+                             | Linseed |      |Decorticated|
+                             | Cake,   | Rape | Cottonseed | Poppy
+                             | English.| Cake.|    Cake.   | Cake.
+                             +---------+------+------------+-------
+  Water                      |    12   |   11 |       9    |   12
+  Flesh-forming principles   |    28   |   30 |      38    |   32
+  Oil                        |    10   |   11 |      13    |    6
+  Gum, mucilage, &c.         |    34   |   30 |      23    |   30
+  Woody fibre                |    10   |   10 |       9    |    9
+  Mineral matter (ash)       |     6   |    8 |       8    |    1
+                             +---------+------+------------+-------
+                             |   100   |  100 |     100    |  100
+  ---------------------------+---------+------+------------+-------
+
+_Linseed Cake._--Within the last quarter of a century great attention
+has been given to the feeding of stock, and the effects are observable
+in the improved quality and greatly increased weight of the animals.
+In the year 1839 the average weight of the horned beasts from Ireland
+sold in the London market was only 650 lbs., whereas at the present
+time their average weight is about 740 lbs. This remarkable advance
+in the production of meat is in great part due to the cattle being more
+liberally supplied with food, and that, too, of a more concentrated
+nature. The practice of feeding animals destined for the shambles
+exclusively on roots containing 90 and even 95 per cent. of water, which
+once prevailed so generally in this country, is now limited to the
+farmsteads of a few old-fashioned feeders; and the necessity for the
+admixture of highly-nutritious aliment with the bulky substances which
+form the staple food of stock is almost universally recognised.
+
+Of concentrated foods used for fattening stock, none stands higher in
+the estimation of the farmer than linseed-cake, although it appears to
+me that the price of the article is somewhat too high in relation to
+its amount of nutriment, and that corn, if its price be moderate, is
+a more economical food. Straw, turnips, and mangels form the bone and
+sinew of the animals, and enable them to carry on the vital operations
+which are essential to their existence. Oil-cake and similar foods are
+supplemental, and contribute directly to the animal's increase, so that
+their nutritive value appears to be greater than it really is. If an
+animal were fed exclusively upon oil-cake, the greater part of it would
+be appropriated to the reparation of the waste of the body, and the rest
+would be converted into permanent flesh--the animal's "increase." The
+addition of straw would produce a still further increase in the animal's
+weight--an increase which would be directly proportionate to the amount
+of straw consumed. Thus it will be seen that, whatever the staple food
+may be, it will have to sustain the life of the animal, and will be
+principally expended for that purpose, whereas the supplemental food
+will be chiefly, if not entirely, made use of in increasing the weight
+of flesh. To me it appears manifestly incorrect to consider, as feeders
+practically do, the value of linseed-cake to be seven or eight times
+greater than that of oat-straw, and twenty times greater than that of
+roots. Let us assume the case of an animal fed upon roots, straw, and
+oil-cake. Seventy-five per cent. of its food, say, is expended in
+repairing the waste of its body, and 25 per cent. is stored up in its
+increase. Now, if the three kinds of food contributed proportionately
+to the reparation of the body and to its increase, the roots and straw
+would be found to possess a far higher nutritive value, in relation to
+the oil-cake, than is usually ascribed to them.
+
+But it may be asked why straw, if it be relatively a much more
+economical feeding stuff than oil-cake, is not employed to the complete
+exclusion of the latter. I have already given an answer to such a
+question, namely, that animals thrive better on a diet composed partly
+of bulky, partly of concentrated aliments. This much, however, is
+certain, that animals can be profitably fed upon roots and straw, whilst
+it is equally certain that to feed them upon oil-cake alone (assuming
+them to thrive upon such a diet) would entail a very heavy loss upon
+the feeder. At the same time it must be admitted that the oil of the
+linseed-cake exercises in all probability a beneficial influence on the
+digestion of the animal, so that the nutritive value of the article may
+be somewhat higher than its mere composition would indicate.
+
+The quantity of oil-cake given to fattening stock varies from 2 lbs. to
+14 lbs. per diem. I believe there is no greater mistake made by feeders
+than that of giving excessive quantities of this substance to stock. If
+their object in so doing be to enrich their manure-heap, they would find
+it far more economical to add the cake directly to the manure--or rather
+of adding rape-cake to it, for this variety of cake is fully as valuable
+for manurial purposes as the linseed-cake, and is nearly 50 per cent.
+cheaper. A larger quantity of oil-cake than 7 lbs. daily should not be
+given to even the largest-sized milch cows or fattening bullocks. If a
+larger amount be employed, it will pass unchanged through the animal's
+body. Young cattle may with advantage be supplied with from 1 to 3 lbs.,
+according to their size, and from 1/2 to 1 lb. will be a sufficient
+quantity for sheep. Intelligent feeders have remarked, that cattle which
+had been always supplied with a moderate allowance of this food fattened
+more readily upon it, during their finishing stage, than did stock which
+had not been accustomed to its use.
+
+_Adulteration of Linseed Cake._--The great drawback to the use of
+linseed-cake is the liability of the article to be adulterated. The
+sophistication is sometimes of a harmless nature, if we except its
+injurious effect on the farmer's pocket; but not unfrequently the
+substances added to the cakes possess properties which completely unfit
+them to be used as food. Amongst the injurious substances found in
+linseed and linseed-cake I may mention the seeds of the purging-flax,
+darnel, spurry, corn-cockle, curcus-beans, and castor-oil beans.
+Several of these seeds are highly drastic purgatives, and they have
+been known to cause intense inflammation of the bowels of animals fed
+upon oil-cake, of which they composed but a small proportion. Amongst
+the adulterations of linseed-cake, which lower its nutritive value
+without imparting to it any injurious properties, are the seeds of
+the cereals and the grasses, bran, and flax-straw. Little black seeds
+belonging to various species of _Polygonum_, are very often present
+in even good cakes; they are very indigestible, but otherwise are not
+injurious. Rape-cake is stated to be occasionally used as adulterant
+of the more costly linseed, but I have never met with an admixture of
+the two articles.
+
+The only way in which a correct estimate of the value of linseed-cake
+can be arrived at is by a combined microscopical and chemical analysis;
+but as the feeder is not always disposed to incur the cost of this
+process, he should make himself acquainted with the characteristic
+of the genuine cake, in order to be able to discriminate, as far as
+possible, between it and the sophisticated article. I will indicate a
+few of the more prominent features of cake of excellent quality, and
+point out a few simple and easily-performed tests, which may serve
+to detect the existence of gross adulteration. Good cake is hard, of
+a reddish-brown color, uniform in appearance, and possesses a rather
+pleasant flavor and odour. The adulterated cake is commonly of a greyish
+hue, and has a disagreeable odour. A weighed quantity of the cake--say
+100 grains--in the state of powder should be formed into a paste with
+an ounce of water; if it be good, the paste will be light colored,
+moderately stiff, and endowed with a pleasant odour and flavor. If the
+paste be thin, the presence of bran, or of grass seeds, is probable.
+The latter are easily seen through a magnifying-glass; indeed, most
+of them are readily recognisable by the unassisted eye: they may,
+therefore, be picked out, and their weight determined. Sand--a frequent
+adulterant--may be detected by mixing a small weighed quantity of the
+powdered cake with about twelve times its weight of water, allowing the
+mixture to stand for half an hour, and collecting and weighing the sand
+which will be found at the bottom of the vessel employed. If there be
+bran present it will be found lying on the sand, and its structure
+is sufficiently distinct to admit of its detection by a mere glance.
+There are a great variety of linseed-cakes in the market, of which
+the home-made article is the best. On the Continent the oil-seeds are
+subjected to the action of heat in order to obtain from them a greater
+yield of oil. Their cakes, therefore, contain less oil, and their
+flesh-forming principles are less soluble, in comparison with British
+linseed-cake. Next to our home-made oil-cakes, the American is the
+best. Indeed, I have met with some American cakes which were equal to
+the best English.
+
+_Rape Cake._--The use of rape-cake was limited almost completely to the
+fertilising of the soil until the late Mr. Pusey, in a paper published
+in the tenth volume of the _Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of
+England_, advocated its employment as a substitute for the more costly
+linseed-cake. The recommendation of this distinguished agriculturist
+has not been disregarded; and since his time the use of this cake as a
+feeding stuff has been steadily on the increase, and at the present time
+its annual consumption is not far short of 50,000 tons.
+
+In relation to the nutritive value of rape-cake there exists considerable
+diversity of opinion. Certain feeders assert that animals fed upon it go
+out of condition; others, whilst admitting that stock thrive upon it,
+maintain the economic superiority of linseed-cake; whilst a third
+set believe rape-cake to be the most economical of feeding-stuffs.
+How are we to account for these great differences of opinion--not
+amongst _theorists_, be it observed, but amongst practical men?
+It is not difficult to explain them away satisfactorily. Rape-cake
+and linseed-cake are about equally rich in muscle and fat-forming
+principles; and, supposing both to be equally well-flavored, there can
+be no doubt but that one is just as nourishing as the other. But it so
+happens that a large proportion of the rape-cake which comes into the
+British market possesses a flavor which renders it very disagreeable
+to animals. One variety--namely, the East Indian--is almost poisonous,
+whilst the very best kind is slightly inferior to linseed-cake. Now, if
+an experiment with a very inferior kind of rape-cake and a good variety
+of linseed-cake were tried, who can doubt but that the results would be
+very unfavorable to the former article? Mr. Callan,[36] of Rathfarnham,
+county Dublin; Mr. Bird,[37] of Renton Barns, and some other feeders,
+who found rape-cake to be worse than useless, experimented, in all
+probability, with an adulterated article, for they do not appear to
+have had the cake analysed. On the other hand, those whose experience
+with rape-cake has proved favorable, must have employed the article
+in a genuine state, fresh, and moderately well-flavored. It is
+noteworthy that amongst the advocates for the use of rape-cake as
+a substitute--partly or entirely--for the more costly linseed-cake,
+are to be found the most successful feeders in England and Scotland.
+Horsfall, Mechi, Lawrence, Bond, Hope, and many other feeders of equal
+celebrity, have assigned to rape-cake the highest place, in an economic
+point of view, amongst the concentrated feeding stuffs. Mr. Mechi
+says:--"I invariably give to all my animals as much rape-cake as they
+choose to eat, however abundant their roots or green food may be. It
+pays in many ways, and not to do this is a great pecuniary mistake.
+Even when fed on green rape, they will eat rape-cake abundantly.
+My cattle are now under cover, eating the steamed chaff, rape-cake,
+malt-combs, and bran, all mixed together in strict accordance with
+the proportions named by Mr. Horsfall in the _Journal of the Royal
+Agricultural Society_, vol. xviii., p. 150,[38] which I find by far
+the most profitable mode of feeding bullocks and cows." Mr. Hope, of
+Edinburgh, states that rape-cake is the best substitute for turnips,
+and that, excepting cases where spurious kinds had been used, he never
+knew bullocks or milch cows to refuse it. This gentleman states that
+it is best given in combination with locust-beans, or a mixture of
+locust-beans and Indian corn; and suggests the proportions set down
+in the tables as the best adapted for lean cattle; but I think about
+two-thirds of the quantities would be quite sufficient.
+
+                                      Feed per week.  Per week.
+
+                                           lbs.        s.  d.
+
+  Rape-cake at £5 15s. per ton              8          2  10-1/2
+       Do.         do.                     10          3   7
+  Mixture of two-thirds rape-cake and
+    one-third locust-beans £6               8          3   0
+       Do.         do.                     10          3   9
+  Rape-cake, locust-beans, and Indian
+    Corn in equal proportions               8          3   2-1/2
+       Do.         do.                     10          3  11-1/4
+
+An intelligent Scotch dairy farmer bears the following testimony in
+favor of this cake:--
+
+    I have tried pease-meal, bean-meal, oat-meal, and linseed-cake,
+    and after carefully noting the results, I consider rape-cake,
+    weight for weight, at least equal to any of them for milch cows;
+    and if I give the same money value for each, I get at least
+    one-third more produce, and the butter is always of a very
+    superior quality. Two years ago, I took some of my best oats
+    (41 lbs. per bushel), and ground them for the cows, and although
+    I was at about one-third more expense, I lost fully one-third of
+    the produce that I had by using rape-cake. I always dissolve it
+    by pouring boiling water on it, and give each cow 6 lbs. daily.
+    I have tried a larger quantity, and found I was fully repaid for
+    the extra expense. I generally use it the most of the summer,
+    but always during the spring months. A number of my neighbours
+    who have tried it all agree that it is the best and cheapest
+    feed for milch cows they have used.--_North British Agriculturist_,
+    Edinburgh, February 29, 1860.
+
+
+The best kinds of rape-cake come from Germany and Denmark. When
+neither too old nor too fresh, and of a pale-green color, these
+foreign cakes are tolerably well-flavored, and are but slightly
+inferior to good linseed-cake. Most varieties of this cake, however,
+contain a small proportion of acrid matter, which often renders them
+more or less distasteful to stock, more particularly to cattle. This
+substance may be rendered quite innocuous by steaming or boiling the
+cake; either of these processes will also, according to Mr. Lawrence,
+destroy the disagreeable flavor which mustard-seed--a frequent
+adulterant of rape-cake--confers upon that article. Molasses or treacle
+is an excellent adjunct to the cake, as it serves in a great measure to
+correct its somewhat unpleasant flavor. Carob, or locust-beans, answer,
+perhaps better, the same purpose. It is better, as a general rule,
+to give less rape-cake than linseed-cake, unless the pale-green kind
+to which I have referred is obtainable; that variety may be largely
+employed. The animals should be gradually accustomed to its use. At
+first, in the case of bullocks, they should get only 1 lb. per diem,
+and the quantity should be gradually increased to about 4 lbs.; but
+I would not advise, under any circumstances, a larger daily allowance
+than 5 lbs. Given in moderate amounts, it will, supposing it to be of
+fair quality, be found to give a better return in meat than almost any
+other kind of concentrated food; and, what is of great importance, it
+will not injuriously affect the animal's health. "Our experience of the
+use of rape-cake," says Mr. Lawrence, "thus used (cooked), extends over
+a period of ten years of feeding from 20 to 24 bullocks annually. We
+have not had a single death during that period, and the animals have
+been remarkably free from any kind of ailment."
+
+Rape-cake of good quality possesses a dark-green color (the greener
+the better), and when broken exhibits a mottled aspect--yellowish and
+dark-brown spots. Sometimes a tolerably good specimen has a brownish
+color; but the German and Danish cakes are always of a greenish hue.
+The odor is stronger than that of linseed-cake, and differs but little
+from that of rape-oil. The only serious adulteration of rape-cake
+is the addition to it of mustard-seed--sometimes accidentally--less
+frequently, as I believe, intentionally. This sophistication admits of
+easy detection. Scrape into small particles about half an ounce of the
+cake, add six times its weight of water, form the solid and liquid
+into a paste, and allow the mixture to stand for a few hours. If the
+cake contain mustard the characteristic odor of that substance will be
+evolved, and its intensity will afford a rough indication of the amount
+of the adulterant. As some specimens of genuine rape-cake possess a
+somewhat pungent odor, care must be taken not to confound it with that
+of mustard; but, indeed, it is not difficult to discriminate the latter.
+The paste of rape-cake which contains an injurious proportion of
+mustard, has a very pungent flavor. Rape-cake improves somewhat if kept
+for say six months; but old cake is worse than the fresh article.
+
+_Cottonseed Cake_ is one of the most valuable feeding stuffs that
+have come into use of late years. Its chemical composition shows it
+to be about equal to that of the best linseed-cake, and as its price
+is much lower than that of the latter, it may be fairly considered
+a more economical food. These remarks apply only to the shelled, or
+decorticated seed-cake, for the article prepared from the whole seed is
+of very inferior composition, and should never be employed. The use of
+the cake made from the whole seed has proved fatal in many instances,
+not from its possessing any poisonous quality, but in consequence
+of its hard, indigestible husk, accumulating in, and inflaming, the
+animal's bowels.
+
+The composition of this cake varies somewhat. The following analysis of
+a sample from one of the Western States of North America, imported by
+Messrs. G. Seagrave and Co., of Liverpool, was made by me:--
+
+  COMPOSITION OF DECORTICATED COTTON-SEED CAKE.
+
+  Water                                                     8·20
+  Oil                                                      10·16
+  Albuminous, or flesh-forming principles                  40·25
+  Gum, sugar, &c.                                          21·10
+  Fibre                                                     9·23
+  Ash (mineral matter)                                     11·06
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100·00
+
+In some specimens so much as 16 per cent. of oil has been found. The
+purchaser of cotton-seed cake should be certain that it is not old and
+mouldy, which is frequently the case. The recently prepared cake has
+a very yellow color, which becomes fainter as the cake becomes older.
+Freshness is a very desirable quality in nearly every kind of cake.
+I have known animals to have a greater relish for, and thrive better
+upon, home-made linseed-cake than upon cake of foreign manufacture of
+superior composition, but of greater age.
+
+_Palm-nut Meal, or Cake_ is a very valuable fattening food. It is
+extremely rich in ready-formed fatty matters, but at the same time it is
+not very deficient in albuminous substances. Its strong flavor is rather
+a drawback to its use in the case of all the farm animals, except pigs.
+This difficulty may, however, be got over by using the cake in moderate
+quantities, and by combining it with other food possessed of a good
+flavor. Reports of practical trials made with this food appear to have
+almost uniformly given very favorable results. This food is only three
+or four years in use. The first samples that came into my hand were
+richer in fatty matters than those which I have recently examined.
+The average results of eight analyses made from 1864 to 1866 were
+as follows:--
+
+  100 PARTS CONTAINED--
+
+  Water                                                     7·48
+  Albuminous matters                                       17·26
+  Fatty substances                                         21·59
+  Gum, sugar, &c.                                          32·14
+  Fibre                                                    17·18
+  Mineral matter                                            4·35
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100·00
+
+This year I have not found more than 17 per cent. of fat in any sample
+of palm-nut cake. One specimen which I analysed for Mr. J. G. Alexander,
+seed merchant, of Dublin, had the following composition:--
+
+  Water                                                     9·24
+  Albuminous matters                                       19·28
+  Fatty matters                                             9·36
+  Gum, starch, fibre, &c.                                  53·22
+  Mineral matters                                           8·90
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100·00
+
+But although inferior samples are occasionally met with, I may say
+of palm-nut cake that on the whole it is a food which deserves to be
+largely used, and which at its present price is the most economical
+source of fat. To milch-cows and fattening cattle about 3 lbs. per diem
+may be given; 1/4 lb. will be sufficient for young sheep, whilst pigs
+may be very liberally supplied with this food.
+
+The _Locust, or Carob Bean_, is now largely used by the stock-feeder.
+It is extremely rich in sugar, and is therefore an excellent fattening
+and milk-producing food. It is used largely in the preparation of the
+sweet kinds of artificial food for cattle. It is not well adapted for
+young animals, owing to its deficiency of albuminous matters. The
+following analysis shows the average composition of this food:--
+
+  Water                                                       14
+  Sugar                                                       50
+  Albuminous matters                                           8
+  Oil                                                          1
+  Gum, &c.                                                    20
+  Woody fibre                                                  5
+  Ash                                                          2
+                                                             ---
+                                                             100
+
+_Dates_ have been used, but only in very small quantities, as cattle
+food. Their composition is not constant, some samples being greatly
+inferior in nutritive power to others; they are rich in sugar,
+and if they were obtained in sufficient quantities they might, like
+carob-beans, come into general use with the stock-feeder. They contain
+about 2 per cent. of flesh-formers, 10 per cent. of fat-formers (chiefly
+sugar), and 2 per cent. of mineral matter.
+
+Distillery and brewery dregs (or wash) are chiefly used by dairymen.
+According to Dr. Anderson, an imperial gallon (700,000 grains) of
+distillery wash (from a distillery near Edinburgh) contained 4,130
+grains of organic matter, and 276 grains of mineral substances.
+He considers that 15 gallons of this stuff were equal in nutritive
+materials to 100 pounds of turnips. The following is the centesimal
+composition of brewery wash:--
+
+  Water                                                    75·85
+  Albuminous matters                                        0·62
+  Gummy matters                                             1·06
+  Other organic matter (husks, &c.)                        21·28
+  Mineral matters                                           1·19
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100·00
+
+_Molasses_ constitute a very fattening food, sometimes, but not
+often, given to stock. Treacle and molasses are composed of
+non-crystallisable sugar, cane-sugar, water, and saline and other
+impurities. The composition of average specimens of molasses, as
+imported, is as follows:--
+
+
+  Cane-sugar                                                  50
+  Non-crystallisable sugar and grape-sugar                    25
+  Water, saline matter, and organic impurities                25
+                                                             ---
+                                                             100
+
+If admitted duty free, molasses would be a much more economical food
+than it now is, but at its present price it must be regarded as a mere
+flavoring food.
+
+Mr. T. Cooke Burroughs, a West Suffolk feeder, who used treacle in 1864,
+gives the following mode of mixing it with other food:--
+
+    My plan has been (and is still carried on) to give to each
+    bullock per day (divided into three meals) one pint of treacle
+    dissolved in two gallons of water, and sprinkled, by means of
+    a garden water-pot, over four bushels of cut chaff (two-thirds
+    straw and one-third hay) amongst which a quarter of a peck of
+    meal (barley and wheat) is mixed, the animals also having free
+    access to water. The cost of the treacle and meal together
+    is about 3s. per bullock per week. My bullocks (two-year old
+    Shorthorns) have grown and thrived upon the above diet to my
+    utmost satisfaction; and even during the present dry and warm
+    weather they evince no lingering after roots or grass. I am well
+    aware that the use of treacle for neat stock is no new discovery
+    of my own, as I learnt the system while on a visit to a friend
+    in Norfolk, where some graziers have used it in combination with
+    roots during many years past. Perhaps flax-seed (linseed) boiled
+    into a jelly and used in a similar way, may be a more profitable
+    "substitute for roots" than treacle; but the preparation of it is
+    attended with more expense and trouble.
+
+
+SECTION  VIII.
+
+CONDIMENTAL FOOD.
+
+Although every farmer may not have used, there are few who have not
+heard of "Thorley's Condimental Food for Cattle." This nostrum is a
+compound of some of the ordinary foods with certain well-known aromatic
+and carminative substances. It possesses a very agreeable flavor, and it
+is therefore much relished by horses, and indeed by every kind of stock.
+The price of this compound was at first so much as £60 per ton; but
+owing to competition, and perhaps to the attacks made upon the
+enormously high price of this article, it is now to be obtained at
+prices varying from £12 to £24 per ton.
+
+The inventor of condimental food, and the numerous fabricators of that
+compound, claim for it merits of no ordinary nature. Its use, they
+assert, not only maintains the animals fed upon it in excellent health,
+but it also exercises so remarkable an action upon the adipose tissues
+that fat accumulates to an immense extent. Moreover, it is said that an
+animal supplied with a very moderate daily modicum of this wonderful
+compound, will consume less of its ordinary food, though rapidly
+becoming fat.
+
+Now, if these assertions were perfectly, or even approximatively,
+true, Mr. Thorley would be well deserving of a niche in the temple of
+fame, and stock-feeders would ever regard him as a benefactor to his
+own and the bovine species; but I fear that Mr. Thorley's imagination
+outstripped his reason when he described in such glowing terms the
+wonderful virtues of his tonic food.
+
+Mr. J. B. Lawes, of Rothamstead, than whom there is no more accurate
+experimenter in agricultural practice, states that he made many careful
+trials with Thorley's food, and that he never found it to exercise
+the slightest influence upon the nutrition of the animals fed upon it.
+In his report upon this subject, Mr. Lawes, after describing the
+experiments which he made, sums up as follows:--
+
+    There is nothing therefore in the above results to recommend the
+    use of Thorley's condiment with inferior fattening food, to those
+    who feed pigs for profit. In fact, the following balance-sheet of
+    the experiment shows that, in fattening for twelve weeks, there
+    was a balance of £1 10s. 11d. in favor of the lot fed without
+    Thorley's food, notwithstanding that one of the pigs in that lot
+    did badly throughout the experiment, as above stated.
+
+  LOT 1.--WITH BARLEY-MEAL AND BRAN.
+
+                                                £  s. d.
+
+  4 pigs bought in at 41s. 6d. each             8  6  0
+  1,860-3/4 lbs. barley, at 37s. 6d. per
+    quarter of 416 lbs., including grinding     8  7  8-3/4
+  1,024-3/4 lbs. bran at 5s. 6d. per cwt.       2 10  3-3/4
+                                               ------------
+                                               19  4  0-1/2
+  88 stone 5 lbs. of pork sold at 4s. 4d.
+    per stone, sinking the offal               19  4  0-1/2
+
+  LOT 2.--WITH BARLEY-MEAL, BRAN, AND THORLEY'S FOOD.
+
+                                                £  s. d.
+
+  4 pigs bought in at 41s. 6d. each             8  6  0
+  1,862-3/4 lbs. barley, at 37s. 6d. per
+    quarter of 416 lbs., including grinding     8  7 10-1/4
+  1,020-3/4 lbs. bran at 5s. 6d. per cwt.       2 10  1-1/2
+  105 lbs. Thorley's food at 40s. per cwt.      1 17  6
+                                               ------------
+                                               21  1  5-3/4
+  90 stone 1 lb. pork sold at 4s. 4d.
+    per stone, sinking the offal               19 10  6-1/2
+                                               ------------
+                                                1 10 11-1/4
+
+The results of these experiments with pigs, in which Thorley's condiment
+was used with inferior fattening food, may be summed up as follows:--
+
+    1. The addition of Thorley's condimental food increased the
+    amount of food consumed by a given weight of animal within
+    a given time.
+
+    2. When Thorley's condiment was given it required more food
+    to produce a given amount of increase in live-weight.
+
+    3. In fattening for twelve weeks there was a difference of
+    £1 10s. 11d. on the lot of 4 pigs in favor of barley-meal
+    and bran alone, over barley-meal, bran, and Thorley's food
+    in addition.
+
+
+At a meeting of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of
+England, held some time ago, the subject of the nutrimental value of
+condimental cattle food was discussed. As there is scarcely any kind of
+quackery, from spirit manifestations to Holloway's pills, that has not
+got its believers, there were, as might have been anticipated, some
+voices raised at this meeting in favor of Thorley's food; but the
+_sense_ of the meeting was decidedly against it. Professor Simonds
+pronounced it to be worthless.
+
+Although the greater number of equine proprietors and feeders of stock
+are too sensible to throw their money away in the purchase of those
+costly foods, still there are by no means an insignificant number who
+employ it, under the idea that it preserves the health of the animals;
+these stuffs are also highly appreciated by many grooms and herds.
+Now, for the information of all believers, I may state that there is
+no mystery whatever in the nature of condimental cattle foods. They
+consist in substance of such matters as linseed-cake, Indian corn,
+rice, bean-meal, locust-beans, and malt-combings. These substances
+are flavored by the addition of turmeric-root, ginger, coriander-seed,
+carraway-seed, fenugreek-seed, aniseed, liquorice, and similar
+substances. In addition to the nutritive and flavorous articles employed
+in the manufacture of these foods, purely medicinal substances are also
+made use of with the idea that they would prove useful in maintaining
+the health and stimulating the appetite of the animals. These medicinal
+ingredients constitute but a small proportion of the compound, although
+they add considerably to the cost of manufacture. The following is a
+formula for a condimental food, which in every respect will be found
+fully equal, if not superior, to the ordinary high-priced articles.
+
+                                                cwt.   qrs.   lbs.
+
+  Linseed-meal, or cake                          7      0      0
+  Locust beans (ground)                          8      0      0
+  Indian corn                                    4      1      0
+  Powdered turmeric                              0      1      4
+  Ginger                                         0      0      3
+  Fenugreek-seed                                 0      0      2
+  Gentian                                        0      0     10
+  Cream of tartar                                0      0      2
+  Sulphur                                        0      0     20
+  Common salt                                    0      0     10
+  Coriander-seed                                 0      0      5
+                                               -----------------
+                                                     One ton.
+
+A ton of condimental food manufactured according to this formula will
+cost only about the same amount as an equal weight of linseed, and will
+produce an effect fully equal to that of the food which at one time was
+sold at £60 per ton.
+
+Whatever may be the medicinal virtues of these foods, or however
+appropriate the term "condimental" which has been applied to them,
+it is quite certain that their whilom designation "concentrated"
+was a misnomer. Their composition shows that they possess a degree of
+nutritive power considerably below that of linseed-cake, and but little,
+if at all, superior to that of Indian corn.
+
+The following analytical statement, which I published some years ago,
+will give an insight into the nature of these articles:--
+
+  ANALYSES OF CONDIMENTAL FOOD.
+
+                                           Thorley's.   Bradley's.
+
+  Water                                       12·00        12·09
+  Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles    14·92        10·36
+  Oil                                          6·08         5·80
+  Gum, sugar, mucilage, &c.                   56·86        60·21
+  Woody fibre                                  5·46         5·32
+  Mineral matter (ash)                         4·68         6·22
+                                             ------       ------
+                                             100·00       100·00
+
+As a ton of linseed-cake contains a greater amount of nutriment than
+an equal quantity of condimental food, the latter should be clearly
+proved to possess very valuable specific virtues, in order to induce the
+feeder to use it extensively. Cattle and horses out of condition may be
+benefited by its carminative and tonic properties; but if they are, it
+surely must be a bad practice to feed healthy animals upon a substance
+which is a remedy in disease. It is asserted, and probably with some
+degree of truth, that when dainty, over-fed stock loathe their food,
+they are induced to eat greedily by mixing the "condimental" with their
+ordinary food. If such really be the case, let the feeder compound the
+article himself, and effect thereby a saving of perhaps 50 or 80 per
+cent. in the cost of it. A good condimental food, rich in actual
+nutriment, and pleasantly flavored, is no doubt a compound which might
+be used with advantage; but it should be sold at a moderate and fair
+price.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Footnote 26: See Transactions of Highland and Agricultural Society of
+Scotland for 1852.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Zig-zag clover, or Marl grass? Cowgrass is _Trifolium
+pratense perenne_.]
+
+[Footnote 28: This gentleman has invented an exceedingly simple but
+effective furze-bruiser, which I hope soon to see in general use.]
+
+[Footnote 29: H. Le Docte, in _Journal de la Société Centrale
+d'Agriculture de Belgique_.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Cellulose is the term applied to the chemical substance
+which forms woody fibre. The latter is made up of very minute
+spindle-shaped tubes. In young and succulent plants these tubes are
+often lined with layers of soft cellulose. In many plants--such as
+trees--in a certain stage of development, the substance lining the cells
+is very hard, and is termed _lignin_, or _sclerogen_. This substance is
+merely a modification of cellulose; and both resemble in composition
+sugar and starch so closely that, by heating them with sulphuric acid,
+they may be converted into sugar.]
+
+[Footnote 31: One part of oil is equal to 2-1/2 parts of starch--that is,
+2-1/2 parts of starch are expended in the production of
+1 part of fat.]
+
+[Footnote 32: No difference is here assumed between the nutritive value
+of sugar and starch.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Unless when Kohl-rabi is cultivated, for the bulbs of this
+plant may be preserved in good condition up to June. I have advocated
+the cultivation of the radish as a food crop in the "Agricultural
+Review" for 1861.]
+
+[Footnote 34: According to some chemists, sugar does not exist in ripe
+grain, but is produced in it, during the process of analysis, by the
+action of the re-agents employed and the influence of the air.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Report to Government on feeding cattle with Malt, 1844.]
+
+[Footnote 36: _Monthly Agricultural Review_, Dublin, February, 1859.]
+
+[Footnote 37: _Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society
+of Scotland,_ October, 1858.]
+
+[Footnote 38: 3 lbs. of rape-cake, 3/4 lb. malt combs, 3/4 lb. bran,
+steamed together with a sufficient quantity of straw.]
+
+
+SECTION IX.--ANALYSES OF THE ASHES OF PLANTS.
+
+(_Extracted from the Author's "Chemistry of Agriculture."_)
+
+Those numbers marked with an asterisk refer to 100 parts of the
+substance in its natural or undried state; the remaining numbers
+refer to 100 parts when dried.
+
+  +----------------------+-------+---------------+-------+-------+-------+
+  |                      |       |     Flax.     |       |       |       |
+  |                      |       +-------+-------+       |       | White |
+  |                      | Rape  |       |       | Peas. | Kidney| Turnip|
+  |                      | Seed. | Stalk.| Seed. |       | Beans.| Seed. |
+  +----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  |Potash                | 25·18 | 34·96 | 32·55 | 43·09 | 36·83 | 21·91 |
+  |Soda                  |  ...  |  ...  |  2·51 |  ...  | 18·40 |  1·23 |
+  |Lime                  | 12·91 | 15·87 |  9·45 |  4·77 |  7·75 | 17·40 |
+  |Magnesia              | 11·39 |  3·68 | 16·23 |  8·06 |  6·33 |  8·74 |
+  |Sesquioxide of Iron   |  0·62 |  4·84 |  0·38 |  ...  |  2·24 |  1·95 |
+  |     "      Manganese |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |
+  |Sulphuric Acid        |  0·53 |  4·99 |  1·43 |  0·44 |  3·96 |  7·10 |
+  |Muriatic Acid         |  0·11 |  ...  |  ...  |  1·96 |  ...  |  ...  |
+  |Carbonic Acid         |  2·20 | 13·39 |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  0·82 |
+  |Phosphoric Acid       | 45·95 |  8·48 | 35·99 | 40·56 | 11·60 | 40·17 |
+  |Silica                |  1·11 |  5·60 |  1·46 |  0·79 |  4·09 |  0·67 |
+  |Chloride of Potassium |  ...  |  7·65 |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |
+  |Chloride of Sodium    |  ...  |  0·54 |  ...  |  ...  |  2·80 |  ...  |
+  |                      +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  |   Total              |100·00 |100·00 |100·00 | 99·67 |100·00 | 99·99 |
+  |   Per-centage of Ash |  4·51 |  5·00 |  3·05 |  5·21 |  0·68 |  3·98 |
+  |                      |       |       |       |       |   *   |       |
+  +----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+
+  +----------------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+--------+
+  |                      |         |         |        |         |        |
+  |                      | Turnip  |         | Mangel |         |        |
+  |                      |  Bulb   |Cucumber.| Wurtzel|Potatoes |  Hop   |
+  |                      | (Swede).|         |  Seed. |(tubers).|Flowers.|
+  +----------------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+--------+
+  |Potash                |   39·82 |   47·52 |  16·08 |   35·15 |  19·41 |
+  |Soda                  |   10·86 |    ...  |   6·86 |    5·77 |   0·70 |
+  |Lime                  |   12·75 |    6·31 |  13·42 |    2·14 |  14·15 |
+  |Magnesia              |    4·68 |    4·26 |  15·22 |    2·69 |   5·34 |
+  |Sesquioxide of Iron   |    0·89 |    ...  |   0·40 |    1·79 |   2·41 |
+  |     "      Manganese |    ...  |    ...  |   ...  |    ...  |   ...  |
+  |Sulphuric Acid        |   13·15 |    4·60 |   3·64 |    3·29 |   8·28 |
+  |Muriatic Acid         |    3·68 |    ...  |   ...  |    ...  |   2·26 |
+  |Carbonic Acid         |    ...  |    ...  |  13·85 |   17·14 |  11·01 |
+  |Phosphoric Acid       |    6·69 |   18·03 |  13·35 |   20·70 |  14·64 |
+  |Silica                |    7·05 |    7·12 |   1·86 |    3·00 |  18·56 |
+  |Chloride of Potassium |    ...  |    4·19 |   ...  |    1·84 |   ...  |
+  |Chloride of Sodium    |    ...  |    9·06 |  15·30 |    6·49 |   2·95 |
+  |                      +---------+---------+--------+---------+--------+
+  |   Total              |   99·57 |  100·09 |  99·98 |  100·00 |  99·71 |
+  |   Per-centage of Ash |    7·60 |    0·63 |   6·58 |         |   6·05 |
+  |                      |         |     *   |        |         |        |
+  +----------------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+--------+
+
+The number marked with an asterisk refers to 100 parts of the
+substance in its natural or undried state; the remaining numbers
+refer to 100 parts when dried.
+
+  +----------------------+--------+--------+--------+------+-------------+
+  |                      |        |        |        |Husks |     Rye.    |
+  |                      |Cauli-  |Hopeton |Potato  |  of  +-------------+
+  |                      |flowers.|Oats    |Oats.   |Potato|Grain.|Straw.|
+  |                      |        |(Grain).|(Grain).|Oats. |      |      |
+  +----------------------+--------+--------+--------+------+------+------+
+  |Potash                |  34·39 |  20·65 | \      |  2·23| 31·76| 17·36|
+  |                      |        |        |  }31·56|      |      |      |
+  |Soda                  |  14·79 |   ...  | /      |  8·97|  4·45|  0·31|
+  |Lime                  |   2·96 |  10·28 |    5·32|  4·30|  2·92|  9·06|
+  |Magnesia              |   2·38 |   7·82 |    8·69|  2·35| 10·13|  2·41|
+  |Sesquioxide of Iron   |   1·69 |   3·85 |    0·88|  0·32|  0·82|  1·36|
+  |    "       Manganese |   ...  |   0·42 |    ... |  ... |  ... |  ... |
+  |Sulphuric Acid        |  11·16 |   ...  |    ... |  4·30|  1·46|  0·83|
+  |Muriatic Acid         |   ...  |   ...  |    ... |  ... |  ... |  0·46|
+  |Carbonic Acid         |   ...  |   ...  |    ... |  ... |  ... |  ... |
+  |Phosphoric Acid       |  27·85 |  50·44 |   49·19|  0·66| 47·29|  3·82|
+  |Silica                |   1·92 |   4·40 |    1·87| 74·18|  0·17| 64·50|
+  |Chloride of Potassium |   ...  |   1·03 |    ... |  ... |  ... |  ... |
+  |Chloride of Sodium    |   2·86 |   ...  |    0·35|  2·39|  ... |  ... |
+  |                      +--------+--------+--------+------+------+------+
+  |   Total              | 100·00 |  98·89 |   97·86| 99·70|100·00|100·11|
+  |   Per-centage of Ash |   0·71 |        |    2·22|      |  2·30|  2·60|
+  |                      |    *   |        |        |      |      |      |
+  +----------------------+--------+--------+--------+------+------+------+
+
+  +----------------------+-------+---------------------------------------+
+  |                      |       |         Grasses (in flower).          |
+  |                      | Hay.  +---------------------------------------+
+  |                      |       |Bromus  |Lolium  | Annual  |   Avena   |
+  |                      |       |erectus.|perenne.|Ryegrass.|flavesceus.|
+  +----------------------+-------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+
+  |Potash                | 20·80 |  20·33 |  24·67 |   28·99 |    36·06  |
+  |Soda                  | 10·85 |   ...  |   ...  |    0·87 |     0·73  |
+  |Lime                  |  8·24 |  10·38 |   9·64 |    6·82 |     7·98  |
+  |Magnesia              |  4·01 |   4·99 |   2·85 |    2·59 |     3·07  |
+  |Sesquioxide of Iron   |  1·83 |   0·26 |   0·21 |    0·28 |     2·40  |
+  |    "        Manganese|  ...  |   ...  |   ...  |    ...  |     ...   |
+  |Sulphuric Acid        |  2·11 |   5·46 |   5·20 |    3·45 |     4·00  |
+  |Muriatic Acid         |  ...  |   ...  |   ...  |    ...  |     ...   |
+  |Carbonic Acid         |  0·68 |   0·55 |   0·49 |    ...  |     ...   |
+  |Phosphoric Acid       | 15·43 |   7·53 |   8·73 |   10·07 |     9·31  |
+  |Silica                | 30·01 |  38·48 |  27·13 |   41·79 |    35·20  |
+  |Chloride of Potassium |  ...  |  10·63 |  13·80 |    ...  |     ...   |
+  |Chloride of Sodium    |  5·09 |   1·38 |   7·25 |    5·11 |     1·25  |
+  |                      +-------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+
+  |   Total              | 99·05 |  99·99 |  99·97 |   99·97 |   100·00  |
+  |   Per-centage of Ash |       |   5·21 |   7·54 |    6·45 |     5·20  |
+  |                      |       |        |        |         |           |
+  +----------------------+-------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+
+
+Those numbers marked with an asterisk refer to 100 parts of the
+substance in its natural or undried state; the remaining numbers
+refer to 100 parts when dried.
+
+  +----------------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
+  |                      |               |               |Kohl-rabi, from|
+  |                      |   Broccoli.   | Cow Cabbage.  |  chalk soil.  |
+  |                      +-------+-------+-------+-------+---------------+
+  |                      | Root. |Leaves.|Leaves.|Stalk. |Leaves.| Tuber.|
+  +----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  |Potash                | 47·16 | 22·10 | 40·86 | 40·93 |  9·31 | 36·27 |
+  |Soda                  |  ...  |  7·55 |  2·43 |  4·05 |  ...  |  2·84 |
+  |Lime                  |  4·70 | 28·44 | 15·01 | 10·61 | 30·31 | 10·20 |
+  |Magnesia              |  3·93 |  3·43 |  2·39 |  3·85 |  3·62 |  2·36 |
+  |Sesquioxide of Iron   |  ...  |  ...  |  0·77 |  0·41 |  5·50 |  0·38 |
+  |     "      Manganese |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |
+  |Sulphuric Acid        | 10·35 | 16·10 |  7·27 | 11·11 | 10·63 | 11·43 |
+  |Muriatic Acid         |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |
+  |Carbonic Acid         |  ...  |  ...  | 16·68 |  6·33 |  8·97 | 10·24 |
+  |Phosphoric Acid       | 25·83 | 19·81 | 12·52 | 19·57 |  9·43 | 13·46 |
+  |Silica                |  1·81 |  2·83 |  1·66 |  1·04 |  9·57 |  0·82 |
+  |Chloride of Potassium |  6·22 |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  5·99 |  ...  |
+  |Chloride of Sodium    |a trace|  ...  |  ...  |  2·08 |  6·66 | 11·90 |
+  |                      +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  |  Total               |100·00 |100·26 | 99·99 | 99·98 | 99·99 | 99·90 |
+  |  Per-centage of Ash  |  1·01 |  1·70 |  0·70 |  1·24 | 18·54 |  8·09 |
+  |                      |   *   |   *   |   *   |   *   |       |       |
+  +----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+
+  +----------------------+----------+-----------------+------------------+
+  |                      |          |                 |                  |
+  |                      |  Wheat   |      Wheat.     |      Barley.     |
+  |                      | (Grain). +--------+--------+---------+--------+
+  |                      |          | Grain. | Straw. | Grain.  | Straw. |
+  +----------------------+----------+--------+--------+---------+--------+
+  |Potash                |   29·51  | 25·92  | 10·78  |  32·02  |  14·37 |
+  |Soda                  |   10·61  |  ...   |  ...   |   1·21  |   0·28 |
+  |Lime                  |    0·99  |  3·80  |  2·44  |   3·39  |   8·50 |
+  |Magnesia              |   10·60  | 12·27  |  3·23  |  10·99  |   1·70 |
+  |Sesquioxide of Iron   |    ...   |  1·12  |  0·54  |   0·15  |   0·20 |
+  |     "      Manganese |    ...   |  ...   |  ...   |   ...   |   ...  |
+  |Sulphuric Acid        |    0·09  |  ...   |  1·77  |   ...   |   2·22 |
+  |Muriatic Acid         |    ...   |  ...   |  ...   |   ...   |   ...  |
+  |Carbonic Acid         |    ...   |  4·43  |  6·01  |   0·48  |   1·25 |
+  |Phosphoric Acid       |   47·55  | 43·44  |  3·69  |  29·92  |   4·22 |
+  |Silica                |    0·11  |  7·16  | 64·84  |  21·12  |  62·89 |
+  |Chloride of Potassium |    ...   |  1·03  |  3·96  |   ...   |   ...  |
+  |Chloride of Sodium    |    0·54  |  ...   |  0·42  |   0·72  |   4·37 |
+  |                      +----------+--------+--------+---------+--------+
+  |  Total               |  100·00  | 99·17  | 99·68  | 100·00  | 100·00 |
+  |  Per-centage of Ash  |    2·32  |  1·645 |  5·252 |   2·22  |   5·49 |
+  |                      |          |        |        |         |        |
+  +----------------------+----------+--------+--------+---------+--------+
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+Whilst this Work was passing through the press, a valuable Report on
+Agricultural Statistics was issued by the Board of Trade. The following
+statistics, collected from this Report, are here given, because they
+modify the statements made in page 5:--
+
+  POPULATION, AREA, ACREAGE UNDER CROPS, ETC., AND NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK,
+  IN THE UNITED KINGDOM IN 1867.
+
+  +-------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |                         |            |           |           |           |
+  |                         |            |           |           |           |
+  |                         |  England.  |  Wales.   | Scotland. |  Ireland. |
+  |                         |            |           |           |           |
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Population (1866)        | 20,276,494 | 1,187,103 | 3,136,057 |  5,571,971|
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Area (in Statute Acres)  | 32,590,397 | 4,734,486 |19,639,377 | 20,322,641|
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Under Corn Crops         |  7,399,347 |   521,404 | 1,364,029 |  2,115,137|
+  |  "   Green Crops        |  2,691,734 |   138,387 |   668,042 |  1,432,252|
+  |  "   Bare Fallow        |    753,210 |    86,257 |    83,091 |     26,191|
+  |  "   Grass--Clover, &c.,|  2,478,117 |   300,756 | 1,211,101 |  1,658,451|
+  |        Under Rotation   |            |           |           |           |
+  |Permanent Pasture,       |            |           |           |           |
+  |  not broken up in       |            |           |           |           |
+  |  Rotation[39]           |  9,545,675 | 1,472,359 | 1,053,285 | 10,057,072|
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Per-centage of           |            |           |           |           |
+  |  Acreage:[40]--         |            |           |           |           |
+  |Under Corn Crops         |    32·3    |    20·7   |   31·1    |    13·6   |
+  |  "   Green Crops        |    11·7    |     5·5   |   15·3    |     9·2   |
+  |  "   Bare Fallow        |     3·3    |     3·4   |    1·9    |      ·2   |
+  |  "   Grass--Clover, &c.,|            |           |           |           |
+  |        under Rotation   |    10·8    |    11·9   |   27·7    |    10·7   |
+  |Permanent Pasture[41]    |    41·6    |    58·5   |   24·0    |    64·7   |
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Number of Cattle         |  3,469,026 |   544,538 |   979,470 |  3,702,378|
+  |  "    of Sheep          | 19,798,337 | 2,227,161 | 6,893,603 |  4,826,015|
+  |  "    of Pigs           |  2,548,755 |   229,917 |   188,307 |  1,233,893|
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Number of Live Stock     |            |           |           |           |
+  |    to every 100 Acres   |            |           |           |           |
+  |    under Crops, Fallow, |            |           |           |           |
+  |    and Grass:--         |            |           |           |           |
+  |  Cattle                 |    15·1    |    21·6   |   22·4    |    23·8   |
+  |  Sheep                  |    86·3    |    88·4   |  157·4    |    31·1   |
+  |  Pigs                   |    11·1    |     9·1   |    4·3    |     7·9   |
+  +-------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+  +-------------------------+------------+-----------------------+-----------+
+  |                         |            |    Channel Islands.   |           |
+  |                         |   Isle of  +-----------+-----------+ Total for |
+  |                         |    Man.    |           | Guernsey, | United    |
+  |                         |            |   Jersey. |   &c.     | Kingdom   |
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Population (1866)        |    52,469  |   55,613  |   35,365  | 30,315,072|
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Area (in Statute Acres)  |   180,000  |   28,717  |   17,967  | 77,513,585|
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Under Corn Crops         |    27,039  |    2,827  |    2,157  | 11,431,940|
+  |  "   Green Crops        |    12,670  |    5,636  |    3,075  |  4,951,796|
+  |  "   Bare Fallow        |     1,990  |    2,550  |      709  |    953,998|
+  |  "   Grass--Clover, &c.,|    26,884  |    3,250  |      874  |  5,679,433|
+  |        Under Rotation   |            |           |           |           |
+  |Permanent Pasture,       |            |           |           |           |
+  |  not broken up in       |            |           |           |           |
+  |  Rotation[39]           |    15,915  |    6,092  |    6,143  | 22,156,541|
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Per-centage of           |            |           |           |           |
+  |  Acreage:[40]--         |            |           |           |           |
+  |Under Corn Crops         |     32·0   |    13·9   |    16·7   |    25·1   |
+  |  "   Green Crops        |     15·0   |    27·6   |    23·7   |    10·9   |
+  |  "   Bare Fallow        |      2·4   |    12·5   |     5·5   |     2·1   |
+  |  "   Grass--Clover, &c.,|            |           |           |           |
+  |        under Rotation   |     31·8   |    16·0   |     6·7   |    12·4   |
+  |Permanent Pasture[41]    |     18·8   |    30·0   |    47·4   |    48·7   |
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Number of Cattle         |    18,672  |   10,081  |    7,308  |  8,731,473|
+  |  "    of Sheep          |    70,958  |      529  |    1,348  | 33,817,951|
+  |  "    of Pigs           |     7,706  |    5,804  |    6,718  |  4,221,100|
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Number of Live Stock     |            |           |           |           |
+  |    to every 100 Acres   |            |           |           |           |
+  |    under Crops, Fallow, |            |           |           |           |
+  |    and Grass:--         |            |           |           |           |
+  |  Cattle                 |     22·1   |    49·5   |    56·4   |    19·2   |
+  |  Sheep                  |     84·0   |     2·6   |    10·4   |    74·3   |
+  |  Pigs                   |      9·1   |    28·5   |    51·8   |     9·3   |
+  +-------------------------+------------+-----------------------+-----------+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Footnote 39: Exclusive of heath or mountain land.]
+
+[Footnote 40: The per-centage of acreage is exclusive of Hops in Great
+Britain, and Flax in Ireland.]
+
+[Footnote 41: Including under Flax, 253,105 acres.]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Stock-Feeder's Manual, by 
+Charles Alexander Cameron
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+</style>
+</head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's The Stock-Feeder's Manual, by Charles Alexander Cameron
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Stock-Feeder's Manual
+       the chemistry of food in relation to the breeding and
+              feeding of live stock
+
+Author: Charles Alexander Cameron
+
+Release Date: May 19, 2008 [EBook #25520]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STOCK-FEEDER'S MANUAL ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, David Garcia and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images produced by Core Historical
+Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div style="height: 6em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagei" name="pagei"></a>[i]</span></p>
+
+<a name="image-0001"><!--IMG--></a>
+<div class="figure">
+<a href="images/frontis.jpg"><img src="images/frontis-s.png" width="500" height="300"
+alt="PRIZE YEARLING SHORT-HORN BULL, &quot;VICTOR EMMANUEL,&quot;" /></a>
+<br />
+<p class="center">
+PRIZE YEARLING SHORT-HORN BULL, "VICTOR EMMANUEL,"
+<br />
+<small>THE PROPERTY OF LORD TALBOT DE MALAHIDE,</small>
+</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em; font-variant: normal;">Was awarded the First Prize in his Section (there being sixteen
+competitors), at the Show of the Royal Agricultural Society, held
+at Belfast, in August, 1861. Calved June 24, 1860; sire, Prince
+Duke the Second (16,731); dam, Turfoida, by Earl of Dublin (10,178);
+gd., Rosina, by Gray Friar (9,172); ggd., Hinda, by Little John (4,232).
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pageii" name="pageii"></a>[ii]</span></p>
+
+<a name="h2H_4_0001" id="h2H_4_0001"><!-- H2 anchor --></a>
+
+<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+<h1>
+    THE STOCK-FEEDER'S MANUAL.
+</h1>
+
+<h2>
+<small>THE</small><br />
+CHEMISTRY OF FOOD<br />
+<small>IN RELATION TO THE</small><br />
+BREEDING AND FEEDING<br />
+<small>OF</small><br />
+LIVE STOCK.<br />
+</h2>
+
+<h3>
+BY CHARLES A. CAMERON, Ph.D., M.D.,
+</h3>
+
+<p class="quote">
+    Licentiate of the King and Queen's College of Physicians
+    in Ireland; Honorary Corresponding Member of the New York
+    State Agricultural Society; Member of the Agricultural
+    Society of Belgium; Professor of Hygiene or Political
+    Medicine in the Royal College of Surgeons; Professor of
+    Chemistry and Natural Philosophy in Steevens' Hospital
+    and Medical College; Lecturer on Chemistry in the Ledwich
+    School of Medicine; Analyst to the City of Dublin; Chemist
+    to the County of Kildare Agricultural Society, the Queen's
+    County Agricultural Society, c.; Member of the International
+    Jury of the Paris Exhibition, 1867; Editor of the
+    "Agricultural Review;" one of the Editors of the "Irish
+    Farmer's Gazette;" Author of the "Chemistry of Agriculture,"
+    "Sugar and the Sugar Duties," &amp;c. &amp;c.
+</p>
+
+<div style="height: 2em;"><br /><br /></div>
+
+<p class="center">
+LONDON AND NEW YORK:<br />
+CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN.<br />
+1868.
+</p>
+
+<p class="center">[<i>All rights reserved.</i>]</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pageiii" name="pageiii"></a>[iii]</span></p>
+
+<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+<p class="center">
+LONDON<br />
+CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN, BELLE SAUVAGE WORKS,<br />
+LUDGATE HILL, E. C.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pageiv" name="pageiv"></a>[iv]</span></p>
+
+<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+<p class="center">
+<small>THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE</small><br />
+Dedicated
+</p>
+<p class="center">
+<small>TO</small><br />
+THE RIGHT HONORABLE<br />
+THE LORD TALBOT DE MALAHIDE, F.R.S.,<br />
+<i>President of the Royal Irish Academy, &amp;c. &amp;c. &amp;c.</i>,<br />
+</p>
+<p class="center"><small>
+ONE OF THE MOST ENLIGHTENED AND LIBERAL PROMOTERS
+OF AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENTS.</small>
+</p>
+<p class="center"><small>
+THE AUTHOR IS UNDER MANY OBLIGATIONS TO HIS LORDSHIP, FOR
+WHICH HE CAN MAKE NO RETURN SAVE THIS PUBLIC ACKNOWLEDGMENT
+OF HIS INDEBTEDNESS.</small>
+</p>
+
+<div style="height: 2em;"><br /><br /></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagev" name="pagev"></a>[v]</span></p>
+
+<a name="h2H_PREF" id="h2H_PREF"><!-- H2 anchor --></a>
+
+<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+<h2>
+    PREFACE.
+</h2>
+<p>
+Some papers on the Chemistry of Food, read before the Royal Agricultural
+Society of Ireland and the Athy Farmers' Club, and a few articles on the
+Management of Live Stock, published in the <i>Weekly Agricultural Review</i>,
+constitute the basis of this Work. It describes the nature of the food
+used by the domesticated animals, explains the composition of the animal
+tissues, and treats generally upon the important subject of nutrition.
+The most recent analyses of all the kinds of food usually consumed by
+the animals of the farm are fully stated; and the nutritive values of
+those substances are in most instances given. Some information is
+afforded relative to the breeds and breeding of live stock; and a
+division of the Work is wholly devoted to the consideration of the
+economic production of "meat, milk, and butter."
+</p>
+<p>
+Within the last twenty years the processes of chemical analysis have
+been so much improved, that the composition of organic bodies is now
+determined with great accuracy. The analyses of foods made from twenty
+to fifty years ago, possess now but little value. In this Work the
+analyses of
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="pagevi" name="pagevi"></a>[vi]</span>
+
+            vegetables quoted are chiefly those recently performed by the
+distinguished Scotch chemist, Dr. Thomas Anderson, and by Dr. Voelcker.
+The Author believes that in no other Work of moderate size are there so
+many analyses of food substances given, and ventures to hope that the
+success of this Work may fully justify the belief that a "handy" book
+containing such information as that above mentioned, is much required
+by stock feeders.
+</p>
+<p><br />
+  <i>102, Lower Baggot Street, Dublin</i>,<br />
+  <span class="sc">April</span>, 1868.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagevii" name="pagevii"></a>[vii]</span></p>
+
+<a name="h2H_TOC" id="h2H_TOC"><!-- H2 anchor --></a>
+
+<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+<h2>
+    TABLE OF CONTENTS
+</h2>
+
+<table id="tableofcontents" border="0" summary="Table of Contents">
+
+<tr><td></td><td><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="bottom">
+<p class="toc-hang">
+<span class="sc">Introduction</span>: History of Agriculture&mdash;Agricultural Statistics&mdash;Imports
+  of Live Stock</p>
+</td><td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#h2H_INTR"> 1 </a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="2" align="center">PART I. ON THE GROWTH AND COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="bottom">
+<p class="toc-hang">
+<span class="sc">Section I.</span> <span class="sc">Animal and Vegetable Life</span>. Functions of Plants. Animal
+  Life.&mdash;<span class="sc">Section II.</span> <span class="sc">Composition of Organic Substances</span>. Elements of
+  Organic Bodies. Proximate Composition of Organic Substances.&mdash;<span class="sc">Section III.</span>
+  <span class="sc">Use of Fat in the Animal Economy</span>. Fatty Food necessary in Cold Climates.
+  Fat Equivalents.&mdash;<span class="sc">Section IV.</span> <span class="sc">Relation between the Composition of an
+  Animal and that of its Food</span>. Tables of Experimental Results.&mdash;<span class="sc">Section V.</span>
+  <span class="sc">Relation between the quantity of Food consumed by an Animal and
+  the Increase of its Weight, or of the Amount of its Work</span>. Weights
+  of Foods necessary to sustain a Man's Life for twenty-four hours.
+  Value of Manure.</p>
+</td><td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#h2H_4_0005"> 8 </a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="2" align="center">PART II. ON THE BREEDING AND BREEDS OF STOCK.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="bottom">
+<p class="toc-hang">
+<span class="sc">Section I.</span> <span class="sc">The Breeding of Stock</span>.&mdash;<span class="sc">Section II.</span> <span class="sc">The Breeds of Stock</span>.
+  The Form of Animals. <i>Breeds of the Ox.</i> Shorthorns. Devons.
+  Herefords. Ayrshires. Polled Cattle. Kyloes. Long-horned.
+  Kerrys. Alderneys. <i>Sheep.</i> The Leicester. Lincoln. Cotswold.
+  Cheviot. Southdown. Shropshire. Blackfaced. <i>Breeds of the
+  Pig.</i> Berkshire. Yorkshire. <i>Breeds of the Horse.</i> Clydesdales.
+  Suffolk Punch. Hunters and Racers.</p>
+</td><td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#h2H_4_0006"> 47 </a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="2" align="center">PART III. ON THE MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCK.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="bottom">
+<p class="toc-hang">
+<span class="sc">Section I.</span> <span class="sc">The Ox</span>. Breeding Cows. Wintering of Young Stock. Shelter
+  of Stock. Milch Cows. Stall Feeding. Cost of Maintaining Animals.
+  Cooking and Bruising Food. Value for Feeding Purposes of various
+  Foods. Bedding Cattle.&mdash;<span class="sc">Section II.</span> <span class="sc">The Sheep</span>. Breeding Ewes.
+  Yeaning. Rearing of Lambs. Sheep Feeding. Sheep Dips.&mdash;<span class="sc">Section III.</span> <span class="sc">The
+  Pig</span>. Young Pigs. Store Pigs. Fattening Pigs.&mdash;<span class="sc">Section IV.</span> <span class="sc">The Horse</span>.
+  Foals. Dietaries for the Horse.</p>
+</td><td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#h2H_4_0007"> 74 </a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="2" align="center">PART IV. MEAT, MILK, AND BUTTER.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="bottom">
+<p class="toc-hang">
+<span class="sc">Section I.</span> <span class="sc">Meat</span>. Quality of Meat. Is very Fat Meat Unwholesome?
+  Diseased Meat.&mdash;<span class="sc">Section II.</span> <span class="sc">Milk</span>. Composition of Milk of Different
+  Animals. Yield of Milk. Preserved Milk.&mdash;<span class="sc">Section III.</span> <span class="sc">Butter</span>. History
+  of Butter. Irish Butter. Composition of Butter. The Butter
+  Manufacture.</p>
+</td><td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#h2H_4_0008"> 112 </a></td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th colspan="2" align="center">
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="pageviii" name="pageviii"></a>[viii]</span>
+PART V. ON THE COMPOSITION AND VALUE OF VEGETABLE FOODS.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="bottom">
+<p class="toc-hang">
+<span class="sc">Section I.</span> <span class="sc">The Money Value of Food Substances</span>.&mdash;<span class="sc">Section II.</span> <span class="sc">Proximate
+  Constituents of Vegetables</span>. Starch. Sugar. Inulin. Gum. Pectin.
+  Cellulose. Oils and Fats. Stearin. Margarin. Olein. Palmitin.
+  Albumen. Fibrin. Legumin.&mdash;<span class="sc">Section III.</span> <span class="sc">Green Food</span>. The
+  Grasses. Schr&oelig;der Brome. Tussac Grass. The Clovers. Leguminous
+  Plants&mdash;Vetch, Sainfoin, &amp;c. The Yellow Lupine. Rib Grass Plantain.
+  Ergot in Grasses. Holcus Saccharatus. Green Rye. Buckwheat. Rape.
+  Mustard. Comfrey. Chicory. Yarrow. Melons and Marrows. Cabbage.
+  Furze.&mdash;<span class="sc">Section IV.</span> <span class="sc">Straw and Hay</span>. <i>Straw.</i> Anderson's, Voelcker's,
+  and Cameron's Analyses of Straws. Feeding Experiments with Straw.
+  Relative Values of Straw and Oil-cake. <i>Hay.</i> Composition of the
+  Hay of different Grasses. Over-ripening of Hay. Damaged Hay and
+  Straw.&mdash;<span class="sc">Section V.</span> <span class="sc">Roots and Tubers</span>. <i>Turnips.</i> Swedish. White
+  Globe. Aberdeen Yellow. Purple-top. Norfolk Bell. Greystone.
+  Turnip Tops. Analyses of Turnips. Mangel Wurtzel. Chemistry of
+  the Mangel. Stripping Leaves off the Mangel. Beet-root. Parsnip.
+  Carrot. Kohl-rabi. Analyses of Kohl-rabi. Radish. The Radish as
+  a Field Crop. Composition of Radish. Jerusalem Artichoke: Advantages
+  of Cultivating it. Analysis of Jerusalem Artichoke. Potato: Analyses
+  of six varieties. Feeding Value of Potatoes.&mdash;<span class="sc">Section VI.</span> <span class="sc">Seeds</span>. <i>Wheat.</i>
+  Analyses of Wheat, Flour, Bran, and Husks. Over-ripening of
+  Grain. Wheat a Costly Food. Analyses of Barley, Oat Grain, Indian
+  Corn, Rye, Rice, Rice-dust, and Buckwheat. Malted Corn. Voelcker's
+  Analyses of Malt and Barley. Experiments of Thompson, Lawes, &amp;c.,
+  with Malt. Malt Combings. <i>Leguminous Seeds.</i> Beans. Composition
+  of Common Beans, Foreign Beans, Peas. Lentils and Winter Tares.
+  <i>Oil Seeds.</i> Rape Seeds. Experiments with Rapeseed. Flax Bolls.
+  Composition of Linseed, Rape-seed, Hemp-seed, and Cotton-seed.
+  Fenugreek Seed.&mdash;<span class="sc">Section VII.</span> <span class="sc">Oil-cakes and other Artificial Foods</span>.
+  Composition of Linseed, Rape-seed, Cotton-seed, and Poppy-seed
+  Cake. Linseed-cake. Adulteration of Linseed-cake. Rape-cake.
+  Feeding Experiments with Rape-cake. Adulterations of Rape-cake.
+  Cotton-seed Cake. Analyses of Decorticated Cotton-seed Cake.
+  Palm-nut Meal: its Composition and Nutritive Properties. Locust,
+  or Carob Bean: its Composition. Dates. Brewers' Dregs and
+  Distillery Wash. Molasses and Treacle.&mdash;<span class="sc">Section VIII.</span> <span class="sc">Condimental Food</span>.
+  Lawes' Experiments with Thorley's Food. Analyses of Condimental
+  Food. Formula for a Tonic Food.&mdash;<span class="sc">Section IX.</span> <span class="sc">Tables of the Analyses
+  of the Ashes of Plants</span>.</p>
+</td><td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#h2H_4_0009"> 147 </a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="bottom">
+<p class="toc-hang">
+APPENDIX. <span class="sc">Agricultural Statistics</span>. Numbers of Live Stock in the United
+  Kingdom. Value of the Agriculture Products of Great Britain.</p>
+</td><td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#h2H_APPE"> 254 </a></td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page1" name="page1"></a>[1]</span></p>
+
+<a name="h2H_4_0003" id="h2H_4_0003"><!-- H2 anchor --></a>
+
+<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+<h2>
+    The
+</h2>
+<h3>
+    CHEMISTRY OF FOOD.
+</h3>
+<a name="h2H_INTR" id="h2H_INTR"><!-- H2 anchor --></a>
+
+<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+<h2>
+    INTRODUCTION.
+</h2>
+<p>
+When Virgil composed his immortal "Bucolics," and Varro indited his
+profound Essays on Agriculture, the inhabitants of the British Islands
+were almost completely ignorant of the art of cultivating the soil.
+The rude spoils torn from the carcasses of savage animals protected the
+bodies of their hardly less savage victors; and the produce of the chase
+served almost exclusively to nourish the hardy frames of the ancient
+Celtic hunters. In early ages wild beasts abounded in the numerous and
+extensive forests of Britain and Ireland; but men were few, for the
+conditions under which the maintenance of a dense population is possible
+did not then exist. As civilisation progressed, men rapidly multiplied,
+and the demand for food increased. The pursuit of game became merely the
+pastime of the rich; and tame sheep and oxen furnished meat to the lowly
+as well as to the great. Nor were the fruits of the earth neglected; for
+during the latter days of the dominion of the Romans, England raised
+large quantities of corn. Gradually the food of the people, which at
+first was almost purely animal, became chiefly vegetable. The shepherds,
+who had supplanted the hunters, became less numerous than the tillers of
+land; and the era of tillage husbandry began.
+</p>
+<p>
+At present the great mass of the rural population of these countries
+subsist almost exclusively upon vegetable aliment&mdash;a
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page2" name="page2"></a>[2]</span>
+
+                                                     diet which poverty,
+and not inclination, prescribes for them. Were the flesh of animals
+the staple food of the British peasantry, their numbers would not be
+nearly so large as they now are, for a given area of land is capable of
+sustaining a far larger number of vegetarians than of meat eaters. The
+Chinese are by no means averse to animal food, but they are so numerous,
+that they are in general obliged to content themselves on a purely
+vegetable diet.
+</p>
+<p>
+In the manufacturing districts of Great Britain, there are several
+millions of people whose condition in relation to food is somewhat
+different from that of the small farmer and agricultural laborer. The
+artizans employed in our great industries are comparatively well paid
+for their toil; and the results of their labor place within their reach
+a fair share of animal food. This section of the population is rapidly
+increasing, and consequently is daily augmenting the demand for meat.
+The rural population is certainly not increasing; rather the reverse.
+Less manual labor is now expended in the operations of agriculture, and
+even horses are retiring before the advance of the steam plough. The
+only great purely vegetable-feeding class is diminishing, and the upper,
+the middle, and the artizan classes&mdash;the beef and mutton eating sections
+of society&mdash;are rapidly increasing. It is clear, then, that we are
+threatened with a revival of the pastoral age, and that in one way, at
+least, we are returning to the condition of our ancestors, whose staple
+food consisted of beef, mutton, and pork.
+</p>
+<p>
+And here two questions arise. How long shall we be able to supply the
+increasing demand for meat? How long shall we be able to compete with
+the foreign feeders? These are momentous queries for the British farmer,
+and I trust they may be solved in a satisfactory manner. At any time
+during the present century the foreign or colonial grower of wheat could
+have undersold the British producer of that article, were the latter not
+protected by a tariff; but cattle could not, as a general rule, be
+imported into Great Britain at a cheaper rate than they could be
+produced at home. Were there no
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page3" name="page3"></a>[3]</span>
+
+                                corn imported, it is certain that the
+price of bread would be greater than it is now, even if the grain
+harvests had been better than they have been for some years past. A bad
+cereal harvest in England raises the price of flour, but only to a small
+and strictly limited extent, because, practically, there is no limit to
+the amount of bread-stuffs procurable from abroad. When, on the
+contrary, the turnip crop fails, or that excessive drought greatly
+curtails the yield of grass, the price of meat and butter increases
+greatly, and is but slightly modified by the importation of foreign
+stock.
+</p>
+<p>
+Hitherto the difficulty of transit has been so great that we have only
+derived supplies of live stock from countries situated at a short
+distance, such as Holstein and Holland. Vast herds of cattle are fed
+with but little expense in America, and myriads of sheep are maintained
+cheaply in Australia; but the immense distances which intervene between
+our country and those remote and sparsely populated regions have,
+hitherto, prevented the superabundant supply of animal food produced
+therein from being available to the teeming population of the British
+Isles. Should, however, any cheap mode of conveying live stock, or even
+their flesh, from those and similarly circumstanced countries be
+devised, it might render the production of meat in Britain a far less
+profitable occupation than it is now. That we are increasing the area
+from whence we draw our supplies of live stock is evident from the fact,
+that within the last two years enormous numbers of horned stock have
+been imported from Spain. In that extensive country there are noble
+breeds of the ox; and it would appear that very large numbers of animals
+could be annually exported, without depriving the inhabitants of a due
+supply of bovine meat. As Spain is not very distant, it is likely that
+this traffic will be increased, and that in a short time we shall be as
+well supplied with Spanish beef as we are now provided with French
+flour. Meat is at present dear, and is likely to continue so for some
+time; but still it is evident that, sooner or later, the British feeders
+will come into keen competition
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page4" name="page4"></a>[4]</span>
+
+                                with the foreign producer of meat, and
+that the price of their commodity will consequently fall. The mere
+probability of such a state of things, were there no other reason,
+should induce the feeder to devote increased attention to the
+improvement of his stock, and to discover more economical methods of
+feeding them. There is still much to be learned relative to the precise
+nutritive values of the various feeding stuffs. The proper modes of
+cooking, or otherwise preparing, food, are still to be satisfactorily
+determined; and there are many very important questions in relation to
+the breeding of stock yet unanswered.
+</p>
+<p>
+It is but fair to admit that the farmer is earnestly endeavouring to
+improve his art, and that he is willing, nay anxious, to obtain the
+co-operation of scientific men, in order to increase his knowledge of
+the theory as well as the practice of his ancient calling. Indeed, he
+not only admits the utility of science in agriculture, but often places
+an undue degree of value upon the theories of the chemist, of the
+botanist, and of the geologist. This is encouraging to the men of
+science; but, on the other hand, they must admit that by far the greater
+portion of the sum of human knowledge has been derived from the
+experience and observation of men utterly unacquainted with science, in
+the ordinary signification of that term. This portion of our knowledge
+is also, in its practical application, the most valuable. In the most
+important branch of industry&mdash;agriculture&mdash;the labors of the purely
+scientific man have as yet borne but scant fruit; whilst the unaided
+efforts of the husbandman have reclaimed from sterility extensive
+tracts, and caused them to "blossom as the rose." That practical men
+should have done so much, and scientific men so little, for agriculture,
+may easily be explained. Countless millions of men, during many
+thousands of years, have incessantly been occupied in improving the
+processes of mechanical agriculture, which, as an <i>art</i>, has
+consequently been brought to a high degree of perfection: but scientific
+agriculture is a creation of almost our own time, and the number of its
+cultivators is, and
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page5" name="page5"></a>[5]</span>
+
+                    always has been, very small; all its theories cannot,
+therefore, justly claim that degree of confidence which, as a rule, is
+only reposed in the opinions founded on the experience of practical
+workers in the field and in the feeding-house. Still, the farmer has
+derived a great amount of useful information from the chemist and
+physiologist; and they alone can explain to him the causes of the
+various phenomena which the different branches of his art present. There
+was a time when it was the fashion of the man of science to look down
+with contempt, from the lofty pedestal on which he placed himself, upon
+the lessons of practical experience read to him by the cultivator of the
+soil; whilst at the same time the farmer treated as foolish visionaries
+those who applied the teachings of science to the improvement of their
+art. But this time has happily passed away. The scientific man no longer
+despises the knowledge of the mere farmers, but turns to good account
+the information derivable from their experience; whilst the farmer, on
+the other side, has ceased to speak in contemptuous terms of mere "book
+learning." It is to this happy combination of the theorist with the
+practical man that the recent remarkable advance in agriculture is
+chiefly due; and to it we may confidently look for improvement in the
+economic production of meat and butter, and for the enlargement of our
+knowledge of the relative value of food substances.
+</p>
+
+<table align="center" width="100%" summary="NUMBERS OF LIVE STOCK IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND">
+
+<tr><td colspan="7" class="table-title">STATEMENT OF THE NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td rowspan="2"></td><th colspan="3">        Enumerated, 1866.                  </th><th colspan="3">        Estimated, 1865.          </th></tr>
+<tr class="b1">                    <th> Cattle.    </th><th>   Sheep.   </th><th>   Pigs.     </th><th> Cattle.   </th><th>   Sheep.    </th><th>  Pigs.    </th></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  England   </td><td>3,307,034   </td><td> 15,124,541 </td><td>   2,066,299 </td><td>3,422,165  </td><td> 18,691,088  </td><td> 2,363,724 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Wales     </td><td>  541,401   </td><td>  1,668,663 </td><td>     191,604 </td><td class="c">  &mdash;     </td><td class="c">    &mdash;     </td><td class="c">   &mdash;    </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Islands   </td><td>   17,700   </td><td>     57,685 </td><td>      22,887 </td><td class="c">  &mdash;     </td><td class="c">    &mdash;     </td><td class="c">   &mdash;    </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Scotland  </td><td>  937,411   </td><td>  5,255,077 </td><td>     219,716 </td><td>  974,437  </td><td>  5,683,168  </td><td>   146,354 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ireland   </td><td>3,493,414   </td><td>  3,688,742 </td><td>   1,299,893 </td><td>3,493,414  </td><td>  3,688,742  </td><td> 1,299,893 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">&nbsp;&nbsp;Total   </td><td>8,316,960   </td><td> 25,794,708 </td><td>   3,800,399 </td><td>7,890,016  </td><td> 28,062,998  </td><td> 3,809,971 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page6" name="page6"></a>[6]</span>
+</p>
+<table border="0" align="center" width="100%" summary="Population and number of livestock by country">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="8">  STATEMENT OF THE POPULATION AND NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK IN THE
+UNITED KINGDOM AND VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES, ACCORDING TO
+THE LATEST RETURNS.
+</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1">
+<th rowspan="2">Countries.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Date of Returns<br /> of Live Stock.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Population according<br /> to Latest Returns.</th>
+<th colspan="3">Cattle.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Sheep.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Pigs.</th></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1">
+<th>  Cows.  </th>
+<th>  Other Cattle. </th>
+<th>  Total.  </th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">   United Kingdom</td><td class="c">1865&ndash;66</td><td>29,070,932</td><td>3,286,308</td><td>5,030,652</td><td> 8,316,960</td><td>25,795,708</td><td> 3,802,399</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Russia        </td><td class="c">1859&ndash;63</td><td>74,139,394</td><td class="c">    ...  </td><td class="c">    ...  </td><td>25,444,000</td><td>45,130,800</td><td>10,097,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Denmark Proper</td><td class="c">  1861 </td><td> 1,662,734</td><td>  756,834</td><td>  361,940</td><td> 1,118,774</td><td> 1,751,950</td><td>   300,928</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Sleswig       </td><td class="c">  1861 </td><td>   421,486</td><td>  217,751</td><td>  172,250</td><td>   390,001</td><td>   362,219</td><td>    87,867</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Holstein      </td><td class="c">  1861 </td><td>   561,831</td><td>  198,310</td><td>   92,062</td><td>   290,372</td><td>   165,344</td><td>    82,398</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Sweden        </td><td class="c">  1860 </td><td> 3,859,728</td><td>1,112,944</td><td>  803,714</td><td> 1,916,658</td><td> 1,644,156</td><td>   457,981</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Prussia       </td><td class="c">  1862 </td><td>18,491,220</td><td>3,382,703</td><td>2,251,797</td><td> 5,634,500</td><td>17,428,017</td><td> 2,709,709</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Hanover       </td><td class="c">  1861 </td><td> 1,880,070</td><td class="c">    ...  </td><td class="c">    ...  </td><td>   949,179</td><td> 2,211,927</td><td>   554,056</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Saxony        </td><td class="c">  1861 </td><td> 2,225,240</td><td>  411,563</td><td>  226,897</td><td>   638,460</td><td>   371,986</td><td>   270,462</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Wurtemburg    </td><td class="c">  1861 </td><td> 1,720,708</td><td>  466,758</td><td>  490,414</td><td>   957,172</td><td>   683,842</td><td>   216,965</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Grand Duchy<br />
+                     &nbsp;&nbsp; of Baden     </td><td class="c">  1861 </td><td> 1,429,199</td><td>  348,418</td><td>  273,068</td><td>   621,486</td><td>   177,322</td><td>   307,198</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   &nbsp;&nbsp; "  Hesse     </td><td class="c">  1863 </td><td>   853,315</td><td>  187,442</td><td>  129,211</td><td>   316,653</td><td>   231,787</td><td>   195,596</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   &nbsp;&nbsp; "  Nassau    </td><td class="c">  1864 </td><td>   468,311</td><td>  116,421</td><td>   84,224</td><td>   200,645</td><td>   152,584</td><td>    65,979</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   &nbsp;&nbsp; "  Mecklenb.<br />
+                     &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;     Schwerin </td><td class="c">  1857 </td><td>   539,258</td><td>  197,622</td><td>   69,215</td><td>   266,837</td><td> 1,198,450</td><td>   157,522</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   &nbsp;&nbsp; "  Oldenburg </td><td class="c">  1852 </td><td>   279,637</td><td class="c">    ...  </td><td class="c">    ...  </td><td>   219,843</td><td>   295,322</td><td>    87,336</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Holland       </td><td class="c">  1864 </td><td> 3,618,459</td><td>  943,214</td><td>  390,673</td><td> 1,333,887</td><td>   930,136</td><td>   294,636</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Belgium       </td><td class="c">  1856 </td><td> 4,529,461</td><td class="c">    ...  </td><td class="c">    ...  </td><td> 1,257,649</td><td>   583,485</td><td>   458,418</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   France        </td><td class="c">  1862 </td><td>37,386,313</td><td>5,781,465</td><td>8,415,895</td><td>14,197,360</td><td>33,281,592</td><td> 5,246,403</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Spain         </td><td class="c">  1865 </td><td>15,658,531</td><td class="c">    ...  </td><td class="c">    ...  </td><td> 2,904,598</td><td>22,054,967</td><td> 4,264,817</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Austria       </td><td class="c">  1863 </td><td>36,267,648</td><td>6,353,086</td><td>7,904,030</td><td>14,257,116</td><td>16,964,236</td><td> 8,151,608</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Bavaria       </td><td class="c">  1863 </td><td> 4,807,440</td><td>1,530,626</td><td>1,655,356</td><td> 3,185,882</td><td> 2,058,638</td><td>   926,522</td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">   United States </td><td class="c">  1860 </td><td>31,445,080</td><td>8,728,862</td><td>8,182,813</td><td>16,911,475</td><td>23,317,756</td><td>32,555,267</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page7" name="page7"></a>[7]</span></p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Livestock and animal food import numbers">
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="table-title">  NUMBERS OF THE LIVE STOCK IMPORTED INTO GREAT BRITAIN
+DURING THE ELEVEN MONTHS ENDED 31<span class="sc">st</span> NOVEMBER, 1867.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l" colspan="2">  Bullocks, bulls, and cows </td><td>    150,518 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l" colspan="2">  Calves                    </td><td>     20,720 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l" colspan="2">  Sheep and lambs           </td><td>    504,514 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l" colspan="2">  Pigs                      </td><td>     45,566 </td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">                                      </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">                                      </td><td>    721,318</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="table-title">  AMOUNT OF ANIMAL FOOD IMPORTED DURING SAME PERIOD.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th class="l">  Bacon and hams                          </th><td class="c">cwts. </td><td>    452,132 </td></tr>
+<tr><th class="l">  Salt beef                               </th><td class="c"> "    </td><td>    163,638 </td></tr>
+<tr><th class="l">  Salt pork                               </th><td class="c"> "    </td><td>    123,257 </td></tr>
+<tr><th class="l">  Butter                                  </th><td class="c"> "    </td><td>  1,000,095 </td></tr>
+<tr><th class="l">  Lard                                    </th><td class="c"> "    </td><td>    213,599 </td></tr>
+<tr><th class="l">  Cheese                                  </th><td class="c"> "    </td><td>    798,267 </td></tr>
+<tr><th class="l">  Eggs                                    </th><td class="c">      </td><td>373,042,000 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+I am indebted to Professor Ferguson, Chief of the Veterinary Department
+of the Irish Privy Council Office, for the following statement:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Horned Cattle">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3">  RETURN OF HORNED CATTLE EXPORTED FROM THE SEVERAL IRISH
+PORTS AT WHICH VETERINARY INSPECTORS HAVE BEEN APPOINTED,
+AND CERTIFIED AS FREE FROM DISEASE, FROM THE 18<span class="sc">th</span> OF
+NOVEMBER, 1866, TO THE 16<span class="sc">th</span> OF NOVEMBER, 1867 (52 WEEKS).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Fat Stock                   </td><td>187,483 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Store Stock                 </td><td>317,331 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Breeding and Dairy Stock    </td><td> 36,599 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>                                        </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Total </td><td>541,413 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>                                        </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;<br />&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page8" name="page8"></a>[8]</span></p>
+
+<a name="h2H_4_0005" id="h2H_4_0005"><!-- H2 anchor --></a>
+
+<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+<h2>
+    PART I.
+</h2>
+<h3>
+    ON THE GROWTH AND COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS.
+</h3>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h4>
+SECTION I.
+</h4>
+
+<h5>
+ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE.
+</h5>
+
+<p>
+<i>Functions of Plants.</i>&mdash;It is the primary function of plants to convert
+the inorganic matter of the soil and air into organised structures
+of a highly complex nature. The food of plants is purely mineral, and
+consists chiefly of water, carbonic acid, and ammonia. Water is composed
+of the elements oxygen and hydrogen; carbonic acid is a compound of
+oxygen and carbon; and ammonia is formed of hydrogen and nitrogen. These
+four substances are termed the <i>organic elements</i>, because they form by
+far the larger portion&mdash;sometimes the whole&mdash;of organic bodies. The
+combustible portion of plants and animals is composed of the organic
+elements; the incombustible part is made up of potassium, sodium, and
+the various other elements enumerated in another page. The organic
+elements are furnished chiefly by the atmosphere, and the incombustible
+matters are supplied by the soil.
+</p>
+<p>
+Water in the state of vapor forms, according to the temperature and
+other conditions of the atmosphere, from a half per cent. to four and a
+half per cent. of the weight of that fluid&mdash;about 1·25 per cent. being
+the average; carbonic acid exists in it to the extent of <sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2000</sub>th; and
+ammonia forms a minute portion of it&mdash;according to Dr. Angus Smith, one
+grain weight in 412·42 cubic feet of air (of a town), or 0·000453 per
+cent. It is remarkable that the most abundant
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page9" name="page9"></a>[9]</span>
+
+                                              constituents of atmospheric
+air&mdash;oxygen and nitrogen&mdash;are not assimilable by plants, although these
+elements enter largely into the composition of vegetable substances. In
+the soil, also, the part which ministers to the wants of vegetables is
+relatively quite insignificant in amount.
+</p>
+<p>
+Plants are unendowed with organs of locomotion, their food must
+therefore be within easy reach. Every breeze wafts gaseous nutriment to
+their expanded leaves, and their rootlets ramify throughout the soil in
+search of appropriate mineral aliment. But no matter how abundant, or
+however easy of reach may be the food of plants, the vegetable organism
+is incapable of partaking of it unless under the influence of light.
+Exposed to this potent stimulus, the plant collects the gaseous carbonic
+acid and the vaporous water, solidifies them, decomposes them, and
+combines their elements into new and organised forms. In effecting these
+changes&mdash;in conferring vitality upon the atoms of lifeless matter&mdash;the
+plant acts merely as the <i>mechanism</i>, the light is the <i>force</i>. As the
+work performed by the steam-engine is proportionate to the amount of
+force developed by the combustion of the fuel beneath its boiler,
+so is the rapidity of the elaboration of organic substances by plants
+proportionate to the amount of sunlight to which they are exposed. It is
+an axiom that matter is indestructible; we may alter its form as often
+as we please, but we cannot destroy a particle of it. It is the same
+with <i>force</i>: we may convert one kind of it into another&mdash;heat into
+light, or magnetism into electricity&mdash;but our power ends there; we can
+only cause force, or <i>motion</i>, to pass from one of its conditions to
+another, but its <i>quantity</i> can never be diminished by the power of man.
+</p>
+<p>
+The principle of the Conservation of the Forces gives us a clear
+explanation of the fact that animals can obtain their food only through
+the medium of the vegetable kingdom. Plants are stationary mechanisms;
+they have no need to develop motive power, as animals have, in moving
+themselves from place to place. Their temperature is, we may say, the
+same
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page10" name="page10"></a>[10]</span>
+
+     as that of the medium in which they exist. Such beings as plants
+do not, therefore, require the expenditure of force to maintain their
+vitality; on the contrary, their mechanisms are, for a beneficent
+purpose, constructed for the <i>accumulation</i> of force. The growing
+plant absorbs, together with carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, a
+proportionate amount of light, heat, and the various other subtile
+forces which have their abiding place in the sun-beam&mdash;
+
+<!-- Here, the transcriber expresses his deep and abiding dislike for poetry, etc. inlined mid-paragraph -->
+
+<span class="poem" style="display: block;">
+<span class="stanza" style="display: block;">
+  <span style="margin-left: 12em;">                            "That golden chain,</span><br/>
+  <span>Whose strong embrace holds heaven and earth and main."</span>
+</span>
+</span>
+
+Co-incidentally with the conversion of the mineral constituents of the
+food of plants into organised structures&mdash;albumen, fibre, and such
+like substances&mdash;the light, and the heat, and the various other forces
+likewise suffer a change. Although the precise nature of the new force
+into which they are converted is still a mystery&mdash;one, too, which may
+never be revealed to us&mdash;still we know sufficient of it to satisfy
+us that it can only exist in connection with organic or organised
+structures. It is owing to its presence that the elements of these
+structures (the natural state of which is mineral) are bound together
+in what may be aptly designated a constrained state; or, as Liebig
+aptly expresses it, like the matter in a bent spring. So long as the
+organic structure retains its form, it will be a reservoir of latent
+force&mdash;which will manifest itself in some form during the recoil of the
+atoms of the matter forming the structure to their original mineral, or
+statical condition: so the bent spring, when the pressure is removed,
+returns to its original straight form.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Animal Life.</i>&mdash;The chief manifestation of the life of a plant is the
+accumulation of force; very different are the functions of animal life.
+It is only by the continuous <i>expenditure</i> of force that the vitality of
+animals is preserved; the heat of a man's body, his power of locomotion,
+the performance of his daily toil, even his very faculty of thought, are
+all dependent upon, and to a great extent proportionate to, the amount
+of organised matter disorganised in his body. It is by the conversion
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page11" name="page11"></a>[11]</span>
+
+ of this organised matter into its original mineral state of water,
+carbonic acid, and ammonia, that the force originally expended in
+arranging, through the agency of plants, its atoms, is again restored,
+chiefly in the form of heat and animal motive power.
+</p>
+<p>
+Animals, as a class, are completely dependent upon vegetables for
+their existence. There is every reason to believe that the most lowly
+organised beings in the scale of animal life, even those of so
+simple a structure as to have been long regarded as vegetables or as
+plant-animals, are incapable of organising mineral matter. The so-called
+vegetative life of animals&mdash;for I believe the term to be exceedingly
+inexact&mdash;is applied to their growth, that is, to the increase in their
+weight. This increase takes place by their power of reorganising, or
+of assimilating to the nature of their own organisms, certain of the
+substances elaborated by plants, and destined to become food for
+animals.
+</p>
+
+
+<h4>
+SECTION II.
+</h4>
+
+<h5>
+COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.
+</h5>
+
+<p>
+<i>Elements of Organic Bodies.</i>&mdash;The number of distinct kinds of
+substances&mdash;each distinguishable from all the others by the peculiarity
+of its properties, taken as a whole&mdash;is exceedingly great, yet all
+these substances are resolvable into a very small number of bodies.
+As an illustration, I shall take a well-known substance, common
+green copperas, or, as the chemists term it, protosulphate of iron.
+By submitting this compound to the process termed chemical analysis,
+two other kinds of matter may be obtained from it, namely, oxide of iron
+and oil of vitrol, or sulphuric acid. If we continued this process&mdash;if
+we submitted the acid and the oxide to analysis&mdash;we could separate the
+former into sulphur and oxygen, and the latter into iron and oxygen.
+Now, by these means we could
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page12" name="page12"></a>[12]</span>
+
+                              demonstrate the compound nature of
+copperas; we could prove that it was <i>proximately</i> composed of sulphuric
+acid and oxide of iron; and, <i>ultimately</i>, of iron, sulphur, and oxygen.
+</p>
+<p>
+Iron, sulphur, and oxygen, are elementary, or simple bodies. They cannot
+be decomposed; they cannot be analysed. Torture them as we will in our
+crucibles; expose them as we please to the highest temperature of a wind
+furnace, or to the more intense heat evolved by a powerful galvanic
+battery; subject them to the influence of any agent, or force, or
+process we may choose, and still they will yield nothing but iron,
+sulphur, and oxygen: hence these undecomposable bodies are regarded as
+<i>elements</i>, or simple substances. So far as our knowledge extends, there
+are about sixty-six of these undecomposable bodies, of which about one
+half occurs in but exceedingly minute quantities, and a considerable
+number of the others exists in comparatively small amounts. As by far
+the greater proportion of compounds is made up of two or more of about
+a dozen elementary bodies, it would at first sight appear as if the
+distinct kinds of compounds which exist, or which may be called into
+existence by the chemist, must be limited to, at most, a realisable
+number; but the fact is there is no practical limit to the variety of
+substances which may be artificially formed. Every difference in the
+mode of the arrangement of the constituent atoms of a compound, causes
+its metamorphosis into another kind of substance. To prove that the
+number of these changes is bounded by no narrow limits, I need but refer
+to the rules of Permutation, which demonstrate that twelve letters of
+the alphabet may be arranged in no fewer than 479,000,000 different
+ways.<sup><a name="noteref-1"><!--1--></a><a href="#note-1">1</a></sup> The elements are the letters of
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page13" name="page13"></a>[13]</span>
+
+                                         Nature's alphabet, their
+compounds are the words of the language of Creation. The combinations
+of sounds and of signs which express the ideas and sensations of man may
+be limited to millions; but numberless are the hieroglyphs by which the
+Divine wisdom and beneficence is inscribed on the pages of the
+magnificent volume of Nature.
+</p>
+<p>
+Of the sixty-six elementary bodies, not more than a dozen occur
+commonly in animal and vegetable substances; these are Oxygen, Hydrogen,
+Nitrogen, Carbon, Sulphur, Phosphorus, Chlorine, Silicium, Potassium,
+Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, and Iron. In addition to these, Iodine, and
+sometimes Bromine, are found in plants which grow in or near the sea;
+and the former element has also been detected in some of the lower
+animals, and in land plants. Manganese, Lithium, Cæsium, Rubidium,
+and a few others of the simple bodies, occasionally occur in plants and
+animals, but I believe their presence therein is always accidental.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Proximate Composition of Animal Substances.</i>&mdash;The differences between
+vegetable and animal substances are often more apparent than real.
+Indeed many of the more important of these substances are almost
+identical in composition. The albumen which coagulates when the juices
+of vegetables are boiled, is identical with the albumen of the white
+of eggs; the fibrine of wheat is in no respect chemically different
+from the fibrine, or clot, of the blood; and, lastly, the legumine,
+or <i>vegetable caseine</i>, of peas is almost indistinguishable from the
+curd of milk, or <i>animal caseine</i>. But not only has chemical research
+demonstrated the identity of the albumen, fibrine, and caseine of
+vegetables with three of the more important constituents of animals, it
+has gone a step further, and proved that they differ from each other in
+but a few unimportant respects. They are unquestionably convertible into
+each other<sup><a name="noteref-2"><!--2--></a><a href="#note-2">2</a></sup> within
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page14" name="page14"></a>[14]</span>
+
+                     the animal organism; and their functions, as elements
+of nutrition, are almost, if not quite, identical.
+</p>
+<p>
+Exclusive of the blood, which contains the elements of every part of
+the body, the animal organism is composed of three distinct classes of
+substances&mdash;namely, <i>nitrogenous</i>, <i>non-nitrogenous</i>, and <i>mineral</i>.
+All of these constituents, or substances capable of being converted
+into them, must exist in the food. Certain articles, for example, milk,
+contains all of them; but in others, for instance, butter, only one of
+these substances is found. The nitrogenous part of the body embraces the
+muscles, or lean flesh, the gelatine of the bones, and the skin and its
+appendages&mdash;such as hair and horns; the non-nitrogenous constituents are
+its fat and oil; and its mineral matter is found chiefly in the bony
+framework. These constituents are not, however, isolated: the mineral
+matter, no doubt, accumulates in certain parts, but in small quantities
+it is found in every portion of the body; and although the fat forms a
+distinct tissue, the muscles of the leanest animal are never free from
+a sensible proportion of it.
+</p>
+<p>
+Albumen, fibrine, and caseine are the principal nitrogenous constituents
+of food, and as they are employed in the reparation of the nitrogenous
+tissues of the animal body, they have been termed <i>flesh-formers</i>.
+</p>
+<p>
+The fat and oil of animals are derived either from vegetable oil and
+fat, or from some such substance as starch or sugar. The constituents
+of food which form fat are termed <i>fat-formers</i>, and sometimes
+<i>heat-givers</i> or <i>respiratory elements</i>, from the notion that their
+slow combustion in the animal body is the chief cause of its high
+temperature.
+</p>
+<p>
+The mineral elements of the body are furnished principally by the
+varieties of food which contain nitrogen. The whey of milk is rich in
+them; but they do not exist in pure butter, in starch, or in sugar.
+</p>
+<p>
+Fat is a much more abundant constituent of the animal body than is
+generally supposed, That this substance should
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page15" name="page15"></a>[15]</span>
+
+                                               constitute the greater
+portion of the weight of an obese pig seems probable enough; but few
+are aware that even in a lean sheep there is 50 per cent. more fat than
+lean.
+</p>
+<p>
+For a very accurate knowledge of the relative proportions of the fatty,
+nitrogenous, and mineral constituents of the carcasses of animals used
+as human food, we are indebted to Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert. Before
+these investigators turned their attention to this subject, it had
+scarcely attracted the notice of scientific men; but a notion appears to
+have been current, amongst non-scientific people, at least, that in all,
+save the fattest animals, the lean flesh greatly preponderated over the
+fat. That this idea was unsustained by a foundation of fact, has been
+clearly proved by the results of an investigation<sup><a name="noteref-3"><!--3--></a><a href="#note-3">3</a></sup> undertaken a few
+years ago by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert&mdash;an investigation which I cannot
+avoid characterising as one of the most laborious and apparently
+trustworthy on record. The mere statement of the results of this inquiry
+occupies 187 pages of one of the huge volumes of the Transactions of the
+Royal Society&mdash;a fact which best indicates the immensity of the labour
+which these gentlemen imposed upon themselves, and which, independently
+of their other and numerous contributions to scientific agriculture,
+entitles their names to most honourable mention in the annals of
+science.
+</p>
+<p>
+I shall now briefly advert to a few of the more important facts
+established by Lawes and Gilbert. From a large number of oxen, sheep,
+and pigs, on which feeding experiments were being conducted, ten
+individuals were selected. These were, a fat calf, a half-fat ox, a
+moderately fat ox, a fat lamb, a store sheep, a half-fat old sheep, a
+fat sheep, a very fat sheep, a store pig, and a fat pig. These animals
+were
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page16" name="page16"></a>[16]</span>
+
+     killed, and the different organs and parts of their bodies were
+separately weighed and analysed. The results were, that, with the
+exception of the calf, all the animals contained, respectively, more fat
+than lean. The fat ox and the fat lamb contained each three times as
+much fat as lean flesh, and the proportion of the fatty matters to the
+nitrogenous constituents of the carcass of the very fat sheep was as 4
+to 1. In the pig the fat greatly preponderated over the lean; the store
+pig containing three times as much, and the fat pig five times as much
+fat as lean.
+</p>
+<p>
+That part of the animal which is consumed as food by man, is termed the
+<i>carcass</i> by the butcher, and contains by far the greater portion of
+the fat of the animal. The <i>offal</i>, in the language of the butcher,
+constitutes those parts which are not commonly consumed as human food,
+at least by the well-to-do classes. In calves, oxen, lambs, and sheep,
+the offal embraces the skin, the feet, and the head, and all the
+internal organs, excepting the kidneys and their fatty envelope. The
+offal of the pig is made up of all the internal organs, excepting the
+kidneys and kidney fat. It is the relative proportion of fat in the
+carcasses analysed by Lawes and Gilbert that I have stated; but as the
+nitrogenous matters occur in greatest quantity in the offal, it is
+necessary that the relative proportions of the constituents of the body,
+taken as a whole, should be considered. On an average, then, it will be
+found that a fat fully-grown animal will contain 49 per cent. of water,
+33 per cent. of dry fat, 13 per cent. of dry nitrogenous matter&mdash;muscles
+separated from fat, hide, &amp;c.&mdash;and 3 per cent. of mineral matter. In a
+lean animal the average proportions of the various constituents will be
+54 per cent. of water, 25&frac12; per cent. dry fat, 17 per cent. of dry
+nitrogenous substances, and 3&frac12; per cent. of mineral matter. In the
+following table these proportions are set forth.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page17" name="page17"></a>[17]</span></p>
+
+<table class="closed" border="0" align="center" summary="Summary of Composition of Animals">
+
+<tr><td colspan="17" class="table-title">
+SUMMARY OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE TEN ANIMALS&mdash;SHOWING THE
+PER-CENTAGES OF MINERAL MATTER, DRY NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS,
+FAT, TOTAL DRY SUBSTANCE, AND WATER.
+</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="17" class="table-title">
+1st. In Fresh Carcass. 2nd. In Fresh Offal (equal Sum of Parts,
+excluding Contents of Stomachs and Intestines). 3rd. In Entire
+Animal (Fasted Live-weight, including therefore the weight of
+Contents of Stomachs and Intestines).
+</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><th rowspan="2" style="border-left: thin solid black;"><span class="sc">Description of Animal.</span></th><th colspan="5">Per cent. in Carcass.  </th><th colspan="6">Per cent. in Offal.               </th><th colspan="5">Per cent. in Entire Animal.       </th></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1">                                                  <th>   A.   </th><th>    B.   </th><th>   C.   </th><th>   D.    </th><th> E.  </th><th>   A.  </th><th>     B.   </th><th>   C.   </th><th>   D.    </th><th> E.  </th><th> A.  </th><th>   B.  </th><th>   C.  </th><th>   D.  </th><th>   F.   </th><th> E.  </th></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fat calf                     </td><td>  4·48  </td><td>   16·6  </td><td>  16·6  </td><td>  37·7   </td><td>62·3 </td><td>  3·41 </td><td>    17·1  </td><td>  14·6  </td><td>  35·1   </td><td>64·9 </td><td>3·80 </td><td>  15·2 </td><td>  14·8 </td><td>  33·8 </td><td>  3·17  </td><td>63·8 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Half-fat ox                  </td><td>  5·56  </td><td>   17·8  </td><td>  22·6  </td><td>  46·0   </td><td>54·0 </td><td>  4·05 </td><td>    20·6  </td><td>  15·7  </td><td>  40·4   </td><td>59·6 </td><td>4·66 </td><td>  16·6 </td><td>  19·1 </td><td>  40·3 </td><td>  8·19  </td><td>51·5 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fat ox                       </td><td>  4·56  </td><td>   15·0  </td><td>  34·8  </td><td>  54·4   </td><td>45·6 </td><td>  3·40 </td><td>    17·5  </td><td>  26·3  </td><td>  47·2   </td><td>52·8 </td><td>3·92 </td><td>  14·5 </td><td>  30·1 </td><td>  48·5 </td><td>  5·98  </td><td>45·5 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fat lamb                     </td><td>  3·63  </td><td>   10·9  </td><td>  36·9  </td><td>  51·4   </td><td>48·6 </td><td>  2·45 </td><td>    18·9  </td><td>  20·1  </td><td>  41·5   </td><td>58·5 </td><td>2·94 </td><td>  12·3 </td><td>  28·5 </td><td>  43·7 </td><td>  8·54  </td><td>47·8 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Store sheep                  </td><td>  4·36  </td><td>   14·5  </td><td>  23·8  </td><td>  42·7   </td><td>57·3 </td><td>  2·19 </td><td>    18·0  </td><td>  16·1  </td><td>  36·3   </td><td>63·7 </td><td>3·16 </td><td>  14·8 </td><td>  18·7 </td><td>  36·7 </td><td>  6·00  </td><td>57·3 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Half-fat old sheep           </td><td>  4·13  </td><td>   14·9  </td><td>  31·3  </td><td>  50·3   </td><td>49·7 </td><td>  2·72 </td><td>    17·7  </td><td>  18·5  </td><td>  38·9   </td><td>61·1 </td><td>3·17 </td><td>  14·0 </td><td>  23·5 </td><td>  40·7 </td><td>  9·05  </td><td>50·2 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fat sheep                    </td><td>  3·45  </td><td>   11·5  </td><td>  45·4  </td><td>  60·3   </td><td>39·7 </td><td>  2·32 </td><td>    16·1  </td><td>  26·4  </td><td>  44·8   </td><td>55·2 </td><td>2·81 </td><td>  12·2 </td><td>  35·6 </td><td>  50·6 </td><td>  6·02  </td><td>43·4 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Extra fat sheep              </td><td>  2·77  </td><td>    9·1  </td><td>  55·1  </td><td>  67·0   </td><td>33·0 </td><td>  3·64 </td><td>    16·8  </td><td>  34·5  </td><td>  54·9   </td><td>45·1 </td><td>2·90 </td><td>  10·9 </td><td>  45·8 </td><td>  59·6 </td><td>  5·18  </td><td>35·2 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Store pig                    </td><td>  2·57  </td><td>   14·0  </td><td>  28·1  </td><td>  44·7   </td><td>55·3 </td><td>  3·07 </td><td>    14·0  </td><td>  15·0  </td><td>  32·1   </td><td>67·9 </td><td>2·67 </td><td>  13·7 </td><td>  23·3 </td><td>  39·7 </td><td>  5·22  </td><td>55·1 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">  Fat pig           </td><td>  1·40  </td><td>   10·5  </td><td>  49·5  </td><td>  61·4   </td><td>38·6 </td><td>  2·97 </td><td>    14·8  </td><td>  22·8  </td><td>  40·6   </td><td>59·4 </td><td>1·65 </td><td>  10·9 </td><td>  42·2 </td><td>  54·7 </td><td>  3·97  </td><td>41·3 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">  Means of all      </td><td>  3·69  </td><td>   13·5  </td><td>  34·4  </td><td>  51·6   </td><td>48·4 </td><td>  3·02 </td><td>    17·2  </td><td>  21·0  </td><td>  41·2   </td><td>58·8 </td><td>3·17 </td><td>  13·5 </td><td>  28·2 </td><td>  44·9 </td><td>  6·13  </td><td>49·0 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">  Means of 8 of the half-fat,
+                    fat, and very fat animals    </td><td>  3·75  </td><td>   13·3  </td><td>  36·5  </td><td>  53·6   </td><td>46·4 </td><td>  3·12 </td><td>    17·4  </td><td>  22·4  </td><td>  42·9   </td><td>57·1 </td><td>3·23 </td><td>  13·3 </td><td>  29·9 </td><td>  46·4 </td><td>  6·26  </td><td>47·3 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">  Means of 6 of the fat,
+                    and very fat animals         </td><td>  3·38  </td><td>   12·3  </td><td>  39·7  </td><td>  55·4   </td><td>44·6 </td><td>  3·03 </td><td>    16·9  </td><td>  24·1  </td><td>  44·0   </td><td>56·0 </td><td>3·00 </td><td>  12·7 </td><td>  32·8 </td><td>  48·5 </td><td>  5·48  </td><td>46·0 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td class="table-key"><b>KEY:</b></td>
+<td class="table-key" colspan="8">
+A.&mdash;Mineral matter.<br />
+B.&mdash;Dry nitrogenous compounds.<br />
+C.&mdash;Fat.
+</td>
+<td class="table-key" colspan="8">
+D.&mdash;Dry substance.<br />
+E.&mdash;Water.<br />
+F.&mdash;Contents of viscera.
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page18" name="page18"></a>[18]</span></p>
+
+<h4>
+SECTION III.
+</h4>
+<h5>
+USE OF FAT IN THE ANIMAL ECONOMY.
+</h5>
+<p>
+As fat forms so large a portion of the body, it is evident that
+the part it plays in the animal economy must be a most important one.
+The general opinion which prevails amongst scientific men as to its
+physiological functions was originated by the celebrated Liebig.
+According to his theory, the food of animals includes two distinct kinds
+of substances&mdash;<i>plastic</i><sup><a name="noteref-4"><!--4--></a><a href="#note-4">4</a></sup> and <i>non-plastic</i>. The plastic materials are
+composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and a little sulphur
+and phosphorus. Albumen, fibrine, and casein are plastic elements of
+nutrition; they form the lean flesh, or muscles, the membranes, and
+cartilages, the gelatine of the bones, the skin, the hair, and, in
+short, every part of the body which contains nitrogen. The <i>non-plastic</i>
+elements of nutrition include fat, oil, starch, sugar, gum, and certain
+constituents of fruits, such as pectine.
+</p>
+<p>
+All non-plastic substances&mdash;and of each kind there are numerous
+varieties&mdash;are capable of conversion, in the animal mechanism, into fat
+and oil. The non-plastic food substances do not contain nitrogen, hence
+they are commonly termed non-nitrogenous elements. The oily and fatty
+matters contain a large proportion of carbon, their next most abundant
+component is hydrogen, and they contain but little oxygen. Unlike the
+plastic elements, they are&mdash;except the fats of the brain and nervous
+tissue&mdash;altogether destitute of sulphur and phosphorus. The starchy,
+saccharine, and gummy substances are composed of the same elements as
+the fatty bodies, but they contain a higher proportion of oxygen.
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page19" name="page19"></a>[19]</span>
+
+ According to Liebig, fat is used in the animal economy as a source of
+internal heat. We all know that it is a most combustible body, and that
+during its inflammation the most intense heat is developed. It is less
+evident, but not less true, that heat is evolved during its slow
+oxidation, or decay.
+</p>
+
+
+<p>
+The more rapidly a body burns, the greater is the amount of heat evolved
+by it in a <i>given time</i>; but the total amount of heat developed by a
+specific weight of the body is the same, whether the combustion takes
+place rapidly or slowly. An experiment performed with phosphorus
+illustrates the case perfectly. If we burned two pieces of equal weight,
+the one in oxygen, the other in atmospheric air, we should find that the
+former would emit a light five times as brilliant as that evolved by the
+latter, for the simple reason that its combustion would be five times as
+rapid. The white, vapor-like matter into which phosphorus is converted
+by its combustion, is termed <i>phosphoric acid</i>. It is composed of
+phosphorus and oxygen. In forming an ounce of this compound, by the
+direct oxidation, or combustion of phosphorus, the amount of force,
+either as heat, or as heat and light, evolved is precisely the same,
+whether the time expended in the process be a minute or a month.<sup><a name="noteref-5"><!--5--></a><a href="#note-5">5</a></sup> If,
+in the experiment I have described, we were to substitute two pieces of
+fat for the fragments of phosphorus, the results would be precisely
+similar. The fat burned in oxygen gas would emit intense light and heat;
+but the total amount of these forces evolved would be neither greater
+nor less than that developed during
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page20" name="page20"></a>[20]</span>
+
+                                    the slower and therefore less
+brilliant combustion of the fat in ordinary atmospheric air. Now, as we
+can demonstrate that an ounce of fat will emit a certain amount of heat,
+if burned within a minute of time, and that neither a larger nor a
+smaller amount will be developed if the combustion of the fat extend
+over a period of five minutes, I think we may fairly assume that the
+amount of heat evolved by the complete oxidation of a specific quantity
+of fat is constant under all conditions, except, as I have already
+explained, at high temperatures, when a portion of the heat is converted
+into light.
+</p>
+<p>
+In the animal organism fat is burned. The process of combustion no
+doubt is a very slow one, but still the total amount of heat evolved
+is just the same as if the fat were consumed in a furnace. When the
+fat constituting a candle is burned, what becomes of it? Its elements,
+carbon and hydrogen (we may disregard its small amount of oxygen)
+combine with the oxygen of the air, and form carbonic acid gas and
+water. What becomes of the fat consumed within the animal body? It also
+is converted into carbonic acid gas and water. It is not difficult
+to prove these statements to be facts. A candle will not burn in
+atmospheric air which has been deprived of its oxygen, because there is
+no substance present with which the elements of the taper can combine,
+consequently the process of combustion cannot go on. Now, a man may in
+one respect be compared with this taper. He is partly made up of fat;
+that fat is consumed by the oxygen of the air, and the heat developed
+thereby keeps the body warm. In the process of respiration oxygen is
+introduced into the lungs, and from thence, by means of the blood
+vessels, is conveyed throughout every part of the body. In some way, at
+present not thoroughly understood, the elements of the fat combine with
+the oxygen, and are converted into carbonic acid gas and water, which
+are exhaled from the lungs and from the surface of the body.
+</p>
+<p>
+Fat is a constituent of both animals and plants. The animal derives a
+portion of its fat directly from the vegetable;
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page21" name="page21"></a>[21]</span>
+
+                                                but it possesses the
+power of forming this substance from other organic bodies, such, for
+example, as starch. Plants elaborate fat directly from the
+minerals&mdash;carbonic acid gas, and water.
+</p>
+<p>
+I have already explained that the growth of plants is, <i>cæteris
+paribus</i>, directly proportionate to the amount of sunlight to which
+they are exposed. Not less certainly is the force which constitutes the
+sun-beam expended in grouping mineral atoms into organic forms, than is
+the heat which converts water into steam. But in neither case is the
+force destroyed. When the vaporous steam is condensed into the liquid
+water, all the heat is restored, and becomes palpable. By the ultimate
+decomposition of vegetable substances all the force expended on their
+production is liberated, and, in some form, becomes manifest.
+</p>
+<p>
+When the fat formed in the mechanisms of plants is decomposed in
+the animal organism, two results follow:&mdash;The atoms of the fat are
+re-converted to their original mineral, or statical conditions of
+carbonic acid gas and water; and the force which maintained them in
+their organic state is set free as heat, and its equivalent, motive
+power.
+</p>
+<p>
+One of the most useful instruments which the ingenuity of man has
+devised, is the Thermometer. It is so familiarly known that I need
+not describe it. This instrument does not enable us to estimate the
+actual quantity of heat contained in a substance, but it indicates
+the proportion of that subtile element which is <i>sensible</i>&mdash;that is
+recognisable by the sense of touch. The dusky Hindu, clad in his single
+cotton garment, and the Laplander in his suit of fur, are placed under
+the most opposite conditions in relation to the heat of the sun&mdash;the
+Indian is exposed during the whole year to Sol's most ardent beams,
+whilst but a scant share of its genial rays goes to warm the body of
+the Laplander. Now, if we placed the bulb of a thermometer beneath the
+tongue of a Hindu, we would find the mercury to stand at 98 degrees on
+Fahrenheit's scale, and if we repeated the experiment
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page22" name="page22"></a>[22]</span>
+
+                                                      on a Laplander,
+we would obtain an identical result. Numerous experiments of this
+nature have been made on individuals in most parts of the world, and
+the results have proved that the temperature of the blood of man is
+98 degrees Fahrenheit, whether he be in India or at Nova Zembla, on
+the <i>steppes</i> of Russia, or the elevated <i>plateaus</i> of America. This
+invariability<sup><a name="noteref-6"><!--6--></a><a href="#note-6">6</a></sup> of the temperature of the bodies of men and of all
+other warm-blooded animals, appears the more wonderful when it it is
+considered that the range of the temperature of the medium in which
+they exist exceeds 200 degrees Fahrenheit. In India, the mercury in the
+thermometer has been observed to stand at 145 degrees in the direct
+sunlight, and at 120 degrees in the shade. In high latitudes the
+temperature is sometimes so low as 100 degrees below zero. A Russian
+army, in an expedition to China, in 1839, was exposed for several
+successive days to a temperature of 42 degrees below zero, and suffered
+severely in consequence.
+</p>
+<p>
+The facts which I have cited clearly prove that the animal body
+possesses the power of generating, or, to speak more correctly,
+liberating heat, either from portions of its own mechanism or from
+substances placed within that mechanism.
+</p>
+<p>
+At one time it was the general belief amongst physiologists that one
+portion of the food consumed by an animal was employed in repairing
+the waste of its body, and the remaining part was burned as fuel,
+evolving heat just in the same way as if it had been consumed in a
+furnace. It was this theory that led to the classification of food into
+flesh-formers, and heat-givers. It is now doubted if any portion of the
+food be really burned in this way; and I, for one, think it far more
+probable that, before its conversion into carbonic acid gas and water
+(whereby, according to this theory, it develops the heat which keeps the
+body warm), it first becomes assimilated, that is,
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page23" name="page23"></a>[23]</span>
+
+                                                   becomes an integral
+part of the animal body&mdash;blood, fat, muscle. Perhaps we would be
+nearer the truth if we were to assume that heat is evolved during the
+decomposition of both the nitrogenous and fatty constituents of the
+body.
+</p>
+<p>
+The constantly recurring contractions of the muscles must alone be a
+source of much heat. The development of animal motive power is said to
+be strictly proportionate to the amount of muscular tissue decomposed.
+As the nitrogen of the latter is almost completely excreted under the
+form of urea, the quantity of the latter daily eliminated from the
+body of an animal is a measure of the decomposed muscular tissue, and
+consequently of the amount of muscular power generated in the animal
+organism.<sup><a name="noteref-7"><!--7--></a><a href="#note-7">7</a></sup> The correspondence between the amount of the motive power
+of an animal, and the quantity of effete nitrogen excreted from the
+body, is limited to laboring men and to the lower animals. Strange as
+it may appear, it is an incontrovertible fact that men whose pursuits
+require the constant exercise of the intellectual faculties&mdash;lawyers,
+writers, statesmen, students, scientific men, and other
+brain-workers&mdash;excrete more urea than do men engaged in the most
+physically laborious occupations. An activity of thoughts and ideas
+involves a corresponding destruction of the tissues, and these require,
+for their reparation, the consumption of food. Here, then, we have a
+physical meaning for the common expression&mdash;"food for thought."
+</p>
+<p>
+That the amount of heat developed in the animal organism, is
+proportionate to the quantity of fatty matters (or of substances capable
+of forming them) supplied to it in the shape of food, is a proposition
+which admits of easy demonstration. The natives of warm regions do not
+require the generation of much heat within their bodies, because the
+temperature of the medium in which they exist is generally as high as,
+or higher than, that of their blood. But as they must consume food for
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page24" name="page24"></a>[24]</span>
+
+ the purpose of repairing the waste of their nitrogenous tissues, and as
+every kind of food contains heat-producing elements, an excess of heat
+is developed within their bodies, which, if allowed to accumulate, would
+speedily produce fatal results. The means by which nature removes this
+superabundant heat are admirably simple, as indeed all its contrivances
+are. The skin is permeated with millions of pores, and through these
+openings a large quantity of vapor is given off, and carries with it the
+surplus heat. The pores are the orifices of minute convoluted tubes
+which lie beneath the skin, and when straightened measure each about the
+tenth of an inch, or, according to a writer in the <i>British and Foreign
+Medico-Chirurgical Review</i> (1859, page 349), the one-fifteenth of an
+inch in length. According to Erasmus Wilson, the number of these tubes
+which open into every square inch of the surface of the body is 2,800.
+The total number of square inches on the surface of an average sized man
+is 2,500, consequently the surface of his body is drained by not less
+than twenty-eight miles of tubing, furnished with 7,000,000 openings.
+The cooling of the body, by the evaporation of water from it, admits of
+explanation by well-known natural laws. Water, in the state of vapor,
+occupies a space 1,700 fold greater than it does in its liquid
+condition. It is heat which causes its vaporous form, but it ceases to
+be heat when it has accomplished this change in the condition of the
+liquid; for, suffering itself an alteration, it passes into another form
+of force&mdash;mechanical, or motive power. The heat generated within the
+body is absorbed by the liquid water, the conversion of the latter into
+vapor follows, and both the heat and the water, in their altered forms,
+escape through the pores.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Fatty food necessary in cold climates.</i>&mdash;As a grave objection against
+the chemical theory of heat, it has been urged that rice&mdash;the pabulum of
+hundreds of millions of the inhabitants of tropical regions&mdash;contains an
+exceedingly high proportion of heat-giving substances. I have, however,
+great doubt as to rice ever forming the exclusive food of those people,
+without
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page25" name="page25"></a>[25]</span>
+
+        their health being impaired in consequence of the deficiency in
+that substance of the plastic elements of nutrition. Indeed I believe
+it is a great mistake to assert that the natives of India live almost
+exclusively on rice. This article, no doubt, forms a large proportion of
+their food, but it is supplemented with pulse (the produce of leguminous
+plants), which is rich in flesh-forming materials, also with dried fish,
+butter, and various kinds of vegetable and animal food rich in nitrogen.
+The innutritious nature of rice is clearly shown by its chemical
+composition, and so large a quantity of it must the Hindu consume in
+order to repair the waste of his body, that his stomach sometimes
+acquires prodigious dimensions; hence the term "pot-bellied," so often
+applied to the Indian ryot. I doubt very much, however, if the stomach
+of the Hindu, large as it is, could accommodate a quantity of rice, the
+combustion of which would produce a very excessive development of heat.
+This substance, when cooked, contains a high proportion of water, the
+evaporation of which carries off a large amount of the heat generated
+by the combustion of its respiratory constituents. The amount of motive
+power developed by the Hindu is small as compared with that which the
+European is capable of exerting; hence he has less necessity for a
+highly nitrogenous diet. On the whole, then, I am disposed to think
+that the food of the natives of tropical climates contains sufficient
+nitrogenous matters to effectually build up and keep in repair their
+bodies; it also appears clear to me that the amount of heat developed
+in their bodies is not excessive, and that it is readily disposed of
+in converting the water, which enters so largely into their diet, into
+vapor. The proportion of plastic to non-plastic elements in the diet
+of the Hindu and of the well-fed European, is probably as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" align="center" border="0" summary="Comparison of plastic/non-plastic elements in Hindu vs. European food">
+
+<tr><td>                              </td><th>Nitrogenous.                 </th><td>                       </td><th>Non nitrogenous<br /> (calculated as starch.)</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Hindu             </td><td class="c">     1        </td><td class="c">to      </td><td class="c">     9 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  European          </td><td class="c">     1        </td><td class="c">to      </td><td class="c">     8 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<br />
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page26" name="page26"></a>[26]</span>
+
+<p style="text-indent: 0;"><!--[**not really a new paragraph]-->
+ This statement does not quite correspond with Liebig's,
+who estimates the proportion of nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous
+substances in rice as 10 to 123, in beef as ten to seventeen, and in
+veal as ten to one. The results of Lawes and Gilbert's investigations,
+already alluded to, have, however, dispelled the illusion that the
+plastic constituents of flesh exceed its non-plastic. In the potato,
+which at one time constituted more of the food of the Irish peasantry
+than rice does that of the Hindu, the proportion of plastic to
+non-plastic materials is as 10 to 110. The results of some analyses of
+the food grains consumed in the Presidency of Madras, made by Professor
+Mayer, of the University of Madras, clearly prove that the food of the
+inhabitants of that part of India is of a far more highly nitrogenous
+character than is generally supposed. That the Hindu, who subsists
+exclusively on rice, exhibits all the symptoms of deficient nutrition,
+is a fact to which numerous competent observers have testified.
+</p>
+<p>
+A slight consideration of the facts which I have mentioned leads to the
+conclusion that the food of the inhabitants of very cold regions is
+required to produce a large amount of heat. Melons, rice, and other
+watery vegetable productions, however delicious to the palate of the
+Hindu, would be rejected with disgust by the Esquimaux, whilst the train
+oil, blubber, and putrid seal's flesh which the children of the icy
+North consider highly palatable, would excite the loathing of the East
+Indian. On this subject I may appositely quote the following remarks by
+Dr. Kane, the Arctic explorer:&mdash;"Our journeys have taught us the wisdom
+of the Esquimaux appetite, and there are few among us who do not relish
+a slice of raw blubber, or a chunk of frozen walrus beef. The liver of
+a walrus (awuktanuk), eaten with little slices of his fat&mdash;of a verity
+it is a delicious morsel. Fire would seem to spoil the curt, pithy
+expression of vitality which belongs to its uncooked juices. Charles
+Lamb's roast pig was nothing to awuktanuk. I wonder that raw beef is not
+eaten at home. Deprived of extraneous fibre, it is neither indigestible
+nor difficult to masticate. With acids
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page27" name="page27"></a>[27]</span>
+
+                                       and condiments, it makes a salad
+which an educated palate cannot help relishing; and as a powerful and
+condensed heat-making and anti-scorbutic food, it has no rival. I make
+this last broad assertion after carefully considering its truth. The
+natives of South Greenland prepare themselves for a long journey, by a
+course of frozen seal. At Upper Navik they do the same with the narwhal,
+which is thought more heat-making than the seal; while the bear, to use
+their own expression, is 'stronger travel than all.' In Smith's Sound,
+where the use of raw meat seems almost inevitable from the modes of
+living of the people, walrus holds the first rank. Certainly this
+pachyderm (Cetacean?) whose finely condensed tissue and delicately
+permeating fat (oh! call it not blubber) assimilate it to the ox, is
+beyond all others, and is the best <i>fuel</i> a man can swallow." The
+gastronomic capabilities of the Esquimaux and of other northern races,
+and their fondness for fatty food, are exhibited in a sufficiently
+strong light in the following statements:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p>
+Captain Parry weighed and presented to an Esquimaux lad the following
+articles:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Articles given to an Esquimaux lad">
+<tr><td>                                                          </td><th>      lb. </th><th>    oz.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Frozen seahorse flesh                         </td><td>       4  </td><td>     4 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Wild seahorse flesh                           </td><td>       4  </td><td>     4 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Bread and bread dust                          </td><td>       1  </td><td>    12 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Rich gravy soup                               </td><td>       1  </td><td>     4 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                                         </td><td>      10  </td><td>     0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Strong grog                                   </td><td colspan="2">   1 tumbler. </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Raw spirits                                   </td><td colspan="2">3 wine glasses.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+This large quantity of food, which the lad did not consider excessive,
+was consumed by him within twenty-four hours. According to Captain
+Cochrane a reindeer suffices but for one repast for three Yakutis, and
+five of them will devour at a sitting a calf weighing 200 lbs. Mr.
+Hooper, one of the officers of the <i>Plover</i>, in his narrative of their
+residence on the shores of Arctic America, states that "one of the
+ladies who visited them was presented, as a jest, with a small tallow
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page28" name="page28"></a>[28]</span>
+
+  candle, called a purser's dip. It was, notwithstanding, a very pleasant
+joke to the damsel, who deliberately munched it up with evident relish,
+and finally drew the wick between her set teeth to clean off any
+remaining morsels of fat."
+</p>
+<p>
+The partiality for certain kinds of food, and disgust at other
+varieties, which particular races of men exhibit, is an instinct which
+they cannot avoid obeying. Instead of exciting our disgust, as it too
+frequently does, it should exalt our admiration of the infinite wisdom
+of the Creator, who by simply adapting man's desire for particular kinds
+of food to the external conditions under which he is placed, enables him
+to occupy and "subdue the earth" from the Equator to the Poles.
+</p>
+<p>
+The food of human beings and of the lower animals who inhabit cold
+countries is nearly exclusively composed of animal substances.
+The flesh, fat, and oil of animals occupy less space than do the
+corresponding elements of vegetables; consequently the nutriment they
+afford is more concentrated, and a larger quantity can be stowed away
+without inconvenience in the stomach. The heat-forming constituents of
+these substances constitute not only the chief part of their bulk, but
+they are also capable of evolving a greater amount of heat than any
+other of the respiratory elements. One pound of dry fat will develop as
+much heat as two and a half pounds of dry starch, and the fattest flesh
+includes four times as much plastic materials as rice. The diet of
+people all over the world, unless under circumstances which prevent the
+gratification of the natural appetite, establishes the intimate relation
+which subsists between cold and food. The appetite of man is at a
+minimum at the Equator, and at a maximum within the Arctic circle. The
+statements as to the voracity of Hottentots and Bosjesmans, recorded in
+the narratives of travellers, do not in the slightest degree affect the
+general rule that more is eaten in cold climates than in hot regions.
+These are mere records of gluttony, and it would not be difficult to
+find parallel cases in our own country. Gluttony is an abnormal
+appetite, and the
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page29" name="page29"></a>[29]</span>
+
+                  greater part of the food devoured under its unnatural,
+and generally unhealthy stimulus is not applied to the wants of the body.
+</p>
+<p>
+The bodies of animals are heated masses of matter, and are subject to
+the ordinary laws of <i>radiation</i>. Every substance radiates its heat, and
+receives in return a portion of that emitted from surrounding bodies. If
+two bodies of unequal temperature be placed near each other, the warmer
+of the two will radiate a portion of its heat to the colder, and will
+receive some of the heat of the latter in return; but as the warmer body
+will emit more heat than it will receive, the result will be, that after
+a time, the length of which will depend on the nature of the bodies,
+both will acquire the same temperature. In very warm climates the bodies
+of animals derive from the sun, and from the heated bodies surrounding
+them, more heat than they give in return; and were it not for their
+internal cooling apparatus, which I have described, the heat so absorbed
+would prove fatal. In every climate, on the contrary, where the
+temperature is lower than 98°, or "blood heat," the bodies of animals
+lose more heat by radiation than they receive by the same means. The
+philosophy of the <i>clothing</i> of men and the <i>sheltering</i> of the lower
+animals is now evident. It is not only necessary that heat should be
+developed within the body, but also that its wasteful expenditure should
+be prevented. The latter is effected by interposing between the warm
+body and the cold air some substances (such as fur or wool) which do not
+readily permit the transmission of heat&mdash;<i>non-conductors</i> as they are
+termed. The close down of the eider duck is destined to protect its
+bosom from the chilling influence of the icy waters of the North Polar
+Sea, and the quadrupeds of the dreary Arctic Circle are sheltered by
+thick fur coverings from the piercing blasts of its long winter.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Fat Equivalents.</i>&mdash;Whilst it is quite certain that neither nerves nor
+muscles can be elaborated exclusively out of fat, starch, sugar, or any
+other non-nitrogenous substance, it is almost equally clear that fat may
+be formed out of nitrogenous
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page30" name="page30"></a>[30]</span>
+
+                             tissue. The quantity of fat, however, which
+is produced in the animal mechanism, from purely nitrogenous food
+appears to be relatively very small. No animal is capable of subsisting
+solely on muscle-forming materials, no matter how abundantly supplied.
+The food of the Carnivora contains a large proportion of fat, and the
+nutriment of the Herbivora is largely made up of starch and other
+fat-formers. Dogs, geese, and other animals fed exclusively upon albumen
+or white of egg rapidly decreased in weight, and after presenting all
+the symptoms of starvation, died in three or four weeks.<sup><a name="noteref-8"><!--8--></a><a href="#note-8">8</a></sup> The fat of
+the bodies of the Carnivora is almost entirely formed&mdash;and probably with
+little if any alteration&mdash;from the fatty constituents of their food.
+Herbivorous animals, on the contrary, derive nearly all their fat from
+starch, sugar, gum, cellulose, and other non-nitrogenous, but not fatty,
+materials.
+</p>
+<p>
+Although starch is convertible into fat, it is not to be understood that
+a pound weight of one of these bodies is equivalent to an equal quantity
+of the other. During the conversion of starch into fat, the greater
+number of its constituent atoms is converted into water and carbonic
+acid gas. The greater number of the more important metamorphoses of
+organised matter, which take place in the animal organum, is the result
+of either oxidation or fermentation: in the conversion of starch or
+sugar into fat or oil, both of these processes, it is stated, take
+place; a portion of the hydrogen is converted by oxidation into water,
+and by fermentation carbonic acid gas is formed, which removes both
+oxygen and carbon. Perhaps in the formation of fat fermentation is alone
+employed&mdash;a portion of the oxygen being removed as water, and another
+portion as carbonic acid. The chief difference between the ultimate
+composition of starch
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page31" name="page31"></a>[31]</span>
+
+                       and fat is, that the latter contains a much larger
+proportion of hydrogen and carbon. The knowledge of the exact quantity
+of starch required for the formation of a given amount of fat is of
+importance in enabling us to estimate the relative feeding value of both
+substances. Certain difficulties stand in the way of our acquiring an
+accurate knowledge on this point. Not only are there several distinct
+kinds of fat, but the precise formula, or atomic constitution of each,
+is as yet veiled in doubt. There are three fats which occur in man
+and the domesticated animals, and in vegetables. These are stearine,
+margarine, and oleine. The relative proportions of these vary in each
+animal: thus, in man and in the goose margarine is the most abundant
+fat, whilst oleine<sup><a name="noteref-9"><!--9--></a><a href="#note-9">9</a></sup> exists in the pig in a greater proportion than in
+man, the sheep, or the ox. The composition of the animal fats does not,
+however, vary much; and this fact, together with other considerations,
+have led chemists to assume that two-and-a-half parts of starch are
+required for the production of one part of the mixed fats of the
+different animals. Grape sugar and the pectine bodies&mdash;substances which
+form a large proportion of the food of the Herbivora&mdash;contain more
+oxygen and hydrogen than exist in starch, and, consequently, are not
+capable of forming so large an amount of fat as an equal weight of
+starch. We may assume, then, that 2·50 parts of starch, 2·75 parts of
+sugar, or 3 parts of the pectine bodies, are equivalent to 1 part of
+fat.
+</p>
+
+
+<h4>
+SECTION IV.
+</h4>
+<h5>
+RELATION BETWEEN THE COMPOSITION OF AN ANIMAL AND THAT OF ITS FOOD.
+</h5>
+<p>
+I have already stated that the results of the admirable investigations
+of Lawes and Gilbert prove that the non-nitrogenous
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page32" name="page32"></a>[32]</span>
+
+                                                    constituents of the
+carcasses of oxen, sheep, and pigs exceed in weight their nitrogenous
+elements. This fact is suggestive of many important questions. What
+relation is there between the composition of an animal and that of
+its food? Should an animal whose body contains three times as much
+fat as lean flesh, be supplied with food containing three times
+as much fat-formers as flesh-formers? To these questions there is
+some difficulty in replying. There <i>is</i> a relationship between the
+composition of the body of an animal and that of its food; but the
+relationship varies so greatly that it is impossible to determine with
+any degree of accuracy the quantity of fat-formers which is required to
+produce a given weight of fat in animals, taken <i>in globo</i>. If, however,
+we deal with a particular animal placed under certain conditions, it is
+then possible to ascertain the amount of fat which a given weight of
+non-plastic food will produce. For the greater part of our knowledge
+on this point, as on so many others, in the feeding of stock, we are
+indebted to Lawes and Gilbert. In the case of sheep fed upon fattening
+food these inquirers found that every 100 lbs. of dry<sup><a name="noteref-10"><!--10--></a><a href="#note-10">10</a></sup> non-nitrogenous
+substances consumed by them produced, on an average, an increase of 10
+lbs. in the weight of their fat. In the case of pigs, also, supplied
+with food, the proportion of non-nitrogenous matters appropriated to
+the animal's increase was double that so applied in the bodies of the
+sheep. As the food supplied to these animals contained but a very small
+proportion of ready-formed fat, it was inferred that four-fifths of the
+fat of the increase was derived from the sugar, starch, cellulose, and
+pectine bodies.
+</p>
+<p>
+These tables exhibit in a condensed form the results of one of the
+elaborate series of experiments in relation to this point carried out
+by Lawes and Gilbert:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page33" name="page33"></a>[33]</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" width="100%" summary="Increase in constituents per 100 parts of food in sheep">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="10">ESTIMATED AMOUNT OF CERTAIN CONSTITUENTS STORED UP IN <i>INCREASE</i>, FOR 100 PARTS OF EACH CONSUMED IN FOOD BY FATTENING SHEEP.</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><th colspan="6"><span class="sc">General Particulars of the Experiments.</span></th><th colspan="4">  Amount of each Class in<br /> Increase for 100 of the<br /> same consumed in Food. </th></tr>
+
+<tr class="b2">
+<th rowspan="2">                     <span class="sc">Breed.</span></th>
+<th rowspan="2" title="No. of Animals.">              A. </th>
+<th rowspan="2" colspan="2">                          Duration.</th>
+<th colspan="2">                                      Description of Fattening Food.</th>
+<th rowspan="2" title="Mineral matters (ash).">       B. </th>
+<th rowspan="2" title="Nitrogenous compounds (dry)."> C. </th>
+<th rowspan="2" title="Non-nitrogenous substance.">   D. </th>
+<th rowspan="2" title="Total dry substance.">         E. </th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="b2">
+<th> Given in limited quantity.</th>
+<th> Given ad libitum. </th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td class="c" colspan="10"><span class="sc">Class I.</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td>                              <td>  </td><td>wks.</td><td>dys.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Cotswolds           </td><td class="c">46</td><td> 19 </td><td>  5 </td><td class="l"> Oilcake and clover chaff. </td>
+                                                                                 <td class="c"> Swedish turnips. </td>
+                                                                                  <td>3·98</td><td>4·43</td><td>11·6</td><td>9·60</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Leicesters          </td><td class="c">40</td><td> 20 </td><td>  0 </td><td class="c">"</td><td class="c">"</td>  <td>3·15</td><td>3·39</td><td>12·0</td><td>9·48</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Cross-bred wethers  </td><td class="c">40</td><td> 20 </td><td>  0 </td><td class="c">"</td><td class="c">"</td>  <td>3·24</td><td>3·60</td><td>11·6</td><td>9·31</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Cross-bred ewes     </td><td class="c">40</td><td> 20 </td><td>  0 </td><td class="c">"</td><td class="c">"</td>  <td>3·25</td><td>3·60</td><td>11·8</td><td>9·40</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Hants Downs         </td><td class="c">40</td><td> 26 </td><td>  0 </td><td class="c">"</td><td class="c">"</td>  <td>3·40</td><td>4·28</td><td>10·3</td><td>8·49</td></tr>
+<tr class="b1">
+    <td class="l">Sussex Downs        </td><td class="c">40</td><td> 26 </td><td>  0 </td><td class="c">"</td><td class="c">"</td>  <td>3·30</td><td>4·16</td><td>10·3</td><td>8·44</td></tr>
+<tr class="b2"><td colspan="6">                                       Means</td>  <td>3·39</td><td>3·91</td><td>11·3</td><td>9·12</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td class="c" colspan="10"><span class="sc">Class III.</span>&mdash;(Series 1.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l" rowspan="2">
+                  Hants Downs         </td><td class="c"> 5</td><td> 13 </td><td>  6 </td><td class="l"> Oilcake.      </td><td class="c"> Swedish turnips. </td>
+                                                                                                         <td>4·16</td><td>4·01</td><td>11·1</td><td>9·33</td></tr>
+<tr>                                       <td class="c"> 5</td><td> 13 </td><td>  6 </td><td class="l"> Oats.         </td><td class="c">"</td>  <td>5·73</td><td>7·07</td><td>10·0</td><td>9·45</td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td></td>                   <td class="c"> 5</td><td> 13 </td><td>  6 </td><td class="l"> Clover chaff. </td><td class="c">"</td>  <td>3·98</td><td>7·44</td><td> 9·0</td><td>8·49</td></tr>
+<tr class="b2"><td colspan="6">                                                      Means        </td>  <td>4·62</td><td>6·17</td><td>10·0</td><td>9·09</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td class="c" colspan="10"><span class="sc">Class IV.</span>&mdash;(Series 2.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l" rowspan="3">
+                  Hants Downs         </td><td class="c"> 5</td><td> 19 </td><td>  1 </td><td class="l"> Oilcake.      </td><td class="c">Clover chaff.</td>
+                                                                                                                   <td>1·69</td><td>2·20</td><td>6·3</td><td>5·07</td></tr>
+<tr>                                       <td class="c"> 5</td><td> 19 </td><td>  1 </td><td class="l"> Linseed.      </td><td class="c">"</td>  <td>1·81</td><td>2·32</td><td>6·2</td><td>5·19</td></tr>
+<tr>                                       <td class="c"> 5</td><td> 19 </td><td>  1 </td><td class="l"> Barley.       </td><td class="c">"</td>  <td>1·75</td><td>2·82</td><td>5·7</td><td>5·00</td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td></td>                   <td class="c"> 5</td><td> 19 </td><td>  1 </td><td class="l"> Malt.         </td><td class="c">"</td>  <td>1·46</td><td>2·17</td><td>5·3</td><td>4·61</td></tr>
+<tr class="b2"><td colspan="6">                                                      Means        </td>  <td>1·68</td><td>2·38</td><td>5·9</td><td>4·97</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td class="c" colspan="10">
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page34" name="page34"></a>[34]</span>
+                               <span class="sc">Class V.</span>&mdash;(Series 4.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l" rowspan="4">
+                  Hants Downs         </td><td class="c"> 4</td><td> 10 </td><td>  0 </td><td class="l"> Barley ground. </td><td class="c"> Mangolds.</td>
+                                                                                                                                     <td>3·80</td><td>5·65</td><td> 9·8</td><td>8·91</td></tr>
+<tr>                                       <td class="c"> 5</td><td> 10 </td><td>  0 </td><td class="l"> Malt, ground, &amp; malt dust.</td><td class="c">"</td>             <td>4·04</td><td>6·18</td><td>10·4</td><td>9·49</td></tr>
+<tr>                                       <td class="c"> 4</td><td> 10 </td><td>  0 </td><td class="l"> Barley ground and steeped.</td><td class="c">"</td>                 <td>3·72</td><td>6·35</td><td> 8·9</td><td>8·28</td></tr>
+<tr>                                       <td class="c"> 4</td><td> 10 </td><td>  0 </td><td class="l"> Malt, ground and steeped, &amp; malt dust.</td><td class="c">"</td> <td>2·95</td><td>4·34</td><td> 9·3</td><td>8·23</td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td></td>                   <td class="c"> 5</td><td> 10 </td><td>  0 </td><td class="l"> Malt, ground, &amp; malt dust.</td><td class="c">"</td>   <td>3·46</td><td>5·46</td><td> 9·1</td><td>8·25</td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td colspan="6">                                                      Means                                      </td><td>3·59</td><td>5·60</td><td> 9·5</td><td>8·63</td></tr>
+<tr class="b2"><td colspan="6">                                                      Means of all                               </td><td>3·27</td><td>4·41</td><td> 9·4</td><td>8·06</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td class="table-key"><b>KEY:</b></td>
+<td class="table-key" colspan="5">
+A.&mdash;No. of Animals.<br />
+B.&mdash;Mineral matter (ash).<sup><a name="noteref-11"><!--11--></a><a href="#note-11">11</a></sup><br />
+C.&mdash;Nitrogenous compounds (dry).
+</td>
+<td class="table-key" colspan="5">
+D.&mdash;Non-nitrogenous substance.<br />
+E.&mdash;Total dry substance.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" width="100%" summary="Increase in constituents per 100 parts of food in pigs">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="10">  ESTIMATED AMOUNT OF CERTAIN CONSTITUENTS STORED UP IN <i>INCREASE</i>, FOR 100 OF EACH CONSUMED IN FOOD, BY FATTENING PIGS.</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><th colspan="4"><span class="sc">General Particulars of the Experiments.</span></th><th colspan="5">  Amount of each Class in<br /> Increase for 100 of the<br /> same consumed in Food. </th></tr>
+
+<tr class="b2">
+<th rowspan="2" title="No. of Animals.">              A. </th>
+<th rowspan="2">                                      Duration.<br />(weeks)</th>
+<th colspan="2">                                      Description of Fattening Food.</th>
+<th rowspan="2" title="Mineral matter (ash).">        B. </th>
+<th rowspan="2" title="Nitrogenous compounds (dry)."> C. </th>
+<th rowspan="2" title="Non-nitrogenous substance.">   D. </th>
+<th rowspan="2" title="Total dry substance.">         E. </th>
+<th rowspan="2" title="Fat.">                         F. </th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="b2">
+<th> Given in limited quantity.</th>
+<th> Given ad libitum. </th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="9"><span class="sc">The Analysed "Fat Pig."</span><sup><a name="noteref-12"><!--12--></a><a href="#note-12">12</a></sup></th></tr>
+
+<tr class="b2"><td>  1 </td><td class="c">  10    </td><td colspan="2"> Mixture of bran 1, bean and lentil-meal 2, and barley-meal 3 parts, ad libitum.</td><td>2·66  </td><td>7·76 </td><td>17·6 </td><td>14·9 </td><td>405 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1">
+<td class="c" colspan="9"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page35" name="page35"></a>[35]</span>
+                <span class="sc">Series I.</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>  3 </td><td class="c">   8   </td><td class="l">  None.                </td><td class="l"> Bean &amp; lentil-meal.</td><td>0·68  </td><td>4·88 </td><td>25·3 </td><td>17·5 </td><td>621 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  3 </td><td class="c">   "   </td><td class="l">  Indian-meal.         </td><td class="c">   "                </td><td>1·86 </td><td> 6·39 </td><td>23·7 </td><td>17·9 </td><td>477 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  3 </td><td class="c">   "   </td><td class="l">  Indian-meal and bran.</td><td class="c">   "                </td><td>0·33 </td><td> 5·02 </td><td>21·1 </td><td>16·1 </td><td>362 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  3 </td><td class="c">   "   </td><td class="l">  None.                </td><td class="l"> Indian meal.       </td><td>2·09 </td><td> 9·28 </td><td>20·9 </td><td>18·6 </td><td>300 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  3 </td><td class="c">   "   </td><td class="l">  Bean and lentil-meal.</td><td class="c">   "                </td><td>0·99 </td><td> 9·18 </td><td>20·9 </td><td>18·4 </td><td>324 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  3 </td><td class="c">   "   </td><td class="l">  Bran.                </td><td class="c">   "                </td><td>2·35 </td><td>12·10 </td><td>20·3 </td><td>18·7 </td><td>300 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  3 </td><td class="c">   "   </td><td class="l">  Bean, lentil-meal, and bran. </td>
+                                                                           <td class="c">   "                </td><td>2·71 </td><td>10·03 </td><td>21·3 </td><td>18·5 </td><td>307 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  3 </td><td class="c">   "   </td><td class="l" colspan="2">  Bean, lentil-meal, Indian-meal, bran, ad libitum. </td>
+                                                                                                             <td>0·22 </td><td> 5·65 </td><td>21·1 </td><td>16·8 </td><td>362 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b2"><td colspan="4">    Means           </td><td>0·74 </td><td> 7·82 </td><td>21·8 </td><td>17·8 </td><td>382 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td class="c" colspan="9"><span class="sc">Series II.</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>  3 </td><td class="c">   8   </td><td class="l">  None.                </td><td class="l"> Bean &amp; lentil-meal.</td><td>3·20  </td><td>3·12 </td><td>26·5 </td><td>18·2 </td><td>801 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  3 </td><td class="c">   "   </td><td class="l">  Barley-meal.         </td><td class="c">   "                </td><td>0·16 </td><td> 4·65 </td><td>19·2 </td><td>14·7 </td><td>575 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  3 </td><td class="c">   "   </td><td class="l">  Bran.                </td><td class="c">   "                </td><td>0·16 </td><td> 3·99 </td><td>21·2 </td><td>15·2 </td><td>547 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  3 </td><td class="c">   "   </td><td class="l">  Barley-meal and bran.</td><td class="c">   "                </td><td>0·75 </td><td> 4·57 </td><td>20·1 </td><td>15·6 </td><td>514 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  3 </td><td class="c">   "   </td><td class="l">  None.                </td><td class="l"> Barley-meal.       </td><td>0·56 </td><td>10·09 </td><td>18·5 </td><td>16·9 </td><td>574 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  3 </td><td class="c">   "   </td><td class="l">  Bean and lentil-meal.</td><td class="c">   "                </td><td>0·53 </td><td> 6·57 </td><td>21·1 </td><td>17·5 </td><td>620 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  3 </td><td class="c">   "   </td><td class="l">  Bran.                </td><td class="c">   "                </td><td>0·49 </td><td> 9·79 </td><td>18·9 </td><td>16·9 </td><td>506 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  3 </td><td class="c">   "   </td><td class="l">  Bean, lentil-meal,
+                                                   and bran.          </td><td class="c">   "                </td><td>4·33 </td><td> 4·49 </td><td>22·7 </td><td>18·0 </td><td>578 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  6 </td><td class="c">   "   </td><td class="l" colspan="2">  Mixture of bran 1, barley-meal 2, and
+                                                                       bean lentil-meal 3 parts, ad libitum. </td><td>0·27  </td><td>5·65 </td><td>20·4 </td><td>16·1 </td><td>495 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  6 </td><td class="c">   "   </td><td class="l" colspan="2">  Mixture of bran 1, bean lentil-meal 2,
+                                                                       barley-meal 3 parts, ad libitum.      </td><td>1·58  </td><td>8·10 </td><td>21·1 </td><td>17·6 </td><td>515 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b2"><td colspan="4">    Means           </td><td>0·59  </td><td>6·10 </td><td>21·0 1</td><td>6·7 </td><td>572 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td class="c" colspan="9"><span class="sc">Series III.</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>  4 </td><td class="c">   8   </td><td class="l">  Dried Cod Fish.    </td><td class="l">   Bran &amp; Indian-meal. (equal parts).</td><td>1·06  </td><td>5·06 </td><td>24·3 </td><td>18·1 </td><td>315 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  4 </td><td class="c">   "   </td><td class="c">    "                </td><td class="l">   Indian-meal.            </td><td>0·26  </td><td>8·16 </td><td>25·6 </td><td>20·9 </td><td>352 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b2"><td colspan="4">                                  Means                  </td><td>0·66 </td><td> 6·61 </td><td>24·9 </td><td>19·5 </td><td>333 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td class="c" colspan="9">
+                    <span class="pagenum"><a id="page36" name="page36"></a>[36]</span>
+                    <span class="sc">Series IV.</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>  3 </td><td class="c">   10  </td><td class="l">  Lentil-meal &amp; bran.   </td><td class="l">Sugar.              </td><td>3·07 </td><td> 9·30 </td><td>19·4 </td><td>16·9  </td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>  3 </td><td class="c">    "  </td><td class="c">    "                       </td><td class="l">Starch.             </td><td>3·18 </td><td> 9·36 </td><td>19·4 </td><td>16·9  </td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>  3 </td><td class="c">    "  </td><td class="c">    "                       </td><td class="l">Sugar &amp; starch.     </td><td>4·06 </td><td>10·78 </td><td>17·7 </td><td>16·1  </td><td></td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td>  3 </td><td class="c">    "  </td><td class="l" colspan="2">  Lentils, bran, sugar, starch, ad libitum.</td><td>4·80 </td><td> 9·96 </td><td>18·7 </td><td>16·5  </td><td></td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td colspan="4">                    Means           </td><td>3·78 </td><td> 9·85 </td><td>18·8 </td><td>16·6 </td><td></td></tr>
+<tr class="b2"><td colspan="4">                    Means of all    </td><td>0·58 </td><td> 7·34 </td><td>21·2 </td><td>17·3 </td><td>472 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td class="table-key" colspan="2"><b>KEY:</b></td>
+<td class="table-key" colspan="2">
+A.&mdash;No. of Animals.<br />
+B.&mdash;Mineral matter (ash).<br />
+C.&mdash;Nitrogenous compounds (dry).
+</td>
+<td class="table-key" colspan="4">
+D.&mdash;Non-nitrogenous substance.<br />
+E.&mdash;Total dry substance.<br />
+F.&mdash;Fat.
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The larger appropriation of the non-nitrogenous constituents of its food
+by the pig, as compared with the sheep, must not be attributed solely to
+its greater tendency to fatten, but partly to the far more digestible
+nature of the food supplied to it.
+</p>
+
+<h4>
+SECTION V.
+</h4>
+<h5>
+RELATION BETWEEN THE QUANTITY OF FOOD CONSUMED BY AN ANIMAL, AND THE
+INCREASE IN ITS WEIGHT, OR OF THE AMOUNT OF ITS WORK.
+</h5>
+<p>
+The manifestations of that wondrous and mysterious principle, <i>life</i>,
+are completely dependent upon the decomposition of organised matter. Not
+an effort of the mind, not a motion of the body, can be accomplished
+without involving the destruction of a portion of the tissues. In a
+general sense we may regard the fat of the animal to be its store of
+fuel, and its lean flesh to be the source of its motive power. As the
+evolution of heat within the body is proportionate to the
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page37" name="page37"></a>[37]</span>
+
+                                                           quantity of
+fat consumed, so also is the amount of force developed in the animal
+mechanism in a direct ratio to the proportion of flesh decomposed.
+The quantity of fat burned in the body is estimated by the amount of
+carbonic acid gas expired from the lungs and perspired through the skin;
+the proportion of flesh disorganised is ascertained by the quantity of
+urea eliminated in the liquid egesta. The amount of urea excreted daily
+by a man is influenced by the activity of his mind, as well as by that
+of his body. A man engaged in physical labor wears out more of his body
+than one who does no work; and a man occupied in a pursuit involving
+intense mental application, consumes a greater proportion of his tissue
+than the man who works only with his body.<sup><a name="noteref-13"><!--13--></a><a href="#note-13">13</a></sup> In each of these cases,
+there is a different amount of tissue disorganised, and consequently a
+demand for different amounts of food, with which to repair the waste.
+But all the food consumed by a man is not devoted to the reparation of
+the tissue worn out in the operations of thinking and working. A human
+being whose mind is a perfect blank, and who performs no bodily work,
+excretes a large quantity of urea, the representative of an equivalent
+amount of worn-out flesh. In fact the greater part of the food consumed
+by a man serves merely to sustain the functions of the body&mdash;the
+circulation of the blood&mdash;the action of the heart&mdash;the movements of the
+muscles concerned in respiration&mdash;in a word, the various motions of the
+body which are independent of the will. According to
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page38" name="page38"></a>[38]</span>
+
+                                                     Professor Haughton,
+about three-fourths of the food of a working man of 150 lbs. weight, are
+used in merely keeping him <i>alive</i>, the remaining fourth is expended in
+the production of mechanical force, constituting his daily toil.
+</p>
+<p>
+In the nutrition of the lower animals, as in that of man, the amount of
+food made use of by a particular individual depends upon its age, its
+weight, the amount of work it performs, and probably its temper. As
+three-fourths of the weight of the food of a laboring man are expended
+in merely keeping him alive, it is obvious that the withholding of the
+remaining fourth would render him incapable of working. An amount of
+food which adequately maintains the vital and mechanical powers of three
+men, serves merely to keep four alive. It is the same with the horse,
+the ox, and every other animal useful to man: each makes use of a
+certain amount of food, <i>for its own purposes</i>; all that is consumed
+beyond that is applied for the benefit of its owner. Let us take the
+case of two of our most useful quadrupeds&mdash;the horse and the ox. The
+horse is used as an immediate source of motive power. For this purpose
+food is supplied to it, the greater portion of which is consumed in
+keeping the animal alive, and the rest for the development of its motive
+power. Abundance of food is as necessary to the natural mechanism,
+the horse, as fuel is to the artificial mechanism, the steam-engine.
+In each case the amount of force developed is, within certain limits,
+proportionate to the quantity of vegetable or altered vegetable matter
+consumed. The greater portion of the ox's food is also consumed in
+keeping its body alive, and the rest, instead of being expended in the
+development of motive power, accumulates as surplus stores of flesh,
+which in due time are applied to the purpose of repairing the organisms
+of men. It is evident then, that the greater sufferer from the deficient
+supply of food to animals is their owner. That they cannot be <i>taught</i>
+to <i>fast</i> is a fact which does not appear very patent to some minds.
+The man who sought by gradually reducing the daily quantum of his
+horse's provender to accustom
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page39" name="page39"></a>[39]</span>
+
+                              it to work without eating, was justly
+punished for his ignorant cruelty. The day before the horse's allowance
+was to be reduced to pure water, and when its owner's hope appeared
+certain of speedy realisation, the animal died. There are men who act
+almost as foolishly as the parsimonious horse owner in this fable did;
+and who are as properly punished as he was. Such men are to be found in
+the farmers who overstock their sheep pastures, and whose "lean kine"
+are the <i>laughing stock</i> of their more intelligent neighbours.
+</p>
+<p>
+The weight of a working full-grown horse does not vary from day
+to day, as the weight of its egesta is equal to that of its food.
+The desideratum in the case of the working animal is that its food
+should be as thoroughly decomposed as possible, and the force pent
+up in it liberated within the animal's body: as an ox, on the contrary,
+increases in weight from day to day, it is desirable that as little as
+possible of its food should be disorganised. The wasteful expenditure
+of the animal's fat may be obviated by shelter, and the application of
+artificial heat: the retardation of the destruction of its flesh is even
+more under our control; for, as active muscular exertion involves the
+decomposition of tissue, we have merely to diminish the activity of
+the motions which cause this waste. This, in practice, is effected by
+stall-feeding. Confined within the narrow boundaries of the stall, the
+muscular action of the animal is reduced to a minimum, or limited to
+those uncontrollable actions which are conditions in the maintenance
+of animal life.
+</p>
+<p>
+The proportion of the food of oxen, sheep, and pigs, which is
+consumed in maintaining their vital functions, has not been accurately
+ascertained; probably, as in the case of man, it is strictly
+proportionate to the animal's weight. We can determine the amount
+of plastic food consumed by an animal during a given period: we can
+ascertain the increase (if any) in the weight of its body; and finally,
+we can weigh and analyse its egesta. With these data it is comparatively
+easy to ascertain the quantity of food which produced the increase in
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page40" name="page40"></a>[40]</span>
+
+ the animal's weight; but they do not enable us to determine the amount
+expended in keeping it alive, because the egesta might be largely made
+up of unappropriated food&mdash;organised matter which had done no work in
+the animal body. When we come to know the precise quantity of nitrogen,
+in a purely, or nearly pure, mineral form<sup><a name="noteref-14"><!--14--></a><a href="#note-14">14</a></sup> excreted by an animal,
+then we shall be in a position to estimate the proportion of its food
+expended in sustaining the essential vital processes which continuously
+go on in its body. But although we are in ignorance as to the precise
+quantity of flesh-formers expended in keeping the animal alive, we know
+pretty accurately the amount which is consumed in producing a given
+weight of its flesh, or rather in causing a certain increase in its
+weight. This knowledge is the result of numerous investigations, of
+which by far the most valuable are those of Lawes and Gilbert. These
+experimenters found that fattening pigs stored up about 7&frac12; per
+cent. of the plastic materials of their food, whilst sheep accumulated
+somewhat less than 5 per cent. That is, 92&frac12; out of every 100 lbs.
+weight of the nitrogenous food of the pig, and 95 out of every 100 lbs.
+of that of the sheep, are eliminated in the excretions of those animals.
+</p>
+<p>
+It appears from the results of Lawes and Gilbert's experiments, that
+pigs store up in their <i>increase</i> about 20 per cent., sheep 12 per
+cent., and oxen 8 per cent. of their (dry) food. The relative increase
+of the fatty, nitrogenous, and mineral constituents whilst fattening,
+are shown in this table.
+</p>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Estimated increase for fattening various animals">
+
+<tr><td colspan="5" class="table-title">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Cases</span>.</th><th colspan="4">Estimated per cent. in Increase whilst Fattening.</th></tr>
+
+<tr>                            <th>Mineral matter (ash.)</th><th>Nitrogenous matter (dry).</th><th> Fat (dry).         </th><th> Total dry substance. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Average of  98 oxen  </td><td> 1·47   </td><td>  7·69      </td><td> 66·2     </td><td>  75·4&nbsp; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Average of 348 sheep </td><td> 1·80   </td><td>  7·13      </td><td> 70·4     </td><td>  79·53 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">  Average of  80 pigs  </td><td> 0·44   </td><td>  6·44      </td><td> 71·5     </td><td>  78·40 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page41" name="page41"></a>[41]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+The quantity of food consumed daily by an animal is, as might be expected,
+proportionate to the weight of its body. The pig consumes, for every 100
+lbs. of its weight, from 26 to 30 lbs. of food, the sheep 15 lbs., and
+the ox 12 to 13 lbs. These figures and the statements which I have made
+relative to the proportions of fat and plastic elements in the animals'
+bodies, apply to them in their fattening state, and when the food is
+of a highly nutritious character. The calf and the young pig will
+make use&mdash;to cause their increase&mdash;of a larger portion of nitrogenous
+matters. The sheep, however, being early brought to maturity, will, even
+when very young, store up the plastic and non-plastic constituents of
+its food, in nearly the same relative proportions that I have mentioned.
+</p>
+<p>
+As it is the food taken into the body that produces heat and motion, it
+might at first sight appear an easy matter to determine the amount of
+heat or of motion which a given weight of a particular kind of food is
+capable of producing within the animal mechanism. But this performance
+is not so easy a task as it appears to be. In the first place, all of
+the food may not be perfectly oxidised, though thoroughly disorganised
+within the body; secondly, as animals rarely subsist on one kind of
+food, it is difficult, when they are supplied with mixed aliments, to
+determine which of them is the most perfectly decomposed. But though the
+difficulties which I have mentioned, and many others, render the task
+of determining the nutritive values of food substances difficult, the
+problem is by no means insoluble, and, in fact, is in a fair way of
+being solved. Professor Frankland, in a paper published in the number
+of the <i>Philosophical Magazine</i> for September, 1866, determines the
+relative alimental value of foods by ascertaining the quantity of heat
+evolved by each when burned in oxygen gas. From the results of these
+researches he has constructed a table, showing the amount of food
+necessary to keep a man alive for twenty-four hours. The following
+figures, which I select from this table, are of interest to the
+stock-feeder:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page42" name="page42"></a>[42]</span></p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Weight of foods to sustain human life per 24 hours">
+
+<tr><td></td><th>                      Weight necessary to sustain a man's life<br /> for twenty-four hours.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>  Kinds of Food.                </th><th>Ounces. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Potatoes                      </td><td>13·4 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Apples                        </td><td>20·7 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Oatmeal                       </td><td> 3·4 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flour                         </td><td> 3·5 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Pea Meal                      </td><td> 3·5 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Bread                         </td><td> 6·4 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Milk                          </td><td>21·2 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Carrots                       </td><td>25·6 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Cabbage                       </td><td>31·8 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Butter                        </td><td> 1·8 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Lump Sugar                    </td><td> 3·9 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+These figures show the relative calefacient, or heat-producing powers of
+the different foods named <i>outside</i> the body; but there is some doubt as
+to their having the same relative values when burned <i>within</i> the body.
+The woody fibre of the carrots and cabbages is very combustible in the
+coal furnace, but it is very doubtful if more than 20 or 30 per cent. of
+this substance is ever burned in the <i>animal furnace</i>. However, such
+inquiries as those carried out by Frankland possess great value; and
+tables constructed upon their results cannot fail to be useful in the
+drawing up of dietary scales, whether for man or for the inferior
+animals.
+</p>
+<p>
+I may here remark, that in my opinion the nutritive value of food admits
+of being very accurately determined by the adoption of the following
+method:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p>
+1. The animal experimented upon to be supplied daily with a weighed
+quantity of food, the composition and calefacient value of which had
+been accurately determined. 2. The gases, vapors, and liquid and solid
+egesta thrown off from its body to be collected, analysed, and the
+calefacient<sup><a name="noteref-15"><!--15--></a><a href="#note-15">15</a></sup> value of the combustible portion of them to be
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page43" name="page43"></a>[43]</span>
+
+ determined.
+3. The increase (if any) of the weight of the animal to be ascertained.
+4. The difference between the amount of heat evolvable by the foods
+before being consumed, and that actually obtained by the combustion
+of the egesta into which they were ultimately converted, would be the
+amount actually set free and rendered available within the body. The
+calculations would be somewhat affected by an increase in the weight
+of the animal's body; but it would not be difficult to keep the weight
+stationary, or nearly so, and there are other ways of getting over
+such a difficulty. An experiment such as this would be a costly one,
+and could not be properly conducted unless by the aid of an apparatus
+similar to that employed by Pettenkofer in his experiments on
+respiration. This apparatus, which was made at the expense of the King
+of Bavaria, cost nearly £600.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Value of Manure.</i>&mdash;It is a complication in the question of the
+economic feeding of the farm animals that the value of their manure
+must be taken into account. Of the three classes of food constituents,
+two&mdash;the mineral and nitrogenous&mdash;are recoverable in the animal's body
+and manure; the non-nitrogenous is partly recoverable in the fat.
+I shall take the case of a sheep, which will consume weekly per 100
+lbs. of its weight, 12 lbs. of fat-formers, and 3 lbs. of flesh-formers.
+Twelve per cent. of the fat-formers will be retained in the <i>increase</i>,
+but the rest will be expended in keeping the animal warm, and the
+products of its combustion&mdash;carbonic acid and water&mdash;will be useless to
+the farmer. It is, therefore, desirable to diminish as much as possible
+the combustion of fatty matter in the animal's body; and this is
+effected, as I have already explained, by keeping it in a warm place.
+Of the flesh-forming substance only five per cent. is retained in the
+increase, the rest is partly consumed in carrying on the movements of
+the animal&mdash;partly expelled from its body unaltered, or but slightly
+altered, in composition. The solid excrement of the animal contains
+all the undigested food; but of this only the mineral and nitrogenous
+constituents are valuable as
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page44" name="page44"></a>[44]</span>
+
+                             manure. The nitrogen of the plastic
+materials which are expended in maintaining the functions of the body is
+eliminated from the lungs, through the skin, and by the kidneys&mdash;perhaps
+also, but certainly only to a small extent, by the rectum.
+</p>
+<p>
+The food consumed by an animal is disposed of in the following way:&mdash;A
+portion passes unchanged, or but slightly altered, through the body;
+another part is assimilated and subsequently disorganised and ejected;
+the rest is converted into the carcass of the animal at the time of its
+death. The undigested food and aliment which had undergone conversion
+into flesh and other tissues, and subsequent disorganisation, constitute
+the excrements, or manure, of the animal. The richer in nitrogen and
+phosphoric acid the food is, the more valuable will be the manure; so
+that the money value of a feeding stuff is not determinable merely by
+the amount of flesh which it makes, but also, and to a great extent,
+by the value of the manure into which it is ultimately converted.
+</p>
+<p>
+Corn and oil-cakes are powerful fertilisers of the soil; but the three
+principles which constitute their manurial value&mdash;namely, nitrogen
+(ammonia), phosphoric acid, and potash&mdash;are purchasable at far lower
+prices in guano and other manures. Nevertheless, many farmers believe
+that the most economical way to produce good manure is to feed their
+stock with concentrated aliment, in order to greatly increase the value
+of their excreta. They consider that a pound's worth of oil-cake, or of
+corn, will produce at least a pound's worth of meat, and that the manure
+will be had for nothing, or, rather, will be the profit of the business.
+The richer food is in nitrogen and phosphoric acid, the more valuable
+will be the manure it yields. It follows, therefore, that if two kinds
+of feeding stuff produce equal amounts of meat, that the preference
+should be given to that which contains the more nitrogen and phosphoric
+acid. Mr. Lawes, who has thrown light upon this point, as well as upon
+so many others, has made careful estimates of the value of the manure
+produced
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page45" name="page45"></a>[45]</span>
+
+         from different foods. They are given in the following table:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Estimated values of manures per ton of food">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="5">
+TABLE<br />
+Showing the estimated value of the manure obtained on the<br />
+consumption of one ton of different articles of food; each<br />
+supposed to be of good quality of its kind.
+</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th colspan="2">Description of Food.</th>
+<th colspan="3">Estimated Money<br /> Value of the Manure<br /> from One Ton<br /> of each Food.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td>   1.</td><td class="l">Decorticated cotton-seed cake              </td><td>£6 </td><td> 10  </td><td> 0  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>   2.</td><td class="l">Rape-cake                                  </td><td> 4 </td><td> 18  </td><td> 0  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>   3.</td><td class="l">Linseed-cake                               </td><td> 4 </td><td> 12  </td><td> 0  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>   4.</td><td class="l">Malt-dust                                  </td><td> 4 </td><td>  5  </td><td> 0  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>   5.</td><td class="l">Lentils                                    </td><td> 3 </td><td> 17  </td><td> 0  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>   6.</td><td class="l">Linseed                                    </td><td> 3 </td><td> 13  </td><td> 0  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>   7.</td><td class="l">Tares                                      </td><td> 3 </td><td> 13  </td><td> 6  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>   8.</td><td class="l">Beans                                      </td><td> 3 </td><td> 13  </td><td> 6  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>   9.</td><td class="l">Peas                                       </td><td> 3 </td><td>  2  </td><td> 6  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  10.</td><td class="l">Locust beans                               </td><td> 1 </td><td>  2  </td><td> (?)6 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  11.</td><td class="l">Oats                                       </td><td> 1 </td><td> 14  </td><td> 6  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  12.</td><td class="l">Wheat                                      </td><td> 1 </td><td> 13  </td><td> 0  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  13.</td><td class="l">Indian corn                                </td><td> 1 </td><td> 11  </td><td> 6  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  14.</td><td class="l">Malt                                       </td><td> 1 </td><td> 11  </td><td> 6  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  15.</td><td class="l">Barley                                     </td><td> 1 </td><td>  9  </td><td> 6  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  16.</td><td class="l">Clover-hay                                 </td><td> 2 </td><td>  5  </td><td> 0  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  17.</td><td class="l">Meadow-hay                                 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 10  </td><td> 0  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  18.</td><td class="l">Oat-straw                                  </td><td> 0 </td><td> 13  </td><td> 6  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  19.</td><td class="l">Wheat-straw                                </td><td> 0 </td><td> 12  </td><td> 6  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  20.</td><td class="l">Barley-straw                               </td><td> 0 </td><td> 10  </td><td> 6  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  21.</td><td class="l">Potatoes                                   </td><td> 0 </td><td>  7  </td><td> 0  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  22.</td><td class="l">Mangolds                                   </td><td> 0 </td><td>  5  </td><td> 0  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  23.</td><td class="l">Swedish turnips                            </td><td> 0 </td><td>  4  </td><td> 3  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  24.</td><td class="l">Common turnips                             </td><td> 0 </td><td>  4  </td><td> 0  </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  25.</td><td class="l">Carrots                                    </td><td> 0 </td><td>  4  </td><td> 0  </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+All the saline matter contained in the food is either converted into
+flesh, or is recoverable in the form of manure, but a portion of its
+nitrogen appears to be lost by respiration and perspiration. Reiset
+states that 100 parts of the nitrogen of food given to sheep upon
+which he experimented, were disposed of as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page46" name="page46"></a>[46]</span></p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Nitrogen disposition in sheep, by Reiset">
+<tr><td class="l">  Recovered in the excreta               </td><td>58·3 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Recovered in the meat, tallow, and skin</td><td>13·7 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Lost in respiration                    </td><td>28·0 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>                                         </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                         </td><td>100·00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>
+Haughton's experiments, performed upon men, gave results which proved
+that no portion of the nitrogen of their food was lost by perspiration
+or by respiration. Barral, on the contrary, asserts that nitrogen
+is given off from the bodies of both man and the inferior animals.
+Boussingault states that horses, sheep, and pigs exhale nitrogen.
+A cow, giving milk, on which he had experimented, lost 15 per cent.
+of the nitrogen of its food by perspiration. The amount of nitrogen
+which Reiset states that sheep exhale is exceedingly great, and it
+is difficult to reconcile his results with those obtained by Voit,
+Bischoff, Regnault, Pettenkofer, and Haughton. Of course, men and sheep
+are widely different animals; but still it is unlikely that all the
+nitrogen of the food of man should be recoverable in his egesta, whilst
+nearly a third of the nitrogen of the food of the sheep should be
+dissipated as gas. I think further experiments are necessary before this
+point can be regarded as settled; and it is probable that it will yet be
+found that all, or nearly all, of the nitrogen of the food of animals is
+recoverable in their egesta.
+</p>
+<p>
+Regarding, then, an animal as a mechanism by which meat is to be
+"manufactured," five economic points in relation to it demand the
+feeder's attention: these are&mdash;the first cost of the mechanism, the
+expense of maintaining the mechanism in working order, the price of
+the raw materials intended for conversion into meat, the value of the
+meat, and the value of the manure. In proportion to the attention given
+to these points, will be the feeder's profits; but they are, to some
+extent, affected by the climatic, geographic, and other conditions under
+which the farm is placed.
+</p>
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<a name="note-1"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-1">1</a>)
+If the elements were only capable of combining with each
+other in simple ratios, the number of their combinations would be as
+limited as that of the letters of the alphabet; but as one, two, or
+more atoms of oxygen can combine with one, two, or more atoms of
+other elements, we can assign no limits to the number of <i>possible</i>
+combinations. There are hundreds of distinct substances formed of but
+two elements, namely, hydrogen and carbon.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-2"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-2">2</a>)
+In a paper by Professor Sullivan, of Dublin, the conversion
+of one of these substances into another <i>outside</i> the animal mechanism,
+is almost incontrovertibly proved.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-3"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-3">3</a>)
+<i>Experimental Inquiry into the Composition of some of
+the Animals Fed and Slaughtered as Human Food.</i> By John Bennet Lawes,
+F.R.S., F.C.S., and Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D., F.C.S. <i>Philosophical
+Transactions of the Royal Society.</i> Part II., 1860.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-4"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-4">4</a>)
+From the Greek <i>plasso</i>, "to form." Plastic materials are
+sometimes termed <i>formative</i> elements; both terms imply the belief that
+they are capable of giving shape, or form, not only to themselves, but
+also to other kinds of matter not possessed of formative power.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-5"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-5">5</a>)
+The slow conversion of phosphorus into phosphoric acid
+takes place in the animal organism; its gradual oxidation in the open
+air gives rise only to an imperfectly oxidised body&mdash;<i>phosphorous acid</i>.
+But the latter fact does not invalidate the general proposition, that
+the heat emitted by a substance undergoing the process of oxidation is
+proportionate to the amount of oxygen with which it combines, and is not
+influenced by the length of time occupied by the process, further than
+this, that if the oxidation be <i>very</i> rapidly effected, a portion of the
+heat will be converted into an <i>equivalent</i> amount of light.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-6"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-6">6</a>)
+This statement is not absolutely correct, but the range
+of variation is confined within such narrow limits as to be quite
+insignificant.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-7"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-7">7</a>)
+Doubt has recently been thrown on the truth of this belief
+by Frankland, Fick, and Wislicenus.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-8"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-8">8</a>)
+The results of Savory's experiments on rats appear to prove
+that animals can live on food destitute of fat, sugar, starch, or any
+other fat-forming substance. I think, however, that animals could hardly
+thrive on purely nitrogenous food. The conclusions which certain late
+writers, who object to Liebig's theory of animal heat, have deduced from
+Savory's investigations, appear to me to be quite unfounded.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-9"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-9">9</a>)
+So termed because it is the basis of the common oils; the
+fluid portion of fat is composed of oleine.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-10"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-10">10</a>)
+The term <i>dry</i> is applied to the <i>solid</i> constituents of
+the food. Thus, a pig fed with 100 lbs. of potatoes would be said to
+have been supplied with 25 lbs. of dry potatoes, because water forms
+75 per cent. of the weight of those tubers.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-11"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-11">11</a>)
+The amounts of "mineral matter" are too high, owing to the
+adventitious matters (dirt) retained by the wool.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-12"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-12">12</a>)
+This pig was completely analysed by Lawes and Gilbert.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-13"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-13">13</a>)
+The results of recent and accurately conducted
+investigations prove that men engaged in occupations requiring the
+highest exercise of the intellectual faculties, require more nutritious
+food, and even a greater quantity of nutriment, than the hardest worked
+laborers, such as paviours, and navvies. I have been assured by an
+extensive manufacturer, that on promoting his workmen to situations of
+<i>greater</i> responsibility but <i>less</i> physically laborious than those
+previously filled by them, he found that they required more food and
+that, too, of a better quality. This change in their appetite was
+not the result of increased wages, which in most cases remained the
+same&mdash;the decrease in the amount of labour exacted being considered in
+most cases a sufficient equivalent for the increased responsibility
+thrown upon them.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-14"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-14">14</a>)
+As ammonia, urea, uric acid, or hippuric acid; all of which
+are nearly or perfectly mineralised substances.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-15"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-15">15</a>)
+The excrements of animals are capable of evolving, by
+combustion, enormous amounts of heat.
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page47" name="page47"></a>[47]</span></p>
+
+<a name="h2H_4_0006" id="h2H_4_0006"><!-- H2 anchor --></a>
+
+<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+<h2>
+    PART II.
+</h2>
+<h3>
+    ON THE BREEDING AND BREEDS OF STOCK.
+</h3>
+<h4>
+SECTION I.
+</h4>
+<h5>
+THE BREEDING OF STOCK.
+</h5>
+<p>
+<i>Cross Breeding.</i>&mdash;For many years past feeders have zealously occupied
+themselves in the improvement of their stock, and the result of their
+labors is observable in the marked superiority of the breeds of the
+present day over their ancestors in the last century. The improvement
+of animals designed as food for man is effected by keeping them on a
+liberal dietary, by selecting only the best individuals for sires and
+dams, and by combining the excellencies of two or more varieties of a
+species in one breed. A species consists of a number of animals which
+exhibit so many points of resemblance, that they are regarded by the
+great majority of naturalists to be the descendants of a single pair.
+If we except the believers in the hypotheses relative to the origin
+of existing varieties of animals and plants, propounded by Lamarck,
+Darwin, and other naturalists of the "advanced school," there is a
+general belief in the immutability of species. The individuals of an
+existing species, say dogs, can never acquire the peculiar features
+of another species; nor can their descendants, if we except hybrids,
+ever become animals in which the characteristics of the dog tribe are
+irrecognisable. By various influences, such as, for example, differences
+in food and climate, and domestication, a species may be split into
+<i>varieties</i>, or <i>breeds</i>, all of which, however, retain the more
+important characteristics
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page48" name="page48"></a>[48]</span>
+
+                          of the primordial type. There appears to be
+no limit to the varieties of dogs, yet one can perceive by a glance that
+there is no specific difference between the huge Mont St. Bernard dog
+and the diminutive poodle, or between the sparse greyhound and the burly
+mastiff. All the varieties of our domestic fowl have been traced to
+a common origin&mdash;the wild Indian fowl (<i>Gallus bankiva</i>). Even Darwin
+admits that all the existing kinds of horses are, in all probability,
+the descendants of an original stock; and it is generally agreed that
+the scores of varieties of pigeons own a common ancestor in the rock
+pigeon (<i>Columba livia</i>).
+</p>
+<p>
+As certain individuals are grouped by naturalists into species, so
+particular species, which in habits and general appearance resemble each
+other, are arranged under the head of genus. The horse, the ass, and the
+zebra are formed on nearly the same anatomical plan; they are therefore
+classed together, and designated the genus <i>Equus</i>, a term derived from
+the Latin word <i>equus</i>, a horse&mdash;that animal being regarded as the type,
+or perfect member of the group. Thus the horse, in the nomenclature of
+the naturalist, is termed <i>Equus caballus</i>; the ass, <i>Equus asinus</i>; and
+the zebra, <i>Equus zebra</i>. By a further extension of this principle of
+classification, very closely allied genera are united under the term
+of <i>family</i>.
+</p>
+<p>
+The different varieties of the same species breed, as might be
+anticipated, freely together; but it frequently happens that two
+individuals of different species pair, and produce an animal which
+inherits some of the properties of each of its progenitors. These
+half-breeds are termed <i>hybrids</i>, or <i>mules</i>, and we have familiar
+examples of them in the common mule and the jennet. As a general rule,
+animals exhibit a disinclination to breed with other than members of
+their own species; and although the interference of man may overcome
+this natural repugnance, he can only effect the fruitful congress of
+individuals belonging to closely allied species, being members of the
+same genus. Hybrids in the genus <i>Equus</i> are very common. A cross has
+been produced between the he-goat and
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page49" name="page49"></a>[49]</span>
+
+                                      the ewe; the camel and the
+dromedary have bred together; and Buffon succeeded in producing a hybrid
+in which three animals were represented&mdash;namely, the bison, the zebu,
+and the ox. On the other hand, attempts to effect a cross between
+animals belonging to different families have generally failed; nor is
+it at all probable that a cross will ever be produced between the pig
+and the sheep, between the horse and the cow, or, most unlikely of all,
+between the dog and the cat.
+</p>
+<p>
+It is the general belief that hybrids are sterile, or, at least, that
+they are incapable of propagation <i>inter se</i>. This may be true with
+respect to the hybrids of species not very closely allied; but that
+there are exceptions to the rule is quite clear from Roux's experiments
+with hares and rabbits. This gentleman, who is, or was, the president
+of a French agricultural society, but who makes no profession of
+scientific knowledge, has succeeded, after several failures, in producing
+a fruitful cross between the rabbit and the hare. This hybrid has
+received the name of leporide (from the Latin <i>leporinus</i>, pertaining to
+a hare), and it is different from former crosses, in being five parts
+hare, and three parts rabbit. M. Roux has bred this hybrid during the
+last eighteen years, and has not observed the slightest appearance
+of decay of race manifest itself up to the present, so that, for all
+practical purposes, the leporide may be regarded as an addition to the
+distinct species of animals. The leporide fattens rapidly, and with but
+little expenditure of food. Sold at the age of four months, it realises,
+in France, a price four times greater than that commanded by a rabbit of
+the same age; and at a year old it weighs on an average ten pounds, and
+sometimes as much as sixteen pounds. It breeds at four months, continues
+thirty days in gestation, and yearly produces five or six litters of
+from five to eight young. To produce this hybrid is by no means
+difficult. A leveret, just old enough to dispense with the maternal
+nutriment, should be placed with a few doe rabbits of his own age,
+apart from other animals. He will soon become familiar with the does,
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page50" name="page50"></a>[50]</span>
+
+ and when they attain the age of puberty, all the rabbits save one or two
+should be removed. Speedily those left with the hare will become with
+young, upon which they should be removed, and replaced by others. After
+this the hare should be kept in a hutch by himself, and a doe left with
+him at night only. As the hare is naturally a very shy animal, it will
+only breed when perfect quietness prevails. The half-bred produced in
+the first instance should now be put to the hare, and a cross, three
+parts hare, and one part rabbit, obtained. The permanent breed should
+then be obtained by crossing the quadroon doe leporide, if I may use the
+term, with the half-bred buck.
+</p>
+<p>
+I have directed attention to the production of the leporide because
+I believe that the problems in relation to it, which have been solved
+by M. Roux, have an important bearing upon the breeding of animals
+of greater importance than hares and rabbits. Here we find a race of
+animals produced by the fusion of two species, which naturally exist in
+a state of mutual enmity, and which differ in many important respects.
+The hare and the rabbit are respectively of but little value as food, at
+least they are of no importance to the feeder; yet a cross between them
+turns out to be an excellent meat-producing animal, which may be reared
+with considerable profit to the feeder. It is thus clearly shown that
+two kinds of animals, neither of which is of great utility, may give
+rise to an excellent cross, if their blood, so to speak, be blended in
+proper proportions. A half-bred animal may be less valuable than its
+parents, but a quadroon may greatly excel its progenitors. The goat
+and sheep are so closely related that they are classed by naturalists
+under one head&mdash;<i>Capridæ</i>. Some kinds of sheep have hair like goats, and
+certain varieties of goats have fleeces that closely resemble those on
+the sheep. There are sheep with horns, and goats without those striking
+appendages. The Cape of Good Hope goat might easily be mistaken for a
+sheep. It would seem, judging by the results of Roux's experiments, that
+there is no great difficulty in the way of obtaining a cross between the
+sheep
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page51" name="page51"></a>[51]</span>
+
+      and the goat. I do not mean an ordinary half-breed, but a prolific
+hybrid similar to the leporide. Of course, it is impossible, <i>a priori</i>,
+to say whether or not such a hybrid race, supposing it produceable,
+would be valuable; but as goats can find a subsistence on mountains
+where sheep would starve, it is possible that an animal, essentially a
+sheep, but with a streak of goat blood in it, could be profitably kept
+on very poor uplands. Whether a race of what we might term <i>caprides</i> be
+formed or not we have derived most suggestive information from M. Roux's
+experiments, which I hope may be turned to account in what is by far the
+most important field of enquiry, the judicious crossing of varieties of
+the same species.
+</p>
+<p>
+It is a <i>quæstio vexata</i> whether or not the parents generally exercise
+different influences upon the shape and size of their offspring. Mr.
+Spooner supports the supposition&mdash;a very popular one&mdash;that the sire
+gives shape to the external organs, whilst the dam affects the internal
+organisation. I have considerable doubt as to the probability of this
+theory. The children who spring from the union of a white man with a
+negress possess physical and intellectual qualities which are nearly if
+not quite the <i>mean</i> of their parents; but the offspring of parents,
+both of the same race&mdash;be it Caucasian, Mongolian, or Indian&mdash;frequently
+conform, intellectually and corporeally, to either of their progenitors.
+Thus, of the children of a tall, thin, dark man, and a short, fat,
+fair woman, some will be like their father, and the others will
+resemble their mother, or, perhaps, all may "take after" either parent.
+Sometimes a child appears to be in every respect unlike its parents,
+and occasionally the likeness of an ancestor appears in a descendant, in
+whom no resemblance to his immediate progenitors can be detected. It is
+highly probable that both parents exercise, under most circumstances, a
+joint influence upon the qualities of their offspring, but that one of
+them may produce so much greater an effect that the influence of the
+other is not recognisable, except perhaps to a very close observer. But
+I doubt very much that any particular organ of the offspring is, as a
+rule, more liable to the
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page52" name="page52"></a>[52]</span>
+
+                         influence of the sire than of the dam, or <i>vice
+versâ</i>; and the breeder who believes that the sire alone is concerned in
+moulding the external form of the offspring, and who consequently pays
+no attention to this point in the dam, will often find himself out in
+his reckonings. In order to be certain of a satisfactory result, the dam
+should in every respect be equal to the sire. In practice, however, this
+is not always the case, for as sires are so few as compared with the
+number of dams, the greatest efforts have been directed towards the
+improvement of the former.
+</p>
+<p>
+There is, or ought to be, a familiar maxim with breeders, that "like
+begets like, or the likeness of an ancestor." This is a "wise saw," of
+which there are many "modern instances:" the excellencies or defects of
+sire or dam are certain to be transmitted through several generations,
+though they may not appear in all. As a general rule, good animals will
+produce a good, and defective animals a defective, offspring, but it
+sometimes happens that a bull or cow, of the best blood, is decidedly
+inferior, whilst really good animals are occasionally the produce of
+parents of "low degree." If the defects or excellencies of animals were
+ineradicable there would be no need for the science of breeding; but by
+the continual selection of only the most superior animals for breeding
+purposes the defects of a species gradually disappear, and the good
+qualities are alone transmitted. As, however, animals that are used as
+food for man are to some extent in an abnormal condition, the points
+which may be excellencies in that state, would not have been such in the
+original condition of the animal. We find, therefore, that the improved
+breeds of oxen and sheep exhibit some tendency to revert to their
+original condition, and it is only by close attention to the diet,
+breeding, and general management of these animals that this tendency can
+be successfully resisted. Sometimes, however, an animal of even the best
+breed will "return to nature," or will acquire some undesirable quality;
+such an animal should be rejected for breeding purposes, for its defects
+would in all probability be transmitted to its descendants,
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page53" name="page53"></a>[53]</span>
+
+                                                            near or
+remote. A case, which admirably illustrates this point, is recorded in
+the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> for 1813, and it is sufficiently
+interesting to be mentioned here:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    Seth Wright, who possessed a small farm on the Charles River,
+    about sixteen miles from Boston, had a small flock, consisting
+    of fifteen ewes and one ram. One of these ewes, in 1791, produced
+    a singular-shaped male lamb. Wright was advised to kill his former
+    ram and keep this new one in place of it; the consequence was, the
+    formation of a new breed of sheep, which gradually spread over a
+    considerable part of New England, but the introduction of the Merino
+    has nearly destroyed them again. This new variety was called the
+    Otter, or "Ankon" breed. They are remarkable for the shortness of
+    their legs, and the crookedness of their forelegs, like an elbow.
+    They are much more feeble and much smaller than the common sheep,
+    and less able to break over low fences; and this was the reason
+    of their being continued and propagated.
+</p>
+<p>
+Here we have an instance of an animal propagating a defect through
+a great number of descendants, though it had not acquired it from
+its own ancestors. It is, however, probable that occasionally a male
+descendant of this short-legged ram possessed considerably longer organs
+of locomotion than the founder of his breed; and, consequently, if
+selected for breeding purposes might become the founder of a long-legged
+variety, in which, however, a couple of pairs of short-legs would
+occasionally present themselves. I have a notion that the higher animals
+are in the scale of being, the greater is their tendency to transmit
+their acquired good or bad habits to their posterity. Dogs are, perhaps,
+the most intelligent of the inferior animals, and it is well known
+that they transmit to their offspring their acquired as well as their
+natural habits. I doubt very much that those most stupid of creatures,
+guinea-pigs, possess this property in any sensible degree; or, indeed,
+that like the canine tribe, they can be readily made to acquire
+artificial peculiarities: but there once flourished a "learned pig,"
+and it would be worth inquiring whether or not its descendants, like the
+descendants of the trained setter, and pointer, were at all benefited by
+the education of their ancestor. I shall
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page54" name="page54"></a>[54]</span>
+
+                                         conclude this part of my subject
+in the words of Professor Tanner: "In all cases where the breed has been
+carefully preserved pure, great benefit will result from doing so. The
+character of a breed becomes more and more concentrated and confirmed in
+a pedigree animal, and this character is rendered more fully hereditary
+in proportion to the number of generations through which it has been
+transmitted. By the aid of pedigree, purity of blood may be insured, and
+a systematic plan adopted by which we can perpetuate distinct families,
+and thereby obtain a change of blood without its being a cross. It is
+evident that any one adopting a systematic arrangement will be able to
+do this more effectually than another without this aid. This is the more
+important when the number of families is small, as is the case with
+Devons and Herefords, especially the former. The individual animals from
+which the Devons are descended are very limited in number, and in a few
+hands; but, with some honourable exceptions, little attention is given
+to this point. The importance is rendered evident by the decreasing size
+of the breed, the number of barren heifers, and the increased delicacy
+of constitution shown in the stock of many breeders of that district who
+are not particular in this respect. The contrast between such herds,
+and those in which more care and judgment are exercised, renders the
+advantages of attention to pedigree very evident; for here the strength
+of constitution is retained, together with many of the advantages of
+this valuable breed."
+</p>
+<h4>
+SECTION II.
+</h4>
+<h5>
+THE BREEDS OF STOCK.
+</h5>
+<p>
+The nature of the animal determines, as I have already stated, the
+proportion of its food carried off in its increase; but this point is
+also greatly influenced by its <i>variety</i>, or
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page55" name="page55"></a>[55]</span>
+
+                                             <i>breed</i>. Certain breeds
+which have for a long period been kept on bulky food, and obliged
+to roam in quest of it, appear to have acquired a normal tendency to
+<i>leanness</i>. No doubt, if they were supplied with highly nutritious
+food for many successive generations, these breeds might eventually
+exhibit as great a tendency to fatten as they now do to remain in a
+lean condition. As it is, the horned cattle of Kerry, Wales, and some
+other regions, rarely become fat, no matter how abundantly they may be
+supplied with fattening food. On the other hand, the Herefords, but more
+especially the Shorthorns, exhibit a natural disposition to obesity, and
+such animals alone should be stall-fed. It is noteworthy that animals
+which are naturally disposed to yield abundance of milk are often the
+best adapted for fattening; but it would appear that the continuous
+use of highly fattening food, and the observance of the various other
+conditions in the <i>forcing</i> system, diminish the activity of the lacteal
+secretion, and increase the tendency to fatness in the races of the
+bovine tribe. The Shorthorns were at one time famous for their milking
+capabilities, but latterly their galactophoric reputation has greatly
+declined. Still I am disposed to believe, that if some of those animals
+were placed under conditions favorable to the improvement of dairy
+stock, herds of Shorthorn milch cows could be obtained which would vie
+in their own line with the famous fat-disposed oxen of the same breed.
+</p>
+<p>
+In sheep the tendency to early maturity and to fatten is greatly
+influenced by the breed. The Leicester, even when kept on inferior
+pasture, fattens so rapidly that in eighteen months it is fit for the
+butcher; whilst the Merino, though supplied with excellent herbage, must
+be preserved for nearly four years before it is ready for the shambles.
+The crossing of good herds has resulted in the development of numerous
+varieties, all remarkable for their aptitude to fatten and to arrive
+early at maturity. The Leicester&mdash;itself supposed to be a cross&mdash;has
+greatly improved the Lincoln, and the Hampshire and Southdown have
+produced an excellent cross. Of
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page56" name="page56"></a>[56]</span>
+
+                                course, each breed and cross has its
+admirers; indeed, the differences of opinion which prevail in relation
+to the relative merits of the Lincoln and the Leicester&mdash;the Southdown
+and the Shropshiredown&mdash;the Dorset and the Somerset&mdash;occasionally
+culminate into newspaper controversies of an exceedingly ascerb
+character. There is no doubt but that particular breeds of sheep
+thrive in localities and under conditions which are inimical to other
+varieties; but still it is equally evident that, <i>cæteris paribus</i>, one
+kind of sheep will store up in its increase a larger proportion of its
+food than another kind, and will arrive earlier at maturity. It is the
+knowledge of this fact which has led to the great estimation in which
+are held some half-dozen out of the numerous breeds and cross-breeds
+of that animal. In 1861 an interesting experiment was made by the
+Parlington Farmers' Club with the object of testing the relative merits
+of several varieties of sheep. The results are shown in the tables:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Relative merits of sheep varieties, Table 1">
+
+<tr><td colspan="14" class="table-title">TABLE I.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th rowspan="2">Description of Class of Sheep.</th>
+<th rowspan="2" colspan="2">Live Weight of Six Wethers when Shorn, 26th Feburary, 1862.</th>
+<th rowspan="2" colspan="2">Weight of Mutton when slaughtered.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Weight of Tallow.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Weight of Wool.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Weight of Pelts.</th>
+<th colspan="6">Weights gained during the time of Feeding from the 11th November, 1861, to 14th February, 1862.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th colspan="2">In Live Weight.</th>
+<th colspan="2">In Mutton.</th>
+<th colspan="2">In Wool.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<th>st.</th>
+<th>lb.</th>
+<th>st.</th>
+<th>lb.</th>
+<th>lb.</th>
+<th>lb.</th>
+<th>lb.</th>
+<th>st.</th>
+<th>lb.</th>
+<th>st.</th>
+<th>lb.</th>
+<th>lb.</th>
+<th>oz.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Cross from
+            the Teeswater </td><td> 85 </td><td> 3 </td><td>  53 </td><td> 1 </td><td>    106 </td><td>    43 </td><td>    85</td><td> 13 </td><td> 7 </td><td>  8 </td><td>  6 </td><td>  14 </td><td> 5 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  North Sheep     </td><td> 83 </td><td>12 </td><td>  53 </td><td>12 </td><td>     96 </td><td>43&frac12; </td><td>    83</td><td> 12 </td><td>11 </td><td>  8 </td><td>  3 </td><td>  14 </td><td> 8 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Lincolns        </td><td> 92 </td><td> 1 </td><td>  59 </td><td>12 </td><td>    105 </td><td>    66 </td><td>   103</td><td> 16 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 10 </td><td>  7 </td><td>  22 </td><td> 0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  South Downs     </td><td> 71 </td><td> 0 </td><td>  47 </td><td> 7 </td><td> 97&frac14; </td><td>    28 </td><td>65&frac34;</td><td> 11 </td><td>13 </td><td>  8 </td><td>  0 </td><td>   9 </td><td> 5 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Shropshire Downs</td><td> 85 </td><td> 6 </td><td>  53 </td><td> 1 </td><td>    103 </td><td>42&frac12; </td><td>    91</td><td> 15 </td><td>11 </td><td>  9 </td><td> 12 </td><td>  14 </td><td> 3 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Leicesters      </td><td> 80 </td><td> 9 </td><td>  53 </td><td> 4 </td><td> 90&frac12; </td><td>    44 </td><td>78&frac12;</td><td> 14 </td><td>10 </td><td>  9 </td><td> 10 </td><td>  14 </td><td>11 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">  Cotswolds       </td><td> 76 </td><td> 5 </td><td>  47 </td><td> 6 </td><td>     79 </td><td>    54 </td><td>    90</td><td> 12 </td><td> 6 </td><td>  7 </td><td> 11 </td><td>  18 </td><td> 0 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page57" name="page57"></a>[57]</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Relative merits of sheep varieties, Table 2">
+
+<tr><td colspan="20" class="table-title">TABLE II.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th rowspan="2">Description of Sheep.</th>
+<th colspan="8">Value of the preceding Mutton and Wool so gained.</th>
+<th rowspan="2" colspan="2">Food consumed during time of feeding.</th>
+<th rowspan="2" colspan="3">Value of the Food, Calculating Turnips at 6s. 8d., and Cake at £10 10s. per ton.</th>
+<th rowspan="2" colspan="3">Value of the Mutton and Wool.</th>
+<th rowspan="2" colspan="3">Value of Food deducted from Value of Mutton and Wool, showing real value of the different sheep.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th colspan="4">Price of the Mutton.</th>
+<th colspan="4">Price of the Wool.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td>                    </td><th>p. lb.</th><td colspan="3"></td><th>p. lb.</th><td colspan="3"></td><th> Swd. Tnp. </th><th> Lnd. Cke. </th><td colspan="3"></td><td colspan="3"></td><td colspan="3"></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                    </td><td>d.    </td><td>  £  </td><td> s. </td><td>d.     </td><td>  d.    </td><td> £ </td><td> s.</td><td> d.    </td><td>  st. </td><td>  lb. </td><td>  £ </td><td> s.</td><td>  d.      </td><td>  £ </td><td>  s. </td><td>d.      </td><td>   £ </td><td>  s.</td><td>  d.        </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Teeswater, Cross  </td><td>6     </td><td>  2  </td><td>19  </td><td>0      </td><td> 18     </td><td> 1 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 6     </td><td>  978 </td><td>  300 </td><td>  3 </td><td> 8 </td><td> 10&frac12;   </td><td>  4 </td><td>  0  </td><td>    6   </td><td>   0 </td><td> 11 </td><td>  7         </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  North Shropshire  </td><td>6     </td><td>  2  </td><td>17  </td><td>6      </td><td> 17&frac12; </td><td> 1 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 1&#190; </td><td>  914 </td><td>  300 </td><td>  3 </td><td> 6 </td><td>  2&frac12;   </td><td>  3 </td><td> 18  </td><td>7&#190;   </td><td>   0 </td><td> 12 </td><td>  5         </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Lincolnshire<sup><a name="noteref-16"><!--16--></a><a href="#note-16">16</a></sup>
+                            </td><td>5&#190; </td><td>  3  </td><td>10 </td><td> 5&frac14;  </td><td> 18     </td><td> 1 </td><td>13 </td><td> 0     </td><td>  936 </td><td>  363 </td><td>  3 </td><td>13 </td><td>  0&frac14;   </td><td>  5 </td><td>  3 </td><td> 5&frac14;   </td><td>   1 </td><td> 10 </td><td>  5         </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Southdowns        </td><td>6&frac12; </td><td>  3  </td><td> 0 </td><td> 8      </td><td> 17     </td><td> 0 </td><td>13 </td><td> 2&frac12; </td><td>  684 </td><td>  300 </td><td>  2 </td><td>16 </td><td>  7&frac12;   </td><td>  3 </td><td> 13 </td><td>10&frac12;   </td><td>   0 </td><td> 17 </td><td>  3         </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Shropshire        </td><td>6&frac14; </td><td>  3  </td><td>11 </td><td>10&frac12;  </td><td> 17&frac12; </td><td> 1 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 7&#190; </td><td>  924 </td><td>  300 </td><td>  3 </td><td> 6 </td><td>  7&#190;   </td><td>  4 </td><td> 12 </td><td> 6&frac14;   </td><td>   1 </td><td>  5 </td><td> 10         </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Leicester         </td><td>5&#190; </td><td>  3  </td><td> 5 </td><td> 2      </td><td> 18     </td><td> 1 </td><td> 2 </td><td> 0     </td><td>  877 </td><td>  300 </td><td>  3 </td><td> 4 </td><td>  8       </td><td>  4 </td><td>  7 </td><td>     2   </td><td>   1 </td><td>  2 </td><td>  6         </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">  Cotswolds         </td><td>6     </td><td>  2  </td><td>14 </td><td> 6      </td><td> 18     </td><td> 1 </td><td> 7 </td><td> 0     </td><td>  926 </td><td>  300 </td><td>  3 </td><td> 6 </td><td>  8&frac12;   </td><td>  4 </td><td>  1 </td><td>     6   </td><td>   0 </td><td> 14 </td><td>  9&frac12;     </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+These results, taken with the customary <i>grain of salt</i>, tell well for
+the improved Lincoln; they also clearly show the aptitude to fatten,
+without much loss in offal, of the Leicester;<sup><a name="noteref-17"><!--17--></a><a href="#note-17">17</a></sup> and they commend to the
+lover of good mutton the Shropshire and South-Downs.
+</p>
+<p>
+In the sixteenth volume of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society
+of England, Mr. Lawes gives some valuable information relative to the
+comparative fattening qualities of different breeds of sheep. The
+following table, on this author's authority, shows the average food
+consumed in producing 100 lbs. increase in live weight:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page58" name="page58"></a>[58]</span></p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average food consumed to produce 100 lbs. increase in live weight.">
+
+<tr><th>  Breed.                     </th><th>Oil Cake.   </th><th>Clover.     </th><th>Swedes.       </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">Sussex             </td><td>297&frac14; </td><td>285&frac12; </td><td>3·835&#190;   </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Hampshire          </td><td>291&frac12; </td><td>261&frac14; </td><td>3·966&#190;   </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Cross-bred Wethers </td><td>264&frac12; </td><td>251&#190;   </td><td>3·725&frac14; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Do.    Ewes    </td><td>263&frac12; </td><td>250&frac14; </td><td>3·671         </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Leicesters         </td><td>263&#190;   </td><td>251&frac14; </td><td>3·761         </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Cotswolds          </td><td>253&frac12; </td><td>216&#190;   </td><td>3·557&frac12; </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+Some breeds are profitably kept in certain localities, where other kinds
+would not pay so well: for example, the Devons, according to Mr. Smith,
+are better adapted than larger breeds for "converting the produce of
+cold and hilly pastures into meat." It is remarkable that nearly all the
+best existing breeds of oxen and sheep are crosses. Major Rudd states
+that the dam of Hubback, the famous founder of pure improved Shorthorns,
+owed her propensity to fatten to an admixture of Kyloe blood, and also
+that the sire of Hubback had a stain of Alderney, or Normandy blood.
+Although the Rudd account of the ancestry of Hubback is not accepted by
+all the historians of this splendid breed of cattle, there is no doubt
+but that the breed owes its origin as much to judicious crossing as to
+careful selection of sires and dams. It must not, however, be imagined
+that there are no good pure races of stock. There is a perfectly pure,
+but now scarce, tribe of Kerry oxen, admirably adapted to poor uplands.
+The excellent Southdown sheep, though in every respect immensely
+superior to their ancestors in the last century, have not attained to
+their present superior state by crossing. The high value placed by
+breeders upon good sires and dams in the approved breeds of stock is
+shown by the large sums which they frequently realise at sales, or when
+the former are let out for service. Bakewell received in one season for
+the use of a ram 400 guineas each from two breeders, and they did not
+retain the animal during the whole season. Several hundred guineas have
+lately been more than once paid for a celebrated tup. Colonel Towneley's
+Shorthorn bull, Master Butterfly, was, not long since, disposed of to an
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page59" name="page59"></a>[59]</span>
+
+ Australian buyer for £1,260. At the sale of Mr. Bates's stock in 1850,
+a stock of Shorthorns, including calves, brought on the average £116 5s.
+per head. At the Earl Ducie's sale in 1852, a three year old
+cow&mdash;Duchess&mdash;realised 700 guineas.
+</p>
+<p>
+The color of an animal is, to some extent, a criterion of the purity
+of its breed. Roan is a favourite hue with the breeders of Shorthorns.
+There have been celebrated sires and dams of that breed perfectly white;
+but that color, or rather absence of color, is now somewhat unpopular,
+partly from the idea that it is a sign of weakness of constitution&mdash;a
+notion for which there appears to me to be no foundation in fact.
+The slightest spot of black, or even a very dark shade, is regarded
+to be a blemish of the most serious kind when observed on the pelt
+of a Shorthorn. The Herefords are partly white, partly red; the Devon
+possesses in general a deep red hue; the Suffolks are usually of a dun
+or faint reddish tint; the Ayrshires are commonly spotted white and red;
+and the Kerrys are seen in every shade between a jet black and a deep
+red. Uniformity in color would be most desirable in the case of each
+variety, and this object could easily be attained if breeders devoted
+some attention to it.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>The Form of Animals.</i>&mdash;The functions of an animal are arranged by
+Bichat, an eminent physiologist, into two classes&mdash;those relating to
+its nutrition, and those exhibited by its muscular and mental systems.
+The first class of functions comprise the <i>vegetative</i>, or organic life
+of the animal, and the second class constitute its <i>relative</i> life.
+Adopting this arrangement, we may say, then, that those animals in which
+the vegetative life is far more energetic than the relative life are
+best suited for the purposes of the feeder. In tigers, wolves, and dogs
+the relative life predominates over the vegetative; the muscles are
+almost constantly in a high degree of tension, and the processes of
+nutrition are in constant requisition to supply the waste of muscle.
+On the
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page60" name="page60"></a>[60]</span>
+
+       other hand, in oxen, sheep, and pigs, at least when in a state
+of domesticity, the muscles are not highly developed; they do not
+largely tax the vegetative processes, and, consequently, the substances
+elaborated under the influence of the vegetative life rapidly increase.
+The form of an animal is therefore mainly determined by the activity of
+its relative life. In a greyhound, the nervous power of which is highly
+developed, the muscles are large and well-knit, the stomach, intended
+for the reception of concentrated nutriment only, is small, and the
+lungs are exceedingly capacious. In such an animal the arrangements for
+the rapid expenditure of nervous power must be perfect. It is not merely
+necessary that its muscles should be large and powerful, its lungs must
+also admit of deep inspirations of oxygen, whereby the motive power
+wielded by these muscles may be rapidly generated. Now, an animal
+exactly opposite in organisation to the greyhound would, according
+to theory, be just the kind to select for the production of meat.
+The greyhound and the horse expend all their food in the production
+of motive power; the ox and the sheep, being endowed with but a feeble
+muscular organisation, use a smaller proportion of their food for
+carrying on the functions of their relative life, consequently, the
+weight of their bodies is augmented by the surplus nutriment. It is
+clear, then, that an animal of a lymphatic temperament, an indolent
+disposition, a low degree of nervous power, and a tendency to rapid
+growth, is the <i>beau ideal</i> of a "meat-manufacturing machine." Now, as
+the larger the lungs of an animal are, the greater is its capacity for
+"burning," or consuming its tissues, one might suppose that small lungs
+would be a <i>desideratum</i> in an ox, or other animal destined for the
+shambles. This appears to be Liebig's opinion, for in one of his
+books he states that "a narrow chest (small lungs) is considered by
+experienced agriculturists a sure sign, in pigs, for example, of easy
+fattening; and the same remark applies to cows, in reference to the
+produce of milk&mdash;that is, of butter." On this subject Professor Tanner
+makes the following remarks,
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page61" name="page61"></a>[61]</span>
+
+                             in his excellent Essay on Breeding and
+Rearing Cattle:<sup><a name="noteref-18"><!--18--></a><a href="#note-18">18</a></sup>&mdash;"In our high-bred animals we find a small liver
+and a small lung, accompanied with a gentle and peaceful disposition.
+Now, these conditions, which are so desirable for producing fat, are
+equally favorable for yielding butter. The diminished organs economise
+the consumption of the carbonaceous matters in the blood, hence, more
+remains for conversion into fat, but equally prepared for yielding
+cream, if the tendency of the animal is equally favorable to the same."
+One would imagine, from the foregoing passage, that Mr. Tanner and Baron
+Liebig coincided in believing small lungs necessary to rapid fattening;
+but in another part of his essay, Tanner thus describes one of the
+points indicative of a tendency to fatten early:&mdash;"The chest should be
+bold and prominent, wide and deep, furnished with a deep but not coarse
+dewlap." On comparing the two passages which I have quoted from Tanner's
+essay, a contradiction is apparent. Mr. Bowly, Major Rudd, and other
+eminent breeders and feeders, appear to regard a capacious chest as the
+best sign of a fattening property which an animal could show. Lawes and
+Gilbert have recorded the weights of the viscera of a number of animals
+which, though supplied with equal quantities of the same kind of food,
+attained to different degrees of fatness. On carefully scrutinising
+these records, I failed to perceive any constant relation between the
+weight of their lungs and their tendency to fatten rapidly. Some animals
+with large lungs converted a larger proportion of their food into meat
+than others with smaller respiratory organs, and <i>vice versâ</i>. In a
+state of nature, there is no doubt but that the lungs of the ox and of
+the sheep are moderately large; and it is evident that in their case, as
+well as in that of man, over-feeding and confinement tend to diminish
+their muscular energy, and, of course, to decrease the capacity of the
+lungs. That such a practice does not tend to the improvement
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page62" name="page62"></a>[62]</span>
+
+           of the
+health of an animal is perfectly evident, but then the perfect ox of
+nature is very different from the perfect ox of man. The latter is
+a wide departure from the original type of its species: any marked
+development of its nervous system is undesirable; and it is valuable
+in proportion as its purely vegetative functions are most strongly
+manifested. A young bullock, therefore, of this kind would, no doubt,
+be the most economical kind to rear, provided that it was perfectly
+healthy, and capable of assimilating the liberal amount of food supplied
+to it. But it rarely happens that a young animal with a weakly chest
+turns out other than a scrofulous or otherwise diseased adult. On the
+whole, then, I am disposed to believe that whilst naturally small-lunged
+species may be more prone to fatten than large-chested ones, it is not
+the case that small-chested individuals fatten more rapidly than larger
+lunged individuals of the same kind.
+</p>
+<p>
+The conditions under which oxen, sheep, and pigs have been so long
+maintained in civilised countries, must have diminished the capacity of
+their chests in relation to other parts of their bodies; and it may be
+fairly doubted if any good could result by reducing to still smaller
+dimensions those most important organs. Probably the lungs and hearts of
+the improved breeds of stock are already too small, and that it is only
+the individuals which are least affected in this respect that answer to
+Mr. Bowly's description of a fat-disposed beast. Whether or not small
+lungs are desirable in a bullock or milch cow, it is certain that a ram
+or a bull should be possessed of a capacious chest, for otherwise he
+will have but little vigour, and will be likely to produce a weakly
+offspring. A sire should be a perfectly developed animal in every
+respect&mdash;sound lungs and heart, and not over fat. It is sufficient that
+it belongs to a good fattening breed; but to produce offspring with a
+tendency to fatness and early maturity, it is not necessary that the
+sire should himself be obese. It is to be regretted that so many sires
+of the Shorthorns and other improved varieties should be used for
+breeding purposes,
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page63" name="page63"></a>[63]</span>
+
+                   when their hearts and lungs have become, by
+over-feeding the animals, unfitted for the proper discharge of their
+function. The progeny of such sires must <i>naturally</i> inherit the
+<i>acquired taint</i> of their diseased progenitors, and prove weakly and
+unhealthy animals.
+</p>
+<p>
+With respect to the general outline structure of a bull, he should have
+a small, well-set head, rounded ribs, straight legs, small bones, and
+sound internal organs. The following are considered to be the best
+points in a Shorthorn bull:&mdash;A short and moderately small head, with
+tapering muzzle and broad forehead, furnished with short, white,
+curved, graceful looking horns; bright, yet mild, large eyes, placed in
+prominent orbits; dilated nostrils, and flesh-colored nose, and long,
+thin ears. The neck should be broad, deep, and muscular, sloping in a
+graceful line from the shoulder to the head. The chest should be wide,
+deep, projecting, but level in front. The shoulders should be oblique,
+the blades well set in towards the ribs. The forelegs should be stout,
+muscular above the knee, and slender below it; the hind legs should be
+slender to the hock, and from thence increase in thickness to the
+buttocks, which should be well developed. The carcass should be well
+rounded at each side, but level on the back and on the belly. There
+should be no hollows between the shoulder and the ribs, the line from
+the highest part of the shoulder to the insertion of the tail should be
+a perfect level. The flank should be full, the loins broad, and the tail
+finely formed and only partially covered with hair. The skin is a prime
+point: it must be covered with hair of a roan, or other <i>fashionable</i>
+color, and communicate to the hand of the experienced feeler, a peculiar
+sensation, which it is impossible to describe. With regard to this
+point, I cannot do better than quote the words of an experienced
+"handler":&mdash;
+</p>
+<p>
+"A nice or good judge of cattle or sheep, with a slight touch of the
+fingers upon the fatting points of the animal&mdash;viz., the hips, rump,
+ribs, flanks, breast, twist, shoulder score, &amp;c. will know immediately
+whether it will make fat or not, and in
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page64" name="page64"></a>[64]</span>
+
+                                        which part it will be the
+fattest. I have often wished to convey in language that idea or
+sensation we acquire by the touch or feel of our fingers, which enables
+us to form a judgment when we are handling an animal intended to be
+fatted, but I have as often found myself unequal to that wish. It is
+very easy to know where an animal is fattest which is already made fat,
+because we can evidently feel a substance or quantity of fat&mdash;all those
+parts which are denominated the fatting points; but the difficulty is to
+explain how we know or distinguish animals, in a lean state, which will
+make fat and which will not&mdash;or rather, which will make fat in such
+points or parts, and not in others&mdash;which a person of judgment (<i>in
+practice</i>) can tell, as it were, instantaneously. I say <i>in practice</i>,
+because I believe that the best judges <i>out of practice</i> are not able to
+judge with precision&mdash;at least, I am not. We say this beast <i>touches</i>
+nicely upon its ribs, hips, &amp;c., &amp;c., because we find a mellow, pleasant
+feel on those parts; but we do not say soft, because there are some of
+this same sort of animals which have a soft, loose handle, of which we
+do not approve, because, though soft and loose, have not the mellow feel
+above mentioned. For though they both handle soft and loose, yet we know
+that the one will make fat and the other will not; and in this lies the
+difficulty of the explanation. We clearly find a particular kindliness
+or pleasantness in the feel of the one much superior to the other, by
+which we immediately conclude that this will make fat, and the other not
+so fat; and in this a person of judgment, and <i>in practice</i>, is very
+seldom mistaken."
+</p>
+<p>
+In many respects the good points in a Shorthorn cow resemble those in
+the male of that breed, but in others there is considerable difference.
+As I have described in prose the excellencies which a bull should
+possess, I will now give a poetical summary of the good points of a cow
+of that breed, extracted from the <i>Journal of Agriculture</i>, and composed
+evidently by an excellent breeder and poet, Mr. Carr:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page65" name="page65"></a>[65]</span></p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i2">   The following features constitute, I trow, </p>
+<p class="i2">   The beau ideal of a short-horn cow:&mdash; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Frame massive, round, deep-barrell'd, and straight-back'd; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Hind quarters level, lengthy, and well pack'd; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Thighs wide, flesh'd inwards, plumb almost to hock; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Twist deep, conjoining thighs in one square block; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Loin broad and flat, thick flesh'd, and free from dip; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Back ribs "well home," arch'd even with the hip; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Hips flush with back, soft-cushion'd, not too wide; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Flanks full and deep, well forward on the side; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Fore ribs well-flesh'd, and rounded like a drum; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Fore flanks that even with the elbow come; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Crop "barrell'd" flush with shoulders and with side; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Girth large and round&mdash;not deep alone, but wide; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Shoulders sloped back, thick cover'd wide at chine; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Points snug, well-flesh'd, to dew-lap tapering fine; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Neck vein fill'd up to well-clothed shoulder-point; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Arm full above, turn'd in at elbow-joint; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Legs short and straight, fine boned 'neath hock and knee; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Belly cylindrical, from drooping free; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Chest wide between the legs, with downward sweep; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Brisket round, massive, prominent, and deep; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Neck fine at head, fast thickening towards its base; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Head small, scope wide, fine muzzle and dish'd face; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Eyes prominent and bright, yet soft and mild; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Horns waxy, clear, of medium size, unfiled; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Tail fine, neat hung, rectangular with back; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Hide soft, substantial, yielding, but not slack; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Hair furry, fine, thick set, of colour smart; </p>
+<p class="i2">   Udder well forward, with teats wide apart. </p>
+<p class="i2">   These points proportion'd well delight the eye </p>
+<p class="i2">   Of grazier, dairyman, and passer-by; </p>
+<p class="i2">   And these to more fastidious minds convey </p>
+<p class="i2">   Appearance stylish, feminine, and gay. </p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<i>Breeds of the Ox.</i>&mdash;The Shorthorned cattle are now generally regarded
+as the most valuable breed in these countries. They are the descendants
+of a short-horned breed of cattle which existed for centuries in the
+north-east of England. They were not held in much estimation, their
+flesh being coarse; but the cows of this breed yielded abundance of
+milk. In the eighteenth century
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page66" name="page66"></a>[66]</span>
+
+                                this breed, it is said, was greatly
+improved by a large infusion of blood from Dutch Shorthorns: but it is
+very doubtful that any such event took place, for during that period
+the importation of cattle into Great Britain was prohibited by very
+stringent laws. The present race of Shorthorns owe most of their
+valuable qualities to the brothers, Charles and Robert Colling, of the
+county of Durham. The former was the more successful breeder, and
+established the celebrated breed of Ketton Shorthorns. His whole process
+appears to have consisted in the careful selection of parents, and in
+"close" breeding. He must, however, have been an admirable judge of the
+good points of the ox, for beginning with animals not worth more on an
+average than £10 each, he produced in less than a quarter of a century
+a stock worth on the average £150 each. The most famous bull of Charles
+Colling's was Comet. The sale of this animal realised the handsome sum
+of 1,000 guineas. The bull Hubback is said by many writers to have been
+the great improver of Shorthorn blood. He was bought by Robert Colling
+for the trifling sum of £8; but although this animal was kept by both
+Collings for three years, there is good reason to believe that they made
+but little use of him. It would appear, indeed, that to the cows first
+used by the Collings&mdash;Lady Maynard, and young Strawberry&mdash;many of the
+good qualities of this breed are traceable. Shorthorns are now to be
+found in almost every part of the United Kingdom, capable of maintaining
+heavy stock. In Ireland the breed has been greatly improved, and it is
+gradually supplanting most of the other varieties.
+</p>
+<p>
+Shorthorn males have a short, wide head, covered very often with short
+curly hair; the muzzle is taper; the ear rather long and narrow; the eye
+large, and bright, and mild. The shape is symmetrical, the carcass deep,
+the back level, ribs spreading out widely, and the limbs fine. The color
+is a mixture of red and white, sometimes a rich roan. The females are
+not so large in the head, which tapers more, and the neck is much
+thinner.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page67" name="page67"></a>[67]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+The <span class="sc">Devons</span> are not so large as the Shorthorns. Their shape is
+symmetrical; fine head, horns of medium size, often tapering gracefully;
+rich red or orange red color; fore-quarters rather oblique. The meat of
+this breed is much esteemed: they yield excellent milk, but in rather
+limited quantity; and the bullocks answer the plough much better than
+many other kinds do. These animals arrive early at maturity.
+</p>
+<p>
+The <span class="sc">Herefords</span> are a rather small-boned breed; their horns are
+medium sized, straight or slightly curved upwards; their color is dark
+red; neat shoulders, thin thighs, and wide sirloin. They fatten well,
+but are not generally kept on dairy farms. In many respects they
+resemble the Devons.
+</p>
+<p>
+The <span class="sc">Ayrshires</span> have a tapering head, fine neck, and large, bony,
+but not coarse carcass; flat ribs; short and rather ugly horns; their
+skin is soft, and covered with hair, which is usually red and white in
+spots. The Ayrshire cows are invaluable for dairy purposes.
+</p>
+<p>
+The <span class="sc">Polled Angus</span>, <span class="sc">Polled Aberdeens</span>, and <span class="sc">Polled
+Galloways</span> are very large cattle, with big heads, unfurnished with
+horns. Their color is in general a decided black, but occasionally it
+exhibits a mixture of black and white. Their flesh is in general not of
+the best quality, but some of their crosses with Shorthorns yield
+excellent meat, and at an early age, too.
+</p>
+<p>
+The <span class="sc">Kyloes</span> are a breed peculiar to the Highlands of Scotland.
+They are rather rough, but very picturesque animals, covered with long,
+shaggy hair. Their horns are rather long, and curve upwards. Their hair
+is differently colored&mdash;red, yellow, dun, and black, the latter being
+the prevailing hue. No variety of the ox yields a sweeter meat than the
+Kyloes, and other mountain breeds of these countries. The animals,
+however, arrive slowly to maturity, and in this respect there is great
+room for improvement. These mountain-bred animals are now transferred
+in large numbers to lowland tillage farms, where the fattening process
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page68" name="page68"></a>[68]</span>
+
+ is more expeditiously performed. There are excellent crosses between
+Shorthorn bulls and Highland cows.
+</p>
+<p>
+<span class="sc">Longhorned Cattle</span> are rapidly advancing towards extinction. At one
+time they were the chief breed kept by most farmers. In general they may
+be regarded as an inferior variety, being slow feeders, and producing
+rather coarse beef. They are, however, capable of great improvement, as
+instanced in the case of Bakewell's celebrated Longhorn herds.
+</p>
+<p>
+The <span class="sc">Kerrys</span> are a diminutive breed, peculiar to Ireland. They
+have small heads, fine necks, fine horns of medium length, and curved
+upwards near their summits. They have a soft skin; the hair is generally
+black, interspersed with a few white streaks; sometimes their color is
+red, and occasionally brown. They are a very hardy race, being
+indigenous to mountains. Their flesh is very good, more especially if
+the animals have been kept on fattening food. The Kerrys are good milch
+cows.
+</p>
+<p>
+The <span class="sc">Alderneys</span> are a small race of oxen with deer-like faces.
+They exhibit various shades of red, white, brown, and roan. No cows
+yield better milk, or larger quantities of that fluid.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Sheep.</i>&mdash;The different breeds of sheep are classified under three
+heads&mdash;viz., <i>Long-woolled</i>, <i>Short-woolled</i>, and <i>Middle-woolled</i>.
+</p>
+<p>
+The <span class="sc">Leicester</span> is, perhaps, the most celebrated breed of sheep
+reared in these countries. It was immensely improved by Bakewell about a
+century ago, and the breed is often termed the Dishley, after the name
+of Bakewell's residence. This sheep has a wide, clean head, broad
+forehead, fine eyes, long, thin ears, thick neck, round body, deep
+chest, straight, broad back, high ribs, and muscular thighs. The wool is
+long, very thick, and fine. At from fifteen to eighteen months old, the
+Leicester weighs from 25 to 30 lbs. per quarter; but a fat animal often
+weighs from 38 to 40 lbs. per quarter. The fleece weighs from 6 to 8
+lbs. This breed is well adapted for Ireland. It is reared on very poor
+land: but in order to
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page69" name="page69"></a>[69]</span>
+
+                      maintain its good quality, this sheep requires
+abundance of food, and also good shelter during the winter.
+</p>
+<p>
+The <span class="sc">Lincoln</span> is distinguished for its large bones and strong
+muscles. Originally a gaunt and ugly animal, it has of late years been
+much improved. Indeed, the prices lately realised by Lincoln sheep are
+extremely high. The Lincoln has a long, white face, long body, and thick
+legs. The wool is long, thick, and moderately fine. The flesh of the
+Lincoln is lean, owing to its great muscular development. At fifteen
+months old it yields about 30 lbs. weight per quarter. It is said that a
+Lincoln wether has attained the weight of 304&frac12; lbs. The average
+weight of the wool of a hogget is 9&frac12; lbs.
+</p>
+<p>
+The <span class="sc">Cotswold</span> breed arose in the Cotswold hills, in
+Gloucestershire. In this variety the skeleton is large, the chest
+capacious, the back broad and straight, and the ribs well arched. It has
+good quarters, and a finely-arched neck. It is distinguished by a large
+tuft of wool&mdash;"fore-top," on the forehead. It fattens early, and
+produces about 25 lbs. per quarter when fifteen months old, and 40 lbs.
+when two years old. The wool is rather coarse; its yield is about 8 lbs.
+</p>
+<p>
+The <span class="sc">Cheviot</span> has a long body, long face, long legs, and long
+ears. The chest projects slightly, and is rather narrow. The forehead is
+bare of wool; the legs and face are white, sometimes approaching to a
+dun shade. Weight from 70 to 80 lbs.; weight of fleece, from 3 to 4 lbs.
+The wool is of excellent quality, and is used largely in the manufacture
+of tweeds. The Cheviot is a mountain sheep, and, as might be expected,
+its flesh is well flavored. There are several crosses of the Cheviot
+with the Leicester, the Southdown, and the Shropshire.
+</p>
+<p>
+The <span class="sc">Southdown</span> is generally regarded as the best breed for wool
+reared in these countries. It is indigenous to the chalk hills of Kent,
+Sussex, Hampshire, and Dorsetshire. It has a small head; its back is
+broad and straight; the ribs spring out at nearly right angles from the
+vertebræ. It is rather light in the fore-quarters, and full in the hind
+quarters.
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page70" name="page70"></a>[70]</span>
+
+          Its chest is pretty deep; its face and legs are grey or brown.
+The wool of the Southdown is short, and extremely fine; the fleece
+weighs about 3 lbs. This sheep arrives early at maturity. It weighs at
+15 months old about 80 lbs. The flesh is very well flavored.
+</p>
+<p>
+<span class="sc">The Shropshire</span> is said to combine in itself the good qualities
+of the Southdown, the Cotswold, and the Leicester. It resembles the
+Southdown more than any other breed, having the same grey, or brownish
+grey hue, and a similar shape. It is, however, larger than the
+Southdown, and yields a larger quantity of wool. This breed is becoming
+a great favorite in both England and Ireland.
+</p>
+<p>
+The <span class="sc">Black-Faced</span> sheep is peculiar to Scotland. It is equipped
+with horns, has a bold long face, and possesses a tuft of wool on its
+forehead; its limbs are strong, and its body is somewhat long. The wool
+of this breed is very coarse, the fleece weighs about 3&frac12; lbs. The
+average weight of this sheep is 75 lbs., the quality of the mutton is
+excellent, but it is long before it becomes matured. There are several
+other breeds of the sheep, but they are of far less importance than
+those which I have described.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Breeds of the Pig.</i>&mdash;There are several breeds of this useful animal, of
+which those known as <span class="sc">Berkshire</span> and <span class="sc">Yorkshire</span> appear to
+be the greatest favorites. The Berkshire is black or dusky brown, very
+rarely reddish brown. It has a very small head. Its sides are extremely
+deep, and its legs very short. There are several sub-varieties of the
+Yorkshire. This breed is white, has a compact body, and very broad
+sides. The head is very small, somewhat like that of the Berkshire. Both
+Berkshire and Yorkshire pigs attain to the enormous weight of 1,000 lbs.
+The old Irish "racer" pig is the least profitable kind to keep, but
+fortunately it is, as a pure breed, nearly extinct.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Breeds of the Horse.</i>&mdash;There are a great many breeds of horses. The
+Shetland pony is so small, that many specimens are no larger than a
+Newfoundland dog; on the other hand, Clydesdale horses sometimes attain
+to almost elephantine proportions.
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page71" name="page71"></a>[71]</span>
+
+                                  There is a wide difference between
+the bull-like Suffolk Punch and the greyhound-like <i>racer</i>. The English
+and Irish racer is said to owe its origin to a cross between the old
+English light-legged breed and the Arabian. The most valuable kind of
+carriage horse is the joint product of the draught-horse and the racer.
+The dray-horse of these countries has a large share of Flemish blood in
+him. The best horses for agricultural purposes are unquestionably the
+<span class="sc">Clydesdale</span> and the <span class="sc">Suffolk Punch</span>. The latter is
+perhaps to be preferred in most instances, especially on light lands.
+Very light and feeble horses are the most expensive variety on almost
+any kind of farm; for whilst they consume nearly as much food as the
+most powerful animals, and are therefore nearly as costly, they are
+incapable of effectively performing their work. A large proportion of
+the farm horses used by the small farmers of Ireland are totally
+unsuited for tillage purposes. On the other hand, there is no need to
+employ horses equal in size to the ponderous creatures that draw
+brewers' carts. Moderate sized horses, with well rounded, compact
+bodies, and muscular but not too heavy limbs, are the kind best adapted
+for farm purposes. In Ireland, where there are not fewer than 600,000
+horses, a considerable infusion of blood from Clydesdales and Suffolk
+Punches is much required.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Hunters and Racers.</i>&mdash;There is a strong tendency in the human mind to
+look with a regretful feeling to the past, and to compare it to the
+disadvantage of the present. It is a general belief with most people
+that the old time was the best time; that the seasons were more genial
+formerly; that provisions were cheaper and more abundant; that men were
+taller, and stouter, and healthier; that, in a word, everything was
+better in the days of yore than it is now, and that degeneracy and
+effeteness are the prevailing characteristics of our age. Philosophers,
+statists, and political economists tell us that all this regret for the
+"good old time" is mis-spent sympathy; for that we are in every respect
+superior&mdash;in physique, health, morals, and wealth&mdash;to our ancestors. On
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page72" name="page72"></a>[72]</span>
+
+ the whole, I rather incline myself to this comfortable philosophy; but
+we must admit that we have not progressed in all things since the times
+of our fathers.
+</p>
+<p>
+In a work entitled "A Comparative View of the Form and Character of the
+English Racer and Saddle Horse during the Last and Present Centuries,"
+published by Hookham, of Old Bond Street, London, it is proved very
+clearly that the English race-horse has sadly degenerated. The author
+very properly traces the cause of its decay to the avarice of the
+turfites: they look upon the noble animal as a mere gambling machine;
+and they sacrifice all its other qualities to the excessive development
+of that one which is likely to put money in their pockets. Formerly,
+gentlemen kept horses for their own sakes&mdash;for their admiration and
+enjoyment of one of the most beautiful, docile, and useful of animals.
+They were incessant in their efforts to develop into perfection all the
+really valuable points in the animal; and the result was, that the
+English and Irish racer of the last century was unmatched for strength,
+speed, and endurance. Models of this splendid race of horses are seldom
+to be found at the present time; but there are, perhaps, sporting men
+living who saw them in the celebrated Mambrino, Sweet Briar, and Sweet
+William. Those horses possessed compact bodies, capacious lungs, strong
+loins, large joints, and enormous masses of muscular tissue on the
+shoulder-blades and arms. They were good weight-carrying hunters as well
+as racers, and they could carry eight stones over a six miles heat,
+or twelve stones over a four miles one. The Irish horses, at least,
+were capable of safely carrying thirteen stones over what would now be
+considered a very ugly ditch, and could get over a long steeplechase in
+a style which would astonish the owners of the modern "weeds." Since the
+distance to be traversed by competing horses has been reduced from the
+old-fashioned three heats of four miles each to a single run of a mile
+or two, and also since the weight imposed upon the animals has been
+reduced to six or seven stones, from ten to twelve, the anatomical
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page73" name="page73"></a>[73]</span>
+
+ structure of the race-horse has undergone a remarkable and serious
+alteration. The back has become very long, the sides flat, the loins
+weak, the limbs long and very thin; and this alteration in structure has
+been attended by weakness of constitution and a remarkable tendency
+to disease. The modern horse has attained to a remarkable degree of
+rapidity of locomotion, but it has been at the expense of its vigor,
+endurance, and health; it can run with great velocity for a short
+distance, but in a four-mile heat, and mounted by a man of average
+weight, a mediocre horse of the style of the middle of the last century
+would come to the post long before the winner of the last St. Leger.
+</p>
+<p>
+The decay of the breed of horses in this country is a serious matter,
+and the attention of all who are interested in the preservation of this
+animal should be earnestly and promptly directed towards discovering
+the means of regeneration. My remarks are directed towards racers and
+hunters. The quality of speed which they possess has been developed
+to an extent which is incompatible with the development of equally
+essential properties. Encouragement should be given to the production of
+weight-carrying hunters; steeple-chasing should be restored to its old
+state, when only a powerful horse had a chance of success. The quality
+of speed should be promoted in the animal up to a certain point; but
+when the development of this attribute begins to cause a loss of
+strength and endurance, it is high time to check it. There are a few
+horses at present which are strong and moderately fast: why should not
+steeple-chasing be of the kind which would call this style of animal
+into competition? Only a "weed" can now enter with any probability of
+success at a race of this kind; and when he has won it, of what use
+is he as a good hunter? What we want are good, stout, healthy horses,
+capable of carrying, in good style, twelve stones weight over a rough
+country; and the object of steeple-chasing should be the production of
+such a race of horses.
+</p>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<a name="note-16"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-16">16</a>)
+Improved by Leicester blood.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-17"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-17">17</a>)
+The object of the first breeders of the Leicester was
+to produce a sheep which would yield a great carcass, and small offal
+weight. So far as the results of these experiments go, I think the idea
+of the founder of this breed has been realised.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-18"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-18">18</a>)
+"Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of
+Scotland," for July, 1860.
+</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page74" name="page74"></a>[74]</span></p>
+
+<a name="h2H_4_0007" id="h2H_4_0007"><!-- H2 anchor --></a>
+
+<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+<h2>
+    PART III.
+</h2>
+<h3>
+    ON THE MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCK.
+</h3>
+<h4>
+SECTION I.
+</h4>
+<h5>
+THE OX.
+</h5>
+<p>
+<i>Breeding Cows.</i>&mdash;The period of gestation in the cow is about nine
+months. The earliest time at which it is at all safe to breed from these
+animals is when they are one year and eight months old. Shorthorns breed
+early, whilst the mountain varieties are seldom in calf before they are
+three years old. The practice of very early breeding, though approved of
+by some extensive rearers of stock, is not to be commended for sound
+physiological reasons. Cows calve at all times of the year; but the most
+favorable time is near the end of winter, or in early spring. The cows
+should at this time be in fair condition&mdash;neither too fat nor too lean.
+Parturition should take place in a roomy, covered place, provided with
+abundance of clean litter. If such a place be not available, a nice
+paddock close to the house must answer. After having given birth to
+the calf, the cow should receive an oatmeal drink, or some warm and
+nutritious mash, and afterwards be liberally fed. The cow is usually
+allowed to run dry four or five weeks before calving: this period should
+not be curtailed; on the contrary, it would be better to extend it to
+six weeks, so as not to allow her condition to become too poor.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>The Wintering of Young Stock.</i>&mdash;There are certain localities wherein
+the rearing of young stock is one of the easiest tasks which devolve
+upon the farmer. Well-drained and shady fields,
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page75" name="page75"></a>[75]</span>
+
+                                                 yielding abundance of
+sound herbage, and through which streams of <i>pure</i> water unceasingly
+flow, are just the proper <i>locale</i> for economically feeding young
+animals. But there are districts in which those favorable conditions do
+not exist; yet they are not better adapted to other uses. It is only the
+feeders of young stock in wet, moory, sandy, or undrained, heavy soils
+who really have cause for anxiety and incessant watchfulness. In rearing
+a calf the great object is to cause a rapid and uninterrupted increase
+in the weight of its body. At first the food of the animal should be
+furnished solely from the maternal founts; but at an early stage of its
+existence&mdash;about the third or fourth week&mdash;other food may wholly, or in
+part, be substituted for the natural aliment. It is important that no
+great interval should elapse between the hours of feeding. The digestive
+apparatus of the young animal is small, and its powers of assimilation
+are very energetic. The food with which it is supplied should,
+therefore, be given in moderate quantities, and very frequently. This
+is, in fact, what takes place when the calf is allowed free access to
+its dam; for the instant it feels a desire for aliment, the supply is at
+once available. Of course, there may be objections to this plan on the
+score of economy; but as a general rule, too much liberality cannot be
+exercised in feeding growing animals; and there is nothing more certain
+than that the calf which is illiberally fed will never be developed into
+a valuable, matured animal. When carefully tended from their birth,
+comfortably housed in winter, and abundantly supplied with nutritious
+food, it is sometimes wonderful the rapid progress which young stock
+make. Mr. Wright mentions a remarkable case of early maturity, which
+occurred in his own herd. A young steer, one year old, exhibited all the
+development of an animal twice its age. This bullock had been suckled
+for three months, whereby it had not only kept its calf-flesh, but
+gained and retained a step in advance. Its weight when only a year old
+was no less than 50 stones; and as the price of beef at the time was 8s.
+9d. per stone, live weight, the carcass of the animal was worth £21 17s.
+6d. Mr.
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page76" name="page76"></a>[76]</span>
+
+        Wright offers this fact as a suggestive one to "those farmers who
+think of bringing up their calves on old milk, or who would otherwise
+stint their growth."
+</p>
+<p>
+Supposing, then, that we have young stock which had been liberally
+treated when in their "baby" state, how are we to most economically
+maintain them throughout the winter? In the first place, they should be
+kept in warm sheds, and well sheltered from both rain and wind. Some
+authorities contend that exercise is necessary to young stock, and deny
+that a proper development of the muscles (lean flesh) can take place if
+they are cooped up like fattening turkeys during the winter. There is
+some truth in this opinion; and if the animals be designed for breeding
+or dairy purposes, their freedom of motion should only be partially
+restrained. On the other hand, if they be intended for an early
+introduction to the shambles, the less exercise they get the greater
+will be the profit on their keep. I have known cases where animals were
+closely housed for seven months, and yet their health did not appear
+to suffer in the slightest degree. In fact, so predominant are the
+vegetative functions of the ruminants over their nervous attributes,
+that the only essential conditions of their existence are adequate
+supplies of good air and food. That the health of these animals does
+occasionally suffer when the motions of their bodies are reduced to a
+<i>minimum</i> is quite true; but in most of these instances the real cause
+is, not the want of exercise, but the want of pure air. The greatest
+care should, therefore, be taken in the ventilation of the places where
+stock, whether old or young, are kept; and no economy of space or heat
+will compensate for the want of wholesome air. Under the fallacious idea
+that exposure to cold renders young stock hardy, many farmers turn them
+out to eat straw in the open fields in frosty weather. Treatment of this
+kind, instead of being productive of good, almost invariably lays the
+foundation of disease, which will manifest itself at some stage of the
+animal's growth. There are a few favored localities, such as those to
+which I have already alluded, where yearlings may be
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page77" name="page77"></a>[77]</span>
+
+                                                     occasionally allowed
+a turn through the fields in winter; but on cold clays, wet moors, and
+sandy soils the young stock should never be permitted to leave their
+sheds or courts from the time they are housed till late in the spring.
+</p>
+<p>
+Young stock are best fed on good meadow hay and turnips, with a moderate
+supplement of oil-cake; this, however, is expensive feeding in many
+farms, and a little filling-in may be done with cheaper or more easily
+obtainable stuffs. A mixture of cut chaff, with pulped mangels, is a
+good substitute for the more costly hay; and particularly in the case
+of animals intended for breeding or for the dairy. The roots should be
+pulped, and allowed to remain until, owing to a slight fermentation,
+they become warm. This change takes place in from twenty-four hours to
+sixty hours, according to the temperature; but the fermentation should
+not be carried farther than the earliest stage. The heated pulp should
+then be thoroughly mixed with the chaff, and the compound, after an
+hour or two, will be ready for use. A little chopped hay&mdash;no matter if
+inferior or slightly mildewed&mdash;may be substituted for the chaff, and
+turnips employed instead of the mangels, but the latter are the more
+desirable roots.
+</p>
+<p>
+Until lately, the use of oil-cake was confined to fattening animals,
+but latterly it is freely given to calves, even when they are only
+a month old; and there is no doubt but that it is a suitable and
+economical food for store stock. It is, however, sometimes given in
+excess: from half a pound to two and a half pounds daily will be
+sufficient for animals under one year; and this addition to their food
+will be found to exercise a beneficial influence on them when they
+are placed in stalls for finishing. The experience of several eminent
+breeders has proved that fattening beasts, which had in their youth
+a supply of oil-cake, or its equivalent, invariably store up a larger
+portion of their food than those which had been reared on hay and roots
+only.
+</p>
+<p>
+Mr. George Stodart, of Cultercullen, an Aberdeenshire farmer, describes,
+in the <i>Irish Farmer's Gazette</i>, his method of rearing calves:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page78" name="page78"></a>[78]</span></p>
+
+<p class="quote">
+    I occupy (says Mr. Stodart) a farm of 380 acres. I usually rear
+    twenty-four calves yearly, and buy in sixteen one-year-olds.
+    I generally breed from cross cows (the same as mentioned above),
+    served by a pure Shorthorn bull. When the calves are dropped I put
+    two calves to suck one cow for six months. In autumn, spring calves
+    are put into the house upon turnips and straw, with about 1 lb. of
+    oil-cake per day to each, until they are put out to grass in spring
+    following, at which time they are one year old. Then, of course,
+    they have grass in summer, and at the approach of winter they are
+    again housed upon turnips and straw, which bring them to be two
+    years old in spring. Now they are sent out to the best grass, and
+    again brought into the house at the beginning of September, and
+    fed on turnips and straw until the end of November or middle of
+    December, when they usually fetch from £25 to £32 a-head. This
+    year (1864), however, they will average £32. a-head. Before selling
+    I give each 3&frac12; lbs. of oil-cake per day for six weeks, and during
+    this time they have swede turnips; at other times yellow. We give as
+    much turnips at all times as they can eat.
+</p>
+<p>
+Mr. Bowick, in his excellent paper on the rearing of calves, published
+in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, gives the following
+information on this subject:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    We consider it desirable to allow the calf to remain with its
+    dam for the first three or four days after calving.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    Not much trouble is generally experienced in getting it to take
+    to the pail. We find it better to miss the evening's meal, and
+    next morning a very little attention induces the majority of them
+    to partake of what is set before them. At most the guidance of the
+    fingers may be wanted for the first meal or two.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    As regards the quantity of milk which is needful to keep a
+    moderately bred Shorthorn calf in a thriving condition, we have
+    found the following allowance to come pretty near the mark,
+    although the appetite of calves varies, both in individuals and
+    at different times with the same animal:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    1st week with the dam; or 4 quarts per day, at two meals.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    2nd to 4th week, 5 to 6 quarts per day, at two meals.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    4th to 6th week, 6 to 7 quarts per day, at two meals.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    And the quantity need not, during the ensuing six weeks (after
+    which it is weaned), exceed a couple of gallons per day. This
+    implies that the calf is fed upon new milk only, and that no
+    other feeding liquids are employed. But, in addition to the above,
+    the calf will, towards the fourth week, begin to eat a little
+    green hay; and in a week or two later, some sliced roots, or meal,
+    or finely crushed cake, mixed with hay-chaff; and, if really good,
+    creditable beasts are wanted&mdash;such as will realise £25 a-head from
+    the
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page79" name="page79"></a>[79]</span>
+
+        butcher when turned two and a half years old&mdash;a little cake
+    or meal in their early days will be found a desirable investment.
+    In fact, we doubt not but 1 lb. of cake per day to the calf will
+    make as much flesh as triple the quantity of cake at any period
+    of after life. As regards meal, if that is given with the chaff,
+    we prefer oatmeal, or barley-meal, or wheaten flour, but not the
+    meal of beans or pease. Others may see it differently, but we
+    believe beans to be too heating for any class of young stock. For
+    roots, the best we know of is the carrot, grated and mixed with
+    the chaff, or sliced thin with a knife and given alone. It is also,
+    of all roots, the one which we find them most fond of, and which
+    they will most readily take to. As soon as they can eat them
+    freely, an immediate reduction in the supply of milk may be made.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    In most articles it holds good in the end that "the best is the
+    cheapest." So with the rearing of calves; the best class of food,
+    or that above referred to, is found to give the greatest ultimate
+    satisfaction. But practically the question often is, how to rear
+    good calves with comparatively little new milk, a condition which
+    circumstances often render almost imperative; for where dairy
+    produce, in any other form, is the chief object, the calves stand
+    in a secondary position, and are treated accordingly. But let us
+    ask whether you cannot rear good stock under such circumstances
+    also? We believe that this may be, and often is done. We manage to
+    turn out from twenty-five to thirty calves annually&mdash;such as will
+    pass muster anywhere&mdash;and never use at any one time more than six
+    gallons of new milk daily. For this purpose, as well as to obtain
+    a regular supply of milk for other purposes, the calves are allowed
+    to come at different periods, extending from October to May. Hence
+    the calf-house has generally a succession of occupants throughout
+    the season; and as one lot are ready to be removed, and placed loose
+    in a small hovel, with yard attached, others fill their places.
+    We begin with new milk from the pail, which is continued for a
+    fortnight after leaving the cow. Then skim-milk&mdash;boiled, and allowed
+    to cool to the natural warmth&mdash;is substituted to the extent of
+    one-third of the allowance. In another week the new milk is reduced
+    to half, and at the same time, not before, boiled linseed is added
+    to the mess.<sup><a name="noteref-19"><!--19--></a><a href="#note-19">19</a></sup> As soon as they take freely to this food, the new
+    milk may be replaced with that from the dairy, and the calf is
+    encouraged to indulge in a few sliced carrots and the other dry
+    foods named.
+</p>
+<p>
+Mr. Murray, of Overstone, thus states the expense of
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page80" name="page80"></a>[80]</span>
+
+                                                     rearing the calf
+until it is two years old, when, after the weaning process is completed,
+it is turned out to grass:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    During the summer they have the run of a grass paddock during
+    the day, but return regularly to their yards at night; the
+    following winter they are kept in larger yards, and which contain
+    a greater number of animals. Their bill of fare for this winter is
+    2 lbs. of oil-cake, half a bushel of cut roots, with cut chaff <i>ad
+    libitum</i>. The chaff has a small quantity of flour or pollard mixed
+    with it, is moistened with water, and the whole mass turned over;
+    this is done the day previous to using it. By this means they eat
+    the chaff with more relish, and moistening it prevents the flour
+    being wasted. They are put to grass the following summer, generally
+    from the 15th to the 20th of May, or as soon as the pastures are in
+    a state to receive them; they remain there on second-rate land till
+    about the end of October, when they are brought home and tied up in
+    the stalls. The daily allowance is then 4 lbs. linseed-cake, 4 lbs.
+    flour&mdash;&frac34; bean, &frac14; barley&mdash;1 bushel of cut roots with cut chaff;
+    the flour and chaff is mixed as already described. At about the end
+    of December the quantity of cake is increased to 8 lbs., and the
+    flour to 6 lbs.; this they continue to receive till they are sold
+    to the butcher during the months of March and April, when they
+    weigh, on an average, 90 stones of 8 lbs. per bullock, and under
+    two years and six months old. At this season of the year beef
+    generally makes 5s. per stone&mdash;we often make 9s.&mdash;but taking that
+    as an average would make the value of each beast £22 10s. The cost
+    of keeping to this age will be as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Cost of keeping cattle to two years six months age">
+
+<tr><td>                                                             </td><td>  £</td><td> s.</td><td>d. </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">    One calf                                                 </td><td>  2</td><td> 0 </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Milk, &amp;c., nine weeks                                </td><td>  1</td><td> 5 </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Cake, grass, &amp;c., forty-three weeks, at 1s. 6d.      </td><td>  3</td><td> 4 </td><td>6 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Second year, November till May, cake, flour,
+              roots, &amp;c., 2s. 6d. per week, for twenty-six weeks </td><td>  3</td><td> 5 </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    May till November, grass, twenty-six weeks, at 2s. 6d.   </td><td>  3</td><td> 5 </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Third year, November till April, twenty weeks, at 8s.    </td><td>  8</td><td> 0 </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td colspan="4">                                                             &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                             </td><td>£20</td><td>19 </td><td>6 </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l" colspan="4">Which leaves a gain to each animal of £1 10s. 6d., besides the manure.</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+<i>Shelter of Stock.</i>&mdash;The great diminution of temperature, and the
+falling off in the supply of herbage, that are coincident
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page81" name="page81"></a>[81]</span>
+
+                                                          with the
+close of the autumn, render it necessary to remove our cattle from the
+open fields, and provide them with some sort of shelter during the
+winter months and early part of the spring.
+</p>
+<p>
+The particular period at which this change of quarters takes place of
+course varies, and is, in fact, altogether dependent upon the character
+of the season. There are some years in which there is, so to speak, a
+kind of relapse of the summer, November being bright and warm, instead
+of, as is usually the case, cold and foggy. In such a year there is some
+herbage to be picked up until the very end of December. On the other
+hand, the latter part of October is often very wet, and October frosts
+are by no means uncommon. Tempestuous, biting winds in November, or
+torrents of rain, or both, tell severely upon the poor animals in the
+fields, even where there is abundance of herbage; and hence, should such
+weather take place at the latter part of October, the true economy would
+be to remove the animals at once to sheltered places.
+</p>
+<p>
+Nothing lowers the temperature of the surface so rapidly as a cold wind.
+Captain Parry, one of the explorers of the Arctic regions, states that
+his men, when well clothed, suffered no inconvenience on exposure to the
+low temperature of 55 degrees below zero, provided the air was perfectly
+calm; but the slightest breeze, when the air was at this temperature,
+caused the painful sensation produced by intense cold. I could adduce
+the experience of many practical men in favor of the plan of affording
+shelter to animals, but more especially to those kept in situations
+much exposed to winds. Mr. Nesbit relates a case bearing on this
+point:&mdash;A farmer in Dorsetshire put up twenty or thirty sheep, under
+the protection of a series of upright double hurdles lined with straw,
+having as a sort of roof, or lean-to, a single hurdle, also lined with
+straw. A like number of sheep, of the same weight, were fed in the open
+field, without shelter of any kind. Each set was fed with turnips <i>ad
+libitum</i>. The result was, that
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page82" name="page82"></a>[82]</span>
+
+                               those without shelter increased in weight
+1 lb. per week for each sheep, whilst those under shelter, although they
+consumed less food, increased respectively 3 lbs. per week.
+</p>
+<p>
+As a general rule, the latter part of October, or early in November, is
+the time for the removal of live stock from the pastures to the shelter
+of the farmstead. In England and Scotland the transference is seldom
+delayed after these dates; but in Ireland it is no uncommon thing to see
+the animals grazing very much later in the year&mdash;a circumstance which
+the lateness and mildness of our climate account for. But whatever the
+date may be, the importance of such shelter is universally recognised,
+even by those who most neglect it and are least acquainted with the
+principles upon which its necessity depends. The more important of these
+principles have already been explained, but they may be here summarised
+as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p>
+1. A certain amount of warmth is an indispensable condition for the
+maintenance of the life of animals.
+</p>
+<p>
+2. The internal heat of the bodies of animals is supplied by the
+chemical combination which takes place between the oxygen of the
+atmospheric air which they inspire and certain of the constituents
+(carbon and hydrogen) of the food which they consume, or, to speak more
+accurately, of the tissues of their bodies, which are formed out of
+their food. It is very much in the same way in which our houses are
+heated by the burning of coal, turf, or wood in their fire-places, since
+the heat derived in the latter case is obtained from a similar source as
+in the former one&mdash;namely, by the union of the oxygen of the air with
+the carbon and hydrogen of the fuel. The only real difference between
+the two kinds of combustion is, that in respiration the process is
+conducted with an extreme degree of slowness, whilst in the ordinary
+fire the combinations take place rapidly, and the heat being evolved
+in a much shorter time is proportionately the more intense.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page83" name="page83"></a>[83]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+3. The temperature of the external parts of the animal body varies with
+the nature and quantity of the food supplied to it, and also depends
+upon the state of the weather and the character of the protection
+afforded to it.
+</p>
+<p>
+The colder the air, the greater will be the quantity of food required,
+and the more complete the shelter. In other words, a diminution of
+temperature, no matter how caused, will necessitate an increased amount
+of food and more perfect shelter, in order to maintain at the proper
+degree of heat the fluids of the body. It is only the external parts of
+the body that become cold: so long as the animal is in health its blood
+always maintains the same degree of temperature; but in cold weather the
+blood is subjected to a greater cooling power than it is in warm
+weather, and this cooling power it can only resist by taxing more
+extensively the heat-producing resources of the body.
+</p>
+<p>
+4. Exposure to wet, even in warm weather, will tend to reduce the
+temperature of the body, since the conversion of water into vapor can
+only be effected at the expense of heat, which heat must be in great
+part extracted from the body of the animal itself.
+</p>
+<p>
+5. No possible increase of food, however nutritious it may be, can
+suffice to keep up the due warmth and healthy condition of the animal
+frame in winter, if shelter from cold and rain be not simultaneously
+effected. On the contrary, an animal well protected from the winter
+blasts will require much less food than if it were placed in an exposed
+position. The reason of this is, that the amount of food which an animal
+exposed to great cold consumes to maintain the temperature of its body
+would, under opposite conditions, be stored up in the form of permanent
+"increase"&mdash;beef or mutton for the butcher, in fact.
+</p>
+<p>
+The fat-forming constituents of the food of stock are in no case
+converted into permanent fat, except when they exceed in quantity the
+amount required to keep up the internal heat of the animal; but when
+this is constantly reduced by exposure
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page84" name="page84"></a>[84]</span>
+
+                                        to a wintry temperature, the
+food becomes insufficient for even that purpose, no matter how much
+aliment is given. What, then, must not be the condition of the
+unfortunate animals whose fate it is to be the property of a farmer
+who neither shelters them from the weather nor provides them with a
+sufficient quantity of nourishing food!
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Milch Cows.</i>&mdash;When dairy-farming is conducted on pure pastures, the
+cows are altogether dependent upon the grasses; and in winter, the
+animals suffer much from scarcity of food. This is the very worst system
+of cow-keeping, but it is prevalent amongst many small farmers in
+Ireland, and is to be met with even in England and Scotland. I am
+strongly of opinion that it would be far more economical to keep cows
+(and other cattle) altogether in the house, and feed them with cut
+grass, than to allow them to remain out altogether in the field. There
+are several disadvantages resulting from the depasturing of cows. In the
+warm weather, the animals are greatly annoyed by the attacks of flies:
+there is a considerable waste of muscle, caused by the movements of
+the animals whilst in search of their food; and the excrements of the
+animals and their footmarks injure a large portion of the grass. It may
+be somewhat troublesome and expensive to cut the grass, and convey it
+from the field to the house; but the labor and the cost will be more
+than repaid by the greatly-increased yield of food. A grass-field,
+mowed, will produce from 20 to 30 per cent. more food than it would if
+it were trampled upon and soiled by cattle. Exercise for an hour or two
+in the cool of the evening, or early in the morning (during the hot
+weather), will be quite sufficient to keep the animals in health. This
+may be taken in a field, better in a paddock, best of all in a roomy
+yard. When cattle are supplied with cut grass, or clover, care should
+be taken not to give it to them when very wet, for otherwise there is
+danger of the excessively moist herbage producing the <i>hoove</i>. Neither
+should large quantities of the green food be given to them&mdash;the supply
+should be "little and often." Should the food be too succulent, the
+addition of a
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page85" name="page85"></a>[85]</span>
+
+              little straw will correct its laxative effects. When
+the stock is about passing from the winter keep to summer food, the
+transition should be gradual; a well-made compound of straw or hay with
+grass (natural or artificial) is much relished by cows. A supply of
+good water is absolutely necessary; but sufficient attention to this
+important point is seldom given. Cooked food is well adapted for milch
+cows. Mangels, kohl-rabi, and cabbages are each of them better food than
+turnips, as the latter is apt to impart a disagreeable flavour to the
+butter. Three feeds in the day is a sufficient number for cows. The
+first meal should be early in the morning, and may consist of roots,
+mixed with straw or hay. Some feeders prefer using dry fodder, or cooked
+food of some kind, and not raw roots. The second meal is given at
+mid-day, and the third in the evening. The daily allowance of roots
+varies from 2 to 8 stones, depending upon the quantities of other foods
+used. Mr. Horsfall's diet is as follows:&mdash;Hay, 9 lbs.; rape-cake, 6
+lbs.; malt-combs, 1 lb.; bran, 1 lb.; roots, 28 lbs. These substances
+are mixed and cooked, and the animals receive them in a warm state.
+In addition to this food, Mr. Horsfall's cows get bean-meal&mdash;a cow in
+full milk 2 lbs., others from &frac12; lb. to 1&frac12; lbs.; cost per week per
+cow, 8s. 7d.<sup><a name="noteref-20"><!--20--></a><a href="#note-20">20</a></sup> Mr. Alcock, of Skipton, feeds his cows as follows:&mdash;Raw
+mangels, 20 lbs.; carob beans, 3 lbs.; bran and malt-combs, 1&frac34; lbs.;
+bean-meal, 3&frac12; lbs.; rape-cake, 3 lbs.; per diem. A steamed mixture
+of wheat and bean straws and shells of oats <i>ad libitum</i>. Oats, to the
+extent of 2 or 3 lbs. daily, are an excellent food for cows.
+</p>
+<p>
+An important point in dairy economics is the feeding of the cows at
+<i>regular</i> intervals. If the usual time for the feed be allowed to pass,
+the animals are almost certain to become very uneasy&mdash;to <i>worry</i>; and
+every feeder knows, or ought to know, that a fretting beast will neither
+fatten nor yield milk satisfactorily. The cow-house ought to be kept as
+clean as
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page86" name="page86"></a>[86]</span>
+
+         possible; and the excreta, therefore, should be removed several
+times a day.
+</p>
+<p>
+Mr. Harvey, of Glasgow, has probably one of the largest dairies
+in the world. His cow byres, 56 yards long, and from 12 to 24 feet
+wide&mdash;according as one or two rows of cows are to be accommodated&mdash;stand
+closely packed, the whole surface of the ground being thus covered by
+a kind of roof. From 900 to 1,000 cows are constantly in milk. They are
+fed during winter partly on steamed turnips (7 tons being steamed daily
+in order to give one meal daily to 900 cows), partly on coarse hay, of
+which, as of straw, they get between 20 and 30 lbs. a day each. They are
+also fed on draff, of which they receive half a bushel daily each; on
+Indian corn meal, of which they have 3 lbs. daily each; and on pot-ale,
+of which they receive three times a day nearly as much as they will
+consume, <i>i.e.</i>, from 6 to 10 gallons daily. During the summer they are
+let out, a byreful at a time, for half a day to grass, and on coming
+in receive their spent malt and still liquor, and hay in addition. They
+are managed, cleaned, and fed by two men to each byre holding about 100
+cows. The milking is done three times a day, by women who take charge
+of 13 cows in full milk, or double that number in half milk, apiece.
+Between 4 and 5 o'clock a.m. (taking the winter management), the byres
+are cleaned out, and the cows receive a "big shovelful" of draff
+apiece, and half their steamed turnips and meal, and a "half stoupful,"
+(probably 2 gallons) of pot-ale. They are milked very early. At 7 they
+receive their fodder-straw or hay. At 10 they get a "full stoupful"
+(probably 3 or 4 gallons) of pot-ale. They are milked at noon. At 2
+p.m., or thereabouts, they are foddered again, and at 4 p.m. receive
+the same food as at the morning meal. They are again milked at 5 to 6,
+cleaned out and left till morning. The average produce is stated to be
+2 gallons a day per cow.
+</p>
+<p>
+Mrs. Scott, of Weekston, Peebles, who keeps one of the best managed
+dairy farms in the United Kingdom, thus conducts
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page87" name="page87"></a>[87]</span>
+
+                                                 her operations in
+the winter:&mdash;At 6 o'clock in the morning the cows are well wiped or
+scrubbed, have their bedding removed, and receive each about 4 or 5 lbs.
+of straw. At 8 o'clock the cows are milked, and Mrs. Scott examines each
+to ascertain whether or not the milk-maid has left any fluid in the
+udder&mdash;and woe betide the careless maid if her work has been carelessly
+done! At 10 o'clock a barrowful of turnips is divided amongst three
+cows, and when these roots are not available, a quantity of peas or bean
+meal, with a pint of cold water, takes their place. At 1 o'clock the
+cows are allowed out to be watered, and during their absence from the
+byre it is thoroughly cleansed and ventilated. When the state of the
+weather prevents the cows from being turned out, they receive twice a
+day a handful of oatmeal diffused throughout three pints of water&mdash;a
+handful of salt being given in the first of these drinks. When the cows
+return to the byre, they receive each about 4 or 5 lbs. of straw, and at
+4 or 5 o'clock an evening meal of turnips equal to their morning feed.
+At 8 o'clock a "windling" of meadow hay is given to each pair of cows,
+the quantity being always regulated according to the requirements of
+each cow. The cows upon calving receive, in addition to this allowance
+of hay, half a pailful of boiled turnips, mixed with a quart of peas
+or bean-meal. This mess is given in a lukewarm state. Mrs. Scott's
+system may be thus epitomised: Regularity in feeding; sufficient but
+not excessive food; regularity in milking; and minute attention to
+cleanliness and ventilation.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Stall-feeding.</i>&mdash;What becomes of the 90 per cent. of the weight of
+the non-nitrogenous constituents of the food of the sheep, and of the
+80 per cent. of that of the nutriment of the pig, which they consume
+but do not store up? I have already partly answered this question. This
+portion of the food is chiefly expended in the production of the heat
+with which the high temperature of the animal's body is maintained. Part
+of it, no doubt, passes unchanged through its body, either owing to its
+indigestibility, or to its being given in excess. The
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page88" name="page88"></a>[88]</span>
+
+                                                      quantity of
+non-nitrogenous matters consumed by a man is influenced greatly by the
+temperature of the air which he habitually breathes, and by the nature
+of the artificial covering of his body; there may be other conditions
+at present unknown to us, but these are amongst the chief ones. Now, as
+there is sufficient reason to lead us to believe that the consumption
+of carbonaceous food by the lower animals is influenced in the same
+way by the temperature of the medium in which they exist, the question
+naturally suggests itself, would it not be cheaper to maintain the heat
+of the animal by burning the carbon of cheap coal or turf outside its
+body, than by consuming the carbon of costly fat within it? The answer
+to this question is not so simple as at first sight it appears to be. We
+must not consider that, because 10 lbs. weight of carbon, as coal, costs
+but a penny, whilst an equal weight of the same element in starch costs
+twenty pence, heat may be furnished to a fattening animal twenty times
+cheaper by the combustion of coal than by that of starch. No doubt the
+amount of heat evolved by the conversion of a pound-weight of carbon
+into carbonic acid is the same, whether it be a constituent of starch or
+of coal; but the application of the heat so produced is less under our
+control in the latter case. All the heat evolved during the combustion
+of the starch within the animal's body is made use of; whilst a very
+large proportion of that developed by the combustion of coal in a
+furnace cannot in practice be applied to the purpose of heating the
+animal's body.
+</p>
+<p>
+It is only the handiwork of the Creator which is perfect, and no machine
+constructed by the skill of man, for the direction of force, can rival
+that wondrous heat-producing, force-directing mechanism&mdash;the animal
+organism. According to Dumas, the combustion of about 2&frac12; lbs. of
+carbon in a steam-engine is required to generate sufficient force to
+convey a man from the level of the sea to the summit of Mont Blanc; but
+a man will ascend the mountain in two days, and burn in his mechanism
+only half a pound of carbon. There is no machine
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page89" name="page89"></a>[89]</span>
+
+                                                 in which heat and
+force are more completely made available than the animal organism; and
+were it not&mdash;thanks to the influence of antediluvian sunshine&mdash;that
+the carbon of fuel in these countries is so very much cheaper than the
+carbon of food, there is no doubt but that the cheapest mode of keeping
+an animal warm would be to allow it to burn its carbon within its
+body. As the matter stands, however, there is no question as to the
+advisability of keeping fattening animals in a warm place. If the
+temperature of the stall be equal to that of the animal's body there
+will be less food consumed in the increase of its fat; because less of
+the fat-forming materials will be expended in the production of heat.
+In this sense, therefore, heat is an equivalent to food, but only within
+certain limits; because heat is developed in large quantity within the
+animal body independently of the temperature of the air. There is,
+therefore, no object to be attained by having the stalls heated beyond
+70 or 80 degrees. Indeed, it is to be questioned whether or not stalls
+artificially heated are ever properly ventilated. If they be not, the
+health of the animal will suffer, and its appetite&mdash;so essential a point
+in fattening stock&mdash;will become impaired. We may conclude&mdash;firstly,
+that animals, when fattening, should be kept at a temperature not under
+70 degrees nor above 90 degrees Fahrenheit; secondly, that the mode of
+heating must be such that there is as little wasteful combustion of fuel
+as is possible under the circumstances; and, lastly, that no motives of
+economy of fuel should prevent the feeding places from being thoroughly
+ventilated.
+</p>
+<p>
+Stall-feeding is not so extensively carried on in Ireland as it is in
+Great Britain. There is a general impression that it does not pay in the
+former country; but if such be the case, it is simply owing to the want
+of skill on the part of the Irish feeders.
+</p>
+<p>
+The cattle intended for stall-feeding should be removed (if out) from
+the field in October, and put into the house, or court, or crib, or
+hammel, as the case may be. They are fed upon roots, straw, hay, grain,
+and artificial food. The greatest skill is required in their treatment.
+It is a nice point to determine
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page90" name="page90"></a>[90]</span>
+
+                                which foods are the most economical,
+and also to ascertain in what foods excessive proportions of certain
+nutritive elements exist. Sufficient food should be given; but any
+approach to waste should be avoided. Three feeds a day are usually
+given, and should be supplied at the same hours each day. For about two
+weeks the animals are furnished with white turnips <i>ad libitum</i>; but
+after the expiration of that time they receive Swedish turnips, straw,
+and grain, or oil-cake. Late in the season mangels will replace turnips.
+Almost every extensive feeder now uses oil-cakes in large quantities;
+but when oats are low in price, they will in general be found a cheap
+equivalent for a large proportion of the oil-cake. Different feeders
+have different dietaries, and the nature of the aliments supplied to
+fattening stock depends very much upon the market prices of food-stuffs,
+and the locality in which the feeding-house is situated. The following
+dietaries are but examples of the methods of feeding adopted in
+different districts and by different persons:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p>
+Mr. McCombie, of Tillyfour, fattens from 300 to 400 beasts annually,
+and obtained for them in 1861 £35 per head. He never exceeds 4 lbs. of
+oil-cake per diem, nor 2 lbs. of bruised oats, for each beast. He gives
+as much turnip and straw as they can consume. He realises £12 per acre
+in feeding on Aberdeen and Swedish turnips.
+</p>
+<p>
+"For fatting cattle," says Mr. Edmonds, of Cirencester, "I should
+recommend two parts hay and one part straw, or in forward animals
+three parts hay and one part straw cut in chaff. Those of average size
+will eat somewhere about five bushels per day, with 4 lbs. to 5 lbs.
+oil-cake, and half a peck of mixed meal, barley and peas, or beans, and,
+if cheap, a proportion of wheat also, to be increased to one peck per
+day in a month or six weeks after they have come to stall, the oil-cake
+and meal to be boiled in water for half-an-hour or three-quarters, and
+thrown in the form of rich soup over the chaff, and well mixed, to which
+add a little salt."
+</p>
+<p>
+Colonel M'Douall, of Logan, Wigtonshire, gives 3 lbs. of
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page91" name="page91"></a>[91]</span>
+
+                                                         bean-meal and
+3 lbs. of cut straw cooked together, and 84 lbs. of Swedish turnips.
+</p>
+<p>
+According to the researches of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, an ox weighing
+1,400 lbs. ought to gain 20 lbs. weekly when fed under cover with 8 lbs.
+of crushed oil-cake, 13 lbs. of chopped clover hay, and 47 lbs. of
+turnips. The chemical constituents (in a dried state) of this allowance
+are as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Constituents of food allowance">
+
+<tr><td></td><th>Ounces.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Fat-formers, or heat givers                </td><td>232 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-formers                              </td><td> 55 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter                             </td><td> 29 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+<i>Cost of Maintaining Animals.</i>&mdash;The animal mechanism, which exhibits
+the least tendency to fatten, is the most costly to keep in repair, in
+relation to the work performed by it. If, for example, a sheep store up
+in its increase one-fifth of its food, then the remaining four-fifths
+are expended in preserving it alive, and their cost represents, so to
+speak, the expense of preserving the animal's body in repair. If another
+sheep store up only one-tenth of its food, then the cost of its
+maintenance may be said to be double that of the animal which retains
+the larger proportion of its nutriment in the form of flesh. Of course
+in both cases the value of the manure will to a great extent compensate
+for the cost of the food expended in merely keeping the animal alive;
+but that does not affect the proposition, that the less food expended by
+an animal in carrying on its vital functions the more valuable is it as
+a "meat-manufacturing machine." From the moment it is brought into the
+world until it is "ripe" for the shambles, an animal should steadily
+increase in weight: every week that it does not store up a portion of
+its food in permanent increase is the loss of a week's food to the
+feeder; for all the fodder consumed during that time by the animal is,
+so to speak, devoted to its own private purposes. Sheep overcrowded
+on pastures, milch cows on "short commons," calves kept on bulky
+innutritious food, are all so many sources of positive loss to the
+feeder&mdash;and as many proofs that he who aspires to
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page92" name="page92"></a>[92]</span>
+
+                                                  be a successful
+producer of meat, must, in one respect at least, be a devout believer
+in the doctrine of Progressive Development.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Cooking and Bruising Food.</i>&mdash;The cooking, or the otherwise preparing,
+of the food of the domesticated animals is a subject which until
+recently was completely ignored by the vast majority of stock feeders.
+It is now, however, beginning to attract a fair amount of attention; and
+no doubt ere long the best modes of treating the food of cattle will be
+discovered.
+</p>
+<p>
+As might be expected from our limited experience of the subject, there
+exists considerable difference of opinion relative to the proper method
+of cooking cattle food; and there are many very extensive feeders who
+object to the plan altogether, and contend that as the food of the
+inferior animals is naturally supplied to them in a raw condition, it
+would be quite unnatural to give it to them in a cooked state.
+</p>
+<p>
+Whatever difference of opinion there may be with regard to the propriety
+of cooking the food of stock, we believe there ought not to be a doubt
+as to the desirability of mechanically treating the harder kinds of
+feeding stuff. It is quite evident that a horse fed upon hard grains of
+oats and wiry fibres of uncut hay or straw must expend no inconsiderable
+proportion of his motive power in the process of mastication. After a
+hard day's work of eight or ten hours he has before him the laborious
+task of reducing to a pulp from 12 lbs. to 20 lbs. weight of exceedingly
+hard and tough vegetable matter; and as this operation is carried on
+during the hours which should be devoted to rest, the repose of the
+animal is to some extent interfered with. Indeed, it not unfrequently
+happens that a horse, after a hard day's work, is too tired to chew his
+food properly; he consequently bolts his oats, a large proportion of
+which, as a matter of course, passes unchanged through the animal's
+body.
+</p>
+<p>
+In order to render fully effective the motive power of the horse, it is
+absolutely necessary to pay attention to the condition, as well as to
+the quantity and quality of his nutriment. The force wasted by a horse
+in the comminution of his food, when composed of whole oats and uncut
+hay and straw, cannot,
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page93" name="page93"></a>[93]</span>
+
+                       at the lowest estimate, be less than that which
+he expends in an hour of ordinary work, such as, for example, in
+ploughing. The preparation of his food by means of water or steam power,
+or even by animal motive power, would economise by at least 50 per cent.
+the labor expended in its mastication; and this would be equivalent to
+nearly half a day's work in each week, and, consequently, a clear gain
+of so much labor to the owner of the animal. In the present time of
+water-power and steam-power corn-mills, one man is able to grind the
+flour necessary for the support of several thousand men; in early ages
+the labor of one person in the grinding of wheat served but to supply
+the wants of twenty others. In both cases machinery was employed
+for reducing the grain to flour; but in the one case, the mechanisms
+employed were more than a hundred times more effective than in the
+other. But even the most imperfect flour mill is by far a more
+economical system of comminuting corn than the jaws of animals; and if
+every man were obliged, as the horse is, to grind his corn by means of
+his teeth alone, he would find his powers for the performance of other
+kinds of labor considerably lessened.
+</p>
+<p>
+It has been urged as an objection to the use of bruised oats by horses,
+that they exercise in that state a laxative influence upon the animal's
+bowels. I doubt very much that such is frequently the case, when the
+animal is fed only upon oats and hay and straw; but even if the oats
+produce such an effect, the addition of a small proportion of beans&mdash;the
+binding properties of which are well known&mdash;will obviate the
+disadvantage.
+</p>
+<p>
+The desirability of mechanically acting upon soft food is not so
+apparent as the necessity for the bruising of oats is. Roots are so
+easily masticable that if they are rendered more so there is danger of
+their being so hastily swallowed as to escape thorough insalivation,
+which is so necessary to ensure perfect digestion. To guard against this
+danger, perhaps the best way would be to give pulped mangels and turnips
+mixed with cut straw; a mixture which could not easily be bolted. Mr.
+Charles Lawrence, of Cirencester, who is a great advocate
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page94" name="page94"></a>[94]</span>
+
+                                                          for the
+cooking of food, and has frequently published his experience of the
+benefits derivable therefrom, thus describes his method of combining
+pulped roots with dry fodder:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    We find that, taking a score of bullocks together fattening,
+    they consume per head per diem three bushels of chaff, mixed
+    with just half a cwt. of pulped roots, exclusive of cakes of
+    corn; that is to say, rather more than two bushels of chaff
+    are mixed with the roots, and given at two feeds, morning and
+    evening, and the remainder is given with the cake, &amp;c., at the
+    middle-day feed, thus:&mdash;We use the steaming apparatus of Stanley,
+    of Peterborough, consisting of a boiler in the centre, in which
+    the steam is generated, and which is connected by a pipe on the
+    left hand with a large galvanised iron receptacle for steaming
+    food for pigs, and on the right with a large wooden tub, lined
+    with copper, in which the cake, mixed with water, is made into
+    a thick soup. Adjoining this is a slate tank, of sufficient size
+    to contain one feed for the entire lot of bullocks feeding. Into
+    this tank is laid chaff with a three-grained fork, and pressed
+    down firmly; and this process is repeated until the slate tank
+    is full, when it is covered down for an hour or two before
+    feeding time. The soup is then found entirely absorbed by the
+    chaff, which has become softened and prepared for ready digestion.
+</p>
+<p>
+Mr. Wright, near Dunbar, gives the following account of an experiment
+with pulped roots and straw and oil-cake. It appears to prove the
+superiority of mixed foods over the same foods consumed separately:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    Two lots of year-old cattle were fed; the one in the usual
+    way&mdash;sliced turnips and straw, <i>ad libitum</i>&mdash;the others with
+    the minced turnips, mixed with cut straw. The first lot consumed
+    daily 84 lbs. sliced turnips, 1 lb. oil-cake, 1 lb. rape-cake,
+    &frac12; lb. bean-meal, broken small and mixed with a little salt,
+    and what straw they liked. The second lot ate, each, daily,
+    50 lbs. minced turnips, 1 lb. oil-cake, 1 lb. rape-cake, &frac12; lb.
+    bean-meal, and a little salt, the whole being mixed with double
+    the bulk of cut straw or wheat chaff. In spring, the lot of
+    cattle which had the mixed food were in good condition, and
+    equally well grown as others, though they had consumed in five
+    months two tons less of roots apiece. The reporter does not
+    advise the mincing process to be commenced when cattle are very
+    forward in condition, as any change of food requires a certain
+    time to accustom the animals to it, and in the meantime fat
+    cattle are apt to fall off in condition. It ought to be begun
+    when they are young and lean.
+</p>
+<p>
+Mr. Duckham, of Baysham Court, Ross, Herefordshire, says:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page95" name="page95"></a>[95]</span></p>
+
+<p class="quote">
+    The advantages of pulping roots for cattle are&mdash;1st, Economy
+    of food; for the roots being pulped and mixed with the chaff,
+    either from threshing or cut hay or straw, the whole is consumed
+    without waste, the animals not being able to separate the chaff
+    from the pulped roots, as is the case when the roots are merely
+    sliced by the common cutter, neither do they waste the fodder as
+    when given without being cut.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    2. The use of ordinary hay or straw. After being mixed with the
+    pulp for about twelve hours, fermentation commences, and this
+    soon renders the most mouldy hay palatable, and animals eat with
+    avidity that which they would otherwise reject. This fermentation
+    softens the straw, makes it more palatable, and puts it in a state
+    to assimilate more readily with the other food. In this respect
+    I think the pulper of great value, particularly upon corn farms
+    where large crops of straw are grown, and where there is a limited
+    acreage of pasture, as by its use the pastures may be grazed, the
+    expensive process of haymaking reduced, and, consequently, an
+    increased number of cattle kept. I keep one-third more, giving
+    the young stock a small quantity of oil-cake, which I mix with
+    the chaff, &amp;c.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    3. Choking is utterly impossible, and I have only had one case of
+    hoove in three years, and that occurred when the mixture had not
+    fermented.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    4. There is an advantage in mixing the meal with the chaff and
+    pulped roots for fattening animals, as thereby they cannot separate
+    it, and the moisture from the fermentation softens the meal and
+    ensures its thorough digestion, whereas, when given in a dry state
+    without any mixture, frequently a great portion passes away in the
+    manure.
+</p>
+<p>
+On the value of the process for a grazing farm with but a small quantity
+of plough-land, Mr. Corner, of Woodlands, Holford, Bridgewater, thus
+speaks:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    My plan is, first commencing with the grazing beasts, to cut about
+    an equal quantity of hay and straw and mix with a sufficient
+    quantity of roots (mostly mangel) to well moisten the chaff; and as
+    the beasts advance in condition, I lessen the straw and increase
+    the hay, and in their further progress I mix&mdash;in addition to all
+    hay, chaff, and roots&mdash;from 6 to 10 lb. per day to each bullock of
+    barley and bean-meal, according to its size&mdash;and I have them large
+    sometimes. I sold last week for the London market a lot of Devon
+    oxen of very prime quality, averaging in weight upwards of 100 stone
+    imperial each.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    For my horses, cows, yearlings, and oxen&mdash;the latter to be kept in
+    a thriving condition, and turned to grass, and kept through the
+    summer for Christmas, 1860&mdash;I cut nearly all straw, with a very
+    small quantity of hay, and this the offal of the rick. These also
+    have as many pulped roots as will moisten the chaff, except the
+    horses, and to them I give, along with bruised oats, just enough
+    roots to keep their bowels in a proper condition.
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page96" name="page96"></a>[96]</span>
+
+                                                       To the two or
+    three-year-old beasts I give some long straw and a part chaff, and
+    the offal (if any) of the food of the above lots of stock.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    My farm is but a small one&mdash;under 200 acres. My predecessor always
+    mowed nearly all the pastures for hay, which is about half the
+    farm, and with this scarcely ever grazed any beasts, and kept but
+    very few sheep. Since my occupation I scarcely ever exceed ten acres
+    of meadow with one field of seeds for hay. I keep from 250 to 300
+    large-size Leicester sheep, and graze from 20 to 25 large-size
+    beasts a year, with other breeding stock in proportion.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    I consider the pulping of roots is better for fatting pigs than
+    anything else. My plan is to have a large two-hogshead vat as near
+    the pulping machine as possible, so as to fill it with a malt
+    shovel as it comes from the machine; at the same time I keep a lad
+    sprinkling meal (either barley or Indian corn) with the roots; and
+    this is all done in fifteen or twenty minutes. It is then ready for
+    use, to be carried to the pigs in the stalls alongside the fatting
+    beasts. I never could fatten a pig with profit until I used pulped
+    roots.
+</p>
+<p>
+Although the practice of cooking food has been advocated by several
+eminent feeders, it has been condemned by others. Mr. Lawes is not
+favorable to the cooking of food unless when it is scarce. The results
+of Colonel M'Douall's experiments go to prove that cattle can be more
+economically kept upon a mixture of raw and cooked foods than upon
+either raw or cooked fodder given separately. One meal of cooked food
+and two feeds of raw turnips gave better results than three feeds of
+raw turnips; whilst two cooked feeds and a raw one resulted in a loss.
+</p>
+<p>
+The fermentation of food, if not the best, is certainly the cheapest
+mode of preparing it. If the process be not pushed too far the loss of
+nutriment sustained is inconsiderable. When a mixture of straw and roots
+is fermented, the hard fibres of the latter are, to a great extent,
+broken up, and the nutrient particles which they envelop are fully
+exposed to the action of the solvent juices of the stomach.
+</p>
+<p>
+A great advantage in cooking or fermenting food is that the most
+rubbishy materials can be used up. Indeed, as a general rule, the better
+soft food is, the less the necessity for cooking it; but washed out hay
+and hard, over-ripened straw are of but little value, except when cooked
+and given in combination with some agreeably-flavored substance.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page97" name="page97"></a>[97]</span></p>
+
+
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Value of various foods for feeding purposes">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="20">  VALUE FOR FEEDING PURPOSES OF VARIOUS FOODS.<sup><a name="noteref-21"><!--21--></a><a href="#note-21">21</a></sup>
+</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th rowspan="3"><span class="sc">Material.</span></th>
+<th colspan="5"><span class="sc">Cost.</span></th>
+<th colspan="9"><small>100 LBS. CONTAIN.</small></th>
+<th colspan="5"></th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th colspan="3" rowspan="2">Per ton.</th>
+<th colspan="2" rowspan="2">Per 100 lbs.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Oil.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Starch, Sugar, &amp;c.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Oil, Starch, &amp;c., computed as Oil.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Nitrogen.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Phosphoric Acid.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Potash.</th>
+<th colspan="2" rowspan="2">Value of Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid, and Potash.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Deduct Nitrogen for perspiration.</th>
+<th colspan="2" rowspan="2">Net Value for Manure.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th>Weight.</th><th>Value.</th><th>Weight.</th><th>Value.</th><th>Weight.</th><th>Value.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td><th>£</th><th>s.</th><th>d.</th><th>s.</th><th>d.</th><th>lbs.</th><th>lbs.</th><th>lbs.</th><th>lbs.</th><th>d.</th><th>lbs.</th><th>d.</th><th>lbs.</th><th>d.</th><th>s.</th><th>d.</th><th>d.</th><th>s.</th><th>d.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">   Meadow-hay      </td><td> 4 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 0 </td><td>  3 </td><td> 7  </td><td>  2·68 </td><td>  39·75 </td><td>  24·63 </td><td>  1·48  </td><td> 10·62 </td><td>0·90</td><td>   1·35 </td><td>  1·50 </td><td>  4·50 </td><td>  1 </td><td> 4&frac12;  </td><td> 2<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>12</sub> </td><td> 1 </td><td>2&frac14; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Wheat-straw     </td><td> 1 </td><td>15 </td><td> 0 </td><td>  1 </td><td> 7  </td><td>  0·50 </td><td>  32·0  </td><td>  18·50 </td><td>  0·42  </td><td>  3·0  </td><td>0·14</td><td>   0·21 </td><td>  0·65 </td><td>  2·16 </td><td>  0 </td><td> 5      </td><td>   &frac12;  </td><td> 0 </td><td>5     </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Swedish Turnips </td><td> 4 </td><td>10 </td><td> 0 </td><td>  4 </td><td> 0  </td><td>  2·0  </td><td>  60·0  </td><td>  35·0  </td><td>  2·40  </td><td> 17·28 </td><td>0·80</td><td>   1·20 </td><td>  2·25 </td><td>  6·75 </td><td>  2 </td><td> 1&frac14;  </td><td> 3&frac12;  </td><td> 1 </td><td>9&frac34; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Oil-cake        </td><td> 9 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 8 </td><td>  8 </td><td> 4  </td><td> 12·0  </td><td>  38·0  </td><td>  33·0  </td><td>  5·0   </td><td> 36·0  </td><td>2·25</td><td>   3·37 </td><td>  1·75 </td><td>  5·25 </td><td>  3 </td><td> 8&frac12;  </td><td> 7&frac14;  </td><td> 3 </td><td>1&frac34; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Beans           </td><td> 9 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 8 </td><td>  8 </td><td> 4  </td><td>  2·0  </td><td>  42·0  </td><td>  25·30 </td><td>  4·45  </td><td> 32·0  </td><td>0·86</td><td>   1·29 </td><td>  1·11 </td><td>  3·33 </td><td>  3 </td><td> 0&frac12;  </td><td> 6&frac12;  </td><td> 2 </td><td>6     </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Indian Meal     </td><td> 9 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 8 </td><td>  8 </td><td> 4  </td><td>  7·0  </td><td>  60·0  </td><td>  40·0  </td><td>  2·25  </td><td> 16·20 </td><td>0·19</td><td>   0·28 </td><td>  0·17 </td><td>  0·51 </td><td>  1 </td><td> 5      </td><td> 3&frac14;  </td><td> 1 </td><td>1&frac34; </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">   Carob, or
+             Locust Bean   </td><td> 9 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 8 </td><td>  8 </td><td> 4  </td><td>  6·76 </td><td>  57·0  </td><td>  35·0  </td><td>  0·64  </td><td>  3·75 </td><td colspan="3" class="c">No analysis of ash.  </td><td>       </td><td colspan="2" class="c"> say 5&frac34;  </td><td class="c">   &mdash;   </td><td> 0 </td><td>5     </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page98" name="page98"></a>[98]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Bedding Cattle.</i>&mdash;Instead of wasting straw in bedding cattle, it would
+be much better to pass it through their bodies. If straw must be used
+for litter, let it be employed as economically as possible. Good
+substitutes, wholly or in part, for straw bedding may be found in
+sawdust, ashes, tan and ferns. Leaves of trees if procurable in
+quantity constitute an excellent litter.
+</p>
+<h4>
+SECTION II.
+</h4>
+<h5>
+THE SHEEP.
+</h5>
+<p>
+The management of sheep varies greatly&mdash;depending upon the breeds of
+the animal, the localities in which they are reared and fattened, and
+various economic conditions. The tupping season varies of course with
+the country: in Ireland it commences about the middle of September and
+lasts for two months; in England and parts of Scotland, the season is
+about a month earlier. The best kinds of sheep admit of being very early
+put to breed. Both ram and ewe are ready for this purpose when about
+fifteen months old. One ram is sufficient for about 80 ewes. The
+breeding flock should be in a sound, healthy condition, and the ram
+ought to be as near perfection as possible. The condition of the sire
+ought to be good, but at the same time it is not desirable to have him
+over fat. The more striking indications of good health in the sheep are
+dry eyes, red gums, sound teeth, smooth, oily skin, and regular
+rumination. The color of the excreta should be natural.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Breeding Ewes.</i>&mdash;After the tupping season, which generally lasts for
+a month, the sheep are usually put on a pasture, which need not be
+very rich. In cold situations ample shelter should be afforded to the
+breeding flocks; and in severe weather they should, if possible, be
+removed to sheds. When snow covers the ground, the animals must be
+supplied with turnips, or cooked food of some kind. At such time a
+little oil-cake will be found very useful.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page99" name="page99"></a>[99]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Yeaning.</i>&mdash;In March the yeaning season sets in; and as this time
+approaches, the food of the animals should be improved, and the greatest
+care must be taken of them. The shepherd should be unceasing in his
+watchfulness, frequently examining every individual animal. The lambing,
+if possible, ought to take place in sheds, or some covered place.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Rearing of Lambs.</i>&mdash;Delicate lambs require great care. Very weak ones
+often require to be hand fed. Should a mother die, her offspring may be
+placed with another ewe; on the other hand, should a lamb perish, its
+mother may be appointed to rear one of another ewe's twins (if such
+be available). The ram lambs, not intended for breeding purposes, are
+subjected to a necessary mutilation when they are about three weeks old.
+If this operation be performed later, there is great danger that fatal
+inflammatory action may set in; on the other hand, a lamb much younger
+than three weeks is hardly strong enough to bear the pain of the
+operation. The tails of the lambs are shortened about the same time;
+but it would be better in the case of the rams not to perform both
+operations on the same day. These operations are best performed during
+moist or cloudy weather; if they must be done on frosty or stormy
+days, the lambs should be kept under shelter for two or three days, as
+otherwise the cold might induce inflammation. The lambs remain with
+their mothers for about four months, after which they are weaned, and
+put upon a good pasture. When the herbage is poor, oil-cake, say &frac14; lb.
+daily, or some other nutritious food, should be used to supplement it.
+During the summer and part of the autumn the young stock, as a rule,
+subsist upon grass; but many flock-masters give them other kinds of food
+in addition. As winter approaches, the young sheep on tillage farms
+receive soft turnips, and sometimes a little hay or straw. The allowance
+of oil-cake may be increased to &frac12; lb., or if corn be cheap, it may be
+substituted for the oil-cake. After Christmas Swedish turnips are used.
+</p>
+<p>
+Mr. Mechi gives the following information on the subject of rearing
+lambs during a season when roots are scarce:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page100" name="page100"></a>[100]</span></p>
+
+<p class="quote">
+    Two hundred lambs, which cost 22s. 6d. each on September 12th,
+    were kept on leas and stubble until November 3rd, then on
+    turnips until December 19th, when fifty of them were drafted to
+    another flock getting a little cotton-cake. On the 3rd of February
+    fatting commenced with linseed-cake in addition to cut Swedes. On
+    the 7th of April the fifty tegs were put on rye with mangels, and
+    they were sold on the 4th of May at 61s. each.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    The remaining 150 lambs were wintered as stores at little cost,
+    on inferior turnips uncut; they were put on rye from March 8th
+    till May 4th, when they were valued at 48s. each.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    The district just referred to became so exhausted of its stock,
+    that at some of the later fairs the number of lambs and of ewes
+    exhibited was less than one-fourth of the average. But in Essex,
+    on six adjoining farms, including that from which I write, the
+    number of sheep wintered has been greater than these heavy lands
+    ever carried before. This has been effected by the extension of
+    a system of management often practised on heavy land, that of
+    eking out a scanty supply of green food by a liberal allowance
+    of straw, chaff, and grain; which happily were good in quality,
+    as well as plentiful and low in price in 1864.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    By these means we were enabled last winter to keep 1,500 sheep
+    on about 650 acres of arable, and 350 acres of dry upland
+    pasture&mdash;chiefly park surrounding a mansion. The arable land
+    does not very well bear folding in winter, as a preparation for
+    spring corn. Neither climate nor soil are favorable to turnips,
+    and notwithstanding our efforts in assisting Nature, our crops
+    of turnips, rape, or Swedes, are never first-rate, and sometimes
+    very bad. Strong stubbles, good beans, clover-seed, and mangel,
+    are the specialities of the locality, and they indicate heavy
+    land, corn-growing, and yard-feeding. Sheep have been generally
+    "conspicuous by their absence," though even the heavy-land farmer
+    is glad to winter a yard of them instead of cattle, that he may
+    keep some, at least, of the stock that pays best.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    In the autumn of 1864 our root crops consisted of some white
+    turnips and rape, eaten by the ewes in September, and of a very
+    bad crop of mangel, the whole of which was reserved for the ewes
+    at lambing-time. In this predicament we wintered about 1,000
+    half-bred lambs, more than 400 ewes, and some fatting sheep.
+    All, except the fatting sheep, were folded on the stubbles, and
+    allowed a daily run on the park of about an hour for each flock.
+    The freshest grass was reserved for the ewes, and a very meagre
+    bite remained for the lambs; in fact, except for a few weeks
+    in autumn, the parks afforded them little or nothing except
+    exercise and water.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    The flocks were divided between three separate farms, and their
+    food was prepared at the respective homesteads. The treatment
+    was in every
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page101" name="page101"></a>[101]</span>
+
+                 respect similar; we shall therefore only notice in
+    detail the management at one farm.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    The following details are taken from our "Live Stock Book:"&mdash;
+</p>
+
+
+<table class="open" style="width: 90%;" border="0" align="center" summary="Extracts from stock book.">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="6">    EXTRACTS FROM STOCK BOOK.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="5"><i>Lambs.</i></th></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="4">Payments.</th>
+<td rowspan="15" style="border-right: thin solid black;"></td>
+<th style="width: 30%;">Remarks.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="4"><i>November 4th, 1864.</i></th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                                                   </td><th>  £ </th><th>s.</th><th>d. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">    352 lambs, cost at date, 30s. 9&frac12;d. each     </td><td> 542</td><td> 2</td><td> 3 </td><td class="l">   Total cost of keeping 352 lambs for 24 weeks, £298 4s. 3d. </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    <i>Cost of keeping 24 weeks to April 21, 1865:&mdash;</i></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="l">  Cost per head, 16s. 11d. </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Corn and cake, as per granary book             </td><td> 245</td><td>16</td><td> 9 </td><td class="l">   Cost, food only, 14s. 11d. </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Cutting 25 tons of chaff, at 6s.               </td><td>   7</td><td>13</td><td> 0 </td><td class="l">   Value of the manure, reckoned at one-fifth the cost of the corn and cake, £49 3s. 4d. </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Grinding 96 qrs. 6 bshls. of corn, at 9d.      </td><td>   3</td><td>12</td><td> 6 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Attendance, at 19s. 10d. per week              </td><td>  23</td><td>16</td><td> 0 </td><td class="l">   Cost of the lambs, per head, £2 7s. 8d. </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Horse labor, at 6s. per week                   </td><td>   7</td><td> 4</td><td> 0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Coal, 3s. 2d. per week                         </td><td>   3</td><td>16</td><td> 0 </td><td class="l">   Value of manure, per head, 2s. 10d. </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Use of 21 troughs, at 3d. each per month       </td><td>   1</td><td>11</td><td> 6 </td><td class="l">   No charge made for the straw-chaff eaten on the land. </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Use of 180 hurdles, at 1d. each per month      </td><td>   4</td><td>10</td><td> 0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    1&frac12; cwt. of rock salt                        </td><td>   0</td><td> 4</td><td> 6 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td colspan="4">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;<br />&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                   </td><td>£840</td><td> 6</td><td> 6 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class="quote">
+    The tegs would probably have been sold at a profit in April;
+    they were, however, put on grass and clover, and were fattened
+    in the summer.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    <i>September 29th.</i>&mdash;352 lambs in the parks, on a little cotton-cake
+    and some oats, until November 4th, when they were folded on a wheat
+    stubble. Gave them 5 bushels of meal daily, mixed with 468 lb. of
+    straw chaff. Cost 3&frac12;d. each per week for meal.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    <i>December 20th.</i>&mdash;Increased the food to 6&frac12; bushels of meal and
+    1 bushel of oil-cake.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    <i>December 18th.</i>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table  class="open" border="0" align="center" width="50%" summary="Extracts from stock book.">
+
+<tr><td></td><th>                                                        lb.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    2&#190;   bushels of maize crushed and boiled          </td><td>143 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    4&frac12; bushels of mixed meal                        </td><td>200 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    1 bushel of oil-cake                               </td><td> 50 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td colspan="2">                                      &mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">                                                    393</td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td colspan="2">                                      &mdash;&mdash;<br />&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page102" name="page102"></a>[102]</span></p>
+
+<p class="quote">
+    Cost 5&frac12;d. per week for corn and cake; chaff, 2&frac14; lb. each,
+    between these and the ewes, the lambs eating rather less than
+    2 lb. each.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    Eight pounds of rock-salt licked up by the 352 lambs per week.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    <i>January 23rd.</i>&mdash;The food was increased to 7&frac12; bushels of meal,
+    2 bushels of oil-cake, and 2 bushels of rape-cake.
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" width="90%" summary="Feed mixtures and associated cost">
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">    Mixture of Corn. </th>
+<td rowspan="8" style="border-right: thin solid black;"></td>
+<th colspan="3">    Cost per stone (14 lb.) </th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td>                      </td><td>                   </td><td>                       </td><td>s.  </td><td> d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Wheat   </td><td class="c">4 parts. </td><td class="l">    Wheat    </td><td>1   </td><td> 0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Barley  </td><td class="c">4   "    </td><td class="l">    Barley   </td><td>0   </td><td>10 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Oats    </td><td class="c">2   "    </td><td class="l">    Oats     </td><td>1   </td><td> 0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Maize   </td><td class="c">4   "    </td><td class="l">    Maize    </td><td>0   </td><td>10 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>                      </td><td>                   </td><td class="l">    Oil-cake </td><td>1   </td><td> 4&frac14; </td></tr>
+<tr><td>                      </td><td>                   </td><td class="l">    Rape-cake</td><td>0   </td><td> 9 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+<i>Sheep Feeding.</i>&mdash;In Ireland sheep are often exclusively fed on grass;
+but in most cases the addition of other food is desirable, and more
+especially is it necessary during winter. When confined to roots, sheep,
+on an average, consume about 26 lbs. daily, unless when under shelter,
+which diminishes the quantity by from five to ten per cent. Some sheep
+on which Dr. Voelcker experimented were fed as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" width="50%" summary="Feed mixture">
+
+<tr><td>                                               </td><th>lbs. </th><th> ounces. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Mangel wurtzel                               </td><td class="c"> 19  </td><td class="c"> 8 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Chopped clover hay                           </td><td class="c">  1  </td><td class="c">   <sup>3</sup>&#8260;<sub>10</sub> </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Linseed cake                                 </td><td class="c">  0  </td><td class="c"> 4 <sup>8</sup>&#8260;<sub>100</sub> </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td colspan="3">                               &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                      Total    </td><td class="c"> 20  </td><td class="c">15 <sup>38</sup>&#8260;<sub>100</sub> </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+On this diet four sheep were maintained from the 22nd of March until
+the 10th of May, a period of forty-seven days. The weights were as
+follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" width="65%" align="center" summary="Weights of sheep fed on previous mixture">
+
+<tr><td>                 </td><th>22nd Mar.      </th><th>10th May.              </th><th>Gain.                </th></tr>
+<tr><td class="l"> No. 1 </td><td class="c"> 153 </td><td class="c"> 170&frac12; </td><td class="c">17&frac12; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l"> No. 2 </td><td class="c"> 134 </td><td class="c"> 151&frac12; </td><td class="c">17&frac12; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l"> No. 3 </td><td class="c"> 170 </td><td class="c"> 187         </td><td class="c">17&frac12; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l"> No. 4 </td><td class="c"> 136 </td><td class="c"> 155         </td><td class="c">19         </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+This experiment shows that the sheep can increase in weight on a daily
+allowance of food, much less than is usually given to them; but it will
+be found that growing sheep will usually consume a greater quantity of
+food than that used by Dr. Voelcker's fattening animals.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page103" name="page103"></a>[103]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+Sheep washing is performed before the animal is shorn. It is a process
+which should never be neglected, as dirty wool is certain to bring a
+less price than the same quality would if clean. After being washed,
+sheep should be kept in dry pasture for about ten days in order to allow
+the loss of yolk removed by the washing to be repaired; they will then
+be in proper condition for the shearer.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Sheep Dips</i> are used for the purpose of removing parasites from the
+animal's skin. They often contain arsenic, or bichloride of mercury
+(corrosive sublimate), which are very objectionable ingredients. The
+glycerine sheep dip, prepared by Messrs. Hendrick and Guerin, of London,
+is a safe mixture, as it is free from mineral poisons, whilst the tar
+substances which it includes, act as a powerful cleanser of the skin,
+without injuriously affecting the yolk of the wool.
+</p>
+
+<h4>
+SECTION III.
+</h4>
+<h5>
+THE PIG.
+</h5>
+<p>
+In the breeding of pigs, as in the breeding of other kinds of stock,
+great care should be taken in the selection of both sire and dam. A good
+pig should have a small head, short nose, plump cheek, a compact body,
+short neck, and thin but very hairy skin, and short legs. The black
+breed is considered to be more hardy than the white; and pure&mdash;all black
+or all white&mdash;colors as a rule indicate the purest blood.
+</p>
+<p>
+The sow should not be bred from until she is a year old, and the boar
+especially should not be employed at an earlier age. Although one boar
+is sometimes left with forty pigs and even a greater number, he will not
+be able to serve more than a dozen about the same time, if vigorous
+progeny be expected. The sow's regular period of gestation is 113 days;
+she can have two litters a year, and in each there are from five to
+fourteen young. Moderate sized litters are the best, the young of very
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page104" name="page104"></a>[104]</span>
+
+ numerous ones being often weakly. The best time to rear young pigs is
+during the warm or mild parts of the year.
+</p>
+<p>
+During gestation the sow should be liberally fed, but not with excessive
+amounts. The food at this time should rather excel in quality than in
+quantity; but so soon as she begins to nurse, her allowance must be
+increased, and may be rendered more stimulating. For a week or so before
+farrowing, the sow ought to be kept alone. Its sty should not be too
+small&mdash;not less than 8 or 10 feet square&mdash;for pigs require good air in
+abundance as well as other animals.
+</p>
+<p>
+The straw used for litter should neither be too abundant nor too long;
+in the latter case some of the young might be covered by it, and
+escaping the notice of the sow, might unconsciously be crushed by the
+latter. If the young are very feeble, it may become necessary to
+hand-feed them. Some sows eat their young: and when they have this
+habit, the better plan is to cease breeding from them; for it appears to
+be incurable. After parturition some bran and liquid or semi-liquid food
+should be given to the sow.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Young Pigs</i> subsist exclusively on their mother's milk but for a short
+time. In two or three weeks they may receive skimmed or butter-milk from
+the dairy. At a month old such of them as are not designed for breeding
+purposes may be subjected to the usual mutilations; and at from five to
+six weeks old the young are weaned, and converted into <i>stores</i>.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Store Pigs</i>, when young, are best fed upon skimmed milk, oatmeal,
+and potatoes, in a cooked state. When they are approaching three months
+old, they may be supplied with raw food, if the weather be warm;
+but in winter, cooked and warm food will be found the more economical.
+Cabbages, roots, potatoes, and all kinds of grain that are cheap are
+used in pig feeding. The number of meals varies from six or seven in the
+case of very young animals, to three in the case of those nearly ready
+for fattening. Store pigs should be allowed a few hours' exercise daily
+in a paddock, or field, or at least in a large yard.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page105" name="page105"></a>[105]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+The dietaries of store pigs vary greatly, for these animals being
+omnivorous readily eat almost every kind of food. Mr. Baldwin, of Bredon
+House, near Birmingham, an extensive pig breeder, gave (in 1862) stores
+the following allowance:&mdash;At three months old, a quart of peas, Egyptian
+beans, or Indian corn. He considered English beans to be too <i>heating</i>
+for young pigs. The animals were allowed the <i>run</i> of a grass field.
+On this diet the stores were kept until they were eight months old
+(increasing at the average rate of five pounds per week), after which
+they were allowed an extra half-pint of corn. He calculated the weekly
+cost as follows:&mdash;Dry food, 1s.; grass, 2d.; man's time, 1d.; total, 1s.
+3d. These results yielded a profit of 1s. per week per pig, pork being
+at the time 6d. per lb. Some feeders give young store pigs half-a-pint
+of peas, mixed with pulped mangel, and the quantum of peas is gradually
+increased to one pint per diem. All kinds of food-refuse from the house
+are welcomed by the pig. Skins, dripping, damaged potatoes, cabbage,
+&amp;c., may be given to them; but they should not be altogether substituted
+for the ordinary food-stuffs. Coal-dust, cinders, mortar rubbish, and
+similar substances are often swallowed by pigs, and sometimes even
+given to them by the feeder. In certain cases Lawes and Gilbert found
+that superphosphate of lime was a useful addition to the food of pigs.
+A little salt should invariably be given, more especially if mangels
+(which are rich in salt) do not enter into the animals' dietary.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Fattening Pigs.</i>&mdash;For some time before store pigs are put up to be
+fattened, the quality and quantity of their food should be increased,
+for it is not economy to put a rather lean animal suddenly upon a very
+fattening diet. The sty should be well supplied with clean litter, and
+should be darkened. Three feeds per diem will be a sufficient number,
+and the remains (if any) of one should be removed from the trough before
+the fresh feed is put into it. The feeding trough (which should be made
+of iron) should be so constructed that the animals cannot place their
+fore feet in it. The pig is naturally a clean animal, and therefore it
+should be washed occasionally, as there is every
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page106" name="page106"></a>[106]</span>
+
+                                                  reason to believe
+that such a procedure will tend to promote the animal's health. It
+should be supplied with clean water.
+</p>
+<p>
+In Stephen's "Book of the Farm," it is stated that two pecks of
+steamed potatoes, and 9 lbs. of barley-meal, given every day to a pig
+weighing from 24 to 28 stones, will fatten it perfectly in nine weeks.
+Barley-meal is largely used in England as food for pigs. It is given
+generally in the form of a thin paste, and in large quantities. Lawes
+and Gilbert found that 1 cwt. of barley-meal given to pigs increased
+their weight by 22&frac12; lbs. Indian meal is fully equal, if it is not
+superior to barley-meal, as food for pigs; and for this purpose it is
+far more extensively employed in Ireland. Every kind of grain given to
+pigs should be ground and cooked. In Scotland pigs are often fattened
+solely on from 28 to 35 lbs. of barley-meal weekly, and mangels or
+turnips <i>ad libitum</i>. Pollard is a good food for pigs, being rich in
+muscle-forming materials; it is a good addition to very fatty or starchy
+food. A mixture of pollard and palm-nut meal is an excellent fattening
+food. Potatoes are now so dear, that they are seldom&mdash;unless the very
+worst and diseased kinds&mdash;used in pig feeding. They should never be
+given raw. The more inferior feeding-stuffs should be used up first in
+the fattening of pigs, and the more valuable and concentrated kinds
+during the latter part of the process.
+</p>
+<h4>
+SECTION IV.
+</h4>
+<h5>
+THE HORSE.
+</h5>
+<p>
+The horse is subject to many diseases, not a few of which arise from the
+defective state of his stable. The best kinds of stables are large and
+lofty, well ventilated and drained, smoothly paved, and well provided
+with means for admitting the direct sunlight. The walls should be
+whitewashed occasionally, and for disinfecting and general sanitary
+purposes, four ounces of
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page107" name="page107"></a>[107]</span>
+
+                         chloride of lime (bleaching powder) mixed with
+each bucket of whitewash, will be found extremely useful.
+</p>
+<p>
+Farm horses are kept in stalls, which should not be less than six feet
+wide, and (exclusive of rack and rere passage) 10 feet long. For hunters
+and thorough-breds, <i>loose boxes</i> are now generally used.
+</p>
+<p>
+The mare commences to breed at four years, and the period of gestation
+is 340 days. She may be worked until within a fortnight of the time at
+which parturition is expected to occur. After foaling, the mare should
+be turned into a grass field (unless the weather is severe) and kept
+there idly for three or four weeks.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Foals</i> are kept with their mothers until they are about five or six
+months old: after weaning, their food must be tender and nutritious&mdash;well
+bruised oats, cut hay, bean or oatmeal mashes; carrots are very
+suitable.
+</p>
+<p>
+Working horses are fed chiefly upon oats and hay, which undoubtedly are
+the best foods for these animals, both being rich in muscle-forming
+materials. Bruised oats are far more economical than the whole grains:
+and if the animals eat too rapidly, that habit is easily overcome by
+mixing chopped straw or hay with the grain.
+</p>
+<p>
+According to Playfair, a horse not working can subsist and remain in
+fair condition on a daily allowance of 12 lbs. of hay and 5 lbs. of
+oats. According to the same authority, a working horse should receive
+14 lbs. of hay, 12 lbs. of oats, and 2 lbs. of beans.
+</p>
+<p>
+Beans are a very concentrated food, rich in flesh-formers, and are,
+therefore, well adapted for sustaining hard-working horses. They are
+rather <i>binding</i>; but this property is easily neutralised by combining
+the beans with some laxative food. Turnips, carrots, furze, and various
+other foods are given to the horse, often in large quantities. The
+following are some among the many dietaries on which this animal
+is kept:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p>
+Professor Low's formula is, 30 to 35 lbs. of a mixture of equal parts
+of chopped straw, chopped hay, bruised grain, and steamed potatoes.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page108" name="page108"></a>[108]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+The daily rations of horses of the London Omnibus Company, are 16 lbs.
+of bruised oats, 7&frac12; lbs. of cut hay, and 2&frac12; lbs. of chopped straw.
+</p>
+<p>
+Stage coach-horses in the United States receive daily about 19 lbs. of
+Indian meal and 13 lbs. of cut hay.
+</p>
+<p>
+Mr. Robertson, of Clandeboye, near Belfast, gives the following
+information on the subject of horse-keeping:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p class="quote">
+    The year we divide into three periods&mdash;October, November to
+    May inclusive, June to September inclusive. During the first
+    period, the horses get about 18 lb. of chaff and 12 lb. of
+    crushed oats and beans; "10&frac12; oats and 1&frac12; beans" per head
+    per day. During the second period they get about 15 lb. of hay
+    chaff, 12 lb. of crushed oats and beans, and about 3 gallons
+    of boiled turnips per head per day. During the third period
+    they were turned out to graze during the night. In the day time,
+    whilst in the stable, each animal is allowed about 50 lb. of cut
+    clover, and about 12 lb. of crushed oats and beans per day. The
+    feeding is all under the charge of one person. He uses his own
+    discretion in feeding the animals, though he is not allowed to
+    exceed the quantities named. The horses to which I allude are the
+    same on which the experiments commenced two years ago&mdash;six cart
+    horses, one cart pony, and one riding horse. From Sept. 1, 1865,
+    to and including August 31, 1866, the cost of maintaining these
+    horses in good working condition; keeping the carts, harness,
+    &amp;c., in repair; shoeing, c., was as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Cost of maintaining horses, Sept. 1, 1865 to Aug. 31, 1866">
+
+<tr><td class="l">    Oats, 14 tons, at 16s. per cwt.                </td><td>£112 </td><td> 0  </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Beans, 2 tons, at 18s. per cwt.                </td><td>  18 </td><td> 0  </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Hay, 13 tons, at 30s. per ton                  </td><td>  19 </td><td>10  </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Green Clover                                   </td><td>  15 </td><td> 0  </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Turnips                                        </td><td>   5 </td><td> 0  </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Night grazing                                  </td><td>  18 </td><td> 0  </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Engine, cutting chaff, crushing oats, &amp;c.      </td><td>   7 </td><td> 4  </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Attendance                                     </td><td>  26 </td><td> 0  </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Blacksmith                                     </td><td>  12 </td><td> 0  </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Saddler                                        </td><td>  12 </td><td> 0  </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Carpenter                                      </td><td>  10 </td><td> 0  </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Five per cent. interest on value, £110         </td><td>   5 </td><td>10  </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Depreciation in value 10 per cent.             </td><td>  11 </td><td> 0  </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>                                               </td><td colspan="3"> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                             </td><td>£271 </td><td> 4  </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Deduct cost of riding horse</td><td>  35 </td><td> 0  </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>                                               </td><td colspan="3"> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                             </td><td>£236 </td><td> 4  </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page109" name="page109"></a>[109]</span></p>
+
+<p class="quote" style="text-indent: 0;">
+    £33 11s. 10d. per head; if we suppose the available working
+    days to be 300, allowing 13 for wet days, holidays, &amp;c., the
+    daily cost will be 2s. 2&frac12;d.; to this if we add 1s. 8d.,
+    the wages of the driver, we shall have a total of 3s. 10&frac12;d.
+    as the cost of a horse, cart, and driver per day. I would only
+    add, in conclusion, that the horses are kept in good working
+    condition; and, as a proof of their good health under this
+    system, I may state that during the past two years we have not
+    had occasion to require the services of a veterinary surgeon.
+</p>
+<p>
+Musty hay or straw should not be given to horses. Furze is said to be
+a heating food; but it is very nutritious, and when young, may be given
+as <i>part</i> of the food of the horse.
+</p>
+<p>
+Boiled turnips and mangels are often given in winter; but they are
+not sufficiently nutritious to constitute a substantial portion of the
+animal's diet. Oil-cake is occasionally given to horses; but seldom in
+larger quantities than 1&frac12; lbs. per diem. On the whole, experience is
+in favor of occasionally giving cooked food to horses; and the practice
+meets with the full approval of the veterinarian. To most kinds of food
+for horses, the addition of one or two ounces of salt is necessary.
+</p>
+<p>
+In the <i>Agricultural Gazette</i> for November 25, 1865, the following
+instructive tables are given:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Feed mixtures and cost for autumn, by stable">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="8">  STABLE FEEDING DURING AUTUMN.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th> No. </th><th>Name and Address of Authorities. </th><th> Hay. </th><th> Oats. </th><th>Beans. </th><th>Clover, &amp;c. </th><th colspan="2">Weekly Cost. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>      </td><td>                         </td><td class="c"> lb.     </td><td class="c"> lb.    </td><td class="c"> lb.   </td><td>          </td><td class="c"> s.</td><td class="c"> d. </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="c">   1  </td><td class="l">W. Gater, Botley         </td><td> 168     </td><td> 63*    </td><td> 32*   </td><td class="c"> ...      </td><td>12 </td><td> 0&nbsp; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c">   2  </td><td class="l">W. C. Spooner            </td><td> 112     </td><td> 84     </td><td> 24    </td><td class="c"> ...      </td><td>11 </td><td> 0&nbsp; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c">   3  </td><td class="l">T. Aitken, Spalding.     </td><td class="c"> ...     </td><td> 37&frac12; </td><td class="c"> ...   </td><td class="c">ad lib.   </td><td> 7 </td><td> 6? </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c">   4  </td><td class="l">T. Aitken, Spalding.     </td><td class="c"> ...     </td><td> 37&frac12; </td><td> 35    </td><td class="c">ad lib.   </td><td>10 </td><td> 0? </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c">   5  </td><td class="l">T. P. Dods, Hexham.      </td><td class="c"> ...     </td><td>105     </td><td class="c"> ...   </td><td class="c">ad lib.   </td><td>10 </td><td> 6? </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c">   6  </td><td class="l">T. P. Dods, Hexham.      </td><td class="c">ad lib.  </td><td>105     </td><td class="c"> ...   </td><td class="c"> ...      </td><td>10 </td><td> 6? </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c">   7  </td><td class="l">A. Ruston, I. of Ely.    </td><td class="c">ad lib. &frac12; </td><td> 84     </td><td> 10    </td><td class="c">Straw ad lib.<br /> &frac12; Bran.<br /> <sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>3</sub> bush.  </td><td> 9 </td><td> 0&nbsp; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c">   8  </td><td class="l">A. Simpson, Beauly       </td><td> 168     </td><td> 70     </td><td> 14    </td><td class="c">24 lb.<br /> Straw. </td><td>10 </td><td> 0&nbsp; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c">   9  </td><td class="l">H. J. Wilson, Mansfield  </td><td class="c"> ...     </td><td> 52&frac12; </td><td class="c"> ...   </td><td class="c">ad lib.   </td><td> 7 </td><td> 3? </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="c">  10  </td><td class="l">H. J. Wilson, Mansfield  </td><td>  42     </td><td> 87&frac12; </td><td class="c"> ...   </td><td class="c">ad lib.   </td><td> 9 </td><td> 0&nbsp; </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td class="c" colspan="8">  In this table the asterisk (*) means that the grain is crushed or ground.</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page110" name="page110"></a>[110]</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Feed mixtures and cost for winter, by stable">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="10">  STABLE FEEDING DURING WINTER.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th> No.</th><th>Name and Address. </th><th> Hay. </th><th> Oats. </th><th>Beans.</th><th> Roots. </th><th>Sundries.</th><th>Straw.</th><th colspan="2">Weekly Cost.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>     </td><td>                   </td><th> lb. </th><th> lb.    </th><th>lb.  </th><th>   lb.   </th><th>    lb.  </th><th>  lb. </th><th> s.</th><th> d. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="c">  1 </td><td class="l">Professor Low&mdash;Elements of Agriculture </td><td class="c"> 56* </td><td class="c"> 56*    </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c">Potatoes<br />  56+ </td><td class="c">   ...             </td><td class="c">  56*        </td><td> 6 </td><td> 6  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c">  2 </td><td class="l">H. Stephens&mdash;Book of the Farm          </td><td class="c">112  </td><td class="c"> 35     </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c">Turnips<br />  112  </td><td class="c">   ...             </td><td class="c">  ...        </td><td> 6 </td><td> 0  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c">  3 </td><td class="l">J. Gibson, Woolmet&mdash;H. Soc. 1850       </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c"> 84     </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c">Potatoes<br /> 217+ </td><td class="c">   217+            </td><td class="c"> 112         </td><td> 9 </td><td> 0  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c">  4 </td><td class="l">&mdash;&mdash; Binnie, Seaton               </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c"> 70*    </td><td class="c"> 28* </td><td class="c">Barley<br />   243+ </td><td class="c">    42+            </td><td class="c">ad lib.      </td><td>11 </td><td> 6  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c">  5 </td><td class="l">&mdash;&mdash; Thomson, Hangingside         </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c"> 84     </td><td class="c"> 14  </td><td class="c">               336  </td><td class="c">    14             </td><td class="c">ad lib.      </td><td> 9 </td><td> 6  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c">  6 </td><td class="l">W. C. Spooner, Ag. Soc. Journ. vol. ix.     </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c"> 63     </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c">                42  </td><td class="c">   ...             </td><td class="c"> 196         </td><td> 4 </td><td> 9  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c">  7 </td><td class="l">T. Aitken, Spalding, Lincolnshire   </td><td class="c">ad lib. (<sup>2</sup>&#8260;<sub>3</sub>)</td><td class="c"> 37     </td><td class="c"> 35  </td><td class="c">               ...  </td><td class="c">   ...             </td><td class="c">ad lib. (<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>3</sub>)</td><td> 9 </td><td> 0  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c">  8 </td><td class="l">G. W. Baker, Woburn, Bedfordshire           </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c"> 60*    </td><td class="c"> 20* </td><td class="c">               ...  </td><td class="c">   ...             </td><td class="c"> ...         </td><td> 9 </td><td> 8  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c">  9 </td><td class="l">R. Baker, Writtle, Essex                    </td><td class="c"> 70  </td><td class="c"> 42     </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c">               ...  </td><td class="c">   ...             </td><td class="c"> 140         </td><td> 5 </td><td> 0  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c"> 10 </td><td class="l">J. Coleman, Cirencester                     </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c"> 84     </td><td class="c"> 16  </td><td class="c">               ...  </td><td class="c">   ...             </td><td class="c">ad lib.      </td><td> 7 </td><td> 3  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c"> 11 </td><td class="l">T. P. Dods, Hexham                          </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c"> 95     </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c">                56  </td><td class="c">   ...             </td><td class="c">ad lib.      </td><td> 8 </td><td> 0  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c"> 12 </td><td class="l">J. Cobban, Whitfield                        </td><td class="c"> 84* </td><td class="c"> 60*    </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c">               ...  </td><td class="c">Linseed<br /> 3&frac12;</td><td class="c">ad lib.*     </td><td> 7 </td><td> 3  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c"> 13 </td><td class="l">S. Druce, jun., Ensham                      </td><td class="c">112  </td><td class="c"> 52     </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c">Swedes<br /> 70     </td><td class="c">   ...             </td><td class="c"> 2 bu.*      </td><td> 7 </td><td> 0  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c"> 14 </td><td class="l">C. Howard, Biddenham                        </td><td class="c">(<sup>2</sup>&#8260;<sub>3</sub>)</td><td class="c"> 52     </td><td class="c"> 17  </td><td class="c">                84  </td><td class="c">   ...             </td><td class="c">ad lib. <sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>3</sub>* </td><td> 8 </td><td> 6? </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c"> 15 </td><td class="l">J. J. Mechi, Tiptree.                       </td><td class="c"> 49* </td><td class="c"> 70*    </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c">M. Wurzel<br /> 210 </td><td class="c">   ...             </td><td class="c">ad lib.*     </td><td> 7 </td><td> 6  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c"> 16 </td><td class="l">W. J. Pope, Bridport                        </td><td class="c">  2* </td><td class="c"> 84     </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c">               ...  </td><td class="c">   ...             </td><td class="c">ad lib.      </td><td> 9 </td><td> 0? </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c"> 17 </td><td class="l">S. Rich, Didmarton, Gloucestershire         </td><td class="c">168  </td><td class="c"> 63     </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c">               ...  </td><td class="c">Grains<br />2 bush.</td><td class="c">ad lib.      </td><td>10 </td><td> 8  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c"> 18 </td><td class="l">H. E. Sadler, Lavant, Sussex                </td><td class="c">140  </td><td class="c"> 84     </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c">               ...  </td><td class="c">   ...             </td><td class="c">  ...        </td><td> 9 </td><td> 9  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c"> 19 </td><td class="l">J. Morton, Whitfield Farm                   </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c">126     </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c">Carrots<br /> 350   </td><td class="c">   ...             </td><td class="c">ad lib.      </td><td>10 </td><td> 9  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c"> 20 </td><td class="l">E. H.  Sandford, Dover                      </td><td class="c"> 56  </td><td class="c"> 42     </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c">               ...  </td><td class="c">Bran<br />12       </td><td class="c">ad lib.      </td><td> 5 </td><td> 6  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c"> 21 </td><td class="l">A. Simpson, Beauly, N.B.                    </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c"> 49     </td><td class="c">  7  </td><td class="c">               105  </td><td class="c">Tail Corn<br />21  </td><td class="c">ad lib.*     </td><td> 5 </td><td> 6  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c"> 22 </td><td class="l">H. J. Wilson, Mansfield                     </td><td class="c"> 42  </td><td class="c"> 52&frac12; </td><td class="c">...  </td><td class="c">               ...  </td><td class="c">Bran<br />21       </td><td class="c">ad lib.      </td><td> 6 </td><td> 6? </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="c"> 23 </td><td class="l">F. Sowerby, Aylesby, North Lincolnshire     </td><td class="c">112  </td><td class="c"> 28     </td><td class="c" colspan="2">Cut Oat Sheaf.</td>        <td class="c">   ...             </td><td class="c">ad lib.*     </td><td> 8 </td><td> 0? </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1">
+<td class="c" colspan="10">
+Where an asterisk (*) is attached to any item, it is to be understood
+that the corn has been bruised or ground, or the hay or straw has been
+cut into chaff. Where a dagger (+) is appended, the article so marked
+has been boiled or steamed. A mark of interrogation (?) indicates that
+the result so marked is uncertain, owing to some indefiniteness in the
+account given.
+</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page111" name="page111"></a>[111]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+On feeding horses with pulped roots, Mr. Slater, of Weston Colville,
+Cambridgeshire, says:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    I give all my cart horses a bushel per day of pulped mangel, mixed
+    with straw and corn-chaff. I begin in September, and continue using
+    them all winter and until late in the summer, nearly, if not quite,
+    all the year round, beginning, however, with smaller quantities,
+    about a peck, and then half a bushel, the first week or two, as too
+    many of the young-growing mangel would not suit the stock. I believe
+    pulped mangels, with chaff, are the best, cheapest, and most healthy
+    food horses can eat. I always find my horses miss them when I have
+    none, late in the summer. I give them fresh ground every day. Young
+    store beasts, colts, &amp;c., do well with them.
+</p>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<a name="note-19"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-19">19</a>)
+Five pounds of linseed will make about seven gallons of
+gruel, and suffice for five good-sized calves; considerable allowance
+must, however, be made for differences of quality in the linseed, that
+from India not being gelatinous enough, and therefore boiling hard,
+instead of "coming down kindly."
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-20"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-20">20</a>)
+"Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society," vol. xxxix.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-21"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-21">21</a>)
+From Mr. Horsfall's Essay on Dairy Management, in "Journal
+of Royal Agricultural Society," vol. xviii., part i.
+</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page112" name="page112"></a>[112]</span></p>
+
+<a name="h2H_4_0008" id="h2H_4_0008"><!-- H2 anchor --></a>
+
+<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+<h2>
+    PART IV.
+</h2>
+<h3>
+    MEAT, MILK, AND BUTTER.
+</h3>
+<h4>
+SECTION I.
+</h4>
+<h5>
+MEAT.
+</h5>
+<p>
+No one ought to feel a greater interest in the subject of meat in
+all its branches than the stock feeder. Just in proportion as this
+kind of food is agreeable to the taste, easily digestible, and rich in
+nutriment, will the demand for it increase. The quality of meat is, in
+fact, a primary consideration with the producer of that article; and he
+whose beef and mutton are the most tender and the best flavored will
+make the most profit.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Quality of Meat.</i>&mdash;The flesh of herbivorous animals is composed of
+muscular and adipose (fatty) tissues. The muscles consist of bundles of
+elastic fibres (<i>fibrine</i>), enclosed in an albuminous tissue formed of
+little vessels, termed cells, and intimately commingled with water, and
+a mixture of albuminous, fatty, and saline matters. The leanest flesh
+(muscles) contains fat, but the latter accumulates in certain parts of
+the body&mdash;often to such an extent as to seriously interfere with the
+functions of life. The red color of flesh is due to a rather large
+proportion of blood, which it contains in minute vessels; and the slight
+acidity of its juice is owing to the presence of <i>inosinic</i> acid, and
+probably of several other acids. The agreeable odour of meat, when it
+is subjected to the process of cooking, is developed from a complex
+substance termed <i>osmazome</i>.<sup><a name="noteref-22"><!--22--></a><a href="#note-22">22</a></sup>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page113" name="page113"></a>[113]</span>
+
+                                This constituent varies in nature and
+quantity in the different animals&mdash;hence the variety in flavor and odour
+of their flesh&mdash;and its amount increases with the age of the animal.
+The albumen of the muscles, and their fatty and saline constituents,
+are digestible; but it is generally believed that the elastic fibres,
+and the horny cellular tissue which binds them into bundles, are not
+assimilable. It is more certain that the crystalline substances found in
+flesh, such as, for example, <i>kreatine</i>, are incapable of ministering to
+the nutrition of animals.
+</p>
+<p>
+The composition of flesh varies very much&mdash;that of a very obese pig
+containing more than half its weight of fat, whilst in some specimens
+of "jerked beef," imported from Monte Video, scarcely 5 per cent. of
+that substance was found. The flesh of a fat ox has on an average the
+following composition:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average composition of flesh of fat ox">
+
+<tr><td></td><th>Per cent.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                                           </td><td> 45 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fatty substances                                </td><td> 35 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Lean flesh, or muscle                           </td><td> 15 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matters                                 </td><td>  5 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>                                                  </td><td>&nbsp;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>            Total                                 </td><td>100 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+I have examined for Dr. Morgan several specimens of the corned beef
+recently prepared in South America, by "Morgan's process." The following
+were the average results of three analyses:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of corned beef">
+
+<tr><td></td><th>Per cent.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                                           </td><td> 40 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fatty matters                                   </td><td> 21 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Lean, or muscular flesh                         </td><td> 27 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matters (chiefly common salt)           </td><td> 12 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="total"><td>                                                  </td><td>&nbsp;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>            Total                                 </td><td>100 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+It may not here be out of place to direct attention to the composition
+of a kind of animal food extensively purchased by the poorer classes,
+and known under the term of slink veal. It is the flesh of calves that
+are killed on the first day of their existence, and also, I have reason
+to believe, that of very immature animals&mdash;of calves that have never
+breathed. The flesh is of a
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page114" name="page114"></a>[114]</span>
+
+                            very loose texture naturally, and is still
+further puffed out by air, which is usually supplied from the lungs of
+the operator. This kind of meat, though regarded as a delicacy by some
+people, is not held in much estimation, otherwise its price would be
+higher than it is. It is at present sold at about 4d. or 5d. per pound,
+sometimes even at a lower rate. Apart from the disgusting process of
+"blowing" veal, so generally adopted, the use of this food is extremely
+objectionable, owing to its great tendency to produce diarrh&oelig;a. To
+the truth of this assertion every physician who has studied the subject
+of dietetics can testify. I have analysed a specimen of it (purchased
+from a person who admitted that it was part of a calf a day old), and
+obtained the following results:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+100 parts contain&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of slink veal">
+
+<tr><td></td><th>Per cent.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                    </td><td> 72·25 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fat                      </td><td>  6·17 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Lean flesh               </td><td> 18·46 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter           </td><td>  3·12 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="total"><td>             </td><td>&nbsp;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>  Total                    </td><td>100·00 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+I believe that a large portion of the lean flesh is indigestible; and
+altogether I may safely say of this kind of meat that it is, especially
+during the prevalence of cholera, an unsafe article of diet. Of course
+these observations do not apply to <i>fed</i> veal, the only kind which
+respectable butchers, as a rule, offer for sale.
+</p>
+<p>
+Young meat is richer in soluble albumen and poorer in fibrine and
+fat than the matured flesh of the same animal. The flesh of the goat
+contains <i>hircic</i> acid, which renders it almost uneatable, but this
+substance is either altogether absent from, or present but in minute
+proportion in, the well-flavored meat of the kid. The flesh of game
+contains abundance of osmazome, a substance which is somewhat deficient
+in that of the domestic fowl.
+</p>
+<p>
+Owing to the marked individuality which man exhibits in the selection of
+his food, and to the intimate relationship subsisting
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page115" name="page115"></a>[115]</span>
+
+                                                       between food and
+the organism it nourishes, it is impossible to arrange the alimental
+substances in the strict order of their nutritive values. You can bring
+a horse to the water, but you cannot compel him to drink it; you can
+swallow any kind of food you please, but you cannot force your stomach
+to digest it. It is, therefore, vain to tell a man that a certain kind
+of food is shown by chemical analysis to be nutritious, when his stomach
+tells him unmistakeably that it is poisonous, and refuses to digest it.
+In the matter of dietetics Nature is a safer guide than the chemist.
+Many substances, when viewed only in the light shed upon them by
+chemical analysis, appear to be rich in the elements of nutrition, yet
+when they are introduced into the stomachs of certain individuals, they
+disarrange the digestive organs, and sometimes cause the whole system to
+go out of order. Every day we see exemplified the truth of the proverb,
+that "one man's meat is another man's poison." There are persons who
+relish and readily digest fat pork, and yet they cannot eat a single
+egg with impunity; others enjoy and easily assimilate eggs, but their
+stomachs cannot tolerate a particle of fat bacon.
+</p>
+<p>
+It is not merely the composition of an aliment and its adaptability to
+the organism which determine its nutritive value&mdash;its digestibility
+and flavor are points which affect it. There are few people in these
+countries who are disposed to quarrel with beef; but no one would
+prefer the leg of an elderly milch cow to the sirloin of a well-fed
+three-year-old bullock: yet if our selection were to be determined by
+the analysis of the two kinds of beef, we would be just as likely to
+prefer the one as the other. No doubt the relative tenderness of meats
+may be ascertained by experiments conducted <i>outside</i> the body; but
+tenderness is not in every case synonymous with easy digestibility.
+Veal contains more soluble albumen, and is, consequently, far more
+tender than beef; yet, as every one knows, it is less digestible. It is
+curious that maturity renders the flesh of some animals more digestible,
+and that of others less digestible. Flavor has something to do with
+these differences.
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page116" name="page116"></a>[116]</span>
+
+                   Beef is richer than veal in the agreeably flavorous
+osmazome, and the flesh of the kid is destitute of the disagreeable
+odour of the fully-developed goat. The superiority of wild-fowl over the
+domesticated birds is solely owing to the finer flavor of their flesh.
+</p>
+<p>
+The habits of animals, and the nature of their food, affect the
+quality of their flesh. Exercise increases the amount of osmazome, and
+consequently renders the meat more savory. The mutton of Wicklow, Wales,
+and other mountainous regions is remarkably sweet, because the animals
+that furnish it are almost as nimble as goats, and skip from crag to
+crag in quest of their food. The fatty mutton, with pale muscle, which
+is so abundant in our markets, is furnished by very young animals forced
+prematurely into full development. Those animals have abundance of food
+placed within easy reach; their muscular activity is next to <i>nil</i>,
+and the result is, that their flesh contains less than its natural
+proportion of savory ingredients. It is the same with all other animals.
+The flesh of the tame rabbit is very insipid, whilst that of the wild
+variety is well flavored. Wild fowls cooped up, and rapidly fattened,
+lose their characteristic flavor; and when the domesticated birds become
+wild their flesh becomes less fatty, and acquires all the peculiarities
+of game. Ducks, whether wild or tame, ordinarily yield goodly meat;
+but the flesh of some of those that feed on fish smacks strongly of
+cod-liver oil. Birds which subsist partly on aromatic berries assimilate
+the odour as well as the nutriment of their food. The flesh of grouse
+has very commonly a slight flavor of heather. Foster states that in
+Tahiti pigs are fed upon fruit, which renders their fat very bland and
+their flesh like veal. Animals subjected to certain kinds of mutilation
+fatten more rapidly than they do in their natural state. Capons increase
+in weight more rapidly than cocks, poulards than hens, bullocks than
+bulls, and cows deprived of their ovaries than perfect cows. Why it is
+that the flesh of mutilated animals should be fatter and more tender
+than that of whole animals, we know not; we only know that
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page117" name="page117"></a>[117]</span>
+
+                                                           such is the
+fact. The hunting of animals renders their flesh more tender; the cause
+assigned is, that the great exertion of the muscles liquefies their
+fibrine, which is the toughest of their constituents. The meat of
+animals brought very early to maturity is seldom so valuable as the
+naturally developed article. Lawes and Gilbert state that portions of
+a sheep that had been fattened upon <i>steeped</i> barley and mangels, and
+which gave a very rapid increase, yielded several per cent. less of
+cooked meat, and lost more, both in dripping and by the evaporation of
+water, than the corresponding portions of a sheep which had been fed
+upon <i>dry</i> barley and mangels, and which gave only about half the
+amount of gross increase within the same period of time.
+</p>
+<p>
+Although the digestibility and flavor of meat (and of every other kind
+of food) affect its nutritive value, these points are in general of far
+less importance than its composition. Potatoes are not so nutritious as
+peas, because they contain a smaller amount of fat and flesh-formers;
+but they are more digestible. Fish contains less solid matter than
+flesh, and is less nutritious, yet a cut of turbot will be, in general,
+more easily digested than an equal weight of old beef. The fact is, that
+digestibility and flavor are only of great importance to dyspeptic
+persons. In the healthy digestive organs a pound weight of (dry) food
+of inferior flavor and slow digestibility will be just as useful as the
+same weight of well-flavored and easily assimilable aliment, provided
+all other conditions be alike. If the food be eaten with a relish, and
+tolerated by the stomach, its digestibility will not, except in extreme
+cases, affect in a very sensible degree its nutritiveness.
+</p>
+<p>
+Were one question in animal nutrition satisfactorily answered, it
+would then be comparatively easy to arrange aliments in the order of
+their nutritive value. That question is&mdash;What are the proper relative
+proportions of the fat-forming and flesh-forming constituents of our
+food? It is constantly urged, that the food of the Irish peasantry
+contains an excess of the fat-forming materials in relation to the
+muscle-forming substances; and
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page118" name="page118"></a>[118]</span>
+
+                               the remedy suggested is, that their
+staple article of food&mdash;potatoes&mdash;should be supplemented with flesh,
+peas, and such like substances, in which, it is supposed, the elements
+of nutrition are more fairly balanced. In potatoes, the proportion of
+fat-formers (calculated as fat) is about five times as much as that
+of the flesh-formers; but these principles exist in the same relative
+proportions in the fat bacon with which the potato-eater loves to
+supplement his bulky food. In bread we find the proportion of
+fat-formers to be only 2&frac12; times as much as that of the flesh-formers,
+whilst, according to Lawes and Gilbert, the edible portion of the
+carcass of a fat sheep contains 6&frac12; times as much fat as nitrogenous
+(flesh-forming) compounds. It is evident, then, that meat such as, for
+example, the beef recently imported from Monte Video, from which the
+fatty elements of nutrition are almost completely absent, cannot be a
+suitable adjunct to a farinaceous food.
+</p>
+<p>
+There is evidence to prove that in the animal food consumed by the
+population of these countries, the proportion of fatty to nitrogenous
+matters is greater than in the seeds of cereal and leguminous plants,
+and but little less than in potatoes. "It would appear to be
+unquestionable," say Lawes and Gilbert, "therefore, that the influence
+of our staple <i>animal foods</i>, to supplement our otherwise mainly
+farinaceous diet, is, on the large scale, to <i>reduce</i>, and <i>not to
+increase</i>, the relation of the <i>assumed</i> flesh-forming material to the
+more peculiarly respiratory and fat-forming capacity, so to speak, of
+the food consumed." It must be remembered, too, that the fat <i>formers</i>
+are ready <i>formed</i> in animal food, whereas they exist chiefly in the
+form of starch, gum, sugar, and such-like substances in vegetables.
+According to theory, 2&frac12; parts of starch are equivalent to, <i>i.e.</i>,
+convertible into, 1 part of fat; but it is not certain whether the force
+which effects this change is derivable from the 2&frac12; parts of starch,
+or from the destruction of tissue, or of another portion of food. If
+there be a tax on the system in order to convert starch into fat, it
+is evident that 2&frac12; parts of
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page119" name="page119"></a>[119]</span>
+
+                               starch, though convertible into, are not
+equivalent in nutritive value to one part of fat.
+</p>
+<p>
+It is quite certain that millions of healthy, vigorous men have
+subsisted for years exclusively on potatoes; but it is no less clear
+that a diet of meat and potatoes enables the laborer to work harder
+and longer than if his food were composed solely of potatoes. But we
+have seen that the relation between the flesh-forming and fat-forming
+elements is nearly the same in both potatoes and meat; so that the
+superiority of a meat or mixed diet cannot be chiefly owing, contrary to
+the generally received opinion, to a greater abundance of flesh-forming
+materials. As the proportion of flesh-formers to fat-formers is so much
+greater in wheaten or oaten bread than in potatoes, and as peas and
+other vegetables rich in nitrogenous compounds are practically found to
+be an excellent supplement to potatoes, it is probable that the latter
+may be somewhat relatively deficient in flesh-forming capacity. It is,
+however, in all probability the great bulk of a potato diet, and its
+total want of ready formed fat, that render the addition to it of animal
+food so very desirable. The concentrated state in which the ingredients
+of flesh exist, the intimate way in which they are intermixed, their
+agreeable flavor, and their (in general) ready and almost complete
+digestibility, appear to be the principal points in which a meat diet
+excels a vegetable regimen. There may be others, which, though less
+evident, are, perhaps, of equal importance. At all events, the general
+experience of mankind testifies to the superiority of a mixed animal
+and vegetable diet over a purely vegetable one.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Is very Fat Meat wholesome?</i>&mdash;The enormous and rapidly increasing
+demand for meat which characterises the food markets of these days,
+has reacted in a remarkable manner upon the nature of the animals that
+supply it. Formerly the animals that furnished pork, mutton, and beef,
+were allowed to attain the age of three years old and upwards before
+they were considered to be "ripe" for the butcher; but now sheep and pigs
+are perfectly <i>matured</i> at the early age of one year, and
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page120" name="page120"></a>[120]</span>
+
+                                                          two-year-old
+oxen furnish a large quota of the "roast beef of old England." The
+so-called improvement of stock is simply the forcing of them into an
+unnatural degree of fatness at an early age; and this end is attained
+by dexterous selection and crossing of breeds, by avoidance of cold, by
+diminishing as much as possible their muscular activity, and lastly,
+and chiefly, by over-feeding them with concentrated aliments.
+</p>
+<p>
+Every one knows that a man so obese as to be unable to walk cannot be
+in a healthy state; yet many feeders of stock look upon the monstrously
+fat bulls and cows of cattle show prize celebrity as normal types of the
+bovine tribe. It requires but little argument to refute so fallacious
+a notion. No doubt it is desirable to encourage the breeding of those
+varieties of animals which exhibit the greatest disposition to fatten,
+and to arrive early at maturity; but the forcing of individual animals
+into an unnatural state of obesity, except for purely experimental
+purposes, is a practice which cannot be too strongly deprecated. If
+breeders contented themselves with handing over to the butcher their
+huge living blocks of fat, the matter would not perhaps be very serious;
+but, unfortunately, it is too often the practice to turn them to account
+as sires and dams. Were I a judge at a cattle show, I certainly should
+disqualify every extremely fat animal entered for competition amongst
+the breeding stock. Unless parents are healthy and vigorous, their
+progeny are almost certain to be unhealthy and weakly; and it is
+inconceivable that an extremely obese bull and an unnaturally fat cow
+could be the progenitors of healthy offspring. We should by all means
+improve our live stock; but we should be careful not to overdo the
+thing. If we must have gaily-decked ponderous bulls and cows at our fat
+cattle exhibitions, let us condemn to speedy immolation those unhappy
+victims to a most absurd fashion; but in the name of common sense let
+us leave the perpetuation of the species to individuals in a normal
+state, whose muscles are not replaced by fat, whose hearts are not
+hypertrophied, and whose lungs are capable of effectively performing
+the function of respiration.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page121" name="page121"></a>[121]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Gant, in a small volume<sup><a name="noteref-23"><!--23--></a><a href="#note-23">23</a></sup> devoted wholly to the subject, describes
+the serious functional and structural disarrangements which over-feeding
+produces in stock. He found the heart of a one-year old Southdown
+wether, fattened according to the <i>high-pressure system</i>, to be little
+more than a mass of fat. In several other young, but so-called "matured"
+sheep, he found more or less fatty degeneration of the heart, and
+extensively spread disease of the liver and of the lungs. A four-year
+old Devon heifer, exhibited by the late Prince Consort at a Smithfield
+show, was found to be in a highly diseased state. It was slaughtered,
+and of course its flesh sold at a high price as "prize beef," but its
+internal organs came into Mr. Gant's possession. The substance of both
+ventricles of the heart had undergone all but complete conversion into
+fat; one of its muscles was broken up, and many of the fibres of the
+others were ruptured. In another animal the muscular fibres of the
+heart had given way to so great an extent that if the thin lining
+membrane (<i>endocardium</i>) had burst, death would have instantly ensued.
+The slightest exertion was likely to cause this catastrophe; but,
+fortunately enough in this case, the animal was not capable of exertion,
+for though under three years of age, it weighed upwards of 200 stones:
+this animal had received for some time before its exhibition, the
+liberal allowance of 21 lbs. of oil-cake (besides other food) per diem.
+"A pen of three pigs," says Mr. Gant, "belonging to his Royal Highness
+the Prince Consort, happened to be placed in a favorable light for
+observation, and I particularly noticed their condition. They lay
+helpless on their sides, with their noses propped up against each
+other's backs, as if endeavouring to breathe more easily, but their
+respiration was loud, suffocating, and at long intervals. Then you heard
+a short catching snore, which shook the whole body of the animal, and
+passed with the motion of a wave over its fat surface,
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page122" name="page122"></a>[122]</span>
+
+                                                        which, moreover,
+felt cold. I thought how much the heart under such circumstances must
+be laboring to propel the blood through the lungs and throughout the
+body. The gold medal pigs of Mr. Moreland were in a similar condition,
+if anything, worse; for they snored and gasped for breath, their mouths
+being opened, as well as their nostrils dilated, at each inspiration.
+From a pig we only expect a grunt, but not a snore. These animals,
+only twelve months and ten days old, were marked '<i>improved</i> Chilton
+breed.' They, with their fellows just mentioned, of eleven months and
+twenty-three days, had early come to grief. Three pigs of the black
+breed were in a similar state, at seven months three weeks and five
+days, yet such animals 'the judges highly commended.'"
+</p>
+<p>
+Dr. Brinton denies the accuracy of several of Mr. Gant's statements
+relative to the structural changes in the muscles of obese animals;
+but I do not think that he has succeeded in disproving the principal
+assertions made by the latter.
+</p>
+<p>
+There is conclusive evidence to prove that one of the effects of the
+present mode of fattening beasts is disease of the internal organs
+of the animals; but it is by no means certain that the flesh of those
+diseased animals is as unwholesome food as some writers assert it to
+be. The flesh of an over-fattened animal differs from that of a lean, or
+moderately fat one, in containing an exceedingly high proportion of fat;
+but it has not been proved that the fat of prize animals differs from
+the fat of lean kine, or that it is less wholesome or nutritious. Be the
+flesh of those exceedingly fat animals unwholesome or not, there are
+thousands, ay, millions of persons, to whom its greasy quality renders
+it peculiarly acceptable; and as for those who dislike fat&mdash;they do
+not usually invest their money in the flesh of prize sheep or oxen.
+At the same time, it must not be understood that all, or even a large
+proportion of fully matured stock is in a diseased state; though in most
+of them the vital and muscular powers are undoubtedly exceedingly low.
+</p>
+<p>
+There is no doubt but that sheep and oxen, from three to
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page123" name="page123"></a>[123]</span>
+
+                                                         five years old,
+moderately fat, and fairly exercising their locomotive powers, furnish
+the most savory, and, perhaps, the most nutritious meat: but if such
+were the only kind of meat in demand, it may be fairly doubted that the
+supply would be equal to it. The produce of meat in these countries has
+been rapidly increasing for many years past; and the weight of meat
+annually supplied from a given area of land is now from 80 to 100 per
+cent. greater than it furnished thirty or forty years ago. It is chiefly
+by means of the so-called forcing system that the produce of meat has
+been so considerably increased. If this system were abandoned, the
+production would be greatly diminished, and the consequently high price
+of the article would place it beyond the reach of the masses of the
+population. Besides, it has not been proved that the flesh of the
+animals brought early to maturity is much inferior, except somewhat in
+flavor, to the meat of three-year-old beasts. There is, no doubt, plenty
+of unwholesome meat offered for sale, but it is that of animals which
+were affected by diseases as likely to attack the young as the old. On
+the whole, then, we may say of the improved system of fattening stock,
+that it produces a maximum amount of meat on a given area of land; that
+the meat so produced is, except in rare cases, perfectly wholesome; that
+it is capable of supplying the ingredient&mdash;fat&mdash;which is almost wholly
+absent from a vegetable diet; and, finally, that it places animal food
+within the reach of the working classes.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Diseased Meat.</i>&mdash;The losses occasioned to stockowners by the diseases
+of live stock are far greater than is generally supposed. It has been
+calculated that in the six years ending 1860, the value of the horned
+stock lost by disease amounted to £25,934,650. Pleuro-pneumonia was the
+chief cause of these losses. Exclusive of the enormous losses occasioned
+by the ravages of the rinderpest, the annual loss by disease in live
+stock in these countries for some years past cannot be much under
+£6,000,000 sterling.
+</p>
+<p>
+Whether it is owing to the somewhat abnormal condition under which the
+domesticated animals are placed, or to causes
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page124" name="page124"></a>[124]</span>
+
+                                              which operate upon them
+when in a state of nature, it is certain that they are remarkably prone
+to disease. It is extremely difficult to get a horse six years old that
+is not a roarer or a whistler, or "weak on his pins," or in some way or
+other unsound. Oxen, sheep, and pigs have almost as many maladies
+afflicting them as human flesh is heir to, notwithstanding the short
+period of life which they are permitted to enjoy.
+</p>
+<p>
+It is a very serious question whether or not the flesh of animals that
+have been killed while they are in a diseased condition is injurious to
+health. The opinions on this point are conflicting, but the majority of
+medical men believe that the flesh of diseased animals is not wholesome.
+There are certain maladies which obviously render meat unsaleable, by
+causing a sensible alteration in its quality. For example, blackleg
+in cattle and measles in the porcine tribe render the flesh of these
+animals, as a general rule, unmarketable, or nearly so. But there are
+very serious diseases&mdash;often proving rapidly fatal&mdash;which, whilst
+seriously affecting certain internal organs, do not palpably deteriorate
+the quality of the flesh. In such cases are we to rely upon the evidence
+of our mere senses in judging of the wholesomeness of the meat? If we
+find beef possessing a good color and odour, and firm to the touch, and
+<i>appearing</i> to be in every respect healthy flesh, are we under such
+circumstances to take it for granted that it must be healthy? This is a
+very important question, involving as it does the interests of both the
+producers and consumers of animal food. If the flesh of all diseased
+animals be unwholesome, a very large number of oxen now sold whilst
+laboring under pleuro-pneumonia should not be sent into the market.
+This, of course, would be a heavy loss to the stockowner, but a still
+heavier one to the meat consumer; because, if there were fewer animals
+for sale, the price of meat would ascend, in obedience to the law of
+supply and demand. The whole question is, then, well worthy of being
+considered in the most careful, unbiassed, and scientific manner; for
+at present it is in a state which is the reverse of being satisfactory.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page125" name="page125"></a>[125]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+A large proportion of the animals conducted to the shambles is in a
+diseased condition. Professor Gamgee estimates it at no less than
+one-fifth. Dr. Letheby, food analyst to the Corporation of London,
+condemns weekly about 2,000 pounds weight of flesh; but as his
+jurisdiction is limited to the "City," which contains a population of
+only about 114,000, the 2,000 pounds of diseased meat are probably only
+about 1-30th of the quantity exposed for sale within the whole area of
+the metropolis. Making an estimate of the most moderate kind, we may
+assume that 30,000 pounds weight of bad meat are weekly offered for
+sale in London&mdash;<i>three million pounds weight annually</i>.
+</p>
+<p>
+Many persons have been affected with dysentery and choleraic symptoms
+after partaking of butcher's meat of apparently the most healthy kind.
+The meat has often been subjected to minute chemical and microscopical
+examination, but no poison has been discovered. But these cases are
+becoming so frequent that they are exciting uneasiness, and demand an
+exhaustive investigation. The unskilful persons who officiate in the
+capacity of "clerks of the market" and inspectors of meat can only judge
+of the quality of flesh that is obviously inferior to the eye, nose, or
+touch; but are there not cases where the flesh may appear to be good,
+and yet contain some subtle malign principle? It is an ascertained fact
+that young or "slink" veal very frequently gives rise to diarrh&oelig;a,
+more especially when that disease is epidemic. Dr. Parkes, in his
+celebrated work on Hygiene, page 162 (second edition), states that
+"the flesh of the pig sometimes produced diarrh&oelig;a&mdash;a fact I have had
+occasion to notice in a regiment in India, and which has often been
+noticed by others. The flesh is, probably, affected by the unwholesome
+garbage on which the pig feeds." Menschell states that 44 persons were
+afflicted with anthrax after eating the flesh of oxen affected with
+carbuncular fever. Dr. Kesteren, in the <i>Medical Times</i> for March, 1864,
+mentions a case where twelve persons were affected with choleraic
+symptoms after the use of pork not obviously diseased. At Newtownards,
+county of Down, several
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page126" name="page126"></a>[126]</span>
+
+                        persons died after eating veal in which no
+poisonous matter of any kind could be detected. One instance has come
+under my own notice where a man, two dogs, and a pig died after eating
+the flesh of an animal killed whilst suffering from splenic apoplexy.
+Several butchers have lost their lives in consequence of the blood of
+diseased animals being allowed to come in contact with abrasions or
+recently received wounds on their arms. The flesh of over-driven animals
+is stated by Professor Gamgee to produce a most serious skin disease,
+although the meat appeared to be perfectly healthy. The Belgian Academy
+of Medicine has decided that the flesh of animals suffering from
+carbuncular fever is unwholesome, and its sale in that country is
+prohibited.
+</p>
+<p>
+Many persons have died in Germany and a few in England from a disease
+produced by eating pork containing a small internal parasite termed
+<i>trichina spiralis</i>. I have recently met with a case of <i>trichiniasis</i>
+in the human subject. The body of the unfortunate person&mdash;who had
+been an inmate of the South Dublin Union Workhouse&mdash;was found to
+contain thousands of the trichinæ. In Iceland a large proportion of
+the population suffers from a parasitic disease traceable to the use
+of the flesh of sheep and cattle in which flukes abound.
+</p>
+<p>
+Pleuro-pneumonia is in this country the disease which most frequently
+affects the ox. It is probable that about 5 per cent. of these animals
+sold in Dublin are more or less affected by this malady. There are two
+forms of pleuro-pneumonia&mdash;the sporadic, or indigenous, and the foreign,
+or contagious. It is the latter form which has become the scourge of the
+ox tribe in this country, though unknown here until the year 1841, when
+it appeared as an epizoötic, and carried off vast numbers of animals.
+</p>
+<p>
+The contagious pleuro-pneumonia is an extremely severe inflammatory
+disease, and is produced&mdash;not in the same way that common pleuro-pneumonia
+is, by exposure to excessive cold, &amp;c.&mdash;but by a blood poison received
+from an infected animal. In the congestive stage of the disease there is
+no
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page127" name="page127"></a>[127]</span>
+
+   structural alteration in the organs of the animal, and if well bled
+its flesh might (probably) be safely eaten; but when a large portion of
+the lungs becomes solidified, and rendered incapable of purifying the
+blood, is it not doubtful, to say the least, that the blood or flesh is
+perfectly wholesome? The blood, during the life of the animal, is in a
+state of fermentation; there is extreme fever, and the animal presents
+all the characteristic symptoms of acute disease. On being killed, the
+flesh, if the disease be of a fortnight's duration, will usually be
+extremely dark, but in a less advanced stage of the malady the flesh
+will generally present a healthy appearance. Is it really so? That
+is the question which science has to determine. Going upon a broad
+principle, I can hardly conceive that so serious a disease as
+pleuro-pneumonia does not injuriously affect the quality of the flesh.
+It is no argument to say that thousands consume such flesh, and yet
+enjoy good health. Millions of people drink water and breathe air that
+are extremely impure, and yet they do not speedily die. It is one thing
+to be poisonous, another to be unwholesome. The flesh of animals killed
+whilst suffering from lung distemper is not directly poisonous, but who
+can prove that it is not, like bad water, unwholesome?
+</p>
+<p>
+As analyst to the city of Dublin, I am almost daily called upon to
+inspect meat suspected to be unwholesome; and I have always condemned
+as being unfit for human food:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    1. Animals slaughtered at the time of bringing forth their young.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    2. Oxen affected with pleuro-pneumonia, when pus is present in the
+       lungs, or the flesh obviously affected; animals suffering from
+       murrain, black-quarter, and the different forms of anthrax.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    3. Animals in an anæmic, or wasted condition.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    4. Meat in a state of putrefaction.
+</p>
+<p>
+During the present year about 20,000 pounds weight of meat have been
+seized and condemned in the city of Dublin.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page128" name="page128"></a>[128]</span></p>
+
+<h4>
+SECTION II.
+</h4>
+<h5>
+MILK.
+</h5>
+<p>
+Milk is a peculiar fluid secreted by the females of all animals
+belonging to the class <i>Mammalia</i>; and, being designed for the
+nourishment of their offspring, contains all the constituents which
+enter into the composition of the animal body.
+</p>
+<p>
+The milk of different animals varies very much in color, taste, and
+nutritive value. That of the cow is a little heavier than water&mdash;its
+specific gravity being, on the average, about 1·030, water being
+1·000. It is composed of three constituents&mdash;namely, butter, curd, and
+whey&mdash;each of which is also composed of a number of substances. These
+three constituents are of unequal weight, or specific gravity, and their
+separation is the chief process carried on in the dairy. The butter is
+the lightest and the curd is the heaviest constituent.
+</p>
+<p>
+The following table represents the composition of the milk of different
+animals:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of milk of various animals">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="8">  COMPOSITION OF THE MILK OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS.<br />
+<small>1,000 PARTS CONTAIN&mdash;</small></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>         </td><th>Specific Gravity, or Density.</th><th>Water. </th><th>   Solid Ingredients.    </th><th>Cheesy Matter. </th><th>Sugar.</th><th>Butter.</th><th>Mineral Matter.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Woman  </td><td>1032·67  </td><td>889·08 </td><td>   110·92    </td><td> 39·30  </td><td>43·68 </td><td> 26·66 </td><td> 1·30 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Cow    </td><td>1030     </td><td>864·20 </td><td>   135·80    </td><td> 48·80  </td><td>47·70 </td><td> 31·30 </td><td> 6·00 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Goat   </td><td>1033·53  </td><td>844·90 </td><td>   155·10    </td><td> 35·14  </td><td>36·91 </td><td> 56·87 </td><td> 6·18 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ewe    </td><td>1040·98  </td><td>832·32 </td><td>   167·68    </td><td> 69·78  </td><td>39·43 </td><td> 51·31 </td><td> 7·16 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mare   </td><td>1033·74  </td><td>904·30 </td><td>    95·70    </td><td> 33·35  </td><td>32·76 </td><td> 24·36 </td><td> 5·23 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ass    </td><td>1034·57  </td><td>890·12 </td><td>   109·88    </td><td> 35·65  </td><td>50·46 </td><td> 18·53 </td><td> 5·24 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1">
+    <td class="l">  Bitch  </td><td>1041·62  </td><td>772·08 </td><td>   227·92    </td><td>116·88  </td><td>15·29 </td><td> 87·95 </td><td> 7·80 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+Milk examined through a microscope is a colorless fluid, containing a
+large number of little vesicles, or bags, filled with butter&mdash;a mixture
+of oily and fatty matters. When the milk stands for some time, the
+globules, being lighter than the other constituents, ascend to the top,
+and, mixed with a certain proportion
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page129" name="page129"></a>[129]</span>
+
+                                     of milk, are removed as cream.
+The curd is termed in scientific parlance <i>casein</i>, and is in fresh milk
+in a state of solution&mdash;that is to say, is dissolved in milk in the same
+way that we dissolve sugar in water. When milk becomes sour, either
+naturally or by the addition of rennet, it can no longer hold casein in
+solution, and the curd consequently separates. Casein is the substance
+which forms the basis of cheese. The substance that remains after the
+removal of the butter and cheese is called <i>serum</i>, or whey, and is
+composed of a sweetish substance termed <i>sugar of milk</i>, and certain
+saline bodies, termed the ash, dissolved in water.
+</p>
+<p>
+The butter and the sugar of milk are employed in the animal economy in
+the production of fat, and are what have been styled by physiologists
+<i>heat-producers</i> and <i>fat-formers</i>. The casein resembles the gluten of
+wheat in composition; it belongs to the class of food substances termed
+<i>flesh-formers</i>. The ash, or mineral part of the milk, is chiefly
+employed in forming the bones of the young animals it is destined to
+nourish.
+</p>
+<p>
+The quality of milk is influenced by the quantity and quality of the
+food given to the animal. The milk of cows fed on distillery wash,
+turnip, and mangel tops, coarse herbage, and other kinds of inferior
+food, is always of inferior quality. Hence it is of great importance
+that dairy stock be kept in good old pastures in summer, and fed on
+Swedish turnips, mangel-wurtzel, and oil-cake during winter. It is true
+economy to supply dairy cows with abundance of nutritious food; and it
+should be constantly borne in mind that the milk from two well-fed cows
+will give more butter than can be obtained from the produce of three
+badly-fed animals.
+</p>
+<p>
+The butter is the constituent of milk which is most affected by the
+nature and amount of the animal's food; and butter is precisely the
+article which is of the greatest importance to the Irish dairy farmer,
+as the quantity of cheese prepared in this country is inconsiderable.
+When, therefore, it is found that a cow pastured on inferior land, or
+badly fed in the byre, yields
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page130" name="page130"></a>[130]</span>
+
+                              a large supply of milk of a high specific
+quantity (which, however, is rarely the case), it must not be concluded
+that the result is satisfactory; for if such milk be tested by the
+lactometer it will certainly be found wanting in butter. The average
+composition of English milk, according to Way, is:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average composition of English milk">
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                               </td><td>87·02 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Butter                              </td><td> 3·23 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Casein                              </td><td> 4·48 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Sugar of milk                       </td><td> 4·67 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ash                                 </td><td> 0·60 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>                        </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                      </td><td>100·00</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+In several analyses of milk published by Professor Voelcker, the highest
+proportion of butter is stated to be 7·62. In that of cows kept on
+poor and over-stocked pastures less than 2 per cent. was found. I have
+examined in my capacity of Food Analyst to the City of Dublin several
+hundred samples of milk, in not one of which have I found the proportion
+of butter to amount to more than 5·6 per cent. In no sample did I find
+a higher per-centage of solid matter than 13·15, or (when pure) lower
+than 12·08. The quality of the food of the milch cow exercises a great
+influence on the quality and yield of her milk. Aliments rich in fat and
+sugar favor the production of butter, and augment the supply of milk.
+Locust-beans, malt, and molasses are good milk-producing foods; but the
+chief condition in the production of milk rich in butter is simply that
+the animals which yield it must be fed with abundance of nutritious
+food. Nor must it be supposed that the richness of milk is due to the
+smallness of the yield, for whenever the quality of the secretion is
+inferior, it is almost certain to be deficient in quantity. Those cows
+which give the richest milk, generally yield the largest quantity.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Yield of Milk.</i>&mdash;According to Boussingault, a cow daily yields on the
+average 10·4 parts of milk per 1,000 parts of her weight. Morton, in his
+"Cyclopædia of Agriculture," p. 621, states that Mr. Young, a Scotch
+dairy keeper, obtained 680
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page131" name="page131"></a>[131]</span>
+
+                            gallons per cow per annum. Voelcker found
+that some common dairy stock gave each of them fifty-two pints of milk
+per diem, whilst three pedigree cows yielded respectively forty-nine
+pints.
+</p>
+<p>
+Professor Wilson gives the following information on this point:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    Our principal dairy breeds are the Ayrshire, the Channel Islands,
+    the Short-horn, the Suffolk, and the Kerry. Some published returns
+    of two dairies of Ayrshire cows give the annual milk produce per
+    cow at 650 and 632 gallons respectively. Three returns of dairies,
+    consisting wholly of Short-horns, show a produce of 540 gallons,
+    630 gallons, and 765 gallons respectively, or an average of 625
+    gallons per annum for each cow. In two dairies, where half-bred
+    Short-horns were kept, the yield was 810 and 866 gallons
+    respectively for each cow. In four dairies in Ireland, where pure
+    Kerrys and crosses with Short-horns and Ayrshires were kept, the
+    annual produce per cow was returned at 500 gallons, 600 gallons,
+    675 gallons, and 740 gallons respectively; or an average, on the
+    four dairies, of 630 gallons per annum for each cow. A dairy of
+    "pure Kerrys" gave an average of 488 gallons per cow, and another
+    of the larger Irish breed gave an average of 583 gallons per head
+    per annum. In the great London dairies, now well-nigh extinguished
+    by the ravages of the cattle disease, these returns are greatly
+    exceeded. The cows kept are large framed Short-horns and Yorkshire
+    crosses, which, by good feeding, bring the returns to nearly
+    1,000 gallons per annum for each cow kept. The custom in these
+    establishments is to dispose of a cow directly her milk falls
+    below two gallons a-day, and buy another in her place.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    The following milk return of one of our best managed dairy farms
+    (Frocester Court) shows the relative produce of cows in the
+    successive years of their milking. The first lot was bought in at
+    two-years old; all the others at three years:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Relative milk produce of cows at various ages">
+
+<tr><th> No. of Cows. </th><th> Year of Milk. </th><th> Produce per head. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="c">  8 </td><td class="c"> 1st </td><td class="c"> 317 gals. </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c"> 15 </td><td class="c"> 1st </td><td class="c"> 472  " </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c"> 14 </td><td class="c"> 2nd </td><td class="c"> 353  " </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c"> 15 </td><td class="c"> 3rd </td><td class="c"> 616  " </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c"> 20 </td><td class="c"> 4th </td><td class="c"> 665  " </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c"> 18 </td><td class="c"> 5th </td><td class="c"> 635  " </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c">  9 </td><td class="c"> 6th </td><td class="c"> 708  " </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c"> 15 </td><td class="c"> Old </td><td class="c"> 651  " </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class="quote">
+    The maximum reliable milk produce that we have recorded was that
+    of a single cow belonging to the keeper of the gaol at Lewes, the
+    details of
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page132" name="page132"></a>[132]</span>
+
+               which were authenticated by the Board of Agriculture.
+    In eight consecutive years she gave 9,720 gallons, or at the rate
+    of more than 1,210 gallons per annum. In one year she milked 328
+    days, and gave 1,230 gallons, which yielded 540 lbs. of butter,
+    or at the rate of 1 lb. of butter to 22&frac34; lb. of milk. In the
+    early part of the present year (1866) a return was published of
+    the produce of a cow in a Vermont (U.S.) dairy, which was stated
+    to have given, in the previous year, a butter yield of 504 lbs.,
+    at the rate of 1 lb. of butter to 20 lbs. of milk.<sup><a name="noteref-24"><!--24--></a><a href="#note-24">24</a></sup>
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Preserved Milk.</i>&mdash;Various plans have been proposed to render milk more
+portable, and to preserve it sweet for days and even months. Mr. Borden
+of Connecticut, United States, prepares a concentrated milk by boiling
+the fluid down in vacuo, at a temperature under 140° Fahrenheit, mixing
+the resulting solid with sugar, and rapidly placing the compound in
+tins, which are then hermetically sealed. It is said that solidified
+milk prepared by this process remains sweet for many months. In France,
+solidified and concentrated milk are largely prepared; and it is certain
+that London and other large towns will yet be supplied with milk
+rendered portable and more stable, by the removal of a large proportion
+of its water. In many parts of Ireland pure milk could be bought at from
+7d. to 8d. per gallon. I do not despair to see factories established in
+such places for the manufacture of preserved milk as a substitute for
+the dear and impure fluid sold under the name of milk in London and
+other large cities. It is stated that solidified milk prepared in
+Switzerland is now sold in London.
+</p>
+
+<h4>
+SECTION III.
+</h4>
+<h5>
+BUTTER.
+</h5>
+<p>
+<i>History of Butter.</i>&mdash;The very general use of butter as an article of
+food is demonstrated by the familiar saying&mdash;"We should not quarrel with
+our bread and butter"; yet this article,
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page133" name="page133"></a>[133]</span>
+
+                                         now so commonly used throughout
+the greater part of Europe, was either unknown or but imperfectly known
+to the ancients. In the English translation of the Holy Scriptures the
+word butter does certainly frequently occur; but the Hebrew original
+is <i>chamea</i>, which, according to the most eminent Biblical critics,
+signifies cream, or thick, sour milk. In the 20th chapter of Job the
+following passage occurs:&mdash;"He shall not see the rivers, the floods, the
+brooks of honey and butter." Now, we can conceive streams of thin cream,
+but we cannot imagine a river of butter. The oldest mention of butter
+is found in the works of Herodotus. In the description of the Scythians
+given by this ancient author, reference is made to their practice of
+violently shaking the milk of their mares, for the purpose of causing a
+solid fatty matter to ascend to its surface, which, when removed from
+the milk, they considered a delicious article of food. Hippocrates, who
+wrote a little later than Herodotus, describes, but in clearer language,
+the manufacture of butter by the Scythians; he also alludes to the
+preparation of cheese by the same people. The word, butter, does not
+occur in any of Aristotle's writings, and although mention is made of it
+in the works of Anaxandrides, Plutarch, and Ælian, it is evident that
+they considered it only in the light of a curious substance, employed
+partly as an article of food, partly as a medicinal salve, by certain
+barbarous nations. About the second or third century, butter was but
+little known to the Greeks and Romans, and there is no reason to believe
+that it was ever generally used as an article of food by the classic
+nations of antiquity; it is noteworthy, that the inhabitants of the
+south of Europe even at the present time use butter in very small
+quantities, which, indeed, is often sold for medicinal purposes in the
+apothecaries' shops in Italy, Spain, and Portugal. From the foregoing
+statements it is evident that the butter manufacture can lay no claim to
+a classic origin; but that it took its rise in the countries of savage,
+of semi-civilised, and barbarous nations. It is probable that the Greeks
+were made acquainted with butter by the Thracians, Phrygians, and
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page134" name="page134"></a>[134]</span>
+
+ Scythians; and that the knowledge of this substance was conveyed to
+Rome by visitors from Germany. During the middle ages the practice of
+butter-making spread throughout Northern, Central, and Western Europe;
+but in many parts the commodity was very scarce and highly valued,
+notwithstanding its being almost, if not quite, in a semi-fluid state,
+instead of possessing the firm consistence of the butter of the present
+day.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Irish Butter.</i>&mdash;Butter is produced in such large quantities in Ireland
+that, after the home demand has been supplied, there remains a large
+excess&mdash;so considerable, indeed, as to constitute one of the more
+important of our few commercial staples. The precise quantity of butter
+which, during late years, has been annually exported from Ireland is
+unknown. The greater part of the commodity is sent to trans-Channel
+ports; and, there being no duty on butter in the cross-Channel trade
+since 1826, we have no means of accurately estimating the amount of our
+exports to Great Britain. If, however, we refer to the statistics of our
+commerce for the period beginning in 1787, and ending in 1826, we shall
+find that the exportation of butter was enormous, and that a large
+proportion of that commodity consumed by the army and navy was supplied
+from the dairies of Ireland. During the three years ended on the 5th of
+January, 1826, the average annual amount of butter exported was as
+follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average annual export of butter from Ireland, 1823 through 1825">
+
+<tr><td></td><th>cwts.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  To Great Britain                </td><td>441,226 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  To foreign countries            </td><td> 51,637 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+Of late years the exportation to foreign and colonial countries has
+fallen off; still the export trade is very considerable, probably
+amounting to 450,000 cwts. per annum. During the year 1867, the imports
+of foreign butter into Great Britain amounted to 1,142,262 cwts.
+</p>
+<p>
+I have quoted the above statistics for the purpose of demonstrating
+the great importance of the butter trade to this country. Not only is a
+large proportion of the agricultural community pecuniarily interested in
+the production of this
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page135" name="page135"></a>[135]</span>
+
+                       article, but the exportation is the chief cause
+of the commercial prosperity of a city, which, in point of population,
+ranks third in the kingdom. If butter, then, be an article of so much
+importance, it is obvious that the greatest care should be taken in its
+preparation, and that the efforts of both scientific and practical men
+should be directed towards the best mode of improving its quality. If
+the principles involved in the production of butter were thoroughly
+understood, and generally known, I believe that such terms as "seconds,"
+"thirds," and "fourths," would speedily fall into disuse; that there
+would be only one kind of butter sent into the market; and that the
+article would always be of the best quality, in other words, "firsts."
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Composition of Butter.</i>&mdash;The composition and quality of butter depend
+to a great extent upon the condition of the milk or cream from which it
+is prepared, and on the skill and cleanliness of the dairy-maid. It
+consists essentially of fatty and oily matters, but it is always found
+in combination with casein (cheesy matter) and water. The following
+analyses, made by Mr. Way, late consulting chemist to the Royal
+Agricultural Society of England, shows its composition:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of butter">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="4">  INGREDIENTS PER CENT.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                     </td><th>  1.   </th><th>  2.   </th><th>  3. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Fatty matters&nbsp;</td><td>82·70  </td><td>79·67  </td><td>79·12 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Casein             </td><td> 2·45  </td><td> 3·38  </td><td> 3·37 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Water              </td><td>14·85  </td><td>16·95  </td><td>17·51 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+No. 1 analysis shows the composition of a specimen obtained from the
+well-known Mr. Horsfall's dairy. It was made from raw cream. The other
+specimens were the produce of a Devonshire dairy, and were prepared from
+scalded cream. In several specimens of well-made and unsalted Irish
+butter which I have analysed, I found the proportion of casein or cheesy
+matter never to exceed 1 per cent., whilst in the analysis above stated
+the centesimal amount is on the average more than 3 per cent.
+</p>
+<p>
+The fatty matter is composed of two substances&mdash;one, a
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page136" name="page136"></a>[136]</span>
+
+                                                       solid, termed
+<i>margarin</i>; the other fluid, and styled by chemists <i>elaine</i>. The solid
+fat is identical in composition with the solid fat of the human body.
+The elaine is peculiar to milk, but it differs very slightly from
+<i>olein</i>, or fluid fat. The relative proportions of the fluid and solid
+fats vary with the seasons. According to Braconnot, the solid fat forms
+in summer 40 per cent. of the butter, but in winter the proportion rises
+to 65. This decrease in the proportion of the liquid fat in winter is
+the cause of the greater hardness of the butter in that season, which is
+often incorrectly attributed solely to the cold.
+</p>
+<p>
+The cheesy and acid matters contained in butter are by no means
+essential; on the contrary, if it were quite free from them, it might
+be retained with little or no salt for a very long period without
+becoming rancid. The cheesy matter contains nitrogen; and nearly all
+the substances into which this element enters as a constituent are
+remarkably prone to decomposition. Yeast, and ferments of every
+kind&mdash;gunpowder, fulminating silver, chloride of nitrogen&mdash;and almost
+every explosive compound, contain this element. The cheesy matter is
+a very nitrogenous body, and in presence of air and moisture not only
+rapidly decomposes, or decays, itself, but induces by mere contact a
+like state of decomposition in other substances&mdash;such, for instance, as
+fat, sugar, and starch, which naturally have no tendency to change their
+state. Bearing the foregoing facts in mind, it is obvious that the chief
+precautions to be observed in the manufacture of butter are:&mdash;Firstly,
+to separate to as great an extent as practicable the casein from the
+butter; and, secondly, as in practice a small portion of the curd
+remains in the butter, to prevent it from undergoing any change&mdash;at
+least for a prolonged period. How these desiderata may best be
+accomplished I shall now proceed to point out.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>The Butter Manufacture.</i>&mdash;The theory of the process of churning is very
+simple. By violently agitating the milk or cream the little vesicles, or
+bags containing the butter, are broken, and, the fatty matter adhering,
+<i>lumps of butter</i> are formed. The operation of churning also introduces
+atmospheric
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page137" name="page137"></a>[137]</span>
+
+            air into the milk, which, aided by the high temperature to
+which the fluid is raised, converts a portion of the <i>sweet</i> sugar of
+milk into the <i>sour</i> lactic acid. By the alteration produced in this way
+in the composition of the milk, it is no longer capable of holding the
+casein in solution, and the curd therefore separates.
+</p>
+<p>
+The churn and other vessels in which the milk is placed cannot be kept
+too clean. No amount of labor bestowed on the scalding and scrubbing
+of the vessels is excessive. When wood is the material used in the
+milk-pans the utmost care should be taken in cleaning them, as the
+porous nature of the material favors the retention of small quantities
+of the milk. A simple washing will not suffice to clean such vessels.
+They must be thoroughly scrubbed and afterwards well scalded with
+<i>boiling</i> water. Tin pans are preferable to wooden ones, as they are
+more easily cleaned, but in their turn they are inferior to glass
+vessels, which ought to supersede every other kind. Earthenware, lead,
+and zinc pans are in rather frequent use. The last-mentioned material
+is easily acted upon by the lactic acid of the sour milk, and is,
+therefore, objectionable. It is a matter of great importance that the
+dairy should not be situated near a pig-stye, sewer, or water-closet,
+the effluvia from which would be likely to taint the milk. It is
+surprising how small a quantity of putrescent matter is sufficient
+to taint a whole churn of milk; and as it has been demonstrated that
+the almost inappreciable emanations from a cesspool are capable of
+conferring a bad flavor on milk, it is in the highest degree important
+to remove from the churn and milk-pail every trace of the sour milk. I
+go further, it is even desirable that no one whose hands have a tendency
+to perspire should be allowed to manipulate in the dairy; and it should
+be constantly borne in mind that the dairy-maid's fingers and hot water
+should be on the most intimate visiting terms.
+</p>
+<p>
+Butter is made either from cream&mdash;sour and sweet&mdash;or from whole milk
+which has stood sufficiently long to become distinctly sour. It is
+asserted by some makers that butter
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page138" name="page138"></a>[138]</span>
+
+                                    prepared from whole milk, or
+from scalded cream, contains a large proportion of curd. If this be
+true&mdash;which I greatly doubt&mdash;it is a serious matter, for such butter
+would speedily become rancid in consequence of the casein acting as
+a ferment. I believe that experience points to an exactly opposite
+conclusion. From the results of careful inquiries I feel no hesitation
+in asserting that the butter should not be made from the cream, but from
+the <i>whole milk</i>. When made from the cream alone it is much more likely
+to acquire a bad taste, and is generally wanting in keeping qualities.
+I have no doubt but that in the process of churning the whole milk there
+is a large amount of lactic acid formed, and a much higher temperature
+attained, than in the churning of cream; consequently, the separation of
+caseous matter must be more perfectly effected in the former than in the
+latter case. It is a mistake to think that there is very little casein
+in cream: out of 7 or 8 lbs. of thick cream only a couple of pounds of
+butter are obtainable; the rest is made up of water, casein, and sugar
+of milk. The yield of butter is greater when the whole milk is churned
+than when the cream alone is operated upon, and, what is of great
+importance, the quality of the butter is uniform during the whole year.
+The labor of churning whole milk is, of course, much greater than if the
+cream alone were employed, but the increased yield and unvarying quality
+of the butter more than compensate for the extra expenditure of labor.
+</p>
+<p>
+The proper temperature of the milk or cream is a point of great
+practical importance. If the fluid be too warm or too cold the buttery
+particles will only by great trouble be made to cohere; and the quality
+of the butter is almost certain to be inferior. When the whole milk
+is operated on, the temperature should be from 55 to 60 degs. of
+Fahrenheit's thermometer; and if cream be employed the temperature
+should never exceed 55 degs. nor be lower than 50 degs. Hence it follows
+that in summer the dairy should be kept cooler, and in winter warmer,
+than the atmosphere. The temperature of milk is raised or lowered as may
+be found necessary, by the addition of hot or cold
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page139" name="page139"></a>[139]</span>
+
+                                                    water&mdash;in performing
+which operations properly, a good thermometer is indispensable; one
+should always be kept in the dairy, and should be so constructed as to
+admit of being plunged into the milk. In some dairies the water, instead
+of being mixed with the milk, is put into a tub in which the churn is
+placed. There is a good kind of churn, which consists of two cylinders,
+the one within the other&mdash;the interval between them being intended for
+the reception of hot or cold water. The influence of temperature upon
+the production of butter has been placed beyond all doubt by numerous
+carefully-conducted experiments. Mr. Horsfall, a celebrated dairy
+farmer, in discussing this question, sums up as follows:&mdash;"By a series
+of carefully-conducted experiments at varying temperatures, I am of
+opinion that a correct scale of the comparative yield of butter at
+different temperatures might be arrived at; as thus: From a very low
+degree of temperature little or no butter; from a temperature of about
+38 degs., 16 oz. from 16 quarts of milk; ditto, 45 degs., 21 oz. from 16
+quarts of milk; ditto, 55 degs., 26 to 27 oz. from 16 quarts of milk."
+This is a higher yield of butter than, I suspect, most dairymen get: but
+Mr. Horsfall's cows being of the best kind for milking, and well fed,
+the milk is, of course, rich in butter; and his experiments prove that
+even the richest milk will not throw up its butter unless at a certain
+temperature.
+</p>
+<p>
+In the churning of cream the motion should be slow at first until the
+cream is thoroughly broken up. In churning milk the agitation should
+neither be violent nor irregular; about 40 or 50 motions of the plunger
+or board per minute will be sufficient. In steam-worked churns the
+motion is often excessively rapid, and the separation of the butter
+is effected in a few minutes; but the article obtained in this hasty
+way very quickly becomes rancid, and must be disposed of at once. An
+hour's churning of sour cream appears in general to produce good butter.
+Sweet cream and whole milk require a longer period&mdash;the latter about 3
+hours&mdash;but in any case prolonged churning is certain, by incorporating
+cheesy matter with the butter, to produce an inferior article.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page140" name="page140"></a>[140]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+Sweet milk becomes sour, evolves a considerable quantity of gas during
+churning, and its temperature ascends four or five degrees. Oxygen is
+unquestionably absorbed, and it is probable that a portion of the sugar
+of milk is converted into acid products.
+</p>
+<p>
+I have already stated that even the most carefully prepared butter
+contains a small proportion of casein and sugar of milk. This casein
+is the good genius of the cheese-maker, but the evil genius of the
+butter manufacturer. How? In this way:&mdash;When butter containing a
+notable proportion of casein and sugar of milk is exposed to the air,
+the following changes take place: the casein passes into a state of
+fermentation, and acting upon the sugar of milk, converts it, firstly
+into the bad-flavored lactic acid, and secondly into the bad odorous
+butyric, capric, and caproic acids. The first of these compounds in a
+state of purity emits an odor resembling a mixture of vinegar and rancid
+butter; the second possesses an odor resembling that of a goat&mdash;hence
+the name <i>capric</i>; the third has an odor like that of perspiration. In
+addition to these acids, there is another simultaneously generated&mdash;the
+caprylic, but it does not unpleasantly affect the olfactory nerve.
+The casein also injuriously affects the fatty constituents of the
+butter; under its influence they absorb oxygen from the air, and become
+converted into strong-smelling compounds. The washing of butter is
+intended to free it from the casein and unaltered cream, and the more
+perfectly it is freed from those impurities the better will be its
+flavor, and the longer it will remain without becoming rancid. Some
+people believe that too much water injures the quality and lessens the
+quantity of butter. It cannot do the former, because the essential
+constituents of butter are totally insoluble in water; it may do the
+latter, but, if it do, so much the better, because the loss of weight
+represents the amount of impurities&mdash;milk, sugar of milk, &amp;c.&mdash;removed.
+</p>
+<p>
+I have already remarked that butter is so susceptible of taint that even
+a perspiring hand is sufficient to spoil it; naturally cool hands should
+alone be allowed to come in contact
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page141" name="page141"></a>[141]</span>
+
+                                    with this delicate commodity, and
+the hands should be made thoroughly clean by repeated washings with warm
+water and oatmeal&mdash;the use of soap in the lavatory of the dairymaid
+being highly objectionable. Wooden spades are now being commonly made
+use of in manipulating the butter, and there is no good reason why they
+should not come into universal use.
+</p>
+<p>
+The yield of butter per cow is subject to great variation. Some breeds
+of the animal are remarkable as milkers; such, for instance, as the
+Alderneys and Kerrys&mdash;indeed, I may say all the small varieties of the
+bovine race. There are instances of cows yielding upwards of twenty
+pounds of butter per week, but these are extraordinary cases. In Holland
+a good cow will produce, during the summer months, more than 180 lbs.
+of butter. In these countries I think the average annual yield of a
+cow is not more than 170 lbs. It sometimes happens that cows yield
+a large quantity of milk and a small amount of butter, but it far more
+frequently occurs that the cow which gives most milk also yields most
+butter.
+</p>
+<p>
+An estimate of the amount of butter contained in milk may be made by
+determining the amount of cream. This may be effected by means of an
+instrument termed a <i>lactometer</i>, which is simply a glass tube about
+five inches long, and graduated into a hundred parts. The specimen to be
+examined is poured into this tube up to zero or 0, and allowed to stand
+for twelve hours in summer and sixteen or eighteen in winter. At the end
+of that time the cream will have risen to the top, and its per-centage
+may be easily seen. In good milk the cream will generally extend 11 to
+15 degrees down from 0. This instrument, although very useful, is not
+reliable in every case, especially in detecting the adulteration of
+milk.
+</p>
+<p>
+I have already stated that the complete separation of the butter from
+the other constituents of the milk is never accomplished in the dairy.
+Now although the proportion of curd in the butter is very small&mdash;rarely
+more than two per cent. and often not a fourth of one per cent.&mdash;yet it
+is more than sufficient, under a certain condition, to cause the butter
+to become
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page142" name="page142"></a>[142]</span>
+
+          speedily rancid. That condition is simply contact with the
+air. If the curd, before it becomes dry and firm, is subjected to the
+influence of the air, it rapidly passes into a state of fermentation,
+which is very soon communicated to the fatty and saccharine constituents
+of the butter (substances not spontaneously liable to sudden changes in
+composition) and those peculiar compounds&mdash;such, for example, as butyric
+and capric acids, are generated, which confer upon rancid butter its
+characteristic and very disagreeable odor and flavor. The fermentation
+of the curd is prevented by incorporating common salt with the butter,
+and by preventing, so far as possible, the access of air to the
+vessels in which the article is placed. If fresh butter be placed in
+water&mdash;which apparently protects it from the influence of the air&mdash;it
+will soon become rancid. The reason of this is, that water always
+contains air, which differs in composition, though derived, from the
+atmosphere, by being very rich in oxygen. Now, it is precisely this
+oxygen which effects those undesirable changes in the casein, or curd,
+to which I have so repeatedly referred; hence its presence in a
+concentrated state in water causes that fluid to produce an injurious
+effect on the butter placed in it. A saturated solution of salt contains
+very little air, and, so long as the curd is immersed therein, it
+undergoes no change. The salt, too, acts as a decided preservative; for
+although it was long considered to be capable of preserving animal
+matters, merely by virtue of its property of absorbing water from them
+(the presence of water being a condition in the decomposition of organic
+matter), it has lately been shown to possess very antiseptic properties.
+</p>
+<p>
+The mixing of the salt with the butter is effected in the following
+manner:&mdash;The butter, after being well washed, in order to free it from
+the butter-milk, is spread out in a tub, and the salt shaken over it;
+the butter is then turned over on the salt by the lower part of the palm
+of the hand, and rubbed down until a uniform mixture is attained. A good
+plan in salting is to mix in only one half of the quantity of salt, make
+up the butter in lumps, and set them aside until the following
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page143" name="page143"></a>[143]</span>
+
+ day; a
+quantity of milk is certain to exude, which is to be poured off, and
+then the rest of the salt may be incorporated with the butter.
+</p>
+<p>
+According to butter-makers, the quality of the article is greatly
+dependent on the quality of the salt used in preserving it. I think
+there is a good deal of truth in this belief, and I therefore recommend
+that only the very best and <i>driest</i> salt should be used in the dairy.
+Common salt is essentially composed of the substance termed by chemists
+chloride of sodium, but it often contains other saline matters (chloride
+of magnesium, &amp;c.), some of which have a tendency to absorb moisture
+from the air, and to dissolve in the water so obtained. These salts are
+termed <i>deliquescent</i>, from the Latin <i>deliquere</i>, to melt down. When,
+therefore, common salt becomes damp by mere exposure to the air, it is
+to be inferred that it contains impurities which, as they possess a very
+bitter taste, would, if mixed with butter, confer a bad flavor upon it.
+The impurities of salt may be almost completely removed by placing about
+a stone weight of it in any convenient vessel, pouring over it a quart
+of boiling water, and mixing thoroughly the fluid and solid. In an hour
+or two the whole is to be thrown upon a filter made of calico, when the
+water will pass through the filter, carrying with it all the impurities,
+and the purified salt, in fine crystals, will remain upon the filter.
+The solution need not be thrown away: boiled down to dryness it may be
+given as salt to cattle; or, if added in solution to the dung-heap, it
+will augment the fertilising power of that manure.
+</p>
+<p>
+The proportion of salt used in preserving butter varies greatly. When
+the butter is intended for immediate use, I believe a quarter of an
+ounce of salt to the pound is quite sufficient; but when designed for
+the market, about half an ounce of salt to the pound of butter will be
+sufficient. Irish butter at one time commanded the highest price in the
+home and foreign markets, but latterly it has fallen greatly in public
+estimation; indeed, at the present moment the price of Irish butter at
+London is nearly twenty shillings per cwt. under that
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page144" name="page144"></a>[144]</span>
+
+                                                       of the Dutch
+article. It is really painful to be obliged to admit that the Irish
+farmer is solely to blame for this remarkable depreciation in the value
+of one of our best agricultural staples. In a word, by the stupid (and
+<i>recent</i>) practice of putting into butter four times the quantity of
+salt necessary to its preservation, the Irish dairy farmers&mdash;or at least
+the great majority of them&mdash;have completely ruined the reputation of
+Irish butter in those very markets in which, at one time, the Cork
+brand on a firkin was sufficient to dispose of its contents at the
+very highest price. It is a great mistake to think that the greater the
+quantity of salt which can be incorporated with the butter, the greater
+will be the profit to the producer. No doubt, every pound of salt sold
+as a constituent of butter realises a profit of two thousand per cent.;
+but then the addition of every pound of that substance, after a certain
+quantity, to the cwt. of butter depreciates the value of the latter to
+such an extent as to far more than neutralise the gain on the sale of
+salt at the price of butter. In the county of Carlow, less salt is used
+in preserving butter than is the case in the county of Cork and the
+adjacent counties; the price, therefore, which the Carlow commodity
+commands in the London market is higher than that of the Cork butter:
+but in every part of Ireland the proportion of salt added to the butter
+is excessive.
+</p>
+<p>
+The results of the analyses of butter supplied to the London market,
+made by the <i>Lancet</i> Analytical Commission, showed that the proportion
+of salt varied from 0·30 to 8·24 per cent. The largest proportion of
+salt found in fresh butter was 2·21 and the least 0·30. In salt butter
+the highest proportion of salt was 8·24 and the lowest 1·53. The butter
+which contained most salt was also generally largely adulterated with
+water. Indeed, in several samples the amount of this constituent reached
+so high as nearly 30 per cent. Nothing is easier than the incorporation
+of water with salt butter. The butter is melted, and whilst cooling the
+salt and water are added, and the mixture kept constantly stirred until
+quite cold. In this way nearly 50 per cent. of water may be added to
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page145" name="page145"></a>[145]</span>
+
+ butter; but of course the quality of the article will be of the very
+worst kind.
+</p>
+<p>
+A correspondent of the <i>Lancet</i> states that, on awakening about
+three o'clock in the morning at the house in which he was lodging, he
+perceived a light below the door of his room; and apprehending a fire,
+he hurried down stairs, and was not a little surprised to discover the
+whole family engaged in manipulating butter. He was informed in a jocose
+way that they were making Epping butter! For this purpose they used
+inferior Irish butter, which, by repeated washings, was freed from its
+excessive amount of salt; after which it was frequently bathed in sweet
+milk, the addition of a little sugar being the concluding stroke in the
+process. This "sweet fresh butter from Epping" was sold at a profit of
+100 per cent. Our dairy farmers might take a hint from this anecdote.
+Does it not prove that the mere removal of the salt added to Irish
+butter doubles the value of the article?
+</p>
+<p>
+It is as necessary to pay attention to the packing of butter as it is
+to its salting. If old firkins be employed, great care should be taken
+in cleaning them, and if the staves be loose, the firkins should be
+steeped in hot water, in order to cause the wood to swell, and thereby
+to bring the edges of the staves into close contact. New firkins often
+communicate a disagreeable odour to the butter. In order to guard
+against this, it is the practice in many parts to fill the firkins with
+very moist garden mould, which, after the lapse of a few days, is thrown
+out, and the firkin thoroughly scrubbed with hot water, rinsed with the
+same fluid in a cold state, and finally rubbed with salt, just before
+being used.
+</p>
+<p>
+In packing the butter, the chief object to be kept in view is the
+exclusion of air. In order to accomplish this, the lumps of butter
+should be pressed firmly together, and also against the bottom and sides
+of the vessel. When the products of several churnings are placed in the
+same firkin, the surface of each churning should be furrowed, so that
+the next layer may be mixed with it. A firkin should never be filled in
+a single
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page146" name="page146"></a>[146]</span>
+
+         operation. About six inches of butter of each churning will be
+quite sufficient, and in a large dairy two or more firkins can be
+gradually but simultaneously filled. I strongly recommend the removal
+of the pickle jar from the dairy. When the layers of butter have been
+carried up to within an inch or so of the top of the firkin, the space
+between the surface of the butter and the edge of the vessel should be
+filled with fine dry salt, instead of pickle. A common mistake made is
+the holding over for too long a time of the butter: the sooner this
+article can be disposed of the better, for <i>it never improves by age</i>.
+</p>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<a name="note-22"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-22">22</a>)
+From two Greek words, signifying odour and soup.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-23"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-23">23</a>)
+"A New Inquiry, fully illustrated by coloured engravings of
+the heart, lungs, &amp;c., of the Diseased Prize Cattle lately exhibited at
+the Smithfield Cattle Club, 1857." By Frederick James Gant, M.R.C.S.
+London, 1858.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-24"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-24">24</a>)
+Professor John Wilson's Report of the Agricultural
+Exhibition, Aarhuus, 1867.
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page147" name="page147"></a>[147]</span></p>
+
+<a name="h2H_4_0009" id="h2H_4_0009"><!-- H2 anchor --></a>
+
+<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+<h2>
+    PART V.
+</h2>
+<h3>
+    ON THE COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF VEGETABLE FOODS.
+</h3>
+<h4>
+SECTION I.
+</h4>
+<h5>
+THE MONEY VALUE OF FOOD SUBSTANCES.
+</h5>
+<p>
+The flesh-forming principles of food are, as I have already stated,
+almost identical with the principal nitrogenous constituents of animals.
+Unlike the non-plastic substances, they are convertible into each other
+with little, if any, loss either of matter or of force. Not many
+years since it was the fashion to estimate the nutritive value of a
+food-substance by its proportion of nitrogen; but this method&mdash;not yet
+quite abandoned&mdash;was based on erroneous views, and yielded results very
+far from the truth. No doubt all the more concentrated and valuable
+kinds of food are rich in nitrogenous principles; but there are other
+varieties, the nutritive value of which is very low, and yet their
+proportion of nitrogen is very high. This point requires explanation.
+Both the plastic and the non-plastic materials of food exist in two
+distinct states&mdash;in one of which they are easily digestible, and in the
+other either altogether unassimilable or so nearly so as to be almost
+useless. Thus, for example, the cellular tissue of plants, when newly
+formed, is to a great extent digestible, whilst the old woody fibre is
+nearly, if not quite, incapable of assimilation. Gelatine, which in raw
+bones is easily digested in the stomachs of the carnivora, loses a large
+proportion of its nutritive value on being
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page148" name="page148"></a>[148]</span>
+
+                                           subjected to the action of
+steam. Again, a portion of the nitrogen of young succulent plants is in
+a form not sufficiently organic to admit of its being assimilated to
+the animal body. But, independently of these strong objections to the
+method of estimating the nutritive value of food by its per-centage of
+flesh-formers, there are many other reasons which as clearly prove the
+fallacy of this rule. If we were, for instance, to estimate the value
+of albumen according to the tables of food equivalents which were
+constructed some years ago by Boussingault and other chemists, we would
+find one pound weight of it to be equivalent to four pounds weight of
+oil-cake, or to twelve pounds weight of hay; yet, it is a fact that
+a horse would speedily die if confined to a purely albuminous diet,
+whereas hay is capable of supporting the animal's life for an indefinite
+period.
+</p>
+<p>
+It is clear, then, from what I have stated, that neither the amount of
+flesh-formers, nor of fat-formers, contained in a given quantity of a
+substance is a measure of its nutritive value; nevertheless it would
+be incorrect to infer from this that the numerous analyses of feeding
+substances which have been made are valueless. On the contrary, I am
+disposed to believe that the composition of these substances, when
+correctly stated by the chemist, enables the physiologist to determine
+pretty accurately their relative alimentary value. Theory is certainly
+against the assumption that food is valuable in proportion to its
+content of nitrogen; nor has practice less strongly disproved its truth.
+An illustration drawn from the nutrition of plants will make this matter
+more apparent. Every intelligent agriculturist knows that guano contains
+nitrogen and phosphoric acid; both substances are indispensable to the
+development of plants, and therefore it would be incorrect to estimate
+the manurial value of the guano in proportion to the quantity of
+nitrogen it was capable of yielding. If the value of manures were
+determined only by their per-centage of nitrogen&mdash;a mode by which
+certain chemists still estimate the nutritive value of food&mdash;then
+woollen rags would be worth
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page149" name="page149"></a>[149]</span>
+
+                            more than bones, and bones would be more
+valuable than superphosphate of lime. The truth is, that the analysis of
+feeding stuffs and manures is sometimes of little value if the condition
+in which the constituents of these substances exist be undetermined. For
+example, the analysis of one manure may show it to contain 40 per cent.
+of phosphate of lime, and three per cent. of ammonia, whilst, according
+to analysis, another fertiliser may include 20 per cent. of phosphate of
+lime, and two per cent. of ammonia. Viewed by this light solely, the
+first manure would be considered the more valuable of the two, whereas
+it might, in reality, be very much inferior. If the phosphate of lime
+in the manure, containing 40 per cent. of that body, were derived from
+coprolites or apatite, and its ammonia from horns, the former would be
+worth little or nothing, and the latter, by reason of its exceedingly
+slow evolution from the horns, would possess a very low value. If, on
+the contrary, the phosphate of lime, in the manure comparatively poor
+in phosphate, were a constituent of bones, and its ammonia ready formed
+(say as sulphate of ammonia), then, its value, both commercial and
+manurial, would be far greater than the other.
+</p>
+<p>
+In estimating the money value of an article of food, we should omit
+such considerations as the relative adjustment of its flesh-formers and
+fat-formers, and its suitability to particular kinds of animals, as well
+as to animals in a certain stage of development. The manure supplied to
+plants contains several elements indispensable to vegetable nutrition;
+and, although the agriculturist most commonly purchases all these
+elements combined in the one article, still he frequently buys each
+ingredient separately. Ammonia is one of these principles, and, whether
+it be bought <i>per se</i>, or as a constituent of a compound manure, the
+price it commands is invariable. This principle should prevail in the
+purchase of food: each constituent of which should have a certain value
+placed upon it; and the sums of all the values of the constituents would
+then be the value of the article of food taken as a whole. There
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page150" name="page150"></a>[150]</span>
+
+                                                                 are, no
+doubt, practical difficulties in the way which prevent this method of
+valuation from giving more than approximatively correct results; but
+are there not precisely similar difficulties in the way of the correct
+estimation of the value of a manure according to its analysis? There
+are several constituents of food, the money value of which is easily
+determinable: these are sugar, starch, and fat. No matter what substance
+they are found in, the nutritive value of each varies only within very
+narrow limits. The value of cellulose and woody fibre is not so easily
+ascertained, as it varies with the age and nature of the vegetable
+structure in which these principles occur. There is little doubt but
+that the cellulose and fibre of young grass, clover, and other succulent
+plants, are, for the most part, digestible; and we should not be far
+astray if we were to assume that four pounds weight of soft fibre and
+cellulose are equivalent to three pounds weight of starch. As to old
+hard fibre, we are not in a position to say whether or not it possesses
+any nutrimental value worth taking into account. The estimation of the
+value of the flesh-forming materials is far more difficult than that of
+sugar, starch, pectine compounds, and fat. The nitrogenous constituents
+of food must be in a highly elaborated state before they are capable
+of being assimilated. In seeds&mdash;in which vegetable substances attain
+their highest degree of development&mdash;they probably exist in the most
+digestible form, whilst much of the nitrogen found in the stems and
+leaves of succulent plants, is either in a purely mineral state, or in
+so low a degree of elaboration as to be unavailable for the purpose of
+nutrition. But even plastic materials, in a high degree of organisation,
+present many points of difference, which greatly affect their relative
+alimental value; for example, many of them are naturally associated with
+substances possessing a disagreeable flavor: and as their separation
+from these substances is often practically impossible, the animal that
+consumes both will not assimilate the plastic matters so well as if
+they were endowed with a pleasant flavor. In seeds and other perfectly
+matured
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page151" name="page151"></a>[151]</span>
+
+        vegetable structures, the flesh-formers may exist in different
+degrees of availability. The nitrogen of the <i>testa</i>, or covering of the
+seeds, will hardly be so assimilable as that which exists in their
+cotyledons. The solubility of the flesh-formers&mdash;provided they be highly
+elaborated&mdash;is a very good criterion of their nutritive power. In
+linseed the muscle-forming substances are more soluble than in
+linseed-cake&mdash;the heat which is generally employed in the extraction of
+oil from linseed rendering the plastic materials of the resultant <i>cake</i>
+less soluble, and diminishing thereby their digestibility, as practice
+has proved.
+</p>
+<p>
+From the considerations which I have now entered into, it is obvious
+that the chemical analysis of food substances as generally performed,
+though of great utility, does not afford strictly accurate information
+as to their commercial value, and still less reliable in relation to
+their nutritive power. At the same time, they as clearly establish
+the feasibility of analyses being <i>made</i> whereby the money value of
+feeding-stuffs may be estimated with tolerable exactitude. Let the
+chemist determine the presence and relative amounts of the ingredients
+of food-substances, and&mdash;if it be possible so to do with a degree of
+exactness that would render the results useful&mdash;place on each a money
+value. This done, let the physiologist and the feeder combine the food
+in such proportions as they may find best adapted to the nature, age,
+and condition of the animal to be fed.
+</p>
+<p>
+It is to be regretted that the market price of feeding stuffs is not,
+in consequence of our defective knowledge, strictly determined by their
+nutritive value, for if such were the case, the feeder would merely have
+to adapt each to the nature and condition of his stock. Even amongst
+practical men there prevails, unfortunately, great diversity of opinion
+as to the relative nutritive value of the greater number of food
+substances; and I am quite certain that many of these command higher
+prices than others which in no respect are inferior. It would lead me
+too far from my immediate subject were I to
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page152" name="page152"></a>[152]</span>
+
+                                            enter minutely into the
+consideration of such questions as&mdash;whether an acre of grass yields more
+or less nutriment than an acre of turnips? I shall merely describe the
+composition and properties of grass and of turnips, and of the various
+other important food substances, and compare their nutritive power, so
+far as comparisons are admissible; but I shall say but little on the
+subject of the various economic and other conditions which affect the
+production of forage plants. When I shall have described the chemical
+nature and physical condition of the various articles of food, and the
+results of actual feeding experiments made with them, the feeder will
+then be in a position to determine which are the most economical to
+produce or to purchase.
+</p>
+<h4>
+SECTION II.
+</h4>
+<h5>
+PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS OF VEGETABLES.
+</h5>
+<p>
+The saccharine, or amylaceous substances constitute the most abundant
+of the proximate constituents of plants. They are composed of carbon,
+hydrogen, and oxygen. I shall briefly describe the more important
+members of this group of substances, namely, starch, sugar, inulin,
+gum, pectin, and cellulose.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Starch</i>, or <i>fecula</i>, occurs largely in dicotyledonous seeds, peas,
+&amp;c., and still more abundantly in certain monocotyledonous seeds, such
+as wheat and barley. It constitutes the great bulk of many tubers and
+roots&mdash;for example, the potato and tapioca. It consists of flattened
+ovate granules, which vary in size according to the plant. In the
+beetroot they are <sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>3500</sub> of an inch in diameter, whilst in <i>tous les
+mois</i> they are nearly <sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>200</sub> of an inch in diameter. Most of the starch
+granules are marked by a series of concentric rings. Starch is heavier
+than water, and is insoluble in that fluid when cold; neither is it
+dissolved by alcohol or ether. When heated in water having a temperature
+of at least 140° Fahrenheit, it increases greatly in volume, and
+acquires a gelatinous consistence. When the
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page153" name="page153"></a>[153]</span>
+
+                                            water is allowed to cool,
+a portion of the starch becomes insoluble, whilst another portion
+remains in solution; the latter form of starch is sometimes termed
+<i>amidin</i>, from the French word for starch, <i>amidon</i>. When dry starch
+is heated to 400° Fahr., it is converted, without any change in its
+composition, into a soluble gum-like substance, termed <i>dextrin</i>,
+or British gum. On being boiled in diluted sulphuric acid it is
+converted into a kind of sugar; and the same effect is produced by
+fermentation&mdash;for example, in the germination of seeds. Fresh rice
+contains 82, wheat 60, and potatoes 20 per cent. of starch. This
+substance constitutes a nutritious and easily digestible food, but
+alone cannot support life. Arrowroot is only a pure form of starch.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Sugar</i> occurs less abundantly in plants than starch. There are several
+varieties of this substance, of which the kinds termed cane sugar
+(<i>sucrose</i>) and grape sugar (<i>glucose</i>), are only of importance to
+agriculturists. The former enters largely into the composition of the
+sugar-cane, the beetroot, the sugar-maple, the sorgho grass, pumpkins,
+carrots, and a great variety of other plants. Grape sugar is found in
+fruits, especially when dried&mdash;raisins and figs&mdash;in malted corn, and
+in honey. In the sugar-cane there is 18 per cent., and in the beetroot
+10 per cent. of sugar.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Cane sugar</i>, when pure, consists of minute transparent crystals. It is
+1<sup>6</sup>&#8260;<sub>10</sub> heavier than water, and is soluble in one-third of its weight
+of that fluid. By long-continued boiling in water it is changed into
+uncrystallizable sugar, or treacle, by which its flavor is altered, but
+its sweetening power increased.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Grape sugar</i> crystallizes in very small cubes, of inferior color as
+compared with cane sugar crystals. It dissolves in its own weight of
+water, being three times less soluble than sucrose. In sweetening power
+one part of cane sugar is equal to 2&frac12; parts of grape sugar; but there
+is probably little if any difference, between the nutritive power of the
+two substances.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Inulin</i> is a substance somewhat resembling starch. It does
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page154" name="page154"></a>[154]</span>
+
+                                                            not occur
+in large quantities. It is met with in the roots of the dandelion,
+chicory, and many other plants.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Gum</i> is an abundant constituent of plants. The kind termed gum
+arabic, so largely employed in the arts, is a very pure variety of this
+substance. Common gums are said to be essentially composed of a very
+weak acid&mdash;<i>gummic</i>, or <i>arabic</i> acid&mdash;united with lime and potash.
+The solution of gum is very slightly acid, and has a mucilaginous,
+ropy consistence: it is almost tasteless. <i>Mucilage</i>, or <i>bassorin</i>,
+is simply a modified form of gum, which, though insoluble in water,
+forms a gelatinous mixture with that fluid. It exudes from certain
+trees&mdash;the cherry for example&mdash;and exists largely in linseed and other
+seeds. Gums are nutritious foods, but it is probable that they are not
+equal in alimental power to equal weights of starch or sugar.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Vegetable jelly</i>, or <i>pectin</i>, is almost universally diffused
+throughout the vegetable kingdom. It is owing to its presence that the
+juices of many fruits and roots possess the property of gelatinizing.
+It is soluble in water, but prolonged boiling destroys its viscous
+property. <i>Pectose</i> is a modification of pectin; it is insoluble in
+water. According to Fremy, the hardness of green fruits is due to the
+presence of pectose; which is also found in the cellular tissue of
+turnips, carrots, and various other roots.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Cellulose</i> is a fibrous or cellular tissue, allied in composition to
+starch. It is the most abundant constituent of plants, and forms the
+very ground-work of the vegetable mechanism. Linen, cotton, and the
+pith of the elder and other trees are nearly pure forms of cellulose.
+Ligneous, or woody tissue (<i>lignin</i>) is indurated cellulose, hardened
+by age. It is almost identical in composition with cellulose. Pure
+cellulose is white, colorless, tasteless, insoluble in water, oil,
+alcohol, or ether. It is heavier than water. Sulphuric acid is capable
+of converting it into grape, or starch sugar. In its fresh and succulent
+state cellulose is digestible and nutritious; but in the form of
+ligneous tissue it opposes a very great resistance to the action of the
+digestive
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page155" name="page155"></a>[155]</span>
+
+          fluids.  Digestible cellulose is probably equal in nutritive
+power to starch.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Oils and fats</i> occur abundantly in vegetables, more particularly in
+their seeds. In the seeds of many cruciferous plants the proportion
+of fat and oil exceeds 35 per cent. The oils and fats termed <i>fixed</i>
+are those which possess the greatest interest to agriculturists; the
+<i>volatile oils</i> being those which confer on certain plants their
+fragrant odour. There are a great variety of vegetable oils, but the
+proximate constituents of most of them are chiefly <i>stearin</i>,
+<i>margarin</i>, <i>olein</i>, and <i>palmitin</i>.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Stearin</i> is a white crystalline substance, sparingly soluble in alcohol
+and ether, but insoluble in water. There are two or three modifications
+of this substance, but they do not essentially differ from each other.
+The melting point varies from 130° to 160° Fahr. Stearin is the most
+abundant of the fats.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Margarin</i> presents the appearance of pearly scales. It is the solid fat
+present in olive oil, and it is also met with in a great variety of fats
+and oils. It melts at 116° Fahr.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Olein</i> is the fluid constituent of oils and fatty substances. It
+resists an extreme degree of cold, without solidifying. There are
+several modifications of this body&mdash;the olein of olive oil being
+somewhat different from that of castor oil; the olein of linseed is
+sometimes termed <i>linolien</i>.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Palmitin.</i>&mdash;This fat occurs in many plants, but as it makes up the
+great bulk of palm oil, it has been termed palmitin. It is white, and
+may be obtained in feathery-like masses. Its melting point varies from
+114° to 145°, there being, according to Duffy, three modifications of
+this substance.
+</p>
+<p>
+The fats and oils are lighter than water. They contain far more carbon
+and hydrogen, and less oxygen, than are found in the sugars and
+starches. They all consist of acids (stearic, palmitic, &amp;c.) united with
+glycerine. On being boiled with potash or soda, the latter take the
+place of the glycerine, which is set free, and a <i>soap</i> is produced.
+The fatty acids strongly resemble the fats. In nutritive power, one part
+of fat is equal to 2&frac12; parts of starch or sugar.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page156" name="page156"></a>[156]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+The Albuminous substances contain, in addition to the elements found
+in starch, nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus. <i>Albumen</i>, <i>fibrin</i>, and
+<i>legumin</i> constitute the three important members of the "Nitrogenous"
+constituents of plants.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Albumen</i> is an uncrystallizable substance. It is soluble in water,
+unless when heated to 140 deg. Fahr., at which temperature it coagulates,
+<i>i.e.</i>, becomes solid and insoluble. The <i>gluten</i> of wheat is composed
+chiefly of albumen, and of bodies closely allied to that substance.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Fibrin</i>, when dried, is a hard, horny, yellow, solid body. It contains
+a little more oxygen than is found in albumen. This substance is best
+known as a constituent of animals, and it does not appear to be abundant
+in plants. The portion of the gluten of wheat-flour, which is insoluble
+in boiling alcohol, is considered by Liebig and Dumas to be coagulated
+fibrin.
+</p>
+<p>
+In the seeds of leguminous and a few other kinds of plants large
+quantities of a substance termed <i>legumin</i> are found. It resembles the
+casein, or cheesy ingredient of milk; indeed, some chemists consider it
+to be identical in composition with that substance. When pure, it is
+pearly white, insoluble in boiling water, but soluble in cold water and
+in vinegar. The saline matters found in plants are always associated
+with the albuminous bodies; the latter, therefore, form the bones as
+well as the muscles of animals.
+</p>
+<p>
+A great many substances are found in plants, such as wax, mannite,
+"extractive matter," citric, malic, and other acids, of the nutritive
+value of which very little is known. The substances described in this
+section constitute, however, at least 95 per cent. of the weight of the
+vegetable matters used as food by live stock.
+</p>
+
+<h4>
+SECTION III.
+</h4>
+<h5>
+GREEN FOOD.
+</h5>
+<p>
+<i>The Grasses.</i>&mdash;More than one-half the area of Great Britain and Ireland
+is under pasture; the grasses, therefore, constitute the most important
+and abundant food used by live stock.
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page157" name="page157"></a>[157]</span>
+
+                                      The composition of the natural
+and artificial grasses is greatly influenced by the nature of the soil
+on which they are grown, and by the climatic conditions under which
+they are developed. Many of them are almost worthless, whilst others
+possess a high nutritive value. Amongst the most useful natural
+grasses may be enumerated Italian rye-grass, Meadow barley, Annual
+Meadow-grass, Crested dogstail-grass, Cocksfoot-grass, Timothy or
+Meadow catstail-grass, and Sweet vernal-grass. Amongst grasses of medium
+quality I may mention common Oatlike-grass, Meadow foxtail grass, Smooth
+and rough stalked Meadow-grass, and Waterwhorl-grass. There are very
+many grasses which are almost completely innutritious, and which ought,
+under no circumstances, to be tolerated, although too often they make
+up the great bulk of the herbage of badly-managed meadows and pastures.
+Such grasses are, the Meadow soft-grass, Creeping soft-grass, False
+brome-grass, and Upright brome-grass. The rough-stalked Meadow-grass,
+though spoken favorably of by some farmers, is hardly worthy of
+cultivation, and the same may be said of many of the grasses which have
+a place in our meadows and pastures. (See "Analyses of Natural Grasses
+in a Fresh State, by Dr. Voelcker," on next page.)
+</p>
+<p>
+The <i>Schræder brome</i> is a perennial lately introduced into France. It
+is described as an exceedingly valuable forage crop, and one which is
+admirably adapted for the feeding of dairy cows. It would be desirable
+to give it a trial in these countries. The composition (which is very
+peculiar) of this plant is stated to be as follows, when dry:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of dry Schræder Brome hay">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="2">  ANALYSIS OF SCHRÆDER BROME HAY.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                </td><td> 16·281 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Nitrogenous matters  </td><td> 23·443 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fat                  </td><td>  3·338 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Starch gum, &amp;c.  </td><td> 22·549 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Cellulose (fibre)    </td><td> 19·843 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ashes                </td><td> 14·546 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>         </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>         Total         </td><td>100·000 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page158" name="page158"></a>[158]</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of fresh natural grasses">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="8">  ANALYSES OF NATURAL GRASSES IN A FRESH STATE, BY DR. VOELCKER.</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1">
+<td></td>
+<th>Water.</th>
+<th>Albuminous or<br /> Flesh-forming<br /> Principles.</th>
+<th>Fatty<br /> Matters.</th>
+<th>Respiratory<br /> Principles:<br /> Starch, Gum,<br /> Sugar.</th>
+<th>Woody<br /> Fibre.</th>
+<th>Mineral<br /> Matter<br /> or Ash.</th>
+<th>Date of<br /> Collection.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">   Anthoxanthum odoratum&mdash;Sweet-scented vernal grass </td><td> 80·35 </td><td> 2·00 </td><td>  ·67 </td><td> 8·54 </td><td>  7·15 </td><td>1·24</td><td class="c">May  25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Alopecurus pratensis&mdash;Meadow foxtail grass        </td><td> 80·20 </td><td> 2·44 </td><td>  ·52 </td><td> 8·59 </td><td>  6·70 </td><td>1·55</td><td class="c">June  1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Arrhenatherum avenaceum&mdash;Common oat-like grass    </td><td> 72·65 </td><td> 3·54 </td><td>  ·87 </td><td>11·21 </td><td>  9·37 </td><td>2·36</td><td class="c">July 17</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Avena flavescens&mdash;Yellow oat-like grass           </td><td> 60·40 </td><td> 2·96 </td><td> 1·04 </td><td>18·66 </td><td> 14·22 </td><td>2·72</td><td class="c">June 29</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Avena pubescens&mdash;Downy oat-grass                  </td><td> 61·50 </td><td> 3·07 </td><td>  ·92 </td><td>19·16 </td><td> 13·34 </td><td>2·01</td><td class="c">July 11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Briza media&mdash; Common quaking grass                </td><td> 51·85 </td><td> 2·93 </td><td> 1·45 </td><td>22·60 </td><td> 17·00 </td><td>4·17</td><td class="c">June 29</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Bromus erectus&mdash;Upright brome grass               </td><td> 59·57 </td><td> 3·78 </td><td> 1·35 </td><td class="c" colspan="2" style="border-top: 1px solid gray; border-bottom: 1px solid gray;">33·19</td><td>2·11</td><td class="c"> "   23</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Bromus mollis&mdash;Soft brome grass                   </td><td> 76·62 </td><td> 4·05 </td><td>  ·47 </td><td> 9·04 </td><td>  8·46 </td><td>1·36</td><td class="c"> May  8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Cynosurus cristatus&mdash;Crested dogstail grass       </td><td> 62·73 </td><td> 4·13 </td><td> 1·32 </td><td>19·64 </td><td>  9·80 </td><td>2·38</td><td class="c">June 21</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Dactylus glomerata&mdash;Cocksfoot grass               </td><td> 70·00 </td><td> 4·06 </td><td>  ·94 </td><td>13·30 </td><td> 10·11 </td><td>1·54</td><td class="c"> "   13</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   &nbsp;&nbsp;Ditto, seeds ripe                          </td><td> 52·57 </td><td>10·93 </td><td>  ·74 </td><td>12·61 </td><td> 20·54 </td><td>2·61</td><td class="c">July 19</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Festuca duriuscula&mdash;Hard fescue grass             </td><td> 69·33 </td><td> 3·70 </td><td> 1·02 </td><td>12·46 </td><td> 11·83 </td><td>1·66</td><td class="c">June 13</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Holcus lanatus&mdash;Soft meadow grass                 </td><td> 69·70 </td><td> 3·49 </td><td> 1·02 </td><td>11·92 </td><td> 11·94 </td><td>1·93</td><td class="c"> "   29</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Hordeum pratense&mdash;Meadow barley                   </td><td> 58·85 </td><td> 4·59 </td><td>  ·94 </td><td>20·05 </td><td> 13·03 </td><td>2·54</td><td class="c">July 11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Lolium perenne&mdash;Darnel grass                      </td><td> 71·43 </td><td> 3·37 </td><td>  ·91 </td><td>12·08 </td><td> 10·06 </td><td>2·15</td><td class="c">June  8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Lolium italicum&mdash;Italian rye-grass                </td><td> 75·61 </td><td> 2·45 </td><td>  ·80 </td><td>14·11 </td><td>  4·82 </td><td>2·21</td><td class="c"> "   13</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Phleum pratense&mdash;Meadow catstail grass            </td><td> 57·21 </td><td> 4·86 </td><td> 1·50 </td><td>22·85 </td><td> 11·32 </td><td>2·26</td><td class="c">       </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Poa annua&mdash;Annual meadow grass                    </td><td> 79·14 </td><td> 2·47 </td><td>  ·71 </td><td>10·79 </td><td>  6·30 </td><td> ·59</td><td class="c"> May 28</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Poa pratensis&mdash;Smooth-stalked meadow grass        </td><td> 67·14 </td><td> 3·41 </td><td>  ·86 </td><td>14·15 </td><td> 12·49 </td><td>1·95</td><td class="c">June 11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Poa trivialis&mdash;Rough-stalked ditto                </td><td> 73·60 </td><td> 2·58 </td><td>  ·97 </td><td>10·54 </td><td> 10·11 </td><td>2·20</td><td class="c"> "   18</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Grass from water meadow                                </td><td> 87·58 </td><td> 3·22 </td><td>  ·81 </td><td> 3·98 </td><td>  3·13 </td><td>1·28</td><td class="c">Apr. 30</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">     Ditto, second crop                                   </td><td> 74·53 </td><td> 2·78 </td><td>  ·52 </td><td>11·17 </td><td>  8·76 </td><td>2·24</td><td class="c">June 26</td></tr>
+<tr class="b1">
+    <td class="l">   Annual rye-grass                                       </td><td> 69·00 </td><td> 2·96 </td><td>  ·69 </td><td>12·89 </td><td> 12·47 </td><td>1·99</td><td class="c"> "    8</td></tr>
+<tr class="b1">
+    <td class="c" colspan="8">  Most of the grasses here mentioned were analysed when in flower.</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page159" name="page159"></a>[159]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Tussac Grass</i> (<i>Dactylis cæspitus</i>) is recommended as an excellent
+plant to grow on very poor, wet, or mossy soils.<sup><a name="noteref-25"><!--25--></a><a href="#note-25">25</a></sup> It is an evergreen
+grass, somewhat resembling coltsfoot. It is relished by cattle.
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of tussac grass">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3">  ANALYSIS OF TUSSAC GRASS BY JOHNSTONE.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                                      </td><th>Lower part.  </th><th>Upper part. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                               </td><td>  86·09 </td><td> 75·17 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-formers                       </td><td>   2·47 </td><td>  4·79 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Sugar, gum, &amp;c.                 </td><td>   4·62 </td><td>  6·81 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre (with a little albumen) </td><td>   5·68 </td><td> 11·86 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ash                                 </td><td>   1·14 </td><td>  1·37 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>                                      </td><td> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash; </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>            Total                     </td><td> 100·00 </td><td>100·00 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The "artificial grasses" embrace the clovers, vetches, lucerne, and
+a few other plants, some of which are seldom cultivated.
+</p>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of various clovers (Anderson)">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="7">  ANALYSES OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF CLOVER, BY DR. ANDERSON.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<th colspan="4">Per-centage in the Fresh Clover.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Per-centage in Dry Clover. </th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="b1">
+<td></td>
+<th>Water.</th>
+<th>Dry<br /> Substances.</th>
+<th>Ash.</th>
+<th>Nitrogenised<br /> Substances.</th>
+<th>Ash.</th>
+<th>Nitrogenised<br /> Matters.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Red clover&mdash;Trifolium pratense:</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;  1. From English seed                   </td><td>85·30 </td><td>  14·70 </td><td> 1·30  </td><td>2·31  </td><td> 8·90 </td><td>  15·87 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;  2. From German seed (from the Rhine)   </td><td>81·68 </td><td>  18·32 </td><td> 1·49  </td><td>2·81  </td><td> 8·15 </td><td>  15·50 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;  3. From French seed                    </td><td>83·51 </td><td>  16·49 </td><td> 1·95  </td><td>2·25  </td><td>11·82 </td><td>  13·56 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;  4. From American seed                  </td><td>79·98 </td><td>  21·02 </td><td> 1·58  </td><td>2·87  </td><td> 8·05 </td><td class="c">   ... </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;  5. From Dutch seed                     </td><td class="c"> ...  </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td class="c"> ...  </td><td> 8·82 </td><td>  12·43 </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Cowgrass&mdash;Trifolium medium:<sup><a name="noteref-26"><!--26--></a><a href="#note-26">26</a></sup></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;  Variety, Duke of Norfolk               </td><td>77·39 </td><td>  22·61 </td><td> 2·73  </td><td>2·25  </td><td>12·09 </td><td>  10·19 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;  Variety, common                        </td><td>81·76 </td><td>  18·24 </td><td> 1·92  </td><td>3·19  </td><td>10·53 </td><td>  14·37 </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Crimson clover&mdash;Trifolium incarnatum:</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;  From French seed                       </td><td>82·56 </td><td>  17·44 </td><td> 1·88  </td><td>3·25  </td><td>10·81 </td><td>  18·56 </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Yellow clover&mdash;Medicago lupulina:</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;  From English seed                      </td><td>77·38 </td><td>  22·62 </td><td> 2·02  </td><td>3·50  </td><td> 8·95 </td><td>  15·44 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1">
+    <td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;  From French seed                       </td><td>78·60 </td><td>  21·40 </td><td> 1·75  </td><td>2·94  </td><td> 8·18 </td><td>  13·69 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page160" name="page160"></a>[160]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Clover</i> is very rich in flesh-forming and heat-producing substances.
+There are several varieties of this plant, of which the Alsike Clover
+appears to be the most valuable, as it contains a high proportion of
+organic matter and gives the largest acreable produce. The nature of the
+soil influences, to a great extent, the composition of this plant: this
+no doubt accounts for the somewhat discrepant result of the analyses of
+it made by Way, Voelcker, and Anderson.
+</p>
+<p>
+The composition of the Vetch, Sainfoin, and Lucerne, resembles very
+closely that of the Clover: indeed, it appears to me that all these
+leguminous plants are nearly equally valuable as green forage, but that
+the best adapted for hay is the Clover. In the following table the
+composition of these plants is shown:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of various clovers (Voelcker)">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="6">  ANALYSES OF CLOVER, BY DR. VOELCKER.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<th>  I. <br /> Red     <br /> Clover.     </th>
+<th> II. <br /> White   <br /> Clover.   </th>
+<th>III. <br /> Yellow  <br /> Clover.  </th>
+<th> IV. <br /> Alsike  <br /> Clover.  </th>
+<th>  V. <br /> Bokhara <br /> Clover. </th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                               </td><td>  80·64 </td><td> 83·65 </td><td>  77·57  </td><td> 76·67  </td><td>  81·30 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Soluble in Water&mdash;             </td><td>        </td><td>       </td><td>         </td><td>        </td><td>        </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;  <i>a.</i> Organic substances      </td><td>   6·35 </td><td>  4·98 </td><td>   8·26  </td><td>  4·91  </td><td>   6·80 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;  <i>b.</i> Inorganic substances    </td><td>   1·55 </td><td>  1·13 </td><td>   1·40  </td><td>  1·33  </td><td>   1·54 </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Insoluble in water&mdash;           </td><td>        </td><td>       </td><td>         </td><td>        </td><td>        </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;  <i>a.</i> Impure vegetable fibre  </td><td>  11·04 </td><td>  9·80 </td><td>  12·17  </td><td> 16·36  </td><td>  10·01 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;  <i>b.</i> Inorganic matters (ash) </td><td>   0·42 </td><td>  0·44 </td><td>   0·60  </td><td>  0·73  </td><td>   0·35 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">                                      </td><td> 100·00 </td><td>100·00 </td><td> 100·00  </td><td>100·00  </td><td> 100·00 </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="6" style="border: none!important;">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="6">  ANALYSES OF LUCERNE, SAINFOIN, AND VETCH.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3"></td>
+<th>  I. <br /> Lucerne.  </th>
+<th> II. <br /> Sainfoin. </th>
+<th>III. <br /> Vetch.    </th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l" colspan="3">  Water                              </td><td>      73·41     </td><td> 77·32  </td><td>   82·16 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l" colspan="3">  Soluble in Water                   </td><td>                </td><td>        </td><td>  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l" colspan="3">  &nbsp;&nbsp;  <i>a.</i> Organic substances     </td><td>       9·43     </td><td>  8·00  </td><td>    6·07 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l" colspan="3">  &nbsp;&nbsp;  <i>b.</i> Inorganic substances   </td><td>       2·33     </td><td>  1·20  </td><td>    1·07 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l" colspan="3">  Insoluble in water                 </td><td>                </td><td>        </td><td>  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l" colspan="3">  &nbsp;&nbsp;  <i>a.</i> Impure vegetable fibre </td><td>      14·08     </td><td> 12·95  </td><td>   10·23 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l" colspan="3">  &nbsp;&nbsp;  <i>b.</i> Inorganic matters (ash)</td><td>       0·75     </td><td>  0·53  </td><td>    0·47 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l" colspan="3">                                     </td><td>      100·00    </td><td>100·00  </td><td>  100·00 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page161" name="page161"></a>[161]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+The artificial grasses are, on the whole, more nutritious than the
+natural grasses; but I should explain that the analyses of the natural
+grasses which I have quoted refer to those plants in what may be almost
+termed their wild state: under the influence of good cultivation&mdash;when
+irrigated or top-dressed with abundance of appropriate manure&mdash;their
+analyses would indicate a higher nutritive value. The grasses, and more
+especially the so-called artificial grasses, are more nutritious and
+digestible when young. In old clover the proportion of insoluble woody
+fibre is often so considerable as to greatly detract from the alimental
+value of the plant.
+</p>
+<p>
+The <i>Lentils</i>, the <i>Birdsfoot</i>, the <i>Trefoil</i>, and the <i>Melilot</i> are
+leguminous plants which occasionally are found as constituents of forage
+crops. Lentils are extensively cultivated on the Continent, and are
+the only kind of these plants the chemistry of which has been at all
+studied. The straw contains 7 per cent. of flesh-formers.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>The Yellow Lupine</i> is cultivated rather extensively in Germany,
+France, and Belgium, partly for feeding purposes, partly to furnish a
+green manure. Its seeds constitute a nutritious article of food for man,
+and its stems and leaves are given to cattle. An attempt was made a few
+years ago to introduce its cultivation, as a field crop, into England,
+and very satisfactory results attended the first trials made with it.
+Mr. Kimber, who has cultivated this crop, states that it is likely to
+prove valuable on light sandy soils, where the ordinary green fodder
+crops are not easily cultivated. The produce per acre obtained in
+Mr. Kimber's trial was about nineteen tons. Cattle and sheep relish
+the Yellow Lupine, but according to Mr. Kimber, pigs reject it.
+Professor Voelcker examined this plant, and found that it resembled in
+composition the ordinary artificial grasses, except in one respect,
+namely, a remarkable deficiency in sugar. Altogether, it is not so rich
+in nutriment as any of the commonly cultivated leguminous plants; but
+as it can be cultivated on a very poor soil, and gives a good return,
+it is probable that the Yellow Lupine will yet become a common crop
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page162" name="page162"></a>[162]</span>
+
+ in
+Britain. The following table exhibits the results of Dr. Voelcker's
+analysis.
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of yellow lupines">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3">  COMPOSITION OF YELLOW LUPINES (CUT DOWN IN A GREEN STATE).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                                                  </td><th>In natural state.</th><th>Dried at 212°F.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                                 </td><td>    89·20        </td><td>           </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Oil                                   </td><td>      ·37        </td><td>      3·42 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  <b>*</b> Soluble albuminous compounds        </td><td>     1·37        </td><td>     12·68 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Soluble mineral (saline) substances   </td><td>      ·61        </td><td>      5·64 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  <b>&dagger;</b> Insoluble albuminous compounds      </td><td>     1·01        </td><td>      9·35 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Sugar, gum, bitter extractive matter,
+                      and digestible fibre                </td><td>     3·96        </td><td>     36·68 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Indigestible woody fibre (cellulose)  </td><td>     3·29        </td><td>     30·48 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Insoluble mineral matters             </td><td>      ·19        </td><td>      1·75 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td class="l">                          </td><td> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash; </td><td> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">                                        </td><td>   100·00        </td><td>    100·00 </td></tr>
+<tr class="tiny"><td class="l">  <b>*</b> Containing nitrogen    </td><td>      ·22        </td><td>      2·03 </td></tr>
+<tr class="tiny"><td class="l">  <b>&dagger;</b> Containing nitrogen    </td><td>      ·16        </td><td>      1·48 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+<i>Rib grass plantain</i> (<i>Plantago lanceolata</i>) is one of those plants, the
+value of which for forage purposes is questionable. Many persons believe
+it to be a useful food. Its composition, which looks favorable, is as
+follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of rib grass plantain">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                        </td><td>84·78 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Albuminous matters           </td><td> 2·18 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fatty matters                </td><td> 0·56 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Starch, gum, &amp;c.         </td><td> 6·08 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre                  </td><td> 5·10 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter               </td><td> 1·30 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The grasses, natural and artificial, are occasionally affected by a
+formidable and well-known fungus, the <i>ergot</i>. Italian rye-grass is the
+most liable to the ravages of this pest, and there are on record several
+cases in which ergotted rye-grass proved fatal to the animal fed upon
+it. Clover and the various leguminous plants appear more liable to the
+ergot disease than the natural grasses (except rye-grass), but I have
+on several occasions noticed this fungus on the spikelets of <i>Hordeum
+pratense</i>, <i>Festuca pratense</i>, and <i>Bromus erectus</i>. It has also been
+noticed that rye-grass rapidly developed under the influence of liquid
+manure is so rank that young animals fed upon it are poisonously
+affected.
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page163" name="page163"></a>[163]</span>
+
+          Alderman Mechi states that in July, 1864, ten out of his
+thirty Shorthorn calves died in consequence of eating the heads of
+Italian rye-grass, and that the survivors' health was seriously injured.
+He was also unfortunate with his lambs, which, during the same month,
+were folded on Italian rye-grass. "Four days ago," writes the Alderman,
+"it was sewaged, having been prior to the former growth also guanoed.
+In four days it had grown from four to five inches, was of an intense
+green, and pronounced to be, by sharp practical men, just the food for
+lambs. Well, we put on our lambs, taking care to do so in the evenings
+after they had been well fed. My bailiff accompanied them, and, within
+five minutes, turning accidentally round, he saw two of the lambs with
+their heads in the air staggering (stomach staggers it is called) and
+frothing at the mouth. He immediately saw the mischief, removed the
+lambs, and on their way back to a bare fold some of them vomited the
+Italian rye-grass that they had just eaten, accompanied by frothy slime;
+others brought it up during the night. Some of them trembled, gaped,
+and showed all the same symptoms that my calves had done, such as rapid
+pulse, &amp;c. Two or three of them are rather queer to-day. I hope that
+Professor Simmonds or some capable person will tell us how this is? If
+we mow this grass, bring it home, and cut it into chaff, all which tends
+to heat or dry it, it becomes wholesome food. The same remarks apply in
+degree to very succulent tares. If the Italian grass is brought home and
+given long and quite fresh to the calves, it will kill them. It does not
+appear to injure old ewes as it does lambs or shearlings. The dry
+weather has something to do with it. In wet weather the evil is much
+diminished, or disappears."
+</p>
+<p>
+It is probable that the juice of this poisonous herbage was extremely
+rich in matters only semi-organised, and perhaps abounded in the crude
+substances from which the vegetable tissues are elaborated. Such
+rank grass as this was should not be used until it has attained to a
+tolerably developed state: in mature plants the juices contain more
+highly organised matters than are found in young vegetables.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page164" name="page164"></a>[164]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Sorghuo</i>, <i>or Holcus Saccharatus</i>.&mdash;This plant, introduced to
+the notice of the British farmer but a few years ago, is only grown
+in these countries in small quantities. It is very rich in sugar, and
+cattle relish it greatly. Its composition, according to Dr. Voelcker,
+is as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of Sorghuo">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                                          </td><td>81·80 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Albuminous matters                             </td><td> 1·53 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Insoluble ditto                                </td><td> 0·66 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Sugar                                          </td><td> 5·85 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Wax and fatty matter                           </td><td> 2·55 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mucilage, pectin, and digestible matters       </td><td> 2·59 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Indigestible woody fibre                       </td><td> 4·03 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter                                 </td><td> 0·99 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>                              &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                          </td><td>100·00 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The plants referred to in the above analysis were cut in September.
+It is found that the composition of the plant is very different at
+different seasons.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Green Rye</i> is employed as a forage crop, for which purpose it is well
+adapted. It is about equal in nutritive power to clover. According to
+Dr. Voelcker its composition is as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of green rye">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                        </td><td>75·423 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-formers                </td><td> 2·705 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fatty matter                 </td><td> 0·892 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Gum, pectin, sugar, &amp;c.  </td><td> 9·134 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody-fibre                  </td><td>10·488 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter               </td><td> 1·358 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>             &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                        </td><td>100·000 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+<i>Buckwheat</i> is occasionally cut in a green state and used as food for
+stock. Its composition, according to Einhof and Crome, is as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of buckwheat">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                 </td><td>82·5 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Nitrogenous compounds </td><td> 0·2 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Extractive matters    </td><td> 2·6 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Starch, &amp;c.       </td><td> 4·7 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Cellulose             </td><td>10·0 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>    &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                 </td><td>100·0 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page165" name="page165"></a>[165]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+Rape is one of our most valuable plants for stock feeding. Two varieties
+are cultivated in these countries&mdash;the summer rape (<i>Brassica Campestris
+oleifera</i>) and winter rape (<i>Brassica rapus</i>). The great utility of
+rape arises from the circumstance of its being generally obtained as a
+<i>stolen</i> crop; for otherwise it is not quite equal to other plants that
+might be substituted for it&mdash;cabbages, &amp;c. This plant is very rich in
+oily matters, and has been found well adapted both for the feeding of
+cattle and the fattening of sheep. Its composition, according to
+Voelcker, is shown in this table:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of green rape">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="2">  COMPOSITION OF GREEN RAPE.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                        </td><td>87·050 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-formers                </td><td> 3·133 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fatty matters                </td><td> 0·649 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Other respiratory substances </td><td> 4·000 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre                  </td><td> 3·560 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter (ash)         </td><td> 1·608 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>             &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                        </td><td>100·000 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+With respect to the value of rape for the feeding of stock in spring,
+Mr. Rham makes the following remarks:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    If the crop is very forward it may be slightly fed off, but in
+    general it is best to let it remain untouched till spring. In the
+    end of March and the beginning of April it will be a great help
+    to the ewes and lambs. It will produce excellent food till it
+    begins to be in flower, when it should immediately be ploughed up.
+    The ground will be found greatly recruited by this crop, which has
+    taken nothing from it, and has added much by the dung and urine of
+    the sheep. Whatever be the succeeding crop, it cannot fail to be
+    productive; and if the land is not clean, the farmer must have
+    neglected the double opportunity of destroying weeds in the
+    preceding summer, and in the early part of spring. If the rape is
+    fed off in time, it may be succeeded by barley or oats, with clover
+    or grass seeds, or potatoes, if the soil is not too wet. Thus no
+    crop will be lost, and the rape will have been a clear addition to
+    the produce of the land. Any crop which is taken off the land in a
+    green state, especially if it be fed off with sheep, may be repeated
+    without risk of failure, provided the land be properly tilled; but
+    where cole or rape have produced seed, they cannot be profitably
+    sown in less than five or six years after on the same land. The
+    cultivation of rape or cole for spring food cannot be too strongly
+    recommended to the farmers of heavy clay soils.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page166" name="page166"></a>[166]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+<i>The Mustard Plant</i> is occasionally used as food for sheep, for which
+purpose its composition shows it to be well adapted. Voelcker's analysis
+proves it to be very rich, relatively, in muscle-forming elements and in
+mineral matters; it might, therefore be with advantage combined with
+food relatively deficient in these principles.
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of fresh mustard">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="2">  COMPOSITION OF FRESH MUSTARD.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                                              </td><td>86·30 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Albuminous matters                                 </td><td> 2·87 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Non-nitrogenous matters (gum, sugar, oil, &amp;c.) </td><td> 4·40 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre                                        </td><td> 4·39 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ash                                                </td><td> 2·04 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>                                  &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                              </td><td>100·00 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+<i>The Prickly Comfrey</i> has been recommended as a good forage plant.
+It yields an abundant crop&mdash;or rather crops, for it may be cut several
+times in the year. The plant is a handsome one, and it might combine the
+useful with the ornamental if it were cultivated on demesne or villa
+farms. Dr. Voelcker states its composition to be as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of prickly comfrey">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                          </td><td>88·400 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-forming substances       </td><td> 2·712 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Heat and fat-producing matters </td><td> 6·898 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ash                            </td><td> 1·990 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>               &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                          </td><td>100·000 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+<i>Chicory</i> is used as a forage crop on the Continent, and Professor John
+Wilson surmises that it may yet be generally cultivated for this purpose
+in Great Britain. At present it is rarely grown except for the sake of
+its roots, which are used as partial substitutes for, or adulterants of,
+coffee.
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of chicory">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3">  COMPOSITION OF CHICORY, ACCORDING TO ANDERSON.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                                       </td><th>Fresh roots. </th><th>Fresh leaves.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                      </td><td>   80·58     </td><td>  90·94 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Nitrogenous matters        </td><td>    1·72     </td><td>   1·01 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Non-nitrogenous substances </td><td>   16·39     </td><td>   6·63 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ash                        </td><td>    1·31     </td><td>   1·42 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>    &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                       </td><td>  100·00     </td><td> 100·00 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page167" name="page167"></a>[167]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Yarrow</i> (<i>Achillæa millefolium</i>) is usually regarded as a weed, but
+sheep are very fond of it, and when they can get it, never fail to eat
+it greedily. It possesses astringent properties. Some writers have
+recommended it as a good crop for warrens and sands. Its composition,
+according to Way, is as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of dry yarrow">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="2">  DRIED YARROW.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Albuminous matter    </td><td>10·34 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fatty matters        </td><td> 2·51 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Starch, gum, &amp;c. </td><td>45·46 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre          </td><td>32·69 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter       </td><td> 9·00 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>    &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                </td><td>100·00 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+<i>Melons</i> and <i>Marrows</i> have been used, but to a very limited extent, as
+food for stock. Mr. Blundell advocates their use in seasons of drought.
+He states that he has obtained more than forty tons per acre of both
+melons and marrows. They are relished by horses, oxen, sheep, and pigs.
+Mr. Blundell's advocacy has not been attended with much success, but it
+would be desirable to give these vegetables a further trial.
+</p>
+<p>
+Dr. Voelcker's analysis of the cattle melon shows that it contains:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of cattle melon">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water               </td><td>92·98 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Albuminous matters  </td><td> 1·53 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Oil                 </td><td>  ·73 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Sugar, gum, &amp;c. </td><td> 2·51 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fibre               </td><td> 1·65 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ash                 </td><td>  ·60 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>   &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                               </td><td>100·00 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+<i>The Cabbage.</i>&mdash;The composition of the Drumhead Cabbage has been studied
+by Dr. Anderson. He found a larger proportion of nutriment in the outer
+leaves than in the "heart," and ascertained that the young plants were
+richer in nutriment than those more advanced in age. His results show
+the desirability of cultivating the open-leaved, rather than the compact
+varieties of this plant.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page168" name="page168"></a>[168]</span></p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of cabbage; outer and heart leaves">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3">  ANALYSIS OF THE CABBAGE.&mdash;BY DR. ANDERSON.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                                        </td><th>Outer leaves. </th><th>Heart leaves. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                                 </td><td>    91·08     </td><td>   94·48 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Compounds containing nitrogen         </td><td>     1·63     </td><td>    0·94 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Compounds destitute of nitrogen, such as gum, sugar, fibre, &amp;c.</td>
+                                                               <td>     5·06     </td><td>    4·08 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ash (mineral matter)                  </td><td>     2·23     </td><td>    0·50 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>    &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                       </td><td>  100·00     </td><td> 100·00 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+According to Fromberg, the composition of the whole plant is as
+follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of cabbage; whole plant">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                                                  </td><td>93·40 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming compounds                </td><td> 1·75 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Non-nitrogenous substances such as gum, sugar, &amp;c. </td><td> 4·05 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter                                         </td><td> 0·80 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>                                      &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                                  </td><td>100·00 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Voelcker, who has more recently analysed the cattle cabbage,
+furnishes us with the following details of its composition:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of cabbage; outer leaves only">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="2">  COMPOSITION OF CABBAGE LEAVES (OUTSIDE GREEN LEAVES).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water       </td><td>83·72 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Dry matter  </td><td>16·28 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                        </td><td>100·00 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The fresh and the dry matter consisted of:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of fresh and dry matter in cabbage">
+
+<tr><td>                                           </td><th> Fresh <br />Matter.   </th><th>Dry matter. <br /> Per cent. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  <b>*</b> Protein compounds               </td><td>  1·65    </td><td>    10·19 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Non-nitrogenous matter                   </td><td> 13·38    </td><td>    82·10 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter                           </td><td>  1·25    </td><td>     7·71 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>                 &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">                                           </td><td> 16·28    </td><td>   100·00 </td></tr>
+<tr class="tiny"><td class="l">  <b>*</b> Containing nitrogen</td><td>   ·26    </td><td>     1·63 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+In the following table the results of a more elaborate analysis of the
+<i>heart</i> and inner leaves are shown:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page169" name="page169"></a>[169]</span></p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of heart and inner leaves">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="4">  COMPOSITION OF HEART AND INNER LEAVES.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                                                   </td><th>In natural state.</th><th>Dry. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                                            </td><td>  89·42       </td><td>       </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Oil                                              </td><td>    ·08       </td><td>   ·75 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  <b>*</b> Soluble protein compounds               </td><td>   1·19       </td><td> 11·24 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Sugar, digestible fibres, &amp;c.                </td><td>   7·01       </td><td> 66·25 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Soluble mineral matter                           </td><td>    ·73       </td><td>  6·89 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  <b>&dagger;</b> Insoluble protein compounds      </td><td>    ·31       </td><td>  2·93 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre                                      </td><td>   1·14       </td><td> 10·77 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Insoluble mineral matter                         </td><td>    ·12       </td><td>  1·17 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>                 &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">                                                   </td><td> 100·00       </td><td>100·00 </td></tr>
+<tr class="tiny"><td class="l">  <b>*</b> Containing nitrogen        </td><td>    ·19       </td><td>  1·79 </td></tr>
+<tr class="tiny"><td class="l">  <b>&dagger;</b> Containing nitrogen </td><td>    ·05       </td><td>   ·47 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+If I were asked what plant I considered the most valuable for forage,
+I certainly should pronounce an opinion in favor of cabbage. This crop
+yields a much greater return than that afforded by the Swedish turnip,
+and it is richer in nutritive matter. Cabbages are greedily eaten by
+sheep and cattle, and the butter of cows fed upon them is quite free
+from the disagreeable flavor which it so often possesses when the food
+of the animal is chiefly composed of turnips. If the cabbage admitted of
+storing, no more valuable crop could be cultivated as food for stock.
+</p>
+<p>
+Mr. John M'Laren, of Inchture, Scotland, gives in the "Transactions of
+the Highland Agricultural Society of Scotland for 1857," a report on the
+feeding value of cabbage, which is highly favorable to that plant:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    On the 1st December, 1855 (says the reporter), two lots of
+    Leicester wethers, bred on the farm, and previously fed alike,
+    each lot containing ten sheep, were selected for the trial by
+    competent judges, and weighed. Both lots were put into a field
+    of well-sheltered old lea, having a division between them. All
+    the food was cut and given them in troughs, three times a day.
+    They had also a constant supply of hay in racks.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    At the end of the trial, on the 1st of March, 1856, the sheep
+    were all re-weighed, sent to the Edinburgh market, and sold same
+    day, but in their separate lots. As I had no opportunity of
+    getting the dead weights, I requested Mr. Swan, the salesman, to
+    give his opinion on their respective qualities. This was to the
+    effect that no difference existed in their market
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page170" name="page170"></a>[170]</span>
+
+                                                      value, but that
+    the sheep fed on turnips would turn out the best quality of mutton,
+    with most profit for the butcher. Both lots were sold at the same
+    price, viz., 52s. 6d. During the three months of trial, we found
+    that each lot consumed about the same weight of food&mdash;viz., 8 tons
+    13 cwt. 47 lb. of cabbage, being at the rate of 21<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>3</sub> lbs. per day
+    for each sheep, and 8 tons 10 cwt. 7 lb. Swedes, being at the rate
+    of 20<sup>9</sup>&#8260;<sub>10</sub> lb. per day.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    It will be seen, by referring to the table (see next page), that in
+    this trial the Swede has proved of higher value for feeding purposes
+    than the cabbage, making 11 st. 4 lb. of gain in weight, whilst the
+    cabbage made 10 st. 9 lb. At the same time, 3 cwt. 40 lb. less food
+    were consumed; and taking the mutton gained at 6d. per lb., the
+    Swedes consumed become worth 9s. 3&frac14;d. per ton, while the gain on
+    the cabbage, at the same rate, makes them worth 8s. 7d. per ton.
+    But from the great additional weight of the one crop grown over the
+    other, the balance, at the prices, c., mentioned, is in favor of the
+    cabbage by £1 15s. 11&frac34;d. per acre.
+</p>
+<p>
+These results certainly speak strongly in favor of the cabbage; but the
+weight of the acreable crop of cabbages stated in the table appears to
+be unusually great. So heavy a crop is rarely obtained.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Furze</i> (<i>Gorse, or Whins</i>).&mdash;Notwithstanding the natural historical
+knowledge of Goldsmith, his poetical description of the furze is far
+from accurate. This plant, instead of being "unprofitably gay," deserves
+to rank amongst the most valuable vegetables cultivated for the use of
+the domestic animals. It grows and flourishes under conditions which
+most injuriously affect almost every other kind of fodder and green
+crop. Prolonged drought in spring and early summer not unfrequently
+renders the hay crop a scanty one; while autumn and winter frosts change
+the nutriment of the mangels and turnips into decaying and unwholesome
+matter. Under such circumstances as these, the maintenance of cattle in
+good condition is very expensive, unless in places where a supply of
+furze is available. This plant is rather improved than otherwise by
+exposure to a temperature which would speedily destroy a mangel or a
+turnip; and, although it thrives best when abundantly supplied with
+rain, it can survive an exceedingly prolonged drought without sustaining
+much injury.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page171" name="page171"></a>[171]</span></p>
+
+<table class="closed" border="0" align="center" summary="Comparison of sheep weight grown on diets of cabbage versus swedes">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="30">
+  TABLE
+  <br />
+  <span class="sc">Showing the Difference of Weight grown on an Acre of Cabbage and an
+  Acre of Swedes, and the Value of each for Feeding</span>.
+</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th colspan="1">No. Of Sheep In Each Lot.</th>
+<th colspan="1">Kinds of Food.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Weight of Ten Sheep, 1st Dec., 1855.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Weight of Ten Sheep, 1st Mar., 1856.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Gain.</th>
+<th colspan="3">Value of Gain taking Mutton at 6d. per lb.</th>
+<th colspan="3">Total Weight of Food consumed in Three Months by each lot.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Value of Food consumed per Ton.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Total Weight per Acre of each Crop.</th>
+<th colspan="3">Value of each Crop per Acre.</th>
+<th colspan="3">Extra Cost on each Crop per Acre.</th>
+<th colspan="3">Free Value of each Crop per Acre.</th>
+<th colspan="3">Balance in favor of Cabbage per Acre.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td>        </td><td>       </td><th> st. </th><th>lb.   </th><th>st. </th><th>lb.   </th><th>st. </th><th>lb.  </th><th>£ </th><th>s. </th><th>d. </th><th>tons. </th><th>cwt. </th><th>lb. </th><th>s. </th><th>d.   </th><th>tons. </th><th>cwt.  </th><th>£  </th><th>s. </th><th>d.     </th><th>£  </th><th>s. </th><th> d.  </th><th>£  </th><th>s. </th><th>d.      </th><th>£ </th><th>s. </th><th>d.    </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>    10  </td><td>Cabbage</td><td> 90  </td><td>10    </td><td>101 </td><td> 5    </td><td>10  </td><td> 9   </td><td>3 </td><td>14 </td><td>6  </td><td>  8   </td><td>13   </td><td>47  </td><td>8  </td><td>7    </td><td> 42   </td><td>14    </td><td>18 </td><td>6  </td><td>6      </td><td>4  </td><td>10 </td><td>11   </td><td>13 </td><td>15 </td><td>7       </td><td rowspan="2">1 </td><td rowspan="2">15 </td><td rowspan="2">11&frac34;</td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td>    10  </td><td>Swedes </td><td> 89  </td><td> 3    </td><td>100 </td><td> 7    </td><td>11  </td><td> 4   </td><td>3 </td><td>19 </td><td>0  </td><td>  8   </td><td>10   </td><td> 7  </td><td>9  </td><td>3&frac14;</td><td> 26   </td><td>12    </td><td>12 </td><td>6  </td><td>7&frac14;  </td><td>0  </td><td> 7 </td><td> 0   </td><td>11 </td><td>19 </td><td>7&frac14;   </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page172" name="page172"></a>[172]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+The furze is a member of the family <i>Leguminosæ</i>, which includes so many
+useful plants, such as, for example, the pea, the bean, and the clovers.
+There are three varieties of it met with in this country&mdash;namely, the
+common furze, <i>Ulex europæus</i>, the dwarf furze, <i>Ulex nanus</i>, and the
+Irish, or upright furze, <i>Ulex strictus</i>.
+</p>
+<p>
+The common furze is a hardy shrub, and grows luxuriantly at an elevation
+far higher than the limits of cereal cultivation. It flourishes on any
+kind of soil which is moderately dry, and heavy crops may easily be
+raised on uplands almost incapable of producing grass. The dwarf furze
+is never cultivated, but as it grows at a still greater elevation, and
+on a poorer soil than the larger varieties, it might be profitably
+cultivated on very high uplands. The Irish furze yields a softer and
+less prickly food than the other kinds, but as it does not usually bear
+seed, and must therefore be propagated by cuttings, its cultivation has
+hitherto been limited to but a few localities.
+</p>
+<p>
+The produce of an acre of furze appears to be at least equal to that
+of an acre of good meadow. The Rev. Mr. Townsend of Aghada, county of
+Cork&mdash;the most zealous and successful advocate for the cultivation of
+this plant&mdash;informed me that he had obtained so much as 14 tons per
+acre; a fact which proves that the furze is a plant which is well
+deserving of the attention of the farmer.
+</p>
+<p>
+Furze is an excellent food for every kind of stock. Cattle, although
+they may at first appear not to relish its prickly shoots, soon acquire
+a fondness for it. I have known several instances of herds being fed
+almost if not entirely on the bruised plant, and to keep in good
+condition. The late Professor Murphy, of Cork, stated that on the farm
+of Mr. Boulger, near Mallow, thirty-five cows were fed on crushed furze,
+which they "devoured voraciously." Each animal received daily from four
+to six stones of the crushed plant, to which were added a little turnip
+pulp and a small quantity of oats. The milk and butter yielded by these
+cows were considered excellent. In a letter addressed
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page173" name="page173"></a>[173]</span>
+
+                                                      to me by a very
+intelligent feeder, Mr. John Walsh,<sup><a name="noteref-27"><!--27--></a><a href="#note-27">27</a></sup> of Stedalt, county of Dublin,
+the following remarks in relation to this subject are made:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    I had lately an opportunity of seeing a herd of cattle of about
+    sixty head, of which twenty had been fed with furze prepared with
+    my machine for about six weeks before being put out to grass. The
+    condition of these was so superior that I pointed out every one of
+    them, one after the other, out of the herd. The owner of the cattle
+    had made the same observation; it was new to him but not to me.
+</p>
+<p>
+Furze is seldom given to sheep or pigs, but I believe that it might with
+advantage enter into the dietary of those animals. Some of my friends
+who have lately tried it with pigs report favorably as to its effects.
+Horses partly fed upon this plant keep in good condition; it is usually
+given to them cut merely into lengths of half an inch or an inch, but it
+would be better to give it to them finely bruised. A horse during the
+night will eat a much larger quantity of coarsely cut furze than of the
+well bruised article, because he is obliged to expend a great deal of
+muscular power in bruising the furze, and must, consequently, use an
+additional quantity of the food to make up for the corresponding waste
+of tissue.
+</p>
+<p>
+Until quite recently, the chemistry of the furze was very little
+studied. The analysis of this plant made many years ago by Sprengel
+gave results which, in the present advanced condition of agricultural
+chemistry, are quite valueless. The late Professor Johnston merely
+determined its amount of water, organic matter, and ash. I believe I was
+the first to make a complete investigation into the composition of this
+plant according to the methods of modern chemical analysis. I made two
+examinations. The first was of shoots cut on the 25th April, 1860, on
+the lands of Mr. Walsh of Stedalt, near Balbriggan, in the county of
+Dublin. The shoots were, in great part, composed of that year's growth,
+with a small proportion of the
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page174" name="page174"></a>[174]</span>
+
+                               shoots of the previous year. They were
+very moist, and their spines, or thorns, were rather soft. Their
+centesimal composition was as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of furze">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                                                     </td><td>78·05 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles                  </td><td> 2·18 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fat-forming principles (oil, starch, sugar, gum, &amp;c.) </td><td> 8·20 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre                                               </td><td>10·17 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter (ash)                                      </td><td> 1·40 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>                                         &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">                                                           </td><td>100·00 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The second analysis was made of furze cut on the 15th August, 1862.
+The following were the results obtained:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of furze, second analysis">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                                               </td><td>72·00 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles            </td><td> 3·21 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Oil                                                 </td><td> 1·18 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Other fat-forming principles (starch, gum, &amp;c.) </td><td> 8·20 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre                                         </td><td>13·33 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter                                      </td><td> 2·08 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>                                   &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">                                                     </td><td>100·00 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The specimen was allowed to lie for a few days in a dry room, so that
+it lost a little water whilst in my possession, before it was subjected
+to analysis.
+</p>
+<p>
+The sample cut in August contained a larger amount of nutriment than
+the specimen analysed in the spring; but its constituents appeared to
+be much less soluble in water, and therefore, less digestible.
+</p>
+<p>
+Professor Blyth, of the Queen's College, Cork, has more recently made
+a very elaborate analysis of furze, grown in the county of Cork, which
+gave results still more favorable to the plant than those arrived at
+by me&mdash;probably because the specimens furnished to him were drier than
+mine.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page175" name="page175"></a>[175]</span></p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of fresh furze">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3">  ANALYSIS OF FRESH FURZE, BY DR. BLYTH.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l" colspan="3">  &nbsp;&nbsp;100 parts contain:&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="c" colspan="3">  <i>Matters readily soluble in water and easily digested.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  * Albuminous, or flesh-forming compounds                </td><td> 1·68  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fat and heat-producing, or respiratory elements,
+            viz., sugar, gum, &amp;c. &amp;c.                     </td><td> 7·83  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ash                                                     </td><td> 0·83  </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>                                          &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l" colspan="2">  Total matters soluble in water                              </td><td> 10·34 </td></tr>
+<tr class="tiny"><td class="l"> <b>*</b> Containing nitrogen                </td><td> 0·265 </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="c" colspan="3">  <i>Matters insoluble in water.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Oil                                                     </td><td> 2·14 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  &dagger; Albuminous, or flesh-producing compounds       </td><td> 2·83 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fat and heat-producing, or respiratory elements         </td><td> 1·00 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre                                             </td><td>28·80 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ash                                                     </td><td> 3·23 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>                                          &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l" colspan="2">  Total matters insoluble in water                        </td><td>      38·00 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l" colspan="2">  Water, expelled at 212                                  </td><td>      51·50 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="total"><td colspan="2"></td><td>                                          &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2">                                                          </td><td>       99·48</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Total nitrogen in plant                                 </td><td> 0·71 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Total albuminous, or flesh-producing compounds          </td><td> 4·51 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Total respiratory, or heat and fat-producing compounds  </td><td> 8·83 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Total ash                                               </td><td> 4·06 </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l" colspan="3"> &nbsp;&nbsp;The ash contains in 100 parts:&mdash; </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Potash                                                  </td><td>20·00 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Phosphoric acid                                         </td><td> 8·72 </td></tr>
+<tr class="tiny"><td class="l">       <b>&dagger;</b> Containing nitrogen   </td><td> 0·445</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+If the large per-centage of water be deducted, the dry, nutritive
+matters can then be more readily compared with the amount of the same
+substances in other feeding articles:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of dried furze">
+
+<tr><td class="c" colspan="3">  <i>Composition of 100 parts of furze dried at 212°. Matters soluble in
+ water in the dry furze.</i>
+</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="l">  * Albuminous compounds                                  </td><td> 3·47 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Respiratory elements                                    </td><td>16·15 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ash                                                     </td><td> 1·71 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>                                          &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l" colspan="2">  Total matters soluble in water                              </td><td> 21·33 </td></tr>
+<tr class="tiny"><td class="l">       &nbsp;&nbsp;<b>*</b> Containing nitrogen                             </td><td> 0·546 </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="c" colspan="3">
+    <span class="pagenum"><a id="page176" name="page176"></a>[176]</span>
+
+                    <i>Matters insoluble in water in the dry furze.</i>                    </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Oil                                                     </td><td> 4·41 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  &dagger; Albuminous compounds                           </td><td> 5·84 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Respiratory elements                                    </td><td> 2·06 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre                                             </td><td>59·38 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ash                                                     </td><td> 6·66 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>                                       &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l" colspan="2">  Total matters insoluble in water            </td><td> 78·35 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td colspan="2"></td><td>                            &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">                                                        </td><td>99·68</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Total nitrogen in dry furze                             </td><td> 1·46 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Total albuminous compounds                              </td><td> 9·13 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Total respiratory elements                              </td><td>18·20 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Total ash                                               </td><td> 8·36 </td></tr>
+<tr class="tiny"><td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;<b>&dagger;</b> Containing nitrogen        </td><td> 0·917</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c" colspan="3">  <i>Composition of ash per cent.</i> </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Potash                                                  </td><td>20·00 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Phosphoric Acid.                                        </td><td> 8·72 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The results of these analyses show that dry furze contains an amount
+of nutriment equal to that found in dry grass. The nature of its
+composition resembles, as might be expected, that of its allied plants,
+vetches, &amp;c., and therefore it exceeds the grasses in its amount of
+ready formed fatty matter.
+</p>
+
+<h4>
+SECTION IV.
+</h4>
+<h5>
+STRAW AND HAY.
+</h5>
+<p>
+<i>Straw.</i>&mdash;At the present time, when the attention of the farmer is
+becoming more and more devoted to the production of meat, it is very
+desirable that his knowledge of the exact nutritive value of the various
+feeding substances should be more extensive than it is. No doubt, most
+feeders are practically acquainted with the relative value of corn and
+oil-cake&mdash;of Swedish turnips and white turnips; but their knowledge of
+the food equivalents of many other substances is still very defective.
+For example, every farmer is not aware that Indian corn
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page177" name="page177"></a>[177]</span>
+
+                                                        is a more
+economical food than beans for fattening cattle, and less so for beasts
+of burthen. Locust-beans, oat-dust, malt-combings, and many other
+articles, occasionally consumed by stock, have not, as yet, determinate
+places assigned to them in the feeder's scale of food equivalents.
+</p>
+<p>
+The points involved in the economic feeding of stock are not quite
+so simple as some farmers, more especially those of the amateur
+class, appear to believe. There are many feeders who sell their
+half-finished cattle at a profit, and yet they cannot, without loss,
+convert their stock into those obese monsters which are so much
+admired at agricultural shows. The complete fattening of cattle is
+a losing business with some feeders, and a profitable one with others.
+Stall-feeding is a branch of rural economy which, perhaps more than any
+other, requires the combination of "science with practice;" yet how few
+feeders are there who have the slightest knowledge of the composition of
+food substances, or who are agreed as to the feeding value, absolute or
+relative, of even such well-known materials as oil-cake, straw, or oats!
+"It is thus seen how inexact are the equivalents which are understood to
+be established for the different foods used for the maintenance of the
+animals. It is equally plain, when we reflect on the different methods
+pursued for the preservation of the animals, that we are still far
+from having attained that perfection towards which our efforts tend.
+Visit one hundred farms, taken by chance in different parts of the
+country, and you will find in each, methods directly opposite&mdash;a totally
+peculiar manner of managing the stalls; you will see, in short, that the
+conditions of food, of treatment, and of hygiene, remain not understood
+in seven-eighths of rural farms."<sup><a name="noteref-28"><!--28--></a><a href="#note-28">28</a></sup>
+</p>
+<p>
+The straws of the cereal and leguminous plants are a striking
+illustration of the erroneous opinions and practices which prevail
+amongst agriculturists with respect to particular branches of their
+calling. The German farmers regard straw as the most valuable
+constituent of home-made fertilisers, and
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page178" name="page178"></a>[178]</span>
+
+                                          their leases in general
+prohibit their selling off the straw produced on their farms. Yet
+chemical analysis has clearly proved that the manurial value of straw is
+perfectly insignificant, and that, as a constituent of stable manure, it
+is chiefly useful as an absorbent of the liquid egesta of the animals
+littered upon it. As food for stock, straw was at one time regarded by
+our farmers as almost perfectly innutritious; some even went so far as
+to declare that it possessed no nutriment whatever, and even those who
+used it, did so more with the view of correcting the too watery nature
+of turnips, than with the expectation of its being assimilated to the
+animal body. Within the last few years, however, straw has been largely
+employed by several of the most intelligent and successful feeders in
+England, who report so favorably upon it as an economical feeding stuff,
+that it has risen considerably in the estimation of a large section
+of the agricultural public. Now, even without adopting the very high
+opinion which Mechi and Horsfall entertain relative to the nutritive
+power of straw, I am altogether disposed to disagree with those who
+affirm that its application should be restricted to manurial purposes.
+Unless under circumstances where there is an urgent demand for straw as
+litter, that article should be used as food for stock, for which purpose
+it will be found, if of good quality, and given in a proper state, a
+most economical kind of dry fodder&mdash;equal, if not superior to hay, when
+the prices of both articles are considered.
+</p>
+<p>
+The composition of straw is very different from that of grain.
+The former contains no starch, but it includes an exceedingly high
+proportion of woody fibre; the latter is in great part composed of
+starch, and contains but an insignificant amount of woody fibre. Dr.
+Voelcker, the consulting chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society of
+England, and Dr. Anderson, chemist to the Highland and Agricultural
+Society of Scotland, have made a large number of analyses of the straws
+of the cereal and leguminous plants, the results of which are of the
+highest interest to the agriculturist. In the following tables the more
+important results of these investigations are given:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page179" name="page179"></a>[179]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<table class="closed" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of straw (Voelcker)">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="11">  ANALYSES OF STRAW, BY DR. VOELCKER.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2">       </td>
+<th>No. 1. </th>
+<th>No. 2. </th>
+<th>No. 3. </th>
+<th>No. 4. </th>
+<th>No. 5. </th>
+<th>No. 6. </th>
+<th>No. 7. </th>
+<th>No. 8. </th>
+<th>No. 9. </th>
+<th>No. 10.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th>Wheat, just ripe and well harvested.</th>
+<th>Wheat, over ripe.</th>
+<th>Barley, dead ripe.</th>
+<th>Barley, not too ripe.</th>
+<th>Oat, cut green.</th>
+<th>Oat, cut when fairly ripe.</th>
+<th>Oat, over ripe.</th>
+<th>Bean.</th>
+<th>Pea.</th>
+<th>Flax Chaff.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">    Water                         </td><td>   13·33  </td><td>   9·17  </td><td> 15·20 </td><td>  17·50  </td><td> 16·00 </td><td>   16·00  </td><td> 16·00   </td><td> 19·40 </td><td>  16·02  </td><td> 14·60 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Albumen, and other
+             protein compounds:&mdash;    </td><td>          </td><td>         </td><td>       </td><td>         </td><td>       </td><td>          </td><td>         </td><td>       </td><td>         </td><td>       </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">      <i>a.</i>&nbsp;Soluble&nbsp;in&nbsp;water  </td><td>    1·28  </td><td>   0·06  </td><td>  0·68 </td><td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:200%;">}</span>5·73</td><td>  5·51 </td><td>    2·62  </td><td>  1·29   </td><td>  1·51 </td><td>   3·96  </td><td rowspan="2"> <span style="font-size:200%;">}</span>4·75 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">      <i>b.</i>&nbsp;Insoluble&nbsp;in&nbsp;water</td><td>    1·65  </td><td>   2·06  </td><td>  3·75 </td>                  <td>  2·98 </td><td>    1·46  </td><td>  2·36   </td><td>  1·85 </td><td>   5·90  </td>                </tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">    Oil                      </td><td>    1·74  </td><td>   0·65  </td><td>  1·36 </td><td>   1·17  </td><td>  1·57 </td><td>    1·05  </td><td>  1·25   </td><td>  1·02 </td><td>   2·34  </td><td>  2·82 </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">    Sugar, mucilage,
+              extractive matters,
+          &amp;c. (soluble in water) </td><td>    4·26  </td><td>   3·46  </td><td>  2·24 </td><td rowspan="3"><span style="font-size:300%;">}</span>71·44 </td><td> 16·04 </td><td>   10·57  </td><td>  3·19   </td><td>  4·18 </td><td>   8·32  </td><td>  8·72 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Digestible woody
+              fibre and cellulose    </td><td>   19·40  </td><td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:200%;">}</span>82·26  </td><td>  5·97 </td>                  <td> 26·34 </td><td>   30·17  </td><td> 27·75   </td><td>  2·75 </td><td>  17·74  </td><td> 18·56 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    Indigestible&nbsp;fibre&nbsp;&amp;c.          </td><td>   54·13  </td>                  <td> 66·54 </td>                  <td> 24·86 </td><td>   31·78  </td><td> 41·82   </td><td> 65·58 </td><td>  42·79  </td><td> 43·12 </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">    Inorganic matter:&mdash;      </td><td>          </td><td>         </td><td>       </td><td>         </td><td>       </td><td>          </td><td>         </td><td>       </td><td>         </td><td>       </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">         <i>a.</i> Soluble   </td><td>    1·13  </td><td>   1·29  </td><td>  2·88 </td><td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:200%;">}</span>4·52  </td><td>  5·76 </td><td>    3·64  </td><td>  2·26   </td><td>  2·31 </td><td>   2·72  </td><td>  4·07 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">         <i>b.</i> Insoluble </td><td>    3·08  </td><td>   1·05  </td><td>  0·38 </td>                  <td>  0·94 </td><td>    2·71  </td><td>  4·08   </td><td>  1·40 </td><td>   2·21  </td><td>  3·36 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr class="b1">
+    <td>                             </td><td>  100·00  </td><td> 100·00  </td><td>100·00 </td><td> 100·00  </td><td>100·00 </td><td>  100·00  </td><td> 100·00  </td><td>100·00 </td><td> 100·00  </td><td>100·00 </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="11">
+<p>&#8258;<!--Asterism--> This table contains in a condensed form all the
+results of Voelcker's analyses of the straws which are given in his paper
+published in the <i>Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England</i>,
+vol. xxii., part 2. 1862.</p>
+</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="11">
+<p>Nos. 5, 6, and 7 were analysed shortly after being cut, when they
+contained a high proportion of water. They have, therefore, been
+calculated to contain 16 per cent. of moisture so as to arrive at
+accurate relative results.</p>
+</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page180" name="page180"></a>[180]</span></p>
+
+<table class="closed" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of Straw (Anderson)">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="13">ANALYSES OF STRAW, BY DR. ANDERSON.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<th colspan="2">Wheat from East Lothian.  </th>
+<th colspan="1">Wheat from Kent.  </th>
+<th colspan="2">Barley from East Lothian.  </th>
+<th colspan="1">Barley from Kent.  </th>
+<th colspan="2">Sandy Oat from Kent.  </th>
+<th colspan="1">Oat from Sea level, East Lothian.  </th>
+<th colspan="1">Oat from 850 feet above Sea level, East Lothian.  </th>
+<th colspan="1">Oat from Mellhill, Inchture, Scotland.  </th>
+<th colspan="1">Oat from Kent (White one side.)  </th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">   Water                 </td><td> 10·62 </td><td>   10·93 </td><td>    11·15 </td><td>   11·44 </td><td>   11·15  </td><td> 11·10 </td><td>11·70 </td><td>  10·95 </td><td>  12·60  </td><td>    11·28  </td><td>   11·70   </td><td> 10·55 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Flesh-formers&mdash;  </td><td>       </td><td>         </td><td>          </td><td>         </td><td>          </td><td>       </td><td>      </td><td>        </td><td>         </td><td>           </td><td>           </td><td>       </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   &nbsp;&nbsp;Soluble   </td><td>  0·86 </td><td>    0·37 </td><td>     1·37 </td><td>    1·42 </td><td>    0·39  </td><td>  0·66 </td><td> 0·40 </td><td>   1·03 </td><td>   0·67  </td><td>     0·92  </td><td>    0·95   </td><td>  0·33 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   &nbsp;&nbsp;Insoluble </td><td>  0·51 </td><td>    1·12 </td><td>     1·00 </td><td>    1·54 </td><td>    1·12  </td><td>  1·98 </td><td> 0·93 </td><td>   0·43 </td><td>   0·38  </td><td>     0·39  </td><td>    1·21   </td><td>  0·33 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Oil                   </td><td>  0·80 </td><td>    1·00 </td><td>     1·50 </td><td>    0·97 </td><td>    0·88  </td><td>  1·05 </td><td> 1·45 </td><td>   0·77 </td><td>   1·25  </td><td>     1·36  </td><td>    1·60   </td><td>  1·00 </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">   Respiratory
+             elements&mdash;     </td><td>       </td><td>         </td><td>          </td><td>         </td><td>          </td><td>       </td><td>      </td><td>        </td><td>         </td><td>           </td><td>           </td><td>       </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   &nbsp;&nbsp;Soluble   </td><td>  2·68 </td><td>    6·68 </td><td>     5·26 </td><td>    3·22 </td><td>    6·11  </td><td>  4·56 </td><td>10·12 </td><td>   6·90 </td><td>   7·16  </td><td>     7·42  </td><td>   12·01   </td><td>  6·23 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   &nbsp;&nbsp;Insoluble </td><td> 44·88 </td><td>   36·43 </td><td>    38·79 </td><td>   35·56 </td><td>   38·38  </td><td> 27·95 </td><td>33·52 </td><td>  34·77 </td><td>  24·28  </td><td>    29·55  </td><td>   23·35   </td><td> 30·95 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Woody fibre           </td><td> 32·88 </td><td>   34·78 </td><td>    35·01 </td><td>   41·34 </td><td>   36·62  </td><td> 47·53 </td><td>35·36 </td><td>  38·73 </td><td>  48·49  </td><td>    44·40  </td><td>   45·27   </td><td> 47·40 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Ash                   </td><td>  6·20 </td><td>    8·04 </td><td>     6·32 </td><td>    4·21 </td><td>    5·62  </td><td>  4·85 </td><td> 6·36 </td><td>   6·28 </td><td>   5·11  </td><td>     5·07  </td><td>    3·95   </td><td>  3·62 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td>                         </td><td> 99·43 </td><td>   99·35 </td><td>   100·40 </td><td>   99·70 </td><td>  100·27  </td><td> 99·68 </td><td>99·84 </td><td>  99·86 </td><td>  99·94  </td><td>   100·39  </td><td>  100·14   </td><td>100·41 </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="13">
+<p>&#8258;<!--Asterism--> This table is compiled from Dr. Anderson's paper in
+the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland
+for March, 1862.</p>
+</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page181" name="page181"></a>[181]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+Many very important conclusions are deducible from the facts recorded
+in these valuable tables. We learn from them that straw is more
+nutritious when it is cut in the ripe state than when it is permitted
+to over-ripen, and that <i>green</i> straw contains a far greater amount of
+nutriment than is found even in the ripe article. It appears also that
+the least nutritious kind of straw equals the best variety of turnips in
+its amount of flesh-forming principles, and greatly exceeds them in its
+proportion of fat-forming elements. We further learn that in general the
+different kinds of straw will be found to stand in the following order,
+the most nutritious occupying the highest, and the least nutritious the
+lowest place:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<ul style="list-style: none;">
+<li>  1. Pea-haulm.</li>
+<li>  2. Oat-straw.</li>
+<li>  3. Bean-straw with the pods.</li>
+<li>  4. Barley-straw.</li>
+<li>  5. Wheat-straw.</li>
+<li>  6. Bean-stalks without the pods.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>
+It is a matter to be regretted that we possess so little accurate
+knowledge of the chemical composition of the plants cultivated in
+Ireland. No doubt the analyses of English grown wheat, beans, mangels,
+and other plants, serve to give us a general idea of the nature of those
+vegetables when produced in this country. But this kind of information,
+though very important, must necessarily be defective, as differences
+in climate modify&mdash;often to a considerable extent&mdash;the composition of
+almost every vegetable. Thus, the results of Anderson's analyses prove
+Scotch oats to be superior, as a feeding stuff, to Scotch barley,
+whilst, according to Voelcker and the experience of most English
+feeders, the barley of parts of England is superior to its oats. It
+follows, then, that whilst the results of the analyses of straw, made by
+Voelcker and Anderson are of great interest to the Irish farmer, they
+would be still more important to him had the straw to which they relate
+been the produce of Irish soil. In order, therefore, to enable the Irish
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page182" name="page182"></a>[182]</span>
+
+ farmer to form a correct estimate of the value of his straw, we should
+put him in possession of a more perfect knowledge of its composition
+than that which is derivable from the investigations to which I have
+referred. The straws of the cereals&mdash;which alone are used here to any
+extent&mdash;should be analysed as carefully and as frequently as those of
+Great Britain have been; and if such were done, I have no doubt but that
+the results would indicate a decided difference in composition between
+the produce of the two countries. Some time ago I entered upon what, at
+the time, I had intended should be a complete investigation into the
+composition of Irish straws; but which want of time prevented me from
+making more than a partial one. The results are given in the following
+tables:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Analyses of Irish oat-straw">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="5">  ANALYSES OF IRISH OAT-STRAW.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                                  </td><th>No. 1. </th><th colspan="3">Obtained in the Dublin Market.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                                  </td><th>From Co.<br /> Wicklow. </th><th> No. 2.  </th><th> No. 3. </th><th>  No. 4. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                           </td><td>  14·00  </td><td> 14·00   </td><td> 14·00  </td><td>  14·00 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-forming principles&mdash; </td><td>         </td><td>         </td><td>        </td><td>        </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a.</i> Soluble in water         </td><td>   4·08  </td><td>  2·02   </td><td>  2·04  </td><td>   1·46 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;<i>b.</i> Insoluble in water       </td><td>   2·09  </td><td>  3·16   </td><td>  3·00  </td><td>   2·23 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Oil                             </td><td>   1·84  </td><td>  1·40   </td><td>  1·26  </td><td>   1·00 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Sugar, gum, and other
+            fat-forming matters           </td><td>  13·79  </td><td> 12·67   </td><td> 10·18  </td><td>  11·16 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre                     </td><td>  59·96  </td><td> 61·79   </td><td> 65·45  </td><td>  65·29 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter                  </td><td>   4·24  </td><td>  4·96   </td><td>  4·07  </td><td>   4·86 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="total">
+<td></td>
+<td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td>                                  </td><td> 100·00  </td><td>100·00   </td><td>100·00  </td><td> 100·00 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+All the specimens of oats, the analyses of which are given in the
+preceding table, are assumed to contain 14 per cent. of water, in order
+the more correctly to compare their nutritive value. No. 1 contained
+18·23 per cent. of water; No. 2, 12·90; No. 3, 12·74; and No. 4, 12·08.
+Oat straw, before its removal from the field, often contains nearly half
+its weight of water; but after being for some time stacked, the
+proportion of moisture rarely exceeds 14 per cent.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page183" name="page183"></a>[183]</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Analyses of Irish wheat-straw">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="7">  ANALYSES OF IRISH WHEAT-STRAW.</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>                         </td><th>No. 1. </th><th>No. 2.</th><th>No. 3. </th><th colspan="3">Obtained in the Dublin Markets.</th></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<th>Green, changing <br />to yellow. <br />County Kildare.</th>
+<th>Ripe.<br /> County Dublin.</th>
+<th>Over Ripe.<br /> County Dublin.</th>
+<th>No. 4.</th><th>No. 5.</th><th> No. 6.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                  </td><td>  13·00 </td><td>  13·15</td><td>  12·14</td><td>  10·88 </td><td > 11·22  </td><td> 12·12 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-forming
+           principles&mdash;     </td><td>        </td><td>       </td><td>       </td><td>       </td><td>    </td><td>      </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   &nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a.</i> Soluble in
+                  water          </td><td>   1·25 </td><td>   0·98</td><td>   0·44</td><td>   0·06 </td><td>   0·42  </td><td>  0·30 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   &nbsp;&nbsp;<i>b.</i> Insoluble in
+                  water          </td><td>   1·26 </td><td>   1·40</td><td>   1·41</td><td>   1·90 </td><td>   1·00  </td><td>  1·76 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Oil                    </td><td>   1·22 </td><td>   1·13</td><td>   1·14</td><td>   0·90 </td><td>   1·17  </td><td>  1·08 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Sugar, gum, and other
+             fat-forming matters </td><td>   4·18 </td><td>   3·98</td><td>   3·88</td><td>   4·08 </td><td>   3·89  </td><td>  4·30 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre            </td><td>  75·84 </td><td>  76·17</td><td>  77·76</td><td>  78·67 </td><td>  79·18  </td><td> 77·15 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter (ash)   </td><td>   3·25 </td><td>   3·19</td><td>   3·23</td><td>   3·51 </td><td>   3·12  </td><td>  3·29 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="total">
+<td></td>
+<td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td>                         </td><td> 100·00 </td><td> 100·00</td><td> 100·00</td><td> 100·00</td><td> 100·00</td><td> 100·00
+</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The results of these analyses are somewhat different from those arrived
+at by Voelcker and Anderson. They show that properly harvested Irish
+oat and wheat straws are far more valuable than those of Scotland, and
+somewhat less nutritive than those produced in England. They also
+show that wheat-straw is allowed to over-ripen, by which a very large
+proportion of its nutritive principles is eliminated and altogether
+lost, and a considerable part of the remainder converted into an
+insoluble, and therefore less easily digestible state. Nor is there any
+advantage to the grain gained by allowing it to remain uncut after the
+upper portion of the stem has changed from a green to a yellowish color;
+on the contrary, it also loses a portion&mdash;often a very considerable
+one&mdash;of its nitrogenous, or flesh-forming constituents. It has been
+clearly proved that wheat cut when green, yields a greater amount of
+grain, and of a better quality too, than when it is allowed to ripen
+fully; yet, how often do we not see fields of wheat in this country
+allowed to remain unreaped for many days, and even weeks, after the
+crop has attained to its full development!
+</p>
+<p>
+The oat-straw obtained in the Dublin Market proved less
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page184" name="page184"></a>[184]</span>
+
+                                                         valuable than
+the green straw which I selected myself from a field of oats; but the
+discrepancy between them was far less than between the nearly ripe
+wheat-straw and the straw of that plant purchased in Dublin. During
+visits which I have paid in harvest-time to the North of Ireland, I
+noticed that the oats were generally cut whilst green, whereas wheat was
+almost invariably left standing for at least a week after its perfect
+maturation, probably for the following reasons:&mdash;Firstly, because
+oats are more liable to shed their seed; secondly, because there is
+a greater breadth of that crop to be reaped, which necessitates an
+early beginning; and, lastly, because most farmers know that over-ripe
+oat-straw is worth but little for feeding purposes, as compared with
+the greenish-yellow article.
+</p>
+<p>
+As compared with white turnips, the nutritive value of oat-straw stands
+very high, for whilst the former contains but little more than 1 per
+cent. of flesh-formers, and less than 5 per cent. of fat-formers, the
+latter includes about 4 per cent. of flesh-formers, and 13 per cent. of
+fat-formers. Again, whilst the amount of woody fibre in turnips is only
+about 3 per cent., that substance constitutes no less than 60 per cent.
+of oat-straw. In comparison with hay&mdash;taking into consideration the
+prices of both articles&mdash;oat-straw also stands high, as will be seen
+by comparing the following analyses of common meadow hay with that of
+properly harvested straw:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Comparison of common meadow hay versus oat straw">
+
+<tr><td>                                                </td><th>Meadow Hay.      </th><th>Oat Straw. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                               </td><td>   14·61         </td><td>  14·00 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-forming constituents          </td><td>    8·44         </td><td>   6·17 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Respiratory and fatty matters       </td><td>   43·63         </td><td>  15·63 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre                         </td><td>   27·16         </td><td>  59·96 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter (ash)                </td><td>    6·16         </td><td>   4·24 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>                                   </td><td>  &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;         </td><td> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash; </td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                </td><td>  100·00         </td><td> 100·00 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+Woody fibre is as abundant a constituent of the straw of the cereals
+as starch is of their seeds, and if the two substances were equally
+digestible, straw would be a very valuable food&mdash;superior
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page185" name="page185"></a>[185]</span>
+
+                                                          even to the
+potato. At one time it was the general belief that woody fibre was
+incapable of contributing in the slightest degree to the nutrition of
+animals, but the results of recent investigations prove that it is, to a
+certain extent, digestible. In the summer of 1859 two German chemists,
+Stöckhardt and Sussdorf, made a series of experiments, with the view
+of ascertaining whether or not the cellulose<sup><a name="noteref-29"><!--29--></a><a href="#note-29">29</a></sup> of the food of the
+sheep is assimilated by that animal. The results of this inquiry are of
+importance, seeing that they clearly prove that even the hardest kind of
+cellulose&mdash;<i>sclerogen</i>, in fact&mdash;is capable of being assimilated by the
+Ruminants. The animals selected were two wethers, aged respectively five
+and six years. They were fed&mdash;firstly, upon hay alone; secondly, upon
+hay and rye-straw; thirdly upon hay and the sawdust of poplar wood,
+which had been exhausted with lye (to induce the sheep to eat the
+sawdust, it was found necessary to mix through it some rye-bran and a
+little salt); fourthly, hay and pine-wood sawdust, to which was added
+bran and salt; fifthly, spruce sawdust, bran and salt; sixthly, hay,
+pulp of linen rags (from the paper-maker), and bran. The experiments
+were carried on from July till November, excepting a short time, during
+which the animals were turned out on pasture-land, to recover from the
+injurious effects of the fifth series of experiments&mdash;produced probably
+by the resin of the spruce. The animals, together with their food,
+drink, and egesta, were weighed daily. The amount of cellulose in the
+food was determined, and the proportion of that substance in the egesta
+was also ascertained; and as there was a considerable discrepancy
+between the two amounts, it was evident that the difference represented
+the
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page186" name="page186"></a>[186]</span>
+
+    weight of the cellulose assimilated by the animals. In this way it
+was ascertained that from 60 to 70 per cent. of the cellulose of hay,
+40 to 60 per cent. of the cellulose of straw, 45 to 50 per cent. of the
+cellulose of the poplar wood, 30 to 40 per cent. of the cellulose of the
+pine, and 80 per cent. of the cellulose of the paper pulp was digested.
+</p>
+<p>
+In stating the results of his analyses of the straws, Professor Voelcker
+sets down as "digestible" that portion of the cellulose which he found
+to be soluble in dilute acids and alkaline solutions; but he admits that
+the solvents in the stomach might dissolve a larger amount. The results
+of the experiments of Stöckhardt and Sussdorf prove that 80 per cent. of
+the cellulose of paper (the altered fibre of flax) is assimilable, and
+it is, therefore, not unreasonable to infer that the cellulose of a more
+palatable substance than paper might be altogether digestible.
+</p>
+<p>
+The facts which I have adduced clearly prove that the straws of the
+cereals possess a far higher nutritive power than is commonly ascribed
+to them; that when properly harvested they contain from 20 to 40 per
+cent. of undoubted nutriment; and lastly, that it is highly probable
+that their so-called indigestible woody fibre is to a great extent
+assimilable.
+</p>
+<p>
+The composition of cellulose is nearly, if not quite, identical with
+that of starch, and it may therefore be assumed to be equal in nutritive
+power to that substance&mdash;that is, it will, if assimilated, be converted
+into four-tenths of its weight of fat. Now as cellulose forms from
+six-tenths to eight-tenths of the weight of straws, it is evident that
+if the whole of this substance were digestible, straws would be an
+exceedingly valuable fattening food. When straw in an unprepared state
+is consumed, there is no doubt but that a large proportion of its
+cellulose remains unappropriated&mdash;nay more, it is equally certain that
+the hard woody fibre protects, by enveloping them, the soluble and
+easily digestible constituents of the straw from the action of the
+<i>gastric juice</i>. I would, therefore, recommend that straw should be
+either cooked or fermented before being made use of; in either of these
+states its constituents are far more digestible
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page187" name="page187"></a>[187]</span>
+
+                                                than when the straw
+is merely cut, or even when it is in the form of chaff. An excellent
+mode of treating straw is to reduce it to chaff, subject it to the
+action of steam, and mix it with roots and oil-cake or corn. Mr.
+Lawrence, of Cirencester, one of the most intelligent agriculturists
+in England, cooks his chaff, which he largely employs, in the following
+manner:&mdash;"We find that, taking a score of bullocks together fattening,
+they consume, per head per diem, 3 bushels of chaff mixed with just half
+a hundred-weight of pulped roots, exclusive of cake or corn; that is to
+say, rather more than 2 bushels of chaff are mixed with the roots, and
+given at two feeds, morning and evening, and the remainder is given
+with the cake, &amp;c., at the middle day feed, thus:&mdash;We use the steaming
+apparatus of Stanley, of Peterborough, consisting of a boiler in the
+centre, in which the steam is generated, and which is connected by a
+pipe on the left hand with a large galvanised iron receptacle for
+steaming food for pigs, and on the right with a large wooden tub lined
+with copper, in which the cake, mixed with water, is made into a thick
+soup. Adjoining this is a slate tank of sufficient size to contain one
+feed for the entire lot of bullocks feeding. Into this tank is laid
+chaff, about one foot deep, upon which a few ladles of soup are thrown
+in a <i>boiling state</i>; this is thoroughly mixed with the chaff with a
+three-grained fork, and pressed down firm; and this process is repeated
+until the slate tank is full, when it is covered down for an hour or two
+before feeding time. The soup is then found entirely absorbed by the
+chaff, which has become softened, and prepared for ready digestion."
+A cheap plan is to mix the straw with sliced roots, moisten the mass
+with water, and allow it to remain until a slight fermentation has set
+in. This process effectually softens and disintegrates, so to speak, the
+woody fibre, and sets free the stores of nutritious matters which it
+envelopes. Some farmers who hold straw in high estimation, prefer giving
+it just as it comes from the field; they base this practice on the
+belief that Ruminants require a bulky and solid food, and that their
+digestive powers are quite sufficient to effect
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page188" name="page188"></a>[188]</span>
+
+                                                the solution of all the
+useful constituents of the straw. It may be quite true that cattle, as
+asserted, can extract more nutriment out of straw than horses can, but
+that merely proves the greater power of their digestive organs. No doubt
+the food of the Ruminants should be bulky; but I am quite sure that
+cooked or fermented straw is sufficiently so to satisfy the desire of
+those animals for quantity in their food.
+</p>
+<p>
+So far as I can learn, all the carefully conducted feeding experiments
+to test the value of straw which have been made, have yielded results
+highly favorable to that article. Mr. Blundell, in a paper on "The Use
+and Abuse of Straw," read before the Botley (Hampshire) Farmer's Club,
+states that in his experience he found straw to be more economical than
+its equivalent of roots or oil-cake, in the feeding of all kinds of
+cattle:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    I find (says Mr. Blundell) that dairy cows, in the winter months,
+    if fed on large quantities of roots, particularly mangels and
+    carrots, will refuse to eat straw almost entirely, and become
+    very lean; but they will always eat a full portion of sweet,
+    well-harvested straw, when they get a small and moderate allowance
+    of roots, say, for an ordinary-sized cow, 15 lbs. of mangel three
+    times per day, the roots being given whole, just in the state they
+    come from the store heap. Again, calves and yearlings being fed
+    with roots in the same way, will eat a large quantity of straw, and
+    when they have been kept under cover I have had them in first-rate
+    condition for many years past. Also, in fattening beasts, when they
+    get a fair allowance of roots, say 65 to 70 lbs. per day, with
+    from 3 to 4 lbs. of cake or meal in admixture, they will eat straw
+    with great avidity, and do well upon it, and make a profit. It is,
+    however, often the case that bullocks receive 100 lbs., or upwards,
+    of roots per day, with a large quantity of cake or meal, often
+    10 or 12 lbs. per day; they will not then look at straw, and are
+    obliged to be fed with hay. The cost price of these quantities
+    and kinds of food stands so high that the animals do not yield a
+    profit; for although they may make meat a little faster, yet the
+    proportionate increase is nothing compared to the increased cost
+    of the feeding materials used.
+</p>
+<p>
+Mr. Blundell gives us also the tabulated results of one of his
+experiments, which prove that by the use of straw there is to be
+obtained something more than manure by the feeding of stock:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page189" name="page189"></a>[189]</span></p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Cost of feeding an ox per week for various feeds">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="4">  COST OF FEEDING AN OX PER WEEK WITH STRAW, ETC., ACCORDING TO MR. BLUNDELL.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>     </td><td>                                                                        </td><th> s.</th><th> d. </th></tr>
+<tr><td>   4 </td><td class="l">lbs. of oil-cake per day, or 38 lbs. per week, at £10 per ton </td><td> 2 </td><td> 6 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  64 </td><td class="l">lbs. of roots ditto, or 4 cwt. ditto, at 13s. 4d. ditto       </td><td> 2 </td><td> 8 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  20 </td><td class="l">lbs. of straw feeding, or 1&frac14; cwt. ditto, at 30s. ditto     </td><td> 1 </td><td>10&frac12; </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  20 </td><td class="l">lbs. of straw litter, or 1&frac14; cwt. ditto, at 15s. ditto      </td><td> 0 </td><td>11 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>     </td><td class="l">Attendance, &amp;c., per week                                 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 1 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>     </td><td>                                                                        </td><td> 8 </td><td> 0&frac12; </td></tr>
+<tr><td>     </td><td class="l">     Deduct value of manure, per week                         </td><td> 1 </td><td> 3&frac12; </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>     </td><td>                                                                        </td><td> 6 </td><td> 9 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>     </td><td class="l">     Increased value of ox per week                           </td><td>10 </td><td> 0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>     </td><td class="l">     Deduct cost of feeding                                   </td><td> 6 </td><td> 9 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>     </td><td>                                                                        </td><td> 3 </td><td> 3 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+If we now turn to the study of the composition of straw regarded from
+an economic point of view, we shall find that the theoretical deductions
+therefrom harmonise with the results of actual feeding experiments. Let
+us assume that 100 parts of oat-straw contain on an average&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<ul style="list-style: none;">
+<li>   &nbsp;1 part of oil, </li>
+<li>   &nbsp;4 parts of flesh-formers, </li>
+<li>   10 parts of sugar, gum, and other fat-formers, and </li>
+<li>   30 parts of digestible fibre; </li>
+</ul>
+
+<p style="text-indent: 0;">
+and if the price of the straw be 30s. per ton, we shall have at that
+cost the following quantities of digestible substances:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Digestible substances per ton of oat straw">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="2">  ONE TON OF OAT-STRAW, AT 30s., CONTAINS:&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                                                                  </td><th>    lbs.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  <sup><a name="noteref-30"><!--30--></a><a href="#note-30">30</a></sup>
+                    Oil                                                   </td><td>   22·4 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-forming principles                              </td><td>   89·6 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Sugar, gum, and other fat-forming substances          </td><td>  224·0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Digestible fibre                                      </td><td>  672·0 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>                                       </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                                  </td><td> 1,008·0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  <sup><a name="noteref-31"><!--31--></a><a href="#note-31">31</a></sup>
+          Total amount of fat-formers, calculated as starch               </td><td>  952·0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Add flesh-formers                                     </td><td>   89·6 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>                                       </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Total amount of nutritive matter                                </td><td>1,041·6 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page190" name="page190"></a>[190]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+We shall now compare this table with a similar one in relation to the
+composition of linseed cake, which will place the greater comparative
+value of straw in a clearer light.
+</p>
+<p>
+A fair sample of linseed-cake contains, centesimally&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of linseed-cake">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-formers                                     </td><td>     26 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Oil                                               </td><td>     12 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Gum, mucilage, sugar, &amp;c.                     </td><td>     34 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre                                       </td><td>      6 </td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c" colspan="2"> <small>ONE TON OF LINSEED CAKE, AT £11, CONTAINS:&mdash;</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                    </td><th>lbs.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-forming principles                          </td><td>  582·4 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Oil                                               </td><td>  268·8 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Gum, sugar, and other fat-formers                 </td><td>  761·6 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre                                       </td><td>   74·4 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>                                      </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                    </td><td> 1,687·2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Total amount of fat-formers, calculated as starch </td><td>1,508·0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Add flesh-formers                                 </td><td>  582·4 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>                                      </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Total amount of nutriment                         </td><td>2,090·4 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+These comparisons are very instructive and important. We learn from
+them that we pay £11 for 2,000 lbs. of nutriment, when we purchase a
+ton of linseed-cake, whereas, when we invest 30s. in a ton of straw, we
+receive 1,000 lbs. of digestible aliment. It cannot be said that I have
+strained any points in favour of the straw; on the contrary, I believe
+that when that article is cut in proper season and well harvested,
+its composition will be found far superior to that detailed in the
+comparative analysis. It must be borne in mind, too, that I take no
+account of the 30 per cent. of the so-called indigestible woody fibre
+which straw contains, and which, I believe, is partly assimilable
+under ordinary circumstances, and could be rendered nearly altogether
+digestible by proper treatment; on the other hand, I have assumed that
+the woody fibre of the oil-cake is completely digestible, although
+I believe it is in reality less so than the fibre of straw.
+</p>
+<p>
+It is an important point in the composition of oil-cakes, that they
+contain a large proportion of ready-formed fatty matters
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page191" name="page191"></a>[191]</span>
+
+                                                         which can,
+with but little alteration, be at once transmuted into animal fat.
+There are some individuals of the genus <i>Homo</i> to whose stomachs fat,
+<i>per se</i>, is intolerable; nevertheless, as a general rule, fatty
+substances exercise a favorable influence in the process of digestion,
+and, either in a separate state, or intimately commingled with other
+aliments, constitute a large proportion of the food of man. Digestion in
+the lower animals is, no doubt, similarly promoted by mixing with the
+aliments which are to be subjected to that process, a due proportion of
+oily or fatty matter. Straw is relatively deficient in the flesh-forming
+principles, and abounds in the fat-forming elements&mdash;of which, however,
+the most valuable, oil, is the least abundant. Now, if we add to straw
+a due proportion of some substance very rich in flesh-formers and oil,
+the compound will possess in nicely adjusted proportions all the
+elements of nutrition. Perhaps the best kind of food which we could
+employ for this purpose is linseed meal. It contains about 24 per
+cent. of flesh-formers, 35 per cent. of a very bland oil, and 24 per
+cent. of gum, sugar, and mucilage. Linseed-cake may be substituted for
+linseed-meal; but the meal, though its cost is 15 per cent. greater, is,
+I believe, rather the better article of the two. Its flesh-formers are
+more soluble, and its oil thrice more abundant and far more palatable
+than the same principles in most samples of oil-cake. An important
+point, too, is, that linseed, unlike linseed-cake, is not liable to
+adulteration. As linseed possesses laxative properties it cannot be
+largely employed; the addition, however, of bean-meal&mdash;the binding
+tendency of which is well known&mdash;to a diet partly composed of linseed
+will neutralise, so to speak, the relaxing influence of the oily seed.
+If oil-cakes be used as an adjunct to straw, rape-cake will be found
+more economical than linseed-cake. If it be free from mustard, well
+steamed, and flavored with a little treacle, or a small quantity of
+locust-beans, it will be readily consumed, and even relished, by dairy
+and fattening stock.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Hay.</i>&mdash;There is no food substance more variable or more complex than
+hay, for under that term are included, not only
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page192" name="page192"></a>[192]</span>
+
+                                                mixtures of grasses,
+but also of leguminous plants&mdash;clover, for example. The herbage of no
+two meadows is exactly alike; and the composition of the meadow plants
+is so greatly modified by differences of climate, soil, and mode of
+culture, that we have nothing to excite our wonder in the extreme
+variability of hay.
+</p>
+<p>
+The composition of the hay made from clover, lucerne, and various other
+kinds of artificial grasses, is shown in the table&mdash;which is based on
+the results of Way's analyses:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of hay of various artificial grasses">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="7">  COMPOSITION OF THE HAY OF ARTIFICIAL GRASSES.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<th>Flesh-forming<br /> Substances.</th>
+<th>Fatty<br /> Matters.</th>
+<th>Respiratory<br /> Substances.</th>
+<th>Woody<br /> Fiber.</th>
+<th>Ash.</th>
+<th>Water.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Trifolium pratense&mdash;Red clover            </td><td>18·79  </td><td>3·06  </td><td>37·06  </td><td>16·46  </td><td>7·97 </td><td class="c"> 16·6 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Trifolium pratense perenne&mdash;Purple clover </td><td>15·98  </td><td>3·41  </td><td>35·35  </td><td>21·63  </td><td>6·96 </td><td class="c">   " </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Trifolium incarnatum&mdash;Crimson clover      </td><td>13·83  </td><td>3·11  </td><td>31·25  </td><td>26·99  </td><td>8·15 </td><td class="c">   " </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Trifolium medium&mdash;Cowgrass                </td><td>20·27  </td><td>2·97  </td><td>30·30  </td><td>20·12  </td><td>9·67 </td><td class="c">   " </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Do., second specimen                           </td><td>15·64  </td><td>3·98  </td><td>41·38  </td><td>15·70  </td><td>6·64 </td><td class="c">   " </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Trifolium procumbens&mdash;Hop trefoil         </td><td>17·07  </td><td>3·89  </td><td>36·55  </td><td>18·88  </td><td>6·94 </td><td class="c">   " </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Trifolium repens&mdash;White trefoil           </td><td>15·63  </td><td>3·65  </td><td>33·37  </td><td>22·11  </td><td>8·57 </td><td class="c">   " </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Vicia sativa&mdash;Common Vetch                </td><td>19·68  </td><td>2·55  </td><td>32·87  </td><td>22·82  </td><td>5·42 </td><td class="c">   " </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Vicia sepium&mdash;Bush vetch                  </td><td>19·23  </td><td>2·40  </td><td>27·62  </td><td>25·87  </td><td>8·21 </td><td class="c">   " </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Onobrychis sativa&mdash;Sainfoin               </td><td>15·38  </td><td>2·51  </td><td>38·30  </td><td>20·59  </td><td>6·56 </td><td class="c">   " </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Medicago sativa&mdash;Lucerne                  </td><td>10·63  </td><td>2·30  </td><td>33·47  </td><td>28·51  </td><td>8·42 </td><td class="c">   " </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Medicago lupulina&mdash;Yellow clover          </td><td>20·50  </td><td>3·38  </td><td>27·76  </td><td>22·66  </td><td>9·03 </td><td class="c">   " </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Plantago lanceolata&mdash;Rib grass            </td><td>11·91  </td><td>3·06  </td><td>33·58  </td><td>27·56  </td><td>7·23 </td><td class="c">   " </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Poterium sanguisorba&mdash;Burnet              </td><td>13·96  </td><td>3·34  </td><td>39·50  </td><td>19·89  </td><td>6·64 </td><td class="c">   " </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1">
+    <td class="l">  Achillea millefolium&mdash;Millefoil           </td><td> 8·62  </td><td>2·09  </td><td>37·88  </td><td>27·24  </td><td>7·50 </td><td class="c">   " </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1">
+    <td>            Mean                                           </td><td>15·81  </td><td>3·18  </td><td>34·42  </td><td>22·47  </td><td>7·59 </td><td> 16·6 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page193" name="page193"></a>[193]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+Very many analyses of hay have been made by British and Continental
+chemists, the results of which are of great interest to the
+agriculturist. The composition of the natural and artificial grasses,
+which is shown in the tables given in pages 158-9 will, if we reduce
+their per-centage of water to 16, give us an approximation to the
+composition of hay. If the herbage, too, be sown in the proper time, and
+the hay-making process be skilfully conducted, there will be but little
+difference, except in the amount of water, between the plants in their
+fresh and dry state; but owing to inopportune wet weather, and
+carelessness in manipulation, excellent herbage is not unfrequently
+converted into inferior hay.
+</p>
+<p>
+According to Dr. Voelcker, the average composition of meadow-hay, as
+deduced from the results of twenty-five analyses, is as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average composition of meadow-hay">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                          </td><td>14·61 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-forming constituents     </td><td> 8·44 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Respiratory and fatty matters  </td><td>43·63 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre                    </td><td>27·16 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter (ash)           </td><td> 6·16 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>             </td><td> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                           </td><td>100·00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Anderson's analysis of meadow-hay, one year old, and of inferior
+quality, gave the following results:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of meadow-hay, one year old">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                      </td><td>13·13 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-forming matters      </td><td> 4·00 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Non-nitrogenous substances </td><td>77·61 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter             </td><td> 5·26 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>         </td><td> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                       </td><td>100·00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The results of the investigations of Way prove that the herbage of
+water-grass meadows is more nutritious than that of dry meadows&mdash;results
+perfectly harmonious with the experience of practical men.
+</p>
+<p>
+It is a somewhat general belief, that the aftermath, or second cutting,
+is less nutritious than the first cutting; but there appears to be no
+chemical difference between the two crops, provided they be saved under
+equally favorable
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page194" name="page194"></a>[194]</span>
+
+
+                  conditions. According to Dr. Anderson, the composition
+of clover-hay of the second cutting is as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of clover-hay">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                    </td><td>16·84 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-forming principles </td><td>13·52 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Non-nitrogenous matters  </td><td>64·43 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter (ash)     </td><td> 5·21 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>       </td><td> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                     </td><td>100·00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+I have already shown the importance of reaping in proper season&mdash;not
+less necessary is it to mow before the plants ripen fully, and even
+before they flower. The results of the experiments of Stöckhardt,
+Hellreigel, and Wolff, in relation to this point, are very interesting,
+and are well worthy of reproduction here.
+</p>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Results of Stöckhardt's and Hellreigel's experiments">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="7">  RESULTS OF STÖCKHARDT'S AND HELLREIGEL'S EXPERIMENTS.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3"></td>
+<th colspan="3">Stem.</th>
+<th colspan="3">Leaves.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th rowspan="2">Water in Fresh Plant.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Hay.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Water in Fresh Plant.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Hay.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th>Flesh-forming Matters.</th>
+<th>Ash.</th>
+<th>Flesh-forming Matters.</th>
+<th>Ash.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Clover cut on the
+            4th June, quite young   </td><td>  82·80  </td><td> 13·16  </td><td>  9·71  </td><td>  83·50  </td><td> 27·17  </td><td>   9·42 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    23rd " ready for cutting</td><td>  81·72  </td><td> 12·72  </td><td>  9·00  </td><td>  82·68  </td><td> 27·69  </td><td>   9·00 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    9th July, beginning to
+              flower                </td><td>  82·41  </td><td> 12·40  </td><td>  6·12  </td><td>  77·77  </td><td> 15·83  </td><td>  10·46 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    29th July, full flower  </td><td>  78·30  </td><td>  9·28  </td><td>  4·63  </td><td>  70·80  </td><td> 19·20  </td><td>   9·58 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1">
+    <td class="l">  21st August, ripe         </td><td>  69·40  </td><td>  6·75  </td><td>  4·82  </td><td>  65·70  </td><td> 18·94  </td><td>  12·33 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Results of Wolff's experiment">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="9">  RESULTS OF WOLFF'S EXPERIMENT.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<th colspan="4">Red Clover.</th>
+<th colspan="4">Alsike Clover.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<th colspan="2">Beginning to flower, 11th June.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Full flower, 25th June.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Beginning to flower, 23rd June.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Full flower, 29th June.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td>               </td><th>Fresh.  </th><th>Hay.   </th><th> Fresh. </th><th> Hay.    </th><th> Fresh. </th><th> Hay.   </th><th>Fresh.  </th><th>Hay.  </th></tr>
+<tr><td>               </td><th>  per cent.  </th><th>  per cent. </th><th>   per cent. </th><th>  per cent.   </th><th>   per cent. </th><th>  per cent.  </th><th>  per cent.  </th><th>  per cent. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water        </td><td>  83·07 </td><td> 16·66 </td><td>  76·41 </td><td>  10·66  </td><td>  86·98 </td><td>  16·66 </td><td>  82·60 </td><td> 16·66 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ash          </td><td>   1·43 </td><td>  7·04 </td><td>   1·67 </td><td>   5·90  </td><td>   1·12 </td><td>   7·17 </td><td>   1·45 </td><td>  6·94 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre  </td><td>   4·24 </td><td> 20·87 </td><td>   8·88 </td><td>  37·37  </td><td>   3·79 </td><td>  24·26 </td><td>   5·11 </td><td> 24·47 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1">
+    <td class="l">  Nutritive
+                      substances </td><td>  11·26 </td><td> 55·43 </td><td>  13·04 </td><td>  46·07  </td><td>   8·11 </td><td>  51·91 </td><td>  10·84 </td><td> 51·93 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page195" name="page195"></a>[195]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+During the operation of converting the grass&mdash;"natural" or
+"artificial"&mdash;into hay, there is more or less loss of nutritive matter
+sustained by fermentation, the dispersion of the smaller leaves by the
+wind, and other agencies. But this unavoidable loss is trivial when
+compared with the prodigious waste sustained, in Ireland at least, by
+allowing the hay to remain too long in cocks in the field. "Within the
+last three or four years," says Mr. Baldwin, of the Glasnevin Albert
+Model Farm, "we have made agricultural tours through twenty-five of
+the thirty-two counties of Ireland; and from careful consideration
+of the subject, and having in some instances used a tape-line and
+weighing-machine to assist our judgment, we have come to the conclusion
+that one-twentieth of the hay-crop of Ireland is permitted to rot
+in field-cocks. The portion on the ground, as well as that on the
+outside of the cocks, is too often only fit for manure. And the loss
+of aftermath, and of the subsequent year's crop (if hay or pasture),
+suffers to the extent of from sixpence to one shilling per acre. If we
+unite all these sources, the loss sustained annually in this country is
+something serious to contemplate. On an average, for all Ireland, it is
+not under 20 per cent., or a fifth of the actual value of the crop."
+This is a startling statement; but I do not believe it to be an
+exaggeration of the actual state of things.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Damaged Hay and Straw.</i>&mdash;Damaged corn and potatoes, so much injured as
+to be unfit for human food, are generally given, and with apparently
+good results, to the inferior animals. The "meat manufacturing
+machines," as the edible varieties of the domesticated animals are now
+generally termed, are not very dainty in their choice of food; and
+vegetable substances which would excite the disgust of the lords of the
+creation are rendered nutritious and agreeable by being reorganised in
+the mechanisms of oxen, sheep, and pigs.
+</p>
+<p>
+Now, although it is pretty generally known that musty corn and diseased
+potatoes form good feeding stuffs, it is not so patent whether or not
+the natural food of stock, such as hay and straw in a diseased state,
+is proper food for those animals.
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page196" name="page196"></a>[196]</span>
+
+                                  This question is worthy of
+consideration. Firstly, I shall describe the nature of the diseases
+which most frequently affect fodder; these are, "mildew" and "mould."
+These diseases are produced by the ravages of minute and very low forms
+of vegetable life, termed by the botanists <i>epiphytical fungi</i>. The
+mildew (<i>Puccinia graminis</i>) generally attacks the grasses when they are
+growing, and is more frequently met with on rich and heavily manured
+soils. In localities where heavy night-fogs and dews are of common
+occurrence, this pest often destroys whole crops. On the other hand, in
+light, sandy, and well-drained soils, and in warm and dry districts,
+the mildew is a rare visitant. The "blue mould" (<i>Aspergillis glaucus</i>)
+attacks hay and straw in the stack or rick, and without any regard to
+their origin&mdash;no matter whether they were the produce of the wettest or
+the dryest, the warmest or the coldest of soils. The chief condition
+in the existence of the blue mould is excessive moisture. If the hay or
+straw be too green and succulent when put up, or if rain get at them
+in the rick, the mould is very likely to make its appearance, and the
+well-known odor termed <i>musty</i> will speedily be developed.
+</p>
+<p>
+Neither the mildew nor the mould can, strictly speaking, be regarded as
+parasites, such as, for example, the flax-dodder, which feeds upon the
+healthy juices of the plant to which it is attached. It appears to me
+that the tissues and juices of the fodder-plants decay <i>first</i>, and then
+the mould or the mildew appears and feeds upon the decomposing matter.
+Now, as these vegetables belong to a poisonous class of fungi, it is
+more than probable that they convert the decomposing substance of the
+straw or hay into unwholesome, if not poisonous matter; and it is not
+unlikely but that the disagreeable odor which they evolve is designed by
+nature as a sign to the lower animals not to partake of mouldy food.
+There is no doubt but that most animals will instinctively reject fodder
+in this state; and the question arises, ought this odour to be destroyed
+or disguised, in order to induce the animals to eat the damaged stuff?
+The experience of most feeders who have largely consumed mouldy
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page197" name="page197"></a>[197]</span>
+
+ provender
+is, that although cattle may be induced to eat it, they never thrive
+upon such stuff if it form a heavy item in their diet. The reason of
+this is obvious. The nitrogenous portion of the straw is that which is
+chiefly assimilated by the fungi. And as this constituent is the one
+which contributes to the formation of muscle, and is naturally extremely
+deficient in straw and hay&mdash;more particularly the former&mdash;it follows
+that the animals fed upon mouldy fodder cannot elaborate it into lean
+flesh (muscle).
+</p>
+<p>
+In the case of young stock, mouldy fodder is altogether inadmissible,
+for these animals require abundance of flesh-forming materials&mdash;precisely
+those which the fungi almost completely remove from the diseased fodder.
+</p>
+<p>
+As large quantities of mouldy or mildewed provender are at the present
+moment to be found in many farmsteads, and as they are unsaleable,
+and must therefore be made use of in some way at home, it is well to
+consider the best way to dispose of them. In the case of straw, the
+greater portion will be required for litter, and if the whole of the
+damaged article can be disposed of in this way so much the better. If,
+however, there is more than is necessary for the bedding of the stock,
+it may be used in conjunction with sound fodder, but always in a cooked
+state. The greater part, if not the whole, of the diseased nitrogenous
+part of the straw is soluble in warm water, so that if the fodder be
+well steamed the poisonous matter will be eliminated to such an extent
+as to leave the article almost as wholesome as good straw, but not so
+nutritious. The straw cleansed in this way will be very deficient in
+flesh-forming, though not in fat-forming power, and this fact should
+be duly considered when the other items of the animal's food are
+being weighed out. Beans, malt-combs, and linseed-cake are rich in
+muscle-forming principles, and are consequently suitable adjuncts to
+damaged fodder; but the latter should never constitute the staple food,
+or be given unmixed with some sweet provender.
+</p>
+<p>
+When the fodder is considerably damaged it becomes,
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page198" name="page198"></a>[198]</span>
+
+                                                    after steaming,
+nearly as tasteless as sawdust. To this kind of stuff the addition of a
+small amount of some flavorous material is very useful. For damaged hay,
+Mr. Bowick recommends the following mixture:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Recommended mixture to add to inferior hay">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Fenugreek (powdered) </td><td>112</td><td class="c">parts. </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Pimento              </td><td>  4</td><td class="c">  " </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Aniseed              </td><td>  4</td><td class="c">  " </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Caraways             </td><td>  4</td><td class="c">  " </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Cummin               </td><td>  2</td><td class="c">  " </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+A pinch of this compound will render agreeably-flavored the most insipid
+kinds of fodder.
+</p>
+<p>
+Mr. Bowick states that he had fed large numbers of bullocks on damaged
+hay, flavored with this compound, and that their health was not thereby
+injured in the slightest degree.
+</p>
+
+<h4>
+SECTION V.
+</h4>
+<h5>
+ROOTS AND TUBERS.
+</h5>
+<p>
+The important part which the so-called root crops play in the modern
+systems of agriculture, has secured for them a large share of the
+attention of the chemist, so that our knowledge of their composition
+and relative nutritive value is very extensive. As compared with most
+other articles of food, the roots, as they are popularly called, of
+potatoes, turnips, mangels, carrots, and such like plants, contain a
+high proportion of water, and are not very nutritious; indeed, with the
+exception of the potato, none of them contain 20 per cent. of solid
+matter, and some not more than five per cent. They are, however, easily
+produced in great quantities, which compensates for their low nutritive
+value. I shall consider each of the more important roots separately.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>The Turnip.</i>&mdash;There are numerous varieties of this plant, which differ
+from each other in the relative proportions and
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page199" name="page199"></a>[199]</span>
+
+                                                total amount of their
+constituents, and even in different individuals of the same variety
+there is considerable variation in composition; hence the difficulty
+which has been felt by those who have endeavored to assign to this plant
+its relative nutritive value. From the average results of a great number
+of experiments, conducted both in the laboratory and the feeding-house,
+it is concluded that turnips are the most inferior roots produced in the
+field. The Swedish turnips are the most valuable kind: they contain a
+higher proportion of solid matter than the other varieties, and they are
+firmer and store better. The average composition of five varieties of
+turnips, as deduced from the results of the analyses of Anderson and
+Voelcker, is shown in the following table:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Analyses of Turnips">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="6">  ANALYSES OF TURNIPS.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<th>Swedish Turnip.</th>
+<th>White Globe.</th>
+<th>Aberdeen Yellows.</th>
+<th>Purpletop Yellows.</th>
+<th>Norfolk Bell.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                        </td><td>89·460 </td><td>90·430  </td><td>90·578  </td><td>91·200 </td><td> 92·280 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Albuminous, or flesh-forming substances
+                                                 </td><td> 1·443 </td><td> 1·143  </td><td> 1·802  </td><td> 1·117 </td><td>  1·737 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Non-nitrogenous, or fat-forming substances (fat, gum, sugar, &amp;c.)
+                                                 </td><td> 5·932 </td><td> 5·457  </td><td> 4·622  </td><td> 4·436 </td><td>  2·962 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre                  </td><td> 2·542 </td><td> 2·342  </td><td> 2·349  </td><td> 2·607 </td><td>  2·000 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1">
+    <td class="l">  Mineral matter (ash)         </td><td> 0·623 </td><td> 0·628  </td><td> 0·649  </td><td> 0·640 </td><td>  1·021 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1">
+    <td>                                         </td><td>100·000</td><td>100·000 </td><td> 100·000</td><td>100·000</td><td>100·000 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Greystone Turnip</i> is a variety which has only quite recently been
+introduced. It is stated to be an uncommonly productive crop, usually
+yielding returns from 30 to 50 per cent. greater than those obtained
+from other varieties of the turnip. The composition of the Greystone
+turnip appears to be inferior, so that probably it is not, after all,
+a more economical plant than the ordinary kinds of turnips.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page200" name="page200"></a>[200]</span></p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of Greystone turnip (Anderson)">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3">  DR. ANDERSON'S ANALYSIS OF THE GREYSTONE TURNIP.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td>
+<th>No. 1.<br />Grown on Clay.</th>
+<th>No. 2.<br />Grown on Sand.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                               </td><td>   93·84         </td><td>    94·12 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Oil                                 </td><td>    0·26         </td><td>     0·34 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Soluble albuminous matters          </td><td>    0·35         </td><td>     0·56 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Insoluble ditto                     </td><td>    0·20         </td><td>     0·18 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Soluble respiratory matters         </td><td>    2·99         </td><td>     2·32 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Insoluble ditto (chiefly fibre)     </td><td>    1·73         </td><td>     1·85 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ash                                 </td><td>    0·63         </td><td>     0·63 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                                      </td><td>  100·00         </td><td>   100·00 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+It was at one time the fashion&mdash;not yet become quite obsolete&mdash;to regard
+the proportion of nitrogen in the turnip as the measure of the nutritive
+value of the bulb; but the fallacy of this opinion has been shown by
+several late investigators, and more particularly by the results of
+one of the numerous series of feeding experiments conducted by Mr.
+Lawes. Many bulbs exceedingly rich in nitrogen are very deficient
+in nutritive power&mdash;partly from a deficiency in the other elements of
+nutrition&mdash;partly because most of their nitrogen is in so low a degree
+of elaboration as to be incapable of assimilation by animals. The value
+of a food-substance does not merely depend upon the amount and the
+relative proportion of its constituents, but also, and to a very great
+extent, upon their easy assimilability. There is but little doubt that
+the nutritive matters contained in the Swedish turnip when the bulb is
+fresh are very crude. By storing, certain chemical changes take place
+in the bulb, which render it more nutritious and palatable. A large
+proportion of the non-nitrogenous matters exist in the fresh root as
+pectin; but this substance, if the bulb be preserved for a couple of
+months, becomes in great part converted into sugar, which is one of the
+most palatable and fattening ingredients of cattle-food. By storing,
+too, the bulbs lose a portion of their excessive amount of water, and
+become less bulky, which is unquestionably a desideratum. These facts
+suggest the necessity for cultivating the earlier varieties of the
+turnip, for it may be fairly doubted if a late-grown crop, left for
+consumption in the field, ever,
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page201" name="page201"></a>[201]</span>
+
+                                even under the most favorable
+circumstances, attains its perfect development. At the same time it must
+not be forgotten that turnips <i>fully matured</i> in the field rather
+deteriorate than otherwise after a few weeks' storage.
+</p>
+<p>
+Many agriculturists consider that there is a strict relation between the
+specific gravity, or comparative weight of the bulb, and its nutritive
+value; others believe that a very large turnip must necessarily be
+inferior in feeding qualities to a small one; whilst not a few maintain
+that neither its size nor its specific gravity is an indication of its
+feeding qualities. Dr. Anderson, who has specially investigated a
+portion of this subject, states that "the specific gravity of the whole
+turnip cannot be accepted as indicating its real nutritive value, the
+proportion of air in the cells being the determining element in such
+results; that there is no constant relation between the specific gravity
+of, and the nitrogen compounds in, the bulb; and that such relation
+does exist between the specific gravity of the expressed juice and
+the nitrogen compounds and solid constituents." Dr. Anderson allows,
+however, that the best varieties of the turnip have the highest specific
+gravity; which admission&mdash;coupled with the fact admitted by all
+experimenters that the heavy roots store best&mdash;lead me to adopt the
+opinions of those who consider great specific gravity as one of the
+favorable indications of its nutritive value. With respect to size,
+I prefer bulbs of moderate dimensions; the monsters that win the prizes
+at our agricultural shows&mdash;and which, in general, are <i>forced</i>&mdash;are
+inferior in feeding qualities, are always <i>spongy</i>, and almost
+invariably rot when stored.
+</p>
+<p>
+The composition of the turnip is influenced not only by the nature of
+the soil on which it is grown, but also by that of the manure applied
+to it. The most reliable authorities are agreed that turnips raised on
+Peruvian guano are watery, and do not keep well; but that with a mixture
+of Peruvian guano and superphosphate of lime, with phospho-guano, or
+with farmyard manure supplemented with a moderate amount of guano, the
+most nutritious and firm bulbs are produced.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page202" name="page202"></a>[202]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+Turnip-tops have been analysed by Voelcker, with the following
+results:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of turnip tops (Voelcker)">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3">  ONE HUNDRED PARTS CONTAIN&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<th>White.</th>
+<th>Swedish.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                                         </td><td> 91·284 </td><td>  88·367 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Nitrogen compounds                            </td><td>  2·456 </td><td>   2·087 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Non-nitrogenous matters (gum, sugar, &amp;c.) </td><td>  0·648 </td><td>   1·612 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ditto, as woody fibre                         </td><td>  4·092 </td><td>   5·638 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter                                </td><td>  1·520 </td><td>   2·296 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                                                </td><td>100·000 </td><td> 100·000 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+These figures apparently show that the tops of turnips are more
+valuable than their bulbs; but, in the absence of any feeding
+experiments made to determine the point, we believe they are less so,
+as a very large proportion of the solid matter in the tops of turnips
+is in too low a degree of elaboration to be assimilable. Their high
+proportions of nitrogen and mineral matter constitute them, however,
+a very useful manure&mdash;nearly twice as valuable as the bulbs; this
+fact should be borne in mind when turnips are sold off the land.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>The Mangel-wurtzel</i> is one of the most valuable of our green crops.
+Its root is more nutritious than the turnip, occupying a position in
+the scale of food equivalents midway between that bulb and the parsnip.
+Mangels, when fresh, possess a somewhat acrid taste, and act as a
+laxative when given to stock; but after a few months' storing they
+become sweet and palatable, and their <i>scouring</i> property completely
+disappears.
+</p>
+<p>
+Although the mangel is one of the most nutritious articles of food
+which can be given to cattle, yet it is stated on the best authority
+that sheep do not thrive upon it. Voelcker, who has investigated this
+subject, informs us that a lot of sheep which he fed on a limited
+quantity of hay and an unlimited quantity of mangels, did not, during a
+period of four months, increase in weight, whilst another lot of sheep
+supplied with a small quantity of hay, and Swedish turnips <i>ad libitum</i>
+increased
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page203" name="page203"></a>[203]</span>
+
+          on an average 2&frac12; lbs. weekly. I believe the experience of
+the greater number of feeders agrees with the results of Dr. Voelcker's
+experiment.
+</p>
+<p>
+The chemistry of the mangel-wurtzel has been thoroughly studied by Way
+and Ogston, Fromberg, Wolff, Anderson, and Voelcker. According to the
+last-named chemist, its average composition is as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average composition of mangel-wurtzel (Voelcker)">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                 </td><td>87·78 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-forming matters </td><td> 1·54 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Sugar                 </td><td> 6·10 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Gum, pectin, &amp;c.  </td><td> 2·50 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre           </td><td> 1·12 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter (ash)  </td><td> 0·96 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>    </td><td> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                  </td><td>100·00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+It is difficult to accurately determine by a comparative trial the
+relative feeding properties of mangels and turnips, for the former
+are only in a fit state to be given to the animals when the latter
+are deteriorating. However, by comparing the composition of the two
+substances, and the results obtained from numerous feeding experiments,
+it would appear, that on the average 75 lbs. weight of mangels are equal
+to 100 lbs. weight of turnips. Of the different varieties of the mangel
+the long yellow appears to be the most nutritious, and the long red the
+least so.
+</p>
+<p>
+The leaves of the mangel&mdash;some of which are occasionally pulled and used
+for feeding purposes, during the growth of the bulb&mdash;are an excellent
+feeding substance: their composition indicates a nutritive value but
+little inferior to that of the root; but as their constituents cannot be
+in a highly elaborated condition, it is probable they are not more than
+equal to half their weight of the bulbs.
+</p>
+<p>
+One <i>questio vexata</i> of the many which at present occupy the attention
+of the agricultural world is, whether or not the leaves of mangels may
+be removed with advantage during the latter part of the development of
+the plants. This practice
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page204" name="page204"></a>[204]</span>
+
+                          prevailed rather extensively a few years since,
+but latterly it has fallen somewhat into disuse.
+</p>
+<p>
+Those who adopt this plan urge, as its advantages, that a large quantity
+of food is obtained at a time when it is urgently needed, and that
+instead of the removal of the leaves exercising an injurious influence
+on the development of the roots, the latter are actually increased in
+size.
+</p>
+<p>
+In 1859 an experimental investigation was carried out at the Glasnevin
+Model Farm, with the view of throwing new light on the question. The
+outside leaves were very gradually removed on different occasions&mdash;from
+the 12th August to the 15th October. In this way five tons of leaves per
+statute acre were removed, and subsequently made use of for feeding
+purposes. The experiment was conducted on a field of four acres, of
+which the produce of 12 drills, each 200 yards in length, was left
+untouched. The result was that the produce of the roots of the untouched
+plants was only 40 tons 8 cwt. 6 qrs. per acre, whilst the roots of the
+plants which had been partly denuded of their leaves weighed at the rate
+of 45 tons 1 cwt. This experiment afforded results which are apparently
+favorable to the practice of stripping the leaves; but it is to be
+regretted that it was not rendered more complete by an analysis of the
+roots, as a great bulk of roots does not necessarily imply a great
+weight of dry food, and it is just possible, though not very probable,
+that the roots of the stripped mangels contained a larger proportion of
+water than those of the untouched plants.
+</p>
+<p>
+The results of the experiments of Buckman, and of Professor Wolff, of
+the Royal Agricultural College at Hohenheim, are at direct variance with
+those obtained at Glasnevin. Both of these experimenters found that the
+removal of the leaves occasioned a diminution in the produce of the
+roots to the amount of 20 per cent. Nor was this the only loss, for it
+was found by the German professor that the roots of the untouched plants
+possessed a far higher nutritive value than those of the stripped
+mangels.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page205" name="page205"></a>[205]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+When doctors differ, who is to decide? Here we have high authorities in
+the agricultural world at direct variance on a matter of fact. The names
+of Buckman and Wolff are a sufficient guarantee that the experimental
+results which they announce are trustworthy, and I can testify, from
+observation, that no field experiments could be more carefully conducted
+than those carried out at the Albert Model Farm. We can only, then,
+under the circumstances, admit that both Mr. Boyle, on the one side,
+and Professors Buckman and Wolff on the other, are correct in their
+statements of fact; but as it is evident both cannot be right in the
+general inferences therefrom, it is desirable that the subject should be
+still further investigated, and the truth be placed beyond doubt. It is
+a question which appears so simple that one is at a loss to account for
+the discrepant opinions in relation to it which prevail. "Let nothing
+induce the growers," says Mr. Paget, in a paper on the cultivation of
+the mangel, "to strip the leaves from the plant before taking up the
+root. A series of careful experiments has convinced me that by so doing
+we borrow food at a most usurious interest." "Although," says Mr. Boyle,
+"the practice of stripping has been followed for many years on the farm
+without any perceptible injury to the crop, these results, showing so
+considerable an addition to the crop from taking off the leaves, were
+hardly anticipated." It certainly does appear somewhat at variance with
+our notion of the functions of the leaves of plants, that their partial
+removal could possibly cause an increase in the weight of the roots;
+but granting such to be the fact, it is not altogether <i>theoretically</i>
+inexplicable. We know that highly nitrogenous manure has a tendency to
+increase the development of the leaves of turnips at the <i>expense</i> of
+the roots. Gardeners, too, not unfrequently remove some of the buds from
+their fruit trees, lest the excessive development of foliage should
+retard or check the <i>growth</i> of the fruit. <i>Theoretically</i> an excessive
+development of the leaves of the mangel may be inimical to the growth
+of the root. Probably, too, it may be urged, the outer leaves, which
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page206" name="page206"></a>[206]</span>
+
+ soon become partially disorganised and incapable of elaborating mineral
+matter into vegetable products, prevent the access of light to the more
+vigorous inner leaves. In conclusion, I may say of this subject that it
+is worthy of further elucidation; and I would suggest to my readers, and
+more especially to the managers of the various model farms, the
+desirability of fully testing the matter.
+</p>
+<p>
+The <i>White Beet</i> is a congener of the mangel. It is largely grown on the
+continent as a sugar-producing plant, but is seldom cultivated in these
+countries. It produces about 15 tons of roots per acre, and its roots on
+the average contain&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average composition of white beet roots">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water         </td><td>83·0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Sugar         </td><td>10·0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-formers </td><td> 2·5 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fat-formers   </td><td> 1·5 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fibre         </td><td> 2·0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ash           </td><td> 1·0 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                          </td><td>100·0</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+This plant is deserving of more extensive growth in Great Britain.
+</p>
+<p>
+The <i>Parsnip</i> is, after the potato, the most valuable of roots. It
+differs from the turnip and the mangel in containing a high proportion
+of starch, and but little sugar; and its flesh-forming constituents are
+largely made up of casein, instead of, as in the case of the turnip,
+albumen.
+</p>
+<p>
+The average composition of the parsnip is as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average composition of parsnip">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                                </td><td>82·00 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-forming principles             </td><td> 1·30 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fat-formers (starch, sugar, &amp;c.) </td><td> 7·75 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre                          </td><td> 8·00 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter (ash)                 </td><td> 0·95 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>                   </td><td> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                 </td><td>100·00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The parsnip is extensively grown in many foreign countries, on account
+of its valuable feeding properties. As a field-crop it is but little
+cultivated in Great Britain, and its use is&mdash;if we
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page207" name="page207"></a>[207]</span>
+
+                                                   except the table&mdash;almost
+restricted to pigs. Its food equivalent is about double that of the
+turnip; that is, one pound of parsnips is equal to two pounds of
+turnips.
+</p>
+<p>
+The <i>Carrot</i> bears a close resemblance to the parsnip, from which,
+however, it differs, containing no starch, and being somewhat inferior
+in nutritive value. According to Voelcker, its average composition is
+as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average composition of carrot (Voelcker)">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                               </td><td>88·50 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-formers                       </td><td> 0·60 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fat-formers (including woody fibre) </td><td>10·18 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter (ash)                </td><td> 0·72 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>                  </td><td> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                </td><td>100·00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>
+As carrots contain a high proportion of fat-forming matters, and a low
+per-centage of flesh-forming substances, they are better adapted for
+fattening purposes. Dairy stock greedily eat them; and they are given
+with great advantage to horses out of condition.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Kohl-Rabi.</i>&mdash;This plant, though early introduced into the agriculture
+of these countries, has made but little progress in the estimation
+of the farmer. It belongs to the order and genus which include the
+turnip, but differs widely from that plant in its mode of growth. Its
+bulb&mdash;which is formed by an enormous development of the overground
+stem&mdash;is, according to some authorities, less liable than the turnip
+to injury from frost. It is subject to no diseases, save anbury and
+clubbing; and, owing to its position above the soil, it can be readily
+eaten off by sheep. The bulbs store better than Swedes, and, according
+to some farmers, keep even better than mangels. With respect to the
+flavor of this bulb, there is some difference of opinion. Professor
+Wilson, of Edinburgh, quotes several eminent feeders to prove that
+"whether in the fold for sheep, in the yard for cattle, or in the
+stables for horses, it will generally be preferred to the other
+descriptions of homegrown keep." Mr. Baldwin, on the contrary, states
+that although good food for sheep, it is too hard-fleshed for old
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page208" name="page208"></a>[208]</span>
+
+ ewes,
+and that carrots are better food for horses, and Swedish turnips for
+cattle.
+</p>
+<p>
+An accurately conducted comparative trial to test the nutritive value
+of the Kohl-rabi, was conducted at the Glasnevin Model Farm, under the
+direction of Mr. Baldwin. The experiment was commenced in January, 1863.
+Four oxen were selected, and divided into two lots. Nos. 1 and 2 (Lot 1)
+were fed on Kohl-rabi, oil-cake, and hay, and Nos. 3 and 4 (Lot 2) on
+Swedish turnips, oil-cake, and hay. As the animals supplied with the
+Kohl-rabi did not appear to relish it, and as it was desirable to
+gradually accustom them to the change of food, the experiment did not
+really commence till the 12th January. On that date the weights of the
+animals were as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Weights of animals in kohl-rabi nutritive test">
+
+<tr><td>            </td><td>        </td><th>cwt. </th><th>st.       </th><td>       </td><td>       </td><th>cwt. </th><th>st. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td rowspan="2">     Lot 1. <span style="font-size: 200%">{</span></td>
+                         <td> No. 1. </td><td> 10  </td><td> 1        </td><td rowspan="2">Lot 2. <span style="font-size: 200%">{</span></td>
+                                                                                          <td> No. 3.</td><td>  7  </td><td> 5 </td></tr>
+<tr>                     <td> No. 2. </td><td>  7  </td><td> 4        </td>               <td> No. 4.</td><td> 10  </td><td> 2 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash; </td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash; </td></tr>
+<tr><td>            </td><td>        </td><td> 17  </td><td> 5        </td><td>      </td><td>       </td><td> 17  </td><td> 7 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The lots, therefore, counterpoised each other pretty fairly. From the
+12th to the 28th January they received the following quantities of food
+per diem:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Per diem quantities of feeds in kohl-rabi nutritive test">
+
+<tr><td class="l">                         </td><td>       </td><th> 1.        </th><th> 2.    </th><th> 3.    </th><th> 4.        </th></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Roots                  </td><td>stones </td><td> 7&frac12; </td><td> 6     </td><td> 6     </td><td> 7&frac12; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Oil cake               </td><td>pounds </td><td> 4&frac12; </td><td> 3     </td><td> 3     </td><td> 4&frac12; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Hay                    </td><td>pounds </td><td>10&frac12; </td><td>10&frac12; </td><td>10&frac12; </td><td>10&frac12; </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The animals fed upon the Kohl-rabi evinced from the first a
+disinclination to it, but they nevertheless ate it before their meal of
+oil-cake was supplied to them. On the morning of the 28th January they
+were put upon the dietary shown in the table, and which induced them to
+eat the Kohl-rabi more quickly.
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Amended diet of kohl-rabi test">
+
+<tr><td colspan="3"></td><th>1.     </th><th>2.     </th><th>3.     </th><th>4. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l" rowspan="2">  At 6.30 a.m. </td><td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%">{</span> </td>
+                              <td class="l">Roots, Stones  </td><td>3      </td><td>2&frac12;  </td><td>2&frac12;  </td><td>3&frac12;2 </td></tr>
+<tr>                          <td class="l">Cake, lbs.     </td><td>1&frac12;  </td><td>1      </td><td>1      </td><td>1 </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l" rowspan="2">  At 12.30 a.m. </td><td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%">{</span> </td>
+                              <td class="l">Roots, Stones  </td><td>3      </td><td>2&frac12;  </td><td>2&frac12;  </td><td>3&frac12; </td></tr>
+<tr>                          <td class="l">Cake, lbs.     </td><td>1&frac12;  </td><td>1      </td><td>1      </td><td>1 </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l" rowspan="2">  At 6.30 p.m. </td><td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%">{</span> </td>
+                              <td class="l">Roots, Stones  </td><td>3      </td><td>2&frac12;  </td><td>2&frac12;  </td><td>3&frac12; </td></tr>
+<tr>                          <td class="l">Cake, lbs.     </td><td>1&frac12;  </td><td>1      </td><td>1      </td><td>1 </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l" colspan="2">  At 9.30 p.m. </td><td class="l">Hay, lbs.      </td><td>7      </td><td>7      </td><td>7      </td><td>7 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page209" name="page209"></a>[209]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+On the 11th February the cattle were again weighed, when their increase
+was found to be as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Increase in cattle weights in the kohl-rabi test">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<th colspan="2">Weight on<br /> Jan. 12.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Weight on<br /> Feb. 11.</th>
+<th colspan="1">Increase<br /> in 30 days.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2">                          </td><th>cwt.</th><th>st.    </th><th>cwt.</th><th> st.    </th><th> st. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>  1</td><td class="l" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%">}</span> Lot 1, fed on Kohl-rabi, &amp;c. <span style="font-size: 200%">}</span>
+                                              </td><td> 10 </td><td>  1    </td><td> 10 </td><td>  4     </td><td>  3 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  2</td>                                   <td>  7 </td><td>  4    </td><td>  7 </td><td>  6     </td><td>  2 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="total"><td colspan="6"></td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>   </td><td class="l">               Total      </td><td>    </td><td>       </td><td>    </td><td>        </td><td>  5 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="total"><td colspan="6"></td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>  3</td><td class="l" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%">}</span> Lot 2, fed on Swedes, &amp;c. <span style="font-size: 200%">}</span>
+                                             </td><td>  7 </td><td>  5    </td><td>  8 </td><td>  3     </td><td>  6 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>  4</td>                                  <td> 10 </td><td>  2    </td><td> 10 </td><td>  7&frac14; </td><td>  5&frac12; </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="total"><td colspan="6"></td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>   </td><td class="l">               Total     </td><td>    </td><td>       </td><td>    </td><td>        </td><td> 11&frac12; </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The results of this experiment show that the animals fed upon Swedish
+turnips, hay, and oil-cake, increased in weight at a rate more than
+100 per cent. greater than the lot supplied with equal quantities of
+Kohl-rabi, hay, and oil-cake. The superiority of the Swedish turnips was
+rendered more evident by the results of subsequent experiments. Nos. 1
+and 4 were not tried after the 11th February; but Nos. 2 and 3 were kept
+under experiment. No. 2 was put on Swedes, and No. 3 on mangel-wurtzel,
+and after an interval of a fortnight No. 2 had increased much more than
+they had done on Kohl-rabi.
+</p>
+<p>
+Specimens of the Kohl-rabi and Swedish turnips employed in this
+experiment were submitted to me for analysis by Mr. Baldwin, and yielded
+the following results:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Comparision of compositions of Kohl-rabi and Swedish turnips">
+
+<tr><td>                                             </td><th>Kohl-rabi. </th><th>Swedish<br /> Turnip. </th></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                                      </td><td>  87·62    </td><td> 88·84 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles   </td><td>   2·24    </td><td>  1·66 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Non-nitrogenous, or fat-forming principles </td><td>   7·78    </td><td>  6·07 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre                                </td><td>   1·34    </td><td>  2·73 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter (ash)                       </td><td>   1·22    </td><td>  0·70 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>           </td><td> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;    </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash; </td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                       </td><td> 100·00    </td><td>100·00 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+These results show a slight superiority of the Kohl-rabi over the
+Swedish turnip; the great difference in their nutritive power, as
+shown by Mr. Baldwin's experimental results, must
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page210" name="page210"></a>[210]</span>
+
+                                            therefore be due to the
+superior flavor and digestibility of the turnip.
+</p>
+<p>
+Dr. Anderson's analysis of Kohl-rabi afforded results more favorable to
+the highly nutritive character assigned by some feeders to that bulb
+than those arrived at by me. The bulbs, it should however be remarked,
+were grown, no doubt with great care, by Messrs. Lawson and Son, the
+well-known seedsmen:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of Kohl-rabi (Anderson)">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3">  ANALYSIS OF KOHL-RABI, BY DR. ANDERSON.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                                            </td><th> Bulbs.     </th><th> Tops. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                                     </td><td> 86·74      </td><td> 86·68 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-forming principles                  </td><td>  2·75      </td><td>  2·37 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fat-forming principles                    </td><td>  8·62      </td><td>  8·29 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre                               </td><td>  0·77      </td><td>  1·21 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter                            </td><td>  1·12      </td><td>  1·45 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>           </td><td> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;    </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash; </td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                            </td><td>100·00      </td><td>100·00 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Radish</i> is a plant which deserves a place amongst our field crops,
+though hitherto its cultivation has been restricted to the garden. At
+one time its leaves were boiled and eaten, but in these latter days they
+are subjected to neither of these processes. The root, however, in its
+raw state, is, as every one is aware, considered one of the dainties of
+the table.
+</p>
+<p>
+Many of those who devote themselves to the important study of dietetics,
+consider the use of raw vegetables to be objectionable; but be their
+objections groundless, or the reverse, it is certain that a vegetable
+which, like the radish, may be eaten raw with apparently good results,
+cannot be otherwise than a good article of food when cooked. I once
+tried the experiment of eating matured radishes, not as a salad, but
+cooked like any other boiled vegetable, and I must say that I found
+their flavor rather agreeable than otherwise. Boiled radishes&mdash;roots and
+tops&mdash;form excellent feeding for pigs. How could it be otherwise? for
+what is good for the family of man must surely be a luxury to the swine
+tribe. I have known horses to eat radishes greedily, and I am certain
+that they would prove acceptable to all the animals of the farm. But it
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page211" name="page211"></a>[211]</span>
+
+ may be asked, why it is that I recommend the use of radishes as
+food for stock, when there are already so many more nutritious roots
+at our disposal&mdash;turnips, mangels, and potatoes. Simply for this
+reason:&mdash;Between the departure of the roots and the advent of the
+grasses, there is a kind of interregnum.<sup><a name="noteref-32"><!--32--></a><a href="#note-32">32</a></sup> Now we want a good tuberous,
+bulbous, or tap-rooted plant to fill up this interregnum. Such a plant
+we have in the radish. The root is certainly a small one, but then it
+grows so rapidly that a good supply can be had within thirty days from
+the sowing of the seed, and a crop can be matured before the time for
+sowing turnips. Two crops may be easily obtained from land under
+potatoes&mdash;one before the tops cover the ground, the other after the
+tubers have been dug out. The yield of radishes, judging from the
+produce in the garden, would be at least six tons of roots and three
+tons of tops. I would suggest, then, that the radish should at once
+get a fair chance as a stolen crop. If it succeed as such, it will
+not be the first gift of the gardener to the husbandman. Was not the
+mangel-wurtzel once known only as the produce of the garden?
+</p>
+<p>
+The composition of the radish indicates a nutritive value less than that
+of the white turnip. I have analysed both the root and the tops, and
+obtained the following results:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of the radish">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3">  ANALYSIS OF THE RADISH.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                     </td><th>  Root.      </th><th> Tops. </th></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                                    </td><td> 95·09       </td><td> 94·30 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-forming principles                 </td><td>  0·52       </td><td>  0·75 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fat-formers (starch, gum, fat, &amp;c.)  </td><td>  1·06       </td><td>  1·16 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre                              </td><td>  2·22       </td><td>  2·36 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter (ash)                     </td><td>  1·11       </td><td>  1·43 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>           </td><td> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;    </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash; </td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                     </td><td>100·00       </td><td>100·00 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Jerusalem Artichoke</i> has long been cultivated as a field-crop on
+the Continent, and in certain localities the breadth
+
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page212" name="page212"></a>[212]</span>
+
+                                                     occupied by it is
+very considerable. The French term the tuberous root of this plant
+<i>poitre de terre</i>, or <i>topin ambour</i>; and although they expose it for
+sale in the markets, it is not much relished by our lively neighbours,
+who are so remarkable for their <i>cuisiniere</i>. As food for cattle,
+however, the French agricultural writers state it to be excellent.
+It is much relished by horses, dairy cows, and pigs; store horned-stock
+also eat it when seasoned with a little salt, and appear to enjoy it
+amazingly when permitted to pull up the roots from the soil. The green
+tops are also given to sheep and cattle, and, it is stated, are readily
+eaten by those animals.
+</p>
+<p>
+The Jerusalem artichoke (<i>Helianthus Tuberoses</i>) differs from its half
+namesake, the common artichoke, and resembles the potato in being
+valuable chiefly for its tubers. It is perennial, and attains on the
+Continent a height varying from 7 to 10 feet. In this country its
+dimensions are less. The stem is erect, thick, coarse, and covered with
+hairs. It is a native of Mexico, and although introduced 200 years ago
+into Europe, it can hardly be said to be acclimatised, since it very
+seldom flowers, and never develops seed. The plant is therefore
+propagated by cuttings from its tubers, each containing one or two eyes;
+or if the tubers be very small, which is often the case, a whole one is
+planted. The tubers possess great vitality, and remain in the ground
+during the most severe frosts, without sustaining the slightest injury.
+For this reason it is usual to devote a corner of the garden to the
+cultivation of the Jerusalem artichoke; for, no matter how completely
+the crop may appear to have been removed from the soil, portions of the
+tubers will remain and shoot up into plants during the following season.
+This peculiarity of the plant it is likely may prove an obstacle to its
+having a place assigned to it in the rotation system.
+</p>
+<p>
+The question now presents itself&mdash;What are the peculiar advantages which
+the crop possesses which should commend it to the notice of the British
+farmer? I shall try to answer the question.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page213" name="page213"></a>[213]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+1st. No green crop (except furze) can be grown in so great a variety of
+soils; except marshy or wet lands, there is no soil in which it refuses
+to grow.
+</p>
+<p>
+2nd. It does not suffer from disease, is very little affected by the
+ravages of insects, is completely beyond the influence of cold, and may
+remain either above or below ground for a long time without undergoing
+any injurious changes in composition.
+</p>
+<p>
+3rd. It gives a good return, when we consider that it requires very
+little manure, and but little labor in its management.
+</p>
+<p>
+At Bechelbronn, the farm of the celebrated Boussingault, the average
+yield is nearly eleven tons per acre, but occasionally over fourteen
+tons is obtained. Donoil, a farmer of Bailiere, in the department of
+Haut-loire, states that he fed sheep exclusively on the tops and tubers
+of this plant, and that he estimated his profits at £23 per hectare
+(£9 3s. 4d. per acre). The soil was very inferior. Donoil terms it
+third-rate, and it does not appear to have been manured even once
+during the fifteen years it was under Jerusalem artichoke. I fear our
+artificial manure manufacturers will hardly look with a favorable eye
+on the advent of a crop into our agriculture which can get on so well
+without the intervention of any fertilising agents. Indeed, several of
+the French writers state that little or no manure is necessary for this
+plant. But this can hardly be the case; for it is evident that a crop
+which, according to Way and Ogston, removes 35 lbs. of mineral matter
+per ton from the soil, or three times as much potash as turnips do, must
+certainly be greatly benefited by the application of manure. And I have
+no doubt but that the Jerusalem artichoke, if well manured and grown
+in moderately fertile soil, would produce a much heavier crop than our
+Continental neighbors appear to get from it.
+</p>
+<p>
+4th. The Jerusalem artichoke may be cultivated with advantage in places
+where ordinary root-crops either fail or thrive badly. In such cases
+the ground should be permanently devoted to this crop. Kade gives an
+instance where a piece of indifferent ground had for thirty-three years
+produced heavy
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page214" name="page214"></a>[214]</span>
+
+               crops of this plant, although during that time neither
+manure nor labor had been applied to it. In Ireland the potato has been
+grown under similar circumstances.
+</p>
+<p>
+The nutritive constituents of tubers of the Jerusalem artichoke bear
+a close resemblance in every respect, save one, to those of the
+potato. Both contain about 75 per cent. of water, about 2 per cent.
+of flesh-forming substances, and 20 per cent. of non-nitrogenous, or
+fat-forming and heat-giving elements. In one respect there is a great
+difference&mdash;namely, that sugar makes up from 8 to 12 per cent. of the
+Jerusalem artichoke, whilst there is but a small proportion of that
+substance in the potato.
+</p>
+<p>
+The large quantity of sugar contained in this root is no doubt the cause
+of its remarkable keeping properties in winter, and it also readily
+accounts for the avidity with which most of the domesticated animals
+eat it.
+</p>
+<p>
+On the whole, then, I think that the facts I have brought forward
+relative to the advantages which the Jerusalem artichoke presents as a
+farm crop, justify the recommendation that it should get a fair trial
+from the British farmer, who is now so much interested in the production
+of suitable forage for stock.
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of dry Jerusalem artichoke">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="2">  COMPOSITION OF (DRY) JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Albuminous matters   </td><td> 4·6 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fatty matters        </td><td> 0·4 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Starch, gum, &amp;c. </td><td>19·8 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Sugar                </td><td>69·5 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fibre and ash        </td><td> 5·7 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>  </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash; </td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                 </td><td>100·0</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Potato</i>, regarded from every point of view, is by far the most
+important of the plants which are cultivated for the sake of their
+roots. Its tubers form the chief&mdash;almost sole&mdash;pabulum of many millions
+of men, enter more or less into the dietary of most civilised peoples,
+and constitute a large proportion of the food of the domesticated
+animals. The great importance of this plant, arising from its enormous
+consumption,
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page215" name="page215"></a>[215]</span>
+
+             has caused its composition to be very minutely studied by
+many British, Continental, and American chemists. With respect to its
+nutritive properties, the least favorable results were obtained by the
+American chemists, Hardy and Henry, and the most by the European
+chemists.
+</p>
+<p>
+The flesh-forming principles vary from 1 per cent., as found by Hardy,
+to 2·41 per cent., the mean results of the analyses of Krocker and
+Horsford. The proportion of starch in different varieties of the potato
+also varies, but not to the same degree as the nitrogenous principles.
+In new potatoes, only 5 per cent. has been found; in ash-leaved kidneys,
+9·50 per cent.; and in different kinds of cups, from 15 to 24 per cent.
+The amount of starch is also influenced by the soil, the manure, the
+climate, and the various other conditions under which the plant is
+developed. The proportion of starch increases during the growth, and
+diminishes during the storage of the tubers.
+</p>
+<p>
+Dr. Anderson is the most recent investigator into the composition of the
+potato; the chief results of his inquiries are given in the following
+table:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of the potato, various (Anderson)">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="7">  ANALYSIS OF THE POTATO BY DR. ANDERSON.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                </td><th>Regents.</th><th>Dalmahoys.</th><th>Skerry-blues.</th><th>White Rocks. </th><th>Orkney Reds.</th><th>Flukes. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                   </td><td>  76·32 </td><td>    75·91 </td><td>    76·60    </td><td> 75·93 </td><td> 78·57 </td><td> 74·41 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Starch                  </td><td>  12·21 </td><td>    12·58 </td><td>    11·79    </td><td> 12·77 </td><td> 10·85 </td><td> 12·55 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Sugar, &amp;c.          </td><td>   2·75 </td><td>     2·93 </td><td>     3·09    </td><td>  2·17 </td><td>  2·78 </td><td>  2·89 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-formers           </td><td>        </td><td>          </td><td>             </td><td>       </td><td>       </td><td>       </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;soluble     </td><td>   2·16 </td><td>     2·10 </td><td>     1·90    </td><td>  1·88 </td><td>  1·48 </td><td>  1·98 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;insoluble   </td><td>   0·21 </td><td>     0·15 </td><td>     0·16    </td><td>  0·24 </td><td>  0·21 </td><td>  0·20 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fibre                   </td><td>   5·53 </td><td>     5·21 </td><td>     5·41    </td><td>  5·55 </td><td>  5·93 </td><td>  6·71 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">  Ash                     </td><td>   0·88 </td><td>     0·81 </td><td>     0·94    </td><td>  1·04 </td><td>  0·98 </td><td>  0·98 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td>                                    </td><td> 100·06 </td><td>    99·69 </td><td>    99·89    </td><td> 99·58 </td><td>100·80 </td><td> 99·72 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The potato is relatively deficient in flesh-forming matters, and contains
+the respiratory elements in exceedingly high proportions; hence it is
+well adapted for fattening purposes, and in this respect is equal to
+double its weight of the best kind of turnips. When used as food for
+man, it should be supplemented by some more fatty or nitrogenous
+substance&mdash;such,
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page216" name="page216"></a>[216]</span>
+
+                 for example, as flesh, oatmeal, or peas. Buttermilk,
+a fluid which is rich in nitrogen, is an excellent supplement to
+potatoes, and compensates to a great extent for the deficiency of those
+tubers in muscle-forming matters. If, then, the potato is destined to
+retain its place as the "national esculent" of the Irish, I trust their
+national beverage may be&mdash;so far at least as the masses of the people
+are concerned&mdash;buttermilk, and <i>not</i> whiskey.
+</p>
+<p>
+Potatoes so far diseased as to be unsuited for use as food for man, may
+be given with advantage to stock. They may be used either in a raw or
+uncooked state, but the latter is the preferable form. Sheep do not like
+them at first, but on being deprived of turnips they acquire a taste
+for them; on a daily allowance, composed of 1 lb. of oil-cake or corn,
+and an unlimited quantity of potatoes, they fatten rapidly. Cattle
+thrive well on a diet composed of equal parts of turnips and diseased
+potatoes, and do not require oil-cake. The evening feed of horses may
+advantageously be composed of potatoes and turnips. If raw, the potatoes
+should be given in a very limited quantity&mdash;four or five pounds; in the
+cooked state, however, they may be given in abundance, but the animals
+should not, after their meal, be permitted to drink water for some
+hours. As a feeding substance, diseased potatoes, unless they be very
+much injured, are equal to twice their weight of white turnips; it is
+certain that they do not injure the health or impair the condition of
+the animals which feed upon them.
+</p>
+<h4>
+SECTION VI.
+</h4>
+<h5>
+SEEDS.
+</h5>
+<p>
+In seeds the elements of nutrition exist not only in the most highly
+elaborated, but also in the most concentrated state; hence their
+nutritive value is greater than that of any other class of food
+substances.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page217" name="page217"></a>[217]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Wheat Grain</i> is the most valuable of seeds, as it contains, in admirably
+adjusted proportions, the bone, the fat, and the muscle-forming
+principles. In the form of bread, it has been, not inaptly, termed the
+"staff of life," for no other grain is so well adapted, <i>per se</i>, for
+the sustenance of man; and many millions of human beings subsist almost
+exclusively on it. The lower animals are in general fed upon the grain
+of oats, of barley, and of the leguminous plants, and the use of wheat
+is almost completely restricted to the human family.
+</p>
+<p>
+Wheat grain, by the processes of grinding and sifting, is resolvable
+into two distinct parts&mdash;bran and flour. In twenty-four analyses made
+by Boussingault, the proportion of the bran was from 13·2 to 38·5
+per cent. and that of the flour from 61·5 to 86·8 per cent. The floury
+part is of very complex structure; it includes starch, gluten, albumen,
+oil, gum, gummo-gelatinous matter, sugar,<sup><a name="noteref-33"><!--33--></a><a href="#note-33">33</a></sup> and various saline matters.
+The gluten and albumen constitute the nitrogenous, or flesh-forming
+principles of flour, and make up from 16 to 20 per cent. of that
+substance; the non-nitrogenous, or fat-forming elements, such as
+starch and gum, form from 74 to 82 per cent. According to Payen, the
+proportion of gluten diminishes towards the centre of the seed, from
+which it follows that the part of the grain nearest the husk is the
+most nutritious&mdash;so far at least as muscle-making is concerned. The
+desire on the part of the public for very white bread has led to the
+<i>fine</i> dressing of Wheat-grain, and consequently to the separation from
+that substance of a very large proportion of one of its most nutritious
+constituents. Crude gluten may be obtained by kneading the dough of
+flour in a muslin bag under a small current of water; the starch, or
+fecula, and the gum, are carried away by the water, and the gluten in
+an impure form remains as an elastic viscous substance, which on drying
+becomes hard and brittle. It is to the gluten of flour that its
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page218" name="page218"></a>[218]</span>
+
+ property
+of panification, or bread-making, is due. On the addition of a ferment,
+a portion of the starch is converted into sugar and carbonic acid gas,
+and the latter causes the gluten to expand into the little cells, or
+vesicles, which confer upon baked bread its light, spongy texture.
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of wheat">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="5">  ANALYSES OF WHEAT.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                                    </td><th>   1.     </th><th>  2.       </th><th> 3.     </th><th>  4. </th></tr>
+<tr><td>                                    </td><th> Whole Grain.   </th><th> Flour.    </th><th>Bran.   </th><th> Husk. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                   </td><td> 15·00    </td><td> 14·0      </td><td> 13     </td><td> 13·9 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-formers           </td><td> 12·00    </td><td> 11·0      </td><td> 14     </td><td> 14·9 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fat-formers             </td><td> 68·50    </td><td> 73·5      </td><td> 55     </td><td> 55·8 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre             </td><td>  2·75    </td><td>  0·7      </td><td> 12     </td><td>  9·7 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter          </td><td>  1·75    </td><td>  0·8      </td><td>  6     </td><td>  5·7 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>                                    </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;    </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;      </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;     </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash; </td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                    </td><td>100·00    </td><td>100·0      </td><td>100     </td><td>100·0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l" colspan="5">  <i>Nos. 1, 2, and 3.&mdash;The mean results of a great number of analyses.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l" colspan="5">  <i>No. 4.&mdash;By</i> <span class="sc">Millon</span>.</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+<i>Over-ripening of Grain.</i>&mdash;The final act of vegetation is the production
+of seed, after the performance of which function many plants, having
+accomplished their destined purpose, perish. The grasses (which include
+the cereals) are <i>annuals</i>, or plants which have but a year's existence,
+consequently their development ceases so soon as they have produced
+their seed. When wheat, oats, and the other cereals, attain to this
+final point in their growth, the circulation of their sap ceases,
+their color changes from green to yellow, and they undergo certain
+changes which destroy their power of assimilating mineral matter, and
+consequently render them no longer capable of increasing their weight.
+</p>
+<p>
+The proper time for cutting wheat and the other cereals is immediately
+after their grain has been fully matured. When the green color of the
+straw just below the ears changes to yellow, the grain, be it ripe or
+unripe at the time, cannot afterwards be more fully developed. This is
+rendered impossible in consequence of the disorganisation of the upper
+part of the stem&mdash;indicated by, but not the result of, its altered
+hue&mdash;which
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page219" name="page219"></a>[219]</span>
+
+           cuts off the supply of sap to the ears, and the latter do
+not possess the power of absorbing nutriment from the air.
+</p>
+<p>
+When the vital processes which are incessantly going on in the growing
+plants are brought to a close, the purely chemical forces come into
+operation. If the seed be perfectly matured and allowed to remain
+ungathered, it is attacked in wet weather by the oxygen of the air, a
+portion of its carbon is burned off, some of its starch is converted
+into sugar, and in extreme cases it germinates and becomes <i>malty</i>.
+But not only is the seed liable to injury from the elements; it is also
+exposed to the ravages of the feathered tribe, and no matter how well
+a field of corn may be watched, or how great the number of <i>scarecrows</i>
+erected in it, there is always a certain diurnal loss, occasioned by the
+ravages of birds.
+</p>
+<p>
+It is not only necessary that ripe corn should be cut as soon as
+possible, but it is sometimes desirable to reap it before it becomes
+fully matured. When the grain is intended for consumption as food, the
+less bran it contains the better. Now the bran, as is well known, forms
+the integument, or covering of the vital constituents of the seed; and
+it is the last part of the organ to be perfected. The growth of the
+seed for several days before its perfect development, is confined to
+the <i>testa</i> or covering. Now as this is the least valuable part of the
+article, its increase is matter of but little moment; and when it is
+excessive it renders the grain less valuable in the eyes of the miller.
+That the cutting of the grain before it is perfectly ripe is attended
+with a good result, is clearly proved by the results of an experiment
+recorded in Johnston's "Agricultural Chemistry." A crop of wheat was
+selected; one-third was cut twenty days before it was ripe; another
+third ten days afterwards; and the remaining portion when its grain had
+been fully matured. The relative produce in grain of the three portions
+taken, as stated above, was as 1, 1·325, and 1·260. The following table
+exhibits the relative proportions of their constituents:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page220" name="page220"></a>[220]</span></p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Relative proportions of wheat parts at various harvest times">
+
+<tr><td></td><th colspan="3">In 100 parts of the grain cut at</th></tr>
+<tr><td></td><th>20 days.  </th><th>10 days.   </th><th>Dead ripe. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Flour                          </td><td>  74·7    </td><td>  79·1     </td><td>   72·2 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Sharps                         </td><td>   7·2    </td><td>   5·5     </td><td>   11·0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Bran                           </td><td>  17·5    </td><td>  13·2     </td><td>   16·0 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>  &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;    </td><td>  &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;     </td><td>   &mdash;&mdash;&mdash; </td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                           </td><td>  99·4    </td><td>  97·8     </td><td>   99·2 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  The flour contained gluten     </td><td>   9·3    </td><td>   9·9     </td><td>    9·6 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The results of this experiment, and of the general experience of
+intelligent growers, show that grain cut a week or ten days before it is
+perfectly ripe contains more flour, and of a better quality, too, than
+is found in either ripe or very unripe seed. But this is not the only
+advantage, for the straw of the green, or rather of the greenish-yellow
+corn, is fully twice as valuable for feeding purposes as that of the
+over-ripe cereals. There is an extraordinary decrease in the amount
+of the albuminous constituents of the stems of the cereals during the
+last two or three weeks of their maturation, and as there is not a
+corresponding increase of those materials in the seed, they must be
+evolved in some form or other from the plants.
+</p>
+<p>
+There can be only one object attained by allowing the seed to fully
+ripen itself, and that is the insurance of its more perfect adaptability
+to the purpose of reproduction. When the <i>testa</i> is thick it best
+protects the germ of the future plant enclosed in it from the ordinary
+atmospheric influences until it is placed under the proper conditions
+for its germination.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Wheat, a costly food.</i>&mdash;It occasionally happens that the wheat harvest
+is so abundant, that many feeders give large quantities of this grain to
+their stock. Now, as Indian corn is at least 25 per cent. cheaper than
+wheat, even when the price of the latter is at its <i>minimum</i>, I believe
+that it is always more economical to sell the wheat raised on the farm,
+and to purchase with the proceeds of its sale an equivalent of Indian
+corn, which is a more fattening kind of food.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Bran</i> is, with perhaps the exception of malt-dust, the most nutritious
+of the refuse portions of grains. It is usually given to horses, and
+owing to its high proportion of nitrogen, is,
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page221" name="page221"></a>[221]</span>
+
+                                              perhaps, better expended
+in the bodies of those hard-working animals, than in those of pigs and
+cows&mdash;animals that occasionally come in for a share of this valuable
+feeding-stuff. It should be borne in mind that bran commonly acts as
+a slight laxative, and that it is less digestible than flour, a large
+portion of it usually passing through the animal's body unchanged.
+This drawback to the use of bran may be obviated by either cooking or
+fermenting the article, or by combining it with beans or some other
+kind of binding food.
+</p>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Average analyses of various grains">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="9">  AVERAGE ANALYSES OF GRAIN.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                 </td><th>Barley.</th><th>Bere.</th><th>Oats.</th><th>Oatmeal.</th><th>Indian Corn.</th><th>Rice.</th><th>Rye (Irish).</th><th>Buckwheat.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water          </td><td> 16·0 </td><td> 14·25</td><td> 14·0 </td><td> 13·00 </td><td> 14·5 </td><td> 14·0  </td><td> 16·0 </td><td> 14·19 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-formers  </td><td> 10·5 </td><td> 10·10</td><td> 11·5 </td><td> 16·00 </td><td> 10·0 </td><td>  5·3  </td><td>  9·0 </td><td>  8·58 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fat-formers    </td><td> 67·0 </td><td> 64·60</td><td> 64·5 </td><td> 68·00 </td><td> 69·0 </td><td> 78·5  </td><td> 66·0 </td><td> 51·91 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre    </td><td>  3·5 </td><td>  9·03</td><td>  7·0 </td><td>  1·75 </td><td>  5·0 </td><td>  2·5  </td><td>  8·0 </td><td> 23·12 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">  Mineral matter </td><td>  3·0 </td><td>  2·02</td><td>  3·0 </td><td>  1·25 </td><td>  1·5 </td><td>  0·7  </td><td>  1·0 </td><td>  2·20 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td>                 </td><td>100·0 </td><td>100·00</td><td>100·0 </td><td>100·00 </td><td>100·0 </td><td>100·0  </td><td>100·0 </td><td>100·00 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+<i>Barley</i> is inferior in composition to wheat. As a feeding stuff, the
+English farmers assign to it a higher, and the Scotch farmers a lower,
+place than oats, which, perhaps, merely proves that in Scotland the oat
+thrives better than the barley, and in England the barley better than
+the oat. Barley-meal is extensively used by the English feeders, and
+with excellent results. Where <i>barley-dust</i> can be obtained it is a far
+cheaper feeding stuff than the meal. Barley husks should never be given
+to animals unless in a cooked or fermented state.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Oat Grain</i> is, perhaps, the most valuable of the concentrated foods
+which are given to fattening stock. When it is cheap it will be found
+a more economical feeding stuff than linseed-cake, and, unlike that
+substance, can be used without the fear of adulteration. Oats are equal
+to wheat in their amount of flesh-forming matters; but their very high
+proportion of indigestible woody fibre detracts from their nutritive
+value. Oat-meal is more nutritious than wheat-meal; and oat-flour,
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page222" name="page222"></a>[222]</span>
+
+ especially if finely dressed, greatly excels wheat-flour in its
+nutrimental properties, because, unlike the latter, the finer it is the
+greater is its amount of flesh-formers. Bread made of oat-flour is very
+heavy, and is far less palatable than the bread of wheat. Oat-meal has
+been found to contain nearly 20 per cent. of nitrogenous matters. The
+white oat is more nutritious than the black, and the greatest amount of
+aliment is found in the grain which has not been allowed to over-ripen
+in the field. Oat husk is very inferior to the bran of wheat. Toppings
+are seldom worth the price at which they are sold.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Indian Corn</i> has been highly extolled as a fattening food for stock,
+and its chemical composition would seem to justify the high opinion
+which practical men have formed of its relative nutritive value. In the
+United States, the feeding of horses on Indian corn and hay has been
+found very successful; but in these countries oats will be found a more
+economical food. For fattening purposes Indian corn appears exceedingly
+well adapted, as it contains more ready-formed fat&mdash;4·5 per cent.&mdash;than
+is found in most of the other grains, and, on an average, 70 per cent.
+of starch. Pigs thrive well on this grain. The Galatz round yellow grain
+is somewhat superior to the American flat yellow seed.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Rye</i> is not extensively cultivated in this country, but on the
+Continent it is raised in large quantities. In the north of Europe
+it forms a considerable proportion of the food of both man and the
+domesticated animals. In Holland it is commonly consumed by horses, but
+in England there has always been a prejudice against the use of this
+grain as food for the equine tribe. It has been highly recommended for
+dairy stock, five pounds of rye-meal, with a sufficiency of cut straw,
+constituting, it is stated, a dietary on which cows yield a maximum
+supply of milk. Irish-grown rye contains less starch, and more
+flesh-formers and oil, than the Black Sea grain.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Rice</i>, although it forms the chief pabulum of nearly one-third of
+the human family, is the least nutritious of the common food grains.
+Rice-dust, an article obtained in cleaning rice
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page223" name="page223"></a>[223]</span>
+
+                                                for European consumption,
+is said to promote the flow of milk when given to cows. It is sold in
+large quantities in Liverpool, where, according to Voelcker, it often
+commands a higher price than it is worth.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Buckwheat</i> is chiefly used as a food for game and poultry.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Malted Corn.</i>&mdash;During a late session of Parliament a Bill was passed to
+exempt from duty malt intended to be used as food for cattle. As feeders
+may now become their own maltsters, it may be of some use to them to
+have here a <i>résumé</i> of this Bill:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    1. Any person giving security and taking out a licence may make
+    malt in a malt-house approved by the Excise for the purpose; and
+    all malt so made and mixed with linseed-cake or linseed-meal as
+    directed, shall be free from duty.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    2. The security required is a bond to Her Majesty, with sureties
+    to the satisfaction of the Excise, not to take from any such
+    malt-house any malt except duly mixed with material prescribed
+    by the Act.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    3. The malt-house must be properly named upon its door.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    4. All malt made in it shall be deposited in a store-room, and
+    shall be conveyed to and from the room upon such notice as the
+    officer of Excise shall appoint.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    5. The maltster shall provide secure rooms in his malt-house,
+    to be approved in writing by the supervisor, for grinding the
+    malt made by him in such malt-house, and mixing and storing the
+    same when mixed; and all such rooms shall be properly secured
+    and kept locked by the proper officer of Excise.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    6. All malt before removal from the malt-house shall be ground
+    and thoroughly mixed with one-tenth part at least of its weight
+    of ground linseed-cake or linseed-meal, and ground to such a
+    degree of fineness and in such manner as the commissioners shall
+    approve, and mixed together in a quantity not less than forty
+    bushels at a time in the presence of an officer of Excise.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    7. The maltster shall keep account of the quantity of all malt
+    mixed as aforesaid which he shall from time to time send out or
+    deliver from his malt-house, with the dates and addresses of the
+    person for whom such mixed malt shall be so sent or delivered.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    8. If any person shall attempt to separate any malt from any
+    material with which the same shall have been mixed as aforesaid,
+    or shall use this malt for the brewing of beer or distilling of
+    spirits, he shall forfeit the sum of £200.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    9 and 10. The penalties of existing Acts are recited.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    11. This Act shall continue and be in force for five years.
+</p>
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page224" name="page224"></a>[224]</span>
+</p>
+<p>
+Some samples of malt and barley examined in May, 1865, by Dr. Voelcker
+for the Central Anti-Malt Tax Association, afforded the following
+results:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" width="90%" summary="Analyses of malt and barley" style="border-top: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
+
+<tr class="b1"><td rowspan="2">               </td><th rowspan="2">Barley marked<br /> No. 1 </th><th colspan="5">Malt marked </th></tr>
+<tr>                                                      <th> No. 5.</th><th> No. 7.</th><th> No. 9.</th><th>No. 14.</th><th>No. 16.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Moisture                 </td><td>  11·76  </td><td> 8·72  </td><td> 7·43  </td><td> 7·76  </td><td>  8·35</td><td>   7·06 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Sugar                    </td><td>   3·75  </td><td> 4·29  </td><td> 5·48  </td><td> 7·85  </td><td>  9·46</td><td>   9·86 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Starch and dextrine      </td><td>  70·40  </td><td>71·03  </td><td>69·70  </td><td>67·57  </td><td> 67·53</td><td>  67·67 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  <b>*</b> Albuminous compounds
+            (flesh-forming matters)</td><td>   7·75  </td><td> 8·44  </td><td> 8·81  </td><td> 9·37  </td><td>  8·60</td><td>   8·31 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre (cellular)   </td><td>   4·46  </td><td> 5·22  </td><td> 6·38  </td><td> 5·38  </td><td>  4·14</td><td>   5·11 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">  Mineral matter (ash)     </td><td>   1·88  </td><td> 2·30  </td><td> 2·20  </td><td> 2·07  </td><td>  1·92</td><td>   1·99 </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">                           </td><td> 100·00  </td><td> 100·00</td><td> 100·00</td><td> 100·00</td><td>100·00</td><td> 100·00 </td></tr>
+<tr class="tiny"><td class="l">  <b>*</b> Containing nitrogen  </td><td>   1·24  </td><td> 1·35  </td><td> 1·41  </td><td> 1·50  </td><td>  1·38</td><td>   1·33 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+A great deal has been said and written in favor of malt as a feeding
+stuff, but I greatly doubt its alleged decided superiority over barley;
+and until the results of accurately conducted comparative experiments
+made with those articles incontestably prove that superiority, I think
+it is somewhat a waste of nutriment to convert barley into malt for
+feeding purposes. The gentlemen who verbally, or in writing, refer
+so favorably to malt, acknowledge, with one or two exceptions, that
+their experience of the article is limited. Mr. John Hudson, of
+Brandon, states that he made a comparative experiment, the results
+of which proved the superiority of malt. But, in fact, the only
+properly-conducted experiments to determine the relative values of malt
+and barley were those made some years ago by Dr. Thompson, of Glasgow,
+by the direction of the Government, and those recently performed by Mr.
+Lawes, both producing results unfavorable to the malt. The issue of Dr.
+Thompson's investigations proved that milch cows fed on barley yielded
+more milk and butter than when supplied with an equal weight of malt.
+</p>
+<p>
+I do not deny the probability that malt, owing to its agreeable flavor
+and easy solubility, may be a somewhat better
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page225" name="page225"></a>[225]</span>
+
+                                              feeding stuff than barley;
+and that, weight for weight, it may produce a somewhat greater increase
+in the weight of the animals fed upon it: but although a pound-weight of
+malt may be better than a pound-weight of barley, I am quite satisfied
+that a pound's worth of barley will put up more flesh than a pound's
+worth of malt. Barley-seeds consist of water, starch, nitrogenous
+substances&mdash;such as gluten and albumen&mdash;fatty substances, and saline
+matter. The amount of starch is considerable, being sometimes about
+70 per cent. In the process of malting (which is simply the germination
+of the seed under peculiar conditions), a portion of the starch is
+converted into sugar and gum, the grain increases in size and becomes
+friable when dried, and the internal structure of the seed is completely
+broken up. During these changes a partial decomposition of the solid
+matter of the seeds takes place, and a large amount of nutriment is
+dissipated, chiefly in the form of carbonic acid gas. From the results
+of the experience of the maltster, and of special experiments made by
+scientific men, it would appear that a ton of barley will produce only
+16 cwt. of malt. Allowance must, however, be made for the difference
+between the amount of water contained in barley and in malt, the latter
+being much drier. According to Mr. E. Holden, the centesimal loss
+sustained in malting may be stated thus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Centesimal loss in malting (Holden)">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                                                   </td><td> 6·00 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Organic matter                                          </td><td>12·52 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Saline matter                                           </td><td> 0·48 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>                                                          &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                          </td><td>100·00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Thompson<sup><a name="noteref-34"><!--34--></a><a href="#note-34">34</a></sup> sets down the loss of nutriment (exclusive of that
+occasioned by kiln-drying), as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Centesimal loss in malting (Thomspon)">
+<tr><td class="l">  Carried off by the steep    </td><td>1·5 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Dissipated on the floor     </td><td>3·0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Roots separated by cleaning </td><td>3·0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Waste                       </td><td>0·5 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td>        <td> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                         </td><td>8·0</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page226" name="page226"></a>[226]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+We may say, then, that by the malting of barley we lose at least 2&frac12;
+cwt. of solid nutriment out of every ton of the article, and this loss
+falls heaviest on the nitrogenous, or flesh-forming constituents of
+the grain. When there are added to this loss the expense of carting
+the grain to and from the malt-house, and the maltster's charge for
+operating upon it (I presume in this case that the feeder is not his own
+maltster), it will be found that two tons of malt will cost the farmer
+nearly as much as three tons of barley; and he will then have to solve
+the problem&mdash;<i>Whether or not malt is 40 or 50 per cent. more valuable
+as a feeding-stuff than barley</i>.
+</p>
+<p>
+The difference in value between barley and malt is generally 14s. per
+barrel; but it is sometimes more or less, according to the supply and
+demand. Barley, well malted, will lose on the average 25 per cent. of
+its weight, the loss depending, to some extent, upon the degree to which
+the process is carried, and on the germinating properties of the barley.
+Barley malted for roasters ought not to lose more than 21 per cent. of
+its original weight&mdash;53 lbs. to the barrel. The heavier the barley the
+less it loses in malting; a barrel of 224 lbs., and value from 15s. to
+16s., ought to produce a barrel of malt of 196 lbs., value 29s. to 30s.
+</p>
+<p>
+If we deduct from the cost of a barrel of malt the amount of duty at
+present levyable upon it, the price of the article will be still nearly
+50 per cent. greater than that of an equal weight of barley. The cheaper
+barley is the greater will be the relative cost of malt. The maltster's
+charge for converting a barrel of barley into malt is about 4s.; so
+that if the price of the grain be so low as 12s. per barrel, which it
+sometimes is, the cost of malting it would amount to 33 per cent. of its
+price. Then, the diminution in the weight of, and the cost of carting
+the grain, must be taken into account; and when the whole expense
+attendant upon the process of malting is ascertained, it will be found
+that I have not exaggerated in stating that a ton of malt costs as much
+as a ton and a half of barley.
+</p>
+<p>
+If the consumer of malt germinate the seeds himself, he
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page227" name="page227"></a>[227]</span>
+
+                                                        may probably,
+if he require large quantities of the article, produce it at a somewhat
+cheaper rate than if he bought it from the maltster; but few persons who
+have the slightest knowledge of the vexatious restrictions of the Inland
+Revenue authorities would be likely to place his premises under the
+<i>espionage</i> of an excise officer.
+</p>
+<p>
+As the superiority of malt over barley (if such be really the case) must
+be chiefly due to the looseness of its texture, which allows the juices
+of the stomach to act readily upon it, barley in a cooked state might be
+found quite as nutritious: It would not be fair to institute comparisons
+between dense hard barley-seeds and the easily soluble malted grains.
+During the cooking of barley a portion of the starch is changed into
+sugar, but in this case with only an inappreciable waste of nutriment.
+When the cooking process is continued for a few hours, a considerable
+amount of sugar is formed, and the barley acquires a very sweet flavor.
+</p>
+<p>
+When the malt for cattle question was under discussion, I made a little
+experiment in relation to it, the results of which are perhaps of
+sufficient interest to mention:&mdash;Two pounds weight of barley-meal were
+moistened with warm water; after standing for three hours more water was
+added, and sufficient heat applied to cause the fluid to boil. After
+fifteen minutes' ebullition, a few ounces of the pasty-like mass which
+was produced were removed, thoroughly dried, and on being submitted
+to analysis yielded six per cent. of sugar. The addition of a small
+quantity of malt to barley undergoing the process of cooking will
+rapidly convert the starch into sugar.
+</p>
+<p>
+Barley is naturally a well-flavored grain, and all kinds of stock eat
+it with avidity. It may be rendered still more agreeable if properly
+cooked, and this process will, by disintegrating its hard, fibrous
+structure, set free its stores of nutriment. I incline strongly to
+the opinion that barley, when well boiled, is almost, if not quite,
+as digestible as malt.
+</p>
+<p>
+A serious disadvantage in the use of malt is, that it must be consumed,
+it is said, in combination with 10 per cent. of
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page228" name="page228"></a>[228]</span>
+
+                                                its weight of linseed-meal
+or cake. Now, malt is a very laxative food, and so is linseed; and if
+the diet of stock were largely made up of these articles the animals
+would, sooner or later, suffer from diarrh&oelig;a. In such case, then,
+the addition of bean-meal, or of some other binding food, would become
+necessary, and the compound of malt, linseed, and bean-meal thereby
+formed would certainly prove anything but an economical diet.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Malt Combs.</i>&mdash;I should mention that a portion of the nutriment which
+the barley loses in malting passes into the radicles, or young roots,
+which project from the seeds, and are technically known by the term
+"combs," "combings," or "dust." At present these combs are separated
+from the malt, but if the latter be intended for feeding purposes this
+separation is unnecessary, and in such case the barley will not be so
+much deteriorated. The combs, which constitute about 4 per cent. of the
+weight of the malt, are sometimes employed as a feeding stuff. I have
+made an analysis of malt-combings for the County of Kildare Agricultural
+Society, and have obtained the following results:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of malt combings">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="2">  100 PARTS CONTAINED&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                                                   </td><td> 8·42 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  <b>*</b> Flesh-forming (albuminous) substances          </td><td>21·50 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Digestible fat-forming substances (starch, sugar,
+            gum, &amp;c.)                                         </td><td>53·47 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Indigestible woody fibre                                </td><td> 8·57 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  <b>&dagger;</b> Saline matter (ash)                     </td><td> 8·04 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                           </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                          </td><td>100·00</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="tiny"><td class="l"><b>*</b> Yielding nitrogen                   </td><td> 3·44 </td></tr>
+<tr class="tiny"><td class="l"><b>&dagger;</b> Containing potash            </td><td> 1·35 </td></tr>
+<tr class="tiny"><td class="l">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Containing phosphoric acid </td><td> 1·74 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+This article was sold as a manure at £3 6s. per ton&mdash;a sum for which it
+was not good value; but as a feeding substance it was probably worth £4
+or £5 per ton. Its composition indicates a high nutritive power; but it
+is probable that its nitrogenous matters are partly in a low degree of
+elaboration, which greatly detracts from its alimental value.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page229" name="page229"></a>[229]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+In conclusion, then, I would urge the following points upon the
+attention of the farmer:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p>
+1st. Before using malt for feeding purposes, wait until you learn the
+general results of the experience of other farmers with that article.
+The manufacture of malt for feeding purposes is rapidly on the decline,
+instead of, as had been anticipated, on the increase.
+</p>
+<p>
+2nd. Should you experiment with barley and malt, use equal money's worth
+of each, and employ the barley in a cooked state.
+</p>
+<p>
+3rd. Use malt-combings as a feeding stuff, and not as a manure. They are
+good value for at least £3 10s. per ton.
+</p>
+<p>
+4th. Bear in mind that a ton of barley contains more saline matter than
+an equal weight of malt; consequently, that stock fed upon barley will
+produce a manure richer in potash and phosphates than those supplied
+with malt.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Leguminous Seeds.</i>&mdash;The seeds of the bean, of the pea, and of several
+other leguminous plants, are largely made use of as food for both man
+and the domesticated animals. They all closely resemble each other in
+composition, but in that respect differ considerably from the grains of
+the <i>Cerealiæ</i>, for whilst the latter contain on an average 12 per cent.
+of flesh-formers, beans and peas contain 24 per cent. The flesh-forming
+constituent of the leguminous seeds is not gluten, as in the grain
+of the cereals, but a substance termed <i>legumin</i>, which so closely
+resembles the cheesy matter of milk that it has also received the name
+of <i>vegetable casein</i>. Indeed, the Chinese make a factitious cheese out
+of peas, which it is difficult to discriminate from the article of
+animal origin.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Beans</i> are used as fattening food for cattle, for which purpose they
+should be ground into meal, as otherwise a large proportion of their
+substance would pass through the animal's body unchanged. It is not good
+economy to give a fattening bullock more than 3 or 4 lbs. weight per
+diem; a larger proportion is apt to induce constipation. The very small
+proportion of ready-formed fat, the moderate amount of starch,
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page230" name="page230"></a>[230]</span>
+
+ and the
+exceedingly high per-centage of flesh-formers which beans contain, prove
+that they are better adapted as food for beasts of burthen than for the
+fattening of stock. Oats, Indian corn, or oil-cake, will be found to
+produce a greater increase of meat than equal money's worth of beans
+or peas, and I would therefore recommend the restriction of leguminous
+seeds, under ordinary circumstances, to horses and bulls. It has been
+stated, on good authority, that when oats are given whole to horses,
+a large proportion passes unchanged through the animal's body, but that
+on the addition of beans, the oats are thoroughly digested.
+</p>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of leguminous seeds">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="6">  COMPOSITION OF LEGUMINOUS SEEDS.</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr class="b1"><td>                       </td><th>Common<br /> Beans.</th><th>Foreign<br /> Beans.</th><th> Peas.</th><th>Lentils.</th><th> Winter Tares<br /> (foreign).</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                </td><td> 13·0 </td><td>  14·5  </td><td> 14·0 </td><td>   13·0 </td><td>   15·5 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-formers        </td><td> 25·5 </td><td>  23·0  </td><td> 23·5 </td><td>   24·0 </td><td>   26·5 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fat-formers          </td><td> 48·5 </td><td>  48·7  </td><td> 50·0 </td><td>   50·5 </td><td>   47·5 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre          </td><td> 10·0 </td><td>  10·0  </td><td> 10·0 </td><td>   10·0 </td><td>    9·0 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">  Mineral matter       </td><td>  3·0 </td><td>   3·8  </td><td>  2·5 </td><td>    2·5 </td><td>    1·5 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td>                                 </td><td>100·0 </td><td> 100·0  </td><td>100·0 </td><td>  100·0 </td><td>  100·0 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+<i>Oil Seeds.</i>&mdash;The seeds of a great variety of plants, such as the flax,
+hemp, rape, mustard, cotton, and sunflower, are exceedingly rich in oil,
+some of them containing nearly half their weight of that substance. Of
+these oil-seeds there are many which might with advantage be employed as
+fattening, food, although one only&mdash;linseed&mdash;has come into general use
+for that purpose.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Rape-seeds</i> closely resemble linseeds in composition, but they are
+considerably cheaper. They contain an acrid substance, but the large
+proportion of oil with which it is associated almost completely
+disguises its unpleasant flavor.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Linseed</i> is one of the most valuable kinds of food which could be given
+to fattening animals. Its exceedingly high proportion of ready-formed
+fatty matter, the great comparative
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page231" name="page231"></a>[231]</span>
+
+                                    solubility of its constituents, and
+its mild and agreeable flavor, constitute it an article superior to
+linseed cake. The laxative properties of linseed are very decided; it
+should therefore be given only in moderate quantities. As peas and
+beans exercise, as I have already stated, a relaxing influence upon
+the bowels, a mixture of linseed and peas or beans would be an
+excellent compound, the laxative influence of the one being corrected
+by the binding tendency of the other. Linseed being one of the most
+concentrated feeding stuffs in use, it will be found an excellent
+addition to bulky food, such as chaff and turnips. Linseed oil has
+been used as a fattening food, but there is nothing to be gained by
+expressing seeds for the purpose of using their oil as a feeding
+material. When hay is scarce, and straw abundant, the latter may be
+made almost as nutritious as the former by mixing it with linseed, and
+steaming the compound. A stone of linseed and two cwt. of oat-straw
+chaff, when properly cooked, constitute a most economical and
+nutritious food.
+</p>
+<p>
+Mr. Horne, who experimented with linseed two or three years ago,
+obtained results highly favorable to the nutritive value of that
+article. Six bullocks were selected, and each animal placed in a
+separate box. They were fed with cut roots&mdash;at first Swedes, then
+mangels and Swedes, and lastly, mangels alone: in addition, there were
+supplied to each 6 lbs. rough meadow-hay reduced to chaff, and 5 lbs.
+oil-cake, or value to that amount. They were divided into three lots,
+two in each. Lot 1 had 5 lbs. oil-cake for each animal; lot 2, barley
+and wheat-meal, equal in value to the 5 lbs. oil-cake; and lot 3, an
+equal money's worth of bruised linseed. The oil-cake cost £10 16s. per
+ton, the mixture of barley and wheat £8 15s. per ton, and the bruised
+linseed £13 per ton. The experiment lasted 112 days, and at its close
+the results, which proved very favorable to the bruised linseed, were
+as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Increase in live weights of bullocks raised on various feeds">
+
+<tr><td>                                                    </td><th>Increase in<br /> live weight.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Lot 1. Oil-cake                                      </td><td class="c">637 lbs. </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Lot 2. Wheat and barley meal                         </td><td class="c">667 lbs. </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Lot 3. Bruised linseed                               </td><td class="c">718 lbs. </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page232" name="page232"></a>[232]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+During the 112 days each bullock consumed 5 cwt. oil-cake (or an
+equivalent amount of linseed or wheat and barley), 6 cwt. hay, and
+90 cwt. of roots. The average increase in each animal's weight was
+337 lbs. = 224 lbs. <i>dead</i> weight. The economic features of this
+experiment are best shown in the following figures:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Amounts and cost of feeds">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="4">  FOOD CONSUMED.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                         </td><th> £ </th><th>s. </th><th>d.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   5 cwt. oil-cake, at 10s. 6d. per cwt.       </td><td> 2 </td><td>12 </td><td>6 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   6 cwt. hay, at 3s. per cwt.                 </td><td> 0 </td><td>18 </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  16 weeks' attendance, at 6d. per week        </td><td> 0 </td><td> 8 </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td colspan="3"> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                         </td><td>£3 </td><td>18 </td><td>6 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td colspan="3"> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Gained 16 stones per week, at 8s. per stone  </td><td> 6 </td><td>8  </td><td>0 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td colspan="3"> &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Balance to pay for 90 cwt. of roots          </td><td> 2 </td><td>9  </td><td>6 </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>
+The manure obtained afforded a good profit.
+</p>
+<p>
+The seed-pods, or, as they are termed, the <i>bolls</i> of the flax,
+have been recommended as an excellent feeding stuff. They are not
+so nutritious as linseed, but they are cheaper, and when produced
+on the farm must be an economical food. Mr. Charley, an intelligent
+stock-feeder in the county of Antrim, and an eminent authority in every
+subject in relation to flax, strongly recommends the use of flax-bolls.
+He says:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    The cost of rippling is considerable; but I believe, for
+    every £1 expended, on an average a return is realised of £2,
+    particularly on a farmstead where many horses and cattle are
+    regularly kept. The flax-bolls contain much more nourishment
+    than the linseed-cake from which the oil has, of course, been
+    expressed, and they form a most valuable addition to the warm
+    food prepared during winter for the animals just named. I believe
+    they have also a highly beneficial effect in warding off internal
+    disease, owing, no doubt, to the soothing and slightly purgative
+    properties of the oil contained in the seed. The change made in
+    the appearance of the animals receiving some of the bolls in their
+    steamed food is very apparent after a few weeks' trial; and the
+    smoothness and sleekness of their shining coats plainly show the
+    benefit derived. Is it not surprising, with this fact before our
+    eyes, that many agriculturists&mdash;indeed, I fear the majority&mdash;persist
+    in the old-fashioned system of taking the flax to a watering-place
+    with its valuable freight of seed unremoved, and plunge the sheaves
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page233" name="page233"></a>[233]</span>
+
+    under water, losing thereby, <i>in the most wanton manner</i>, rich
+    feeding materials, worth from £1 to £3 per statute acre?
+</p>
+<p>
+In the following table, the composition of all the more important
+oil-seeds is given:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of oil-seeds (Anderson)">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="5">  COMPOSITION OF OIL-SEEDS, ACCORDING TO DR. ANDERSON.</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td>                                       </td><th> Linseed. </th><th> Rape-seed. </th><th> Hemp-seed. </th><th> Cotton-seed (decorticated).</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                      </td><td>   7·50   </td><td>  7·13    </td><td>   6·47 </td><td>     6·57 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Oil                        </td><td>  34·00   </td><td> 36·81    </td><td>  31·84 </td><td>    31·24 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Albuminous compounds
+            (Flesh-formers)          </td><td>  24·44   </td><td> 21·50    </td><td>  22·60 </td><td>    31·86 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Gum, mucilage, sugar, &amp;c.</td><td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%">}</span>30·73   </td><td> 18·73    </td><td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%">}</span>32·72 </td><td>    14·12 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody-fibre                </td>                   <td>  6·86    </td>                 <td>     7·30 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">  Mineral matter (ash)       </td><td>   3·33   </td><td>  8·97    </td><td>   6·37 </td><td>     8·91 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td>                            </td><td> 100·00   </td><td>100·00    </td><td> 100·00 </td><td>   100·00 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+<i>Fenugreek-seed</i> is used very extensively in the preparation of
+"Condimental food." It is often given to horses out of condition.
+Sheep have been liberally supplied with this food, which, however,
+it is stated, communicates a disagreeable flavor to the mutton.
+It contains, according to Voelcker, the following:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of Fenugreek-seed (Voelcker)">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                   </td><td>11·994 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-formers           </td><td>26·665 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Starch, gum, and pectin </td><td>37·111 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Sugar                   </td><td> 2·220 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fatty and oily matters  </td><td> 8·320 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre             </td><td>10·820 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Inorganic matter        </td><td> 2·870 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>        </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                    </td><td>100·000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<h4>
+SECTION VII.
+</h4>
+<h5>
+OIL-CAKES, AND OTHER ARTIFICIAL FOODS.
+</h5>
+<p>
+Oil-seeds, on being subjected to considerable pressure, part with
+a large proportion of their oil, the remaining part of that fluid,
+together with the various other ingredients of the seeds,
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page234" name="page234"></a>[234]</span>
+
+ constitute
+the substances so well known to agriculturists under the name of
+oil-cakes. These cakes contain a larger proportion of ready-formed
+fatty matter than is found in any other feeding stuff, and an amount
+of flesh-forming principles far greater than that yielded by corn,
+or even by beans; the manure, too, which is produced by the cattle fed
+upon some of them, is often good value for nearly half the sum expended
+on the food.
+</p>
+<p>
+The principal kinds of oil-cake employed for feeding purposes are the
+following:&mdash;Linseed-cake, Rape-cake, and cotton-seed cake. Poppy cake is
+not much in use. Their average composition, deduced from the results of
+numerous analyses made by Voelcker, Anderson, and myself, are shown in
+the following table:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Average composition of oil-cakes">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="5">  AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF OIL-CAKES.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                              </td><th>Linseed Cake,<br /> English. </th><th>Rape<br /> Cake. </th><th>Decorticated<br /> Cottonseed Cake.</th><th> Poppy<br /> Cake.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                       </td><td>   12    </td><td>  11 </td><td>       9    </td><td>   12 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Flesh-forming principles    </td><td>   28    </td><td>  30 </td><td>      38    </td><td>   32 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Oil                         </td><td>   10    </td><td>  11 </td><td>      13    </td><td>    6 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Gum, mucilage, &amp;c.          </td><td>   34    </td><td>  30 </td><td>      23    </td><td>   30 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre                 </td><td>   10    </td><td>  10 </td><td>       9    </td><td>    9 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">  Mineral matter (ash)        </td><td>    6    </td><td>   8 </td><td>       8    </td><td>    1 </td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td>                             </td><td>  100    </td><td> 100 </td><td>     100    </td><td>  100 </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+<i>Linseed Cake.</i>&mdash;Within the last quarter of a century great attention
+has been given to the feeding of stock, and the effects are observable
+in the improved quality and greatly increased weight of the animals.
+In the year 1839 the average weight of the horned beasts from Ireland
+sold in the London market was only 650 lbs., whereas at the present
+time their average weight is about 740 lbs. This remarkable advance
+in the production of meat is in great part due to the cattle being more
+liberally supplied with food, and that, too, of a more concentrated
+nature. The practice of feeding
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page235" name="page235"></a>[235]</span>
+
+                                animals destined for the shambles
+exclusively on roots containing 90 and even 95 per cent. of water, which
+once prevailed so generally in this country, is now limited to the
+farmsteads of a few old-fashioned feeders; and the necessity for the
+admixture of highly-nutritious aliment with the bulky substances which
+form the staple food of stock is almost universally recognised.
+</p>
+<p>
+Of concentrated foods used for fattening stock, none stands higher in
+the estimation of the farmer than linseed-cake, although it appears to
+me that the price of the article is somewhat too high in relation to
+its amount of nutriment, and that corn, if its price be moderate, is
+a more economical food. Straw, turnips, and mangels form the bone and
+sinew of the animals, and enable them to carry on the vital operations
+which are essential to their existence. Oil-cake and similar foods are
+supplemental, and contribute directly to the animal's increase, so that
+their nutritive value appears to be greater than it really is. If an
+animal were fed exclusively upon oil-cake, the greater part of it would
+be appropriated to the reparation of the waste of the body, and the rest
+would be converted into permanent flesh&mdash;the animal's "increase." The
+addition of straw would produce a still further increase in the animal's
+weight&mdash;an increase which would be directly proportionate to the amount
+of straw consumed. Thus it will be seen that, whatever the staple food
+may be, it will have to sustain the life of the animal, and will be
+principally expended for that purpose, whereas the supplemental food
+will be chiefly, if not entirely, made use of in increasing the weight
+of flesh. To me it appears manifestly incorrect to consider, as feeders
+practically do, the value of linseed-cake to be seven or eight times
+greater than that of oat-straw, and twenty times greater than that of
+roots. Let us assume the case of an animal fed upon roots, straw, and
+oil-cake. Seventy-five per cent. of its food, say, is expended in
+repairing the waste of its body, and 25 per cent. is stored up in its
+increase. Now, if the three kinds of food contributed proportionately
+to the reparation of
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page236" name="page236"></a>[236]</span>
+
+                     the body and to its increase, the roots and straw
+would be found to possess a far higher nutritive value, in relation to
+the oil-cake, than is usually ascribed to them.
+</p>
+<p>
+But it may be asked why straw, if it be relatively a much more
+economical feeding stuff than oil-cake, is not employed to the complete
+exclusion of the latter. I have already given an answer to such a
+question, namely, that animals thrive better on a diet composed partly
+of bulky, partly of concentrated aliments. This much, however, is
+certain, that animals can be profitably fed upon roots and straw, whilst
+it is equally certain that to feed them upon oil-cake alone (assuming
+them to thrive upon such a diet) would entail a very heavy loss upon
+the feeder. At the same time it must be admitted that the oil of the
+linseed-cake exercises in all probability a beneficial influence on the
+digestion of the animal, so that the nutritive value of the article may
+be somewhat higher than its mere composition would indicate.
+</p>
+<p>
+The quantity of oil-cake given to fattening stock varies from 2 lbs. to
+14 lbs. per diem. I believe there is no greater mistake made by feeders
+than that of giving excessive quantities of this substance to stock. If
+their object in so doing be to enrich their manure-heap, they would find
+it far more economical to add the cake directly to the manure&mdash;or rather
+of adding rape-cake to it, for this variety of cake is fully as valuable
+for manurial purposes as the linseed-cake, and is nearly 50 per cent.
+cheaper. A larger quantity of oil-cake than 7 lbs. daily should not be
+given to even the largest-sized milch cows or fattening bullocks. If a
+larger amount be employed, it will pass unchanged through the animal's
+body. Young cattle may with advantage be supplied with from 1 to 3 lbs.,
+according to their size, and from &frac12; to 1 lb. will be a sufficient
+quantity for sheep. Intelligent feeders have remarked, that cattle which
+had been always supplied with a moderate allowance of this food fattened
+more readily upon it, during their finishing stage, than did stock which
+had not been accustomed to its use.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page237" name="page237"></a>[237]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Adulteration of Linseed Cake.</i>&mdash;The great drawback to the use of
+linseed-cake is the liability of the article to be adulterated. The
+sophistication is sometimes of a harmless nature, if we except its
+injurious effect on the farmer's pocket; but not unfrequently the
+substances added to the cakes possess properties which completely unfit
+them to be used as food. Amongst the injurious substances found in
+linseed and linseed-cake I may mention the seeds of the purging-flax,
+darnel, spurry, corn-cockle, curcus-beans, and castor-oil beans.
+Several of these seeds are highly drastic purgatives, and they have
+been known to cause intense inflammation of the bowels of animals fed
+upon oil-cake, of which they composed but a small proportion. Amongst
+the adulterations of linseed-cake, which lower its nutritive value
+without imparting to it any injurious properties, are the seeds of
+the cereals and the grasses, bran, and flax-straw. Little black seeds
+belonging to various species of <i>Polygonum</i>, are very often present
+in even good cakes; they are very indigestible, but otherwise are not
+injurious. Rape-cake is stated to be occasionally used as adulterant
+of the more costly linseed, but I have never met with an admixture of
+the two articles.
+</p>
+<p>
+The only way in which a correct estimate of the value of linseed-cake
+can be arrived at is by a combined microscopical and chemical analysis;
+but as the feeder is not always disposed to incur the cost of this
+process, he should make himself acquainted with the characteristic
+of the genuine cake, in order to be able to discriminate, as far as
+possible, between it and the sophisticated article. I will indicate a
+few of the more prominent features of cake of excellent quality, and
+point out a few simple and easily-performed tests, which may serve
+to detect the existence of gross adulteration. Good cake is hard, of
+a reddish-brown color, uniform in appearance, and possesses a rather
+pleasant flavor and odour. The adulterated cake is commonly of a greyish
+hue, and has a disagreeable odour. A weighed quantity of the cake&mdash;say
+100 grains&mdash;in the state of powder should be formed into a paste with
+an ounce of water;
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page238" name="page238"></a>[238]</span>
+
+                   if it be good, the paste will be light colored,
+moderately stiff, and endowed with a pleasant odour and flavor. If the
+paste be thin, the presence of bran, or of grass seeds, is probable.
+The latter are easily seen through a magnifying-glass; indeed, most
+of them are readily recognisable by the unassisted eye: they may,
+therefore, be picked out, and their weight determined. Sand&mdash;a frequent
+adulterant&mdash;may be detected by mixing a small weighed quantity of the
+powdered cake with about twelve times its weight of water, allowing the
+mixture to stand for half an hour, and collecting and weighing the sand
+which will be found at the bottom of the vessel employed. If there be
+bran present it will be found lying on the sand, and its structure
+is sufficiently distinct to admit of its detection by a mere glance.
+There are a great variety of linseed-cakes in the market, of which
+the home-made article is the best. On the Continent the oil-seeds are
+subjected to the action of heat in order to obtain from them a greater
+yield of oil. Their cakes, therefore, contain less oil, and their
+flesh-forming principles are less soluble, in comparison with British
+linseed-cake. Next to our home-made oil-cakes, the American is the
+best. Indeed, I have met with some American cakes which were equal to
+the best English.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Rape Cake.</i>&mdash;The use of rape-cake was limited almost completely to the
+fertilising of the soil until the late Mr. Pusey, in a paper published
+in the tenth volume of the <i>Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of
+England</i>, advocated its employment as a substitute for the more costly
+linseed-cake. The recommendation of this distinguished agriculturist
+has not been disregarded; and since his time the use of this cake as a
+feeding stuff has been steadily on the increase, and at the present time
+its annual consumption is not far short of 50,000 tons.
+</p>
+<p>
+In relation to the nutritive value of rape-cake there exists considerable
+diversity of opinion. Certain feeders assert that animals fed upon it go
+out of condition; others, whilst admitting that stock thrive upon it,
+maintain the economic superiority of linseed-cake; whilst a third set
+believe rape-cake to be the
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page239" name="page239"></a>[239]</span>
+
+                            most economical of feeding-stuffs.
+How are we to account for these great differences of opinion&mdash;not
+amongst <i>theorists</i>, be it observed, but amongst practical men?
+It is not difficult to explain them away satisfactorily. Rape-cake
+and linseed-cake are about equally rich in muscle and fat-forming
+principles; and, supposing both to be equally well-flavored, there can
+be no doubt but that one is just as nourishing as the other. But it so
+happens that a large proportion of the rape-cake which comes into the
+British market possesses a flavor which renders it very disagreeable
+to animals. One variety&mdash;namely, the East Indian&mdash;is almost poisonous,
+whilst the very best kind is slightly inferior to linseed-cake. Now, if
+an experiment with a very inferior kind of rape-cake and a good variety
+of linseed-cake were tried, who can doubt but that the results would be
+very unfavorable to the former article? Mr. Callan,<sup><a name="noteref-35"><!--35--></a><a href="#note-35">35</a></sup> of Rathfarnham,
+county Dublin; Mr. Bird,<sup><a name="noteref-36"><!--36--></a><a href="#note-36">36</a></sup> of Renton Barns, and some other feeders,
+who found rape-cake to be worse than useless, experimented, in all
+probability, with an adulterated article, for they do not appear to
+have had the cake analysed. On the other hand, those whose experience
+with rape-cake has proved favorable, must have employed the article
+in a genuine state, fresh, and moderately well-flavored. It is
+noteworthy that amongst the advocates for the use of rape-cake as
+a substitute&mdash;partly or entirely&mdash;for the more costly linseed-cake,
+are to be found the most successful feeders in England and Scotland.
+Horsfall, Mechi, Lawrence, Bond, Hope, and many other feeders of equal
+celebrity, have assigned to rape-cake the highest place, in an economic
+point of view, amongst the concentrated feeding stuffs. Mr. Mechi
+says:&mdash;"I invariably give to all my animals as much rape-cake as they
+choose to eat, however abundant their roots or green food may be. It
+pays in many ways, and not to do this is a great pecuniary mistake.
+Even when fed on green rape, they will eat rape-cake
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page240" name="page240"></a>[240]</span>
+
+                                                      abundantly.
+My cattle are now under cover, eating the steamed chaff, rape-cake,
+malt-combs, and bran, all mixed together in strict accordance with
+the proportions named by Mr. Horsfall in the <i>Journal of the Royal
+Agricultural Society</i>, vol. xviii., p. 150,<sup><a name="noteref-37"><!--37--></a><a href="#note-37">37</a></sup> which I find by far
+the most profitable mode of feeding bullocks and cows." Mr. Hope, of
+Edinburgh, states that rape-cake is the best substitute for turnips,
+and that, excepting cases where spurious kinds had been used, he never
+knew bullocks or milch cows to refuse it. This gentleman states that
+it is best given in combination with locust-beans, or a mixture of
+locust-beans and Indian corn; and suggests the proportions set down
+in the tables as the best adapted for lean cattle; but I think about
+two-thirds of the quantities would be quite sufficient.
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Recommended feed for lean cattle (Hope)">
+
+<tr><td>                                     </td><th>Feed<br /> per week. </th><th colspan="2">Per week. </th></tr>
+<tr><td>                                     </td><th>     lbs.      </th><th> s.</th><th> d. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Rape-cake at £5 15s. per ton       </td><td class="c">      8        </td><td> 2 </td><td class="c">10&frac12; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Do.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;do.               </td><td class="c">     10        </td><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> 7 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mixture of two-thirds rape-cake and
+            one-third locust-beans £6        </td><td class="c">      8        </td><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> 0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Do.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;do.               </td><td class="c">     10        </td><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> 9 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Rape-cake, locust-beans, and Indian
+            Corn in equal proportions        </td><td class="c">      8        </td><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> 2&frac12; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Do.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;do.               </td><td class="c">     10        </td><td> 3 </td><td class="c">11&frac14; </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+An intelligent Scotch dairy farmer bears the following testimony in
+favor of this cake:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    I have tried pease-meal, bean-meal, oat-meal, and linseed-cake,
+    and after carefully noting the results, I consider rape-cake,
+    weight for weight, at least equal to any of them for milch cows;
+    and if I give the same money value for each, I get at least
+    one-third more produce, and the butter is always of a very
+    superior quality. Two years ago, I took some of my best oats
+    (41 lbs. per bushel), and ground them for the cows, and although
+    I was at about one-third more expense, I lost fully one-third of
+    the produce that I had by using rape-cake. I always dissolve it
+    by pouring boiling water on it, and give each cow 6 lbs. daily.
+    I have tried a larger quantity, and found I was fully repaid for
+    the extra expense. I generally use it the
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page241" name="page241"></a>[241]</span>
+
+                                              most of the summer,
+    but always during the spring months. A number of my neighbours
+    who have tried it all agree that it is the best and cheapest
+    feed for milch cows they have used.&mdash;<i>North British Agriculturist</i>,
+    Edinburgh, February 29, 1860.
+</p>
+<p>
+The best kinds of rape-cake come from Germany and Denmark. When
+neither too old nor too fresh, and of a pale-green color, these
+foreign cakes are tolerably well-flavored, and are but slightly
+inferior to good linseed-cake. Most varieties of this cake, however,
+contain a small proportion of acrid matter, which often renders them
+more or less distasteful to stock, more particularly to cattle. This
+substance may be rendered quite innocuous by steaming or boiling the
+cake; either of these processes will also, according to Mr. Lawrence,
+destroy the disagreeable flavor which mustard-seed&mdash;a frequent
+adulterant of rape-cake&mdash;confers upon that article. Molasses or treacle
+is an excellent adjunct to the cake, as it serves in a great measure to
+correct its somewhat unpleasant flavor. Carob, or locust-beans, answer,
+perhaps better, the same purpose. It is better, as a general rule,
+to give less rape-cake than linseed-cake, unless the pale-green kind
+to which I have referred is obtainable; that variety may be largely
+employed. The animals should be gradually accustomed to its use. At
+first, in the case of bullocks, they should get only 1 lb. per diem,
+and the quantity should be gradually increased to about 4 lbs.; but
+I would not advise, under any circumstances, a larger daily allowance
+than 5 lbs. Given in moderate amounts, it will, supposing it to be of
+fair quality, be found to give a better return in meat than almost any
+other kind of concentrated food; and, what is of great importance, it
+will not injuriously affect the animal's health. "Our experience of the
+use of rape-cake," says Mr. Lawrence, "thus used (cooked), extends over
+a period of ten years of feeding from 20 to 24 bullocks annually. We
+have not had a single death during that period, and the animals have
+been remarkably free from any kind of ailment."
+</p>
+<p>
+Rape-cake of good quality possesses a dark-green color
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page242" name="page242"></a>[242]</span>
+
+                                                       (the greener
+the better), and when broken exhibits a mottled aspect&mdash;yellowish and
+dark-brown spots. Sometimes a tolerably good specimen has a brownish
+color; but the German and Danish cakes are always of a greenish hue.
+The odor is stronger than that of linseed-cake, and differs but little
+from that of rape-oil. The only serious adulteration of rape-cake
+is the addition to it of mustard-seed&mdash;sometimes accidentally&mdash;less
+frequently, as I believe, intentionally. This sophistication admits of
+easy detection. Scrape into small particles about half an ounce of the
+cake, add six times its weight of water, form the solid and liquid
+into a paste, and allow the mixture to stand for a few hours. If the
+cake contain mustard the characteristic odor of that substance will be
+evolved, and its intensity will afford a rough indication of the amount
+of the adulterant. As some specimens of genuine rape-cake possess a
+somewhat pungent odor, care must be taken not to confound it with that
+of mustard; but, indeed, it is not difficult to discriminate the latter.
+The paste of rape-cake which contains an injurious proportion of
+mustard, has a very pungent flavor. Rape-cake improves somewhat if kept
+for say six months; but old cake is worse than the fresh article.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Cottonseed Cake</i> is one of the most valuable feeding stuffs that
+have come into use of late years. Its chemical composition shows it
+to be about equal to that of the best linseed-cake, and as its price
+is much lower than that of the latter, it may be fairly considered
+a more economical food. These remarks apply only to the shelled, or
+decorticated seed-cake, for the article prepared from the whole seed is
+of very inferior composition, and should never be employed. The use of
+the cake made from the whole seed has proved fatal in many instances,
+not from its possessing any poisonous quality, but in consequence
+of its hard, indigestible husk, accumulating in, and inflaming, the
+animal's bowels.
+</p>
+<p>
+The composition of this cake varies somewhat. The following analysis of
+a sample from one of the Western States of
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page243" name="page243"></a>[243]</span>
+
+                                           North America, imported by
+Messrs. G. Seagrave and Co., of Liverpool, was made by me:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of decorticated cotton-seed cake">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="2">  COMPOSITION OF DECORTICATED COTTON-SEED CAKE.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                                   </td><td> 8·20 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Oil                                     </td><td>10·16 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Albuminous, or flesh forming principles </td><td>40·25 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Gum, sugar, &amp;c.                     </td><td>21·10 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fibre                                   </td><td> 9·23 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ash (mineral matter)                    </td><td>11·06 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>                       </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                    </td><td>100·00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+In some specimens so much as 16 per cent. of oil has been found. The
+purchaser of cotton-seed cake should be certain that it is not old and
+mouldy, which is frequently the case. The recently prepared cake has
+a very yellow color, which becomes fainter as the cake becomes older.
+Freshness is a very desirable quality in nearly every kind of cake.
+I have known animals to have a greater relish for, and thrive better
+upon, home-made linseed-cake than upon cake of foreign manufacture of
+superior composition, but of greater age.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Palm-nut Meal, or Cake</i> is a very valuable fattening food. It is
+extremely rich in ready-formed fatty matters, but at the same time it is
+not very deficient in albuminous substances. Its strong flavor is rather
+a drawback to its use in the case of all the farm animals, except pigs.
+This difficulty may, however, be got over by using the cake in moderate
+quantities, and by combining it with other food possessed of a good
+flavor. Reports of practical trials made with this food appear to have
+almost uniformly given very favorable results. This food is only three
+or four years in use. The first samples that came into my hand were
+richer in fatty matters than those which I have recently examined.
+The average results of eight analyses made from 1864 to 1866 were
+as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page244" name="page244"></a>[244]</span></p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of palm-nut meal">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="2">  100 PARTS CONTAINED&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water               </td><td> 7·48 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Albuminous matters  </td><td>17·26 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fatty substances    </td><td>21·59 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Gum, sugar, &amp;c. </td><td>32·14 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fibre               </td><td>17·18 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter      </td><td> 4·35 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>   </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                </td><td>100·00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+This year I have not found more than 17 per cent. of fat in any sample
+of palm-nut cake. One specimen which I analysed for Mr. J. G. Alexander,
+seed merchant, of Dublin, had the following composition:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of palm-nut meal, specific sample">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                       </td><td> 9·24 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Albuminous matters          </td><td>19·28 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fatty matters               </td><td> 9·36 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Gum, starch, fibre, &amp;c. </td><td>53·22 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matters             </td><td> 8·90 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>           </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                        </td><td>100·00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+But although inferior samples are occasionally met with, I may say
+of palm-nut cake that on the whole it is a food which deserves to be
+largely used, and which at its present price is the most economical
+source of fat. To milch-cows and fattening cattle about 3 lbs. per diem
+may be given; &frac14; lb. will be sufficient for young sheep, whilst pigs
+may be very liberally supplied with this food.
+</p>
+<p>
+The <i>Locust, or Carob Bean</i>, is now largely used by the stock-feeder.
+It is extremely rich in sugar, and is therefore an excellent fattening
+and milk-producing food. It is used largely in the preparation of the
+sweet kinds of artificial food for cattle. It is not well adapted for
+young animals, owing to its deficiency of albuminous matters. The
+following analysis shows the average composition of this food:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page245" name="page245"></a>[245]</span></p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average composition of Locust, or Carob bean">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water               </td><td>14 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Sugar               </td><td>50 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Albuminous matters  </td><td> 8 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Oil                 </td><td> 1 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Gum, &amp;c.        </td><td>20 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre         </td><td> 5 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ash                 </td><td> 2 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                </td><td>100</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+<i>Dates</i> have been used, but only in very small quantities, as cattle
+food. Their composition is not constant, some samples being greatly
+inferior in nutritive power to others; they are rich in sugar,
+and if they were obtained in sufficient quantities they might, like
+carob-beans, come into general use with the stock-feeder. They contain
+about 2 per cent. of flesh-formers, 10 per cent. of fat-formers (chiefly
+sugar), and 2 per cent. of mineral matter.
+</p>
+<p>
+Distillery and brewery dregs (or wash) are chiefly used by dairymen.
+According to Dr. Anderson, an imperial gallon (700,000 grains) of
+distillery wash (from a distillery near Edinburgh) contained 4,130
+grains of organic matter, and 276 grains of mineral substances.
+He considers that 15 gallons of this stuff were equal in nutritive
+materials to 100 pounds of turnips. The following is the centesimal
+composition of brewery wash:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of brewery wash">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                                 </td><td>75·85 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Albuminous matters                    </td><td> 0·62 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Gummy matters                         </td><td> 1·06 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Other organic matter (husks, &amp;c.) </td><td>21·28 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matters                       </td><td> 1·19 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>                     </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                  </td><td>100·00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+<i>Molasses</i> constitute a very fattening food, sometimes, but not
+often, given to stock. Treacle and molasses are composed of
+non-crystallisable sugar, cane-sugar, water, and saline and other
+impurities. The composition of average specimens of molasses, as
+imported, is as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page246" name="page246"></a>[246]</span></p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average composition of molasses">
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Cane-sugar                                   </td><td>50 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Non-crystallisable sugar and grape-sugar     </td><td>25 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Water, saline matter, and organic impurities </td><td>25 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>                         </td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                         </td><td>100</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+If admitted duty free, molasses would be a much more economical food
+than it now is, but at its present price it must be regarded as a mere
+flavoring food.
+</p>
+<p>
+Mr. T. Cooke Burroughs, a West Suffolk feeder, who used treacle in 1864,
+gives the following mode of mixing it with other food:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    My plan has been (and is still carried on) to give to each
+    bullock per day (divided into three meals) one pint of treacle
+    dissolved in two gallons of water, and sprinkled, by means of
+    a garden water-pot, over four bushels of cut chaff (two-thirds
+    straw and one-third hay) amongst which a quarter of a peck of
+    meal (barley and wheat) is mixed, the animals also having free
+    access to water. The cost of the treacle and meal together
+    is about 3s. per bullock per week. My bullocks (two-year old
+    Shorthorns) have grown and thrived upon the above diet to my
+    utmost satisfaction; and even during the present dry and warm
+    weather they evince no lingering after roots or grass. I am well
+    aware that the use of treacle for neat stock is no new discovery
+    of my own, as I learnt the system while on a visit to a friend
+    in Norfolk, where some graziers have used it in combination with
+    roots during many years past. Perhaps flax-seed (linseed) boiled
+    into a jelly and used in a similar way, may be a more profitable
+    "substitute for roots" than treacle; but the preparation of it is
+    attended with more expense and trouble.
+</p>
+
+<h4>
+SECTION  VIII.
+</h4>
+<h5>
+CONDIMENTAL FOOD.
+</h5>
+<p>
+Although every farmer may not have used, there are few who have not
+heard of "Thorley's Condimental Food for Cattle." This nostrum is a
+compound of some of the ordinary foods with certain well-known aromatic
+and carminative substances. It possesses a very agreeable flavor, and it
+is therefore
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page247" name="page247"></a>[247]</span>
+
+             much relished by horses, and indeed by every kind of stock.
+The price of this compound was at first so much as £60 per ton; but
+owing to competition, and perhaps to the attacks made upon the
+enormously high price of this article, it is now to be obtained at
+prices varying from £12 to £24 per ton.
+</p>
+<p>
+The inventor of condimental food, and the numerous fabricators of that
+compound, claim for it merits of no ordinary nature. Its use, they
+assert, not only maintains the animals fed upon it in excellent health,
+but it also exercises so remarkable an action upon the adipose tissues
+that fat accumulates to an immense extent. Moreover, it is said that an
+animal supplied with a very moderate daily modicum of this wonderful
+compound, will consume less of its ordinary food, though rapidly
+becoming fat.
+</p>
+<p>
+Now, if these assertions were perfectly, or even approximatively,
+true, Mr. Thorley would be well deserving of a niche in the temple of
+fame, and stock-feeders would ever regard him as a benefactor to his
+own and the bovine species; but I fear that Mr. Thorley's imagination
+outstripped his reason when he described in such glowing terms the
+wonderful virtues of his tonic food.
+</p>
+<p>
+Mr. J. B. Lawes, of Rothamstead, than whom there is no more accurate
+experimenter in agricultural practice, states that he made many careful
+trials with Thorley's food, and that he never found it to exercise
+the slightest influence upon the nutrition of the animals fed upon it.
+In his report upon this subject, Mr. Lawes, after describing the
+experiments which he made, sums up as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    There is nothing therefore in the above results to recommend the
+    use of Thorley's condiment with inferior fattening food, to those
+    who feed pigs for profit. In fact, the following balance-sheet of
+    the experiment shows that, in fattening for twelve weeks, there
+    was a balance of £1 10s. 11d. in favor of the lot fed without
+    Thorley's food, notwithstanding that one of the pigs in that lot
+    did badly throughout the experiment, as above stated.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page248" name="page248"></a>[248]</span></p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Comparison of feedings with and without Thorley's condimental food">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="4">  LOT 1.&mdash;WITH BARLEY-MEAL AND BRAN.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                                              </td><th> £</th><th> s.</th><th> d. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  4 pigs bought in at 41s. 6d. each           </td><td> 8</td><td> 6 </td><td> 0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  1,860&frac34; lbs. barley, at 37s. 6d. per
+            quarter of 416 lbs., including grinding   </td><td> 8</td><td> 7 </td><td> 8&frac34; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  1,024&frac34; lbs. bran at 5s. 6d. per cwt.     </td><td> 2</td><td>10 </td><td> 3&frac34; </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="3">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                                              </td><td>19</td><td> 4 </td><td> 0&frac12; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  88 stone 5 lbs. of pork sold at 4s. 4d.
+            per stone, sinking the offal              </td><td>19</td><td> 4 </td><td> 0&frac12; </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="4">  LOT 2.&mdash;WITH BARLEY-MEAL, BRAN, AND THORLEY'S FOOD.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                                              </td><th> £</th><th> s.</th><th> d. </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  4 pigs bought in at 41s. 6d. each           </td><td> 8</td><td> 6 </td><td> 0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  1,862&frac34; lbs. barley, at 37s. 6d. per
+            quarter of 416 lbs., including grinding   </td><td> 8</td><td> 7 </td><td>10&frac14; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  1,020&frac34; lbs. bran at 5s. 6d. per cwt.     </td><td> 2</td><td>10 </td><td> 1&frac12; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  105 lbs. Thorley's food at 40s. per cwt.    </td><td> 1</td><td>17 </td><td> 6 </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="3">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                                              </td><td>21</td><td> 1 </td><td> 5&frac34; </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  90 stone 1 lb. pork sold at 4s. 4d.
+            per stone, sinking the offal              </td><td>19</td><td>10 </td><td> 6&frac12; </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="3">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                                              </td><td> 1</td><td>10 </td><td>11&frac14;</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>
+The results of these experiments with pigs, in which Thorley's condiment
+was used with inferior fattening food, may be summed up as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    1. The addition of Thorley's condimental food increased the
+    amount of food consumed by a given weight of animal within
+    a given time.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    2. When Thorley's condiment was given it required more food
+    to produce a given amount of increase in live-weight.
+</p>
+<p class="quote">
+    3. In fattening for twelve weeks there was a difference of
+    £1 10s. 11d. on the lot of 4 pigs in favor of barley-meal
+    and bran alone, over barley-meal, bran, and Thorley's food
+    in addition.
+</p>
+<p>
+At a meeting of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of
+England, held some time ago, the subject of the nutrimental value of
+condimental cattle food was discussed. As there is scarcely any kind of
+quackery, from spirit manifestations to Holloway's pills, that has not
+got its believers, there were, as might have been anticipated, some
+voices raised at this meeting in favor of Thorley's food; but the
+<i>sense</i> of the meeting was decidedly against it. Professor Simonds
+pronounced it to be worthless.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page249" name="page249"></a>[249]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+Although the greater number of equine proprietors and feeders of stock
+are too sensible to throw their money away in the purchase of those
+costly foods, still there are by no means an insignificant number who
+employ it, under the idea that it preserves the health of the animals;
+these stuffs are also highly appreciated by many grooms and herds.
+Now, for the information of all believers, I may state that there is
+no mystery whatever in the nature of condimental cattle foods. They
+consist in substance of such matters as linseed-cake, Indian corn,
+rice, bean-meal, locust-beans, and malt-combings. These substances
+are flavored by the addition of turmeric-root, ginger, coriander-seed,
+carraway-seed, fenugreek-seed, aniseed, liquorice, and similar
+substances. In addition to the nutritive and flavorous articles employed
+in the manufacture of these foods, purely medicinal substances are also
+made use of with the idea that they would prove useful in maintaining
+the health and stimulating the appetite of the animals. These medicinal
+ingredients constitute but a small proportion of the compound, although
+they add considerably to the cost of manufacture. The following is a
+formula for a condimental food, which in every respect will be found
+fully equal, if not superior, to the ordinary high-priced articles.
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Formula for condimental food">
+
+<tr><td>                                  </td><th>cwt.  </th><th>qrs.  </th><th>lbs.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">  Linseed-meal, or cake </td><td> 7    </td><td> 0    </td><td> 0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Locust beans (ground) </td><td> 8    </td><td> 0    </td><td> 0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Indian corn           </td><td> 4    </td><td> 1    </td><td> 0 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Powdered turmeric     </td><td> 0    </td><td> 1    </td><td> 4 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Ginger                </td><td> 0    </td><td> 0    </td><td> 3 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Fenugreek-seed        </td><td> 0    </td><td> 0    </td><td> 2 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Gentian               </td><td> 0    </td><td> 0    </td><td>10 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Cream of tartar       </td><td> 0    </td><td> 0    </td><td> 2 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Sulphur               </td><td> 0    </td><td> 0    </td><td>20 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Common salt           </td><td> 0    </td><td> 0    </td><td>10 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Coriander-seed        </td><td> 0    </td><td> 0    </td><td> 5 </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td></td><td colspan="3">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                  </td><td class="c" colspan="3">One ton.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+A ton of condimental food manufactured according to this formula will
+cost only about the same amount as an equal
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page250" name="page250"></a>[250]</span>
+
+                                            weight of linseed, and will
+produce an effect fully equal to that of the food which at one time was
+sold at £60 per ton.
+</p>
+<p>
+Whatever may be the medicinal virtues of these foods, or however
+appropriate the term "condimental" which has been applied to them,
+it is quite certain that their whilom designation "concentrated"
+was a misnomer. Their composition shows that they possess a degree of
+nutritive power considerably below that of linseed-cake, and but little,
+if at all, superior to that of Indian corn.
+</p>
+<p>
+The following analytical statement, which I published some years ago,
+will give an insight into the nature of these articles:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analyses of condimental food">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3">  ANALYSES OF CONDIMENTAL FOOD.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>                                                    </td><th>Thorley's.  </th><th>Bradley's.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Water                                   </td><td>   12·00    </td><td>   12·09  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Nitrogenous, or flesh forming principles</td><td>   14·92    </td><td>   10·36  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Oil                                     </td><td>    6·08    </td><td>    5·80  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Gum, sugar, mucilage, &amp;c.           </td><td>   56·86    </td><td>   60·21  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Woody fibre                             </td><td>    5·46    </td><td>    5·32  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">  Mineral matter (ash)                    </td><td>    4·68    </td><td>    6·22  </td></tr>
+<tr class="total"><td>         </td><td>  &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;    </td><td>  &mdash;&mdash;&mdash; </td></tr>
+<tr><td>                                                    </td><td>  100·00    </td><td>  100·00  </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+As a ton of linseed-cake contains a greater amount of nutriment than
+an equal quantity of condimental food, the latter should be clearly
+proved to possess very valuable specific virtues, in order to induce the
+feeder to use it extensively. Cattle and horses out of condition may be
+benefited by its carminative and tonic properties; but if they are, it
+surely must be a bad practice to feed healthy animals upon a substance
+which is a remedy in disease. It is asserted, and probably with some
+degree of truth, that when dainty, over-fed stock loathe their food,
+they are induced to eat greedily by mixing the "condimental" with their
+ordinary food. If such really be the case, let the feeder compound the
+article himself, and effect thereby a saving of perhaps 50 or 80 per
+cent. in the cost of it. A good condimental food, rich in actual
+nutriment, and pleasantly flavored, is no doubt a compound which might
+be used with advantage; but it should be sold at a moderate and fair
+price.
+</p>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<a name="note-25"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-25">25</a>)
+See Transactions of Highland and Agricultural Society of
+Scotland for 1852.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-26"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-26">26</a>)
+Zig-zag clover, or Marl grass? Cowgrass is <i>Trifolium
+pratense perenne</i>.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-27"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-27">27</a>)
+This gentleman has invented an exceedingly simple but
+effective furze-bruiser, which I hope soon to see in general use.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-28"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-28">28</a>)
+H. Le Docte, in <i>Journal de la Société Centrale
+d'Agriculture de Belgique</i>.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-29"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-29">29</a>)
+Cellulose is the term applied to the chemical substance
+which forms woody fibre. The latter is made up of very minute
+spindle-shaped tubes. In young and succulent plants these tubes are
+often lined with layers of soft cellulose. In many plants&mdash;such as
+trees&mdash;in a certain stage of development, the substance lining the cells
+is very hard, and is termed <i>lignin</i>, or <i>sclerogen</i>. This substance is
+merely a modification of cellulose; and both resemble in composition
+sugar and starch so closely that, by heating them with sulphuric acid,
+they may be converted into sugar.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-30"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-30">30</a>)
+One part of oil is equal to 2&frac12; parts of starch&mdash;that is,
+2&frac12; parts of starch are expended in the production of
+1 part of fat.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-31"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-31">31</a>)
+No difference is here assumed between the nutritive value
+of sugar and starch.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-32"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-32">32</a>)
+Unless when Kohl-rabi is cultivated, for the bulbs of this
+plant may be preserved in good condition up to June. I have advocated
+the cultivation of the radish as a food crop in the "Agricultural
+Review" for 1861.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-33"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-33">33</a>)
+According to some chemists, sugar does not exist in ripe
+grain, but is produced in it, during the process of analysis, by the
+action of the re-agents employed and the influence of the air.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-34"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-34">34</a>)
+Report to Government on feeding cattle with Malt, 1844.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-35"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-35">35</a>)
+<i>Monthly Agricultural Review</i>, Dublin, February, 1859.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-36"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-36">36</a>)
+<i>Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society
+of Scotland,</i> October, 1858.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-37"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-37">37</a>)
+3 lbs. of rape-cake, &frac34; lb. malt combs, &frac34; lb. bran,
+steamed together with a sufficient quantity of straw.
+</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page251" name="page251"></a>[251]</span></p>
+
+<h4>
+SECTION IX.&mdash;ANALYSES OF THE ASHES OF PLANTS.
+</h4>
+<h5>
+(<i>Extracted from the Author's "Chemistry of Agriculture."</i>)
+</h5>
+
+<p>
+Those numbers marked with an asterisk refer to 100 parts of the
+substance in its natural or undried state; the remaining numbers
+refer to 100 parts when dried.
+</p>
+
+<table class="closed" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of the ashes of various plants, Table 1">
+
+<tr class="b1">
+<td rowspan="2"></td>
+<th rowspan="2">Rape Seed.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Flax.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Peas.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Kidney Beans.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">White Turnip Seed.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Turnip Bulb (Swede).</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Cucumber.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Mangel Wurtzel Seed.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Potatoes (tubers).</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Hop Flowers.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><th>Stalk.</th><th>Seed.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">   Potash                </td><td> 25·18 </td><td>  34·96 </td><td>  32·55  </td><td> 43·09 </td><td>  36·83  </td><td> 21·91 </td><td>   39·82  </td><td>   47·52  </td><td>  16·08  </td><td>   35·15  </td><td>  19·41 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Soda                  </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td>   2·51  </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td>  18·40  </td><td>  1·23 </td><td>   10·86  </td><td class="c">    ...   </td><td>   6·86  </td><td>    5·77  </td><td>   0·70 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Lime                  </td><td> 12·91 </td><td>  15·87 </td><td>   9·45  </td><td>  4·77 </td><td>   7·75  </td><td> 17·40 </td><td>   12·75  </td><td>    6·31  </td><td>  13·42  </td><td>    2·14  </td><td>  14·15 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Magnesia              </td><td> 11·39 </td><td>   3·68 </td><td>  16·23  </td><td>  8·06 </td><td>   6·33  </td><td>  8·74 </td><td>    4·68  </td><td>    4·26  </td><td>  15·22  </td><td>    2·69  </td><td>   5·34 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Sesquioxide of Iron   </td><td>  0·62 </td><td>   4·84 </td><td>   0·38  </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td>   2·24  </td><td>  1·95 </td><td>    0·89  </td><td class="c">    ...   </td><td>   0·40  </td><td>    1·79  </td><td>   2·41 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">        "   of Manganese </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td class="c">    ...   </td><td class="c">    ...   </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td class="c">    ...   </td><td class="c">   ...  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Sulphuric Acid        </td><td>  0·53 </td><td>   4·99 </td><td>   1·43  </td><td>  0·44 </td><td>   3·96  </td><td>  7·10 </td><td>   13·15  </td><td>    4·60  </td><td>   3·64  </td><td>    3·29  </td><td>   8·28 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Muriatic Acid         </td><td>  0·11 </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td>  1·96 </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td>    3·68  </td><td class="c">    ...   </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td class="c">    ...   </td><td>   2·26 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Carbonic Acid         </td><td>  2·20 </td><td>  13·39 </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td>  0·82 </td><td class="c">    ...   </td><td class="c">    ...   </td><td>  13·85  </td><td>   17·14  </td><td>  11·01 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Phosphoric Acid       </td><td> 45·95 </td><td>   8·48 </td><td>  35·99  </td><td> 40·56 </td><td>  11·60  </td><td> 40·17 </td><td>    6·69  </td><td>   18·03  </td><td>  13·35  </td><td>   20·70  </td><td>  14·64 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Silica                </td><td>  1·11 </td><td>   5·60 </td><td>   1·46  </td><td>  0·79 </td><td>   4·09  </td><td>  0·67 </td><td>    7·05  </td><td>    7·12  </td><td>   1·86  </td><td>    3·00  </td><td>  18·56 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Chloride of Potassium </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td>   7·65 </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td class="c">    ...   </td><td>    4·19  </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td>    1·84  </td><td class="c">   ...  </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">   Chloride of Sodium    </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td>   0·54 </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td>   2·80  </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td class="c">    ...   </td><td>    9·06  </td><td>  15·30  </td><td>    6·49  </td><td>   2·95 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    &nbsp;&nbsp;Total              </td><td>100·00 </td><td> 100·00 </td><td> 100·00  </td><td> 99·67 </td><td> 100·00  </td><td> 99·99 </td><td>   99·57  </td><td>  100·09  </td><td>  99·98  </td><td>  100·00  </td><td>  99·71 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    &nbsp;&nbsp;Per-centage of Ash </td><td>  4·51 </td><td>   5·00 </td><td>   3·05  </td><td>  5·21 </td><td>   0·68  </td><td>  3·98 </td><td>    7·60  </td><td>    0·63  </td><td>   6·58  </td><td>          </td><td>   6·05 </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">                         </td><td>       </td><td>        </td><td>         </td><td>       </td><td class="c">    *    </td><td>       </td><td>          </td><td class="c">     *    </td><td>         </td><td>          </td><td>        </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page252" name="page252"></a>[252]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+The number marked with an asterisk refers to 100 parts of the
+substance in its natural or undried state; the remaining numbers
+refer to 100 parts when dried.
+</p>
+
+<table class="closed" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of the ashes of various plants, Table 2">
+
+<tr class="b1">
+<td rowspan="2"></td>
+<th rowspan="2">Cauliflowers.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Hopeton Oats (Grain).</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Potato Oats (Grain).</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Husks of Potato Oats.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Rye.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Hay.</th>
+<th colspan="4">Grasses (in flower).</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="b1">
+<th>Grain.</th>
+<th>Straw.</th>
+<th>Bromus erectus.</th>
+<th>Lolium perenne.</th>
+<th>Annual Ryegrass.</th>
+<th>Avena flavesceus.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">   Potash                </td><td>  34·39  </td><td>  20·65  </td><td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:200%;">}</span>31·56 </td><td>  2·23 </td><td> 31·76 </td><td> 17·36</td><td> 20·80  </td><td>  20·33  </td><td>  24·67  </td><td>   28·99  </td><td>    36·06  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Soda                  </td><td>  14·79  </td><td class="c">   ...   </td>                  <td>  8·97 </td><td>  4·45 </td><td>  0·31</td><td> 10·85  </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td>    0·87  </td><td>     0·73  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Lime                  </td><td>   2·96  </td><td>  10·28  </td><td>    5·32 </td><td>  4·30 </td><td>  2·92 </td><td>  9·06</td><td>  8·24  </td><td>  10·38  </td><td>   9·64  </td><td>    6·82  </td><td>     7·98  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Magnesia              </td><td>   2·38  </td><td>   7·82  </td><td>    8·69 </td><td>  2·35 </td><td> 10·13 </td><td>  2·41</td><td>  4·01  </td><td>   4·99  </td><td>   2·85  </td><td>    2·59  </td><td>     3·07  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Sesquioxide of Iron   </td><td>   1·69  </td><td>   3·85  </td><td>    0·88 </td><td>  0·32 </td><td>  0·82 </td><td>  1·36</td><td>  1·83  </td><td>   0·26  </td><td>   0·21  </td><td>    0·28  </td><td>     2·40  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">       "    of Manganese </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td>   0·42  </td><td class="c">    ...  </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td class="c">  ... </td><td class="c">  ...   </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td class="c">    ...   </td><td class="c">     ...   </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Sulphuric Acid        </td><td>  11·16  </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td class="c">    ...  </td><td>  4·30 </td><td>  1·46 </td><td>  0·83</td><td>  2·11  </td><td>   5·46  </td><td>   5·20  </td><td>    3·45  </td><td>     4·00  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Muriatic Acid         </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td class="c">    ...  </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td>  0·46</td><td class="c">  ...   </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td class="c">    ...   </td><td class="c">     ...   </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Carbonic Acid         </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td class="c">    ...  </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td class="c">  ... </td><td>  0·68  </td><td>   0·55  </td><td>   0·49  </td><td class="c">    ...   </td><td class="c">     ...   </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Phosphoric Acid       </td><td>  27·85  </td><td>  50·44  </td><td>   49·19 </td><td>  0·66 </td><td> 47·29 </td><td>  3·82</td><td> 15·43  </td><td>   7·53  </td><td>   8·73  </td><td>   10·07  </td><td>     9·31  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Silica                </td><td>   1·92  </td><td>   4·40  </td><td>    1·87 </td><td> 74·18 </td><td>  0·17 </td><td> 64·50</td><td> 30·01  </td><td>  38·48  </td><td>  27·13  </td><td>   41·79  </td><td>    35·20  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Chloride of Potassium </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td>   1·03  </td><td class="c">    ...  </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td class="c">  ... </td><td class="c">  ...   </td><td>  10·63  </td><td>  13·80  </td><td class="c">    ...   </td><td class="c">     ...   </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">   Chloride of Sodium    </td><td>   2·86  </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td>    0·35 </td><td>  2·39 </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td class="c">  ... </td><td>  5·09  </td><td>   1·38  </td><td>   7·25  </td><td>    5·11  </td><td>     1·25  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    &nbsp;&nbsp;Total              </td><td> 100·00  </td><td>  98·89  </td><td>   97·86 </td><td> 99·70 </td><td>100·00 </td><td>100·11</td><td> 99·05  </td><td>  99·99  </td><td>  99·97  </td><td>   99·97  </td><td>   100·00  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">    &nbsp;&nbsp;Per-centage of Ash </td><td>   0·71  </td><td>         </td><td>    2·22 </td><td>       </td><td>  2·30 </td><td>  2·60</td><td>        </td><td>   5·21  </td><td>   7·54  </td><td>    6·45  </td><td>     5·20  </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">                         </td><td class="c">    *    </td><td>         </td><td>         </td><td>       </td><td>       </td><td>      </td><td>        </td><td>         </td><td>         </td><td>          </td><td>           </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page253" name="page253"></a>[253]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+Those numbers marked with an asterisk refer to 100 parts of the
+substance in its natural or undried state; the remaining numbers
+refer to 100 parts when dried.
+</p>
+
+<table class="closed" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of the ashes of various plants, Table 3">
+
+<tr class="b1">
+<td rowspan="2"></td>
+<th colspan="2">Broccoli.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Cow Cabbage.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Kohl-rabi, from chalk soil.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Wheat (Grain).</th>
+<th colspan="2">Wheat.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Barley.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="b1">
+<th>Root.</th>
+<th>Leaves.</th>
+<th>Leaves.</th>
+<th>Stalk.</th>
+<th>Leaves.</th>
+<th>Tuber.</th>
+<th>Grain.</th>
+<th>Straw.</th>
+<th>Grain.</th>
+<th>Straw.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">   Potash                </td><td> 47·16 </td><td>  22·10 </td><td>  40·86 </td><td>  40·93 </td><td>   9·31 </td><td>  36·27 </td><td>   29·51 </td><td>   25·92  </td><td>  10·78  </td><td>   32·02   </td><td>  14·37 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Soda                  </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td>   7·55 </td><td>   2·43 </td><td>   4·05 </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td>   2·84 </td><td>   10·61 </td><td class="c">    ...   </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td>    1·21   </td><td>   0·28 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Lime                  </td><td>  4·70 </td><td>  28·44 </td><td>  15·01 </td><td>  10·61 </td><td>  30·31 </td><td>  10·20 </td><td>    0·99 </td><td>    3·80  </td><td>   2·44  </td><td>    3·39   </td><td>   8·50 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Magnesia              </td><td>  3·93 </td><td>   3·43 </td><td>   2·39 </td><td>   3·85 </td><td>   3·62 </td><td>   2·36 </td><td>   10·60 </td><td>   12·27  </td><td>   3·23  </td><td>   10·99   </td><td>   1·70 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Sesquioxide of Iron   </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td>   0·77 </td><td>   0·41 </td><td>   5·50 </td><td>   0·38 </td><td class="c">    ...  </td><td>    1·12  </td><td>   0·54  </td><td>    0·15   </td><td>   0·20 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">        "   of Manganese </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td class="c">    ...  </td><td class="c">    ...   </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td class="c">    ...    </td><td class="c">   ...  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Sulphuric Acid        </td><td> 10·35 </td><td>  16·10 </td><td>   7·27 </td><td>  11·11 </td><td>  10·63 </td><td>  11·43 </td><td>    0·09 </td><td class="c">    ...   </td><td>   1·77  </td><td class="c">    ...    </td><td>   2·22 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Muriatic Acid         </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td class="c">    ...  </td><td class="c">    ...   </td><td class="c">   ...   </td><td class="c">    ...    </td><td class="c">   ...  </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Carbonic Acid         </td><td class="c">  ...  </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td>  16·68 </td><td>   6·33 </td><td>   8·97 </td><td>  10·24 </td><td class="c">    ...  </td><td>    4·43  </td><td>   6·01  </td><td>    0·48   </td><td>   1·25 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Phosphoric Acid       </td><td> 25·83 </td><td>  19·81 </td><td>  12·52 </td><td>  19·57 </td><td>   9·43 </td><td>  13·46 </td><td>   47·55 </td><td>   43·44  </td><td>   3·69  </td><td>   29·92   </td><td>   4·22 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Silica                </td><td>  1·81 </td><td>   2·83 </td><td>   1·66 </td><td>   1·04 </td><td>   9·57 </td><td>   0·82 </td><td>    0·11 </td><td>    7·16  </td><td>  64·84  </td><td>   21·12   </td><td>  62·89 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Chloride of Potassium </td><td>  6·22 </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td>   5·99 </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td class="c">    ...  </td><td>    1·03  </td><td>   3·96  </td><td class="c">    ...    </td><td class="c">   ...  </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">   Chloride of Sodium    </td><td>a trace</td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td class="c">   ...  </td><td>   2·08 </td><td>   6·66 </td><td>  11·90 </td><td>    0·54 </td><td class="c">    ...   </td><td>   0·42  </td><td>    0·72   </td><td>   4·37 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   &nbsp;&nbsp;Total               </td><td>100·00 </td><td> 100·26 </td><td>  99·99 </td><td>  99·98 </td><td>  99·99 </td><td>  99·90 </td><td>  100·00 </td><td>   99·17  </td><td>  99·68  </td><td>  100·00   </td><td> 100·00 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   &nbsp;&nbsp;Per-centage of Ash  </td><td>  1·01 </td><td>   1·70 </td><td>   0·70 </td><td>   1·24 </td><td>  18·54 </td><td>   8·09 </td><td>    2·32 </td><td>    1·645 </td><td>   5·252 </td><td>    2·22   </td><td>   5·49 </td></tr>
+<tr><td>                         </td><td class="c">   *   </td><td class="c">    *   </td><td class="c">    *   </td><td class="c">    *   </td><td>        </td><td>        </td><td>         </td><td>          </td><td>         </td><td>           </td><td>        </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page254" name="page254"></a>[254]</span></p>
+
+<a name="h2H_APPE" id="h2H_APPE"><!-- H2 anchor --></a>
+
+<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+<h2>
+    APPENDIX.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+Whilst this Work was passing through the press, a valuable Report on
+Agricultural Statistics was issued by the Board of Trade. The following
+statistics, collected from this Report, are here given, because they
+modify the statements made in page 5:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<table class="closed" border="0" align="center" width="100%" summary="Statistics of UK agriculture, 1867">
+
+<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="9">  POPULATION, AREA, ACREAGE UNDER CROPS, <span class="sc">etc.</span>, AND NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK, IN THE UNITED KINGDOM IN 1867.</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><th rowspan="2">                             </th><th rowspan="2"> England.   </th><th rowspan="2"> Wales.   </th><th rowspan="2"> Scotland.  </th><th rowspan="2"> Ireland. </th><th rowspan="2">  Isle of Man. </th><th  colspan="2">Channel Islands</th><th rowspan="2">Total for United Kingdom</th></tr>
+
+<tr>                                                                                                                                              <th>  Jersey. </th><th> Guernsey, &amp;c.</th></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">   Population (1866)         </td><td>20,276,494  </td><td>1,187,103 </td><td> 3,136,057  </td><td> 5,571,971</td><td>   52,469   </td><td>  55,613  </td><td>   35,365   </td><td>30,315,072</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">   Area (in Statute Acres)   </td><td>32,590,397  </td><td>4,734,486 </td><td>19,639,377  </td><td>20,322,641</td><td>  180,000   </td><td>  28,717  </td><td>   17,967   </td><td>77,513,585</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">   Under Corn Crops          </td><td> 7,399,347  </td><td>  521,404 </td><td> 1,364,029  </td><td> 2,115,137</td><td>   27,039   </td><td>   2,827  </td><td>    2,157   </td><td>11,431,940</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   &nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp; Green Crops         </td><td> 2,691,734  </td><td>  138,387 </td><td>   668,042  </td><td> 1,432,252</td><td>   12,670   </td><td>   5,636  </td><td>    3,075   </td><td> 4,951,796</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   &nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp; Bare Fallow         </td><td>   753,210  </td><td>   86,257 </td><td>    83,091  </td><td>    26,191</td><td>    1,990   </td><td>   2,550  </td><td>      709   </td><td>   953,998</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   &nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp; Grass&mdash;Clover, &amp;c.,
+                   Under Rotation    </td><td> 2,478,117  </td><td>  300,756 </td><td> 1,211,101  </td><td> 1,658,451</td><td>   26,884   </td><td>   3,250  </td><td>      874   </td><td> 5,679,433</td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">   Permanent Pasture,
+             not broken up in
+             Rotation<sup><a name="noteref-38"><!--38--></a><a href="#note-38">38</a></sup>
+                                     </td><td> 9,545,675  </td><td>1,472,359 </td><td> 1,053,285  </td><td>10,057,072</td><td>   15,915   </td><td>   6,092  </td><td>    6,143   </td><td>22,156,541</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">   Per-centage of
+             Acreage:<sup><a name="noteref-39"><!--39--></a><a href="#note-39">39</a></sup>&mdash;
+                                     </td><td>            </td><td>          </td><td>            </td><td>          </td><td>            </td><td>          </td><td>            </td><td>          </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   Under Corn Crops          </td><td>   32·3     </td><td>   20·7   </td><td>   31·1     </td><td>   13·6   </td><td>    32·0    </td><td>   13·9   </td><td>    16·7    </td><td>   25·1   </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   &nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp; Green Crops         </td><td>   11·7     </td><td>    5·5   </td><td>   15·3     </td><td>    9·2   </td><td>    15·0    </td><td>   27·6   </td><td>    23·7    </td><td>   10·9   </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   &nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp; Bare Fallow         </td><td>    3·3     </td><td>    3·4   </td><td>    1·9     </td><td>     ·2   </td><td>     2·4    </td><td>   12·5   </td><td>     5·5    </td><td>    2·1   </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   &nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp; Grass&mdash;Clover, &amp;c.,
+                   under Rotation    </td><td>   10·8     </td><td>   11·9   </td><td>   27·7     </td><td>   10·7   </td><td>    31·8    </td><td>   16·0   </td><td>     6·7    </td><td>   12·4   </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">   Permanent Pasture<sup><a name="noteref-40"><!--40--></a><a href="#note-40">40</a></sup>
+                                     </td><td>   41·6     </td><td>   58·5   </td><td>   24·0     </td><td>   64·7   </td><td>    18·8    </td><td>   30·0   </td><td>    47·4    </td><td>   48·7   </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">   Number of Cattle          </td><td> 3,469,026  </td><td>  544,538 </td><td>   979,470  </td><td> 3,702,378</td><td>   18,672   </td><td>  10,081  </td><td>    7,308   </td><td> 8,731,473</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">   &nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp; of Sheep           </td><td>19,798,337  </td><td>2,227,161 </td><td> 6,893,603  </td><td> 4,826,015</td><td>   70,958   </td><td>     529  </td><td>    1,348   </td><td>33,817,951</td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">     &nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;    of Pigs            </td><td> 2,548,755  </td><td>  229,917 </td><td>   188,307  </td><td> 1,233,893</td><td>    7,706   </td><td>   5,804  </td><td>    6,718   </td><td> 4,221,100</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="l">   Number of Live Stock
+               to every 100 Acres
+               under Crops, Fallow,
+               and Grass:&mdash;     </td><td>            </td><td>          </td><td>            </td><td>          </td><td>            </td><td>          </td><td>            </td><td>          </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">     Cattle                  </td><td>   15·1     </td><td>   21·6   </td><td>   22·4     </td><td>   23·8   </td><td>    22·1    </td><td>   49·5   </td><td>    56·4    </td><td>   19·2   </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">     Sheep                   </td><td>   86·3     </td><td>   88·4   </td><td>  157·4     </td><td>   31·1   </td><td>    84·0    </td><td>    2·6   </td><td>    10·4    </td><td>   74·3   </td></tr>
+<tr class="b1"><td class="l">     Pigs                    </td><td>   11·1     </td><td>    9·1   </td><td>    4·3     </td><td>    7·9   </td><td>     9·1    </td><td>   28·5   </td><td>    51·8    </td><td>    9·3   </td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<a name="note-38"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-38">38</a>)
+Exclusive of heath or mountain land.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-39"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-39">39</a>)
+The per-centage of acreage is exclusive
+of Hops in Great Britain, and Flax in Ireland.
+</p>
+
+<a name="note-40"><!--Note--></a>
+<p class="foot">
+(<a href="#noteref-40">40</a>)
+Including under Flax, 253,105 acres.
+</p>
+
+<div style="height: 6em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+Project Gutenberg's The Stock-Feeder's Manual, by Charles Alexander Cameron
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Stock-Feeder's Manual
+       the chemistry of food in relation to the breeding and
+       feeding of live stock
+
+Author: Charles Alexander Cameron
+
+Release Date: May 19, 2008 [EBook #25520]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STOCK-FEEDER'S MANUAL ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, David Garcia and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images produced by Core Historical
+Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: PRIZE YEARLING SHORT-HORN BULL, "VICTOR EMMANUEL,"
+
+THE PROPERTY OF LORD TALBOT DE MALAHIDE,
+
+Was awarded the First Prize in his Section (there being sixteen
+competitors), at the Show of the Royal Agricultural Society, held
+at Belfast, in August, 1861. Calved June 24, 1860; sire, Prince
+Duke the Second (16,731); dam, Turfoida, by Earl of Dublin (10,178);
+gd., Rosina, by Gray Friar (9,172); ggd., Hinda, by Little John (4,232).]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE STOCK-FEEDER'S MANUAL.
+
+
+  THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD IN RELATION TO
+  THE BREEDING AND FEEDING OF LIVE STOCK.
+
+
+BY CHARLES A. CAMERON, Ph.D., M.D.,
+
+    Licentiate of the King and Queen's College of Physicians
+    in Ireland; Honorary Corresponding Member of the New York
+    State Agricultural Society; Member of the Agricultural
+    Society of Belgium; Professor of Hygiene or Political
+    Medicine in the Royal College of Surgeons; Professor of
+    Chemistry and Natural Philosophy in Steevens' Hospital
+    and Medical College; Lecturer on Chemistry in the Ledwich
+    School of Medicine; Analyst to the City of Dublin; Chemist
+    to the County of Kildare Agricultural Society, the Queen's
+    County Agricultural Society, c.; Member of the International
+    Jury of the Paris Exhibition, 1867; Editor of the
+    "Agricultural Review;" one of the Editors of the "Irish
+    Farmer's Gazette;" Author of the "Chemistry of Agriculture,"
+    "Sugar and the Sugar Duties," &c. &c.
+
+
+  LONDON AND NEW YORK:
+  CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN.
+  1868.
+
+[_All rights reserved._]
+
+
+
+  LONDON
+  CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN, BELLE SAUVAGE WORKS,
+  LUDGATE HILL, E. C.
+
+
+
+  THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE
+  Dedicated
+  TO
+
+  THE RIGHT HONORABLE
+  THE LORD TALBOT DE MALAHIDE, F.R.S.,
+  _President of the Royal Irish Academy, &c. &c. &c._,
+
+  ONE OF THE MOST ENLIGHTENED AND LIBERAL PROMOTERS
+  OF AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENTS.
+
+  THE AUTHOR IS UNDER MANY OBLIGATIONS TO HIS LORDSHIP, FOR
+  WHICH HE CAN MAKE NO RETURN SAVE THIS PUBLIC ACKNOWLEDGMENT
+  OF HIS INDEBTEDNESS.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+Some papers on the Chemistry of Food, read before the Royal Agricultural
+Society of Ireland and the Athy Farmers' Club, and a few articles on the
+Management of Live Stock, published in the _Weekly Agricultural Review_,
+constitute the basis of this Work. It describes the nature of the food
+used by the domesticated animals, explains the composition of the animal
+tissues, and treats generally upon the important subject of nutrition.
+The most recent analyses of all the kinds of food usually consumed by
+the animals of the farm are fully stated; and the nutritive values of
+those substances are in most instances given. Some information is
+afforded relative to the breeds and breeding of live stock; and a
+division of the Work is wholly devoted to the consideration of the
+economic production of "meat, milk, and butter."
+
+Within the last twenty years the processes of chemical analysis have
+been so much improved, that the composition of organic bodies is now
+determined with great accuracy. The analyses of foods made from twenty
+to fifty years ago, possess now but little value. In this Work the
+analyses of vegetables quoted are chiefly those recently performed by the
+distinguished Scotch chemist, Dr. Thomas Anderson, and by Dr. Voelcker.
+The Author believes that in no other Work of moderate size are there so
+many analyses of food substances given, and ventures to hope that the
+success of this Work may fully justify the belief that a "handy" book
+containing such information as that above mentioned, is much required
+by stock feeders.
+
+  _102, Lower Baggot Street, Dublin_,
+    April, 1868.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+                                                                   PAGE
+
+INTRODUCTION: History of Agriculture--Agricultural Statistics--Imports
+  of Live Stock
+
+                                                                      1
+
+PART I. ON THE GROWTH AND COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS.
+
+SECTION I. ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE. Functions of Plants. Animal
+  Life.--SECTION II. COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. Elements of
+  Organic Bodies. Proximate Composition of Organic Substances.--SECTION III.
+  USE OF FAT IN THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. Fatty Food necessary in Cold Climates.
+  Fat Equivalents.--SECTION IV. RELATION BETWEEN THE COMPOSITION OF AN
+  ANIMAL AND THAT OF ITS FOOD. Tables of Experimental Results.--SECTION V.
+  RELATION BETWEEN THE QUANTITY OF FOOD CONSUMED BY AN ANIMAL AND
+  THE INCREASE OF ITS WEIGHT, OR OF THE AMOUNT OF ITS WORK. Weights
+  of Foods necessary to sustain a Man's Life for twenty-four hours.
+  Value of Manure.
+
+                                                                      8
+
+PART II. ON THE BREEDING AND BREEDS OF STOCK.
+
+SECTION I. THE BREEDING OF STOCK.--SECTION II. THE BREEDS OF STOCK.
+  The Form of Animals. _Breeds of the Ox._ Shorthorns. Devons.
+  Herefords. Ayrshires. Polled Cattle. Kyloes. Long-horned.
+  Kerrys. Alderneys. _Sheep._ The Leicester. Lincoln. Cotswold.
+  Cheviot. Southdown. Shropshire. Blackfaced. _Breeds of the
+  Pig._ Berkshire. Yorkshire. _Breeds of the Horse._ Clydesdales.
+  Suffolk Punch. Hunters and Racers.
+
+                                                                     47
+
+PART III. ON THE MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCK.
+
+SECTION I. THE OX. Breeding Cows. Wintering of Young Stock. Shelter
+  of Stock. Milch Cows. Stall Feeding. Cost of Maintaining Animals.
+  Cooking and Bruising Food. Value for Feeding Purposes of various
+  Foods. Bedding Cattle.--SECTION II. THE SHEEP. Breeding Ewes.
+  Yeaning. Rearing of Lambs. Sheep Feeding. Sheep Dips.--SECTION III. THE
+  PIG. Young Pigs. Store Pigs. Fattening Pigs.--SECTION IV. THE HORSE.
+  Foals. Dietaries for the Horse.
+
+                                                                     74
+
+PART IV. MEAT, MILK, AND BUTTER.
+
+SECTION I. MEAT. Quality of Meat. Is very Fat Meat Unwholesome?
+  Diseased Meat.--SECTION II. MILK. Composition of Milk of Different
+  Animals. Yield of Milk. Preserved Milk.--SECTION III. BUTTER. History
+  of Butter. Irish Butter. Composition of Butter. The Butter
+  Manufacture.
+
+                                                                    112
+
+PART V. ON THE COMPOSITION AND VALUE OF VEGETABLE FOODS.
+
+SECTION I. THE MONEY VALUE OF FOOD SUBSTANCES.--SECTION II. PROXIMATE
+  CONSTITUENTS OF VEGETABLES. Starch. Sugar. Inulin. Gum. Pectin.
+  Cellulose. Oils and Fats. Stearin. Margarin. Olein. Palmitin.
+  Albumen. Fibrin. Legumin.--SECTION III. GREEN FOOD. The
+  Grasses. Schroeder Brome. Tussac Grass. The Clovers. Leguminous
+  Plants--Vetch, Sainfoin, &c. The Yellow Lupine. Rib Grass Plantain.
+  Ergot in Grasses. Holcus Saccharatus. Green Rye. Buckwheat. Rape.
+  Mustard. Comfrey. Chicory. Yarrow. Melons and Marrows. Cabbage.
+  Furze.--SECTION IV. STRAW AND HAY. _Straw._ Anderson's, Voelcker's,
+  and Cameron's Analyses of Straws. Feeding Experiments with Straw.
+  Relative Values of Straw and Oil-cake. _Hay._ Composition of the
+  Hay of different Grasses. Over-ripening of Hay. Damaged Hay and
+  Straw.--SECTION V. ROOTS AND TUBERS. _Turnips._ Swedish. White
+  Globe. Aberdeen Yellow. Purple-top. Norfolk Bell. Greystone.
+  Turnip Tops. Analyses of Turnips. Mangel Wurtzel. Chemistry of
+  the Mangel. Stripping Leaves off the Mangel. Beet-root. Parsnip.
+  Carrot. Kohl-rabi. Analyses of Kohl-rabi. Radish. The Radish as
+  a Field Crop. Composition of Radish. Jerusalem Artichoke: Advantages
+  of Cultivating it. Analysis of Jerusalem Artichoke. Potato: Analyses
+  of six varieties. Feeding Value of Potatoes.--SECTION VI. SEEDS. _Wheat._
+  Analyses of Wheat, Flour, Bran, and Husks. Over-ripening of
+  Grain. Wheat a Costly Food. Analyses of Barley, Oat Grain, Indian
+  Corn, Rye, Rice, Rice-dust, and Buckwheat. Malted Corn. Voelcker's
+  Analyses of Malt and Barley. Experiments of Thompson, Lawes, &c.,
+  with Malt. Malt Combings. _Leguminous Seeds._ Beans. Composition
+  of Common Beans, Foreign Beans, Peas. Lentils and Winter Tares.
+  _Oil Seeds._ Rape Seeds. Experiments with Rapeseed. Flax Bolls.
+  Composition of Linseed, Rape-seed, Hemp-seed, and Cotton-seed.
+  Fenugreek Seed.--SECTION VII. OIL-CAKES AND OTHER ARTIFICIAL FOODS.
+  Composition of Linseed, Rape-seed, Cotton-seed, and Poppy-seed
+  Cake. Linseed-cake. Adulteration of Linseed-cake. Rape-cake.
+  Feeding Experiments with Rape-cake. Adulterations of Rape-cake.
+  Cotton-seed Cake. Analyses of Decorticated Cotton-seed Cake.
+  Palm-nut Meal: its Composition and Nutritive Properties. Locust,
+  or Carob Bean: its Composition. Dates. Brewers' Dregs and
+  Distillery Wash. Molasses and Treacle.--SECTION VIII. CONDIMENTAL FOOD.
+  Lawes' Experiments with Thorley's Food. Analyses of Condimental
+  Food. Formula for a Tonic Food.--SECTION IX. TABLES OF THE ANALYSES
+  OF THE ASHES OF PLANTS.
+
+                                                                    147
+
+APPENDIX. AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. Numbers of Live Stock in the United
+  Kingdom. Value of the Agriculture Products of Great Britain.
+
+                                                                    254
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+When Virgil composed his immortal "Bucolics," and Varro indited his
+profound Essays on Agriculture, the inhabitants of the British Islands
+were almost completely ignorant of the art of cultivating the soil.
+The rude spoils torn from the carcasses of savage animals protected the
+bodies of their hardly less savage victors; and the produce of the chase
+served almost exclusively to nourish the hardy frames of the ancient
+Celtic hunters. In early ages wild beasts abounded in the numerous and
+extensive forests of Britain and Ireland; but men were few, for the
+conditions under which the maintenance of a dense population is possible
+did not then exist. As civilisation progressed, men rapidly multiplied,
+and the demand for food increased. The pursuit of game became merely the
+pastime of the rich; and tame sheep and oxen furnished meat to the lowly
+as well as to the great. Nor were the fruits of the earth neglected; for
+during the latter days of the dominion of the Romans, England raised
+large quantities of corn. Gradually the food of the people, which at
+first was almost purely animal, became chiefly vegetable. The shepherds,
+who had supplanted the hunters, became less numerous than the tillers of
+land; and the era of tillage husbandry began.
+
+At present the great mass of the rural population of these countries
+subsist almost exclusively upon vegetable aliment--a diet which poverty,
+and not inclination, prescribes for them. Were the flesh of animals
+the staple food of the British peasantry, their numbers would not be
+nearly so large as they now are, for a given area of land is capable of
+sustaining a far larger number of vegetarians than of meat eaters. The
+Chinese are by no means averse to animal food, but they are so numerous,
+that they are in general obliged to content themselves on a purely
+vegetable diet.
+
+In the manufacturing districts of Great Britain, there are several
+millions of people whose condition in relation to food is somewhat
+different from that of the small farmer and agricultural laborer. The
+artizans employed in our great industries are comparatively well paid
+for their toil; and the results of their labor place within their reach
+a fair share of animal food. This section of the population is rapidly
+increasing, and consequently is daily augmenting the demand for meat.
+The rural population is certainly not increasing; rather the reverse.
+Less manual labor is now expended in the operations of agriculture, and
+even horses are retiring before the advance of the steam plough. The
+only great purely vegetable-feeding class is diminishing, and the upper,
+the middle, and the artizan classes--the beef and mutton eating sections
+of society--are rapidly increasing. It is clear, then, that we are
+threatened with a revival of the pastoral age, and that in one way, at
+least, we are returning to the condition of our ancestors, whose staple
+food consisted of beef, mutton, and pork.
+
+And here two questions arise. How long shall we be able to supply the
+increasing demand for meat? How long shall we be able to compete with
+the foreign feeders? These are momentous queries for the British farmer,
+and I trust they may be solved in a satisfactory manner. At any time
+during the present century the foreign or colonial grower of wheat could
+have undersold the British producer of that article, were the latter not
+protected by a tariff; but cattle could not, as a general rule, be
+imported into Great Britain at a cheaper rate than they could be
+produced at home. Were there no corn imported, it is certain that the
+price of bread would be greater than it is now, even if the grain
+harvests had been better than they have been for some years past. A bad
+cereal harvest in England raises the price of flour, but only to a small
+and strictly limited extent, because, practically, there is no limit
+to the amount of bread-stuffs procurable from abroad. When, on the
+contrary, the turnip crop fails, or that excessive drought greatly
+curtails the yield of grass, the price of meat and butter increases
+greatly, and is but slightly modified by the importation of foreign
+stock.
+
+Hitherto the difficulty of transit has been so great that we have only
+derived supplies of live stock from countries situated at a short
+distance, such as Holstein and Holland. Vast herds of cattle are fed
+with but little expense in America, and myriads of sheep are maintained
+cheaply in Australia; but the immense distances which intervene between
+our country and those remote and sparsely populated regions have,
+hitherto, prevented the superabundant supply of animal food produced
+therein from being available to the teeming population of the British
+Isles. Should, however, any cheap mode of conveying live stock, or even
+their flesh, from those and similarly circumstanced countries be
+devised, it might render the production of meat in Britain a far less
+profitable occupation than it is now. That we are increasing the area
+from whence we draw our supplies of live stock is evident from the fact,
+that within the last two years enormous numbers of horned stock have
+been imported from Spain. In that extensive country there are noble
+breeds of the ox; and it would appear that very large numbers of animals
+could be annually exported, without depriving the inhabitants of a due
+supply of bovine meat. As Spain is not very distant, it is likely that
+this traffic will be increased, and that in a short time we shall be as
+well supplied with Spanish beef as we are now provided with French
+flour. Meat is at present dear, and is likely to continue so for some
+time; but still it is evident that, sooner or later, the British feeders
+will come into keen competition with the foreign producer of meat, and
+that the price of their commodity will consequently fall. The mere
+probability of such a state of things, were there no other reason,
+should induce the feeder to devote increased attention to the
+improvement of his stock, and to discover more economical methods of
+feeding them. There is still much to be learned relative to the precise
+nutritive values of the various feeding stuffs. The proper modes of
+cooking, or otherwise preparing, food, are still to be satisfactorily
+determined; and there are many very important questions in relation to
+the breeding of stock yet unanswered.
+
+It is but fair to admit that the farmer is earnestly endeavouring to
+improve his art, and that he is willing, nay anxious, to obtain the
+co-operation of scientific men, in order to increase his knowledge of
+the theory as well as the practice of his ancient calling. Indeed, he
+not only admits the utility of science in agriculture, but often places
+an undue degree of value upon the theories of the chemist, of the
+botanist, and of the geologist. This is encouraging to the men of
+science; but, on the other hand, they must admit that by far the greater
+portion of the sum of human knowledge has been derived from the
+experience and observation of men utterly unacquainted with science, in
+the ordinary signification of that term. This portion of our knowledge
+is also, in its practical application, the most valuable. In the most
+important branch of industry--agriculture--the labors of the purely
+scientific man have as yet borne but scant fruit; whilst the unaided
+efforts of the husbandman have reclaimed from sterility extensive
+tracts, and caused them to "blossom as the rose." That practical men
+should have done so much, and scientific men so little, for agriculture,
+may easily be explained. Countless millions of men, during many
+thousands of years, have incessantly been occupied in improving the
+processes of mechanical agriculture, which, as an _art_, has
+consequently been brought to a high degree of perfection: but scientific
+agriculture is a creation of almost our own time, and the number of its
+cultivators is, and always has been, very small; all its theories cannot,
+therefore, justly claim that degree of confidence which, as a rule, is
+only reposed in the opinions founded on the experience of practical
+workers in the field and in the feeding-house. Still, the farmer has
+derived a great amount of useful information from the chemist and
+physiologist; and they alone can explain to him the causes of the
+various phenomena which the different branches of his art present. There
+was a time when it was the fashion of the man of science to look down
+with contempt, from the lofty pedestal on which he placed himself, upon
+the lessons of practical experience read to him by the cultivator of the
+soil; whilst at the same time the farmer treated as foolish visionaries
+those who applied the teachings of science to the improvement of their
+art. But this time has happily passed away. The scientific man no longer
+despises the knowledge of the mere farmers, but turns to good account
+the information derivable from their experience; whilst the farmer, on
+the other side, has ceased to speak in contemptuous terms of mere "book
+learning." It is to this happy combination of the theorist with the
+practical man that the recent remarkable advance in agriculture is
+chiefly due; and to it we may confidently look for improvement in the
+economic production of meat and butter, and for the enlargement of our
+knowledge of the relative value of food substances.
+
+  STATEMENT OF THE NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
+
+  ---------+------------------------------------+
+           |         Enumerated, 1866.          |
+           +-----------+------------+-----------+
+           |  Cattle.  |   Sheep.   |   Pigs.   |
+           +-----------+------------+----+------+
+  England  | 3,307,034 | 15,124,541 | 2,066,299 |
+  Wales    |   541,401 |  1,668,663 |   191,604 |
+  Islands  |    17,700 |     57,685 |    22,887 |
+  Scotland |   937,411 |  5,255,077 |   219,716 |
+  Ireland  | 3,493,414 |  3,688,742 | 1,299,893 |
+           +-----------+------------+-----------+
+    Total  | 8,316,960 | 25,794,708 | 3,800,399 |
+  ---------+-----------+------------+-----------+
+
+  ---------+------------------------------------+
+           |          Estimated, 1865.          |
+           +-----------+------------+-----------+
+           |  Cattle.  |   Sheep.   |  Pigs.    |
+           +-----------+------------+-----------+
+  England  | 3,422,165 | 18,691,088 | 2,363,724 |
+  Wales    |   ----    |    ----    |   ----    |
+  Islands  |   ----    |    ----    |   ----    |
+  Scotland |   974,437 |  5,683,168 |   146,354 |
+  Ireland  | 3,493,414 |  3,688,742 | 1,299,893 |
+           +-----------+------------+-----------+
+    Total  | 7,890,016 | 28,062,998 | 3,809,971 |
+  ---------+-----------+------------+-----------+
+
+
+  STATEMENT OF THE POPULATION AND NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK IN THE
+  UNITED KINGDOM AND VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES, ACCORDING TO
+  THE LATEST RETURNS.
+
+  +--------------+-------+----------+------------------------------+----------+----------+
+  |              |Date of|Population|           Cattle.            |          |          |
+  | Countries.   |Returns|according |---------+---------+----------+  Sheep.  |  Pigs.   |
+  |              |of Live|to Latest |  Cows.  |  Other  |  Total.  |          |          |
+  |              |Stock. |Returns.  |         | Cattle. |          |          |          |
+  +--------------+-------+----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |United Kingdom|1865-66|29,070,932|3,286,308|5,030,652| 8,316,960|25,795,708| 3,802,399|
+  |Russia        |1859-63|74,139,394|    ...  |    ...  |25,444,000|45,130,800|10,097,000|
+  |Denmark Proper|  1861 | 1,662,734|  756,834|  361,940| 1,118,774| 1,751,950|   300,928|
+  |Sleswig       |  1861 |   421,486|  217,751|  172,250|   390,001|   362,219|    87,867|
+  |Holstein      |  1861 |   561,831|  198,310|   92,062|   290,372|   165,344|    82,398|
+  |Sweden        |  1860 | 3,859,728|1,112,944|  803,714| 1,916,658| 1,644,156|   457,981|
+  |Prussia       |  1862 |18,491,220|3,382,703|2,251,797| 5,634,500|17,428,017| 2,709,709|
+  |Hanover       |  1861 | 1,880,070|    ...  |    ...  |   949,179| 2,211,927|   554,056|
+  |Saxony        |  1861 | 2,225,240|  411,563|  226,897|   638,460|   371,986|   270,462|
+  |Wurtemburg    |  1861 | 1,720,708|  466,758|  490,414|   957,172|   683,842|   216,965|
+  |Grand Duchy   |       |          |         |         |          |          |          |
+  | of Baden     |  1861 | 1,429,199|  348,418|  273,068|   621,486|   177,322|   307,198|
+  | "  Hesse     |  1863 |   853,315|  187,442|  129,211|   316,653|   231,787|   195,596|
+  | "  Nassau    |  1864 |   468,311|  116,421|   84,224|   200,645|   152,584|    65,979|
+  |     Mecklenb.|       |          |         |         |          |          |          |
+  | "  Schwerin  |  1857 |   539,258|  197,622|   69,215|   266,837| 1,198,450|   157,522|
+  | "  Oldenburg |  1852 |   279,637|    ...  |    ...  |   219,843|   295,322|    87,336|
+  |Holland       |  1864 | 3,618,459|  943,214|  390,673| 1,333,887|   930,136|   294,636|
+  |Belgium       |  1856 | 4,529,461|    ...  |    ...  | 1,257,649|   583,485|   458,418|
+  |France        |  1862 |37,386,313|5,781,465|8,415,895|14,197,360|33,281,592| 5,246,403|
+  |Spain         |  1865 |15,658,531|    ...  |    ...  | 2,904,598|22,054,967| 4,264,817|
+  |Austria       |  1863 |36,267,648|6,353,086|7,904,030|14,257,116|16,964,236| 8,151,608|
+  |Bavaria       |  1863 | 4,807,440|1,530,626|1,655,356| 3,185,882| 2,058,638|   926,522|
+  |United States |  1860 |31,445,080|8,728,862|8,182,813|16,911,475|23,317,756|32,555,267|
+  +--------------+-------+----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+
+  NUMBERS OF THE LIVE STOCK IMPORTED INTO GREAT BRITAIN
+  DURING THE ELEVEN MONTHS ENDED 31st NOVEMBER, 1867.
+
+  Bullocks, bulls, and cows                              150,518
+  Calves                                                  20,720
+  Sheep and lambs                                        504,514
+  Pigs                                                    45,566
+                                                        --------
+                                                         721,318
+
+  AMOUNT OF ANIMAL FOOD IMPORTED DURING SAME PERIOD.
+
+  Bacon and hams                              cwts.      452,132
+  Salt beef                                    "         163,638
+  Salt pork                                    "         123,257
+  Butter                                       "       1,000,095
+  Lard                                         "         213,599
+  Cheese                                       "         798,267
+  Eggs                                               373,042,000
+
+I am indebted to Professor Ferguson, Chief of the Veterinary Department
+of the Irish Privy Council Office, for the following statement:--
+
+  RETURN OF HORNED CATTLE EXPORTED FROM THE SEVERAL IRISH
+  PORTS AT WHICH VETERINARY INSPECTORS HAVE BEEN APPOINTED,
+  AND CERTIFIED AS FREE FROM DISEASE, FROM THE 18th OF
+  NOVEMBER, 1866, TO THE 16th OF NOVEMBER, 1867 (52 WEEKS).
+
+  Fat Stock                                              187,483
+  Store Stock                                            317,331
+  Breeding and Dairy Stock                                36,599
+                                                        --------
+            Total                                        541,413
+                                                        ========
+
+
+
+
+PART I.
+
+ON THE GROWTH AND COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE.
+
+_Functions of Plants._--It is the primary function of plants to convert
+the inorganic matter of the soil and air into organised structures
+of a highly complex nature. The food of plants is purely mineral, and
+consists chiefly of water, carbonic acid, and ammonia. Water is composed
+of the elements oxygen and hydrogen; carbonic acid is a compound of
+oxygen and carbon; and ammonia is formed of hydrogen and nitrogen. These
+four substances are termed the _organic elements_, because they form by
+far the larger portion--sometimes the whole--of organic bodies. The
+combustible portion of plants and animals is composed of the organic
+elements; the incombustible part is made up of potassium, sodium, and
+the various other elements enumerated in another page. The organic
+elements are furnished chiefly by the atmosphere, and the incombustible
+matters are supplied by the soil.
+
+Water in the state of vapor forms, according to the temperature and
+other conditions of the atmosphere, from a half per cent. to four and a
+half per cent. of the weight of that fluid--about 1.25 per cent. being
+the average; carbonic acid exists in it to the extent of 1/2000th; and
+ammonia forms a minute portion of it--according to Dr. Angus Smith, one
+grain weight in 412.42 cubic feet of air (of a town), or 0.000453 per
+cent. It is remarkable that the most abundant constituents of atmospheric
+air--oxygen and nitrogen--are not assimilable by plants, although these
+elements enter largely into the composition of vegetable substances. In
+the soil, also, the part which ministers to the wants of vegetables is
+relatively quite insignificant in amount.
+
+Plants are unendowed with organs of locomotion, their food must
+therefore be within easy reach. Every breeze wafts gaseous nutriment to
+their expanded leaves, and their rootlets ramify throughout the soil in
+search of appropriate mineral aliment. But no matter how abundant, or
+however easy of reach may be the food of plants, the vegetable organism
+is incapable of partaking of it unless under the influence of light.
+Exposed to this potent stimulus, the plant collects the gaseous carbonic
+acid and the vaporous water, solidifies them, decomposes them, and
+combines their elements into new and organised forms. In effecting these
+changes--in conferring vitality upon the atoms of lifeless matter--the
+plant acts merely as the _mechanism_, the light is the _force_. As the
+work performed by the steam-engine is proportionate to the amount of
+force developed by the combustion of the fuel beneath its boiler,
+so is the rapidity of the elaboration of organic substances by plants
+proportionate to the amount of sunlight to which they are exposed. It is
+an axiom that matter is indestructible; we may alter its form as often
+as we please, but we cannot destroy a particle of it. It is the same
+with _force_: we may convert one kind of it into another--heat into
+light, or magnetism into electricity--but our power ends there; we can
+only cause force, or _motion_, to pass from one of its conditions to
+another, but its _quantity_ can never be diminished by the power of man.
+
+The principle of the Conservation of the Forces gives us a clear
+explanation of the fact that animals can obtain their food only through
+the medium of the vegetable kingdom. Plants are stationary mechanisms;
+they have no need to develop motive power, as animals have, in moving
+themselves from place to place. Their temperature is, we may say, the
+same as that of the medium in which they exist. Such beings as plants
+do not, therefore, require the expenditure of force to maintain their
+vitality; on the contrary, their mechanisms are, for a beneficent
+purpose, constructed for the _accumulation_ of force. The growing
+plant absorbs, together with carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, a
+proportionate amount of light, heat, and the various other subtile
+forces which have their abiding place in the sun-beam--
+
+                              "That golden chain,
+  Whose strong embrace holds heaven and earth and main."
+
+Co-incidentally with the conversion of the mineral constituents of the
+food of plants into organised structures--albumen, fibre, and such
+like substances--the light, and the heat, and the various other forces
+likewise suffer a change. Although the precise nature of the new force
+into which they are converted is still a mystery--one, too, which may
+never be revealed to us--still we know sufficient of it to satisfy
+us that it can only exist in connection with organic or organised
+structures. It is owing to its presence that the elements of these
+structures (the natural state of which is mineral) are bound together
+in what may be aptly designated a constrained state; or, as Liebig
+aptly expresses it, like the matter in a bent spring. So long as the
+organic structure retains its form, it will be a reservoir of latent
+force--which will manifest itself in some form during the recoil of the
+atoms of the matter forming the structure to their original mineral, or
+statical condition: so the bent spring, when the pressure is removed,
+returns to its original straight form.
+
+_Animal Life._--The chief manifestation of the life of a plant is the
+accumulation of force; very different are the functions of animal life.
+It is only by the continuous _expenditure_ of force that the vitality of
+animals is preserved; the heat of a man's body, his power of locomotion,
+the performance of his daily toil, even his very faculty of thought, are
+all dependent upon, and to a great extent proportionate to, the amount
+of organised matter disorganised in his body. It is by the conversion
+of this organised matter into its original mineral state of water,
+carbonic acid, and ammonia, that the force originally expended in
+arranging, through the agency of plants, its atoms, is again restored,
+chiefly in the form of heat and animal motive power.
+
+Animals, as a class, are completely dependent upon vegetables for
+their existence. There is every reason to believe that the most lowly
+organised beings in the scale of animal life, even those of so
+simple a structure as to have been long regarded as vegetables or as
+plant-animals, are incapable of organising mineral matter. The so-called
+vegetative life of animals--for I believe the term to be exceedingly
+inexact--is applied to their growth, that is, to the increase in their
+weight. This increase takes place by their power of reorganising, or
+of assimilating to the nature of their own organisms, certain of the
+substances elaborated by plants, and destined to become food for
+animals.
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.
+
+_Elements of Organic Bodies._--The number of distinct kinds of
+substances--each distinguishable from all the others by the peculiarity
+of its properties, taken as a whole--is exceedingly great, yet all
+these substances are resolvable into a very small number of bodies.
+As an illustration, I shall take a well-known substance, common
+green copperas, or, as the chemists term it, protosulphate of iron.
+By submitting this compound to the process termed chemical analysis,
+two other kinds of matter may be obtained from it, namely, oxide of iron
+and oil of vitrol, or sulphuric acid. If we continued this process--if
+we submitted the acid and the oxide to analysis--we could separate the
+former into sulphur and oxygen, and the latter into iron and oxygen.
+Now, by these means we could demonstrate the compound nature of
+copperas; we could prove that it was _proximately_ composed of sulphuric
+acid and oxide of iron; and, _ultimately_, of iron, sulphur, and oxygen.
+
+Iron, sulphur, and oxygen, are elementary, or simple bodies. They cannot
+be decomposed; they cannot be analysed. Torture them as we will in our
+crucibles; expose them as we please to the highest temperature of a wind
+furnace, or to the more intense heat evolved by a powerful galvanic
+battery; subject them to the influence of any agent, or force, or
+process we may choose, and still they will yield nothing but iron,
+sulphur, and oxygen: hence these undecomposable bodies are regarded as
+_elements_, or simple substances. So far as our knowledge extends, there
+are about sixty-six of these undecomposable bodies, of which about one
+half occurs in but exceedingly minute quantities, and a considerable
+number of the others exists in comparatively small amounts. As by far
+the greater proportion of compounds is made up of two or more of about
+a dozen elementary bodies, it would at first sight appear as if the
+distinct kinds of compounds which exist, or which may be called into
+existence by the chemist, must be limited to, at most, a realisable
+number; but the fact is there is no practical limit to the variety of
+substances which may be artificially formed. Every difference in the
+mode of the arrangement of the constituent atoms of a compound, causes
+its metamorphosis into another kind of substance. To prove that the
+number of these changes is bounded by no narrow limits, I need but refer
+to the rules of Permutation, which demonstrate that twelve letters of
+the alphabet may be arranged in no fewer than 479,000,000 different
+ways.[1] The elements are the letters of Nature's alphabet, their
+compounds are the words of the language of Creation. The combinations
+of sounds and of signs which express the ideas and sensations of man may
+be limited to millions; but numberless are the hieroglyphs by which the
+Divine wisdom and beneficence is inscribed on the pages of the
+magnificent volume of Nature.
+
+Of the sixty-six elementary bodies, not more than a dozen occur
+commonly in animal and vegetable substances; these are Oxygen, Hydrogen,
+Nitrogen, Carbon, Sulphur, Phosphorus, Chlorine, Silicium, Potassium,
+Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, and Iron. In addition to these, Iodine, and
+sometimes Bromine, are found in plants which grow in or near the sea;
+and the former element has also been detected in some of the lower
+animals, and in land plants. Manganese, Lithium, Caesium, Rubidium,
+and a few others of the simple bodies, occasionally occur in plants and
+animals, but I believe their presence therein is always accidental.
+
+_Proximate Composition of Animal Substances._--The differences between
+vegetable and animal substances are often more apparent than real.
+Indeed many of the more important of these substances are almost
+identical in composition. The albumen which coagulates when the juices
+of vegetables are boiled, is identical with the albumen of the white
+of eggs; the fibrine of wheat is in no respect chemically different
+from the fibrine, or clot, of the blood; and, lastly, the legumine,
+or _vegetable caseine_, of peas is almost indistinguishable from the
+curd of milk, or _animal caseine_. But not only has chemical research
+demonstrated the identity of the albumen, fibrine, and caseine of
+vegetables with three of the more important constituents of animals, it
+has gone a step further, and proved that they differ from each other in
+but a few unimportant respects. They are unquestionably convertible into
+each other[2] within the animal organism; and their functions, as elements
+of nutrition, are almost, if not quite, identical.
+
+Exclusive of the blood, which contains the elements of every part of
+the body, the animal organism is composed of three distinct classes of
+substances--namely, _nitrogenous_, _non-nitrogenous_, and _mineral_.
+All of these constituents, or substances capable of being converted
+into them, must exist in the food. Certain articles, for example, milk,
+contains all of them; but in others, for instance, butter, only one of
+these substances is found. The nitrogenous part of the body embraces the
+muscles, or lean flesh, the gelatine of the bones, and the skin and its
+appendages--such as hair and horns; the non-nitrogenous constituents are
+its fat and oil; and its mineral matter is found chiefly in the bony
+framework. These constituents are not, however, isolated: the mineral
+matter, no doubt, accumulates in certain parts, but in small quantities
+it is found in every portion of the body; and although the fat forms a
+distinct tissue, the muscles of the leanest animal are never free from
+a sensible proportion of it.
+
+Albumen, fibrine, and caseine are the principal nitrogenous constituents
+of food, and as they are employed in the reparation of the nitrogenous
+tissues of the animal body, they have been termed _flesh-formers_.
+
+The fat and oil of animals are derived either from vegetable oil and
+fat, or from some such substance as starch or sugar. The constituents
+of food which form fat are termed _fat-formers_, and sometimes
+_heat-givers_ or _respiratory elements_, from the notion that their
+slow combustion in the animal body is the chief cause of its high
+temperature.
+
+The mineral elements of the body are furnished principally by the
+varieties of food which contain nitrogen. The whey of milk is rich in
+them; but they do not exist in pure butter, in starch, or in sugar.
+
+Fat is a much more abundant constituent of the animal body than is
+generally supposed, That this substance should constitute the greater
+portion of the weight of an obese pig seems probable enough; but few
+are aware that even in a lean sheep there is 50 per cent. more fat than
+lean.
+
+For a very accurate knowledge of the relative proportions of the fatty,
+nitrogenous, and mineral constituents of the carcasses of animals used
+as human food, we are indebted to Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert. Before
+these investigators turned their attention to this subject, it had
+scarcely attracted the notice of scientific men; but a notion appears to
+have been current, amongst non-scientific people, at least, that in all,
+save the fattest animals, the lean flesh greatly preponderated over the
+fat. That this idea was unsustained by a foundation of fact, has been
+clearly proved by the results of an investigation[3] undertaken a few
+years ago by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert--an investigation which I cannot
+avoid characterising as one of the most laborious and apparently
+trustworthy on record. The mere statement of the results of this inquiry
+occupies 187 pages of one of the huge volumes of the Transactions of the
+Royal Society--a fact which best indicates the immensity of the labour
+which these gentlemen imposed upon themselves, and which, independently
+of their other and numerous contributions to scientific agriculture,
+entitles their names to most honourable mention in the annals of
+science.
+
+I shall now briefly advert to a few of the more important facts
+established by Lawes and Gilbert. From a large number of oxen, sheep,
+and pigs, on which feeding experiments were being conducted, ten
+individuals were selected. These were, a fat calf, a half-fat ox, a
+moderately fat ox, a fat lamb, a store sheep, a half-fat old sheep, a
+fat sheep, a very fat sheep, a store pig, and a fat pig. These animals
+were killed, and the different organs and parts of their bodies were
+separately weighed and analysed. The results were, that, with the
+exception of the calf, all the animals contained, respectively, more fat
+than lean. The fat ox and the fat lamb contained each three times as
+much fat as lean flesh, and the proportion of the fatty matters to the
+nitrogenous constituents of the carcass of the very fat sheep was as 4
+to 1. In the pig the fat greatly preponderated over the lean; the store
+pig containing three times as much, and the fat pig five times as much
+fat as lean.
+
+That part of the animal which is consumed as food by man, is termed the
+_carcass_ by the butcher, and contains by far the greater portion of
+the fat of the animal. The _offal_, in the language of the butcher,
+constitutes those parts which are not commonly consumed as human food,
+at least by the well-to-do classes. In calves, oxen, lambs, and sheep,
+the offal embraces the skin, the feet, and the head, and all the
+internal organs, excepting the kidneys and their fatty envelope. The
+offal of the pig is made up of all the internal organs, excepting the
+kidneys and kidney fat. It is the relative proportion of fat in the
+carcasses analysed by Lawes and Gilbert that I have stated; but as the
+nitrogenous matters occur in greatest quantity in the offal, it is
+necessary that the relative proportions of the constituents of the body,
+taken as a whole, should be considered. On an average, then, it will be
+found that a fat fully-grown animal will contain 49 per cent. of water,
+33 per cent. of dry fat, 13 per cent. of dry nitrogenous matter--muscles
+separated from fat, hide, &c.--and 3 per cent. of mineral matter. In a
+lean animal the average proportions of the various constituents will be
+54 per cent. of water, 25-1/2 per cent. dry fat, 17 per cent. of dry
+nitrogenous substances, and 3-1/2 per cent. of mineral matter. In the
+following table these proportions are set forth.
+
+
+  SUMMARY OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE TEN ANIMALS--SHOWING THE
+  PER-CENTAGES OF MINERAL MATTER, DRY NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS,
+  FAT, TOTAL DRY SUBSTANCE, AND WATER.
+
+  1st. In Fresh Carcass. 2nd. In Fresh Offal (equal Sum of Parts,
+  excluding Contents of Stomachs and Intestines). 3rd. In Entire
+  Animal (Fasted Live-weight, including therefore the weight of
+  Contents of Stomachs and Intestines).
+
+                              +-----------------------------------------+
+                              | KEY:                                    |
+                              | A.--Mineral matter.                     |
+                              | B.--Dry nitrogenous compounds.          |
+                              | C.--Fat.                                |
+                              | D.--Dry substance.                      |
+                              | E.--Water.                              |
+                              | F.--Contents of viscera.                |
+                              |                                         |
+  ----------------------------+-----------------------------------------+
+                              | Per cent. in Carcass.                   |
+     DESCRIPTION              +--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+      OF ANIMAL.              |    A.  |    B.  |   C.  |   D.  |   E.  |
+  ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+  Fat calf                    |   4.48 |   16.6 |  16.6 |  37.7 |  62.3 |
+  Half-fat ox                 |   5.56 |   17.8 |  22.6 |  46.0 |  54.0 |
+  Fat ox                      |   4.56 |   15.0 |  34.8 |  54.4 |  45.6 |
+  Fat lamb                    |   3.63 |   10.9 |  36.9 |  51.4 |  48.6 |
+  Store sheep                 |   4.36 |   14.5 |  23.8 |  42.7 |  57.3 |
+  Half-fat old sheep          |   4.13 |   14.9 |  31.3 |  50.3 |  49.7 |
+  Fat sheep                   |   3.45 |   11.5 |  45.4 |  60.3 |  39.7 |
+  Extra fat sheep             |   2.77 |    9.1 |  55.1 |  67.0 |  33.0 |
+  Store pig                   |   2.57 |   14.0 |  28.1 |  44.7 |  55.3 |
+  Fat pig                     |   1.40 |   10.5 |  49.5 |  61.4 |  38.6 |
+  ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+  Means of all                |   3.69 |   13.5 |  34.4 |  51.6 |  48.4 |
+  ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+  Means of 8 of the half-fat, |        |        |       |       |       |
+  fat, and very fat animals   |   3.75 |   13.3 |  36.5 |  53.6 |  46.4 |
+  ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+  Means of 6 of the fat,      |        |        |       |       |       |
+  and very fat animals        |   3.38 |   12.3 |  39.7 |  55.4 |  44.6 |
+  ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+
+  ----------------------------+-----------------------------------------+
+                              | Per cent. in Offal.                     |
+     Description              +--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+      of Animal.              |    A.  |    B.  |   C.  |   D.  |   E.  |
+  ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+  Fat calf                    |   3.41 |   17.1 |  14.6 |  35.1 |  64.9 |
+  Half-fat ox                 |   4.05 |   20.6 |  15.7 |  40.4 |  59.6 |
+  Fat ox                      |   3.40 |   17.5 |  26.3 |  47.2 |  52.8 |
+  Fat lamb                    |   2.45 |   18.9 |  20.1 |  41.5 |  58.5 |
+  Store sheep                 |   2.19 |   18.0 |  16.1 |  36.3 |  63.7 |
+  Half-fat old sheep          |   2.72 |   17.7 |  18.5 |  38.9 |  61.1 |
+  Fat sheep                   |   2.32 |   16.1 |  26.4 |  44.8 |  55.2 |
+  Extra fat sheep             |   3.64 |   16.8 |  34.5 |  54.9 |  45.1 |
+  Store pig                   |   3.07 |   14.0 |  15.0 |  32.1 |  67.9 |
+  Fat pig                     |   2.97 |   14.8 |  22.8 |  40.6 |  59.4 |
+  ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+  Means of all                |   3.02 |   17.2 |  21.0 |  41.2 |  58.8 |
+  ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+  Means of 8 of the half-fat, |        |        |       |       |       |
+  fat, and very fat animals   |   3.12 |   17.4 |  22.4 |  42.9 |  57.1 |
+  ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+  Means of 6 of the fat,      |        |        |       |       |       |
+  and very fat animals        |   3.03 |   16.9 |  24.1 |  44.0 |  56.0 |
+  ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+
+
+  ----------------------------+-----------------------------------------+
+                              | Per cent. in Entire Animal.             |
+     Description              +------+------+------+------+------+------+
+      of Animal.              |  A.  |  B.  |  C.  |  D.  |  F.  |  E.  |
+  ----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  Fat calf                    | 3.80 | 15.2 | 14.8 | 33.8 | 3.17 | 63.8 |
+  Half-fat ox                 | 4.66 | 16.6 | 19.1 | 40.3 | 8.19 | 51.5 |
+  Fat ox                      | 3.92 | 14.5 | 30.1 | 48.5 | 5.98 | 45.5 |
+  Fat lamb                    | 2.94 | 12.3 | 28.5 | 43.7 | 8.54 | 47.8 |
+  Store sheep                 | 3.16 | 14.8 | 18.7 | 36.7 | 6.00 | 57.3 |
+  Half-fat old sheep          | 3.17 | 14.0 | 23.5 | 40.7 | 9.05 | 50.2 |
+  Fat sheep                   | 2.81 | 12.2 | 35.6 | 50.6 | 6.02 | 43.4 |
+  Extra fat sheep             | 2.90 | 10.9 | 45.8 | 59.6 | 5.18 | 35.2 |
+  Store pig                   | 2.67 | 13.7 | 23.3 | 39.7 | 5.22 | 55.1 |
+  Fat pig                     | 1.65 | 10.9 | 42.2 | 54.7 | 3.97 | 41.3 |
+  ----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  Means of all                | 3.17 | 13.5 | 28.2 | 44.9 | 6.13 | 49.0 |
+  ----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  Means of 8 of the half-fat, |      |      |      |      |      |      |
+  fat, and very fat animals   | 3.23 | 13.3 | 29.9 | 46.4 | 6.26 | 47.3 |
+  ----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  Means of 6 of the fat,      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
+  and very fat animals        | 3.00 | 12.7 | 32.8 | 48.5 | 5.48 | 46.0 |
+  ----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+USE OF FAT IN THE ANIMAL ECONOMY.
+
+As fat forms so large a portion of the body, it is evident that
+the part it plays in the animal economy must be a most important one.
+The general opinion which prevails amongst scientific men as to its
+physiological functions was originated by the celebrated Liebig.
+According to his theory, the food of animals includes two distinct kinds
+of substances--_plastic_[4] and _non-plastic_. The plastic materials are
+composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and a little sulphur
+and phosphorus. Albumen, fibrine, and casein are plastic elements of
+nutrition; they form the lean flesh, or muscles, the membranes, and
+cartilages, the gelatine of the bones, the skin, the hair, and, in
+short, every part of the body which contains nitrogen. The _non-plastic_
+elements of nutrition include fat, oil, starch, sugar, gum, and certain
+constituents of fruits, such as pectine.
+
+All non-plastic substances--and of each kind there are numerous
+varieties--are capable of conversion, in the animal mechanism, into fat
+and oil. The non-plastic food substances do not contain nitrogen, hence
+they are commonly termed non-nitrogenous elements. The oily and fatty
+matters contain a large proportion of carbon, their next most abundant
+component is hydrogen, and they contain but little oxygen. Unlike the
+plastic elements, they are--except the fats of the brain and nervous
+tissue--altogether destitute of sulphur and phosphorus. The starchy,
+saccharine, and gummy substances are composed of the same elements as
+the fatty bodies, but they contain a higher proportion of oxygen.
+According to Liebig, fat is used in the animal economy as a source of
+internal heat. We all know that it is a most combustible body, and that
+during its inflammation the most intense heat is developed. It is less
+evident, but not less true, that heat is evolved during its slow
+oxidation, or decay.
+
+The more rapidly a body burns, the greater is the amount of heat evolved
+by it in a _given time_; but the total amount of heat developed by a
+specific weight of the body is the same, whether the combustion takes
+place rapidly or slowly. An experiment performed with phosphorus
+illustrates the case perfectly. If we burned two pieces of equal weight,
+the one in oxygen, the other in atmospheric air, we should find that the
+former would emit a light five times as brilliant as that evolved by the
+latter, for the simple reason that its combustion would be five times as
+rapid. The white, vapor-like matter into which phosphorus is converted
+by its combustion, is termed _phosphoric acid_. It is composed of
+phosphorus and oxygen. In forming an ounce of this compound, by the
+direct oxidation, or combustion of phosphorus, the amount of force,
+either as heat, or as heat and light, evolved is precisely the same,
+whether the time expended in the process be a minute or a month.[5] If,
+in the experiment I have described, we were to substitute two pieces of
+fat for the fragments of phosphorus, the results would be precisely
+similar. The fat burned in oxygen gas would emit intense light and heat;
+but the total amount of these forces evolved would be neither greater
+nor less than that developed during the slower and therefore less
+brilliant combustion of the fat in ordinary atmospheric air. Now, as we
+can demonstrate that an ounce of fat will emit a certain amount of heat,
+if burned within a minute of time, and that neither a larger nor a
+smaller amount will be developed if the combustion of the fat extend
+over a period of five minutes, I think we may fairly assume that the
+amount of heat evolved by the complete oxidation of a specific quantity
+of fat is constant under all conditions, except, as I have already
+explained, at high temperatures, when a portion of the heat is converted
+into light.
+
+In the animal organism fat is burned. The process of combustion no
+doubt is a very slow one, but still the total amount of heat evolved
+is just the same as if the fat were consumed in a furnace. When the
+fat constituting a candle is burned, what becomes of it? Its elements,
+carbon and hydrogen (we may disregard its small amount of oxygen)
+combine with the oxygen of the air, and form carbonic acid gas and
+water. What becomes of the fat consumed within the animal body? It also
+is converted into carbonic acid gas and water. It is not difficult
+to prove these statements to be facts. A candle will not burn in
+atmospheric air which has been deprived of its oxygen, because there is
+no substance present with which the elements of the taper can combine,
+consequently the process of combustion cannot go on. Now, a man may in
+one respect be compared with this taper. He is partly made up of fat;
+that fat is consumed by the oxygen of the air, and the heat developed
+thereby keeps the body warm. In the process of respiration oxygen is
+introduced into the lungs, and from thence, by means of the blood
+vessels, is conveyed throughout every part of the body. In some way, at
+present not thoroughly understood, the elements of the fat combine with
+the oxygen, and are converted into carbonic acid gas and water, which
+are exhaled from the lungs and from the surface of the body.
+
+Fat is a constituent of both animals and plants. The animal derives a
+portion of its fat directly from the vegetable; but it possesses the
+power of forming this substance from other organic bodies, such, for
+example, as starch. Plants elaborate fat directly from the
+minerals--carbonic acid gas, and water.
+
+I have already explained that the growth of plants is, _caeteris
+paribus_, directly proportionate to the amount of sunlight to which
+they are exposed. Not less certainly is the force which constitutes the
+sun-beam expended in grouping mineral atoms into organic forms, than is
+the heat which converts water into steam. But in neither case is the
+force destroyed. When the vaporous steam is condensed into the liquid
+water, all the heat is restored, and becomes palpable. By the ultimate
+decomposition of vegetable substances all the force expended on their
+production is liberated, and, in some form, becomes manifest.
+
+When the fat formed in the mechanisms of plants is decomposed in
+the animal organism, two results follow:--The atoms of the fat are
+re-converted to their original mineral, or statical conditions of
+carbonic acid gas and water; and the force which maintained them in
+their organic state is set free as heat, and its equivalent, motive
+power.
+
+One of the most useful instruments which the ingenuity of man has
+devised, is the Thermometer. It is so familiarly known that I need
+not describe it. This instrument does not enable us to estimate the
+actual quantity of heat contained in a substance, but it indicates
+the proportion of that subtile element which is _sensible_--that is
+recognisable by the sense of touch. The dusky Hindu, clad in his single
+cotton garment, and the Laplander in his suit of fur, are placed under
+the most opposite conditions in relation to the heat of the sun--the
+Indian is exposed during the whole year to Sol's most ardent beams,
+whilst but a scant share of its genial rays goes to warm the body of
+the Laplander. Now, if we placed the bulb of a thermometer beneath the
+tongue of a Hindu, we would find the mercury to stand at 98 degrees on
+Fahrenheit's scale, and if we repeated the experiment on a Laplander,
+we would obtain an identical result. Numerous experiments of this
+nature have been made on individuals in most parts of the world, and
+the results have proved that the temperature of the blood of man is
+98 degrees Fahrenheit, whether he be in India or at Nova Zembla, on
+the _steppes_ of Russia, or the elevated _plateaus_ of America. This
+invariability[6] of the temperature of the bodies of men and of all
+other warm-blooded animals, appears the more wonderful when it it is
+considered that the range of the temperature of the medium in which
+they exist exceeds 200 degrees Fahrenheit. In India, the mercury in the
+thermometer has been observed to stand at 145 degrees in the direct
+sunlight, and at 120 degrees in the shade. In high latitudes the
+temperature is sometimes so low as 100 degrees below zero. A Russian
+army, in an expedition to China, in 1839, was exposed for several
+successive days to a temperature of 42 degrees below zero, and suffered
+severely in consequence.
+
+The facts which I have cited clearly prove that the animal body
+possesses the power of generating, or, to speak more correctly,
+liberating heat, either from portions of its own mechanism or from
+substances placed within that mechanism.
+
+At one time it was the general belief amongst physiologists that one
+portion of the food consumed by an animal was employed in repairing
+the waste of its body, and the remaining part was burned as fuel,
+evolving heat just in the same way as if it had been consumed in a
+furnace. It was this theory that led to the classification of food into
+flesh-formers, and heat-givers. It is now doubted if any portion of the
+food be really burned in this way; and I, for one, think it far more
+probable that, before its conversion into carbonic acid gas and water
+(whereby, according to this theory, it develops the heat which keeps the
+body warm), it first becomes assimilated, that is, becomes an integral
+part of the animal body--blood, fat, muscle. Perhaps we would be
+nearer the truth if we were to assume that heat is evolved during the
+decomposition of both the nitrogenous and fatty constituents of the
+body.
+
+The constantly recurring contractions of the muscles must alone be a
+source of much heat. The development of animal motive power is said to
+be strictly proportionate to the amount of muscular tissue decomposed.
+As the nitrogen of the latter is almost completely excreted under the
+form of urea, the quantity of the latter daily eliminated from the
+body of an animal is a measure of the decomposed muscular tissue, and
+consequently of the amount of muscular power generated in the animal
+organism.[7] The correspondence between the amount of the motive power
+of an animal, and the quantity of effete nitrogen excreted from the
+body, is limited to laboring men and to the lower animals. Strange as
+it may appear, it is an incontrovertible fact that men whose pursuits
+require the constant exercise of the intellectual faculties--lawyers,
+writers, statesmen, students, scientific men, and other
+brain-workers--excrete more urea than do men engaged in the most
+physically laborious occupations. An activity of thoughts and ideas
+involves a corresponding destruction of the tissues, and these require,
+for their reparation, the consumption of food. Here, then, we have a
+physical meaning for the common expression--"food for thought."
+
+That the amount of heat developed in the animal organism, is
+proportionate to the quantity of fatty matters (or of substances capable
+of forming them) supplied to it in the shape of food, is a proposition
+which admits of easy demonstration. The natives of warm regions do not
+require the generation of much heat within their bodies, because the
+temperature of the medium in which they exist is generally as high as,
+or higher than, that of their blood. But as they must consume food for
+the purpose of repairing the waste of their nitrogenous tissues, and as
+every kind of food contains heat-producing elements, an excess of heat
+is developed within their bodies, which, if allowed to accumulate, would
+speedily produce fatal results. The means by which nature removes this
+superabundant heat are admirably simple, as indeed all its contrivances
+are. The skin is permeated with millions of pores, and through these
+openings a large quantity of vapor is given off, and carries with it the
+surplus heat. The pores are the orifices of minute convoluted tubes
+which lie beneath the skin, and when straightened measure each about the
+tenth of an inch, or, according to a writer in the _British and Foreign
+Medico-Chirurgical Review_ (1859, page 349), the one-fifteenth of an
+inch in length. According to Erasmus Wilson, the number of these tubes
+which open into every square inch of the surface of the body is 2,800.
+The total number of square inches on the surface of an average sized man
+is 2,500, consequently the surface of his body is drained by not less
+than twenty-eight miles of tubing, furnished with 7,000,000 openings.
+The cooling of the body, by the evaporation of water from it, admits of
+explanation by well-known natural laws. Water, in the state of vapor,
+occupies a space 1,700 fold greater than it does in its liquid
+condition. It is heat which causes its vaporous form, but it ceases to
+be heat when it has accomplished this change in the condition of the
+liquid; for, suffering itself an alteration, it passes into another form
+of force--mechanical, or motive power. The heat generated within the
+body is absorbed by the liquid water, the conversion of the latter into
+vapor follows, and both the heat and the water, in their altered forms,
+escape through the pores.
+
+_Fatty food necessary in cold climates._--As a grave objection against
+the chemical theory of heat, it has been urged that rice--the pabulum of
+hundreds of millions of the inhabitants of tropical regions--contains an
+exceedingly high proportion of heat-giving substances. I have, however,
+great doubt as to rice ever forming the exclusive food of those people,
+without their health being impaired in consequence of the deficiency in
+that substance of the plastic elements of nutrition. Indeed I believe
+it is a great mistake to assert that the natives of India live almost
+exclusively on rice. This article, no doubt, forms a large proportion of
+their food, but it is supplemented with pulse (the produce of leguminous
+plants), which is rich in flesh-forming materials, also with dried fish,
+butter, and various kinds of vegetable and animal food rich in nitrogen.
+The innutritious nature of rice is clearly shown by its chemical
+composition, and so large a quantity of it must the Hindu consume in
+order to repair the waste of his body, that his stomach sometimes
+acquires prodigious dimensions; hence the term "pot-bellied," so often
+applied to the Indian ryot. I doubt very much, however, if the stomach
+of the Hindu, large as it is, could accommodate a quantity of rice, the
+combustion of which would produce a very excessive development of heat.
+This substance, when cooked, contains a high proportion of water, the
+evaporation of which carries off a large amount of the heat generated
+by the combustion of its respiratory constituents. The amount of motive
+power developed by the Hindu is small as compared with that which the
+European is capable of exerting; hence he has less necessity for a
+highly nitrogenous diet. On the whole, then, I am disposed to think
+that the food of the natives of tropical climates contains sufficient
+nitrogenous matters to effectually build up and keep in repair their
+bodies; it also appears clear to me that the amount of heat developed
+in their bodies is not excessive, and that it is readily disposed of
+in converting the water, which enters so largely into their diet, into
+vapor. The proportion of plastic to non-plastic elements in the diet
+of the Hindu and of the well-fed European, is probably as follows:--
+
+                     Nitrogenous.            Non-nitrogenous
+                                         (calculated as starch.)
+
+  Hindu                   1         to                9
+  European                1         to                8
+
+
+This statement does not quite correspond with Liebig's, who estimates
+the proportion of nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous substances in rice as
+10 to 123, in beef as ten to seventeen, and in veal as ten to one. The
+results of Lawes and Gilbert's investigations, already alluded to, have,
+however, dispelled the illusion that the plastic constituents of flesh
+exceed its non-plastic. In the potato, which at one time constituted
+more of the food of the Irish peasantry than rice does that of the
+Hindu, the proportion of plastic to non-plastic materials is as 10 to
+110. The results of some analyses of the food grains consumed in the
+Presidency of Madras, made by Professor Mayer, of the University of
+Madras, clearly prove that the food of the inhabitants of that part of
+India is of a far more highly nitrogenous character than is generally
+supposed. That the Hindu, who subsists exclusively on rice, exhibits
+all the symptoms of deficient nutrition, is a fact to which numerous
+competent observers have testified.
+
+A slight consideration of the facts which I have mentioned leads to the
+conclusion that the food of the inhabitants of very cold regions is
+required to produce a large amount of heat. Melons, rice, and other
+watery vegetable productions, however delicious to the palate of the
+Hindu, would be rejected with disgust by the Esquimaux, whilst the train
+oil, blubber, and putrid seal's flesh which the children of the icy
+North consider highly palatable, would excite the loathing of the East
+Indian. On this subject I may appositely quote the following remarks by
+Dr. Kane, the Arctic explorer:--"Our journeys have taught us the wisdom
+of the Esquimaux appetite, and there are few among us who do not relish
+a slice of raw blubber, or a chunk of frozen walrus beef. The liver of
+a walrus (awuktanuk), eaten with little slices of his fat--of a verity
+it is a delicious morsel. Fire would seem to spoil the curt, pithy
+expression of vitality which belongs to its uncooked juices. Charles
+Lamb's roast pig was nothing to awuktanuk. I wonder that raw beef is not
+eaten at home. Deprived of extraneous fibre, it is neither indigestible
+nor difficult to masticate. With acids and condiments, it makes a salad
+which an educated palate cannot help relishing; and as a powerful and
+condensed heat-making and anti-scorbutic food, it has no rival. I make
+this last broad assertion after carefully considering its truth. The
+natives of South Greenland prepare themselves for a long journey, by a
+course of frozen seal. At Upper Navik they do the same with the narwhal,
+which is thought more heat-making than the seal; while the bear, to use
+their own expression, is 'stronger travel than all.' In Smith's Sound,
+where the use of raw meat seems almost inevitable from the modes of
+living of the people, walrus holds the first rank. Certainly this
+pachyderm (Cetacean?) whose finely condensed tissue and delicately
+permeating fat (oh! call it not blubber) assimilate it to the ox, is
+beyond all others, and is the best _fuel_ a man can swallow." The
+gastronomic capabilities of the Esquimaux and of other northern races,
+and their fondness for fatty food, are exhibited in a sufficiently
+strong light in the following statements:--
+
+Captain Parry weighed and presented to an Esquimaux lad the following
+articles:--
+
+                                                         lb.  oz.
+
+  Frozen seahorse flesh                                   4    4
+  Wild seahorse flesh                                     4    4
+  Bread and bread dust                                    1   12
+  Rich gravy soup                                         1    4
+  Water                                                  10    0
+  Strong grog                                         1 tumbler.
+  Raw spirits                                    3 wine glasses.
+
+This large quantity of food, which the lad did not consider excessive,
+was consumed by him within twenty-four hours. According to Captain
+Cochrane a reindeer suffices but for one repast for three Yakutis, and
+five of them will devour at a sitting a calf weighing 200 lbs. Mr.
+Hooper, one of the officers of the _Plover_, in his narrative of their
+residence on the shores of Arctic America, states that "one of the
+ladies who visited them was presented, as a jest, with a small tallow
+candle, called a purser's dip. It was, notwithstanding, a very pleasant
+joke to the damsel, who deliberately munched it up with evident relish,
+and finally drew the wick between her set teeth to clean off any
+remaining morsels of fat."
+
+The partiality for certain kinds of food, and disgust at other
+varieties, which particular races of men exhibit, is an instinct which
+they cannot avoid obeying. Instead of exciting our disgust, as it too
+frequently does, it should exalt our admiration of the infinite wisdom
+of the Creator, who by simply adapting man's desire for particular kinds
+of food to the external conditions under which he is placed, enables him
+to occupy and "subdue the earth" from the Equator to the Poles.
+
+The food of human beings and of the lower animals who inhabit cold
+countries is nearly exclusively composed of animal substances.
+The flesh, fat, and oil of animals occupy less space than do the
+corresponding elements of vegetables; consequently the nutriment they
+afford is more concentrated, and a larger quantity can be stowed away
+without inconvenience in the stomach. The heat-forming constituents of
+these substances constitute not only the chief part of their bulk, but
+they are also capable of evolving a greater amount of heat than any
+other of the respiratory elements. One pound of dry fat will develop as
+much heat as two and a half pounds of dry starch, and the fattest flesh
+includes four times as much plastic materials as rice. The diet of
+people all over the world, unless under circumstances which prevent the
+gratification of the natural appetite, establishes the intimate relation
+which subsists between cold and food. The appetite of man is at a
+minimum at the Equator, and at a maximum within the Arctic circle. The
+statements as to the voracity of Hottentots and Bosjesmans, recorded in
+the narratives of travellers, do not in the slightest degree affect the
+general rule that more is eaten in cold climates than in hot regions.
+These are mere records of gluttony, and it would not be difficult to
+find parallel cases in our own country. Gluttony is an abnormal
+appetite, and the greater part of the food devoured under its unnatural,
+and generally unhealthy stimulus is not applied to the wants of the body.
+
+The bodies of animals are heated masses of matter, and are subject to
+the ordinary laws of _radiation_. Every substance radiates its heat, and
+receives in return a portion of that emitted from surrounding bodies. If
+two bodies of unequal temperature be placed near each other, the warmer
+of the two will radiate a portion of its heat to the colder, and will
+receive some of the heat of the latter in return; but as the warmer body
+will emit more heat than it will receive, the result will be, that after
+a time, the length of which will depend on the nature of the bodies,
+both will acquire the same temperature. In very warm climates the bodies
+of animals derive from the sun, and from the heated bodies surrounding
+them, more heat than they give in return; and were it not for their
+internal cooling apparatus, which I have described, the heat so absorbed
+would prove fatal. In every climate, on the contrary, where the
+temperature is lower than 98 deg., or "blood heat," the bodies of animals
+lose more heat by radiation than they receive by the same means. The
+philosophy of the _clothing_ of men and the _sheltering_ of the lower
+animals is now evident. It is not only necessary that heat should be
+developed within the body, but also that its wasteful expenditure should
+be prevented. The latter is effected by interposing between the warm
+body and the cold air some substances (such as fur or wool) which do not
+readily permit the transmission of heat--_non-conductors_ as they are
+termed. The close down of the eider duck is destined to protect its
+bosom from the chilling influence of the icy waters of the North Polar
+Sea, and the quadrupeds of the dreary Arctic Circle are sheltered by
+thick fur coverings from the piercing blasts of its long winter.
+
+_Fat Equivalents._--Whilst it is quite certain that neither nerves nor
+muscles can be elaborated exclusively out of fat, starch, sugar, or any
+other non-nitrogenous substance, it is almost equally clear that fat may
+be formed out of nitrogenous tissue. The quantity of fat, however, which
+is produced in the animal mechanism, from purely nitrogenous food
+appears to be relatively very small. No animal is capable of subsisting
+solely on muscle-forming materials, no matter how abundantly supplied.
+The food of the Carnivora contains a large proportion of fat, and the
+nutriment of the Herbivora is largely made up of starch and other
+fat-formers. Dogs, geese, and other animals fed exclusively upon albumen
+or white of egg rapidly decreased in weight, and after presenting all
+the symptoms of starvation, died in three or four weeks.[8] The fat of
+the bodies of the Carnivora is almost entirely formed--and probably with
+little if any alteration--from the fatty constituents of their food.
+Herbivorous animals, on the contrary, derive nearly all their fat from
+starch, sugar, gum, cellulose, and other non-nitrogenous, but not fatty,
+materials.
+
+Although starch is convertible into fat, it is not to be understood that
+a pound weight of one of these bodies is equivalent to an equal quantity
+of the other. During the conversion of starch into fat, the greater
+number of its constituent atoms is converted into water and carbonic
+acid gas. The greater number of the more important metamorphoses of
+organised matter, which take place in the animal organum, is the result
+of either oxidation or fermentation: in the conversion of starch or
+sugar into fat or oil, both of these processes, it is stated, take
+place; a portion of the hydrogen is converted by oxidation into water,
+and by fermentation carbonic acid gas is formed, which removes both
+oxygen and carbon. Perhaps in the formation of fat fermentation is alone
+employed--a portion of the oxygen being removed as water, and another
+portion as carbonic acid. The chief difference between the ultimate
+composition of starch and fat is, that the latter contains a much larger
+proportion of hydrogen and carbon. The knowledge of the exact quantity
+of starch required for the formation of a given amount of fat is of
+importance in enabling us to estimate the relative feeding value of both
+substances. Certain difficulties stand in the way of our acquiring an
+accurate knowledge on this point. Not only are there several distinct
+kinds of fat, but the precise formula, or atomic constitution of each,
+is as yet veiled in doubt. There are three fats which occur in man
+and the domesticated animals, and in vegetables. These are stearine,
+margarine, and oleine. The relative proportions of these vary in each
+animal: thus, in man and in the goose margarine is the most abundant
+fat, whilst oleine[9] exists in the pig in a greater proportion than in
+man, the sheep, or the ox. The composition of the animal fats does not,
+however, vary much; and this fact, together with other considerations,
+have led chemists to assume that two-and-a-half parts of starch are
+required for the production of one part of the mixed fats of the
+different animals. Grape sugar and the pectine bodies--substances which
+form a large proportion of the food of the Herbivora--contain more
+oxygen and hydrogen than exist in starch, and, consequently, are not
+capable of forming so large an amount of fat as an equal weight of
+starch. We may assume, then, that 2.50 parts of starch, 2.75 parts of
+sugar, or 3 parts of the pectine bodies, are equivalent to 1 part of
+fat.
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+RELATION BETWEEN THE COMPOSITION OF AN ANIMAL AND THAT OF ITS FOOD.
+
+I have already stated that the results of the admirable investigations
+of Lawes and Gilbert prove that the non-nitrogenous constituents of the
+carcasses of oxen, sheep, and pigs exceed in weight their nitrogenous
+elements. This fact is suggestive of many important questions. What
+relation is there between the composition of an animal and that of
+its food? Should an animal whose body contains three times as much
+fat as lean flesh, be supplied with food containing three times
+as much fat-formers as flesh-formers? To these questions there is
+some difficulty in replying. There _is_ a relationship between the
+composition of the body of an animal and that of its food; but the
+relationship varies so greatly that it is impossible to determine with
+any degree of accuracy the quantity of fat-formers which is required to
+produce a given weight of fat in animals, taken _in globo_. If, however,
+we deal with a particular animal placed under certain conditions, it is
+then possible to ascertain the amount of fat which a given weight of
+non-plastic food will produce. For the greater part of our knowledge
+on this point, as on so many others, in the feeding of stock, we are
+indebted to Lawes and Gilbert. In the case of sheep fed upon fattening
+food these inquirers found that every 100 lbs. of dry[10] non-nitrogenous
+substances consumed by them produced, on an average, an increase of 10
+lbs. in the weight of their fat. In the case of pigs, also, supplied
+with food, the proportion of non-nitrogenous matters appropriated to
+the animal's increase was double that so applied in the bodies of the
+sheep. As the food supplied to these animals contained but a very small
+proportion of ready-formed fat, it was inferred that four-fifths of the
+fat of the increase was derived from the sugar, starch, cellulose, and
+pectine bodies.
+
+These tables exhibit in a condensed form the results of one of the
+elaborate series of experiments in relation to this point carried out
+by Lawes and Gilbert:--
+
+  ESTIMATED AMOUNT OF CERTAIN CONSTITUENTS STORED UP IN _INCREASE_,
+  FOR 100 PARTS OF EACH CONSUMED IN FOOD BY FATTENING SHEEP.
+
+                      +--------------------------------------------------------
+                      | KEY:
+                      | A.--No. of Animals.
+                      | B.--Mineral matter (ash).[11]
+                      | C.--Nitrogenous compounds (dry).
+                      | D.--Non-nitrogenous substance.
+                      | E.--Total dry substance.
+                      |
+  --------------------+------------------------------------+-------------------
+                                                           |  Amount of each
+                                                           | Class in Increase
+                                                           |for 100 of the same
+           GENERAL PARTICULARS OF THE EXPERIMENTS.         | consumed in Food.
+  --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+----
+                      |   |         |   Description of     |    |    |    |
+                      |   |         |   Fattening Food.    |    |    |    |
+                      |   |         |-------------+--------|    |    |    |
+                      |   |         |   Given     | Given  |    |    |    |
+                      |   |         | in limited  |  ad    |    |    |    |
+         BREED.       | A.|Duration.|  quantity.  |libitum.| B. | C. | D. | E.
+  --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+----
+                                        Class I.
+  --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+----
+                      |   |wks. dys.|Oilcake and  |Swedish |    |    |    |
+                      |   |         |clover chaff.|turnips.|    |    |    |
+  Cotswolds           | 46| 19    5 |      "      |   "    |3.98|4.43|11.6|9.60
+  Leicesters          | 40| 20    0 |      "      |   "    |3.15|3.39|12.0|9.48
+  Cross-bred wethers  | 40| 20    0 |      "      |   "    |3.24|3.60|11.6|9.31
+  Cross-bred ewes     | 40| 20    0 |      "      |   "    |3.25|3.60|11.8|9.40
+  Hants Downs         | 40| 26    0 |      "      |   "    |3.40|4.28|10.3|8.49
+  Sussex Downs        | 40| 26    0 |      "      |   "    |3.30|4.16|10.3|8.44
+  --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+----
+                                             Means         |3.39|3.91|11.3|9.12
+  =========================================================+====+====+====+====
+                               Class III.--(Series 1.)
+  --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+----
+                      |   |         |             |Swedish |    |    |    |
+                      |   |         |             |turnips.|    |    |    |
+  Hants Downs         | 5 | 13    6 |Oilcake.     |   "    |4.16|4.01|11.1|9.33
+                      | 5 | 13    6 |Oats.        |   "    |5.73|7.07|10.0|9.45
+                      | 5 | 13    6 |Clover chaff.|   "    |3.98|7.44| 9.0|8.49
+  --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+---------+----+----
+                                             Means         |4.62|6.17|10.0|9.09
+  =========================================================+====+====+====+====
+                               Class IV.--(Series 2.)
+  --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+----
+                      |   |         |             | Clover |    |    |    |
+                      |   |         |             | chaff. |    |    |    |
+  Hants Downs         | 5 | 19    1 |Oilcake.     |   "    |1.69|2.20| 6.3|5.07
+                      | 5 | 19    1 |Linseed.     |   "    |1.81|2.32| 6.2|5.19
+                      | 5 | 19    1 |Barley.      |   "    |1.75|2.82| 5.7|5.00
+                      | 5 | 19    1 |Malt.        |   "    |1.46|2.17| 5.3|4.61
+  --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+----
+                                             Means         |1.68|2.38| 5.9|4.97
+  =========================================================+====+====+====+====
+                               Class V.--(Series 4.)
+  --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+----
+                      |   |         |             |Mangolds|    |    |    |
+  Hants Downs         | 4 | 10    0 |Barley ground|   "    |3.80|5.65| 9.8|8.91
+                      | 5 | 10    0 |Malt, ground,|   "    |4.04|6.18|10.4|9.49
+                      |   |         |& malt dust. |        |    |    |    |
+                      | 4 | 10    0 |Barley ground|   "    |3.72|6.35| 8.9|8.28
+                      |   |         | and steeped.|        |    |    |    |
+                      | 4 | 10    0 |Malt, ground |   "    |2.95|4.34| 9.3|8.23
+                      |   |         |and steeped, |        |    |    |    |
+                      |   |         |& malt dust. |        |    |    |    |
+                      | 5 | 10    0 |Malt, ground,|   "    |3.46|5.46| 9.1|8.25
+                      |   |         |& malt dust. |        |    |    |    |
+  --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+----
+                                             Means         |3.59|5.60| 9.5|8.63
+  ---------------------------------------------------------+----+----+----+----
+                                             Means of all  |3.27|4.41| 9.4|8.06
+  =========================================================+====+====+====+====
+
+
+  ESTIMATED AMOUNT OF CERTAIN CONSTITUENTS STORED UP IN _INCREASE_,
+  FOR 100 OF EACH CONSUMED IN FOOD, BY FATTENING PIGS.
+
+             +-----------------------------------------------------------------
+             | KEY:
+             | A.--No. of Animals.
+             | B.--Mineral matter (ash).
+             | C.--Nitrogenous compounds (dry).
+             | D.--Non-nitrogenous substance.
+             | E.--Total dry substance.
+             | F.--Fat.
+             |
+  -----------+----------------------------------------+------------------------
+                                                      |  Amount of each Class
+                                                      |    in Increase for
+        GENERAL PARTICULARS OF THE EXPERIMENTS.       |    100 of the same
+                                                      |   consumed in Food.
+  --+--------+----------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+---
+    |        |     Description of Fattening Food.     |    |     |    |    |
+    |        |--------------------+-------------------|    |     |    |    |
+    |        |      Given in      |      Given        |    |     |    |    |
+  A.|Duration|limited quantities. |   ad libitum.     | B. |  C. | D. | E. | F.
+  ==+========+====================+===================+====+=====+====+====+===
+                           The Analysed "Fat Pig."[12]
+  --+--------+----------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+---
+    | weeks  |                                        |    |     |    |    |
+  1 |  10    |Mixture of bran 1, bean and lentil-meal |2.66| 7.76|17.6|14.9|405
+    |        |  2, and barley-meal 3 parts, ad libitum|    |     |    |    |
+  ==+========+========================================+====+=====+====+====+===
+                              Series I.
+  --+--------+--------------------+-------------------+----+-----+----+----+---
+  3 |   8    |None.               |Bean & lentil-meal.|0.68| 4.88|25.3|17.5|621
+  3 |   "    |Indian-meal.        |  "                |1.86| 6.39|23.7|17.9|477
+  3 |   "    |Indian-meal and bran|  "                |0.33| 5.02|21.1|16.1|362
+  3 |   "    |None.               |Indian meal.       |2.09| 9.28|20.9|18.6|300
+  3 |   "    |Bean and lentil-meal|  "                |0.99| 9.18|20.9|18.4|324
+  3 |   "    |Bran.               |  "                |2.35|12.10|20.3|18.7|300
+  3 |   "    |Bean, lentil-meal,  |  "                |2.71|10.03|21.3|18.5|307
+    |        |  and bran.         |  "                |    |     |    |    |
+    |        |                    +-------------------|    |     |    |    |
+  3 |   "    |Bean, lentil-meal, Indian-meal, bran,   |0.22| 5.65|21.1|16.8|362
+    |        |  ad libitum.                           |    |     |    |    |
+  --+--------+----------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+---
+                                      Means           |0.74| 7.82|21.8|17.8|382
+  ====================================================+====+=====+====+====+===
+                              Series II.
+  --+--------+--------------------+-------------------+----+-----+----+----+---
+  3 |   8    |None.               |Bean & lentil-meal.|3.20| 3.12|26.5|18.2|801
+  3 |   "    |Barley-meal.        |  "                |0.16| 4.65|19.2|14.7|575
+  3 |   "    |Bran.               |  "                |0.16| 3.99|21.2|15.2|547
+  3 |   "    |Barley-meal and bran|  "                |0.75| 4.57|20.1|15.6|514
+  3 |   "    |None.               |Barley-meal.       |0.56|10.09|18.5|16.9|574
+  3 |   "    |Bean and lentil-meal|  "                |0.53| 6.57|21.1|17.5|620
+  3 |   "    |Bran.               |  "                |0.49| 9.79|18.9|16.9|506
+  3 |   "    |Bean, lentil-meal,  |  "                |4.33| 4.49|22.7|18.0|578
+    |        |  and bran.         |                   |    |     |    |    |
+    |        |                    +-------------------|    |     |    |    |
+  6 |   "    |Mixture of bran 1, barley-meal 2, and   |0.27| 5.65|20.4|16.1|495
+    |        |  bean lentil-meal 3 parts, ad libitum. |    |     |    |    |
+  6 |   "    |Mixture of bran 1, bean lentil-meal 2,  |1.58| 8.10|21.1|17.6|515
+    |        |  barley-meal 3 parts, ad libitum.      |    |     |    |    |
+  --+--------+----------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+---
+                                      Means           |0.59| 6.10|21.0|16.7|572
+  ====================================================+====+=====+====+====+===
+                              Series III.
+  --+--------+--------------------+-------------------+----+-----+----+----+---
+  4 |   8    |Dried Cod Fish.     |Bran & Indian-meal |1.06| 5.06|24.3|18.1|315
+    |        |                    | (equal parts).    |    |     |    |    |
+  4 |   "    |  "                 |Indian-meal.       |0.26| 8.16|25.6|20.9|352
+  --+--------+--------------------+-------------------+----+-----+----+----+---
+                                      Means           |0.66| 6.61|24.9|19.5|333
+  ====================================================+====+=====+====+====+===
+                              Series IV.
+  --+--------+--------------------+-------------------+----+-----+----+----+---
+  3 |   10   |Lentil-meal & bran. |Sugar.             |3.07| 9.30|19.4|16.9|
+  3 |    "   |  "                 |Starch.            |3.18| 9.36|19.4|16.9|
+  3 |    "   |  "                 |Sugar & starch.    |4.06|10.78|17.7|16.1|
+    |        |                    +-------------------|    |     |    |    |
+  3 |    "   |Lentils, bran, sugar, starch, ad libitum|4.80| 9.96|18.7|16.5|
+  --+--------+----------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----|---
+                                      Means           |3.78| 9.85|18.8|16.6|
+  ----------------------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+---
+                                      Means of all    |0.58| 7.34|21.2|17.3|472
+  ====================================================+====+=====+====+====+===
+
+The larger appropriation of the non-nitrogenous constituents of its food
+by the pig, as compared with the sheep, must not be attributed solely to
+its greater tendency to fatten, but partly to the far more digestible
+nature of the food supplied to it.
+
+
+SECTION V.
+
+RELATION BETWEEN THE QUANTITY OF FOOD CONSUMED BY AN ANIMAL, AND THE
+INCREASE IN ITS WEIGHT, OR OF THE AMOUNT OF ITS WORK.
+
+The manifestations of that wondrous and mysterious principle, _life_,
+are completely dependent upon the decomposition of organised matter. Not
+an effort of the mind, not a motion of the body, can be accomplished
+without involving the destruction of a portion of the tissues. In a
+general sense we may regard the fat of the animal to be its store of
+fuel, and its lean flesh to be the source of its motive power. As the
+evolution of heat within the body is proportionate to the quantity of
+fat consumed, so also is the amount of force developed in the animal
+mechanism in a direct ratio to the proportion of flesh decomposed.
+The quantity of fat burned in the body is estimated by the amount of
+carbonic acid gas expired from the lungs and perspired through the skin;
+the proportion of flesh disorganised is ascertained by the quantity of
+urea eliminated in the liquid egesta. The amount of urea excreted daily
+by a man is influenced by the activity of his mind, as well as by that
+of his body. A man engaged in physical labor wears out more of his body
+than one who does no work; and a man occupied in a pursuit involving
+intense mental application, consumes a greater proportion of his tissue
+than the man who works only with his body.[13] In each of these cases,
+there is a different amount of tissue disorganised, and consequently a
+demand for different amounts of food, with which to repair the waste.
+But all the food consumed by a man is not devoted to the reparation of
+the tissue worn out in the operations of thinking and working. A human
+being whose mind is a perfect blank, and who performs no bodily work,
+excretes a large quantity of urea, the representative of an equivalent
+amount of worn-out flesh. In fact the greater part of the food consumed
+by a man serves merely to sustain the functions of the body--the
+circulation of the blood--the action of the heart--the movements of the
+muscles concerned in respiration--in a word, the various motions of the
+body which are independent of the will. According to Professor Haughton,
+about three-fourths of the food of a working man of 150 lbs. weight, are
+used in merely keeping him _alive_, the remaining fourth is expended in
+the production of mechanical force, constituting his daily toil.
+
+In the nutrition of the lower animals, as in that of man, the amount of
+food made use of by a particular individual depends upon its age, its
+weight, the amount of work it performs, and probably its temper. As
+three-fourths of the weight of the food of a laboring man are expended
+in merely keeping him alive, it is obvious that the withholding of the
+remaining fourth would render him incapable of working. An amount of
+food which adequately maintains the vital and mechanical powers of three
+men, serves merely to keep four alive. It is the same with the horse,
+the ox, and every other animal useful to man: each makes use of a
+certain amount of food, _for its own purposes_; all that is consumed
+beyond that is applied for the benefit of its owner. Let us take the
+case of two of our most useful quadrupeds--the horse and the ox. The
+horse is used as an immediate source of motive power. For this purpose
+food is supplied to it, the greater portion of which is consumed in
+keeping the animal alive, and the rest for the development of its motive
+power. Abundance of food is as necessary to the natural mechanism,
+the horse, as fuel is to the artificial mechanism, the steam-engine.
+In each case the amount of force developed is, within certain limits,
+proportionate to the quantity of vegetable or altered vegetable matter
+consumed. The greater portion of the ox's food is also consumed in
+keeping its body alive, and the rest, instead of being expended in the
+development of motive power, accumulates as surplus stores of flesh,
+which in due time are applied to the purpose of repairing the organisms
+of men. It is evident then, that the greater sufferer from the deficient
+supply of food to animals is their owner. That they cannot be _taught_
+to _fast_ is a fact which does not appear very patent to some minds.
+The man who sought by gradually reducing the daily quantum of his
+horse's provender to accustom it to work without eating, was justly
+punished for his ignorant cruelty. The day before the horse's allowance
+was to be reduced to pure water, and when its owner's hope appeared
+certain of speedy realisation, the animal died. There are men who act
+almost as foolishly as the parsimonious horse owner in this fable did;
+and who are as properly punished as he was. Such men are to be found in
+the farmers who overstock their sheep pastures, and whose "lean kine"
+are the _laughing stock_ of their more intelligent neighbours.
+
+The weight of a working full-grown horse does not vary from day
+to day, as the weight of its egesta is equal to that of its food.
+The desideratum in the case of the working animal is that its food
+should be as thoroughly decomposed as possible, and the force pent
+up in it liberated within the animal's body: as an ox, on the contrary,
+increases in weight from day to day, it is desirable that as little as
+possible of its food should be disorganised. The wasteful expenditure
+of the animal's fat may be obviated by shelter, and the application of
+artificial heat: the retardation of the destruction of its flesh is even
+more under our control; for, as active muscular exertion involves the
+decomposition of tissue, we have merely to diminish the activity of
+the motions which cause this waste. This, in practice, is effected by
+stall-feeding. Confined within the narrow boundaries of the stall, the
+muscular action of the animal is reduced to a minimum, or limited to
+those uncontrollable actions which are conditions in the maintenance
+of animal life.
+
+The proportion of the food of oxen, sheep, and pigs, which is
+consumed in maintaining their vital functions, has not been accurately
+ascertained; probably, as in the case of man, it is strictly
+proportionate to the animal's weight. We can determine the amount
+of plastic food consumed by an animal during a given period: we can
+ascertain the increase (if any) in the weight of its body; and finally,
+we can weigh and analyse its egesta. With these data it is comparatively
+easy to ascertain the quantity of food which produced the increase in
+the animal's weight; but they do not enable us to determine the amount
+expended in keeping it alive, because the egesta might be largely made
+up of unappropriated food--organised matter which had done no work in
+the animal body. When we come to know the precise quantity of nitrogen,
+in a purely, or nearly pure, mineral form[14] excreted by an animal,
+then we shall be in a position to estimate the proportion of its food
+expended in sustaining the essential vital processes which continuously
+go on in its body. But although we are in ignorance as to the precise
+quantity of flesh-formers expended in keeping the animal alive, we know
+pretty accurately the amount which is consumed in producing a given
+weight of its flesh, or rather in causing a certain increase in its
+weight. This knowledge is the result of numerous investigations, of
+which by far the most valuable are those of Lawes and Gilbert. These
+experimenters found that fattening pigs stored up about 7-1/2 per
+cent. of the plastic materials of their food, whilst sheep accumulated
+somewhat less than 5 per cent. That is, 92-1/2 out of every 100 lbs.
+weight of the nitrogenous food of the pig, and 95 out of every 100 lbs.
+of that of the sheep, are eliminated in the excretions of those animals.
+
+It appears from the results of Lawes and Gilbert's experiments, that
+pigs store up in their _increase_ about 20 per cent., sheep 12 per
+cent., and oxen 8 per cent. of their (dry) food. The relative increase
+of the fatty, nitrogenous, and mineral constituents whilst fattening,
+are shown in this table.
+
+  ---------------------+-------------------------------------------------
+                       |Estimated per cent. in Increase whilst Fattening.
+  CASES.               +--------+-----------+-----------+----------------
+                       |Mineral |Nitrogenous|           |
+                       | matter |matter     | Fat (dry).| Total dry
+                       |(ash).  |(dry).     |           | substance.
+  ---------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+----------------
+  Average of  98 oxen  | 1.47   |  7.69     |  66.2     |  75.4
+  Average of 348 sheep | 1.80   |  7.13     |  70.4     |  79.53
+  Average of  80 pigs  | 0.44   |  6.44     |  71.5     |  78.40
+  ---------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+----------------
+
+The quantity of food consumed daily by an animal is, as might be expected,
+proportionate to the weight of its body. The pig consumes, for every 100
+lbs. of its weight, from 26 to 30 lbs. of food, the sheep 15 lbs., and
+the ox 12 to 13 lbs. These figures and the statements which I have made
+relative to the proportions of fat and plastic elements in the animals'
+bodies, apply to them in their fattening state, and when the food is
+of a highly nutritious character. The calf and the young pig will
+make use--to cause their increase--of a larger portion of nitrogenous
+matters. The sheep, however, being early brought to maturity, will, even
+when very young, store up the plastic and non-plastic constituents of
+its food, in nearly the same relative proportions that I have mentioned.
+
+As it is the food taken into the body that produces heat and motion, it
+might at first sight appear an easy matter to determine the amount of
+heat or of motion which a given weight of a particular kind of food is
+capable of producing within the animal mechanism. But this performance
+is not so easy a task as it appears to be. In the first place, all of
+the food may not be perfectly oxidised, though thoroughly disorganised
+within the body; secondly, as animals rarely subsist on one kind of
+food, it is difficult, when they are supplied with mixed aliments, to
+determine which of them is the most perfectly decomposed. But though the
+difficulties which I have mentioned, and many others, render the task
+of determining the nutritive values of food substances difficult, the
+problem is by no means insoluble, and, in fact, is in a fair way of
+being solved. Professor Frankland, in a paper published in the number
+of the _Philosophical Magazine_ for September, 1866, determines the
+relative alimental value of foods by ascertaining the quantity of heat
+evolved by each when burned in oxygen gas. From the results of these
+researches he has constructed a table, showing the amount of food
+necessary to keep a man alive for twenty-four hours. The following
+figures, which I select from this table, are of interest to the
+stock-feeder:--
+
+
+                      Weight necessary to sustain a
+                      man's life for twenty-four hours.
+
+  Kinds of Food.                 Ounces.
+
+  Potatoes                       13.4
+  Apples                         20.7
+  Oatmeal                         3.4
+  Flour                           3.5
+  Pea Meal                        3.5
+  Bread                           6.4
+  Milk                           21.2
+  Carrots                        25.6
+  Cabbage                        31.8
+  Butter                          1.8
+  Lump Sugar                      3.9
+
+These figures show the relative calefacient, or heat-producing powers of
+the different foods named _outside_ the body; but there is some doubt as
+to their having the same relative values when burned _within_ the body.
+The woody fibre of the carrots and cabbages is very combustible in the
+coal furnace, but it is very doubtful if more than 20 or 30 per cent. of
+this substance is ever burned in the _animal furnace_. However, such
+inquiries as those carried out by Frankland possess great value; and
+tables constructed upon their results cannot fail to be useful in the
+drawing up of dietary scales, whether for man or for the inferior
+animals.
+
+I may here remark, that in my opinion the nutritive value of food admits
+of being very accurately determined by the adoption of the following
+method:--
+
+1. The animal experimented upon to be supplied daily with a weighed
+quantity of food, the composition and calefacient value of which had
+been accurately determined. 2. The gases, vapors, and liquid and solid
+egesta thrown off from its body to be collected, analysed, and the
+calefacient[15] value of the combustible portion of them to be determined.
+3. The increase (if any) of the weight of the animal to be ascertained.
+4. The difference between the amount of heat evolvable by the foods
+before being consumed, and that actually obtained by the combustion
+of the egesta into which they were ultimately converted, would be the
+amount actually set free and rendered available within the body. The
+calculations would be somewhat affected by an increase in the weight
+of the animal's body; but it would not be difficult to keep the weight
+stationary, or nearly so, and there are other ways of getting over
+such a difficulty. An experiment such as this would be a costly one,
+and could not be properly conducted unless by the aid of an apparatus
+similar to that employed by Pettenkofer in his experiments on
+respiration. This apparatus, which was made at the expense of the King
+of Bavaria, cost nearly L600.
+
+_Value of Manure._--It is a complication in the question of the
+economic feeding of the farm animals that the value of their manure
+must be taken into account. Of the three classes of food constituents,
+two--the mineral and nitrogenous--are recoverable in the animal's body
+and manure; the non-nitrogenous is partly recoverable in the fat.
+I shall take the case of a sheep, which will consume weekly per 100
+lbs. of its weight, 12 lbs. of fat-formers, and 3 lbs. of flesh-formers.
+Twelve per cent. of the fat-formers will be retained in the _increase_,
+but the rest will be expended in keeping the animal warm, and the
+products of its combustion--carbonic acid and water--will be useless to
+the farmer. It is, therefore, desirable to diminish as much as possible
+the combustion of fatty matter in the animal's body; and this is
+effected, as I have already explained, by keeping it in a warm place.
+Of the flesh-forming substance only five per cent. is retained in the
+increase, the rest is partly consumed in carrying on the movements of
+the animal--partly expelled from its body unaltered, or but slightly
+altered, in composition. The solid excrement of the animal contains
+all the undigested food; but of this only the mineral and nitrogenous
+constituents are valuable as manure. The nitrogen of the plastic
+materials which are expended in maintaining the functions of the body is
+eliminated from the lungs, through the skin, and by the kidneys--perhaps
+also, but certainly only to a small extent, by the rectum.
+
+The food consumed by an animal is disposed of in the following way:--A
+portion passes unchanged, or but slightly altered, through the body;
+another part is assimilated and subsequently disorganised and ejected;
+the rest is converted into the carcass of the animal at the time of its
+death. The undigested food and aliment which had undergone conversion
+into flesh and other tissues, and subsequent disorganisation, constitute
+the excrements, or manure, of the animal. The richer in nitrogen and
+phosphoric acid the food is, the more valuable will be the manure; so
+that the money value of a feeding stuff is not determinable merely by
+the amount of flesh which it makes, but also, and to a great extent,
+by the value of the manure into which it is ultimately converted.
+
+Corn and oil-cakes are powerful fertilisers of the soil; but the three
+principles which constitute their manurial value--namely, nitrogen
+(ammonia), phosphoric acid, and potash--are purchasable at far lower
+prices in guano and other manures. Nevertheless, many farmers believe
+that the most economical way to produce good manure is to feed their
+stock with concentrated aliment, in order to greatly increase the value
+of their excreta. They consider that a pound's worth of oil-cake, or of
+corn, will produce at least a pound's worth of meat, and that the manure
+will be had for nothing, or, rather, will be the profit of the business.
+The richer food is in nitrogen and phosphoric acid, the more valuable
+will be the manure it yields. It follows, therefore, that if two kinds
+of feeding stuff produce equal amounts of meat, that the preference
+should be given to that which contains the more nitrogen and phosphoric
+acid. Mr. Lawes, who has thrown light upon this point, as well as upon
+so many others, has made careful estimates of the value of the manure
+produced from different foods.  They are given in the following table:--
+
+  TABLE
+
+  Showing the estimated value of the manure obtained on the
+  consumption of one ton of different articles of food; each
+  supposed to be of good quality of its kind.
+
+                                               Estimated Money Value
+      Description of Food.                     of the Manure from
+                                               One Ton of each Food.
+
+   1. Decorticated cotton-seed cake               L6   10   0
+   2. Rape-cake                                    4   18   0
+   3. Linseed-cake                                 4   12   0
+   4. Malt-dust                                    4    5   0
+   5. Lentils                                      3   17   0
+   6. Linseed                                      3   13   0
+   7. Tares                                        3   13   6
+   8. Beans                                        3   13   6
+   9. Peas                                         3    2   6
+  10. Locust beans                                 1    2   6(?)
+  11. Oats                                         1   14   6
+  12. Wheat                                        1   13   0
+  13. Indian corn                                  1   11   6
+  14. Malt                                         1   11   6
+  15. Barley                                       1    9   6
+  16. Clover-hay                                   2    5   0
+  17. Meadow-hay                                   1   10   0
+  18. Oat-straw                                    0   13   6
+  19. Wheat-straw                                  0   12   6
+  20. Barley-straw                                 0   10   6
+  21. Potatoes                                     0    7   0
+  22. Mangolds                                     0    5   0
+  23. Swedish turnips                              0    4   3
+  24. Common turnips                               0    4   0
+  25. Carrots                                      0    4   0
+
+All the saline matter contained in the food is either converted into
+flesh, or is recoverable in the form of manure, but a portion of its
+nitrogen appears to be lost by respiration and perspiration. Reiset
+states that 100 parts of the nitrogen of food given to sheep upon
+which he experimented, were disposed of as follows:--
+
+
+  Recovered in the excreta                                 58.3
+  Recovered in the meat, tallow, and skin                  13.7
+  Lost in respiration                                      28.0
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100.00
+
+Haughton's experiments, performed upon men, gave results which proved
+that no portion of the nitrogen of their food was lost by perspiration
+or by respiration. Barral, on the contrary, asserts that nitrogen
+is given off from the bodies of both man and the inferior animals.
+Boussingault states that horses, sheep, and pigs exhale nitrogen.
+A cow, giving milk, on which he had experimented, lost 15 per cent.
+of the nitrogen of its food by perspiration. The amount of nitrogen
+which Reiset states that sheep exhale is exceedingly great, and it
+is difficult to reconcile his results with those obtained by Voit,
+Bischoff, Regnault, Pettenkofer, and Haughton. Of course, men and sheep
+are widely different animals; but still it is unlikely that all the
+nitrogen of the food of man should be recoverable in his egesta, whilst
+nearly a third of the nitrogen of the food of the sheep should be
+dissipated as gas. I think further experiments are necessary before this
+point can be regarded as settled; and it is probable that it will yet be
+found that all, or nearly all, of the nitrogen of the food of animals is
+recoverable in their egesta.
+
+Regarding, then, an animal as a mechanism by which meat is to be
+"manufactured," five economic points in relation to it demand the
+feeder's attention: these are--the first cost of the mechanism, the
+expense of maintaining the mechanism in working order, the price of
+the raw materials intended for conversion into meat, the value of the
+meat, and the value of the manure. In proportion to the attention given
+to these points, will be the feeder's profits; but they are, to some
+extent, affected by the climatic, geographic, and other conditions under
+which the farm is placed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Footnote 1: If the elements were only capable of combining with each
+other in simple ratios, the number of their combinations would be as
+limited as that of the letters of the alphabet; but as one, two, or
+more atoms of oxygen can combine with one, two, or more atoms of
+other elements, we can assign no limits to the number of _possible_
+combinations. There are hundreds of distinct substances formed of but
+two elements, namely, hydrogen and carbon.]
+
+[Footnote 2: In a paper by Professor Sullivan, of Dublin, the conversion
+of one of these substances into another _outside_ the animal mechanism,
+is almost incontrovertibly proved.]
+
+[Footnote 3: _Experimental Inquiry into the Composition of some of
+the Animals Fed and Slaughtered as Human Food._ By John Bennet Lawes,
+F.R.S., F.C.S., and Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D., F.C.S. _Philosophical
+Transactions of the Royal Society._ Part II., 1860.]
+
+[Footnote 4: From the Greek _plasso_, "to form." Plastic materials are
+sometimes termed _formative_ elements; both terms imply the belief that
+they are capable of giving shape, or form, not only to themselves, but
+also to other kinds of matter not possessed of formative power.]
+
+[Footnote 5: The slow conversion of phosphorus into phosphoric acid
+takes place in the animal organism; its gradual oxidation in the open
+air gives rise only to an imperfectly oxidised body--_phosphorous acid_.
+But the latter fact does not invalidate the general proposition, that
+the heat emitted by a substance undergoing the process of oxidation is
+proportionate to the amount of oxygen with which it combines, and is not
+influenced by the length of time occupied by the process, further than
+this, that if the oxidation be _very_ rapidly effected, a portion of the
+heat will be converted into an _equivalent_ amount of light.]
+
+[Footnote 6: This statement is not absolutely correct, but the range
+of variation is confined within such narrow limits as to be quite
+insignificant.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Doubt has recently been thrown on the truth of this belief
+by Frankland, Fick, and Wislicenus.]
+
+[Footnote 8: The results of Savory's experiments on rats appear to prove
+that animals can live on food destitute of fat, sugar, starch, or any
+other fat-forming substance. I think, however, that animals could hardly
+thrive on purely nitrogenous food. The conclusions which certain late
+writers, who object to Liebig's theory of animal heat, have deduced from
+Savory's investigations, appear to me to be quite unfounded.]
+
+[Footnote 9: So termed because it is the basis of the common oils; the
+fluid portion of fat is composed of oleine.]
+
+[Footnote 10: The term _dry_ is applied to the _solid_ constituents of
+the food. Thus, a pig fed with 100 lbs. of potatoes would be said to
+have been supplied with 25 lbs. of dry potatoes, because water forms
+75 per cent. of the weight of those tubers.]
+
+[Footnote 11: The amounts of "mineral matter" are too high, owing to the
+adventitious matters (dirt) retained by the wool.]
+
+[Footnote 12: This pig was completely analysed by Lawes and Gilbert.]
+
+[Footnote 13: The results of recent and accurately conducted
+investigations prove that men engaged in occupations requiring the
+highest exercise of the intellectual faculties, require more nutritious
+food, and even a greater quantity of nutriment, than the hardest worked
+laborers, such as paviours, and navvies. I have been assured by an
+extensive manufacturer, that on promoting his workmen to situations of
+_greater_ responsibility but _less_ physically laborious than those
+previously filled by them, he found that they required more food and
+that, too, of a better quality. This change in their appetite was
+not the result of increased wages, which in most cases remained the
+same--the decrease in the amount of labour exacted being considered in
+most cases a sufficient equivalent for the increased responsibility
+thrown upon them.]
+
+[Footnote 14: As ammonia, urea, uric acid, or hippuric acid; all of which
+are nearly or perfectly mineralised substances.]
+
+[Footnote 15: The excrements of animals are capable of evolving, by
+combustion, enormous amounts of heat.]
+
+
+
+
+PART II.
+
+ON THE BREEDING AND BREEDS OF STOCK.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+THE BREEDING OF STOCK.
+
+_Cross Breeding._--For many years past feeders have zealously occupied
+themselves in the improvement of their stock, and the result of their
+labors is observable in the marked superiority of the breeds of the
+present day over their ancestors in the last century. The improvement
+of animals designed as food for man is effected by keeping them on a
+liberal dietary, by selecting only the best individuals for sires and
+dams, and by combining the excellencies of two or more varieties of a
+species in one breed. A species consists of a number of animals which
+exhibit so many points of resemblance, that they are regarded by the
+great majority of naturalists to be the descendants of a single pair.
+If we except the believers in the hypotheses relative to the origin
+of existing varieties of animals and plants, propounded by Lamarck,
+Darwin, and other naturalists of the "advanced school," there is a
+general belief in the immutability of species. The individuals of an
+existing species, say dogs, can never acquire the peculiar features
+of another species; nor can their descendants, if we except hybrids,
+ever become animals in which the characteristics of the dog tribe are
+irrecognisable. By various influences, such as, for example, differences
+in food and climate, and domestication, a species may be split into
+_varieties_, or _breeds_, all of which, however, retain the more
+important characteristics of the primordial type. There appears to be
+no limit to the varieties of dogs, yet one can perceive by a glance that
+there is no specific difference between the huge Mont St. Bernard dog
+and the diminutive poodle, or between the sparse greyhound and the burly
+mastiff. All the varieties of our domestic fowl have been traced to
+a common origin--the wild Indian fowl (_Gallus bankiva_). Even Darwin
+admits that all the existing kinds of horses are, in all probability,
+the descendants of an original stock; and it is generally agreed that
+the scores of varieties of pigeons own a common ancestor in the rock
+pigeon (_Columba livia_).
+
+As certain individuals are grouped by naturalists into species, so
+particular species, which in habits and general appearance resemble each
+other, are arranged under the head of genus. The horse, the ass, and the
+zebra are formed on nearly the same anatomical plan; they are therefore
+classed together, and designated the genus _Equus_, a term derived from
+the Latin word _equus_, a horse--that animal being regarded as the type,
+or perfect member of the group. Thus the horse, in the nomenclature of
+the naturalist, is termed _Equus caballus_; the ass, _Equus asinus_; and
+the zebra, _Equus zebra_. By a further extension of this principle of
+classification, very closely allied genera are united under the term
+of _family_.
+
+The different varieties of the same species breed, as might be
+anticipated, freely together; but it frequently happens that two
+individuals of different species pair, and produce an animal which
+inherits some of the properties of each of its progenitors. These
+half-breeds are termed _hybrids_, or _mules_, and we have familiar
+examples of them in the common mule and the jennet. As a general rule,
+animals exhibit a disinclination to breed with other than members of
+their own species; and although the interference of man may overcome
+this natural repugnance, he can only effect the fruitful congress of
+individuals belonging to closely allied species, being members of the
+same genus. Hybrids in the genus _Equus_ are very common. A cross has
+been produced between the he-goat and the ewe; the camel and the
+dromedary have bred together; and Buffon succeeded in producing a hybrid
+in which three animals were represented--namely, the bison, the zebu,
+and the ox. On the other hand, attempts to effect a cross between
+animals belonging to different families have generally failed; nor is
+it at all probable that a cross will ever be produced between the pig
+and the sheep, between the horse and the cow, or, most unlikely of all,
+between the dog and the cat.
+
+It is the general belief that hybrids are sterile, or, at least, that
+they are incapable of propagation _inter se_. This may be true with
+respect to the hybrids of species not very closely allied; but that
+there are exceptions to the rule is quite clear from Roux's experiments
+with hares and rabbits. This gentleman, who is, or was, the president
+of a French agricultural society, but who makes no profession of
+scientific knowledge, has succeeded, after several failures, in producing
+a fruitful cross between the rabbit and the hare. This hybrid has
+received the name of leporide (from the Latin _leporinus_, pertaining to
+a hare), and it is different from former crosses, in being five parts
+hare, and three parts rabbit. M. Roux has bred this hybrid during the
+last eighteen years, and has not observed the slightest appearance
+of decay of race manifest itself up to the present, so that, for all
+practical purposes, the leporide may be regarded as an addition to the
+distinct species of animals. The leporide fattens rapidly, and with but
+little expenditure of food. Sold at the age of four months, it realises,
+in France, a price four times greater than that commanded by a rabbit of
+the same age; and at a year old it weighs on an average ten pounds, and
+sometimes as much as sixteen pounds. It breeds at four months, continues
+thirty days in gestation, and yearly produces five or six litters of
+from five to eight young. To produce this hybrid is by no means
+difficult. A leveret, just old enough to dispense with the maternal
+nutriment, should be placed with a few doe rabbits of his own age,
+apart from other animals. He will soon become familiar with the does,
+and when they attain the age of puberty, all the rabbits save one or two
+should be removed. Speedily those left with the hare will become with
+young, upon which they should be removed, and replaced by others. After
+this the hare should be kept in a hutch by himself, and a doe left with
+him at night only. As the hare is naturally a very shy animal, it will
+only breed when perfect quietness prevails. The half-bred produced in
+the first instance should now be put to the hare, and a cross, three
+parts hare, and one part rabbit, obtained. The permanent breed should
+then be obtained by crossing the quadroon doe leporide, if I may use the
+term, with the half-bred buck.
+
+I have directed attention to the production of the leporide because
+I believe that the problems in relation to it, which have been solved
+by M. Roux, have an important bearing upon the breeding of animals
+of greater importance than hares and rabbits. Here we find a race of
+animals produced by the fusion of two species, which naturally exist in
+a state of mutual enmity, and which differ in many important respects.
+The hare and the rabbit are respectively of but little value as food, at
+least they are of no importance to the feeder; yet a cross between them
+turns out to be an excellent meat-producing animal, which may be reared
+with considerable profit to the feeder. It is thus clearly shown that
+two kinds of animals, neither of which is of great utility, may give
+rise to an excellent cross, if their blood, so to speak, be blended in
+proper proportions. A half-bred animal may be less valuable than its
+parents, but a quadroon may greatly excel its progenitors. The goat
+and sheep are so closely related that they are classed by naturalists
+under one head--_Capridae_. Some kinds of sheep have hair like goats, and
+certain varieties of goats have fleeces that closely resemble those on
+the sheep. There are sheep with horns, and goats without those striking
+appendages. The Cape of Good Hope goat might easily be mistaken for a
+sheep. It would seem, judging by the results of Roux's experiments, that
+there is no great difficulty in the way of obtaining a cross between the
+sheep and the goat. I do not mean an ordinary half-breed, but a prolific
+hybrid similar to the leporide. Of course, it is impossible, _a priori_,
+to say whether or not such a hybrid race, supposing it produceable,
+would be valuable; but as goats can find a subsistence on mountains
+where sheep would starve, it is possible that an animal, essentially a
+sheep, but with a streak of goat blood in it, could be profitably kept
+on very poor uplands. Whether a race of what we might term _caprides_ be
+formed or not we have derived most suggestive information from M. Roux's
+experiments, which I hope may be turned to account in what is by far the
+most important field of enquiry, the judicious crossing of varieties of
+the same species.
+
+It is a _quaestio vexata_ whether or not the parents generally exercise
+different influences upon the shape and size of their offspring. Mr.
+Spooner supports the supposition--a very popular one--that the sire
+gives shape to the external organs, whilst the dam affects the internal
+organisation. I have considerable doubt as to the probability of this
+theory. The children who spring from the union of a white man with a
+negress possess physical and intellectual qualities which are nearly if
+not quite the _mean_ of their parents; but the offspring of parents,
+both of the same race--be it Caucasian, Mongolian, or Indian--frequently
+conform, intellectually and corporeally, to either of their progenitors.
+Thus, of the children of a tall, thin, dark man, and a short, fat,
+fair woman, some will be like their father, and the others will
+resemble their mother, or, perhaps, all may "take after" either parent.
+Sometimes a child appears to be in every respect unlike its parents,
+and occasionally the likeness of an ancestor appears in a descendant, in
+whom no resemblance to his immediate progenitors can be detected. It is
+highly probable that both parents exercise, under most circumstances, a
+joint influence upon the qualities of their offspring, but that one of
+them may produce so much greater an effect that the influence of the
+other is not recognisable, except perhaps to a very close observer. But
+I doubt very much that any particular organ of the offspring is, as a
+rule, more liable to the influence of the sire than of the dam, or _vice
+versa_; and the breeder who believes that the sire alone is concerned in
+moulding the external form of the offspring, and who consequently pays
+no attention to this point in the dam, will often find himself out in
+his reckonings. In order to be certain of a satisfactory result, the dam
+should in every respect be equal to the sire. In practice, however, this
+is not always the case, for as sires are so few as compared with the
+number of dams, the greatest efforts have been directed towards the
+improvement of the former.
+
+There is, or ought to be, a familiar maxim with breeders, that "like
+begets like, or the likeness of an ancestor." This is a "wise saw," of
+which there are many "modern instances:" the excellencies or defects of
+sire or dam are certain to be transmitted through several generations,
+though they may not appear in all. As a general rule, good animals will
+produce a good, and defective animals a defective, offspring, but it
+sometimes happens that a bull or cow, of the best blood, is decidedly
+inferior, whilst really good animals are occasionally the produce of
+parents of "low degree." If the defects or excellencies of animals were
+ineradicable there would be no need for the science of breeding; but by
+the continual selection of only the most superior animals for breeding
+purposes the defects of a species gradually disappear, and the good
+qualities are alone transmitted. As, however, animals that are used as
+food for man are to some extent in an abnormal condition, the points
+which may be excellencies in that state, would not have been such in the
+original condition of the animal. We find, therefore, that the improved
+breeds of oxen and sheep exhibit some tendency to revert to their
+original condition, and it is only by close attention to the diet,
+breeding, and general management of these animals that this tendency can
+be successfully resisted. Sometimes, however, an animal of even the best
+breed will "return to nature," or will acquire some undesirable quality;
+such an animal should be rejected for breeding purposes, for its defects
+would in all probability be transmitted to its descendants, near or
+remote. A case, which admirably illustrates this point, is recorded in
+the _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1813, and it is sufficiently
+interesting to be mentioned here:--
+
+    Seth Wright, who possessed a small farm on the Charles River,
+    about sixteen miles from Boston, had a small flock, consisting
+    of fifteen ewes and one ram. One of these ewes, in 1791, produced
+    a singular-shaped male lamb. Wright was advised to kill his former
+    ram and keep this new one in place of it; the consequence was, the
+    formation of a new breed of sheep, which gradually spread over a
+    considerable part of New England, but the introduction of the Merino
+    has nearly destroyed them again. This new variety was called the
+    Otter, or "Ankon" breed. They are remarkable for the shortness of
+    their legs, and the crookedness of their forelegs, like an elbow.
+    They are much more feeble and much smaller than the common sheep,
+    and less able to break over low fences; and this was the reason
+    of their being continued and propagated.
+
+
+Here we have an instance of an animal propagating a defect through
+a great number of descendants, though it had not acquired it from
+its own ancestors. It is, however, probable that occasionally a male
+descendant of this short-legged ram possessed considerably longer organs
+of locomotion than the founder of his breed; and, consequently, if
+selected for breeding purposes might become the founder of a long-legged
+variety, in which, however, a couple of pairs of short-legs would
+occasionally present themselves. I have a notion that the higher animals
+are in the scale of being, the greater is their tendency to transmit
+their acquired good or bad habits to their posterity. Dogs are, perhaps,
+the most intelligent of the inferior animals, and it is well known
+that they transmit to their offspring their acquired as well as their
+natural habits. I doubt very much that those most stupid of creatures,
+guinea-pigs, possess this property in any sensible degree; or, indeed,
+that like the canine tribe, they can be readily made to acquire
+artificial peculiarities: but there once flourished a "learned pig,"
+and it would be worth inquiring whether or not its descendants, like the
+descendants of the trained setter, and pointer, were at all benefited by
+the education of their ancestor. I shall conclude this part of my subject
+in the words of Professor Tanner: "In all cases where the breed has been
+carefully preserved pure, great benefit will result from doing so. The
+character of a breed becomes more and more concentrated and confirmed in
+a pedigree animal, and this character is rendered more fully hereditary
+in proportion to the number of generations through which it has been
+transmitted. By the aid of pedigree, purity of blood may be insured, and
+a systematic plan adopted by which we can perpetuate distinct families,
+and thereby obtain a change of blood without its being a cross. It is
+evident that any one adopting a systematic arrangement will be able to
+do this more effectually than another without this aid. This is the more
+important when the number of families is small, as is the case with
+Devons and Herefords, especially the former. The individual animals from
+which the Devons are descended are very limited in number, and in a few
+hands; but, with some honourable exceptions, little attention is given
+to this point. The importance is rendered evident by the decreasing size
+of the breed, the number of barren heifers, and the increased delicacy
+of constitution shown in the stock of many breeders of that district who
+are not particular in this respect. The contrast between such herds,
+and those in which more care and judgment are exercised, renders the
+advantages of attention to pedigree very evident; for here the strength
+of constitution is retained, together with many of the advantages of
+this valuable breed."
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+THE BREEDS OF STOCK.
+
+The nature of the animal determines, as I have already stated, the
+proportion of its food carried off in its increase; but this point is
+also greatly influenced by its _variety_, or _breed_. Certain breeds
+which have for a long period been kept on bulky food, and obliged
+to roam in quest of it, appear to have acquired a normal tendency to
+_leanness_. No doubt, if they were supplied with highly nutritious
+food for many successive generations, these breeds might eventually
+exhibit as great a tendency to fatten as they now do to remain in a
+lean condition. As it is, the horned cattle of Kerry, Wales, and some
+other regions, rarely become fat, no matter how abundantly they may be
+supplied with fattening food. On the other hand, the Herefords, but more
+especially the Shorthorns, exhibit a natural disposition to obesity, and
+such animals alone should be stall-fed. It is noteworthy that animals
+which are naturally disposed to yield abundance of milk are often the
+best adapted for fattening; but it would appear that the continuous
+use of highly fattening food, and the observance of the various other
+conditions in the _forcing_ system, diminish the activity of the lacteal
+secretion, and increase the tendency to fatness in the races of the
+bovine tribe. The Shorthorns were at one time famous for their milking
+capabilities, but latterly their galactophoric reputation has greatly
+declined. Still I am disposed to believe, that if some of those animals
+were placed under conditions favorable to the improvement of dairy
+stock, herds of Shorthorn milch cows could be obtained which would vie
+in their own line with the famous fat-disposed oxen of the same breed.
+
+In sheep the tendency to early maturity and to fatten is greatly
+influenced by the breed. The Leicester, even when kept on inferior
+pasture, fattens so rapidly that in eighteen months it is fit for the
+butcher; whilst the Merino, though supplied with excellent herbage, must
+be preserved for nearly four years before it is ready for the shambles.
+The crossing of good herds has resulted in the development of numerous
+varieties, all remarkable for their aptitude to fatten and to arrive
+early at maturity. The Leicester--itself supposed to be a cross--has
+greatly improved the Lincoln, and the Hampshire and Southdown have
+produced an excellent cross. Of course, each breed and cross has its
+admirers; indeed, the differences of opinion which prevail in relation
+to the relative merits of the Lincoln and the Leicester--the Southdown
+and the Shropshiredown--the Dorset and the Somerset--occasionally
+culminate into newspaper controversies of an exceedingly ascerb
+character. There is no doubt but that particular breeds of sheep
+thrive in localities and under conditions which are inimical to other
+varieties; but still it is equally evident that, _caeteris paribus_, one
+kind of sheep will store up in its increase a larger proportion of its
+food than another kind, and will arrive earlier at maturity. It is the
+knowledge of this fact which has led to the great estimation in which
+are held some half-dozen out of the numerous breeds and cross-breeds
+of that animal. In 1861 an interesting experiment was made by the
+Parlington Farmers' Club with the object of testing the relative merits
+of several varieties of sheep. The results are shown in the tables:--
+
+  TABLE I.
+
+  ----------------+------------------------------------+-----------------------
+                  | Live Weight of Six Wethers         |Weights gained
+                  | when Shorn, 26th February, 1862.   |during the time of
+                  |       +--------------------------- |Feeding from the
+                  |       | Weight of Mutton when      |11th November, 1861,
+  Description of  |       | Slaughtered.               |to 14th February, 1862.
+  Class of Sheep. |       |       +------+------+------+-------+-------+-------
+                  |       |       |Weight|Weight|Weight|       |       |
+                  |       |       |  of  |  of  |  of  |In Live|  In   | In
+                  |       |       |Tallow| Wool.|Pelts.|Weight.|Mutton.| Wool.
+  ----------------+-------+-------+------+------+------+-------+-------+-------
+                  |st. lb.|st. lb.|   lb.|   lb.|   lb.|st. lb.|st. lb.|lb. oz.
+  Cross from      |       |       |      |      |      |       |       |
+    the Teeswater | 85  3 | 53  1 |   106|    43|    85| 13  7 | 8   6 | 14  5
+                  |       |       |      |      |      |       |       |
+  North Sheep     | 83 12 | 53 12 |    96|43-1/2|    83| 12 11 | 8   3 | 14  8
+                  |       |       |      |      |      |       |       |
+  Lincolns        | 92  1 | 59 12 |   105|    66|   103| 16  1 |10   7 | 22  0
+                  |       |       |      |      |      |       |       |
+  South Downs     | 71  0 | 47  7 |97-1/4|    28|65-3/4| 11 13 | 8   0 |  9  5
+                  |       |       |      |      |      |       |       |
+  Shropshire Downs| 85  6 | 53  1 |   103|42-1/2|    91| 15 11 | 9  12 | 14  3
+                  |       |       |      |      |      |       |       |
+  Leicesters      | 80  9 | 53  4 |90-1/2|    44|78-1/2| 14 10 | 9  10 | 14 11
+                  |       |       |      |      |      |       |       |
+  Cotswolds       | 76  5 | 47  6 |    79|    54|    90| 12  6 | 7  11 | 18  0
+  ----------------+-------+-------+------+------+------+-------+-------+-------
+
+
+  TABLE II.
+
+  -----------------+--------------------------------------------+-----------+
+                   | Value of the preceding                     | Food      |
+  Description      | Mutton and Wool so gained.                 | consumed  |
+  of Sheep.        +----------------------+---------------------+ during    |
+                   | Price of the Mutton. | Price of the Wool.  | time of   |
+                   |                      |                     | Feeding.  |
+  -----------------+-------+--------------+-------+-------------+-----+-----+
+                   |       |              |       |             |Swd. |Lnd. |
+                   | p. lb.|              | p. lb.|             |Tnp. |Cke. |
+                   +-------+              +-------+             +-----+-----+
+                   | d.    | L   s. d.    |  d.   | L  s. d.    | st. | lb. |
+  Teeswater, Cross | 6     | 2  19  0     | 18    | 1  1  6     | 978 | 300 |
+  North Shropshire | 6     | 2  17  6     | 17-1/2| 1  1  1-3/4 | 914 | 300 |
+  Lincolnshire[16] | 5-3/4 | 3  10  5-1/4 | 18    | 1 13  0     | 936 | 363 |
+  Southdowns       | 6-1/2 | 3   0  8     | 17    | 0 13  2-1/2 | 684 | 300 |
+  Shropshire       | 6-1/4 | 3  11 10-1/2 | 17-1/2| 1  0  7-3/4 | 924 | 300 |
+  Leicester        | 5-3/4 | 3   5  2     | 18    | 1  2  0     | 877 | 300 |
+  Cotswolds        | 6     | 2  14  6     | 18    | 1  7  0     | 926 | 300 |
+  -----------------+-------+--------------+-------+-------------+-----+-----+
+
+  -----------------+------------------+--------------+----------------------+
+                   | Value of the     |              | Value of Food        |
+                   | Food, Calculating| Value of     | deducted from Value  |
+  Description      | Turnips at 6s.   | the Mutton   | of Mutton and Wool,  |
+  of Sheep.        | 8d., and Cake at | and Wool.    | showing real value of|
+                   | L10 10s. per ton.|              | the different sheep. |
+  -----------------+------------------+--------------+----------------------+
+                   |                  |              |                      |
+                   |                  |              |                      |
+                   |                  |              |                      |
+                   |   L  s.  d.      | L   s. d.    |    L   s.  d.        |
+  Teeswater, Cross |   3  8  10-1/2   | 4   0      6 |    0  11   7         |
+  North Shropshire |   3  6   2-1/2   | 3  18  7-3/4 |    0  12   5         |
+  Lincolnshire[16] |   3 13   0-1/4   | 5   3  5-1/4 |    1  10   5         |
+  Southdowns       |   2 16   7-1/2   | 3  13 10-1/2 |    0  17   3         |
+  Shropshire       |   3  6   7-3/4   | 4  12  6-1/4 |    1   5  10         |
+  Leicester        |   3  4   8       | 4   7      2 |    1   2   6         |
+  Cotswolds        |   3  6   8-1/2   | 4   1      6 |    0  14   9-1/2     |
+  -----------------+------------------+--------------+----------------------+
+
+These results, taken with the customary _grain of salt_, tell well for
+the improved Lincoln; they also clearly show the aptitude to fatten,
+without much loss in offal, of the Leicester;[17] and they commend to the
+lover of good mutton the Shropshire and South-Downs.
+
+In the sixteenth volume of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society
+of England, Mr. Lawes gives some valuable information relative to the
+comparative fattening qualities of different breeds of sheep. The
+following table, on this author's authority, shows the average food
+consumed in producing 100 lbs. increase in live weight:--
+
+  Breed.                    Oil Cake.     Clover.      Swedes.
+
+  Sussex                    297-1/4       285-1/2      3.835-3/4
+  Hampshire                 291-1/2       261-1/4      3.966-3/4
+  Cross-bred Wethers        264-1/2       251-3/4      3.725-1/4
+      Do.    Ewes           263-1/2       250-1/4      3.671
+  Leicesters                263-3/4       251-1/4      3.761
+  Cotswolds                 253-1/2       216-3/4      3.557-1/2
+
+Some breeds are profitably kept in certain localities, where other kinds
+would not pay so well: for example, the Devons, according to Mr. Smith,
+are better adapted than larger breeds for "converting the produce of
+cold and hilly pastures into meat." It is remarkable that nearly all the
+best existing breeds of oxen and sheep are crosses. Major Rudd states
+that the dam of Hubback, the famous founder of pure improved Shorthorns,
+owed her propensity to fatten to an admixture of Kyloe blood, and also
+that the sire of Hubback had a stain of Alderney, or Normandy blood.
+Although the Rudd account of the ancestry of Hubback is not accepted by
+all the historians of this splendid breed of cattle, there is no doubt
+but that the breed owes its origin as much to judicious crossing as to
+careful selection of sires and dams. It must not, however, be imagined
+that there are no good pure races of stock. There is a perfectly pure,
+but now scarce, tribe of Kerry oxen, admirably adapted to poor uplands.
+The excellent Southdown sheep, though in every respect immensely
+superior to their ancestors in the last century, have not attained to
+their present superior state by crossing. The high value placed by
+breeders upon good sires and dams in the approved breeds of stock is
+shown by the large sums which they frequently realise at sales, or when
+the former are let out for service. Bakewell received in one season for
+the use of a ram 400 guineas each from two breeders, and they did not
+retain the animal during the whole season. Several hundred guineas have
+lately been more than once paid for a celebrated tup. Colonel Towneley's
+Shorthorn bull, Master Butterfly, was, not long since, disposed of to an
+Australian buyer for L1,260. At the sale of Mr. Bates's stock in 1850,
+a stock of Shorthorns, including calves, brought on the average L116 5s.
+per head. At the Earl Ducie's sale in 1852, a three year old
+cow--Duchess--realised 700 guineas.
+
+The color of an animal is, to some extent, a criterion of the purity
+of its breed. Roan is a favourite hue with the breeders of Shorthorns.
+There have been celebrated sires and dams of that breed perfectly white;
+but that color, or rather absence of color, is now somewhat unpopular,
+partly from the idea that it is a sign of weakness of constitution--a
+notion for which there appears to me to be no foundation in fact.
+The slightest spot of black, or even a very dark shade, is regarded
+to be a blemish of the most serious kind when observed on the pelt
+of a Shorthorn. The Herefords are partly white, partly red; the Devon
+possesses in general a deep red hue; the Suffolks are usually of a dun
+or faint reddish tint; the Ayrshires are commonly spotted white and red;
+and the Kerrys are seen in every shade between a jet black and a deep
+red. Uniformity in color would be most desirable in the case of each
+variety, and this object could easily be attained if breeders devoted
+some attention to it.
+
+_The Form of Animals._--The functions of an animal are arranged by
+Bichat, an eminent physiologist, into two classes--those relating to
+its nutrition, and those exhibited by its muscular and mental systems.
+The first class of functions comprise the _vegetative_, or organic life
+of the animal, and the second class constitute its _relative_ life.
+Adopting this arrangement, we may say, then, that those animals in which
+the vegetative life is far more energetic than the relative life are
+best suited for the purposes of the feeder. In tigers, wolves, and dogs
+the relative life predominates over the vegetative; the muscles are
+almost constantly in a high degree of tension, and the processes of
+nutrition are in constant requisition to supply the waste of muscle.
+On the other hand, in oxen, sheep, and pigs, at least when in a state
+of domesticity, the muscles are not highly developed; they do not
+largely tax the vegetative processes, and, consequently, the substances
+elaborated under the influence of the vegetative life rapidly increase.
+The form of an animal is therefore mainly determined by the activity of
+its relative life. In a greyhound, the nervous power of which is highly
+developed, the muscles are large and well-knit, the stomach, intended
+for the reception of concentrated nutriment only, is small, and the
+lungs are exceedingly capacious. In such an animal the arrangements for
+the rapid expenditure of nervous power must be perfect. It is not merely
+necessary that its muscles should be large and powerful, its lungs must
+also admit of deep inspirations of oxygen, whereby the motive power
+wielded by these muscles may be rapidly generated. Now, an animal
+exactly opposite in organisation to the greyhound would, according
+to theory, be just the kind to select for the production of meat.
+The greyhound and the horse expend all their food in the production
+of motive power; the ox and the sheep, being endowed with but a feeble
+muscular organisation, use a smaller proportion of their food for
+carrying on the functions of their relative life, consequently, the
+weight of their bodies is augmented by the surplus nutriment. It is
+clear, then, that an animal of a lymphatic temperament, an indolent
+disposition, a low degree of nervous power, and a tendency to rapid
+growth, is the _beau ideal_ of a "meat-manufacturing machine." Now, as
+the larger the lungs of an animal are, the greater is its capacity for
+"burning," or consuming its tissues, one might suppose that small lungs
+would be a _desideratum_ in an ox, or other animal destined for the
+shambles. This appears to be Liebig's opinion, for in one of his
+books he states that "a narrow chest (small lungs) is considered by
+experienced agriculturists a sure sign, in pigs, for example, of easy
+fattening; and the same remark applies to cows, in reference to the
+produce of milk--that is, of butter." On this subject Professor Tanner
+makes the following remarks, in his excellent Essay on Breeding and
+Rearing Cattle:[18]--"In our high-bred animals we find a small liver
+and a small lung, accompanied with a gentle and peaceful disposition.
+Now, these conditions, which are so desirable for producing fat, are
+equally favorable for yielding butter. The diminished organs economise
+the consumption of the carbonaceous matters in the blood, hence, more
+remains for conversion into fat, but equally prepared for yielding
+cream, if the tendency of the animal is equally favorable to the same."
+One would imagine, from the foregoing passage, that Mr. Tanner and Baron
+Liebig coincided in believing small lungs necessary to rapid fattening;
+but in another part of his essay, Tanner thus describes one of the
+points indicative of a tendency to fatten early:--"The chest should be
+bold and prominent, wide and deep, furnished with a deep but not coarse
+dewlap." On comparing the two passages which I have quoted from Tanner's
+essay, a contradiction is apparent. Mr. Bowly, Major Rudd, and other
+eminent breeders and feeders, appear to regard a capacious chest as the
+best sign of a fattening property which an animal could show. Lawes and
+Gilbert have recorded the weights of the viscera of a number of animals
+which, though supplied with equal quantities of the same kind of food,
+attained to different degrees of fatness. On carefully scrutinising
+these records, I failed to perceive any constant relation between the
+weight of their lungs and their tendency to fatten rapidly. Some animals
+with large lungs converted a larger proportion of their food into meat
+than others with smaller respiratory organs, and _vice versa_. In a
+state of nature, there is no doubt but that the lungs of the ox and of
+the sheep are moderately large; and it is evident that in their case, as
+well as in that of man, over-feeding and confinement tend to diminish
+their muscular energy, and, of course, to decrease the capacity of the
+lungs. That such a practice does not tend to the improvement of the
+health of an animal is perfectly evident, but then the perfect ox of
+nature is very different from the perfect ox of man. The latter is
+a wide departure from the original type of its species: any marked
+development of its nervous system is undesirable; and it is valuable
+in proportion as its purely vegetative functions are most strongly
+manifested. A young bullock, therefore, of this kind would, no doubt,
+be the most economical kind to rear, provided that it was perfectly
+healthy, and capable of assimilating the liberal amount of food supplied
+to it. But it rarely happens that a young animal with a weakly chest
+turns out other than a scrofulous or otherwise diseased adult. On the
+whole, then, I am disposed to believe that whilst naturally small-lunged
+species may be more prone to fatten than large-chested ones, it is not
+the case that small-chested individuals fatten more rapidly than larger
+lunged individuals of the same kind.
+
+The conditions under which oxen, sheep, and pigs have been so long
+maintained in civilised countries, must have diminished the capacity of
+their chests in relation to other parts of their bodies; and it may be
+fairly doubted if any good could result by reducing to still smaller
+dimensions those most important organs. Probably the lungs and hearts of
+the improved breeds of stock are already too small, and that it is only
+the individuals which are least affected in this respect that answer to
+Mr. Bowly's description of a fat-disposed beast. Whether or not small
+lungs are desirable in a bullock or milch cow, it is certain that a ram
+or a bull should be possessed of a capacious chest, for otherwise he
+will have but little vigour, and will be likely to produce a weakly
+offspring. A sire should be a perfectly developed animal in every
+respect--sound lungs and heart, and not over fat. It is sufficient that
+it belongs to a good fattening breed; but to produce offspring with a
+tendency to fatness and early maturity, it is not necessary that the
+sire should himself be obese. It is to be regretted that so many sires
+of the Shorthorns and other improved varieties should be used for
+breeding purposes, when their hearts and lungs have become, by
+over-feeding the animals, unfitted for the proper discharge of their
+function. The progeny of such sires must _naturally_ inherit the
+_acquired taint_ of their diseased progenitors, and prove weakly and
+unhealthy animals.
+
+With respect to the general outline structure of a bull, he should have
+a small, well-set head, rounded ribs, straight legs, small bones, and
+sound internal organs. The following are considered to be the best
+points in a Shorthorn bull:--A short and moderately small head, with
+tapering muzzle and broad forehead, furnished with short, white,
+curved, graceful looking horns; bright, yet mild, large eyes, placed in
+prominent orbits; dilated nostrils, and flesh-colored nose, and long,
+thin ears. The neck should be broad, deep, and muscular, sloping in a
+graceful line from the shoulder to the head. The chest should be wide,
+deep, projecting, but level in front. The shoulders should be oblique,
+the blades well set in towards the ribs. The forelegs should be stout,
+muscular above the knee, and slender below it; the hind legs should be
+slender to the hock, and from thence increase in thickness to the
+buttocks, which should be well developed. The carcass should be well
+rounded at each side, but level on the back and on the belly. There
+should be no hollows between the shoulder and the ribs, the line from
+the highest part of the shoulder to the insertion of the tail should be
+a perfect level. The flank should be full, the loins broad, and the tail
+finely formed and only partially covered with hair. The skin is a prime
+point: it must be covered with hair of a roan, or other _fashionable_
+color, and communicate to the hand of the experienced feeler, a peculiar
+sensation, which it is impossible to describe. With regard to this
+point, I cannot do better than quote the words of an experienced
+"handler":--
+
+"A nice or good judge of cattle or sheep, with a slight touch of the
+fingers upon the fatting points of the animal--viz., the hips, rump,
+ribs, flanks, breast, twist, shoulder score, &c. will know immediately
+whether it will make fat or not, and in which part it will be the
+fattest. I have often wished to convey in language that idea or
+sensation we acquire by the touch or feel of our fingers, which enables
+us to form a judgment when we are handling an animal intended to be
+fatted, but I have as often found myself unequal to that wish. It is
+very easy to know where an animal is fattest which is already made fat,
+because we can evidently feel a substance or quantity of fat--all those
+parts which are denominated the fatting points; but the difficulty is to
+explain how we know or distinguish animals, in a lean state, which will
+make fat and which will not--or rather, which will make fat in such
+points or parts, and not in others--which a person of judgment (_in
+practice_) can tell, as it were, instantaneously. I say _in practice_,
+because I believe that the best judges _out of practice_ are not able to
+judge with precision--at least, I am not. We say this beast _touches_
+nicely upon its ribs, hips, &c., &c., because we find a mellow, pleasant
+feel on those parts; but we do not say soft, because there are some of
+this same sort of animals which have a soft, loose handle, of which we
+do not approve, because, though soft and loose, have not the mellow feel
+above mentioned. For though they both handle soft and loose, yet we know
+that the one will make fat and the other will not; and in this lies the
+difficulty of the explanation. We clearly find a particular kindliness
+or pleasantness in the feel of the one much superior to the other, by
+which we immediately conclude that this will make fat, and the other not
+so fat; and in this a person of judgment, and _in practice_, is very
+seldom mistaken."
+
+In many respects the good points in a Shorthorn cow resemble those in
+the male of that breed, but in others there is considerable difference.
+As I have described in prose the excellencies which a bull should
+possess, I will now give a poetical summary of the good points of a cow
+of that breed, extracted from the _Journal of Agriculture_, and composed
+evidently by an excellent breeder and poet, Mr. Carr:--
+
+  The following features constitute, I trow,
+  The beau ideal of a short-horn cow:--
+  Frame massive, round, deep-barrell'd, and straight-back'd;
+  Hind quarters level, lengthy, and well pack'd;
+  Thighs wide, flesh'd inwards, plumb almost to hock;
+  Twist deep, conjoining thighs in one square block;
+  Loin broad and flat, thick flesh'd, and free from dip;
+  Back ribs "well home," arch'd even with the hip;
+  Hips flush with back, soft-cushion'd, not too wide;
+  Flanks full and deep, well forward on the side;
+  Fore ribs well-flesh'd, and rounded like a drum;
+  Fore flanks that even with the elbow come;
+  Crop "barrell'd" flush with shoulders and with side;
+  Girth large and round--not deep alone, but wide;
+  Shoulders sloped back, thick cover'd wide at chine;
+  Points snug, well-flesh'd, to dew-lap tapering fine;
+  Neck vein fill'd up to well-clothed shoulder-point;
+  Arm full above, turn'd in at elbow-joint;
+  Legs short and straight, fine boned 'neath hock and knee;
+  Belly cylindrical, from drooping free;
+  Chest wide between the legs, with downward sweep;
+  Brisket round, massive, prominent, and deep;
+  Neck fine at head, fast thickening towards its base;
+  Head small, scope wide, fine muzzle and dish'd face;
+  Eyes prominent and bright, yet soft and mild;
+  Horns waxy, clear, of medium size, unfiled;
+  Tail fine, neat hung, rectangular with back;
+  Hide soft, substantial, yielding, but not slack;
+  Hair furry, fine, thick set, of colour smart;
+  Udder well forward, with teats wide apart.
+  These points proportion'd well delight the eye
+  Of grazier, dairyman, and passer-by;
+  And these to more fastidious minds convey
+  Appearance stylish, feminine, and gay.
+
+
+_Breeds of the Ox._--The Shorthorned cattle are now generally regarded
+as the most valuable breed in these countries. They are the descendants
+of a short-horned breed of cattle which existed for centuries in the
+north-east of England. They were not held in much estimation, their
+flesh being coarse; but the cows of this breed yielded abundance of
+milk. In the eighteenth century this breed, it is said, was greatly
+improved by a large infusion of blood from Dutch Shorthorns: but it is
+very doubtful that any such event took place, for during that period
+the importation of cattle into Great Britain was prohibited by very
+stringent laws. The present race of Shorthorns owe most of their
+valuable qualities to the brothers, Charles and Robert Colling, of the
+county of Durham. The former was the more successful breeder, and
+established the celebrated breed of Ketton Shorthorns. His whole process
+appears to have consisted in the careful selection of parents, and in
+"close" breeding. He must, however, have been an admirable judge of the
+good points of the ox, for beginning with animals not worth more on an
+average than L10 each, he produced in less than a quarter of a century
+a stock worth on the average L150 each. The most famous bull of Charles
+Colling's was Comet. The sale of this animal realised the handsome sum
+of 1,000 guineas. The bull Hubback is said by many writers to have been
+the great improver of Shorthorn blood. He was bought by Robert Colling
+for the trifling sum of L8; but although this animal was kept by both
+Collings for three years, there is good reason to believe that they made
+but little use of him. It would appear, indeed, that to the cows first
+used by the Collings--Lady Maynard, and young Strawberry--many of the
+good qualities of this breed are traceable. Shorthorns are now to be
+found in almost every part of the United Kingdom, capable of maintaining
+heavy stock. In Ireland the breed has been greatly improved, and it is
+gradually supplanting most of the other varieties.
+
+Shorthorn males have a short, wide head, covered very often with short
+curly hair; the muzzle is taper; the ear rather long and narrow; the eye
+large, and bright, and mild. The shape is symmetrical, the carcass deep,
+the back level, ribs spreading out widely, and the limbs fine. The color
+is a mixture of red and white, sometimes a rich roan. The females are
+not so large in the head, which tapers more, and the neck is much
+thinner.
+
+The DEVONS are not so large as the Shorthorns. Their shape is
+symmetrical; fine head, horns of medium size, often tapering gracefully;
+rich red or orange red color; fore-quarters rather oblique. The meat of
+this breed is much esteemed: they yield excellent milk, but in rather
+limited quantity; and the bullocks answer the plough much better than
+many other kinds do. These animals arrive early at maturity.
+
+The HEREFORDS are a rather small-boned breed; their horns are medium
+sized, straight or slightly curved upwards; their color is dark red;
+neat shoulders, thin thighs, and wide sirloin. They fatten well, but are
+not generally kept on dairy farms. In many respects they resemble the
+Devons.
+
+The AYRSHIRES have a tapering head, fine neck, and large, bony, but not
+coarse carcass; flat ribs; short and rather ugly horns; their skin is
+soft, and covered with hair, which is usually red and white in spots.
+The Ayrshire cows are invaluable for dairy purposes.
+
+The POLLED ANGUS, POLLED ABERDEENS, and POLLED GALLOWAYS are very large
+cattle, with big heads, unfurnished with horns. Their color is in
+general a decided black, but occasionally it exhibits a mixture of black
+and white. Their flesh is in general not of the best quality, but some
+of their crosses with Shorthorns yield excellent meat, and at an early
+age, too.
+
+The KYLOES are a breed peculiar to the Highlands of Scotland. They are
+rather rough, but very picturesque animals, covered with long, shaggy
+hair. Their horns are rather long, and curve upwards. Their hair is
+differently colored--red, yellow, dun, and black, the latter being the
+prevailing hue. No variety of the ox yields a sweeter meat than the
+Kyloes, and other mountain breeds of these countries. The animals,
+however, arrive slowly to maturity, and in this respect there is great
+room for improvement. These mountain-bred animals are now transferred
+in large numbers to lowland tillage farms, where the fattening process
+is more expeditiously performed. There are excellent crosses between
+Shorthorn bulls and Highland cows.
+
+LONGHORNED CATTLE are rapidly advancing towards extinction. At one time
+they were the chief breed kept by most farmers. In general they may be
+regarded as an inferior variety, being slow feeders, and producing
+rather coarse beef. They are, however, capable of great improvement, as
+instanced in the case of Bakewell's celebrated Longhorn herds.
+
+The KERRYS are a diminutive breed, peculiar to Ireland. They have small
+heads, fine necks, fine horns of medium length, and curved upwards near
+their summits. They have a soft skin; the hair is generally black,
+interspersed with a few white streaks; sometimes their color is red, and
+occasionally brown. They are a very hardy race, being indigenous to
+mountains. Their flesh is very good, more especially if the animals have
+been kept on fattening food. The Kerrys are good milch cows.
+
+The ALDERNEYS are a small race of oxen with deer-like faces. They
+exhibit various shades of red, white, brown, and roan. No cows yield
+better milk, or larger quantities of that fluid.
+
+_Sheep._--The different breeds of sheep are classified under three
+heads--viz., _Long-woolled_, _Short-woolled_, and _Middle-woolled_.
+
+The LEICESTER is, perhaps, the most celebrated breed of sheep reared in
+these countries. It was immensely improved by Bakewell about a century
+ago, and the breed is often termed the Dishley, after the name of
+Bakewell's residence. This sheep has a wide, clean head, broad forehead,
+fine eyes, long, thin ears, thick neck, round body, deep chest,
+straight, broad back, high ribs, and muscular thighs. The wool is long,
+very thick, and fine. At from fifteen to eighteen months old, the
+Leicester weighs from 25 to 30 lbs. per quarter; but a fat animal often
+weighs from 38 to 40 lbs. per quarter. The fleece weighs from 6 to 8
+lbs. This breed is well adapted for Ireland. It is reared on very poor
+land: but in order to maintain its good quality, this sheep requires
+abundance of food, and also good shelter during the winter.
+
+The LINCOLN is distinguished for its large bones and strong muscles.
+Originally a gaunt and ugly animal, it has of late years been much
+improved. Indeed, the prices lately realised by Lincoln sheep are
+extremely high. The Lincoln has a long, white face, long body, and thick
+legs. The wool is long, thick, and moderately fine. The flesh of the
+Lincoln is lean, owing to its great muscular development. At fifteen
+months old it yields about 30 lbs. weight per quarter. It is said that
+a Lincoln wether has attained the weight of 304-1/2 lbs. The average
+weight of the wool of a hogget is 9-1/2 lbs.
+
+The COTSWOLD breed arose in the Cotswold hills, in Gloucestershire.
+In this variety the skeleton is large, the chest capacious, the back
+broad and straight, and the ribs well arched. It has good quarters,
+and a finely-arched neck. It is distinguished by a large tuft of
+wool--"fore-top," on the forehead. It fattens early, and produces about
+25 lbs. per quarter when fifteen months old, and 40 lbs. when two years
+old. The wool is rather coarse; its yield is about 8 lbs.
+
+The CHEVIOT has a long body, long face, long legs, and long ears. The
+chest projects slightly, and is rather narrow. The forehead is bare of
+wool; the legs and face are white, sometimes approaching to a dun shade.
+Weight from 70 to 80 lbs.; weight of fleece, from 3 to 4 lbs. The wool
+is of excellent quality, and is used largely in the manufacture of
+tweeds. The Cheviot is a mountain sheep, and, as might be expected, its
+flesh is well flavored. There are several crosses of the Cheviot with
+the Leicester, the Southdown, and the Shropshire.
+
+The SOUTHDOWN is generally regarded as the best breed for wool reared in
+these countries. It is indigenous to the chalk hills of Kent, Sussex,
+Hampshire, and Dorsetshire. It has a small head; its back is broad and
+straight; the ribs spring out at nearly right angles from the vertebrae.
+It is rather light in the fore-quarters, and full in the hind quarters.
+Its chest is pretty deep; its face and legs are grey or brown. The wool
+of the Southdown is short, and extremely fine; the fleece weighs about 3
+lbs. This sheep arrives early at maturity. It weighs at 15 months old
+about 80 lbs. The flesh is very well flavored.
+
+THE SHROPSHIRE is said to combine in itself the good qualities of the
+Southdown, the Cotswold, and the Leicester. It resembles the Southdown
+more than any other breed, having the same grey, or brownish grey hue,
+and a similar shape. It is, however, larger than the Southdown, and
+yields a larger quantity of wool. This breed is becoming a great
+favorite in both England and Ireland.
+
+The BLACK-FACED sheep is peculiar to Scotland. It is equipped with
+horns, has a bold long face, and possesses a tuft of wool on its
+forehead; its limbs are strong, and its body is somewhat long. The wool
+of this breed is very coarse, the fleece weighs about 3-1/2 lbs. The
+average weight of this sheep is 75 lbs., the quality of the mutton is
+excellent, but it is long before it becomes matured. There are several
+other breeds of the sheep, but they are of far less importance than
+those which I have described.
+
+_Breeds of the Pig._--There are several breeds of this useful animal, of
+which those known as BERKSHIRE and YORKSHIRE appear to be the greatest
+favorites. The Berkshire is black or dusky brown, very rarely reddish
+brown. It has a very small head. Its sides are extremely deep, and its
+legs very short. There are several sub-varieties of the Yorkshire. This
+breed is white, has a compact body, and very broad sides. The head is
+very small, somewhat like that of the Berkshire. Both Berkshire and
+Yorkshire pigs attain to the enormous weight of 1,000 lbs. The old Irish
+"racer" pig is the least profitable kind to keep, but fortunately it is,
+as a pure breed, nearly extinct.
+
+_Breeds of the Horse._--There are a great many breeds of horses. The
+Shetland pony is so small, that many specimens are no larger than a
+Newfoundland dog; on the other hand, Clydesdale horses sometimes attain
+to almost elephantine proportions. There is a wide difference between
+the bull-like Suffolk Punch and the greyhound-like _racer_. The English
+and Irish racer is said to owe its origin to a cross between the old
+English light-legged breed and the Arabian. The most valuable kind of
+carriage horse is the joint product of the draught-horse and the racer.
+The dray-horse of these countries has a large share of Flemish blood in
+him. The best horses for agricultural purposes are unquestionably the
+CLYDESDALE and the SUFFOLK PUNCH. The latter is perhaps to be preferred
+in most instances, especially on light lands. Very light and feeble
+horses are the most expensive variety on almost any kind of farm; for
+whilst they consume nearly as much food as the most powerful animals,
+and are therefore nearly as costly, they are incapable of effectively
+performing their work. A large proportion of the farm horses used by the
+small farmers of Ireland are totally unsuited for tillage purposes. On
+the other hand, there is no need to employ horses equal in size to the
+ponderous creatures that draw brewers' carts. Moderate sized horses,
+with well rounded, compact bodies, and muscular but not too heavy limbs,
+are the kind best adapted for farm purposes. In Ireland, where there are
+not fewer than 600,000 horses, a considerable infusion of blood from
+Clydesdales and Suffolk Punches is much required.
+
+_Hunters and Racers._--There is a strong tendency in the human mind to
+look with a regretful feeling to the past, and to compare it to the
+disadvantage of the present. It is a general belief with most people
+that the old time was the best time; that the seasons were more genial
+formerly; that provisions were cheaper and more abundant; that men were
+taller, and stouter, and healthier; that, in a word, everything was
+better in the days of yore than it is now, and that degeneracy and
+effeteness are the prevailing characteristics of our age. Philosophers,
+statists, and political economists tell us that all this regret for the
+"good old time" is mis-spent sympathy; for that we are in every respect
+superior--in physique, health, morals, and wealth--to our ancestors. On
+the whole, I rather incline myself to this comfortable philosophy; but
+we must admit that we have not progressed in all things since the times
+of our fathers.
+
+In a work entitled "A Comparative View of the Form and Character of the
+English Racer and Saddle Horse during the Last and Present Centuries,"
+published by Hookham, of Old Bond Street, London, it is proved very
+clearly that the English race-horse has sadly degenerated. The author
+very properly traces the cause of its decay to the avarice of the
+turfites: they look upon the noble animal as a mere gambling machine;
+and they sacrifice all its other qualities to the excessive development
+of that one which is likely to put money in their pockets. Formerly,
+gentlemen kept horses for their own sakes--for their admiration and
+enjoyment of one of the most beautiful, docile, and useful of animals.
+They were incessant in their efforts to develop into perfection all the
+really valuable points in the animal; and the result was, that the
+English and Irish racer of the last century was unmatched for strength,
+speed, and endurance. Models of this splendid race of horses are seldom
+to be found at the present time; but there are, perhaps, sporting men
+living who saw them in the celebrated Mambrino, Sweet Briar, and Sweet
+William. Those horses possessed compact bodies, capacious lungs, strong
+loins, large joints, and enormous masses of muscular tissue on the
+shoulder-blades and arms. They were good weight-carrying hunters as well
+as racers, and they could carry eight stones over a six miles heat,
+or twelve stones over a four miles one. The Irish horses, at least,
+were capable of safely carrying thirteen stones over what would now be
+considered a very ugly ditch, and could get over a long steeplechase in
+a style which would astonish the owners of the modern "weeds." Since the
+distance to be traversed by competing horses has been reduced from the
+old-fashioned three heats of four miles each to a single run of a mile
+or two, and also since the weight imposed upon the animals has been
+reduced to six or seven stones, from ten to twelve, the anatomical
+structure of the race-horse has undergone a remarkable and serious
+alteration. The back has become very long, the sides flat, the loins
+weak, the limbs long and very thin; and this alteration in structure has
+been attended by weakness of constitution and a remarkable tendency
+to disease. The modern horse has attained to a remarkable degree of
+rapidity of locomotion, but it has been at the expense of its vigor,
+endurance, and health; it can run with great velocity for a short
+distance, but in a four-mile heat, and mounted by a man of average
+weight, a mediocre horse of the style of the middle of the last century
+would come to the post long before the winner of the last St. Leger.
+
+The decay of the breed of horses in this country is a serious matter,
+and the attention of all who are interested in the preservation of this
+animal should be earnestly and promptly directed towards discovering
+the means of regeneration. My remarks are directed towards racers and
+hunters. The quality of speed which they possess has been developed
+to an extent which is incompatible with the development of equally
+essential properties. Encouragement should be given to the production of
+weight-carrying hunters; steeple-chasing should be restored to its old
+state, when only a powerful horse had a chance of success. The quality
+of speed should be promoted in the animal up to a certain point; but
+when the development of this attribute begins to cause a loss of
+strength and endurance, it is high time to check it. There are a few
+horses at present which are strong and moderately fast: why should not
+steeple-chasing be of the kind which would call this style of animal
+into competition? Only a "weed" can now enter with any probability of
+success at a race of this kind; and when he has won it, of what use
+is he as a good hunter? What we want are good, stout, healthy horses,
+capable of carrying, in good style, twelve stones weight over a rough
+country; and the object of steeple-chasing should be the production of
+such a race of horses.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Footnote 17: Improved by Leicester blood.]
+
+[Footnote 18: The object of the first breeders of the Leicester was
+to produce a sheep which would yield a great carcass, and small offal
+weight. So far as the results of these experiments go, I think the idea
+of the founder of this breed has been realised.]
+
+[Footnote 19: "Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of
+Scotland," for July, 1860.]
+
+
+
+
+PART III.
+
+ON THE MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCK.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+THE OX.
+
+_Breeding Cows._--The period of gestation in the cow is about nine
+months. The earliest time at which it is at all safe to breed from these
+animals is when they are one year and eight months old. Shorthorns breed
+early, whilst the mountain varieties are seldom in calf before they are
+three years old. The practice of very early breeding, though approved of
+by some extensive rearers of stock, is not to be commended for sound
+physiological reasons. Cows calve at all times of the year; but the most
+favorable time is near the end of winter, or in early spring. The cows
+should at this time be in fair condition--neither too fat nor too lean.
+Parturition should take place in a roomy, covered place, provided with
+abundance of clean litter. If such a place be not available, a nice
+paddock close to the house must answer. After having given birth to
+the calf, the cow should receive an oatmeal drink, or some warm and
+nutritious mash, and afterwards be liberally fed. The cow is usually
+allowed to run dry four or five weeks before calving: this period should
+not be curtailed; on the contrary, it would be better to extend it to
+six weeks, so as not to allow her condition to become too poor.
+
+_The Wintering of Young Stock._--There are certain localities wherein
+the rearing of young stock is one of the easiest tasks which devolve
+upon the farmer. Well-drained and shady fields, yielding abundance of
+sound herbage, and through which streams of _pure_ water unceasingly
+flow, are just the proper _locale_ for economically feeding young
+animals. But there are districts in which those favorable conditions do
+not exist; yet they are not better adapted to other uses. It is only the
+feeders of young stock in wet, moory, sandy, or undrained, heavy soils
+who really have cause for anxiety and incessant watchfulness. In rearing
+a calf the great object is to cause a rapid and uninterrupted increase
+in the weight of its body. At first the food of the animal should be
+furnished solely from the maternal founts; but at an early stage of its
+existence--about the third or fourth week--other food may wholly, or in
+part, be substituted for the natural aliment. It is important that no
+great interval should elapse between the hours of feeding. The digestive
+apparatus of the young animal is small, and its powers of assimilation
+are very energetic. The food with which it is supplied should,
+therefore, be given in moderate quantities, and very frequently. This
+is, in fact, what takes place when the calf is allowed free access to
+its dam; for the instant it feels a desire for aliment, the supply is at
+once available. Of course, there may be objections to this plan on the
+score of economy; but as a general rule, too much liberality cannot be
+exercised in feeding growing animals; and there is nothing more certain
+than that the calf which is illiberally fed will never be developed into
+a valuable, matured animal. When carefully tended from their birth,
+comfortably housed in winter, and abundantly supplied with nutritious
+food, it is sometimes wonderful the rapid progress which young stock
+make. Mr. Wright mentions a remarkable case of early maturity, which
+occurred in his own herd. A young steer, one year old, exhibited all the
+development of an animal twice its age. This bullock had been suckled
+for three months, whereby it had not only kept its calf-flesh, but
+gained and retained a step in advance. Its weight when only a year old
+was no less than 50 stones; and as the price of beef at the time was 8s.
+9d. per stone, live weight, the carcass of the animal was worth L21 17s.
+6d. Mr. Wright offers this fact as a suggestive one to "those farmers who
+think of bringing up their calves on old milk, or who would otherwise
+stint their growth."
+
+Supposing, then, that we have young stock which had been liberally
+treated when in their "baby" state, how are we to most economically
+maintain them throughout the winter? In the first place, they should be
+kept in warm sheds, and well sheltered from both rain and wind. Some
+authorities contend that exercise is necessary to young stock, and deny
+that a proper development of the muscles (lean flesh) can take place if
+they are cooped up like fattening turkeys during the winter. There is
+some truth in this opinion; and if the animals be designed for breeding
+or dairy purposes, their freedom of motion should only be partially
+restrained. On the other hand, if they be intended for an early
+introduction to the shambles, the less exercise they get the greater
+will be the profit on their keep. I have known cases where animals were
+closely housed for seven months, and yet their health did not appear
+to suffer in the slightest degree. In fact, so predominant are the
+vegetative functions of the ruminants over their nervous attributes,
+that the only essential conditions of their existence are adequate
+supplies of good air and food. That the health of these animals does
+occasionally suffer when the motions of their bodies are reduced to a
+_minimum_ is quite true; but in most of these instances the real cause
+is, not the want of exercise, but the want of pure air. The greatest
+care should, therefore, be taken in the ventilation of the places where
+stock, whether old or young, are kept; and no economy of space or heat
+will compensate for the want of wholesome air. Under the fallacious idea
+that exposure to cold renders young stock hardy, many farmers turn them
+out to eat straw in the open fields in frosty weather. Treatment of this
+kind, instead of being productive of good, almost invariably lays the
+foundation of disease, which will manifest itself at some stage of the
+animal's growth. There are a few favored localities, such as those to
+which I have already alluded, where yearlings may be occasionally allowed
+a turn through the fields in winter; but on cold clays, wet moors, and
+sandy soils the young stock should never be permitted to leave their
+sheds or courts from the time they are housed till late in the spring.
+
+Young stock are best fed on good meadow hay and turnips, with a moderate
+supplement of oil-cake; this, however, is expensive feeding in many
+farms, and a little filling-in may be done with cheaper or more easily
+obtainable stuffs. A mixture of cut chaff, with pulped mangels, is a
+good substitute for the more costly hay; and particularly in the case
+of animals intended for breeding or for the dairy. The roots should be
+pulped, and allowed to remain until, owing to a slight fermentation,
+they become warm. This change takes place in from twenty-four hours to
+sixty hours, according to the temperature; but the fermentation should
+not be carried farther than the earliest stage. The heated pulp should
+then be thoroughly mixed with the chaff, and the compound, after an
+hour or two, will be ready for use. A little chopped hay--no matter if
+inferior or slightly mildewed--may be substituted for the chaff, and
+turnips employed instead of the mangels, but the latter are the more
+desirable roots.
+
+Until lately, the use of oil-cake was confined to fattening animals,
+but latterly it is freely given to calves, even when they are only
+a month old; and there is no doubt but that it is a suitable and
+economical food for store stock. It is, however, sometimes given in
+excess: from half a pound to two and a half pounds daily will be
+sufficient for animals under one year; and this addition to their food
+will be found to exercise a beneficial influence on them when they
+are placed in stalls for finishing. The experience of several eminent
+breeders has proved that fattening beasts, which had in their youth
+a supply of oil-cake, or its equivalent, invariably store up a larger
+portion of their food than those which had been reared on hay and roots
+only.
+
+Mr. George Stodart, of Cultercullen, an Aberdeenshire farmer, describes,
+in the _Irish Farmer's Gazette_, his method of rearing calves:--
+
+    I occupy (says Mr. Stodart) a farm of 380 acres. I usually rear
+    twenty-four calves yearly, and buy in sixteen one-year-olds.
+    I generally breed from cross cows (the same as mentioned above),
+    served by a pure Shorthorn bull. When the calves are dropped I put
+    two calves to suck one cow for six months. In autumn, spring calves
+    are put into the house upon turnips and straw, with about 1 lb. of
+    oil-cake per day to each, until they are put out to grass in spring
+    following, at which time they are one year old. Then, of course,
+    they have grass in summer, and at the approach of winter they are
+    again housed upon turnips and straw, which bring them to be two
+    years old in spring. Now they are sent out to the best grass, and
+    again brought into the house at the beginning of September, and
+    fed on turnips and straw until the end of November or middle of
+    December, when they usually fetch from L25 to L32 a-head. This
+    year (1864), however, they will average L32. a-head. Before selling
+    I give each 3-1/2 lbs. of oil-cake per day for six weeks, and during
+    this time they have swede turnips; at other times yellow. We give as
+    much turnips at all times as they can eat.
+
+
+Mr. Bowick, in his excellent paper on the rearing of calves, published
+in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, gives the following
+information on this subject:--
+
+    We consider it desirable to allow the calf to remain with its
+    dam for the first three or four days after calving.
+
+    Not much trouble is generally experienced in getting it to take
+    to the pail. We find it better to miss the evening's meal, and
+    next morning a very little attention induces the majority of them
+    to partake of what is set before them. At most the guidance of the
+    fingers may be wanted for the first meal or two.
+
+    As regards the quantity of milk which is needful to keep a
+    moderately bred Shorthorn calf in a thriving condition, we have
+    found the following allowance to come pretty near the mark,
+    although the appetite of calves varies, both in individuals and
+    at different times with the same animal:--
+
+    1st week with the dam; or 4 quarts per day, at two meals.
+
+    2nd to 4th week, 5 to 6 quarts per day, at two meals.
+
+    4th to 6th week, 6 to 7 quarts per day, at two meals.
+
+    And the quantity need not, during the ensuing six weeks (after
+    which it is weaned), exceed a couple of gallons per day. This
+    implies that the calf is fed upon new milk only, and that no
+    other feeding liquids are employed. But, in addition to the above,
+    the calf will, towards the fourth week, begin to eat a little
+    green hay; and in a week or two later, some sliced roots, or meal,
+    or finely crushed cake, mixed with hay-chaff; and, if really good,
+    creditable beasts are wanted--such as will realise L25 a-head from
+    the butcher when turned two and a half years old--a little cake
+    or meal in their early days will be found a desirable investment.
+    In fact, we doubt not but 1 lb. of cake per day to the calf will
+    make as much flesh as triple the quantity of cake at any period
+    of after life. As regards meal, if that is given with the chaff,
+    we prefer oatmeal, or barley-meal, or wheaten flour, but not the
+    meal of beans or pease. Others may see it differently, but we
+    believe beans to be too heating for any class of young stock. For
+    roots, the best we know of is the carrot, grated and mixed with
+    the chaff, or sliced thin with a knife and given alone. It is also,
+    of all roots, the one which we find them most fond of, and which
+    they will most readily take to. As soon as they can eat them
+    freely, an immediate reduction in the supply of milk may be made.
+
+    In most articles it holds good in the end that "the best is the
+    cheapest." So with the rearing of calves; the best class of food,
+    or that above referred to, is found to give the greatest ultimate
+    satisfaction. But practically the question often is, how to rear
+    good calves with comparatively little new milk, a condition which
+    circumstances often render almost imperative; for where dairy
+    produce, in any other form, is the chief object, the calves stand
+    in a secondary position, and are treated accordingly. But let us
+    ask whether you cannot rear good stock under such circumstances
+    also? We believe that this may be, and often is done. We manage to
+    turn out from twenty-five to thirty calves annually--such as will
+    pass muster anywhere--and never use at any one time more than six
+    gallons of new milk daily. For this purpose, as well as to obtain
+    a regular supply of milk for other purposes, the calves are allowed
+    to come at different periods, extending from October to May. Hence
+    the calf-house has generally a succession of occupants throughout
+    the season; and as one lot are ready to be removed, and placed loose
+    in a small hovel, with yard attached, others fill their places.
+    We begin with new milk from the pail, which is continued for a
+    fortnight after leaving the cow. Then skim-milk--boiled, and allowed
+    to cool to the natural warmth--is substituted to the extent of
+    one-third of the allowance. In another week the new milk is reduced
+    to half, and at the same time, not before, boiled linseed is added
+    to the mess.[20] As soon as they take freely to this food, the new
+    milk may be replaced with that from the dairy, and the calf is
+    encouraged to indulge in a few sliced carrots and the other dry
+    foods named.
+
+
+Mr. Murray, of Overstone, thus states the expense of rearing the calf
+until it is two years old, when, after the weaning process is completed,
+it is turned out to grass:--
+
+    During the summer they have the run of a grass paddock during
+    the day, but return regularly to their yards at night; the
+    following winter they are kept in larger yards, and which contain
+    a greater number of animals. Their bill of fare for this winter is
+    2 lbs. of oil-cake, half a bushel of cut roots, with cut chaff _ad
+    libitum_. The chaff has a small quantity of flour or pollard mixed
+    with it, is moistened with water, and the whole mass turned over;
+    this is done the day previous to using it. By this means they eat
+    the chaff with more relish, and moistening it prevents the flour
+    being wasted. They are put to grass the following summer, generally
+    from the 15th to the 20th of May, or as soon as the pastures are in
+    a state to receive them; they remain there on second-rate land till
+    about the end of October, when they are brought home and tied up in
+    the stalls. The daily allowance is then 4 lbs. linseed-cake, 4 lbs.
+    flour--3/4 bean, 1/4 barley--1 bushel of cut roots with cut chaff;
+    the flour and chaff is mixed as already described. At about the end
+    of December the quantity of cake is increased to 8 lbs., and the
+    flour to 6 lbs.; this they continue to receive till they are sold
+    to the butcher during the months of March and April, when they
+    weigh, on an average, 90 stones of 8 lbs. per bullock, and under
+    two years and six months old. At this season of the year beef
+    generally makes 5s. per stone--we often make 9s.--but taking that
+    as an average would make the value of each beast L22 10s. The cost
+    of keeping to this age will be as follows:--
+
+                                                               L  s. d.
+
+    One calf                                                   2  0  0
+    Milk, &c., nine weeks                                      1  5  0
+    Cake, grass, &c., forty-three weeks, at 1s. 6d.            3  4  6
+    Second year, November till May, cake, flour,
+      roots, &c., 2s. 6d. per week, for twenty-six weeks       3  5  0
+    May till November, grass, twenty-six weeks, at 2s. 6d.     3  5  0
+    Third year, November till April, twenty weeks, at 8s.      8  0  0
+                                                             ---------
+                                                             L20 19  6
+
+    Which leaves a gain to each animal of L1 10s. 6d., besides the
+    manure.
+
+_Shelter of Stock._--The great diminution of temperature, and the
+falling off in the supply of herbage, that are coincident with the
+close of the autumn, render it necessary to remove our cattle from the
+open fields, and provide them with some sort of shelter during the
+winter months and early part of the spring.
+
+The particular period at which this change of quarters takes place of
+course varies, and is, in fact, altogether dependent upon the character
+of the season. There are some years in which there is, so to speak, a
+kind of relapse of the summer, November being bright and warm, instead
+of, as is usually the case, cold and foggy. In such a year there is some
+herbage to be picked up until the very end of December. On the other
+hand, the latter part of October is often very wet, and October frosts
+are by no means uncommon. Tempestuous, biting winds in November, or
+torrents of rain, or both, tell severely upon the poor animals in the
+fields, even where there is abundance of herbage; and hence, should such
+weather take place at the latter part of October, the true economy would
+be to remove the animals at once to sheltered places.
+
+Nothing lowers the temperature of the surface so rapidly as a cold wind.
+Captain Parry, one of the explorers of the Arctic regions, states that
+his men, when well clothed, suffered no inconvenience on exposure to the
+low temperature of 55 degrees below zero, provided the air was perfectly
+calm; but the slightest breeze, when the air was at this temperature,
+caused the painful sensation produced by intense cold. I could adduce
+the experience of many practical men in favor of the plan of affording
+shelter to animals, but more especially to those kept in situations
+much exposed to winds. Mr. Nesbit relates a case bearing on this
+point:--A farmer in Dorsetshire put up twenty or thirty sheep, under
+the protection of a series of upright double hurdles lined with straw,
+having as a sort of roof, or lean-to, a single hurdle, also lined with
+straw. A like number of sheep, of the same weight, were fed in the open
+field, without shelter of any kind. Each set was fed with turnips _ad
+libitum_. The result was, that those without shelter increased in weight
+1 lb. per week for each sheep, whilst those under shelter, although they
+consumed less food, increased respectively 3 lbs. per week.
+
+As a general rule, the latter part of October, or early in November, is
+the time for the removal of live stock from the pastures to the shelter
+of the farmstead. In England and Scotland the transference is seldom
+delayed after these dates; but in Ireland it is no uncommon thing to see
+the animals grazing very much later in the year--a circumstance which
+the lateness and mildness of our climate account for. But whatever the
+date may be, the importance of such shelter is universally recognised,
+even by those who most neglect it and are least acquainted with the
+principles upon which its necessity depends. The more important of these
+principles have already been explained, but they may be here summarised
+as follows:--
+
+1. A certain amount of warmth is an indispensable condition for the
+maintenance of the life of animals.
+
+2. The internal heat of the bodies of animals is supplied by the
+chemical combination which takes place between the oxygen of the
+atmospheric air which they inspire and certain of the constituents
+(carbon and hydrogen) of the food which they consume, or, to speak more
+accurately, of the tissues of their bodies, which are formed out of
+their food. It is very much in the same way in which our houses are
+heated by the burning of coal, turf, or wood in their fire-places, since
+the heat derived in the latter case is obtained from a similar source as
+in the former one--namely, by the union of the oxygen of the air with
+the carbon and hydrogen of the fuel. The only real difference between
+the two kinds of combustion is, that in respiration the process is
+conducted with an extreme degree of slowness, whilst in the ordinary
+fire the combinations take place rapidly, and the heat being evolved
+in a much shorter time is proportionately the more intense.
+
+3. The temperature of the external parts of the animal body varies with
+the nature and quantity of the food supplied to it, and also depends
+upon the state of the weather and the character of the protection
+afforded to it.
+
+The colder the air, the greater will be the quantity of food required,
+and the more complete the shelter. In other words, a diminution of
+temperature, no matter how caused, will necessitate an increased amount
+of food and more perfect shelter, in order to maintain at the proper
+degree of heat the fluids of the body. It is only the external parts of
+the body that become cold: so long as the animal is in health its blood
+always maintains the same degree of temperature; but in cold weather the
+blood is subjected to a greater cooling power than it is in warm
+weather, and this cooling power it can only resist by taxing more
+extensively the heat-producing resources of the body.
+
+4. Exposure to wet, even in warm weather, will tend to reduce the
+temperature of the body, since the conversion of water into vapor can
+only be effected at the expense of heat, which heat must be in great
+part extracted from the body of the animal itself.
+
+5. No possible increase of food, however nutritious it may be, can
+suffice to keep up the due warmth and healthy condition of the animal
+frame in winter, if shelter from cold and rain be not simultaneously
+effected. On the contrary, an animal well protected from the winter
+blasts will require much less food than if it were placed in an exposed
+position. The reason of this is, that the amount of food which an animal
+exposed to great cold consumes to maintain the temperature of its body
+would, under opposite conditions, be stored up in the form of permanent
+"increase"--beef or mutton for the butcher, in fact.
+
+The fat-forming constituents of the food of stock are in no case
+converted into permanent fat, except when they exceed in quantity the
+amount required to keep up the internal heat of the animal; but when
+this is constantly reduced by exposure to a wintry temperature, the
+food becomes insufficient for even that purpose, no matter how much
+aliment is given. What, then, must not be the condition of the
+unfortunate animals whose fate it is to be the property of a farmer
+who neither shelters them from the weather nor provides them with a
+sufficient quantity of nourishing food!
+
+_Milch Cows._--When dairy-farming is conducted on pure pastures, the
+cows are altogether dependent upon the grasses; and in winter, the
+animals suffer much from scarcity of food. This is the very worst system
+of cow-keeping, but it is prevalent amongst many small farmers in
+Ireland, and is to be met with even in England and Scotland. I am
+strongly of opinion that it would be far more economical to keep cows
+(and other cattle) altogether in the house, and feed them with cut
+grass, than to allow them to remain out altogether in the field. There
+are several disadvantages resulting from the depasturing of cows. In the
+warm weather, the animals are greatly annoyed by the attacks of flies:
+there is a considerable waste of muscle, caused by the movements of
+the animals whilst in search of their food; and the excrements of the
+animals and their footmarks injure a large portion of the grass. It may
+be somewhat troublesome and expensive to cut the grass, and convey it
+from the field to the house; but the labor and the cost will be more
+than repaid by the greatly-increased yield of food. A grass-field,
+mowed, will produce from 20 to 30 per cent. more food than it would if
+it were trampled upon and soiled by cattle. Exercise for an hour or two
+in the cool of the evening, or early in the morning (during the hot
+weather), will be quite sufficient to keep the animals in health. This
+may be taken in a field, better in a paddock, best of all in a roomy
+yard. When cattle are supplied with cut grass, or clover, care should
+be taken not to give it to them when very wet, for otherwise there is
+danger of the excessively moist herbage producing the _hoove_. Neither
+should large quantities of the green food be given to them--the supply
+should be "little and often." Should the food be too succulent, the
+addition of a little straw will correct its laxative effects. When
+the stock is about passing from the winter keep to summer food, the
+transition should be gradual; a well-made compound of straw or hay with
+grass (natural or artificial) is much relished by cows. A supply of
+good water is absolutely necessary; but sufficient attention to this
+important point is seldom given. Cooked food is well adapted for milch
+cows. Mangels, kohl-rabi, and cabbages are each of them better food than
+turnips, as the latter is apt to impart a disagreeable flavour to the
+butter. Three feeds in the day is a sufficient number for cows. The
+first meal should be early in the morning, and may consist of roots,
+mixed with straw or hay. Some feeders prefer using dry fodder, or cooked
+food of some kind, and not raw roots. The second meal is given at
+mid-day, and the third in the evening. The daily allowance of roots
+varies from 2 to 8 stones, depending upon the quantities of other foods
+used. Mr. Horsfall's diet is as follows:--Hay, 9 lbs.; rape-cake, 6
+lbs.; malt-combs, 1 lb.; bran, 1 lb.; roots, 28 lbs. These substances
+are mixed and cooked, and the animals receive them in a warm state.
+In addition to this food, Mr. Horsfall's cows get bean-meal--a cow in
+full milk 2 lbs., others from 1/2 lb. to 1-1/2 lbs.; cost per week per
+cow, 8s. 7d.[21] Mr. Alcock, of Skipton, feeds his cows as follows:--Raw
+mangels, 20 lbs.; carob beans, 3 lbs.; bran and malt-combs, 1-3/4 lbs.;
+bean-meal, 3-1/2 lbs.; rape-cake, 3 lbs.; per diem. A steamed mixture
+of wheat and bean straws and shells of oats _ad libitum_. Oats, to the
+extent of 2 or 3 lbs. daily, are an excellent food for cows.
+
+An important point in dairy economics is the feeding of the cows at
+_regular_ intervals. If the usual time for the feed be allowed to pass,
+the animals are almost certain to become very uneasy--to _worry_; and
+every feeder knows, or ought to know, that a fretting beast will neither
+fatten nor yield milk satisfactorily. The cow-house ought to be kept as
+clean as possible; and the excreta, therefore, should be removed several
+times a day.
+
+Mr. Harvey, of Glasgow, has probably one of the largest dairies
+in the world. His cow byres, 56 yards long, and from 12 to 24 feet
+wide--according as one or two rows of cows are to be accommodated--stand
+closely packed, the whole surface of the ground being thus covered by
+a kind of roof. From 900 to 1,000 cows are constantly in milk. They are
+fed during winter partly on steamed turnips (7 tons being steamed daily
+in order to give one meal daily to 900 cows), partly on coarse hay, of
+which, as of straw, they get between 20 and 30 lbs. a day each. They are
+also fed on draff, of which they receive half a bushel daily each; on
+Indian corn meal, of which they have 3 lbs. daily each; and on pot-ale,
+of which they receive three times a day nearly as much as they will
+consume, _i.e._, from 6 to 10 gallons daily. During the summer they are
+let out, a byreful at a time, for half a day to grass, and on coming
+in receive their spent malt and still liquor, and hay in addition. They
+are managed, cleaned, and fed by two men to each byre holding about 100
+cows. The milking is done three times a day, by women who take charge
+of 13 cows in full milk, or double that number in half milk, apiece.
+Between 4 and 5 o'clock a.m. (taking the winter management), the byres
+are cleaned out, and the cows receive a "big shovelful" of draff
+apiece, and half their steamed turnips and meal, and a "half stoupful,"
+(probably 2 gallons) of pot-ale. They are milked very early. At 7 they
+receive their fodder-straw or hay. At 10 they get a "full stoupful"
+(probably 3 or 4 gallons) of pot-ale. They are milked at noon. At 2
+p.m., or thereabouts, they are foddered again, and at 4 p.m. receive
+the same food as at the morning meal. They are again milked at 5 to 6,
+cleaned out and left till morning. The average produce is stated to be
+2 gallons a day per cow.
+
+Mrs. Scott, of Weekston, Peebles, who keeps one of the best managed
+dairy farms in the United Kingdom, thus conducts her operations in
+the winter:--At 6 o'clock in the morning the cows are well wiped or
+scrubbed, have their bedding removed, and receive each about 4 or 5 lbs.
+of straw. At 8 o'clock the cows are milked, and Mrs. Scott examines each
+to ascertain whether or not the milk-maid has left any fluid in the
+udder--and woe betide the careless maid if her work has been carelessly
+done! At 10 o'clock a barrowful of turnips is divided amongst three
+cows, and when these roots are not available, a quantity of peas or bean
+meal, with a pint of cold water, takes their place. At 1 o'clock the
+cows are allowed out to be watered, and during their absence from the
+byre it is thoroughly cleansed and ventilated. When the state of the
+weather prevents the cows from being turned out, they receive twice a
+day a handful of oatmeal diffused throughout three pints of water--a
+handful of salt being given in the first of these drinks. When the cows
+return to the byre, they receive each about 4 or 5 lbs. of straw, and at
+4 or 5 o'clock an evening meal of turnips equal to their morning feed.
+At 8 o'clock a "windling" of meadow hay is given to each pair of cows,
+the quantity being always regulated according to the requirements of
+each cow. The cows upon calving receive, in addition to this allowance
+of hay, half a pailful of boiled turnips, mixed with a quart of peas
+or bean-meal. This mess is given in a lukewarm state. Mrs. Scott's
+system may be thus epitomised: Regularity in feeding; sufficient but
+not excessive food; regularity in milking; and minute attention to
+cleanliness and ventilation.
+
+_Stall-feeding._--What becomes of the 90 per cent. of the weight of
+the non-nitrogenous constituents of the food of the sheep, and of the
+80 per cent. of that of the nutriment of the pig, which they consume
+but do not store up? I have already partly answered this question. This
+portion of the food is chiefly expended in the production of the heat
+with which the high temperature of the animal's body is maintained. Part
+of it, no doubt, passes unchanged through its body, either owing to its
+indigestibility, or to its being given in excess. The quantity of
+non-nitrogenous matters consumed by a man is influenced greatly by the
+temperature of the air which he habitually breathes, and by the nature
+of the artificial covering of his body; there may be other conditions
+at present unknown to us, but these are amongst the chief ones. Now, as
+there is sufficient reason to lead us to believe that the consumption
+of carbonaceous food by the lower animals is influenced in the same
+way by the temperature of the medium in which they exist, the question
+naturally suggests itself, would it not be cheaper to maintain the heat
+of the animal by burning the carbon of cheap coal or turf outside its
+body, than by consuming the carbon of costly fat within it? The answer
+to this question is not so simple as at first sight it appears to be. We
+must not consider that, because 10 lbs. weight of carbon, as coal, costs
+but a penny, whilst an equal weight of the same element in starch costs
+twenty pence, heat may be furnished to a fattening animal twenty times
+cheaper by the combustion of coal than by that of starch. No doubt the
+amount of heat evolved by the conversion of a pound-weight of carbon
+into carbonic acid is the same, whether it be a constituent of starch or
+of coal; but the application of the heat so produced is less under our
+control in the latter case. All the heat evolved during the combustion
+of the starch within the animal's body is made use of; whilst a very
+large proportion of that developed by the combustion of coal in a
+furnace cannot in practice be applied to the purpose of heating the
+animal's body.
+
+It is only the handiwork of the Creator which is perfect, and no machine
+constructed by the skill of man, for the direction of force, can rival
+that wondrous heat-producing, force-directing mechanism--the animal
+organism. According to Dumas, the combustion of about 2-1/2 lbs. of
+carbon in a steam-engine is required to generate sufficient force to
+convey a man from the level of the sea to the summit of Mont Blanc; but
+a man will ascend the mountain in two days, and burn in his mechanism
+only half a pound of carbon. There is no machine in which heat and
+force are more completely made available than the animal organism; and
+were it not--thanks to the influence of antediluvian sunshine--that
+the carbon of fuel in these countries is so very much cheaper than the
+carbon of food, there is no doubt but that the cheapest mode of keeping
+an animal warm would be to allow it to burn its carbon within its
+body. As the matter stands, however, there is no question as to the
+advisability of keeping fattening animals in a warm place. If the
+temperature of the stall be equal to that of the animal's body there
+will be less food consumed in the increase of its fat; because less of
+the fat-forming materials will be expended in the production of heat.
+In this sense, therefore, heat is an equivalent to food, but only within
+certain limits; because heat is developed in large quantity within the
+animal body independently of the temperature of the air. There is,
+therefore, no object to be attained by having the stalls heated beyond
+70 or 80 degrees. Indeed, it is to be questioned whether or not stalls
+artificially heated are ever properly ventilated. If they be not, the
+health of the animal will suffer, and its appetite--so essential a point
+in fattening stock--will become impaired. We may conclude--firstly,
+that animals, when fattening, should be kept at a temperature not under
+70 degrees nor above 90 degrees Fahrenheit; secondly, that the mode of
+heating must be such that there is as little wasteful combustion of fuel
+as is possible under the circumstances; and, lastly, that no motives of
+economy of fuel should prevent the feeding places from being thoroughly
+ventilated.
+
+Stall-feeding is not so extensively carried on in Ireland as it is in
+Great Britain. There is a general impression that it does not pay in the
+former country; but if such be the case, it is simply owing to the want
+of skill on the part of the Irish feeders.
+
+The cattle intended for stall-feeding should be removed (if out) from
+the field in October, and put into the house, or court, or crib, or
+hammel, as the case may be. They are fed upon roots, straw, hay, grain,
+and artificial food. The greatest skill is required in their treatment.
+It is a nice point to determine which foods are the most economical,
+and also to ascertain in what foods excessive proportions of certain
+nutritive elements exist. Sufficient food should be given; but any
+approach to waste should be avoided. Three feeds a day are usually
+given, and should be supplied at the same hours each day. For about two
+weeks the animals are furnished with white turnips _ad libitum_; but
+after the expiration of that time they receive Swedish turnips, straw,
+and grain, or oil-cake. Late in the season mangels will replace turnips.
+Almost every extensive feeder now uses oil-cakes in large quantities;
+but when oats are low in price, they will in general be found a cheap
+equivalent for a large proportion of the oil-cake. Different feeders
+have different dietaries, and the nature of the aliments supplied to
+fattening stock depends very much upon the market prices of food-stuffs,
+and the locality in which the feeding-house is situated. The following
+dietaries are but examples of the methods of feeding adopted in
+different districts and by different persons:--
+
+Mr. McCombie, of Tillyfour, fattens from 300 to 400 beasts annually,
+and obtained for them in 1861 L35 per head. He never exceeds 4 lbs. of
+oil-cake per diem, nor 2 lbs. of bruised oats, for each beast. He gives
+as much turnip and straw as they can consume. He realises L12 per acre
+in feeding on Aberdeen and Swedish turnips.
+
+"For fatting cattle," says Mr. Edmonds, of Cirencester, "I should
+recommend two parts hay and one part straw, or in forward animals
+three parts hay and one part straw cut in chaff. Those of average size
+will eat somewhere about five bushels per day, with 4 lbs. to 5 lbs.
+oil-cake, and half a peck of mixed meal, barley and peas, or beans, and,
+if cheap, a proportion of wheat also, to be increased to one peck per
+day in a month or six weeks after they have come to stall, the oil-cake
+and meal to be boiled in water for half-an-hour or three-quarters, and
+thrown in the form of rich soup over the chaff, and well mixed, to which
+add a little salt."
+
+Colonel M'Douall, of Logan, Wigtonshire, gives 3 lbs. of bean-meal and
+3 lbs. of cut straw cooked together, and 84 lbs. of Swedish turnips.
+
+According to the researches of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, an ox weighing
+1,400 lbs. ought to gain 20 lbs. weekly when fed under cover with 8 lbs.
+of crushed oil-cake, 13 lbs. of chopped clover hay, and 47 lbs. of
+turnips. The chemical constituents (in a dried state) of this allowance
+are as follows:--
+
+                                            Ounces.
+
+  Fat-formers, or heat givers                 232
+  Flesh-formers                                55
+  Mineral matter                               29
+
+_Cost of Maintaining Animals._--The animal mechanism, which exhibits
+the least tendency to fatten, is the most costly to keep in repair, in
+relation to the work performed by it. If, for example, a sheep store up
+in its increase one-fifth of its food, then the remaining four-fifths
+are expended in preserving it alive, and their cost represents, so to
+speak, the expense of preserving the animal's body in repair. If another
+sheep store up only one-tenth of its food, then the cost of its
+maintenance may be said to be double that of the animal which retains
+the larger proportion of its nutriment in the form of flesh. Of course
+in both cases the value of the manure will to a great extent compensate
+for the cost of the food expended in merely keeping the animal alive;
+but that does not affect the proposition, that the less food expended by
+an animal in carrying on its vital functions the more valuable is it as
+a "meat-manufacturing machine." From the moment it is brought into the
+world until it is "ripe" for the shambles, an animal should steadily
+increase in weight: every week that it does not store up a portion of
+its food in permanent increase is the loss of a week's food to the
+feeder; for all the fodder consumed during that time by the animal is,
+so to speak, devoted to its own private purposes. Sheep overcrowded
+on pastures, milch cows on "short commons," calves kept on bulky
+innutritious food, are all so many sources of positive loss to the
+feeder--and as many proofs that he who aspires to be a successful
+producer of meat, must, in one respect at least, be a devout believer
+in the doctrine of Progressive Development.
+
+_Cooking and Bruising Food._--The cooking, or the otherwise preparing,
+of the food of the domesticated animals is a subject which until
+recently was completely ignored by the vast majority of stock feeders.
+It is now, however, beginning to attract a fair amount of attention; and
+no doubt ere long the best modes of treating the food of cattle will be
+discovered.
+
+As might be expected from our limited experience of the subject, there
+exists considerable difference of opinion relative to the proper method
+of cooking cattle food; and there are many very extensive feeders who
+object to the plan altogether, and contend that as the food of the
+inferior animals is naturally supplied to them in a raw condition,
+it would be quite unnatural to give it to them in a cooked state.
+
+Whatever difference of opinion there may be with regard to the propriety
+of cooking the food of stock, we believe there ought not to be a doubt
+as to the desirability of mechanically treating the harder kinds of
+feeding stuff. It is quite evident that a horse fed upon hard grains of
+oats and wiry fibres of uncut hay or straw must expend no inconsiderable
+proportion of his motive power in the process of mastication. After a
+hard day's work of eight or ten hours he has before him the laborious
+task of reducing to a pulp from 12 lbs. to 20 lbs. weight of exceedingly
+hard and tough vegetable matter; and as this operation is carried on
+during the hours which should be devoted to rest, the repose of the
+animal is to some extent interfered with. Indeed, it not unfrequently
+happens that a horse, after a hard day's work, is too tired to chew his
+food properly; he consequently bolts his oats, a large proportion of
+which, as a matter of course, passes unchanged through the animal's
+body.
+
+In order to render fully effective the motive power of the horse, it is
+absolutely necessary to pay attention to the condition, as well as to
+the quantity and quality of his nutriment. The force wasted by a horse
+in the comminution of his food, when composed of whole oats and uncut
+hay and straw, cannot, at the lowest estimate, be less than that which
+he expends in an hour of ordinary work, such as, for example, in
+ploughing. The preparation of his food by means of water or steam power,
+or even by animal motive power, would economise by at least 50 per cent.
+the labor expended in its mastication; and this would be equivalent to
+nearly half a day's work in each week, and, consequently, a clear gain
+of so much labor to the owner of the animal. In the present time of
+water-power and steam-power corn-mills, one man is able to grind the
+flour necessary for the support of several thousand men; in early ages
+the labor of one person in the grinding of wheat served but to supply
+the wants of twenty others. In both cases machinery was employed
+for reducing the grain to flour; but in the one case, the mechanisms
+employed were more than a hundred times more effective than in the
+other. But even the most imperfect flour mill is by far a more
+economical system of comminuting corn than the jaws of animals; and if
+every man were obliged, as the horse is, to grind his corn by means of
+his teeth alone, he would find his powers for the performance of other
+kinds of labor considerably lessened.
+
+It has been urged as an objection to the use of bruised oats by horses,
+that they exercise in that state a laxative influence upon the animal's
+bowels. I doubt very much that such is frequently the case, when the
+animal is fed only upon oats and hay and straw; but even if the oats
+produce such an effect, the addition of a small proportion of beans--the
+binding properties of which are well known--will obviate the
+disadvantage.
+
+The desirability of mechanically acting upon soft food is not so
+apparent as the necessity for the bruising of oats is. Roots are so
+easily masticable that if they are rendered more so there is danger of
+their being so hastily swallowed as to escape thorough insalivation,
+which is so necessary to ensure perfect digestion. To guard against this
+danger, perhaps the best way would be to give pulped mangels and turnips
+mixed with cut straw; a mixture which could not easily be bolted.
+Mr. Charles Lawrence, of Cirencester, who is a great advocate for the
+cooking of food, and has frequently published his experience of the
+benefits derivable therefrom, thus describes his method of combining
+pulped roots with dry fodder:--
+
+    We find that, taking a score of bullocks together fattening,
+    they consume per head per diem three bushels of chaff, mixed
+    with just half a cwt. of pulped roots, exclusive of cakes of
+    corn; that is to say, rather more than two bushels of chaff
+    are mixed with the roots, and given at two feeds, morning and
+    evening, and the remainder is given with the cake, &c., at the
+    middle-day feed, thus:--We use the steaming apparatus of Stanley,
+    of Peterborough, consisting of a boiler in the centre, in which
+    the steam is generated, and which is connected by a pipe on the
+    left hand with a large galvanised iron receptacle for steaming
+    food for pigs, and on the right with a large wooden tub, lined
+    with copper, in which the cake, mixed with water, is made into
+    a thick soup. Adjoining this is a slate tank, of sufficient size
+    to contain one feed for the entire lot of bullocks feeding. Into
+    this tank is laid chaff with a three-grained fork, and pressed
+    down firmly; and this process is repeated until the slate tank
+    is full, when it is covered down for an hour or two before
+    feeding time. The soup is then found entirely absorbed by the
+    chaff, which has become softened and prepared for ready digestion.
+
+
+Mr. Wright, near Dunbar, gives the following account of an experiment
+with pulped roots and straw and oil-cake. It appears to prove the
+superiority of mixed foods over the same foods consumed separately:--
+
+    Two lots of year-old cattle were fed; the one in the usual
+    way--sliced turnips and straw, _ad libitum_--the others with
+    the minced turnips, mixed with cut straw. The first lot consumed
+    daily 84 lbs. sliced turnips, 1 lb. oil-cake, 1 lb. rape-cake,
+    1/2 lb. bean-meal, broken small and mixed with a little salt,
+    and what straw they liked. The second lot ate, each, daily,
+    50 lbs. minced turnips, 1 lb. oil-cake, 1 lb. rape-cake, 1/2 lb.
+    bean-meal, and a little salt, the whole being mixed with double
+    the bulk of cut straw or wheat chaff. In spring, the lot of
+    cattle which had the mixed food were in good condition, and
+    equally well grown as others, though they had consumed in five
+    months two tons less of roots apiece. The reporter does not
+    advise the mincing process to be commenced when cattle are very
+    forward in condition, as any change of food requires a certain
+    time to accustom the animals to it, and in the meantime fat
+    cattle are apt to fall off in condition. It ought to be begun
+    when they are young and lean.
+
+
+Mr. Duckham, of Baysham Court, Ross, Herefordshire, says:--
+
+    The advantages of pulping roots for cattle are--1st, Economy
+    of food; for the roots being pulped and mixed with the chaff,
+    either from threshing or cut hay or straw, the whole is consumed
+    without waste, the animals not being able to separate the chaff
+    from the pulped roots, as is the case when the roots are merely
+    sliced by the common cutter, neither do they waste the fodder as
+    when given without being cut.
+
+    2. The use of ordinary hay or straw. After being mixed with the
+    pulp for about twelve hours, fermentation commences, and this
+    soon renders the most mouldy hay palatable, and animals eat with
+    avidity that which they would otherwise reject. This fermentation
+    softens the straw, makes it more palatable, and puts it in a state
+    to assimilate more readily with the other food. In this respect
+    I think the pulper of great value, particularly upon corn farms
+    where large crops of straw are grown, and where there is a limited
+    acreage of pasture, as by its use the pastures may be grazed, the
+    expensive process of haymaking reduced, and, consequently, an
+    increased number of cattle kept. I keep one-third more, giving
+    the young stock a small quantity of oil-cake, which I mix with
+    the chaff, &c.
+
+    3. Choking is utterly impossible, and I have only had one case of
+    hoove in three years, and that occurred when the mixture had not
+    fermented.
+
+    4. There is an advantage in mixing the meal with the chaff and
+    pulped roots for fattening animals, as thereby they cannot separate
+    it, and the moisture from the fermentation softens the meal and
+    ensures its thorough digestion, whereas, when given in a dry state
+    without any mixture, frequently a great portion passes away in the
+    manure.
+
+
+On the value of the process for a grazing farm with but a small quantity
+of plough-land, Mr. Corner, of Woodlands, Holford, Bridgewater, thus
+speaks:--
+
+    My plan is, first commencing with the grazing beasts, to cut about
+    an equal quantity of hay and straw and mix with a sufficient
+    quantity of roots (mostly mangel) to well moisten the chaff; and as
+    the beasts advance in condition, I lessen the straw and increase
+    the hay, and in their further progress I mix--in addition to all
+    hay, chaff, and roots--from 6 to 10 lb. per day to each bullock of
+    barley and bean-meal, according to its size--and I have them large
+    sometimes. I sold last week for the London market a lot of Devon
+    oxen of very prime quality, averaging in weight upwards of 100 stone
+    imperial each.
+
+    For my horses, cows, yearlings, and oxen--the latter to be kept in
+    a thriving condition, and turned to grass, and kept through the
+    summer for Christmas, 1860--I cut nearly all straw, with a very
+    small quantity of hay, and this the offal of the rick. These also
+    have as many pulped roots as will moisten the chaff, except the
+    horses, and to them I give, along with bruised oats, just enough
+    roots to keep their bowels in a proper condition. To the two or
+    three-year-old beasts I give some long straw and a part chaff,
+    and the offal (if any) of the food of the above lots of stock.
+
+    My farm is but a small one--under 200 acres. My predecessor always
+    mowed nearly all the pastures for hay, which is about half the
+    farm, and with this scarcely ever grazed any beasts, and kept but
+    very few sheep. Since my occupation I scarcely ever exceed ten acres
+    of meadow with one field of seeds for hay. I keep from 250 to 300
+    large-size Leicester sheep, and graze from 20 to 25 large-size
+    beasts a year, with other breeding stock in proportion.
+
+    I consider the pulping of roots is better for fatting pigs than
+    anything else. My plan is to have a large two-hogshead vat as near
+    the pulping machine as possible, so as to fill it with a malt
+    shovel as it comes from the machine; at the same time I keep a lad
+    sprinkling meal (either barley or Indian corn) with the roots; and
+    this is all done in fifteen or twenty minutes. It is then ready for
+    use, to be carried to the pigs in the stalls alongside the fatting
+    beasts. I never could fatten a pig with profit until I used pulped
+    roots.
+
+
+Although the practice of cooking food has been advocated by several
+eminent feeders, it has been condemned by others. Mr. Lawes is not
+favorable to the cooking of food unless when it is scarce. The results
+of Colonel M'Douall's experiments go to prove that cattle can be more
+economically kept upon a mixture of raw and cooked foods than upon
+either raw or cooked fodder given separately. One meal of cooked food
+and two feeds of raw turnips gave better results than three feeds of
+raw turnips; whilst two cooked feeds and a raw one resulted in a loss.
+
+The fermentation of food, if not the best, is certainly the cheapest
+mode of preparing it. If the process be not pushed too far the loss of
+nutriment sustained is inconsiderable. When a mixture of straw and roots
+is fermented, the hard fibres of the latter are, to a great extent,
+broken up, and the nutrient particles which they envelop are fully
+exposed to the action of the solvent juices of the stomach.
+
+A great advantage in cooking or fermenting food is that the most
+rubbishy materials can be used up. Indeed, as a general rule, the better
+soft food is, the less the necessity for cooking it; but washed out hay
+and hard, over-ripened straw are of but little value, except when cooked
+and given in combination with some agreeably-flavored substance.
+
+
+  VALUE FOR FEEDING PURPOSES OF VARIOUS FOODS.[22]
+
+                  +--------------------------------------------------------+
+                  | KEY:                                                   |
+                  | A.--Starch, Sugar, &c.                                 |
+                  | B.--Oil, Starch, &c., computed as Oil.                 |
+                  | C.--Weight.                                            |
+                  | D.--Value.                                             |
+                  | E.--Value of Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid, and Potash.    |
+                  | F.--Deduct Nitrogen for perspiration.                  |
+                  | G.--Net Value for Manure.                              |
+                  |                                                        |
+  +---------------+------------------+-------------------------------------+
+  |               |       COST.      | 100 LBS. CONTAIN.                   |
+  |               +----------+-------+------+-------+-------+--------------+
+  |  MATERIAL.    |          |       |      |       |       |   Nitrogen.  |
+  |               |          |  Per  |      |       |       |              |
+  |               |    Per   |  100  |      |       |       +------+-------+
+  |               |    ton.  |  lbs. | Oil. |   A.  |   B.  |  C.  |   D.  |
+  +---------------+----------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+
+  |               |  L  s. d.| s. d. | lbs. |  lbs. |  lbs. | lbs. |  d.   |
+  |               |          |       |      |       |       |      |       |
+  |Meadow-hay     |  4  0  0 | 3  7  | 2.68 | 39.75 | 24.63 | 1.48 | 10.62 |
+  |               |          |       |      |       |       |      |       |
+  |Wheat-straw    |  1 15  0 | 1  7  | 0.50 | 32.0  | 18.50 | 0.42 |  3.0  |
+  |               |          |       |      |       |       |      |       |
+  |Swedish Turnips|  4 10  0 | 4  0  | 2.0  | 60.0  | 35.0  | 2.40 | 17.28 |
+  |               |          |       |      |       |       |      |       |
+  |Oil-cake       |  9  6  8 | 8  4  |12.0  | 38.0  | 33.0  | 5.0  | 36.0  |
+  |               |          |       |      |       |       |      |       |
+  |Beans          |  9  6  8 | 8  4  | 2.0  | 42.0  | 25.30 | 4.45 | 32.0  |
+  |               |          |       |      |       |       |      |       |
+  |Indian Meal    |  9  6  8 | 8  4  | 7.0  | 60.0  | 40.0  | 2.25 | 16.20 |
+  |               |          |       |      |       |       |      |       |
+  |Carob, or      |          |       |      |       |       |      |       |
+  |  Locust Bean  |  9  6  8 | 8  4  | 6.76 | 57.0  | 35.0  | 0.64 |  3.75 |
+  +---------------+----------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+
+
+  +---------------+---------------------------+----------------------------+
+  |               | 100 LBS. CONTAIN.         |                            |
+  |               +-------------+-------------+----------+-------+---------+
+  |  MATERIAL.    |  Phosphoric |   Potash.   |          |       |         |
+  |               |     Acid.   |             |          |       |         |
+  |               +------+------+------+------+          |       |         |
+  |               |  C.  |   D. |  C.  |  D.  |     E.   |   F.  |   G.    |
+  +---------------+------+------+------+------+----------+-------+---------+
+  |               | lbs. |  d.  | lbs. |  d.  | s. d.    | d.    | s. d.   |
+  |               |      |      |      |      |          |       |         |
+  |Meadow-hay     | 0.90 | 1.35 | 1.50 | 4.50 | 1  4-1/2 | 2-1/12| 1 2-1/4 |
+  |               |      |      |      |      |          |       |         |
+  |Wheat-straw    | 0.14 | 0.21 | 0.65 | 2.16 | 0  5     |   1/2 | 0 5     |
+  |               |      |      |      |      |          |       |         |
+  |Swedish Turnips| 0.80 | 1.20 | 2.25 | 6.75 | 2  1-1/4 | 3-1/2 | 1 9-3/4 |
+  |               |      |      |      |      |          |       |         |
+  |Oil-cake       | 2.25 | 3.37 | 1.75 | 5.25 | 3  8-1/2 | 7-1/4 | 3 1-3/4 |
+  |               |      |      |      |      |          |       |         |
+  |Beans          | 0.86 | 1.29 | 1.11 | 3.33 | 3  0-1/2 | 6-1/2 | 2 6     |
+  |               |      |      |      |      |          |       |         |
+  |Indian Meal    | 0.19 | 0.28 | 0.17 | 0.51 | 1  5     | 3-1/4 | 1 1-3/4 |
+  |               |                    |      |          |       |         |
+  |Carob, or      |     No analysis    |      |          |       |         |
+  |  Locust Bean  |       of ash.      |      |say 5-3/4 |   --  | 0 5     |
+  +---------------+--------------------+------+----------+-------+---------+
+
+_Bedding Cattle._--Instead of wasting straw in bedding cattle, it would
+be much better to pass it through their bodies. If straw must be used
+for litter, let it be employed as economically as possible. Good
+substitutes, wholly or in part, for straw bedding may be found in
+sawdust, ashes, tan and ferns. Leaves of trees if procurable in
+quantity constitute an excellent litter.
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+THE SHEEP.
+
+The management of sheep varies greatly--depending upon the breeds of
+the animal, the localities in which they are reared and fattened, and
+various economic conditions. The tupping season varies of course with
+the country: in Ireland it commences about the middle of September and
+lasts for two months; in England and parts of Scotland, the season is
+about a month earlier. The best kinds of sheep admit of being very early
+put to breed. Both ram and ewe are ready for this purpose when about
+fifteen months old. One ram is sufficient for about 80 ewes. The
+breeding flock should be in a sound, healthy condition, and the ram
+ought to be as near perfection as possible. The condition of the sire
+ought to be good, but at the same time it is not desirable to have him
+over fat. The more striking indications of good health in the sheep are
+dry eyes, red gums, sound teeth, smooth, oily skin, and regular
+rumination. The color of the excreta should be natural.
+
+_Breeding Ewes._--After the tupping season, which generally lasts for
+a month, the sheep are usually put on a pasture, which need not be
+very rich. In cold situations ample shelter should be afforded to the
+breeding flocks; and in severe weather they should, if possible, be
+removed to sheds. When snow covers the ground, the animals must be
+supplied with turnips, or cooked food of some kind. At such time a
+little oil-cake will be found very useful.
+
+_Yeaning._--In March the yeaning season sets in; and as this time
+approaches, the food of the animals should be improved, and the greatest
+care must be taken of them. The shepherd should be unceasing in his
+watchfulness, frequently examining every individual animal. The lambing,
+if possible, ought to take place in sheds, or some covered place.
+
+_Rearing of Lambs._--Delicate lambs require great care. Very weak ones
+often require to be hand fed. Should a mother die, her offspring may be
+placed with another ewe; on the other hand, should a lamb perish, its
+mother may be appointed to rear one of another ewe's twins (if such
+be available). The ram lambs, not intended for breeding purposes, are
+subjected to a necessary mutilation when they are about three weeks old.
+If this operation be performed later, there is great danger that fatal
+inflammatory action may set in; on the other hand, a lamb much younger
+than three weeks is hardly strong enough to bear the pain of the
+operation. The tails of the lambs are shortened about the same time;
+but it would be better in the case of the rams not to perform both
+operations on the same day. These operations are best performed during
+moist or cloudy weather; if they must be done on frosty or stormy
+days, the lambs should be kept under shelter for two or three days, as
+otherwise the cold might induce inflammation. The lambs remain with
+their mothers for about four months, after which they are weaned, and
+put upon a good pasture. When the herbage is poor, oil-cake, say 1/4 lb.
+daily, or some other nutritious food, should be used to supplement it.
+During the summer and part of the autumn the young stock, as a rule,
+subsist upon grass; but many flock-masters give them other kinds of food
+in addition. As winter approaches, the young sheep on tillage farms
+receive soft turnips, and sometimes a little hay or straw. The allowance
+of oil-cake may be increased to 1/2 lb., or if corn be cheap, it may be
+substituted for the oil-cake. After Christmas Swedish turnips are used.
+
+Mr. Mechi gives the following information on the subject of rearing
+lambs during a season when roots are scarce:--
+
+
+    Two hundred lambs, which cost 22s. 6d. each on September 12th,
+    were kept on leas and stubble until November 3rd, then on
+    turnips until December 19th, when fifty of them were drafted to
+    another flock getting a little cotton-cake. On the 3rd of February
+    fatting commenced with linseed-cake in addition to cut Swedes. On
+    the 7th of April the fifty tegs were put on rye with mangels, and
+    they were sold on the 4th of May at 61s. each.
+
+    The remaining 150 lambs were wintered as stores at little cost,
+    on inferior turnips uncut; they were put on rye from March 8th
+    till May 4th, when they were valued at 48s. each.
+
+    The district just referred to became so exhausted of its stock,
+    that at some of the later fairs the number of lambs and of ewes
+    exhibited was less than one-fourth of the average. But in Essex,
+    on six adjoining farms, including that from which I write, the
+    number of sheep wintered has been greater than these heavy lands
+    ever carried before. This has been effected by the extension of
+    a system of management often practised on heavy land, that of
+    eking out a scanty supply of green food by a liberal allowance
+    of straw, chaff, and grain; which happily were good in quality,
+    as well as plentiful and low in price in 1864.
+
+    By these means we were enabled last winter to keep 1,500 sheep
+    on about 650 acres of arable, and 350 acres of dry upland
+    pasture--chiefly park surrounding a mansion. The arable land
+    does not very well bear folding in winter, as a preparation for
+    spring corn. Neither climate nor soil are favorable to turnips,
+    and notwithstanding our efforts in assisting Nature, our crops
+    of turnips, rape, or Swedes, are never first-rate, and sometimes
+    very bad. Strong stubbles, good beans, clover-seed, and mangel,
+    are the specialities of the locality, and they indicate heavy
+    land, corn-growing, and yard-feeding. Sheep have been generally
+    "conspicuous by their absence," though even the heavy-land farmer
+    is glad to winter a yard of them instead of cattle, that he may
+    keep some, at least, of the stock that pays best.
+
+    In the autumn of 1864 our root crops consisted of some white
+    turnips and rape, eaten by the ewes in September, and of a very
+    bad crop of mangel, the whole of which was reserved for the ewes
+    at lambing-time. In this predicament we wintered about 1,000
+    half-bred lambs, more than 400 ewes, and some fatting sheep.
+    All, except the fatting sheep, were folded on the stubbles, and
+    allowed a daily run on the park of about an hour for each flock.
+    The freshest grass was reserved for the ewes, and a very meagre
+    bite remained for the lambs; in fact, except for a few weeks
+    in autumn, the parks afforded them little or nothing except
+    exercise and water.
+
+    The flocks were divided between three separate farms, and their
+    food was prepared at the respective homesteads. The treatment
+    was in every respect similar; we shall therefore only notice in
+    detail the management at one farm.
+
+    The following details are taken from our "Live Stock Book:"--
+
+    EXTRACTS FROM STOCK BOOK.
+
+    _Lambs._
+
+    Payments.                                                   Remarks.
+
+    _November 4th, 1864._
+                                                      L  s. d.
+
+    352 lambs, cost at date, 30s. 9-1/2d. each       542  2  3    (a)
+    _Cost of keeping 24 weeks to April 21, 1865_:--               (b)
+    Corn and cake, as per granary book               245 16  9    (c)
+    Cutting 25 tons of chaff, at 6s.                   7 13  0    (d)
+    Grinding 96 qrs. 6 bshls. of corn, at 9d.          3 12  6
+    Attendance, at 19s. 10d. per week                 23 16  0    (e)
+    Horse labor, at 6s. per week                       7  4  0
+    Coal, 3s. 2d. per week                             3 16  0    (f)
+    Use of 21 troughs, at 3d. each per month           1 11  6    (g)
+    Use of 180 hurdles, at 1d. each per month          4 10  0
+    1-1/2 cwt. of rock salt                            0  4  6
+                                                    ==========
+                                                    L840  6  6
+
+    Remarks.
+
+    (a) Total cost of keeping 352 lambs for 24 weeks, L298 4s. 3d.
+    (b) Cost per head, 16s. 11d.
+    (c) Cost, food only, 14s. 11d.
+    (d) Value of the manure, reckoned at one-fifth the cost of the
+        corn and cake, L49 3s. 4d.
+    (e) Cost of the lambs, per head, L2 7s. 8d.
+    (f) Value of manure, per head, 2s. 10d.
+    (g) No charge made for the straw-chaff eaten on the land.
+
+
+    The tegs would probably have been sold at a profit in April;
+    they were, however, put on grass and clover, and were fattened
+    in the summer.
+
+    _September 29th._--352 lambs in the parks, on a little cotton-cake
+    and some oats, until November 4th, when they were folded on a wheat
+    stubble. Gave them 5 bushels of meal daily, mixed with 468 lb. of
+    straw chaff. Cost 3-1/2d. each per week for meal.
+
+    _December 20th._--Increased the food to 6-1/2 bushels of meal and
+    1 bushel of oil-cake.
+
+    _December 18th._--
+
+                                                        lb.
+
+    2-3/4 bushels of maize crushed and boiled           143
+    4-1/2 bushels of mixed meal                         200
+    1 bushel of oil-cake                                 50
+                                                        ---
+                                                        393
+                                                        ===
+
+
+    Cost 5-1/2d. per week for corn and cake; chaff, 2-1/4 lb. each,
+    between these and the ewes, the lambs eating rather less than
+    2 lb. each.
+
+    Eight pounds of rock-salt licked up by the 352 lambs per week.
+
+    _January 23rd._--The food was increased to 7-1/2 bushels of meal,
+    2 bushels of oil-cake, and 2 bushels of rape-cake.
+
+    Mixture of Corn.
+
+    Wheat                     4 parts.
+    Barley                    4   "
+    Oats                      2   "
+    Maize                     4   "
+
+    Cost per stone (14 lb.)
+                              s.   d.
+    Wheat                     1    0
+    Barley                    0   10
+    Oats                      1    0
+    Maize                     0   10
+    Oil-cake                  1    4-1/4
+    Rape-cake                 0    9
+
+
+_Sheep Feeding._--In Ireland sheep are often exclusively fed on grass;
+but in most cases the addition of other food is desirable, and more
+especially is it necessary during winter. When confined to roots, sheep,
+on an average, consume about 26 lbs. daily, unless when under shelter,
+which diminishes the quantity by from five to ten per cent. Some sheep
+on which Dr. Voelcker experimented were fed as follows:--
+
+                                                 lbs.   ounces.
+
+  Mangel wurtzel                                  19    8
+  Chopped clover hay                               1      3/10
+  Linseed cake                                     0    4-8/100
+                                                  --------------
+                                       Total      20   15-38/100
+
+On this diet four sheep were maintained from the 22nd of March until
+the 10th of May, a period of forty-seven days. The weights were as
+follows:--
+
+                             22nd Mar.     10th May.      Gain.
+
+  No. 1                         153         170-1/2       17-1/2
+  No. 2                         134         151-1/2       17-1/2
+  No. 3                         170         187           17-1/2
+  No. 4                         136         155           19
+
+This experiment shows that the sheep can increase in weight on a daily
+allowance of food, much less than is usually given to them; but it will
+be found that growing sheep will usually consume a greater quantity of
+food than that used by Dr. Voelcker's fattening animals.
+
+Sheep washing is performed before the animal is shorn. It is a process
+which should never be neglected, as dirty wool is certain to bring a
+less price than the same quality would if clean. After being washed,
+sheep should be kept in dry pasture for about ten days in order to allow
+the loss of yolk removed by the washing to be repaired; they will then
+be in proper condition for the shearer.
+
+_Sheep Dips_ are used for the purpose of removing parasites from the
+animal's skin. They often contain arsenic, or bichloride of mercury
+(corrosive sublimate), which are very objectionable ingredients. The
+glycerine sheep dip, prepared by Messrs. Hendrick and Guerin, of London,
+is a safe mixture, as it is free from mineral poisons, whilst the tar
+substances which it includes, act as a powerful cleanser of the skin,
+without injuriously affecting the yolk of the wool.
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+THE PIG.
+
+In the breeding of pigs, as in the breeding of other kinds of stock,
+great care should be taken in the selection of both sire and dam. A good
+pig should have a small head, short nose, plump cheek, a compact body,
+short neck, and thin but very hairy skin, and short legs. The black
+breed is considered to be more hardy than the white; and pure--all black
+or all white--colors as a rule indicate the purest blood.
+
+The sow should not be bred from until she is a year old, and the boar
+especially should not be employed at an earlier age. Although one boar
+is sometimes left with forty pigs and even a greater number, he will not
+be able to serve more than a dozen about the same time, if vigorous
+progeny be expected. The sow's regular period of gestation is 113 days;
+she can have two litters a year, and in each there are from five to
+fourteen young. Moderate sized litters are the best, the young of very
+numerous ones being often weakly. The best time to rear young pigs is
+during the warm or mild parts of the year.
+
+During gestation the sow should be liberally fed, but not with excessive
+amounts. The food at this time should rather excel in quality than in
+quantity; but so soon as she begins to nurse, her allowance must be
+increased, and may be rendered more stimulating. For a week or so before
+farrowing, the sow ought to be kept alone. Its sty should not be too
+small--not less than 8 or 10 feet square--for pigs require good air in
+abundance as well as other animals.
+
+The straw used for litter should neither be too abundant nor too long;
+in the latter case some of the young might be covered by it, and
+escaping the notice of the sow, might unconsciously be crushed by the
+latter. If the young are very feeble, it may become necessary to
+hand-feed them. Some sows eat their young: and when they have this
+habit, the better plan is to cease breeding from them; for it appears to
+be incurable. After parturition some bran and liquid or semi-liquid food
+should be given to the sow.
+
+_Young Pigs_ subsist exclusively on their mother's milk but for a short
+time. In two or three weeks they may receive skimmed or butter-milk from
+the dairy. At a month old such of them as are not designed for breeding
+purposes may be subjected to the usual mutilations; and at from five to
+six weeks old the young are weaned, and converted into _stores_.
+
+_Store Pigs_, when young, are best fed upon skimmed milk, oatmeal,
+and potatoes, in a cooked state. When they are approaching three months
+old, they may be supplied with raw food, if the weather be warm;
+but in winter, cooked and warm food will be found the more economical.
+Cabbages, roots, potatoes, and all kinds of grain that are cheap are
+used in pig feeding. The number of meals varies from six or seven in the
+case of very young animals, to three in the case of those nearly ready
+for fattening. Store pigs should be allowed a few hours' exercise daily
+in a paddock, or field, or at least in a large yard.
+
+The dietaries of store pigs vary greatly, for these animals being
+omnivorous readily eat almost every kind of food. Mr. Baldwin, of Bredon
+House, near Birmingham, an extensive pig breeder, gave (in 1862) stores
+the following allowance:--At three months old, a quart of peas, Egyptian
+beans, or Indian corn. He considered English beans to be too _heating_
+for young pigs. The animals were allowed the _run_ of a grass field.
+On this diet the stores were kept until they were eight months old
+(increasing at the average rate of five pounds per week), after which
+they were allowed an extra half-pint of corn. He calculated the weekly
+cost as follows:--Dry food, 1s.; grass, 2d.; man's time, 1d.; total, 1s.
+3d. These results yielded a profit of 1s. per week per pig, pork being
+at the time 6d. per lb. Some feeders give young store pigs half-a-pint
+of peas, mixed with pulped mangel, and the quantum of peas is gradually
+increased to one pint per diem. All kinds of food-refuse from the house
+are welcomed by the pig. Skins, dripping, damaged potatoes, cabbage,
+&c., may be given to them; but they should not be altogether substituted
+for the ordinary food-stuffs. Coal-dust, cinders, mortar rubbish, and
+similar substances are often swallowed by pigs, and sometimes even
+given to them by the feeder. In certain cases Lawes and Gilbert found
+that superphosphate of lime was a useful addition to the food of pigs.
+A little salt should invariably be given, more especially if mangels
+(which are rich in salt) do not enter into the animals' dietary.
+
+_Fattening Pigs._--For some time before store pigs are put up to be
+fattened, the quality and quantity of their food should be increased,
+for it is not economy to put a rather lean animal suddenly upon a very
+fattening diet. The sty should be well supplied with clean litter, and
+should be darkened. Three feeds per diem will be a sufficient number,
+and the remains (if any) of one should be removed from the trough before
+the fresh feed is put into it. The feeding trough (which should be made
+of iron) should be so constructed that the animals cannot place their
+fore feet in it. The pig is naturally a clean animal, and therefore
+it should be washed occasionally, as there is every reason to believe
+that such a procedure will tend to promote the animal's health. It
+should be supplied with clean water.
+
+In Stephen's "Book of the Farm," it is stated that two pecks of
+steamed potatoes, and 9 lbs. of barley-meal, given every day to a pig
+weighing from 24 to 28 stones, will fatten it perfectly in nine weeks.
+Barley-meal is largely used in England as food for pigs. It is given
+generally in the form of a thin paste, and in large quantities. Lawes
+and Gilbert found that 1 cwt. of barley-meal given to pigs increased
+their weight by 22-1/2 lbs. Indian meal is fully equal, if it is not
+superior to barley-meal, as food for pigs; and for this purpose it is
+far more extensively employed in Ireland. Every kind of grain given to
+pigs should be ground and cooked. In Scotland pigs are often fattened
+solely on from 28 to 35 lbs. of barley-meal weekly, and mangels or
+turnips _ad libitum_. Pollard is a good food for pigs, being rich in
+muscle-forming materials; it is a good addition to very fatty or starchy
+food. A mixture of pollard and palm-nut meal is an excellent fattening
+food. Potatoes are now so dear, that they are seldom--unless the very
+worst and diseased kinds--used in pig feeding. They should never be
+given raw. The more inferior feeding-stuffs should be used up first in
+the fattening of pigs, and the more valuable and concentrated kinds
+during the latter part of the process.
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+THE HORSE.
+
+The horse is subject to many diseases, not a few of which arise from the
+defective state of his stable. The best kinds of stables are large and
+lofty, well ventilated and drained, smoothly paved, and well provided
+with means for admitting the direct sunlight. The walls should be
+whitewashed occasionally, and for disinfecting and general sanitary
+purposes, four ounces of chloride of lime (bleaching powder) mixed with
+each bucket of whitewash, will be found extremely useful.
+
+Farm horses are kept in stalls, which should not be less than six feet
+wide, and (exclusive of rack and rere passage) 10 feet long. For hunters
+and thorough-breds, _loose boxes_ are now generally used.
+
+The mare commences to breed at four years, and the period of gestation
+is 340 days. She may be worked until within a fortnight of the time at
+which parturition is expected to occur. After foaling, the mare should
+be turned into a grass field (unless the weather is severe) and kept
+there idly for three or four weeks.
+
+_Foals_ are kept with their mothers until they are about five or six
+months old: after weaning, their food must be tender and nutritious--well
+bruised oats, cut hay, bean or oatmeal mashes; carrots are very
+suitable.
+
+Working horses are fed chiefly upon oats and hay, which undoubtedly are
+the best foods for these animals, both being rich in muscle-forming
+materials. Bruised oats are far more economical than the whole grains:
+and if the animals eat too rapidly, that habit is easily overcome by
+mixing chopped straw or hay with the grain.
+
+According to Playfair, a horse not working can subsist and remain in
+fair condition on a daily allowance of 12 lbs. of hay and 5 lbs. of
+oats. According to the same authority, a working horse should receive
+14 lbs. of hay, 12 lbs. of oats, and 2 lbs. of beans.
+
+Beans are a very concentrated food, rich in flesh-formers, and are,
+therefore, well adapted for sustaining hard-working horses. They are
+rather _binding_; but this property is easily neutralised by combining
+the beans with some laxative food. Turnips, carrots, furze, and various
+other foods are given to the horse, often in large quantities. The
+following are some among the many dietaries on which this animal
+is kept:--
+
+Professor Low's formula is, 30 to 35 lbs. of a mixture of equal parts
+of chopped straw, chopped hay, bruised grain, and steamed potatoes.
+
+The daily rations of horses of the London Omnibus Company, are 16 lbs.
+of bruised oats, 7-1/2 lbs. of cut hay, and 2-1/2 lbs. of chopped straw.
+
+Stage coach-horses in the United States receive daily about 19 lbs. of
+Indian meal and 13 lbs. of cut hay.
+
+Mr. Robertson, of Clandeboye, near Belfast, gives the following
+information on the subject of horse-keeping:--
+
+    The year we divide into three periods--October, November to
+    May inclusive, June to September inclusive. During the first
+    period, the horses get about 18 lb. of chaff and 12 lb. of
+    crushed oats and beans; "10-1/2 oats and 1-1/2 beans" per head
+    per day. During the second period they get about 15 lb. of hay
+    chaff, 12 lb. of crushed oats and beans, and about 3 gallons
+    of boiled turnips per head per day. During the third period
+    they were turned out to graze during the night. In the day time,
+    whilst in the stable, each animal is allowed about 50 lb. of cut
+    clover, and about 12 lb. of crushed oats and beans per day. The
+    feeding is all under the charge of one person. He uses his own
+    discretion in feeding the animals, though he is not allowed to
+    exceed the quantities named. The horses to which I allude are the
+    same on which the experiments commenced two years ago--six cart
+    horses, one cart pony, and one riding horse. From Sept. 1, 1865,
+    to and including August 31, 1866, the cost of maintaining these
+    horses in good working condition; keeping the carts, harness,
+    &c., in repair; shoeing, c., was as follows:--
+
+    Oats, 14 tons, at 16s. per cwt.                 L112   0   0
+    Beans, 2 tons, at 18s. per cwt.                   18   0   0
+    Hay, 13 tons, at 30s. per ton                     19  10   0
+    Green Clover                                      15   0   0
+    Turnips                                            5   0   0
+    Night grazing                                     18   0   0
+    Engine, cutting chaff, crushing oats, &c.          7   4   0
+    Attendance                                        26   0   0
+    Blacksmith                                        12   0   0
+    Saddler                                           12   0   0
+    Carpenter                                         10   0   0
+    Five per cent. interest on value, L110             5  10   0
+    Depreciation in value 10 per cent.                11   0   0
+                                                    ------------
+                                                    L271   4   0
+    Deduct cost of riding horse                       35   0   0
+                                                    ------------
+                                                    L236   4   0
+
+
+    L33 11s. 10d. per head; if we suppose the available working
+    days to be 300, allowing 13 for wet days, holidays, &c., the
+    daily cost will be 2s. 2-1/2d.; to this if we add 1s. 8d.,
+    the wages of the driver, we shall have a total of 3s. 10-1/2d.
+    as the cost of a horse, cart, and driver per day. I would only
+    add, in conclusion, that the horses are kept in good working
+    condition; and, as a proof of their good health under this
+    system, I may state that during the past two years we have not
+    had occasion to require the services of a veterinary surgeon.
+
+
+Musty hay or straw should not be given to horses. Furze is said to be
+a heating food; but it is very nutritious, and when young, may be given
+as _part_ of the food of the horse.
+
+Boiled turnips and mangels are often given in winter; but they are
+not sufficiently nutritious to constitute a substantial portion of the
+animal's diet. Oil-cake is occasionally given to horses; but seldom in
+larger quantities than 1-1/2 lbs. per diem. On the whole, experience is
+in favor of occasionally giving cooked food to horses; and the practice
+meets with the full approval of the veterinarian. To most kinds of food
+for horses, the addition of one or two ounces of salt is necessary.
+
+In the _Agricultural Gazette_ for November 25, 1865, the following
+instructive tables are given:--
+
+  STABLE FEEDING DURING AUTUMN.
+
+  ---+-------------------------+---------+---------+------+-----------+------
+     | Name and Address        |         |         |      | Clover,   |Weekly
+  No.| of Authorities.         |  Hay.   |  Oats.  |Beans.|   &c.     | Cost.
+  ---+-------------------------+---------+---------+------+-----------+------
+     |                         |  lb.    |  lb.    | lb.  |           | s. d.
+     |                         |         |         |      |           |
+   1 | W. Gater, Botley        |  168    |  63*    | 32*  |  ...      |12  0
+   2 | W. C. Spooner           |  112    |  84     | 24   |  ...      |11  0
+   3 | T. Aitken, Spalding.    |  ...    |  37-1/2 | ...  | ad lib.   | 7  6?
+   4 |     "        "          |  ...    |  37-1/2 | 35   | ad lib.   |10  O?
+   5 | T. P. Dods, Hexham.     |  ...    | 105     | ...  | ad lib.   |10  6?
+   6 |    "          "         | ad lib. | 105     | ...  |  ...      |10  6?
+     |                         |         |         |      | Straw     |
+   7 | A. Ruston, I. of Ely.   | ad lib. |  84     | 10   | ad lib.   | 9  0
+     |                         |  1/2    |         |      | 1/2 Bran. |
+     |                         |         |         |      | 1/3 bush. |
+   8 | A. Simpson, Beauly      |  168    |  70     | 14   | 24 lb.    |10  0
+     |                         |         |         |      | Straw.    |
+   9 | H. J. Wilson, Mansfield |  ...    |  52-1/2 | ...  | ad lib.   | 7  3?
+  10 |        "       "        |   42    |  87-1/2 | ...  | ad lib.   | 9  0
+  ---+-------------------------+---------+---------+------+-----------+------
+  In this table the asterisk (*) means that the grain is crushed or ground.
+
+
+  STABLE FEEDING DURING WINTER.
+
+  ---+------------------+------+-------+------+--------+---------+------+------
+  No.|Name and Address. | Hay. | Oats. |Beans.| Roots. |Sundries.|Straw.|Weekly
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      | Cost.
+  ---+------------------+------+-------+------+--------+---------+------+------
+     |                  |  lb. | lb.   | lb.  |  lb.   |    lb.  |  lb. | s. d.
+   1 |Professor Low     |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |  --Elements of   |      |       |      |Potatoes|         |      |
+     |  Agriculture     |  56* | 56*   | ...  |  56+   |   ...   |  56* | 6  6
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+   2 |H. Stephens       |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |  --Book of the   |      |       |      |Turnips |         |      |
+     |  Farm            | 112  | 35    | ...  | 112    |   ...   |  ... | 6  0
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+   3 |J. Gibson, Woolmet|      |       |      |Potatoes|         |      |
+     |  --H. Soc. 1850  | ...  | 84    | ...  | 217+   |   217+  | 112  | 9  0
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+   4 |--Binnie,         |      |       |      | Barley |         | ad   |
+     |  Seaton          | ...  | 70*   |  28* | 243+   |    42+  | lib. |11  6
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+   5 |--Thomson,        |      |       |      |        |         | ad   |
+     |  Hangingside     | ...  | 84    |  14  | 336    |    14   | lib. | 9  6
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+   6 |W. C. Spooner,    |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |  Ag. Soc. Journ. |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |  vol. ix.        | ...  | 63    | ...  |  42    |   ...   | 196  | 4  9
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+   7 |T. Aitken,        | ad   |       |      |        |         | ad   |
+     |  Spalding,       | lib. |       |      |        |         | lib. |
+     |  Lincolnshire    | (2/3)| 37    |  35  | ...    |   ...   |(1/3) | 9  0
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+   8 |G. W. Baker,      |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |  Woburn,         |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |  Bedfordshire    | ...  | 60*   |  20* | ...    |   ...   | ...  | 9  8
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+   9 |R. Baker,         |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |  Writtle, Essex  |  70  | 42    | ...  | ...    |   ...   | 140  | 5  0
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  10 |J. Coleman,       |      |       |      |        |         | ad   |
+     |  Cirencester     | ...  | 84    |  16  | ...    |   ...   | lib. | 7  3
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  11 |T. P. Dods,       |      |       |      |        |         | ad   |
+     |  Hexham          | ...  | 95    | ...  |  56    |   ...   | lib. | 8  0
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  12 |J. Cobban,        |      |       |      |        | Linseed | ad   |
+     |  Whitfield       |  84* | 60*   | ...  | ...    |  3-1/2  | lib.*| 7  3
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  13 |S. Druce, jun.,   |      |       |      | Swedes |         | 2    |
+     |  Ensham          | 112  | 52    | ...  |  70    |   ...   | bu.* | 7  0
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |                  | ad   |       |      |        |         | ad   |
+  14 |C. Howard,        | lib. |       |      |        |         | lib. |
+     |  Biddenham       | (2/3)| 52    |  17  |  84    |   ...   | 1/3* | 8  6?
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  15 |J. J. Mechi,      |      |       |      |M.Wurzel|         | ad   |
+     |  Tiptree.        |  49* | 70*   | ...  | 210    |   ...   | lib.*| 7  6
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  16 |W. J. Pope,       |      |       |      |        |         | ad   |
+     |  Bridport        |   2* | 84    | ...  | ...    |   ...   | lib. | 9  0?
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  17 |S. Rich,          |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |  Didmarton,      |      |       |      |        | Grains  | ad   |
+     |  Gloucestershire | 168  | 63    | ...  | ...    | 2 bush. | lib. |10  8
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  18 |H. E. Sadler,     |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |  Lavant, Sussex  | 140  | 84    | ...  | ...    |   ...   | ...  | 9  9
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  19 |J. Morton,        |      |       |      |Carrots |         | ad   |
+     |  Whitfield Farm  | ...  |126    | ...  | 350    |   ...   | lib. |10  9
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  20 |E. H.  Sandford,  |      |       |      |        |  Bran   | ad   |
+     |  Dover           |  56  | 42    | ...  | ...    |    12   | lib. | 5  6
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  21 |A. Simpson,       |      |       |      |        |Tail Corn| ad   |
+     |  Beauly, N.B.    | ...  | 49    |   7  | 105    |    21   | lib.*| 5  6
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  22 |H. J. Wilson,     |      |       |      |        |  Bran   | ad   |
+     |  Mansfield       |  42  | 52-1/2| ...  | ...    |    21   | lib. | 6  6?
+     |                  |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+  23 |F. Sowerby,       |      |       |      |        |         |      |
+     |  Aylesby, North  |      |       |      |        |         | ad   |
+     |  Lincolnshire    | 112  | 28    | Cut Oat Sheaf.|   ...   | lib.*| 8  0?
+  ---+------------------+------+-------+------+--------+---------+------+------
+  Where an asterisk (*) is attached to any item, it is to be understood
+  that the corn has been bruised or ground, or the hay or straw has been
+  cut into chaff. Where a dagger (+) is appended, the article so marked
+  has been boiled or steamed. A mark of interrogation (?) indicates that
+  the result so marked is uncertain, owing to some indefiniteness in the
+  account given.
+
+
+On feeding horses with pulped roots, Mr. Slater, of Weston Colville,
+Cambridgeshire, says:--
+
+    I give all my cart horses a bushel per day of pulped mangel, mixed
+    with straw and corn-chaff. I begin in September, and continue using
+    them all winter and until late in the summer, nearly, if not quite,
+    all the year round, beginning, however, with smaller quantities,
+    about a peck, and then half a bushel, the first week or two, as too
+    many of the young-growing mangel would not suit the stock. I believe
+    pulped mangels, with chaff, are the best, cheapest, and most healthy
+    food horses can eat. I always find my horses miss them when I have
+    none, late in the summer. I give them fresh ground every day. Young
+    store beasts, colts, &c., do well with them.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Footnote 20: Five pounds of linseed will make about seven gallons of
+gruel, and suffice for five good-sized calves; considerable allowance
+must, however, be made for differences of quality in the linseed, that
+from India not being gelatinous enough, and therefore boiling hard,
+instead of "coming down kindly."]
+
+[Footnote 21: "Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society," vol. xxxix.]
+
+[Footnote 22: From Mr. Horsfall's Essay on Dairy Management, in "Journal
+of Royal Agricultural Society," vol. xviii., part i.]
+
+
+
+
+PART IV.
+
+MEAT, MILK, AND BUTTER.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+MEAT.
+
+No one ought to feel a greater interest in the subject of meat in
+all its branches than the stock feeder. Just in proportion as this
+kind of food is agreeable to the taste, easily digestible, and rich in
+nutriment, will the demand for it increase. The quality of meat is, in
+fact, a primary consideration with the producer of that article; and he
+whose beef and mutton are the most tender and the best flavored will
+make the most profit.
+
+_Quality of Meat._--The flesh of herbivorous animals is composed of
+muscular and adipose (fatty) tissues. The muscles consist of bundles of
+elastic fibres (_fibrine_), enclosed in an albuminous tissue formed of
+little vessels, termed cells, and intimately commingled with water, and
+a mixture of albuminous, fatty, and saline matters. The leanest flesh
+(muscles) contains fat, but the latter accumulates in certain parts of
+the body--often to such an extent as to seriously interfere with the
+functions of life. The red color of flesh is due to a rather large
+proportion of blood, which it contains in minute vessels; and the slight
+acidity of its juice is owing to the presence of _inosinic_ acid, and
+probably of several other acids. The agreeable odour of meat, when it
+is subjected to the process of cooking, is developed from a complex
+substance termed _osmazome_.[23] This constituent varies in nature and
+quantity in the different animals--hence the variety in flavor and odour
+of their flesh--and its amount increases with the age of the animal.
+The albumen of the muscles, and their fatty and saline constituents,
+are digestible; but it is generally believed that the elastic fibres,
+and the horny cellular tissue which binds them into bundles, are not
+assimilable. It is more certain that the crystalline substances found in
+flesh, such as, for example, _kreatine_, are incapable of ministering to
+the nutrition of animals.
+
+The composition of flesh varies very much--that of a very obese pig
+containing more than half its weight of fat, whilst in some specimens
+of "jerked beef," imported from Monte Video, scarcely 5 per cent. of
+that substance was found. The flesh of a fat ox has on an average the
+following composition:--
+
+                                                 Per cent.
+
+  Water                                             45
+  Fatty substances                                  35
+  Lean flesh, or muscle                             15
+  Mineral matters                                    5
+                                                   ---
+            Total                                  100
+
+I have examined for Dr. Morgan several specimens of the corned beef
+recently prepared in South America, by "Morgan's process." The following
+were the average results of three analyses:--
+
+                                                 Per cent.
+
+  Water                                             40
+  Fatty matters                                     21
+  Lean, or muscular flesh                           27
+  Mineral matters (chiefly common salt)             12
+                                                   ---
+            Total                                  100
+
+It may not here be out of place to direct attention to the composition
+of a kind of animal food extensively purchased by the poorer classes,
+and known under the term of slink veal. It is the flesh of calves that
+are killed on the first day of their existence, and also, I have reason
+to believe, that of very immature animals--of calves that have never
+breathed. The flesh is of a very loose texture naturally, and is still
+further puffed out by air, which is usually supplied from the lungs of
+the operator. This kind of meat, though regarded as a delicacy by some
+people, is not held in much estimation, otherwise its price would be
+higher than it is. It is at present sold at about 4d. or 5d. per pound,
+sometimes even at a lower rate. Apart from the disgusting process of
+"blowing" veal, so generally adopted, the use of this food is extremely
+objectionable, owing to its great tendency to produce diarrhoea. To
+the truth of this assertion every physician who has studied the subject
+of dietetics can testify. I have analysed a specimen of it (purchased
+from a person who admitted that it was part of a calf a day old), and
+obtained the following results:--
+
+100 parts contain--
+
+                                                Per cent.
+
+  Water                                          72.25
+  Fat                                             6.17
+  Lean flesh                                     18.46
+  Mineral matter                                  3.12
+                                                ------
+  Total                                         100.00
+
+I believe that a large portion of the lean flesh is indigestible; and
+altogether I may safely say of this kind of meat that it is, especially
+during the prevalence of cholera, an unsafe article of diet. Of course
+these observations do not apply to _fed_ veal, the only kind which
+respectable butchers, as a rule, offer for sale.
+
+Young meat is richer in soluble albumen and poorer in fibrine and
+fat than the matured flesh of the same animal. The flesh of the goat
+contains _hircic_ acid, which renders it almost uneatable, but this
+substance is either altogether absent from, or present but in minute
+proportion in, the well-flavored meat of the kid. The flesh of game
+contains abundance of osmazome, a substance which is somewhat deficient
+in that of the domestic fowl.
+
+Owing to the marked individuality which man exhibits in the selection of
+his food, and to the intimate relationship subsisting between food and
+the organism it nourishes, it is impossible to arrange the alimental
+substances in the strict order of their nutritive values. You can bring
+a horse to the water, but you cannot compel him to drink it; you can
+swallow any kind of food you please, but you cannot force your stomach
+to digest it. It is, therefore, vain to tell a man that a certain kind
+of food is shown by chemical analysis to be nutritious, when his stomach
+tells him unmistakeably that it is poisonous, and refuses to digest it.
+In the matter of dietetics Nature is a safer guide than the chemist.
+Many substances, when viewed only in the light shed upon them by
+chemical analysis, appear to be rich in the elements of nutrition, yet
+when they are introduced into the stomachs of certain individuals, they
+disarrange the digestive organs, and sometimes cause the whole system to
+go out of order. Every day we see exemplified the truth of the proverb,
+that "one man's meat is another man's poison." There are persons who
+relish and readily digest fat pork, and yet they cannot eat a single
+egg with impunity; others enjoy and easily assimilate eggs, but their
+stomachs cannot tolerate a particle of fat bacon.
+
+It is not merely the composition of an aliment and its adaptability to
+the organism which determine its nutritive value--its digestibility
+and flavor are points which affect it. There are few people in these
+countries who are disposed to quarrel with beef; but no one would
+prefer the leg of an elderly milch cow to the sirloin of a well-fed
+three-year-old bullock: yet if our selection were to be determined by
+the analysis of the two kinds of beef, we would be just as likely to
+prefer the one as the other. No doubt the relative tenderness of meats
+may be ascertained by experiments conducted _outside_ the body; but
+tenderness is not in every case synonymous with easy digestibility.
+Veal contains more soluble albumen, and is, consequently, far more
+tender than beef; yet, as every one knows, it is less digestible. It is
+curious that maturity renders the flesh of some animals more digestible,
+and that of others less digestible. Flavor has something to do with
+these differences. Beef is richer than veal in the agreeably flavorous
+osmazome, and the flesh of the kid is destitute of the disagreeable
+odour of the fully-developed goat. The superiority of wild-fowl over the
+domesticated birds is solely owing to the finer flavor of their flesh.
+
+The habits of animals, and the nature of their food, affect the
+quality of their flesh. Exercise increases the amount of osmazome, and
+consequently renders the meat more savory. The mutton of Wicklow, Wales,
+and other mountainous regions is remarkably sweet, because the animals
+that furnish it are almost as nimble as goats, and skip from crag to
+crag in quest of their food. The fatty mutton, with pale muscle, which
+is so abundant in our markets, is furnished by very young animals forced
+prematurely into full development. Those animals have abundance of food
+placed within easy reach; their muscular activity is next to _nil_,
+and the result is, that their flesh contains less than its natural
+proportion of savory ingredients. It is the same with all other animals.
+The flesh of the tame rabbit is very insipid, whilst that of the wild
+variety is well flavored. Wild fowls cooped up, and rapidly fattened,
+lose their characteristic flavor; and when the domesticated birds become
+wild their flesh becomes less fatty, and acquires all the peculiarities
+of game. Ducks, whether wild or tame, ordinarily yield goodly meat;
+but the flesh of some of those that feed on fish smacks strongly of
+cod-liver oil. Birds which subsist partly on aromatic berries assimilate
+the odour as well as the nutriment of their food. The flesh of grouse
+has very commonly a slight flavor of heather. Foster states that in
+Tahiti pigs are fed upon fruit, which renders their fat very bland and
+their flesh like veal. Animals subjected to certain kinds of mutilation
+fatten more rapidly than they do in their natural state. Capons increase
+in weight more rapidly than cocks, poulards than hens, bullocks than
+bulls, and cows deprived of their ovaries than perfect cows. Why it is
+that the flesh of mutilated animals should be fatter and more tender
+than that of whole animals, we know not; we only know that such is the
+fact. The hunting of animals renders their flesh more tender; the cause
+assigned is, that the great exertion of the muscles liquefies their
+fibrine, which is the toughest of their constituents. The meat of
+animals brought very early to maturity is seldom so valuable as the
+naturally developed article. Lawes and Gilbert state that portions of
+a sheep that had been fattened upon _steeped_ barley and mangels, and
+which gave a very rapid increase, yielded several per cent. less of
+cooked meat, and lost more, both in dripping and by the evaporation of
+water, than the corresponding portions of a sheep which had been fed
+upon _dry_ barley and mangels, and which gave only about half the
+amount of gross increase within the same period of time.
+
+Although the digestibility and flavor of meat (and of every other kind
+of food) affect its nutritive value, these points are in general of far
+less importance than its composition. Potatoes are not so nutritious as
+peas, because they contain a smaller amount of fat and flesh-formers;
+but they are more digestible. Fish contains less solid matter than
+flesh, and is less nutritious, yet a cut of turbot will be, in general,
+more easily digested than an equal weight of old beef. The fact is, that
+digestibility and flavor are only of great importance to dyspeptic
+persons. In the healthy digestive organs a pound weight of (dry) food
+of inferior flavor and slow digestibility will be just as useful as the
+same weight of well-flavored and easily assimilable aliment, provided
+all other conditions be alike. If the food be eaten with a relish, and
+tolerated by the stomach, its digestibility will not, except in extreme
+cases, affect in a very sensible degree its nutritiveness.
+
+Were one question in animal nutrition satisfactorily answered, it
+would then be comparatively easy to arrange aliments in the order of
+their nutritive value. That question is--What are the proper relative
+proportions of the fat-forming and flesh-forming constituents of our
+food? It is constantly urged, that the food of the Irish peasantry
+contains an excess of the fat-forming materials in relation to the
+muscle-forming substances; and the remedy suggested is, that their
+staple article of food--potatoes--should be supplemented with flesh,
+peas, and such like substances, in which, it is supposed, the elements
+of nutrition are more fairly balanced. In potatoes, the proportion of
+fat-formers (calculated as fat) is about five times as much as that
+of the flesh-formers; but these principles exist in the same relative
+proportions in the fat bacon with which the potato-eater loves
+to supplement his bulky food. In bread we find the proportion of
+fat-formers to be only 2-1/2 times as much as that of the flesh-formers,
+whilst, according to Lawes and Gilbert, the edible portion of the
+carcass of a fat sheep contains 6-1/2 times as much fat as nitrogenous
+(flesh-forming) compounds. It is evident, then, that meat such as, for
+example, the beef recently imported from Monte Video, from which the
+fatty elements of nutrition are almost completely absent, cannot be
+a suitable adjunct to a farinaceous food.
+
+There is evidence to prove that in the animal food consumed by the
+population of these countries, the proportion of fatty to nitrogenous
+matters is greater than in the seeds of cereal and leguminous plants,
+and but little less than in potatoes. "It would appear to be
+unquestionable," say Lawes and Gilbert, "therefore, that the influence
+of our staple _animal foods_, to supplement our otherwise mainly
+farinaceous diet, is, on the large scale, to _reduce_, and _not to
+increase_, the relation of the _assumed_ flesh-forming material to the
+more peculiarly respiratory and fat-forming capacity, so to speak, of
+the food consumed." It must be remembered, too, that the fat _formers_
+are ready _formed_ in animal food, whereas they exist chiefly in the
+form of starch, gum, sugar, and such-like substances in vegetables.
+According to theory, 2-1/2 parts of starch are equivalent to, _i.e._,
+convertible into, 1 part of fat; but it is not certain whether the force
+which effects this change is derivable from the 2-1/2 parts of starch,
+or from the destruction of tissue, or of another portion of food. If
+there be a tax on the system in order to convert starch into fat, it
+is evident that 2-1/2 parts of starch, though convertible into, are not
+equivalent in nutritive value to one part of fat.
+
+It is quite certain that millions of healthy, vigorous men have
+subsisted for years exclusively on potatoes; but it is no less clear
+that a diet of meat and potatoes enables the laborer to work harder
+and longer than if his food were composed solely of potatoes. But we
+have seen that the relation between the flesh-forming and fat-forming
+elements is nearly the same in both potatoes and meat; so that the
+superiority of a meat or mixed diet cannot be chiefly owing, contrary to
+the generally received opinion, to a greater abundance of flesh-forming
+materials. As the proportion of flesh-formers to fat-formers is so much
+greater in wheaten or oaten bread than in potatoes, and as peas and
+other vegetables rich in nitrogenous compounds are practically found to
+be an excellent supplement to potatoes, it is probable that the latter
+may be somewhat relatively deficient in flesh-forming capacity. It is,
+however, in all probability the great bulk of a potato diet, and its
+total want of ready formed fat, that render the addition to it of animal
+food so very desirable. The concentrated state in which the ingredients
+of flesh exist, the intimate way in which they are intermixed, their
+agreeable flavor, and their (in general) ready and almost complete
+digestibility, appear to be the principal points in which a meat diet
+excels a vegetable regimen. There may be others, which, though less
+evident, are, perhaps, of equal importance. At all events, the general
+experience of mankind testifies to the superiority of a mixed animal
+and vegetable diet over a purely vegetable one.
+
+_Is very Fat Meat wholesome?_--The enormous and rapidly increasing
+demand for meat which characterises the food markets of these days,
+has reacted in a remarkable manner upon the nature of the animals that
+supply it. Formerly the animals that furnished pork, mutton, and beef,
+were allowed to attain the age of three years old and upwards before
+they were considered to be "ripe" for the butcher; but now sheep and pigs
+are perfectly _matured_ at the early age of one year, and two-year-old
+oxen furnish a large quota of the "roast beef of old England." The
+so-called improvement of stock is simply the forcing of them into an
+unnatural degree of fatness at an early age; and this end is attained
+by dexterous selection and crossing of breeds, by avoidance of cold, by
+diminishing as much as possible their muscular activity, and lastly,
+and chiefly, by over-feeding them with concentrated aliments.
+
+Every one knows that a man so obese as to be unable to walk cannot be
+in a healthy state; yet many feeders of stock look upon the monstrously
+fat bulls and cows of cattle show prize celebrity as normal types of the
+bovine tribe. It requires but little argument to refute so fallacious
+a notion. No doubt it is desirable to encourage the breeding of those
+varieties of animals which exhibit the greatest disposition to fatten,
+and to arrive early at maturity; but the forcing of individual animals
+into an unnatural state of obesity, except for purely experimental
+purposes, is a practice which cannot be too strongly deprecated. If
+breeders contented themselves with handing over to the butcher their
+huge living blocks of fat, the matter would not perhaps be very serious;
+but, unfortunately, it is too often the practice to turn them to account
+as sires and dams. Were I a judge at a cattle show, I certainly should
+disqualify every extremely fat animal entered for competition amongst
+the breeding stock. Unless parents are healthy and vigorous, their
+progeny are almost certain to be unhealthy and weakly; and it is
+inconceivable that an extremely obese bull and an unnaturally fat cow
+could be the progenitors of healthy offspring. We should by all means
+improve our live stock; but we should be careful not to overdo the
+thing. If we must have gaily-decked ponderous bulls and cows at our fat
+cattle exhibitions, let us condemn to speedy immolation those unhappy
+victims to a most absurd fashion; but in the name of common sense let
+us leave the perpetuation of the species to individuals in a normal
+state, whose muscles are not replaced by fat, whose hearts are not
+hypertrophied, and whose lungs are capable of effectively performing
+the function of respiration.
+
+Mr. Gant, in a small volume[24] devoted wholly to the subject, describes
+the serious functional and structural disarrangements which over-feeding
+produces in stock. He found the heart of a one-year old Southdown
+wether, fattened according to the _high-pressure system_, to be little
+more than a mass of fat. In several other young, but so-called "matured"
+sheep, he found more or less fatty degeneration of the heart, and
+extensively spread disease of the liver and of the lungs. A four-year
+old Devon heifer, exhibited by the late Prince Consort at a Smithfield
+show, was found to be in a highly diseased state. It was slaughtered,
+and of course its flesh sold at a high price as "prize beef," but its
+internal organs came into Mr. Gant's possession. The substance of both
+ventricles of the heart had undergone all but complete conversion into
+fat; one of its muscles was broken up, and many of the fibres of the
+others were ruptured. In another animal the muscular fibres of the
+heart had given way to so great an extent that if the thin lining
+membrane (_endocardium_) had burst, death would have instantly ensued.
+The slightest exertion was likely to cause this catastrophe; but,
+fortunately enough in this case, the animal was not capable of exertion,
+for though under three years of age, it weighed upwards of 200 stones:
+this animal had received for some time before its exhibition, the
+liberal allowance of 21 lbs. of oil-cake (besides other food) per diem.
+"A pen of three pigs," says Mr. Gant, "belonging to his Royal Highness
+the Prince Consort, happened to be placed in a favorable light for
+observation, and I particularly noticed their condition. They lay
+helpless on their sides, with their noses propped up against each
+other's backs, as if endeavouring to breathe more easily, but their
+respiration was loud, suffocating, and at long intervals. Then you heard
+a short catching snore, which shook the whole body of the animal, and
+passed with the motion of a wave over its fat surface, which, moreover,
+felt cold. I thought how much the heart under such circumstances must
+be laboring to propel the blood through the lungs and throughout the
+body. The gold medal pigs of Mr. Moreland were in a similar condition,
+if anything, worse; for they snored and gasped for breath, their mouths
+being opened, as well as their nostrils dilated, at each inspiration.
+From a pig we only expect a grunt, but not a snore. These animals,
+only twelve months and ten days old, were marked '_improved_ Chilton
+breed.' They, with their fellows just mentioned, of eleven months and
+twenty-three days, had early come to grief. Three pigs of the black
+breed were in a similar state, at seven months three weeks and five
+days, yet such animals 'the judges highly commended.'"
+
+Dr. Brinton denies the accuracy of several of Mr. Gant's statements
+relative to the structural changes in the muscles of obese animals;
+but I do not think that he has succeeded in disproving the principal
+assertions made by the latter.
+
+There is conclusive evidence to prove that one of the effects of the
+present mode of fattening beasts is disease of the internal organs
+of the animals; but it is by no means certain that the flesh of those
+diseased animals is as unwholesome food as some writers assert it to
+be. The flesh of an over-fattened animal differs from that of a lean, or
+moderately fat one, in containing an exceedingly high proportion of fat;
+but it has not been proved that the fat of prize animals differs from
+the fat of lean kine, or that it is less wholesome or nutritious. Be the
+flesh of those exceedingly fat animals unwholesome or not, there are
+thousands, ay, millions of persons, to whom its greasy quality renders
+it peculiarly acceptable; and as for those who dislike fat--they do
+not usually invest their money in the flesh of prize sheep or oxen.
+At the same time, it must not be understood that all, or even a large
+proportion of fully matured stock is in a diseased state; though in most
+of them the vital and muscular powers are undoubtedly exceedingly low.
+
+There is no doubt but that sheep and oxen, from three to five years old,
+moderately fat, and fairly exercising their locomotive powers, furnish
+the most savory, and, perhaps, the most nutritious meat: but if such
+were the only kind of meat in demand, it may be fairly doubted that the
+supply would be equal to it. The produce of meat in these countries has
+been rapidly increasing for many years past; and the weight of meat
+annually supplied from a given area of land is now from 80 to 100 per
+cent. greater than it furnished thirty or forty years ago. It is chiefly
+by means of the so-called forcing system that the produce of meat has
+been so considerably increased. If this system were abandoned, the
+production would be greatly diminished, and the consequently high price
+of the article would place it beyond the reach of the masses of the
+population. Besides, it has not been proved that the flesh of the
+animals brought early to maturity is much inferior, except somewhat in
+flavor, to the meat of three-year-old beasts. There is, no doubt, plenty
+of unwholesome meat offered for sale, but it is that of animals which
+were affected by diseases as likely to attack the young as the old. On
+the whole, then, we may say of the improved system of fattening stock,
+that it produces a maximum amount of meat on a given area of land; that
+the meat so produced is, except in rare cases, perfectly wholesome; that
+it is capable of supplying the ingredient--fat--which is almost wholly
+absent from a vegetable diet; and, finally, that it places animal food
+within the reach of the working classes.
+
+_Diseased Meat._--The losses occasioned to stockowners by the diseases
+of live stock are far greater than is generally supposed. It has been
+calculated that in the six years ending 1860, the value of the horned
+stock lost by disease amounted to L25,934,650. Pleuro-pneumonia was the
+chief cause of these losses. Exclusive of the enormous losses occasioned
+by the ravages of the rinderpest, the annual loss by disease in live
+stock in these countries for some years past cannot be much under
+L6,000,000 sterling.
+
+Whether it is owing to the somewhat abnormal condition under which the
+domesticated animals are placed, or to causes which operate upon them
+when in a state of nature, it is certain that they are remarkably prone
+to disease. It is extremely difficult to get a horse six years old that
+is not a roarer or a whistler, or "weak on his pins," or in some way or
+other unsound. Oxen, sheep, and pigs have almost as many maladies
+afflicting them as human flesh is heir to, notwithstanding the short
+period of life which they are permitted to enjoy.
+
+It is a very serious question whether or not the flesh of animals that
+have been killed while they are in a diseased condition is injurious to
+health. The opinions on this point are conflicting, but the majority of
+medical men believe that the flesh of diseased animals is not wholesome.
+There are certain maladies which obviously render meat unsaleable, by
+causing a sensible alteration in its quality. For example, blackleg
+in cattle and measles in the porcine tribe render the flesh of these
+animals, as a general rule, unmarketable, or nearly so. But there are
+very serious diseases--often proving rapidly fatal--which, whilst
+seriously affecting certain internal organs, do not palpably deteriorate
+the quality of the flesh. In such cases are we to rely upon the evidence
+of our mere senses in judging of the wholesomeness of the meat? If we
+find beef possessing a good color and odour, and firm to the touch, and
+_appearing_ to be in every respect healthy flesh, are we under such
+circumstances to take it for granted that it must be healthy? This is a
+very important question, involving as it does the interests of both the
+producers and consumers of animal food. If the flesh of all diseased
+animals be unwholesome, a very large number of oxen now sold whilst
+laboring under pleuro-pneumonia should not be sent into the market.
+This, of course, would be a heavy loss to the stockowner, but a still
+heavier one to the meat consumer; because, if there were fewer animals
+for sale, the price of meat would ascend, in obedience to the law of
+supply and demand. The whole question is, then, well worthy of being
+considered in the most careful, unbiassed, and scientific manner; for
+at present it is in a state which is the reverse of being satisfactory.
+
+A large proportion of the animals conducted to the shambles is in a
+diseased condition. Professor Gamgee estimates it at no less than
+one-fifth. Dr. Letheby, food analyst to the Corporation of London,
+condemns weekly about 2,000 pounds weight of flesh; but as his
+jurisdiction is limited to the "City," which contains a population of
+only about 114,000, the 2,000 pounds of diseased meat are probably only
+about 1-30th of the quantity exposed for sale within the whole area of
+the metropolis. Making an estimate of the most moderate kind, we may
+assume that 30,000 pounds weight of bad meat are weekly offered for
+sale in London--_three million pounds weight annually_.
+
+Many persons have been affected with dysentery and choleraic symptoms
+after partaking of butcher's meat of apparently the most healthy kind.
+The meat has often been subjected to minute chemical and microscopical
+examination, but no poison has been discovered. But these cases are
+becoming so frequent that they are exciting uneasiness, and demand an
+exhaustive investigation. The unskilful persons who officiate in the
+capacity of "clerks of the market" and inspectors of meat can only judge
+of the quality of flesh that is obviously inferior to the eye, nose, or
+touch; but are there not cases where the flesh may appear to be good,
+and yet contain some subtle malign principle? It is an ascertained fact
+that young or "slink" veal very frequently gives rise to diarrhoea,
+more especially when that disease is epidemic. Dr. Parkes, in his
+celebrated work on Hygiene, page 162 (second edition), states that
+"the flesh of the pig sometimes produced diarrhoea--a fact I have had
+occasion to notice in a regiment in India, and which has often been
+noticed by others. The flesh is, probably, affected by the unwholesome
+garbage on which the pig feeds." Menschell states that 44 persons were
+afflicted with anthrax after eating the flesh of oxen affected with
+carbuncular fever. Dr. Kesteren, in the _Medical Times_ for March, 1864,
+mentions a case where twelve persons were affected with choleraic
+symptoms after the use of pork not obviously diseased. At Newtownards,
+county of Down, several persons died after eating veal in which no
+poisonous matter of any kind could be detected. One instance has come
+under my own notice where a man, two dogs, and a pig died after eating
+the flesh of an animal killed whilst suffering from splenic apoplexy.
+Several butchers have lost their lives in consequence of the blood of
+diseased animals being allowed to come in contact with abrasions or
+recently received wounds on their arms. The flesh of over-driven animals
+is stated by Professor Gamgee to produce a most serious skin disease,
+although the meat appeared to be perfectly healthy. The Belgian Academy
+of Medicine has decided that the flesh of animals suffering from
+carbuncular fever is unwholesome, and its sale in that country is
+prohibited.
+
+Many persons have died in Germany and a few in England from a disease
+produced by eating pork containing a small internal parasite termed
+_trichina spiralis_. I have recently met with a case of _trichiniasis_
+in the human subject. The body of the unfortunate person--who had
+been an inmate of the South Dublin Union Workhouse--was found to
+contain thousands of the trichinae. In Iceland a large proportion of
+the population suffers from a parasitic disease traceable to the use
+of the flesh of sheep and cattle in which flukes abound.
+
+Pleuro-pneumonia is in this country the disease which most frequently
+affects the ox. It is probable that about 5 per cent. of these animals
+sold in Dublin are more or less affected by this malady. There are two
+forms of pleuro-pneumonia--the sporadic, or indigenous, and the foreign,
+or contagious. It is the latter form which has become the scourge of the
+ox tribe in this country, though unknown here until the year 1841, when
+it appeared as an epizooetic, and carried off vast numbers of animals.
+
+The contagious pleuro-pneumonia is an extremely severe inflammatory
+disease, and is produced--not in the same way that common pleuro-pneumonia
+is, by exposure to excessive cold, &c.--but by a blood poison received
+from an infected animal. In the congestive stage of the disease there is
+no structural alteration in the organs of the animal, and if well bled
+its flesh might (probably) be safely eaten; but when a large portion of
+the lungs becomes solidified, and rendered incapable of purifying the
+blood, is it not doubtful, to say the least, that the blood or flesh is
+perfectly wholesome? The blood, during the life of the animal, is in a
+state of fermentation; there is extreme fever, and the animal presents
+all the characteristic symptoms of acute disease. On being killed, the
+flesh, if the disease be of a fortnight's duration, will usually be
+extremely dark, but in a less advanced stage of the malady the flesh
+will generally present a healthy appearance. Is it really so? That
+is the question which science has to determine. Going upon a broad
+principle, I can hardly conceive that so serious a disease as
+pleuro-pneumonia does not injuriously affect the quality of the flesh.
+It is no argument to say that thousands consume such flesh, and yet
+enjoy good health. Millions of people drink water and breathe air that
+are extremely impure, and yet they do not speedily die. It is one thing
+to be poisonous, another to be unwholesome. The flesh of animals killed
+whilst suffering from lung distemper is not directly poisonous, but who
+can prove that it is not, like bad water, unwholesome?
+
+As analyst to the city of Dublin, I am almost daily called upon to
+inspect meat suspected to be unwholesome; and I have always condemned
+as being unfit for human food:--
+
+    1. Animals slaughtered at the time of bringing forth their young.
+
+    2. Oxen affected with pleuro-pneumonia, when pus is present in the
+       lungs, or the flesh obviously affected; animals suffering from
+       murrain, black-quarter, and the different forms of anthrax.
+
+    3. Animals in an anaemic, or wasted condition.
+
+    4. Meat in a state of putrefaction.
+
+During the present year about 20,000 pounds weight of meat have been
+seized and condemned in the city of Dublin.
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+MILK.
+
+Milk is a peculiar fluid secreted by the females of all animals
+belonging to the class _Mammalia_; and, being designed for the
+nourishment of their offspring, contains all the constituents which
+enter into the composition of the animal body.
+
+The milk of different animals varies very much in color, taste, and
+nutritive value. That of the cow is a little heavier than water--its
+specific gravity being, on the average, about 1.030, water being
+1.000. It is composed of three constituents--namely, butter, curd, and
+whey--each of which is also composed of a number of substances. These
+three constituents are of unequal weight, or specific gravity, and their
+separation is the chief process carried on in the dairy. The butter is
+the lightest and the curd is the heaviest constituent.
+
+The following table represents the composition of the milk of different
+animals:--
+
+  COMPOSITION OF THE MILK OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS.
+
+  1,000 PARTS CONTAIN--
+
+  ------+---------+--------+------------+--------+-------+-------+-------
+        | Specific|        |            |        |       |       |
+        | Gravity,| Water. |   Solid    | Cheesy | Sugar.|Butter.|Mineral
+        |   or    |        |Ingredients.| Matter.|       |       |Matter.
+        | Density.|        |            |        |       |       |
+  ------+---------+--------+------------+--------+-------+-------+-------
+  Woman | 1032.67 | 889.08 |   110.92   |  39.30 | 43.68 | 26.66 | 1.30
+  Cow   | 1030    | 864.20 |   135.80   |  48.80 | 47.70 | 31.30 | 6.00
+  Goat  | 1033.53 | 844.90 |   155.10   |  35.14 | 36.91 | 56.87 | 6.18
+  Ewe   | 1040.98 | 832.32 |   167.68   |  69.78 | 39.43 | 51.31 | 7.16
+  Mare  | 1033.74 | 904.30 |    95.70   |  33.35 | 32.76 | 24.36 | 5.23
+  Ass   | 1034.57 | 890.12 |   109.88   |  35.65 | 50.46 | 18.53 | 5.24
+  Bitch | 1041.62 | 772.08 |   227.92   | 116.88 | 15.29 | 87.95 | 7.80
+  ------+---------+--------+------------+--------+-------+-------+-------
+
+Milk examined through a microscope is a colorless fluid, containing a
+large number of little vesicles, or bags, filled with butter--a mixture
+of oily and fatty matters. When the milk stands for some time, the
+globules, being lighter than the other constituents, ascend to the top,
+and, mixed with a certain proportion of milk, are removed as cream.
+The curd is termed in scientific parlance _casein_, and is in fresh milk
+in a state of solution--that is to say, is dissolved in milk in the same
+way that we dissolve sugar in water. When milk becomes sour, either
+naturally or by the addition of rennet, it can no longer hold casein in
+solution, and the curd consequently separates. Casein is the substance
+which forms the basis of cheese. The substance that remains after the
+removal of the butter and cheese is called _serum_, or whey, and is
+composed of a sweetish substance termed _sugar of milk_, and certain
+saline bodies, termed the ash, dissolved in water.
+
+The butter and the sugar of milk are employed in the animal economy in
+the production of fat, and are what have been styled by physiologists
+_heat-producers_ and _fat-formers_. The casein resembles the gluten of
+wheat in composition; it belongs to the class of food substances termed
+_flesh-formers_. The ash, or mineral part of the milk, is chiefly
+employed in forming the bones of the young animals it is destined to
+nourish.
+
+The quality of milk is influenced by the quantity and quality of the
+food given to the animal. The milk of cows fed on distillery wash,
+turnip, and mangel tops, coarse herbage, and other kinds of inferior
+food, is always of inferior quality. Hence it is of great importance
+that dairy stock be kept in good old pastures in summer, and fed on
+Swedish turnips, mangel-wurtzel, and oil-cake during winter. It is true
+economy to supply dairy cows with abundance of nutritious food; and it
+should be constantly borne in mind that the milk from two well-fed cows
+will give more butter than can be obtained from the produce of three
+badly-fed animals.
+
+The butter is the constituent of milk which is most affected by the
+nature and amount of the animal's food; and butter is precisely the
+article which is of the greatest importance to the Irish dairy farmer,
+as the quantity of cheese prepared in this country is inconsiderable.
+When, therefore, it is found that a cow pastured on inferior land, or
+badly fed in the byre, yields a large supply of milk of a high specific
+quantity (which, however, is rarely the case), it must not be concluded
+that the result is satisfactory; for if such milk be tested by the
+lactometer it will certainly be found wanting in butter. The average
+composition of English milk, according to Way, is:--
+
+  Water                                87.02
+  Butter                                3.23
+  Casein                                4.48
+  Sugar of milk                         4.67
+  Ash                                   0.60
+                                      ------
+                                      100.00
+
+In several analyses of milk published by Professor Voelcker, the highest
+proportion of butter is stated to be 7.62. In that of cows kept on
+poor and over-stocked pastures less than 2 per cent. was found. I have
+examined in my capacity of Food Analyst to the City of Dublin several
+hundred samples of milk, in not one of which have I found the proportion
+of butter to amount to more than 5.6 per cent. In no sample did I find
+a higher per-centage of solid matter than 13.15, or (when pure) lower
+than 12.08. The quality of the food of the milch cow exercises a great
+influence on the quality and yield of her milk. Aliments rich in fat and
+sugar favor the production of butter, and augment the supply of milk.
+Locust-beans, malt, and molasses are good milk-producing foods; but the
+chief condition in the production of milk rich in butter is simply that
+the animals which yield it must be fed with abundance of nutritious
+food. Nor must it be supposed that the richness of milk is due to the
+smallness of the yield, for whenever the quality of the secretion is
+inferior, it is almost certain to be deficient in quantity. Those cows
+which give the richest milk, generally yield the largest quantity.
+
+_Yield of Milk._--According to Boussingault, a cow daily yields on the
+average 10.4 parts of milk per 1,000 parts of her weight. Morton, in his
+"Cyclopaedia of Agriculture," p. 621, states that Mr. Young, a Scotch
+dairy keeper, obtained 680 gallons per cow per annum. Voelcker found
+that some common dairy stock gave each of them fifty-two pints of milk
+per diem, whilst three pedigree cows yielded respectively forty-nine
+pints.
+
+Professor Wilson gives the following information on this point:--
+
+    Our principal dairy breeds are the Ayrshire, the Channel Islands,
+    the Short-horn, the Suffolk, and the Kerry. Some published returns
+    of two dairies of Ayrshire cows give the annual milk produce per
+    cow at 650 and 632 gallons respectively. Three returns of dairies,
+    consisting wholly of Short-horns, show a produce of 540 gallons,
+    630 gallons, and 765 gallons respectively, or an average of 625
+    gallons per annum for each cow. In two dairies, where half-bred
+    Short-horns were kept, the yield was 810 and 866 gallons
+    respectively for each cow. In four dairies in Ireland, where pure
+    Kerrys and crosses with Short-horns and Ayrshires were kept, the
+    annual produce per cow was returned at 500 gallons, 600 gallons,
+    675 gallons, and 740 gallons respectively; or an average, on the
+    four dairies, of 630 gallons per annum for each cow. A dairy of
+    "pure Kerrys" gave an average of 488 gallons per cow, and another
+    of the larger Irish breed gave an average of 583 gallons per head
+    per annum. In the great London dairies, now well-nigh extinguished
+    by the ravages of the cattle disease, these returns are greatly
+    exceeded. The cows kept are large framed Short-horns and Yorkshire
+    crosses, which, by good feeding, bring the returns to nearly
+    1,000 gallons per annum for each cow kept. The custom in these
+    establishments is to dispose of a cow directly her milk falls
+    below two gallons a-day, and buy another in her place.
+
+    The following milk return of one of our best managed dairy farms
+    (Frocester Court) shows the relative produce of cows in the
+    successive years of their milking. The first lot was bought in
+    at two-years old; all the others at three years:--
+
+    No. of Cows.    Year of Milk.    Produce per head.
+
+        8               1st             317 gals.
+       15               1st             472  "
+       14               2nd             353  "
+       15               3rd             616  "
+       20               4th             665  "
+       18               5th             635  "
+        9               6th             708  "
+       15               Old             651  "
+
+    The maximum reliable milk produce that we have recorded was that
+    of a single cow belonging to the keeper of the gaol at Lewes, the
+    details of which were authenticated by the Board of Agriculture.
+    In eight consecutive years she gave 9,720 gallons, or at the rate
+    of more than 1,210 gallons per annum. In one year she milked 328
+    days, and gave 1,230 gallons, which yielded 540 lbs. of butter,
+    or at the rate of 1 lb. of butter to 22-3/4 lb. of milk. In the
+    early part of the present year (1866) a return was published of
+    the produce of a cow in a Vermont (U.S.) dairy, which was stated
+    to have given, in the previous year, a butter yield of 504 lbs.,
+    at the rate of 1 lb. of butter to 20 lbs. of milk.[25]
+
+
+_Preserved Milk._--Various plans have been proposed to render milk more
+portable, and to preserve it sweet for days and even months. Mr. Borden
+of Connecticut, United States, prepares a concentrated milk by boiling
+the fluid down in vacuo, at a temperature under 140 deg. Fahrenheit, mixing
+the resulting solid with sugar, and rapidly placing the compound in
+tins, which are then hermetically sealed. It is said that solidified
+milk prepared by this process remains sweet for many months. In France,
+solidified and concentrated milk are largely prepared; and it is certain
+that London and other large towns will yet be supplied with milk
+rendered portable and more stable, by the removal of a large proportion
+of its water. In many parts of Ireland pure milk could be bought at from
+7d. to 8d. per gallon. I do not despair to see factories established in
+such places for the manufacture of preserved milk as a substitute for
+the dear and impure fluid sold under the name of milk in London and
+other large cities. It is stated that solidified milk prepared in
+Switzerland is now sold in London.
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+BUTTER.
+
+_History of Butter._--The very general use of butter as an article of
+food is demonstrated by the familiar saying--"We should not quarrel with
+our bread and butter"; yet this article, now so commonly used throughout
+the greater part of Europe, was either unknown or but imperfectly known
+to the ancients. In the English translation of the Holy Scriptures the
+word butter does certainly frequently occur; but the Hebrew original
+is _chamea_, which, according to the most eminent Biblical critics,
+signifies cream, or thick, sour milk. In the 20th chapter of Job the
+following passage occurs:--"He shall not see the rivers, the floods, the
+brooks of honey and butter." Now, we can conceive streams of thin cream,
+but we cannot imagine a river of butter. The oldest mention of butter
+is found in the works of Herodotus. In the description of the Scythians
+given by this ancient author, reference is made to their practice of
+violently shaking the milk of their mares, for the purpose of causing a
+solid fatty matter to ascend to its surface, which, when removed from
+the milk, they considered a delicious article of food. Hippocrates, who
+wrote a little later than Herodotus, describes, but in clearer language,
+the manufacture of butter by the Scythians; he also alludes to the
+preparation of cheese by the same people. The word, butter, does not
+occur in any of Aristotle's writings, and although mention is made of it
+in the works of Anaxandrides, Plutarch, and AElian, it is evident that
+they considered it only in the light of a curious substance, employed
+partly as an article of food, partly as a medicinal salve, by certain
+barbarous nations. About the second or third century, butter was but
+little known to the Greeks and Romans, and there is no reason to believe
+that it was ever generally used as an article of food by the classic
+nations of antiquity; it is noteworthy, that the inhabitants of the
+south of Europe even at the present time use butter in very small
+quantities, which, indeed, is often sold for medicinal purposes in the
+apothecaries' shops in Italy, Spain, and Portugal. From the foregoing
+statements it is evident that the butter manufacture can lay no claim to
+a classic origin; but that it took its rise in the countries of savage,
+of semi-civilised, and barbarous nations. It is probable that the Greeks
+were made acquainted with butter by the Thracians, Phrygians, and
+Scythians; and that the knowledge of this substance was conveyed to
+Rome by visitors from Germany. During the middle ages the practice of
+butter-making spread throughout Northern, Central, and Western Europe;
+but in many parts the commodity was very scarce and highly valued,
+notwithstanding its being almost, if not quite, in a semi-fluid state,
+instead of possessing the firm consistence of the butter of the present
+day.
+
+_Irish Butter._--Butter is produced in such large quantities in Ireland
+that, after the home demand has been supplied, there remains a large
+excess--so considerable, indeed, as to constitute one of the more
+important of our few commercial staples. The precise quantity of butter
+which, during late years, has been annually exported from Ireland is
+unknown. The greater part of the commodity is sent to trans-Channel
+ports; and, there being no duty on butter in the cross-Channel trade
+since 1826, we have no means of accurately estimating the amount of our
+exports to Great Britain. If, however, we refer to the statistics of our
+commerce for the period beginning in 1787, and ending in 1826, we shall
+find that the exportation of butter was enormous, and that a large
+proportion of that commodity consumed by the army and navy was supplied
+from the dairies of Ireland. During the three years ended on the 5th of
+January, 1826, the average annual amount of butter exported was as
+follows:--
+
+                                    cwts.
+
+  To Great Britain                 441,226
+  To foreign countries              51,637
+
+Of late years the exportation to foreign and colonial countries has
+fallen off; still the export trade is very considerable, probably
+amounting to 450,000 cwts. per annum. During the year 1867, the imports
+of foreign butter into Great Britain amounted to 1,142,262 cwts.
+
+I have quoted the above statistics for the purpose of demonstrating
+the great importance of the butter trade to this country. Not only is a
+large proportion of the agricultural community pecuniarily interested in
+the production of this article, but the exportation is the chief cause
+of the commercial prosperity of a city, which, in point of population,
+ranks third in the kingdom. If butter, then, be an article of so much
+importance, it is obvious that the greatest care should be taken in its
+preparation, and that the efforts of both scientific and practical men
+should be directed towards the best mode of improving its quality. If
+the principles involved in the production of butter were thoroughly
+understood, and generally known, I believe that such terms as "seconds,"
+"thirds," and "fourths," would speedily fall into disuse; that there
+would be only one kind of butter sent into the market; and that the
+article would always be of the best quality, in other words, "firsts."
+
+_Composition of Butter._--The composition and quality of butter depend
+to a great extent upon the condition of the milk or cream from which it
+is prepared, and on the skill and cleanliness of the dairy-maid. It
+consists essentially of fatty and oily matters, but it is always found
+in combination with casein (cheesy matter) and water. The following
+analyses, made by Mr. Way, late consulting chemist to the Royal
+Agricultural Society of England, shows its composition:--
+
+  INGREDIENTS PER CENT.
+
+                        1.      2.      3.
+
+  Fatty matters       82.70   79.67   79.12
+  Casein               2.45    3.38    3.37
+  Water               14.85   16.95   17.51
+
+No. 1 analysis shows the composition of a specimen obtained from the
+well-known Mr. Horsfall's dairy. It was made from raw cream. The other
+specimens were the produce of a Devonshire dairy, and were prepared from
+scalded cream. In several specimens of well-made and unsalted Irish
+butter which I have analysed, I found the proportion of casein or cheesy
+matter never to exceed 1 per cent., whilst in the analysis above stated
+the centesimal amount is on the average more than 3 per cent.
+
+The fatty matter is composed of two substances--one, a solid, termed
+_margarin_; the other fluid, and styled by chemists _elaine_. The solid
+fat is identical in composition with the solid fat of the human body.
+The elaine is peculiar to milk, but it differs very slightly from
+_olein_, or fluid fat. The relative proportions of the fluid and solid
+fats vary with the seasons. According to Braconnot, the solid fat forms
+in summer 40 per cent. of the butter, but in winter the proportion rises
+to 65. This decrease in the proportion of the liquid fat in winter is
+the cause of the greater hardness of the butter in that season, which is
+often incorrectly attributed solely to the cold.
+
+The cheesy and acid matters contained in butter are by no means
+essential; on the contrary, if it were quite free from them, it might
+be retained with little or no salt for a very long period without
+becoming rancid. The cheesy matter contains nitrogen; and nearly all
+the substances into which this element enters as a constituent are
+remarkably prone to decomposition. Yeast, and ferments of every
+kind--gunpowder, fulminating silver, chloride of nitrogen--and almost
+every explosive compound, contain this element. The cheesy matter is
+a very nitrogenous body, and in presence of air and moisture not only
+rapidly decomposes, or decays, itself, but induces by mere contact a
+like state of decomposition in other substances--such, for instance, as
+fat, sugar, and starch, which naturally have no tendency to change their
+state. Bearing the foregoing facts in mind, it is obvious that the chief
+precautions to be observed in the manufacture of butter are:--Firstly,
+to separate to as great an extent as practicable the casein from the
+butter; and, secondly, as in practice a small portion of the curd
+remains in the butter, to prevent it from undergoing any change--at
+least for a prolonged period. How these desiderata may best be
+accomplished I shall now proceed to point out.
+
+_The Butter Manufacture._--The theory of the process of churning is very
+simple. By violently agitating the milk or cream the little vesicles, or
+bags containing the butter, are broken, and, the fatty matter adhering,
+_lumps of butter_ are formed. The operation of churning also introduces
+atmospheric air into the milk, which, aided by the high temperature to
+which the fluid is raised, converts a portion of the _sweet_ sugar of
+milk into the _sour_ lactic acid. By the alteration produced in this way
+in the composition of the milk, it is no longer capable of holding the
+casein in solution, and the curd therefore separates.
+
+The churn and other vessels in which the milk is placed cannot be kept
+too clean. No amount of labor bestowed on the scalding and scrubbing
+of the vessels is excessive. When wood is the material used in the
+milk-pans the utmost care should be taken in cleaning them, as the
+porous nature of the material favors the retention of small quantities
+of the milk. A simple washing will not suffice to clean such vessels.
+They must be thoroughly scrubbed and afterwards well scalded with
+_boiling_ water. Tin pans are preferable to wooden ones, as they are
+more easily cleaned, but in their turn they are inferior to glass
+vessels, which ought to supersede every other kind. Earthenware, lead,
+and zinc pans are in rather frequent use. The last-mentioned material
+is easily acted upon by the lactic acid of the sour milk, and is,
+therefore, objectionable. It is a matter of great importance that the
+dairy should not be situated near a pig-stye, sewer, or water-closet,
+the effluvia from which would be likely to taint the milk. It is
+surprising how small a quantity of putrescent matter is sufficient
+to taint a whole churn of milk; and as it has been demonstrated that
+the almost inappreciable emanations from a cesspool are capable of
+conferring a bad flavor on milk, it is in the highest degree important
+to remove from the churn and milk-pail every trace of the sour milk. I
+go further, it is even desirable that no one whose hands have a tendency
+to perspire should be allowed to manipulate in the dairy; and it should
+be constantly borne in mind that the dairy-maid's fingers and hot water
+should be on the most intimate visiting terms.
+
+Butter is made either from cream--sour and sweet--or from whole milk
+which has stood sufficiently long to become distinctly sour. It is
+asserted by some makers that butter prepared from whole milk, or
+from scalded cream, contains a large proportion of curd. If this be
+true--which I greatly doubt--it is a serious matter, for such butter
+would speedily become rancid in consequence of the casein acting as
+a ferment. I believe that experience points to an exactly opposite
+conclusion. From the results of careful inquiries I feel no hesitation
+in asserting that the butter should not be made from the cream, but from
+the _whole milk_. When made from the cream alone it is much more likely
+to acquire a bad taste, and is generally wanting in keeping qualities.
+I have no doubt but that in the process of churning the whole milk there
+is a large amount of lactic acid formed, and a much higher temperature
+attained, than in the churning of cream; consequently, the separation of
+caseous matter must be more perfectly effected in the former than in the
+latter case. It is a mistake to think that there is very little casein
+in cream: out of 7 or 8 lbs. of thick cream only a couple of pounds of
+butter are obtainable; the rest is made up of water, casein, and sugar
+of milk. The yield of butter is greater when the whole milk is churned
+than when the cream alone is operated upon, and, what is of great
+importance, the quality of the butter is uniform during the whole year.
+The labor of churning whole milk is, of course, much greater than if the
+cream alone were employed, but the increased yield and unvarying quality
+of the butter more than compensate for the extra expenditure of labor.
+
+The proper temperature of the milk or cream is a point of great
+practical importance. If the fluid be too warm or too cold the buttery
+particles will only by great trouble be made to cohere; and the quality
+of the butter is almost certain to be inferior. When the whole milk
+is operated on, the temperature should be from 55 to 60 degs. of
+Fahrenheit's thermometer; and if cream be employed the temperature
+should never exceed 55 degs. nor be lower than 50 degs. Hence it follows
+that in summer the dairy should be kept cooler, and in winter warmer,
+than the atmosphere. The temperature of milk is raised or lowered as may
+be found necessary, by the addition of hot or cold water--in performing
+which operations properly, a good thermometer is indispensable; one
+should always be kept in the dairy, and should be so constructed as to
+admit of being plunged into the milk. In some dairies the water, instead
+of being mixed with the milk, is put into a tub in which the churn is
+placed. There is a good kind of churn, which consists of two cylinders,
+the one within the other--the interval between them being intended for
+the reception of hot or cold water. The influence of temperature upon
+the production of butter has been placed beyond all doubt by numerous
+carefully-conducted experiments. Mr. Horsfall, a celebrated dairy
+farmer, in discussing this question, sums up as follows:--"By a series
+of carefully-conducted experiments at varying temperatures, I am of
+opinion that a correct scale of the comparative yield of butter at
+different temperatures might be arrived at; as thus: From a very low
+degree of temperature little or no butter; from a temperature of about
+38 degs., 16 oz. from 16 quarts of milk; ditto, 45 degs., 21 oz. from 16
+quarts of milk; ditto, 55 degs., 26 to 27 oz. from 16 quarts of milk."
+This is a higher yield of butter than, I suspect, most dairymen get: but
+Mr. Horsfall's cows being of the best kind for milking, and well fed,
+the milk is, of course, rich in butter; and his experiments prove that
+even the richest milk will not throw up its butter unless at a certain
+temperature.
+
+In the churning of cream the motion should be slow at first until the
+cream is thoroughly broken up. In churning milk the agitation should
+neither be violent nor irregular; about 40 or 50 motions of the plunger
+or board per minute will be sufficient. In steam-worked churns the
+motion is often excessively rapid, and the separation of the butter
+is effected in a few minutes; but the article obtained in this hasty
+way very quickly becomes rancid, and must be disposed of at once. An
+hour's churning of sour cream appears in general to produce good butter.
+Sweet cream and whole milk require a longer period--the latter about 3
+hours--but in any case prolonged churning is certain, by incorporating
+cheesy matter with the butter, to produce an inferior article.
+
+Sweet milk becomes sour, evolves a considerable quantity of gas during
+churning, and its temperature ascends four or five degrees. Oxygen is
+unquestionably absorbed, and it is probable that a portion of the sugar
+of milk is converted into acid products.
+
+I have already stated that even the most carefully prepared butter
+contains a small proportion of casein and sugar of milk. This casein
+is the good genius of the cheese-maker, but the evil genius of the
+butter manufacturer. How? In this way:--When butter containing a
+notable proportion of casein and sugar of milk is exposed to the air,
+the following changes take place: the casein passes into a state of
+fermentation, and acting upon the sugar of milk, converts it, firstly
+into the bad-flavored lactic acid, and secondly into the bad odorous
+butyric, capric, and caproic acids. The first of these compounds in a
+state of purity emits an odor resembling a mixture of vinegar and rancid
+butter; the second possesses an odor resembling that of a goat--hence
+the name _capric_; the third has an odor like that of perspiration. In
+addition to these acids, there is another simultaneously generated--the
+caprylic, but it does not unpleasantly affect the olfactory nerve.
+The casein also injuriously affects the fatty constituents of the
+butter; under its influence they absorb oxygen from the air, and become
+converted into strong-smelling compounds. The washing of butter is
+intended to free it from the casein and unaltered cream, and the more
+perfectly it is freed from those impurities the better will be its
+flavor, and the longer it will remain without becoming rancid. Some
+people believe that too much water injures the quality and lessens the
+quantity of butter. It cannot do the former, because the essential
+constituents of butter are totally insoluble in water; it may do the
+latter, but, if it do, so much the better, because the loss of weight
+represents the amount of impurities--milk, sugar of milk, &c.--removed.
+
+I have already remarked that butter is so susceptible of taint that even
+a perspiring hand is sufficient to spoil it; naturally cool hands should
+alone be allowed to come in contact with this delicate commodity, and
+the hands should be made thoroughly clean by repeated washings with warm
+water and oatmeal--the use of soap in the lavatory of the dairymaid
+being highly objectionable. Wooden spades are now being commonly made
+use of in manipulating the butter, and there is no good reason why they
+should not come into universal use.
+
+The yield of butter per cow is subject to great variation. Some breeds
+of the animal are remarkable as milkers; such, for instance, as the
+Alderneys and Kerrys--indeed, I may say all the small varieties of the
+bovine race. There are instances of cows yielding upwards of twenty
+pounds of butter per week, but these are extraordinary cases. In Holland
+a good cow will produce, during the summer months, more than 180 lbs.
+of butter. In these countries I think the average annual yield of a
+cow is not more than 170 lbs. It sometimes happens that cows yield
+a large quantity of milk and a small amount of butter, but it far more
+frequently occurs that the cow which gives most milk also yields most
+butter.
+
+An estimate of the amount of butter contained in milk may be made by
+determining the amount of cream. This may be effected by means of an
+instrument termed a _lactometer_, which is simply a glass tube about
+five inches long, and graduated into a hundred parts. The specimen to be
+examined is poured into this tube up to zero or 0, and allowed to stand
+for twelve hours in summer and sixteen or eighteen in winter. At the end
+of that time the cream will have risen to the top, and its per-centage
+may be easily seen. In good milk the cream will generally extend 11 to
+15 degrees down from 0. This instrument, although very useful, is not
+reliable in every case, especially in detecting the adulteration of
+milk.
+
+I have already stated that the complete separation of the butter from
+the other constituents of the milk is never accomplished in the dairy.
+Now although the proportion of curd in the butter is very small--rarely
+more than two per cent. and often not a fourth of one per cent.--yet it
+is more than sufficient, under a certain condition, to cause the butter
+to become speedily rancid. That condition is simply contact with the
+air. If the curd, before it becomes dry and firm, is subjected to the
+influence of the air, it rapidly passes into a state of fermentation,
+which is very soon communicated to the fatty and saccharine constituents
+of the butter (substances not spontaneously liable to sudden changes in
+composition) and those peculiar compounds--such, for example, as butyric
+and capric acids, are generated, which confer upon rancid butter its
+characteristic and very disagreeable odor and flavor. The fermentation
+of the curd is prevented by incorporating common salt with the butter,
+and by preventing, so far as possible, the access of air to the
+vessels in which the article is placed. If fresh butter be placed in
+water--which apparently protects it from the influence of the air--it
+will soon become rancid. The reason of this is, that water always
+contains air, which differs in composition, though derived, from the
+atmosphere, by being very rich in oxygen. Now, it is precisely this
+oxygen which effects those undesirable changes in the casein, or curd,
+to which I have so repeatedly referred; hence its presence in a
+concentrated state in water causes that fluid to produce an injurious
+effect on the butter placed in it. A saturated solution of salt contains
+very little air, and, so long as the curd is immersed therein, it
+undergoes no change. The salt, too, acts as a decided preservative; for
+although it was long considered to be capable of preserving animal
+matters, merely by virtue of its property of absorbing water from them
+(the presence of water being a condition in the decomposition of organic
+matter), it has lately been shown to possess very antiseptic properties.
+
+The mixing of the salt with the butter is effected in the following
+manner:--The butter, after being well washed, in order to free it from
+the butter-milk, is spread out in a tub, and the salt shaken over it;
+the butter is then turned over on the salt by the lower part of the palm
+of the hand, and rubbed down until a uniform mixture is attained. A good
+plan in salting is to mix in only one half of the quantity of salt, make
+up the butter in lumps, and set them aside until the following day; a
+quantity of milk is certain to exude, which is to be poured off, and
+then the rest of the salt may be incorporated with the butter.
+
+According to butter-makers, the quality of the article is greatly
+dependent on the quality of the salt used in preserving it. I think
+there is a good deal of truth in this belief, and I therefore recommend
+that only the very best and _driest_ salt should be used in the dairy.
+Common salt is essentially composed of the substance termed by chemists
+chloride of sodium, but it often contains other saline matters (chloride
+of magnesium, &c.), some of which have a tendency to absorb moisture
+from the air, and to dissolve in the water so obtained. These salts are
+termed _deliquescent_, from the Latin _deliquere_, to melt down. When,
+therefore, common salt becomes damp by mere exposure to the air, it is
+to be inferred that it contains impurities which, as they possess a very
+bitter taste, would, if mixed with butter, confer a bad flavor upon it.
+The impurities of salt may be almost completely removed by placing about
+a stone weight of it in any convenient vessel, pouring over it a quart
+of boiling water, and mixing thoroughly the fluid and solid. In an hour
+or two the whole is to be thrown upon a filter made of calico, when the
+water will pass through the filter, carrying with it all the impurities,
+and the purified salt, in fine crystals, will remain upon the filter.
+The solution need not be thrown away: boiled down to dryness it may be
+given as salt to cattle; or, if added in solution to the dung-heap, it
+will augment the fertilising power of that manure.
+
+The proportion of salt used in preserving butter varies greatly. When
+the butter is intended for immediate use, I believe a quarter of an
+ounce of salt to the pound is quite sufficient; but when designed for
+the market, about half an ounce of salt to the pound of butter will be
+sufficient. Irish butter at one time commanded the highest price in the
+home and foreign markets, but latterly it has fallen greatly in public
+estimation; indeed, at the present moment the price of Irish butter at
+London is nearly twenty shillings per cwt. under that of the Dutch
+article. It is really painful to be obliged to admit that the Irish
+farmer is solely to blame for this remarkable depreciation in the value
+of one of our best agricultural staples. In a word, by the stupid (and
+_recent_) practice of putting into butter four times the quantity of
+salt necessary to its preservation, the Irish dairy farmers--or at least
+the great majority of them--have completely ruined the reputation of
+Irish butter in those very markets in which, at one time, the Cork
+brand on a firkin was sufficient to dispose of its contents at the
+very highest price. It is a great mistake to think that the greater the
+quantity of salt which can be incorporated with the butter, the greater
+will be the profit to the producer. No doubt, every pound of salt sold
+as a constituent of butter realises a profit of two thousand per cent.;
+but then the addition of every pound of that substance, after a certain
+quantity, to the cwt. of butter depreciates the value of the latter to
+such an extent as to far more than neutralise the gain on the sale of
+salt at the price of butter. In the county of Carlow, less salt is used
+in preserving butter than is the case in the county of Cork and the
+adjacent counties; the price, therefore, which the Carlow commodity
+commands in the London market is higher than that of the Cork butter:
+but in every part of Ireland the proportion of salt added to the butter
+is excessive.
+
+The results of the analyses of butter supplied to the London market,
+made by the _Lancet_ Analytical Commission, showed that the proportion
+of salt varied from 0.30 to 8.24 per cent. The largest proportion of
+salt found in fresh butter was 2.21 and the least 0.30. In salt butter
+the highest proportion of salt was 8.24 and the lowest 1.53. The butter
+which contained most salt was also generally largely adulterated with
+water. Indeed, in several samples the amount of this constituent reached
+so high as nearly 30 per cent. Nothing is easier than the incorporation
+of water with salt butter. The butter is melted, and whilst cooling the
+salt and water are added, and the mixture kept constantly stirred until
+quite cold. In this way nearly 50 per cent. of water may be added to
+butter; but of course the quality of the article will be of the very
+worst kind.
+
+A correspondent of the _Lancet_ states that, on awakening about
+three o'clock in the morning at the house in which he was lodging, he
+perceived a light below the door of his room; and apprehending a fire,
+he hurried down stairs, and was not a little surprised to discover the
+whole family engaged in manipulating butter. He was informed in a jocose
+way that they were making Epping butter! For this purpose they used
+inferior Irish butter, which, by repeated washings, was freed from its
+excessive amount of salt; after which it was frequently bathed in sweet
+milk, the addition of a little sugar being the concluding stroke in the
+process. This "sweet fresh butter from Epping" was sold at a profit of
+100 per cent. Our dairy farmers might take a hint from this anecdote.
+Does it not prove that the mere removal of the salt added to Irish
+butter doubles the value of the article?
+
+It is as necessary to pay attention to the packing of butter as it is
+to its salting. If old firkins be employed, great care should be taken
+in cleaning them, and if the staves be loose, the firkins should be
+steeped in hot water, in order to cause the wood to swell, and thereby
+to bring the edges of the staves into close contact. New firkins often
+communicate a disagreeable odour to the butter. In order to guard
+against this, it is the practice in many parts to fill the firkins with
+very moist garden mould, which, after the lapse of a few days, is thrown
+out, and the firkin thoroughly scrubbed with hot water, rinsed with the
+same fluid in a cold state, and finally rubbed with salt, just before
+being used.
+
+In packing the butter, the chief object to be kept in view is the
+exclusion of air. In order to accomplish this, the lumps of butter
+should be pressed firmly together, and also against the bottom and sides
+of the vessel. When the products of several churnings are placed in the
+same firkin, the surface of each churning should be furrowed, so that
+the next layer may be mixed with it. A firkin should never be filled in
+a single operation. About six inches of butter of each churning will
+be quite sufficient, and in a large dairy two or more firkins can be
+gradually but simultaneously filled. I strongly recommend the removal
+of the pickle jar from the dairy. When the layers of butter have been
+carried up to within an inch or so of the top of the firkin, the space
+between the surface of the butter and the edge of the vessel should be
+filled with fine dry salt, instead of pickle. A common mistake made is
+the holding over for too long a time of the butter: the sooner this
+article can be disposed of the better, for _it never improves by age_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Footnote 23: From two Greek words, signifying odour and soup.]
+
+[Footnote 24: "A New Inquiry, fully illustrated by coloured engravings
+of the heart, lungs, &c., of the Diseased Prize Cattle lately exhibited
+at the Smithfield Cattle Club, 1857." By Frederick James Gant, M.R.C.S.
+London, 1858.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Professor John Wilson's Report of the Agricultural
+Exhibition, Aarhuus, 1867.]
+
+
+
+
+PART V.
+
+ON THE COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF VEGETABLE FOODS.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+THE MONEY VALUE OF FOOD SUBSTANCES.
+
+The flesh-forming principles of food are, as I have already stated,
+almost identical with the principal nitrogenous constituents of animals.
+Unlike the non-plastic substances, they are convertible into each other
+with little, if any, loss either of matter or of force. Not many
+years since it was the fashion to estimate the nutritive value of a
+food-substance by its proportion of nitrogen; but this method--not yet
+quite abandoned--was based on erroneous views, and yielded results very
+far from the truth. No doubt all the more concentrated and valuable
+kinds of food are rich in nitrogenous principles; but there are other
+varieties, the nutritive value of which is very low, and yet their
+proportion of nitrogen is very high. This point requires explanation.
+Both the plastic and the non-plastic materials of food exist in two
+distinct states--in one of which they are easily digestible, and in the
+other either altogether unassimilable or so nearly so as to be almost
+useless. Thus, for example, the cellular tissue of plants, when newly
+formed, is to a great extent digestible, whilst the old woody fibre is
+nearly, if not quite, incapable of assimilation. Gelatine, which in raw
+bones is easily digested in the stomachs of the carnivora, loses a large
+proportion of its nutritive value on being subjected to the action of
+steam. Again, a portion of the nitrogen of young succulent plants is in
+a form not sufficiently organic to admit of its being assimilated to
+the animal body. But, independently of these strong objections to the
+method of estimating the nutritive value of food by its per-centage of
+flesh-formers, there are many other reasons which as clearly prove the
+fallacy of this rule. If we were, for instance, to estimate the value
+of albumen according to the tables of food equivalents which were
+constructed some years ago by Boussingault and other chemists, we would
+find one pound weight of it to be equivalent to four pounds weight of
+oil-cake, or to twelve pounds weight of hay; yet, it is a fact that
+a horse would speedily die if confined to a purely albuminous diet,
+whereas hay is capable of supporting the animal's life for an indefinite
+period.
+
+It is clear, then, from what I have stated, that neither the amount of
+flesh-formers, nor of fat-formers, contained in a given quantity of a
+substance is a measure of its nutritive value; nevertheless it would
+be incorrect to infer from this that the numerous analyses of feeding
+substances which have been made are valueless. On the contrary, I am
+disposed to believe that the composition of these substances, when
+correctly stated by the chemist, enables the physiologist to determine
+pretty accurately their relative alimentary value. Theory is certainly
+against the assumption that food is valuable in proportion to its
+content of nitrogen; nor has practice less strongly disproved its truth.
+An illustration drawn from the nutrition of plants will make this matter
+more apparent. Every intelligent agriculturist knows that guano contains
+nitrogen and phosphoric acid; both substances are indispensable to the
+development of plants, and therefore it would be incorrect to estimate
+the manurial value of the guano in proportion to the quantity of
+nitrogen it was capable of yielding. If the value of manures were
+determined only by their per-centage of nitrogen--a mode by which
+certain chemists still estimate the nutritive value of food--then
+woollen rags would be worth more than bones, and bones would be more
+valuable than superphosphate of lime. The truth is, that the analysis of
+feeding stuffs and manures is sometimes of little value if the condition
+in which the constituents of these substances exist be undetermined. For
+example, the analysis of one manure may show it to contain 40 per cent.
+of phosphate of lime, and three per cent. of ammonia, whilst, according
+to analysis, another fertiliser may include 20 per cent. of phosphate of
+lime, and two per cent. of ammonia. Viewed by this light solely, the
+first manure would be considered the more valuable of the two, whereas
+it might, in reality, be very much inferior. If the phosphate of lime
+in the manure, containing 40 per cent. of that body, were derived from
+coprolites or apatite, and its ammonia from horns, the former would be
+worth little or nothing, and the latter, by reason of its exceedingly
+slow evolution from the horns, would possess a very low value. If, on
+the contrary, the phosphate of lime, in the manure comparatively poor
+in phosphate, were a constituent of bones, and its ammonia ready formed
+(say as sulphate of ammonia), then, its value, both commercial and
+manurial, would be far greater than the other.
+
+In estimating the money value of an article of food, we should omit
+such considerations as the relative adjustment of its flesh-formers and
+fat-formers, and its suitability to particular kinds of animals, as well
+as to animals in a certain stage of development. The manure supplied to
+plants contains several elements indispensable to vegetable nutrition;
+and, although the agriculturist most commonly purchases all these
+elements combined in the one article, still he frequently buys each
+ingredient separately. Ammonia is one of these principles, and, whether
+it be bought _per se_, or as a constituent of a compound manure, the
+price it commands is invariable. This principle should prevail in the
+purchase of food: each constituent of which should have a certain value
+placed upon it; and the sums of all the values of the constituents would
+then be the value of the article of food taken as a whole. There are, no
+doubt, practical difficulties in the way which prevent this method of
+valuation from giving more than approximatively correct results; but
+are there not precisely similar difficulties in the way of the correct
+estimation of the value of a manure according to its analysis? There
+are several constituents of food, the money value of which is easily
+determinable: these are sugar, starch, and fat. No matter what substance
+they are found in, the nutritive value of each varies only within very
+narrow limits. The value of cellulose and woody fibre is not so easily
+ascertained, as it varies with the age and nature of the vegetable
+structure in which these principles occur. There is little doubt but
+that the cellulose and fibre of young grass, clover, and other succulent
+plants, are, for the most part, digestible; and we should not be far
+astray if we were to assume that four pounds weight of soft fibre and
+cellulose are equivalent to three pounds weight of starch. As to old
+hard fibre, we are not in a position to say whether or not it possesses
+any nutrimental value worth taking into account. The estimation of the
+value of the flesh-forming materials is far more difficult than that of
+sugar, starch, pectine compounds, and fat. The nitrogenous constituents
+of food must be in a highly elaborated state before they are capable
+of being assimilated. In seeds--in which vegetable substances attain
+their highest degree of development--they probably exist in the most
+digestible form, whilst much of the nitrogen found in the stems and
+leaves of succulent plants, is either in a purely mineral state, or in
+so low a degree of elaboration as to be unavailable for the purpose of
+nutrition. But even plastic materials, in a high degree of organisation,
+present many points of difference, which greatly affect their relative
+alimental value; for example, many of them are naturally associated with
+substances possessing a disagreeable flavor: and as their separation
+from these substances is often practically impossible, the animal that
+consumes both will not assimilate the plastic matters so well as if
+they were endowed with a pleasant flavor. In seeds and other perfectly
+matured vegetable structures, the flesh-formers may exist in different
+degrees of availability. The nitrogen of the _testa_, or covering of
+the seeds, will hardly be so assimilable as that which exists in their
+cotyledons. The solubility of the flesh-formers--provided they be
+highly elaborated--is a very good criterion of their nutritive power.
+In linseed the muscle-forming substances are more soluble than in
+linseed-cake--the heat which is generally employed in the extraction of
+oil from linseed rendering the plastic materials of the resultant _cake_
+less soluble, and diminishing thereby their digestibility, as practice
+has proved.
+
+From the considerations which I have now entered into, it is obvious
+that the chemical analysis of food substances as generally performed,
+though of great utility, does not afford strictly accurate information
+as to their commercial value, and still less reliable in relation to
+their nutritive power. At the same time, they as clearly establish
+the feasibility of analyses being _made_ whereby the money value of
+feeding-stuffs may be estimated with tolerable exactitude. Let the
+chemist determine the presence and relative amounts of the ingredients
+of food-substances, and--if it be possible so to do with a degree of
+exactness that would render the results useful--place on each a money
+value. This done, let the physiologist and the feeder combine the food
+in such proportions as they may find best adapted to the nature, age,
+and condition of the animal to be fed.
+
+It is to be regretted that the market price of feeding stuffs is not,
+in consequence of our defective knowledge, strictly determined by their
+nutritive value, for if such were the case, the feeder would merely have
+to adapt each to the nature and condition of his stock. Even amongst
+practical men there prevails, unfortunately, great diversity of opinion
+as to the relative nutritive value of the greater number of food
+substances; and I am quite certain that many of these command higher
+prices than others which in no respect are inferior. It would lead me
+too far from my immediate subject were I to enter minutely into the
+consideration of such questions as--whether an acre of grass yields more
+or less nutriment than an acre of turnips? I shall merely describe the
+composition and properties of grass and of turnips, and of the various
+other important food substances, and compare their nutritive power, so
+far as comparisons are admissible; but I shall say but little on the
+subject of the various economic and other conditions which affect the
+production of forage plants. When I shall have described the chemical
+nature and physical condition of the various articles of food, and the
+results of actual feeding experiments made with them, the feeder will
+then be in a position to determine which are the most economical to
+produce or to purchase.
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS OF VEGETABLES.
+
+The saccharine, or amylaceous substances constitute the most abundant
+of the proximate constituents of plants. They are composed of carbon,
+hydrogen, and oxygen. I shall briefly describe the more important
+members of this group of substances, namely, starch, sugar, inulin,
+gum, pectin, and cellulose.
+
+_Starch_, or _fecula_, occurs largely in dicotyledonous seeds, peas,
+&c., and still more abundantly in certain monocotyledonous seeds, such
+as wheat and barley. It constitutes the great bulk of many tubers and
+roots--for example, the potato and tapioca. It consists of flattened
+ovate granules, which vary in size according to the plant. In the
+beetroot they are 1/3500 of an inch in diameter, whilst in _tous les
+mois_ they are nearly 1/200 of an inch in diameter. Most of the starch
+granules are marked by a series of concentric rings. Starch is heavier
+than water, and is insoluble in that fluid when cold; neither is it
+dissolved by alcohol or ether. When heated in water having a temperature
+of at least 140 deg. Fahrenheit, it increases greatly in volume, and
+acquires a gelatinous consistence. When the water is allowed to cool,
+a portion of the starch becomes insoluble, whilst another portion
+remains in solution; the latter form of starch is sometimes termed
+_amidin_, from the French word for starch, _amidon_. When dry starch
+is heated to 400 deg. Fahr., it is converted, without any change in its
+composition, into a soluble gum-like substance, termed _dextrin_,
+or British gum. On being boiled in diluted sulphuric acid it is
+converted into a kind of sugar; and the same effect is produced by
+fermentation--for example, in the germination of seeds. Fresh rice
+contains 82, wheat 60, and potatoes 20 per cent. of starch. This
+substance constitutes a nutritious and easily digestible food, but
+alone cannot support life. Arrowroot is only a pure form of starch.
+
+_Sugar_ occurs less abundantly in plants than starch. There are several
+varieties of this substance, of which the kinds termed cane sugar
+(_sucrose_) and grape sugar (_glucose_), are only of importance to
+agriculturists. The former enters largely into the composition of the
+sugar-cane, the beetroot, the sugar-maple, the sorgho grass, pumpkins,
+carrots, and a great variety of other plants. Grape sugar is found in
+fruits, especially when dried--raisins and figs--in malted corn, and
+in honey. In the sugar-cane there is 18 per cent., and in the beetroot
+10 per cent. of sugar.
+
+_Cane sugar_, when pure, consists of minute transparent crystals. It is
+1-6/10 heavier than water, and is soluble in one-third of its weight
+of that fluid. By long-continued boiling in water it is changed into
+uncrystallizable sugar, or treacle, by which its flavor is altered, but
+its sweetening power increased.
+
+_Grape sugar_ crystallizes in very small cubes, of inferior color as
+compared with cane sugar crystals. It dissolves in its own weight of
+water, being three times less soluble than sucrose. In sweetening power
+one part of cane sugar is equal to 2-1/2 parts of grape sugar; but there
+is probably little if any difference, between the nutritive power of the
+two substances.
+
+_Inulin_ is a substance somewhat resembling starch. It does not occur
+in large quantities. It is met with in the roots of the dandelion,
+chicory, and many other plants.
+
+_Gum_ is an abundant constituent of plants. The kind termed gum
+arabic, so largely employed in the arts, is a very pure variety of this
+substance. Common gums are said to be essentially composed of a very
+weak acid--_gummic_, or _arabic_ acid--united with lime and potash.
+The solution of gum is very slightly acid, and has a mucilaginous,
+ropy consistence: it is almost tasteless. _Mucilage_, or _bassorin_,
+is simply a modified form of gum, which, though insoluble in water,
+forms a gelatinous mixture with that fluid. It exudes from certain
+trees--the cherry for example--and exists largely in linseed and other
+seeds. Gums are nutritious foods, but it is probable that they are not
+equal in alimental power to equal weights of starch or sugar.
+
+_Vegetable jelly_, or _pectin_, is almost universally diffused
+throughout the vegetable kingdom. It is owing to its presence that the
+juices of many fruits and roots possess the property of gelatinizing.
+It is soluble in water, but prolonged boiling destroys its viscous
+property. _Pectose_ is a modification of pectin; it is insoluble in
+water. According to Fremy, the hardness of green fruits is due to the
+presence of pectose; which is also found in the cellular tissue of
+turnips, carrots, and various other roots.
+
+_Cellulose_ is a fibrous or cellular tissue, allied in composition to
+starch. It is the most abundant constituent of plants, and forms the
+very ground-work of the vegetable mechanism. Linen, cotton, and the
+pith of the elder and other trees are nearly pure forms of cellulose.
+Ligneous, or woody tissue (_lignin_) is indurated cellulose, hardened
+by age. It is almost identical in composition with cellulose. Pure
+cellulose is white, colorless, tasteless, insoluble in water, oil,
+alcohol, or ether. It is heavier than water. Sulphuric acid is capable
+of converting it into grape, or starch sugar. In its fresh and succulent
+state cellulose is digestible and nutritious; but in the form of
+ligneous tissue it opposes a very great resistance to the action of the
+digestive fluids.  Digestible cellulose is probably equal in nutritive
+power to starch.
+
+_Oils and fats_ occur abundantly in vegetables, more particularly in
+their seeds. In the seeds of many cruciferous plants the proportion
+of fat and oil exceeds 35 per cent. The oils and fats termed _fixed_
+are those which possess the greatest interest to agriculturists; the
+_volatile oils_ being those which confer on certain plants their
+fragrant odour. There are a great variety of vegetable oils, but
+the proximate constituents of most of them are chiefly _stearin_,
+_margarin_, _olein_, and _palmitin_.
+
+_Stearin_ is a white crystalline substance, sparingly soluble in alcohol
+and ether, but insoluble in water. There are two or three modifications
+of this substance, but they do not essentially differ from each other.
+The melting point varies from 130 deg. to 160 deg. Fahr. Stearin is the most
+abundant of the fats.
+
+_Margarin_ presents the appearance of pearly scales. It is the solid fat
+present in olive oil, and it is also met with in a great variety of fats
+and oils. It melts at 116 deg. Fahr.
+
+_Olein_ is the fluid constituent of oils and fatty substances. It
+resists an extreme degree of cold, without solidifying. There are
+several modifications of this body--the olein of olive oil being
+somewhat different from that of castor oil; the olein of linseed is
+sometimes termed _linolien_.
+
+_Palmitin._--This fat occurs in many plants, but as it makes up the
+great bulk of palm oil, it has been termed palmitin. It is white, and
+may be obtained in feathery-like masses. Its melting point varies from
+114 deg. to 145 deg., there being, according to Duffy, three modifications of
+this substance.
+
+The fats and oils are lighter than water. They contain far more carbon
+and hydrogen, and less oxygen, than are found in the sugars and
+starches. They all consist of acids (stearic, palmitic, &c.) united with
+glycerine. On being boiled with potash or soda, the latter take the
+place of the glycerine, which is set free, and a _soap_ is produced.
+The fatty acids strongly resemble the fats. In nutritive power, one part
+of fat is equal to 2-1/2 parts of starch or sugar.
+
+The Albuminous substances contain, in addition to the elements found
+in starch, nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus. _Albumen_, _fibrin_, and
+_legumin_ constitute the three important members of the "Nitrogenous"
+constituents of plants.
+
+_Albumen_ is an uncrystallizable substance. It is soluble in water,
+unless when heated to 140 deg. Fahr., at which temperature it coagulates,
+_i.e._, becomes solid and insoluble. The _gluten_ of wheat is composed
+chiefly of albumen, and of bodies closely allied to that substance.
+
+_Fibrin_, when dried, is a hard, horny, yellow, solid body. It contains
+a little more oxygen than is found in albumen. This substance is best
+known as a constituent of animals, and it does not appear to be abundant
+in plants. The portion of the gluten of wheat-flour, which is insoluble
+in boiling alcohol, is considered by Liebig and Dumas to be coagulated
+fibrin.
+
+In the seeds of leguminous and a few other kinds of plants large
+quantities of a substance termed _legumin_ are found. It resembles the
+casein, or cheesy ingredient of milk; indeed, some chemists consider it
+to be identical in composition with that substance. When pure, it is
+pearly white, insoluble in boiling water, but soluble in cold water and
+in vinegar. The saline matters found in plants are always associated
+with the albuminous bodies; the latter, therefore, form the bones as
+well as the muscles of animals.
+
+A great many substances are found in plants, such as wax, mannite,
+"extractive matter," citric, malic, and other acids, of the nutritive
+value of which very little is known. The substances described in this
+section constitute, however, at least 95 per cent. of the weight of the
+vegetable matters used as food by live stock.
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+GREEN FOOD.
+
+_The Grasses._--More than one-half the area of Great Britain and Ireland
+is under pasture; the grasses, therefore, constitute the most important
+and abundant food used by live stock. The composition of the natural
+and artificial grasses is greatly influenced by the nature of the soil
+on which they are grown, and by the climatic conditions under which
+they are developed. Many of them are almost worthless, whilst others
+possess a high nutritive value. Amongst the most useful natural
+grasses may be enumerated Italian rye-grass, Meadow barley, Annual
+Meadow-grass, Crested dogstail-grass, Cocksfoot-grass, Timothy or
+Meadow catstail-grass, and Sweet vernal-grass. Amongst grasses of medium
+quality I may mention common Oatlike-grass, Meadow foxtail grass, Smooth
+and rough stalked Meadow-grass, and Waterwhorl-grass. There are very
+many grasses which are almost completely innutritious, and which ought,
+under no circumstances, to be tolerated, although too often they make
+up the great bulk of the herbage of badly-managed meadows and pastures.
+Such grasses are, the Meadow soft-grass, Creeping soft-grass, False
+brome-grass, and Upright brome-grass. The rough-stalked Meadow-grass,
+though spoken favorably of by some farmers, is hardly worthy of
+cultivation, and the same may be said of many of the grasses which have
+a place in our meadows and pastures. (See "Analyses of Natural Grasses
+in a Fresh State, by Dr. Voelcker," on next page.)
+
+The _Schraeder brome_ is a perennial lately introduced into France. It
+is described as an exceedingly valuable forage crop, and one which is
+admirably adapted for the feeding of dairy cows. It would be desirable
+to give it a trial in these countries. The composition (which is very
+peculiar) of this plant is stated to be as follows, when dry:--
+
+  ANALYSIS OF SCHRAEDER BROME HAY.
+
+  Water                             16.281
+  Nitrogenous matters               23.443
+  Fat                                3.338
+  Starch gum, &c.                   22.549
+  Cellulose (fibre)                 19.843
+  Ashes                             14.546
+                                   -------
+         Total                     100.000
+
+
+  ANALYSES OF NATURAL GRASSES IN A FRESH STATE, BY DR. VOELCKER.
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | KEY:                                                                      |
+  | A.--Water.                                                                |
+  | B.--Albuminous or Flesh-forming Principles.                               |
+  | C.--Fatty Matters.                                                        |
+  | D.--Respiratory Principles: Starch, Gum, Sugar.                           |
+  | E.--Woody Fibre.                                                          |
+  | F.--Mineral Matter or Ash.                                                |
+  | G.--Date of Collection.                                                   |
+  +-----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-----+-------+
+  |                             | A.  | B.  | C.  |  D.  |  E.  | F.  |  G.   |
+  +-----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-----+-------+
+  |Anthoxanthum odoratum--      |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Sweet-scented vernal grass |80.35| 2.00|  .67|  8.54|  7.15| 1.24|May  25|
+  |Alopecurus pratensis--       |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Meadow foxtail grass       |80.20| 2.44|  .52|  8.59|  6.70| 1.55|June  1|
+  |Arrhenatherum avenaceum--    |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Common oat-like grass      |72.65| 3.54|  .87| 11.21|  9.37| 2.36|July 17|
+  |Avena flavescens--           |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Yellow oat-like grass      |60.40| 2.96| 1.04| 18.66| 14.22| 2.72|June 29|
+  |Avena pubescens--            |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Downy oat-grass            |61.50| 3.07|  .92| 19.16| 13.34| 2.01|July 11|
+  |Briza media--                |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Common quaking grass       |51.85| 2.93| 1.45| 22.60| 17.00| 4.17|June 29|
+  |Bromus erectus--             |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Upright brome grass        |59.57| 3.78| 1.35|    33.19    | 2.11| "   23|
+  |Bromus mollis--              |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Soft brome grass           |76.62| 4.05|  .47|  9.04|  8.46| 1.36| May  8|
+  |Cynosurus cristatus--        |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Crested dogstail grass     |62.73| 4.13| 1.32| 19.64|  9.80| 2.38|June 21|
+  |Dactylus glomerata--         |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Cocksfoot grass            |70.00| 4.06|  .94| 13.30| 10.11| 1.54| "   13|
+  |  Ditto, seeds ripe          |52.57|10.93|  .74| 12.61| 20.54| 2.61|July 19|
+  |Festuca duriuscula--         |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Hard fescue grass          |69.33| 3.70| 1.02| 12.46| 11.83| 1.66|June 13|
+  |Holcus lanatus--             |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Soft meadow grass          |69.70| 3.49| 1.02| 11.92| 11.94| 1.93| "   29|
+  |Hordeum pratense--           |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Meadow barley              |58.85| 4.59|  .94| 20.05| 13.03| 2.54|July 11|
+  |Lolium perenne--             |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Darnel grass               |71.43| 3.37|  .91| 12.08| 10.06| 2.15|June  8|
+  |Lolium italicum--            |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Italian rye-grass          |75.61| 2.45|  .80| 14.11|  4.82| 2.21| "   13|
+  |Phleum pratense--            |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Meadow catstail grass      |57.21| 4.86| 1.50| 22.85| 11.32| 2.26|       |
+  |Poa annua--                  |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Annual meadow grass        |79.14| 2.47|  .71| 10.79|  6.30|  .59| May 28|
+  |Poa pratensis--              |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Smooth-stalked meadow grass|67.14| 3.41|  .86| 14.15| 12.49| 1.95|June 11|
+  |Poa trivialis--              |     |     |     |      |      |     |       |
+  |  Rough-stalked ditto        |73.60| 2.58|  .97| 10.54| 10.11| 2.20| "   18|
+  |Grass from water meadow      |87.58| 3.22|  .81|  3.98|  3.13| 1.28|Apr. 30|
+  |  Ditto, second crop         |74.53| 2.78|  .52| 11.17|  8.76| 2.24|June 26|
+  |Annual rye-grass             |69.00| 2.96|  .69| 12.89| 12.47| 1.99| "    8|
+  +-----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-----+-------+
+
+  Most of the grasses here mentioned were analysed when in flower.
+
+
+_Tussac Grass_ (_Dactylis caespitus_) is recommended as an excellent
+plant to grow on very poor, wet, or mossy soils.[26] It is an evergreen
+grass, somewhat resembling coltsfoot. It is relished by cattle.
+
+  ANALYSIS OF TUSSAC GRASS BY JOHNSTONE.
+
+                                          Lower part.   Upper part.
+
+  Water                                      86.09         75.17
+  Flesh-formers                               2.47          4.79
+  Sugar, gum, &c.                             4.62          6.81
+  Woody fibre (with a little albumen)         5.68         11.86
+  Ash                                         1.14          1.37
+                                            ------        ------
+            Total                           100.00        100.00
+
+The "artificial grasses" embrace the clovers, vetches, lucerne, and
+a few other plants, some of which are seldom cultivated.
+
+  ANALYSES OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF CLOVER, BY DR. ANDERSON.
+
+                          +---------------------------------------------
+                          | KEY:
+                          | A.--Water.
+                          | B.--Dry Substances.
+                          | C.--Ash.
+                          | D.--Nitrogenised Substances.
+                          | E.--Ash.
+                          | F.--Nitrogenised Matters.
+                          |
+  ------------------------+-----------------------------+---------------
+                          | Per-centage in the          | Per-centage
+                          | Fresh Clover.               | in Dry Clover.
+                          +-------+-------+------+------+-------+-------
+                          |   A.  |   B.  |  C.  |  D.  |   E.  |  F.
+  ------------------------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+-------
+  Red clover--            |       |       |      |      |       |
+   Trifolium pratense:    |       |       |      |      |       |
+    1. From English seed  | 85.30 | 14.70 | 1.30 | 2.31 |  8.90 | 15.87
+    2. From German seed   |       |       |      |      |       |
+        (from the Rhine)  | 81.68 | 18.32 | 1.49 | 2.81 |  8.15 | 15.50
+    3. From French seed   | 83.51 | 16.49 | 1.95 | 2.25 | 11.82 | 13.56
+    4. From American seed | 79.98 | 21.02 | 1.58 | 2.87 |  8.05 |  ...
+    5. From Dutch seed    |  ...  |  ...  |  ... |  ... |  8.82 | 12.43
+  Cowgrass--              |       |       |      |      |       |
+   Trifolium medium:[27]  |       |       |      |      |       |
+    Variety,              |       |       |      |      |       |
+     " Duke of Norfolk    | 77.39 | 22.61 | 2.73 | 2.25 | 12.09 | 10.19
+     " common             | 81.76 | 18.24 | 1.92 | 3.19 | 10.53 | 14.37
+  Crimson clover,         |       |       |      |      |       |
+   Trifolium incarnatum:  |       |       |      |      |       |
+    From French seed      | 82.56 | 17.44 | 1.88 | 3.25 | 10.81 | 18.56
+  Yellow clover--         |       |       |      |      |       |
+   Medicago lupulina:     |       |       |      |      |       |
+    From English seed     | 77.38 | 22.62 | 2.02 | 3.50 |  8.95 | 15.44
+    From French seed      | 78.60 | 21.40 | 1.75 | 2.94 |  8.18 | 13.69
+  ------------------------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+-------
+
+_Clover_ is very rich in flesh-forming and heat-producing substances.
+There are several varieties of this plant, of which the Alsike Clover
+appears to be the most valuable, as it contains a high proportion of
+organic matter and gives the largest acreable produce. The nature of the
+soil influences, to a great extent, the composition of this plant: this
+no doubt accounts for the somewhat discrepant result of the analyses of
+it made by Way, Voelcker, and Anderson.
+
+The composition of the Vetch, Sainfoin, and Lucerne, resembles very
+closely that of the Clover: indeed, it appears to me that all these
+leguminous plants are nearly equally valuable as green forage, but that
+the best adapted for hay is the Clover. In the following table the
+composition of these plants is shown:--
+
+  ANALYSES OF CLOVER, BY DR. VOELCKER.
+
+  ---------------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------
+                             |   I.  |  II.  | III.  |   IV.   |    V.
+                             |  Red  | White |Yellow | Alsike. | Bokhara
+                             |Clover.|Clover.|Clover.| Clover. | Clover.
+                             +-------+-------+-------+---------+---------
+  Water                      | 80.64 | 83.65 | 77.57 |  76.67  |  81.30
+                             |       |       |       |         |
+  Soluble in Water--         |       |       |       |         |
+    _a._ Organic substances  |  6.35 |  4.98 |  8.26 |   4.91  |   6.80
+    _b._ Inorganic substances|  1.55 |  1.13 |  1.40 |   1.33  |   1.54
+                             |       |       |       |         |
+  Insoluble in water--       |       |       |       |         |
+    _a._ Impure vegetable    |       |       |       |         |
+         fibre               | 11.04 |  9.80 | 12.17 |  16.36  |  10.01
+    _b._ Inorganic matters   |       |       |       |         |
+         (ash)               |  0.42 |  0.44 |  0.60 |   0.73  |   0.35
+                             +-------+-------+-------+---------+---------
+                             |100.00 |100.00 |100.00 | 100.00  | 100.00
+  ---------------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------
+
+  ANALYSES OF LUCERNE, SAINFOIN, AND VETCH.
+
+  ---------------------------------------+----------+-----------+--------
+                                         |    I.    |    II.    |  III.
+                                         | Lucerne. | Sainfoin. | Vetch.
+                                         +----------+-----------+--------
+  Water                                  |  73.41   |   77.32   |  82.16
+                                         |          |           |
+  Soluble in Water                       |          |           |
+    _a._ Organic substances              |   9.43   |    8.00   |   6.07
+    _b._ Inorganic substances            |   2.33   |    1.20   |   1.07
+                                         |          |           |
+  Insoluble in water                     |          |           |
+    _a._ Impure vegetable fibre          |  14.08   |   12.95   |  10.23
+    _b._ Inorganic matters (ash)         |   0.75   |    0.53   |   0.47
+                                         +----------+-----------+--------
+                                         |  100.00  |  100.00   | 100.00
+  ---------------------------------------+----------+-----------+--------
+
+The artificial grasses are, on the whole, more nutritious than the
+natural grasses; but I should explain that the analyses of the natural
+grasses which I have quoted refer to those plants in what may be almost
+termed their wild state: under the influence of good cultivation--when
+irrigated or top-dressed with abundance of appropriate manure--their
+analyses would indicate a higher nutritive value. The grasses, and more
+especially the so-called artificial grasses, are more nutritious and
+digestible when young. In old clover the proportion of insoluble woody
+fibre is often so considerable as to greatly detract from the alimental
+value of the plant.
+
+The _Lentils_, the _Birdsfoot_, the _Trefoil_, and the _Melilot_ are
+leguminous plants which occasionally are found as constituents of forage
+crops. Lentils are extensively cultivated on the Continent, and are
+the only kind of these plants the chemistry of which has been at all
+studied. The straw contains 7 per cent. of flesh-formers.
+
+_The Yellow Lupine_ is cultivated rather extensively in Germany,
+France, and Belgium, partly for feeding purposes, partly to furnish a
+green manure. Its seeds constitute a nutritious article of food for man,
+and its stems and leaves are given to cattle. An attempt was made a few
+years ago to introduce its cultivation, as a field crop, into England,
+and very satisfactory results attended the first trials made with it.
+Mr. Kimber, who has cultivated this crop, states that it is likely to
+prove valuable on light sandy soils, where the ordinary green fodder
+crops are not easily cultivated. The produce per acre obtained in
+Mr. Kimber's trial was about nineteen tons. Cattle and sheep relish
+the Yellow Lupine, but according to Mr. Kimber, pigs reject it.
+Professor Voelcker examined this plant, and found that it resembled in
+composition the ordinary artificial grasses, except in one respect,
+namely, a remarkable deficiency in sugar. Altogether, it is not so rich
+in nutriment as any of the commonly cultivated leguminous plants; but
+as it can be cultivated on a very poor soil, and gives a good return,
+it is probable that the Yellow Lupine will yet become a common crop in
+Britain. The following table exhibits the results of Dr. Voelcker's
+analysis.
+
+  COMPOSITION OF YELLOW LUPINES (CUT DOWN IN A GREEN STATE).
+
+                                      In natural state.   Dried at 212 deg.F.
+
+  Water                                      89.20
+  Oil                                          .37              3.42
+  [*] Soluble albuminous compounds            1.37             12.68
+  Soluble mineral (saline) substances          .61              5.64
+  [+] Insoluble albuminous compounds          1.01              9.35
+  Sugar, gum, bitter extractive matter,
+    and digestible fibre                      3.96             36.68
+  Indigestible woody fibre (cellulose)        3.29             30.48
+  Insoluble mineral matters                    .19              1.75
+                                            ------            ------
+                                            100.00            100.00
+  [* Containing nitrogen                       .22              2.03]
+  [+ Containing nitrogen                       .16              1.48]
+
+
+_Rib grass plantain_ (_Plantago lanceolata_) is one of those plants, the
+value of which for forage purposes is questionable. Many persons believe
+it to be a useful food. Its composition, which looks favorable, is as
+follows:--
+
+  Water                         84.78
+  Albuminous matters             2.18
+  Fatty matters                  0.56
+  Starch, gum, &c.               6.08
+  Woody fibre                    5.10
+  Mineral matter                 1.30
+
+The grasses, natural and artificial, are occasionally affected by a
+formidable and well-known fungus, the _ergot_. Italian rye-grass is the
+most liable to the ravages of this pest, and there are on record several
+cases in which ergotted rye-grass proved fatal to the animal fed upon
+it. Clover and the various leguminous plants appear more liable to the
+ergot disease than the natural grasses (except rye-grass), but I have
+on several occasions noticed this fungus on the spikelets of _Hordeum
+pratense_, _Festuca pratense_, and _Bromus erectus_. It has also been
+noticed that rye-grass rapidly developed under the influence of liquid
+manure is so rank that young animals fed upon it are poisonously
+affected. Alderman Mechi states that in July, 1864, ten out of his
+thirty Shorthorn calves died in consequence of eating the heads of
+Italian rye-grass, and that the survivors' health was seriously injured.
+He was also unfortunate with his lambs, which, during the same month,
+were folded on Italian rye-grass. "Four days ago," writes the Alderman,
+"it was sewaged, having been prior to the former growth also guanoed.
+In four days it had grown from four to five inches, was of an intense
+green, and pronounced to be, by sharp practical men, just the food for
+lambs. Well, we put on our lambs, taking care to do so in the evenings
+after they had been well fed. My bailiff accompanied them, and, within
+five minutes, turning accidentally round, he saw two of the lambs with
+their heads in the air staggering (stomach staggers it is called) and
+frothing at the mouth. He immediately saw the mischief, removed the
+lambs, and on their way back to a bare fold some of them vomited the
+Italian rye-grass that they had just eaten, accompanied by frothy slime;
+others brought it up during the night. Some of them trembled, gaped,
+and showed all the same symptoms that my calves had done, such as rapid
+pulse, &c. Two or three of them are rather queer to-day. I hope that
+Professor Simmonds or some capable person will tell us how this is? If
+we mow this grass, bring it home, and cut it into chaff, all which tends
+to heat or dry it, it becomes wholesome food. The same remarks apply in
+degree to very succulent tares. If the Italian grass is brought home and
+given long and quite fresh to the calves, it will kill them. It does not
+appear to injure old ewes as it does lambs or shearlings. The dry
+weather has something to do with it. In wet weather the evil is much
+diminished, or disappears."
+
+It is probable that the juice of this poisonous herbage was extremely
+rich in matters only semi-organised, and perhaps abounded in the crude
+substances from which the vegetable tissues are elaborated. Such
+rank grass as this was should not be used until it has attained to a
+tolerably developed state: in mature plants the juices contain more
+highly organised matters than are found in young vegetables.
+
+The _Sorghuo_, _or Holcus Saccharatus_.--This plant, introduced to
+the notice of the British farmer but a few years ago, is only grown
+in these countries in small quantities. It is very rich in sugar, and
+cattle relish it greatly. Its composition, according to Dr. Voelcker,
+is as follows:--
+
+  Water                                                    81.80
+  Albuminous matters                                        1.53
+  Insoluble ditto                                           0.66
+  Sugar                                                     5.85
+  Wax and fatty matter                                      2.55
+  Mucilage, pectin, and digestible matters                  2.59
+  Indigestible woody fibre                                  4.03
+  Mineral matter                                            0.99
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100.00
+
+The plants referred to in the above analysis were cut in September.
+It is found that the composition of the plant is very different at
+different seasons.
+
+_Green Rye_ is employed as a forage crop, for which purpose it is well
+adapted. It is about equal in nutritive power to clover. According to
+Dr. Voelcker its composition is as follows:--
+
+  Water                                                   75.423
+  Flesh-formers                                            2.705
+  Fatty matter                                             0.892
+  Gum, pectin, sugar, &c.                                  9.134
+  Woody-fibre                                             10.488
+  Mineral matter                                           1.358
+                                                         -------
+                                                         100.000
+
+_Buckwheat_ is occasionally cut in a green state and used as food for
+stock. Its composition, according to Einhof and Crome, is as follows:--
+
+  Water                                                     82.5
+  Nitrogenous compounds                                      0.2
+  Extractive matters                                         2.6
+  Starch, &c.                                                4.7
+  Cellulose                                                 10.0
+                                                           -----
+                                                           100.0
+
+Rape is one of our most valuable plants for stock feeding. Two varieties
+are cultivated in these countries--the summer rape (_Brassica Campestris
+oleifera_) and winter rape (_Brassica rapus_). The great utility of
+rape arises from the circumstance of its being generally obtained as a
+_stolen_ crop; for otherwise it is not quite equal to other plants that
+might be substituted for it--cabbages, &c. This plant is very rich in
+oily matters, and has been found well adapted both for the feeding of
+cattle and the fattening of sheep. Its composition, according to
+Voelcker, is shown in this table:--
+
+  COMPOSITION OF GREEN RAPE.
+
+  Water                                                   87.050
+  Flesh-formers                                            3.133
+  Fatty matters                                            0.649
+  Other respiratory substances                             4.000
+  Woody fibre                                              3.560
+  Mineral matter (ash)                                     1.608
+                                                         -------
+                                                         100.000
+
+With respect to the value of rape for the feeding of stock in spring,
+Mr. Rham makes the following remarks:--
+
+    If the crop is very forward it may be slightly fed off, but in
+    general it is best to let it remain untouched till spring. In the
+    end of March and the beginning of April it will be a great help
+    to the ewes and lambs. It will produce excellent food till it
+    begins to be in flower, when it should immediately be ploughed up.
+    The ground will be found greatly recruited by this crop, which has
+    taken nothing from it, and has added much by the dung and urine of
+    the sheep. Whatever be the succeeding crop, it cannot fail to be
+    productive; and if the land is not clean, the farmer must have
+    neglected the double opportunity of destroying weeds in the
+    preceding summer, and in the early part of spring. If the rape is
+    fed off in time, it may be succeeded by barley or oats, with clover
+    or grass seeds, or potatoes, if the soil is not too wet. Thus no
+    crop will be lost, and the rape will have been a clear addition to
+    the produce of the land. Any crop which is taken off the land in a
+    green state, especially if it be fed off with sheep, may be repeated
+    without risk of failure, provided the land be properly tilled; but
+    where cole or rape have produced seed, they cannot be profitably
+    sown in less than five or six years after on the same land. The
+    cultivation of rape or cole for spring food cannot be too strongly
+    recommended to the farmers of heavy clay soils.
+
+
+_The Mustard Plant_ is occasionally used as food for sheep, for which
+purpose its composition shows it to be well adapted. Voelcker's analysis
+proves it to be very rich, relatively, in muscle-forming elements and in
+mineral matters; it might, therefore be with advantage combined with
+food relatively deficient in these principles.
+
+  COMPOSITION OF FRESH MUSTARD.
+
+  Water                                                    86.30
+  Albuminous matters                                        2.87
+  Non-nitrogenous matters (gum, sugar, oil, &c.)            4.40
+  Woody fibre                                               4.39
+  Ash                                                       2.04
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100.00
+
+_The Prickly Comfrey_ has been recommended as a good forage plant.
+It yields an abundant crop--or rather crops, for it may be cut several
+times in the year. The plant is a handsome one, and it might combine the
+useful with the ornamental if it were cultivated on demesne or villa
+farms. Dr. Voelcker states its composition to be as follows:--
+
+  Water                                                   88.400
+  Flesh-forming substances                                 2.712
+  Heat and fat-producing matters                           6.898
+  Ash                                                      1.990
+                                                         -------
+                                                         100.000
+
+_Chicory_ is used as a forage crop on the Continent, and Professor John
+Wilson surmises that it may yet be generally cultivated for this purpose
+in Great Britain. At present it is rarely grown except for the sake of
+its roots, which are used as partial substitutes for, or adulterants of,
+coffee.
+
+  COMPOSITION OF CHICORY, ACCORDING TO ANDERSON.
+
+                                      Fresh roots.     Fresh leaves.
+
+  Water                                  80.58             90.94
+  Nitrogenous matters                     1.72              1.01
+  Non-nitrogenous substances             16.39              6.63
+  Ash                                     1.31              1.42
+                                        ------            ------
+                                        100.00            100.00
+
+_Yarrow_ (_Achillaea millefolium_) is usually regarded as a weed, but
+sheep are very fond of it, and when they can get it, never fail to eat
+it greedily. It possesses astringent properties. Some writers have
+recommended it as a good crop for warrens and sands. Its composition,
+according to Way, is as follows:--
+
+  DRIED YARROW.
+
+  Albuminous matter                      10.34
+  Fatty matters                           2.51
+  Starch, gum, &c.                       45.46
+  Woody fibre                            32.69
+  Mineral matter                          9.00
+                                        ------
+                                        100.00
+
+_Melons_ and _Marrows_ have been used, but to a very limited extent, as
+food for stock. Mr. Blundell advocates their use in seasons of drought.
+He states that he has obtained more than forty tons per acre of both
+melons and marrows. They are relished by horses, oxen, sheep, and pigs.
+Mr. Blundell's advocacy has not been attended with much success, but it
+would be desirable to give these vegetables a further trial.
+
+Dr. Voelcker's analysis of the cattle melon shows that it contains:--
+
+  Water                                  92.98
+  Albuminous matters                      1.53
+  Oil                                      .73
+  Sugar, gum, &c.                         2.51
+  Fibre                                   1.65
+  Ash                                      .60
+                                        ------
+                                        100.00
+
+_The Cabbage._--The composition of the Drumhead Cabbage has been studied
+by Dr. Anderson. He found a larger proportion of nutriment in the outer
+leaves than in the "heart," and ascertained that the young plants were
+richer in nutriment than those more advanced in age. His results show
+the desirability of cultivating the open-leaved, rather than the compact
+varieties of this plant.
+
+  ANALYSIS OF THE CABBAGE.--BY DR. ANDERSON.
+
+                                         Outer leaves.  Heart leaves.
+
+  Water                                      91.08         94.48
+  Compounds containing nitrogen               1.63          0.94
+  Compounds destitute of nitrogen,
+    such as gum, sugar, fibre, &c.            5.06          4.08
+  Ash (mineral matter)                        2.23          0.50
+                                            ------        ------
+                                            100.00        100.00
+
+According to Fromberg, the composition of the whole plant is as
+follows:--
+
+  Water                                                    93.40
+  Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming compounds                   1.75
+  Non-nitrogenous substances such as gum, sugar, &c.        4.05
+  Mineral matter                                            0.80
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100.00
+
+Dr. Voelcker, who has more recently analysed the cattle cabbage,
+furnishes us with the following details of its composition:--
+
+  COMPOSITION OF CABBAGE LEAVES (OUTSIDE GREEN LEAVES).
+
+  Water                                      83.72
+  Dry matter                                 16.28
+                                            ------
+                                            100.00
+
+The fresh and the dry matter consisted of:--
+
+                                             Fresh     Dry matter.
+                                            Matter.     Per cent.
+
+  [*] Protein compounds                       1.65         10.19
+  Non-nitrogenous matter                     13.38         82.10
+  Mineral matter                              1.25          7.71
+                                             -----        ------
+                                             16.28        100.00
+  [* Containing nitrogen                       .26          1.63]
+
+In the following table the results of a more elaborate analysis of the
+_heart_ and inner leaves are shown:--
+
+  COMPOSITION OF HEART AND INNER LEAVES.
+
+                                       In natural state.    Dry.
+
+  Water                                      89.42
+  Oil                                          .08           .75
+  [*] Soluble protein compounds               1.19         11.24
+  Sugar, digestible fibres, &c.               7.01         66.25
+  Soluble mineral matter                       .73          6.89
+  [+] Insoluble protein compounds              .31          2.93
+  Woody fibre                                 1.14         10.77
+  Insoluble mineral matter                     .12          1.17
+                                            ------        ------
+                                            100.00        100.00
+  [* Containing nitrogen                       .19          1.79]
+  [+ Containing nitrogen                       .05           .47]
+
+If I were asked what plant I considered the most valuable for forage,
+I certainly should pronounce an opinion in favor of cabbage. This crop
+yields a much greater return than that afforded by the Swedish turnip,
+and it is richer in nutritive matter. Cabbages are greedily eaten by
+sheep and cattle, and the butter of cows fed upon them is quite free
+from the disagreeable flavor which it so often possesses when the food
+of the animal is chiefly composed of turnips. If the cabbage admitted of
+storing, no more valuable crop could be cultivated as food for stock.
+
+Mr. John M'Laren, of Inchture, Scotland, gives in the "Transactions of
+the Highland Agricultural Society of Scotland for 1857," a report on the
+feeding value of cabbage, which is highly favorable to that plant:--
+
+    On the 1st December, 1855 (says the reporter), two lots of
+    Leicester wethers, bred on the farm, and previously fed alike,
+    each lot containing ten sheep, were selected for the trial by
+    competent judges, and weighed. Both lots were put into a field
+    of well-sheltered old lea, having a division between them. All
+    the food was cut and given them in troughs, three times a day.
+    They had also a constant supply of hay in racks.
+
+    At the end of the trial, on the 1st of March, 1856, the sheep
+    were all re-weighed, sent to the Edinburgh market, and sold same
+    day, but in their separate lots. As I had no opportunity of
+    getting the dead weights, I requested Mr. Swan, the salesman, to
+    give his opinion on their respective qualities. This was to the
+    effect that no difference existed in their market value, but that
+    the sheep fed on turnips would turn out the best quality of mutton,
+    with most profit for the butcher. Both lots were sold at the same
+    price, viz., 52s. 6d. During the three months of trial, we found
+    that each lot consumed about the same weight of food--viz., 8 tons
+    13 cwt. 47 lb. of cabbage, being at the rate of 21-1/3 lbs. per day
+    for each sheep, and 8 tons 10 cwt. 7 lb. Swedes, being at the rate
+    of 20-9/10 lb. per day.
+
+    It will be seen, by referring to the table (see next page), that in
+    this trial the Swede has proved of higher value for feeding purposes
+    than the cabbage, making 11 st. 4 lb. of gain in weight, whilst the
+    cabbage made 10 st. 9 lb. At the same time, 3 cwt. 40 lb. less food
+    were consumed; and taking the mutton gained at 6d. per lb., the
+    Swedes consumed become worth 9s. 3-1/4d. per ton, while the gain on
+    the cabbage, at the same rate, makes them worth 8s. 7d. per ton.
+    But from the great additional weight of the one crop grown over the
+    other, the balance, at the prices, c., mentioned, is in favor of the
+    cabbage by L1 15s. 11-3/4d. per acre.
+
+
+These results certainly speak strongly in favor of the cabbage; but the
+weight of the acreable crop of cabbages stated in the table appears to
+be unusually great. So heavy a crop is rarely obtained.
+
+_Furze_ (_Gorse, or Whins_).--Notwithstanding the natural historical
+knowledge of Goldsmith, his poetical description of the furze is far
+from accurate. This plant, instead of being "unprofitably gay," deserves
+to rank amongst the most valuable vegetables cultivated for the use of
+the domestic animals. It grows and flourishes under conditions which
+most injuriously affect almost every other kind of fodder and green
+crop. Prolonged drought in spring and early summer not unfrequently
+renders the hay crop a scanty one; while autumn and winter frosts change
+the nutriment of the mangels and turnips into decaying and unwholesome
+matter. Under such circumstances as these, the maintenance of cattle in
+good condition is very expensive, unless in places where a supply of
+furze is available. This plant is rather improved than otherwise by
+exposure to a temperature which would speedily destroy a mangel or a
+turnip; and, although it thrives best when abundantly supplied with
+rain, it can survive an exceedingly prolonged drought without sustaining
+much injury.
+
+  TABLE
+
+  SHOWING THE DIFFERENCE OF WEIGHT GROWN ON AN ACRE OF CABBAGE AND AN
+  ACRE OF SWEDES, AND THE VALUE OF EACH FOR FEEDING.
+
+  +-----+-------+---------+---------+--------+--------+--------------+--------+
+  | No. |       | Weight  | Weight  |        |Value of| Total Weight |        |
+  | Of  |       |  of     |   of    |        |  Gain  |   of Food    | Value  |
+  |Sheep| Kinds |  Ten    |  Ten    |        | taking |   consumed   | of Food|
+  | In  |  of   | Sheep,  | Sheep,  |  Gain. | Mutton |     in       |consumed|
+  |Each | Food. |1st Dec.,|1st Mar.,|        | at 6d. | Three Months |  per   |
+  |Lot. |       |  1855.  |  1856.  |        |per lb. | by each lot. |  Ton.  |
+  +-----+-------+---------+---------+--------+--------+--------------+--------+
+  |     |       | st. lb. | st. lb. | st. lb.| L s. d.|tons. cwt. lb.|s. d.   |
+  | 10  |Cabbage| 90  10  | 101  5  | 10   9 | 3 14 6 |  8   13   47 |8  7    |
+  |     |       |         |         |        |        |              |        |
+  | 10  |Swedes | 89   3  | 100  7  | 11   4 | 3 19 0 |  8   10    7 |9  3-1/4|
+  +-----+-------+---------+---------+--------+--------+--------------+--------+
+
+  +-----+-------+----------+------------+----------+-------------+------------+
+  | No. |       |  Total   |            |          |             |            |
+  | Of  |       |  Weight  |    Value   |   Extra  |    Free     |   Balance  |
+  |Sheep| Kinds |   per    |   of each  |  Cost on |    Value    |  in favor  |
+  | In  |  of   |  Acre    |     Crop   | each Crop|   of each   |     of     |
+  |Each | Food. | of each  |  per Acre. | per Acre.|    Crop     |   Cabbage  |
+  |Lot. |       |  Crop.   |            |          |  per Acre.  |  per Acre. |
+  +-----+-------+----------+------------+----------+-------------+------------+
+  |     |       |tons. cwt.| L  s. d.   | L  s.  d.| L  s. d.    | L s. d.    |
+  | 10  |Cabbage| 42   14  | 18 6  6    | 4  10 11 | 13 15 7     |            |
+  |     |       |          |            |          |             | 1 15 11-3/4|
+  | 10  |Swedes | 26   12  | 12 6  7-1/4| 0   7  0 | 11 19 7-1/4 |            |
+  +-----+-------+----------+------------+----------+-------------+------------+
+
+The furze is a member of the family _Leguminosae_, which includes so many
+useful plants, such as, for example, the pea, the bean, and the clovers.
+There are three varieties of it met with in this country--namely, the
+common furze, _Ulex europaeus_, the dwarf furze, _Ulex nanus_, and the
+Irish, or upright furze, _Ulex strictus_.
+
+The common furze is a hardy shrub, and grows luxuriantly at an elevation
+far higher than the limits of cereal cultivation. It flourishes on any
+kind of soil which is moderately dry, and heavy crops may easily be
+raised on uplands almost incapable of producing grass. The dwarf furze
+is never cultivated, but as it grows at a still greater elevation, and
+on a poorer soil than the larger varieties, it might be profitably
+cultivated on very high uplands. The Irish furze yields a softer and
+less prickly food than the other kinds, but as it does not usually bear
+seed, and must therefore be propagated by cuttings, its cultivation has
+hitherto been limited to but a few localities.
+
+The produce of an acre of furze appears to be at least equal to that
+of an acre of good meadow. The Rev. Mr. Townsend of Aghada, county of
+Cork--the most zealous and successful advocate for the cultivation of
+this plant--informed me that he had obtained so much as 14 tons per
+acre; a fact which proves that the furze is a plant which is well
+deserving of the attention of the farmer.
+
+Furze is an excellent food for every kind of stock. Cattle, although
+they may at first appear not to relish its prickly shoots, soon acquire
+a fondness for it. I have known several instances of herds being fed
+almost if not entirely on the bruised plant, and to keep in good
+condition. The late Professor Murphy, of Cork, stated that on the farm
+of Mr. Boulger, near Mallow, thirty-five cows were fed on crushed furze,
+which they "devoured voraciously." Each animal received daily from four
+to six stones of the crushed plant, to which were added a little turnip
+pulp and a small quantity of oats. The milk and butter yielded by these
+cows were considered excellent. In a letter addressed to me by a very
+intelligent feeder, Mr. John Walsh,[28] of Stedalt, county of Dublin,
+the following remarks in relation to this subject are made:--
+
+    I had lately an opportunity of seeing a herd of cattle of about
+    sixty head, of which twenty had been fed with furze prepared with
+    my machine for about six weeks before being put out to grass. The
+    condition of these was so superior that I pointed out every one of
+    them, one after the other, out of the herd. The owner of the cattle
+    had made the same observation; it was new to him but not to me.
+
+
+Furze is seldom given to sheep or pigs, but I believe that it might with
+advantage enter into the dietary of those animals. Some of my friends
+who have lately tried it with pigs report favorably as to its effects.
+Horses partly fed upon this plant keep in good condition; it is usually
+given to them cut merely into lengths of half an inch or an inch, but it
+would be better to give it to them finely bruised. A horse during the
+night will eat a much larger quantity of coarsely cut furze than of the
+well bruised article, because he is obliged to expend a great deal of
+muscular power in bruising the furze, and must, consequently, use an
+additional quantity of the food to make up for the corresponding waste
+of tissue.
+
+Until quite recently, the chemistry of the furze was very little
+studied. The analysis of this plant made many years ago by Sprengel
+gave results which, in the present advanced condition of agricultural
+chemistry, are quite valueless. The late Professor Johnston merely
+determined its amount of water, organic matter, and ash. I believe I was
+the first to make a complete investigation into the composition of this
+plant according to the methods of modern chemical analysis. I made two
+examinations. The first was of shoots cut on the 25th April, 1860, on
+the lands of Mr. Walsh of Stedalt, near Balbriggan, in the county of
+Dublin. The shoots were, in great part, composed of that year's growth,
+with a small proportion of the shoots of the previous year. They were
+very moist, and their spines, or thorns, were rather soft. Their
+centesimal composition was as follows:--
+
+  Water                                                    78.05
+  Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles                  2.18
+  Fat-forming principles (oil, starch, sugar, gum, &c.)     8.20
+  Woody fibre                                              10.17
+  Mineral matter (ash)                                      1.40
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100.00
+
+The second analysis was made of furze cut on the 15th August, 1862.
+The following were the results obtained:--
+
+  Water                                                    72.00
+  Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles                  3.21
+  Oil                                                       1.18
+  Other fat-forming principles (starch, gum, &c.)           8.20
+  Woody fibre                                              13.33
+  Mineral matter                                            2.08
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100.00
+
+The specimen was allowed to lie for a few days in a dry room, so that
+it lost a little water whilst in my possession, before it was subjected
+to analysis.
+
+The sample cut in August contained a larger amount of nutriment than
+the specimen analysed in the spring; but its constituents appeared to
+be much less soluble in water, and therefore, less digestible.
+
+Professor Blyth, of the Queen's College, Cork, has more recently made
+a very elaborate analysis of furze, grown in the county of Cork, which
+gave results still more favorable to the plant than those arrived at
+by me--probably because the specimens furnished to him were drier than
+mine.
+
+  ANALYSIS OF FRESH FURZE, BY DR. BLYTH.
+
+  100 parts contain:--
+
+  _Matters readily soluble in water and easily digested._
+
+  [*] Albuminous, or flesh-forming compounds                1.68
+  Fat and heat-producing, or respiratory elements,
+     viz., sugar, gum, &c. &c.                              7.83
+  Ash                                                       0.83
+                                                           -----
+  Total matters soluble in water                                 10.34
+       [* Containing nitrogen                               0.265]
+
+  _Matters insoluble in water._
+
+  Oil                                                       2.14
+  [+] Albuminous, or flesh-producing compounds              2.83
+  Fat and heat-producing, or respiratory elements           1.00
+  Woody fibre                                              28.80
+  Ash                                                       3.23
+                                                           -----
+  Total matters insoluble in water                               38.00
+  Water, expelled at 212                                         51.50
+                                                                 -----
+                                                                 99.48
+  Total nitrogen in plant                                   0.71
+  Total albuminous, or flesh-producing compounds            4.51
+  Total respiratory, or heat and fat-producing compounds    8.83
+  Total ash                                                 4.06
+     The ash contains in 100 parts:--
+  Potash                                                   20.00
+  Phosphoric acid                                           8.72
+       [+ Containing nitrogen                               0.445]
+
+If the large per-centage of water be deducted, the dry, nutritive
+matters can then be more readily compared with the amount of the same
+substances in other feeding articles:--
+
+  _Composition of 100 parts of furze dried at 212 deg.. Matters soluble in
+  water in the dry furze._
+
+  [*] Albuminous compounds                                  3.47
+  Respiratory elements                                     16.15
+  Ash                                                       1.71
+                                                          ------
+  Total matters soluble in water                                 21.33
+       [* Containing nitrogen                               0.546]
+
+
+  _Matters insoluble in water in the dry furze._
+
+  Oil                                                       4.41
+  [+] Albuminous compounds                                  5.84
+  Respiratory elements                                      2.06
+  Woody fibre                                              59.38
+  Ash                                                       6.66
+                                                          ------
+  Total matters insoluble in water                               78.35
+                                                                 -----
+                                                                 99.68
+
+  Total nitrogen in dry furze                               1.46
+  Total albuminous compounds                                9.13
+  Total respiratory elements                               18.20
+  Total ash                                                 8.36
+  [+ Containing nitrogen                                    0.917]
+
+  _Composition of ash per cent._
+
+  Potash                                                   20.00
+  Phosphoric Acid.                                          8.72
+
+The results of these analyses show that dry furze contains an amount
+of nutriment equal to that found in dry grass. The nature of its
+composition resembles, as might be expected, that of its allied plants,
+vetches, &c., and therefore it exceeds the grasses in its amount of
+ready formed fatty matter.
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+STRAW AND HAY.
+
+_Straw._--At the present time, when the attention of the farmer is
+becoming more and more devoted to the production of meat, it is very
+desirable that his knowledge of the exact nutritive value of the various
+feeding substances should be more extensive than it is. No doubt, most
+feeders are practically acquainted with the relative value of corn and
+oil-cake--of Swedish turnips and white turnips; but their knowledge of
+the food equivalents of many other substances is still very defective.
+For example, every farmer is not aware that Indian corn is a more
+economical food than beans for fattening cattle, and less so for beasts
+of burthen. Locust-beans, oat-dust, malt-combings, and many other
+articles, occasionally consumed by stock, have not, as yet, determinate
+places assigned to them in the feeder's scale of food equivalents.
+
+The points involved in the economic feeding of stock are not quite
+so simple as some farmers, more especially those of the amateur
+class, appear to believe. There are many feeders who sell their
+half-finished cattle at a profit, and yet they cannot, without loss,
+convert their stock into those obese monsters which are so much
+admired at agricultural shows. The complete fattening of cattle is
+a losing business with some feeders, and a profitable one with others.
+Stall-feeding is a branch of rural economy which, perhaps more than any
+other, requires the combination of "science with practice;" yet how few
+feeders are there who have the slightest knowledge of the composition of
+food substances, or who are agreed as to the feeding value, absolute or
+relative, of even such well-known materials as oil-cake, straw, or oats!
+"It is thus seen how inexact are the equivalents which are understood to
+be established for the different foods used for the maintenance of the
+animals. It is equally plain, when we reflect on the different methods
+pursued for the preservation of the animals, that we are still far
+from having attained that perfection towards which our efforts tend.
+Visit one hundred farms, taken by chance in different parts of the
+country, and you will find in each, methods directly opposite--a totally
+peculiar manner of managing the stalls; you will see, in short, that the
+conditions of food, of treatment, and of hygiene, remain not understood
+in seven-eighths of rural farms."[29]
+
+The straws of the cereal and leguminous plants are a striking
+illustration of the erroneous opinions and practices which prevail
+amongst agriculturists with respect to particular branches of their
+calling. The German farmers regard straw as the most valuable
+constituent of home-made fertilisers, and their leases in general
+prohibit their selling off the straw produced on their farms. Yet
+chemical analysis has clearly proved that the manurial value of straw is
+perfectly insignificant, and that, as a constituent of stable manure, it
+is chiefly useful as an absorbent of the liquid egesta of the animals
+littered upon it. As food for stock, straw was at one time regarded by
+our farmers as almost perfectly innutritious; some even went so far as
+to declare that it possessed no nutriment whatever, and even those who
+used it, did so more with the view of correcting the too watery nature
+of turnips, than with the expectation of its being assimilated to the
+animal body. Within the last few years, however, straw has been largely
+employed by several of the most intelligent and successful feeders in
+England, who report so favorably upon it as an economical feeding stuff,
+that it has risen considerably in the estimation of a large section
+of the agricultural public. Now, even without adopting the very high
+opinion which Mechi and Horsfall entertain relative to the nutritive
+power of straw, I am altogether disposed to disagree with those who
+affirm that its application should be restricted to manurial purposes.
+Unless under circumstances where there is an urgent demand for straw as
+litter, that article should be used as food for stock, for which purpose
+it will be found, if of good quality, and given in a proper state, a
+most economical kind of dry fodder--equal, if not superior to hay, when
+the prices of both articles are considered.
+
+The composition of straw is very different from that of grain.
+The former contains no starch, but it includes an exceedingly high
+proportion of woody fibre; the latter is in great part composed of
+starch, and contains but an insignificant amount of woody fibre. Dr.
+Voelcker, the consulting chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society of
+England, and Dr. Anderson, chemist to the Highland and Agricultural
+Society of Scotland, have made a large number of analyses of the straws
+of the cereal and leguminous plants, the results of which are of the
+highest interest to the agriculturist. In the following tables the more
+important results of these investigations are given:--
+
+  ANALYSES OF STRAW, BY DR. VOELCKER.
+
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  |                          |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |                          |  No. 1.  | No. 2. | No. 3. | No. 4. | No. 5. |
+  |                          |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |                          |  Wheat,  | Wheat, | Barley,| Barley,|  Oat,  |
+  |                          |just ripe |  over  |  dead  |not too |  cut   |
+  |                          | and well |  ripe. |  ripe. |  ripe. | green. |
+  |                          |harvested.|        |        |        |        |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  | Water                    |   13.33  |   9.17 |  15.20 |  17.50 |  16.00 |
+  | Albumen, and other       |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |  protein compounds:--    |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |   _a_. Soluble in water  |    1.28  |   0.06 |   0.68 | \      |   5.51 |
+  |                          |          |        |        |  }5.73 |        |
+  |   _b_. Insoluble in water|    1.65  |   2.06 |   3.75 | /      |   2.98 |
+  |                          |          |        |        |        |        |
+  | Oil                      |    1.74  |   0.65 |   1.36 |   1.17 |   1.57 |
+  | Sugar, mucilage,         |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |   extractive matters,    |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |   &c. (soluble in water) |    4.26  |   3.46 |   2.24 |\       |  16.04 |
+  | Digestible woody         |          |        |        | \      |        |
+  |   fibre and cellulose    |   19.40  |\       |   5.97 |  }71.44|  26.34 |
+  | Indigestible             |          | }82.26 |        | /      |        |
+  |   fibre &c.              |   54.13  |/       |  66.54 |/       |  24.86 |
+  | Inorganic matter:--      |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |      _a._ Soluble        |    1.13  |   1.29 |   2.88 | \      |   5.76 |
+  |                          |          |        |        |  }4.52 |        |
+  |      _b._ Insoluble      |    3.08  |   1.05 |   0.38 | /      |   0.94 |
+  |                          +----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  |                          |  100.00  | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  |                          |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |                          |  No. 6.  | No. 7. | No. 8. | No. 9. | No. 10.|
+  |                          |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |                          | Oat, cut |  Oat,  |  Bean. |  Pea.  | Flax   |
+  |                          |   when   |  over  |        |        | Chaff. |
+  |                          |  fairly  |  ripe. |        |        |        |
+  |                          |   ripe.  |        |        |        |        |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  | Water                    |   16.00  | 16.00  |  19.40 |  16.02 |  14.60 |
+  | Albumen, and other       |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |  protein compounds:--    |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |   _a_. Soluble in water  |    2.62  |  1.29  |   1.51 |   3.96 | \      |
+  |                          |          |        |        |        |  }4.75 |
+  |   _b_. Insoluble in water|    1.46  |  2.36  |   1.85 |   5.90 | /      |
+  |                          |          |        |        |        |        |
+  | Oil                      |    1.05  |  1.25  |   1.02 |   2.34 |   2.82 |
+  | Sugar, mucilage,         |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |   extractive matters,    |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |   &c. (soluble in water) |   10.57  |  3.19  |   4.18 |   8.32 |   8.72 |
+  | Digestible woody         |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |   fibre and cellulose    |   30.17  | 27.75  |   2.75 |  17.74 |  18.56 |
+  | Indigestible             |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |   fibre &c.              |   31.78  | 41.82  |  65.58 |  42.79 |  43.12 |
+  | Inorganic matter:--      |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |      _a._ Soluble        |    3.64  |  2.26  |   2.31 |   2.72 |   4.07 |
+  |                          |          |        |        |        |        |
+  |      _b._ Insoluble      |    2.71  |  4.08  |   1.40 |   2.21 |   3.36 |
+  |                          +----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  |                          |  100.00  | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+
+  [...] This table contains in a condensed form all the results of
+  Voelcker's analyses of the straws which are given in his paper published
+  in the _Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England_, vol. xxii.,
+  part 2. 1862.
+
+  Nos. 5, 6, and 7 were analysed shortly after being cut, when they
+  contained a high proportion of water. They have, therefore, been
+  calculated to contain 16 per cent. of moisture so as to arrive at
+  accurate relative results.
+
+
+  ANALYSES OF STRAW, BY DR. ANDERSON.
+
+  +----------------+-----------------+---------+-----------------+--------+
+  |                |                 |         |                 |        |
+  |                |                 |  Wheat  |                 | Barley |
+  |                |   Wheat from    |  from   |   Barley from   |  from  |
+  |                |  East Lothian.  |  Kent.  |  East Lothian.  |  Kent. |
+  |                |                 |         |                 |        |
+  |                |                 |         |                 |        |
+  |                +--------+--------+---------+--------+--------+--------+
+  |Water           |  10.62 |  10.93 |   11.15 |  11.44 |  11.15 |  11.10 |
+  |Flesh-formers-- |        |        |         |        |        |        |
+  |    Soluble     |   0.86 |   0.37 |    1.37 |   1.42 |   0.39 |   0.66 |
+  |    Insoluble   |   0.51 |   1.12 |    1.00 |   1.54 |   1.12 |   1.98 |
+  |Oil             |   0.80 |   1.00 |    1.50 |   0.97 |   0.88 |   1.05 |
+  |                |        |        |         |        |        |        |
+  |Respiratory     |        |        |         |        |        |        |
+  |  elements--    |        |        |         |        |        |        |
+  |    Soluble     |   2.68 |   6.68 |    5.26 |   3.22 |   6.11 |   4.56 |
+  |    Insoluble   |  44.88 |  36.43 |   38.79 |  35.56 |  38.38 |  27.95 |
+  |Woody fibre     |  32.88 |  34.78 |   35.01 |  41.34 |  36.62 |  47.53 |
+  |Ash             |   6.20 |   8.04 |    6.32 |   4.21 |   5.62 |   4.85 |
+  |                +--------+--------+---------+--------+--------+--------+
+  |                |  99.43 |  99.35 |  100.40 |  99.70 | 100.27 |  99.68 |
+  +----------------+--------+--------+---------+--------+--------+--------+
+
+  +----------------+---------------+--------+----------+---------+--------+
+  |                |               |  Oat   | Oat from |         |  Oat   |
+  |                |   Sandy Oat   | from   | 850 feet |Oat from |  from  |
+  |                |     from      |  Sea   |   above  |Mellhill,|  Kent  |
+  |                | East Lothian. | level  |Sea level,|Inchture,| (White |
+  |                |               |  East  |   East   |Scotland.|  one   |
+  |                |               |Lothian.| Lothian. |         | side.) |
+  |                +-------+-------+--------+----------+---------+--------+
+  |Water           | 11.70 | 10.95 | 12.60  |   11.28  |  11.70  |  10.55 |
+  |Flesh-formers-- |       |       |        |          |         |        |
+  |    Soluble     |  0.40 |  1.03 |  0.67  |    0.92  |   0.95  |   0.33 |
+  |    Insoluble   |  0.93 |  0.43 |  0.38  |    0.39  |   1.21  |   0.33 |
+  |Oil             |  1.45 |  0.77 |  1.25  |    1.36  |   1.60  |   1.00 |
+  |                |       |       |        |          |         |        |
+  |Respiratory     |       |       |        |          |         |        |
+  |  elements--    |       |       |        |          |         |        |
+  |    Soluble     | 10.12 |  6.90 |  7.16  |    7.42  |  12.01  |   6.23 |
+  |    Insoluble   | 33.52 | 34.77 | 24.28  |   29.55  |  23.35  |  30.95 |
+  |Woody fibre     | 35.36 | 38.73 | 48.49  |   44.40  |  45.27  |  47.40 |
+  |Ash             |  6.36 |  6.28 |  5.11  |    5.07  |   3.95  |   3.62 |
+  |                +-------+-------+--------+----------+---------+--------+
+  |                | 99.84 | 99.86 | 99.94  |  100.39  | 100.14  | 100.41 |
+  +----------------+-------+-------+--------+----------+---------+--------+
+
+  [...] This table is compiled from Dr. Anderson's paper in the
+  Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland
+  for March, 1862.
+
+
+Many very important conclusions are deducible from the facts recorded
+in these valuable tables. We learn from them that straw is more
+nutritious when it is cut in the ripe state than when it is permitted
+to over-ripen, and that _green_ straw contains a far greater amount of
+nutriment than is found even in the ripe article. It appears also that
+the least nutritious kind of straw equals the best variety of turnips in
+its amount of flesh-forming principles, and greatly exceeds them in its
+proportion of fat-forming elements. We further learn that in general the
+different kinds of straw will be found to stand in the following order,
+the most nutritious occupying the highest, and the least nutritious the
+lowest place:--
+
+  1. Pea-haulm.
+  2. Oat-straw.
+  3. Bean-straw with the pods.
+  4. Barley-straw.
+  5. Wheat-straw.
+  6. Bean-stalks without the pods.
+
+It is a matter to be regretted that we possess so little accurate
+knowledge of the chemical composition of the plants cultivated in
+Ireland. No doubt the analyses of English grown wheat, beans, mangels,
+and other plants, serve to give us a general idea of the nature of those
+vegetables when produced in this country. But this kind of information,
+though very important, must necessarily be defective, as differences
+in climate modify--often to a considerable extent--the composition of
+almost every vegetable. Thus, the results of Anderson's analyses prove
+Scotch oats to be superior, as a feeding stuff, to Scotch barley,
+whilst, according to Voelcker and the experience of most English
+feeders, the barley of parts of England is superior to its oats. It
+follows, then, that whilst the results of the analyses of straw, made by
+Voelcker and Anderson are of great interest to the Irish farmer, they
+would be still more important to him had the straw to which they relate
+been the produce of Irish soil. In order, therefore, to enable the Irish
+farmer to form a correct estimate of the value of his straw, we should
+put him in possession of a more perfect knowledge of its composition
+than that which is derivable from the investigations to which I have
+referred. The straws of the cereals--which alone are used here to any
+extent--should be analysed as carefully and as frequently as those of
+Great Britain have been; and if such were done, I have no doubt but that
+the results would indicate a decided difference in composition between
+the produce of the two countries. Some time ago I entered upon what, at
+the time, I had intended should be a complete investigation into the
+composition of Irish straws; but which want of time prevented me from
+making more than a partial one. The results are given in the following
+tables:--
+
+  ANALYSES OF IRISH OAT-STRAW.
+
+  --------------------------------+--------+------------------------------
+                                  | No. 1. |Obtained in the Dublin Market.
+                                  |From Co.+---------+---------+----------
+                                  |Wicklow.|  No. 2. |  No. 3. |  No. 4.
+  --------------------------------+--------+---------+---------+----------
+  Water                           |  14.00 |  14.00  |  14.00  |  14.00
+  Flesh-forming principles--      |        |         |         |
+    _a._ Soluble in water         |   4.08 |   2.02  |   2.04  |   1.46
+    _b._ Insoluble in water       |   2.09 |   3.16  |   3.00  |   2.23
+  Oil                             |   1.84 |   1.40  |   1.26  |   1.00
+  Sugar, gum, and other           |        |         |         |
+    fat-forming matters           |  13.79 |  12.67  |  10.18  |  11.16
+  Woody fibre                     |  59.96 |  61.79  |  65.45  |  65.29
+  Mineral matter                  |   4.24 |   4.96  |   4.07  |   4.86
+                                  +--------+---------+---------+----------
+                                  | 100.00 | 100.00  | 100.00  | 100.00
+  --------------------------------+--------+---------+---------+----------
+
+All the specimens of oats, the analyses of which are given in the
+preceding table, are assumed to contain 14 per cent. of water, in order
+the more correctly to compare their nutritive value. No. 1 contained
+18.23 per cent. of water; No. 2, 12.90; No. 3, 12.74; and No. 4, 12.08.
+Oat straw, before its removal from the field, often contains nearly half
+its weight of water; but after being for some time stacked, the
+proportion of moisture rarely exceeds 14 per cent.
+
+  ANALYSES OF IRISH WHEAT-STRAW.
+
+  -----------------------+--------+-------+-------+-----------------------
+                         | No. 1. | No. 2.|No. 3. |
+                         | Green, |       |       | Obtained in the Dublin
+                         |changing|       |       |        Markets.
+                         |   to   |       | Over  |
+                         | yellow.| Ripe. | Ripe. +-----------------------
+                         | County |County |County |       |       |
+                         |Kildare.|Dublin.|Dublin.| No. 4.| No. 5.| No. 6.
+  -----------------------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
+  Water                  |  13.00 |  13.15|  12.14|  10.88|  11.22|  12.12
+  Flesh-forming          |        |       |       |       |       |
+    principles--         |        |       |       |       |       |
+    _a._ Soluble in      |        |       |       |       |       |
+          water          |   1.25 |   0.98|   0.44|   0.06|   0.42|   0.30
+    _b._ Insoluble in    |        |       |       |       |       |
+          water          |   1.26 |   1.40|   1.41|   1.90|   1.00|   1.76
+  Oil                    |   1.22 |   1.13|   1.14|   0.90|   1.17|   1.08
+  Sugar, gum, and other  |        |       |       |       |       |
+     fat-forming matters |   4.18 |   3.98|   3.88|   4.08|   3.89|   4.30
+  Woody fibre            |  75.84 |  76.17|  77.76|  78.67|  79.18|  77.15
+  Mineral matter (ash)   |   3.25 |   3.19|   3.23|   3.51|   3.12|   3.29
+                         +--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
+                         | 100.00 | 100.00| 100.00| 100.00| 100.00| 100.00
+  -----------------------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
+
+The results of these analyses are somewhat different from those arrived
+at by Voelcker and Anderson. They show that properly harvested Irish
+oat and wheat straws are far more valuable than those of Scotland, and
+somewhat less nutritive than those produced in England. They also
+show that wheat-straw is allowed to over-ripen, by which a very large
+proportion of its nutritive principles is eliminated and altogether
+lost, and a considerable part of the remainder converted into an
+insoluble, and therefore less easily digestible state. Nor is there any
+advantage to the grain gained by allowing it to remain uncut after the
+upper portion of the stem has changed from a green to a yellowish color;
+on the contrary, it also loses a portion--often a very considerable
+one--of its nitrogenous, or flesh-forming constituents. It has been
+clearly proved that wheat cut when green, yields a greater amount of
+grain, and of a better quality too, than when it is allowed to ripen
+fully; yet, how often do we not see fields of wheat in this country
+allowed to remain unreaped for many days, and even weeks, after the
+crop has attained to its full development!
+
+The oat-straw obtained in the Dublin Market proved less valuable than
+the green straw which I selected myself from a field of oats; but the
+discrepancy between them was far less than between the nearly ripe
+wheat-straw and the straw of that plant purchased in Dublin. During
+visits which I have paid in harvest-time to the North of Ireland, I
+noticed that the oats were generally cut whilst green, whereas wheat was
+almost invariably left standing for at least a week after its perfect
+maturation, probably for the following reasons:--Firstly, because
+oats are more liable to shed their seed; secondly, because there is
+a greater breadth of that crop to be reaped, which necessitates an
+early beginning; and, lastly, because most farmers know that over-ripe
+oat-straw is worth but little for feeding purposes, as compared with
+the greenish-yellow article.
+
+As compared with white turnips, the nutritive value of oat-straw stands
+very high, for whilst the former contains but little more than 1 per
+cent. of flesh-formers, and less than 5 per cent. of fat-formers, the
+latter includes about 4 per cent. of flesh-formers, and 13 per cent. of
+fat-formers. Again, whilst the amount of woody fibre in turnips is only
+about 3 per cent., that substance constitutes no less than 60 per cent.
+of oat-straw. In comparison with hay--taking into consideration the
+prices of both articles--oat-straw also stands high, as will be seen
+by comparing the following analyses of common meadow hay with that of
+properly harvested straw:--
+
+                                       Meadow Hay.       Oat Straw.
+
+  Water                                   14.61            14.00
+  Flesh-forming constituents               8.44             6.17
+  Respiratory and fatty matters           43.63            15.63
+  Woody fibre                             27.16            59.96
+  Mineral matter (ash)                     6.16             4.24
+                                         ------           ------
+                                         100.00           100.00
+
+Woody fibre is as abundant a constituent of the straw of the cereals
+as starch is of their seeds, and if the two substances were equally
+digestible, straw would be a very valuable food--superior even to the
+potato. At one time it was the general belief that woody fibre was
+incapable of contributing in the slightest degree to the nutrition of
+animals, but the results of recent investigations prove that it is, to a
+certain extent, digestible. In the summer of 1859 two German chemists,
+Stoeckhardt and Sussdorf, made a series of experiments, with the view
+of ascertaining whether or not the cellulose[30] of the food of the
+sheep is assimilated by that animal. The results of this inquiry are of
+importance, seeing that they clearly prove that even the hardest kind of
+cellulose--_sclerogen_, in fact--is capable of being assimilated by the
+Ruminants. The animals selected were two wethers, aged respectively five
+and six years. They were fed--firstly, upon hay alone; secondly, upon
+hay and rye-straw; thirdly upon hay and the sawdust of poplar wood,
+which had been exhausted with lye (to induce the sheep to eat the
+sawdust, it was found necessary to mix through it some rye-bran and a
+little salt); fourthly, hay and pine-wood sawdust, to which was added
+bran and salt; fifthly, spruce sawdust, bran and salt; sixthly, hay,
+pulp of linen rags (from the paper-maker), and bran. The experiments
+were carried on from July till November, excepting a short time, during
+which the animals were turned out on pasture-land, to recover from the
+injurious effects of the fifth series of experiments--produced probably
+by the resin of the spruce. The animals, together with their food,
+drink, and egesta, were weighed daily. The amount of cellulose in the
+food was determined, and the proportion of that substance in the egesta
+was also ascertained; and as there was a considerable discrepancy
+between the two amounts, it was evident that the difference represented
+the weight of the cellulose assimilated by the animals. In this way it
+was ascertained that from 60 to 70 per cent. of the cellulose of hay,
+40 to 60 per cent. of the cellulose of straw, 45 to 50 per cent. of the
+cellulose of the poplar wood, 30 to 40 per cent. of the cellulose of the
+pine, and 80 per cent. of the cellulose of the paper pulp was digested.
+
+In stating the results of his analyses of the straws, Professor Voelcker
+sets down as "digestible" that portion of the cellulose which he found
+to be soluble in dilute acids and alkaline solutions; but he admits that
+the solvents in the stomach might dissolve a larger amount. The results
+of the experiments of Stoeckhardt and Sussdorf prove that 80 per cent. of
+the cellulose of paper (the altered fibre of flax) is assimilable, and
+it is, therefore, not unreasonable to infer that the cellulose of a more
+palatable substance than paper might be altogether digestible.
+
+The facts which I have adduced clearly prove that the straws of the
+cereals possess a far higher nutritive power than is commonly ascribed
+to them; that when properly harvested they contain from 20 to 40 per
+cent. of undoubted nutriment; and lastly, that it is highly probable
+that their so-called indigestible woody fibre is to a great extent
+assimilable.
+
+The composition of cellulose is nearly, if not quite, identical with
+that of starch, and it may therefore be assumed to be equal in nutritive
+power to that substance--that is, it will, if assimilated, be converted
+into four-tenths of its weight of fat. Now as cellulose forms from
+six-tenths to eight-tenths of the weight of straws, it is evident that
+if the whole of this substance were digestible, straws would be an
+exceedingly valuable fattening food. When straw in an unprepared state
+is consumed, there is no doubt but that a large proportion of its
+cellulose remains unappropriated--nay more, it is equally certain that
+the hard woody fibre protects, by enveloping them, the soluble and
+easily digestible constituents of the straw from the action of the
+_gastric juice_. I would, therefore, recommend that straw should be
+either cooked or fermented before being made use of; in either of these
+states its constituents are far more digestible than when the straw
+is merely cut, or even when it is in the form of chaff. An excellent
+mode of treating straw is to reduce it to chaff, subject it to the
+action of steam, and mix it with roots and oil-cake or corn. Mr.
+Lawrence, of Cirencester, one of the most intelligent agriculturists
+in England, cooks his chaff, which he largely employs, in the following
+manner:--"We find that, taking a score of bullocks together fattening,
+they consume, per head per diem, 3 bushels of chaff mixed with just half
+a hundred-weight of pulped roots, exclusive of cake or corn; that is to
+say, rather more than 2 bushels of chaff are mixed with the roots, and
+given at two feeds, morning and evening, and the remainder is given
+with the cake, &c., at the middle day feed, thus:--We use the steaming
+apparatus of Stanley, of Peterborough, consisting of a boiler in the
+centre, in which the steam is generated, and which is connected by a
+pipe on the left hand with a large galvanised iron receptacle for
+steaming food for pigs, and on the right with a large wooden tub lined
+with copper, in which the cake, mixed with water, is made into a thick
+soup. Adjoining this is a slate tank of sufficient size to contain one
+feed for the entire lot of bullocks feeding. Into this tank is laid
+chaff, about one foot deep, upon which a few ladles of soup are thrown
+in a _boiling state_; this is thoroughly mixed with the chaff with a
+three-grained fork, and pressed down firm; and this process is repeated
+until the slate tank is full, when it is covered down for an hour or two
+before feeding time. The soup is then found entirely absorbed by the
+chaff, which has become softened, and prepared for ready digestion."
+A cheap plan is to mix the straw with sliced roots, moisten the mass
+with water, and allow it to remain until a slight fermentation has set
+in. This process effectually softens and disintegrates, so to speak, the
+woody fibre, and sets free the stores of nutritious matters which it
+envelopes. Some farmers who hold straw in high estimation, prefer giving
+it just as it comes from the field; they base this practice on the
+belief that Ruminants require a bulky and solid food, and that their
+digestive powers are quite sufficient to effect the solution of all the
+useful constituents of the straw. It may be quite true that cattle, as
+asserted, can extract more nutriment out of straw than horses can, but
+that merely proves the greater power of their digestive organs. No doubt
+the food of the Ruminants should be bulky; but I am quite sure that
+cooked or fermented straw is sufficiently so to satisfy the desire of
+those animals for quantity in their food.
+
+So far as I can learn, all the carefully conducted feeding experiments
+to test the value of straw which have been made, have yielded results
+highly favorable to that article. Mr. Blundell, in a paper on "The Use
+and Abuse of Straw," read before the Botley (Hampshire) Farmer's Club,
+states that in his experience he found straw to be more economical than
+its equivalent of roots or oil-cake, in the feeding of all kinds of
+cattle:--
+
+    I find (says Mr. Blundell) that dairy cows, in the winter months,
+    if fed on large quantities of roots, particularly mangels and
+    carrots, will refuse to eat straw almost entirely, and become
+    very lean; but they will always eat a full portion of sweet,
+    well-harvested straw, when they get a small and moderate allowance
+    of roots, say, for an ordinary-sized cow, 15 lbs. of mangel three
+    times per day, the roots being given whole, just in the state they
+    come from the store heap. Again, calves and yearlings being fed
+    with roots in the same way, will eat a large quantity of straw, and
+    when they have been kept under cover I have had them in first-rate
+    condition for many years past. Also, in fattening beasts, when they
+    get a fair allowance of roots, say 65 to 70 lbs. per day, with
+    from 3 to 4 lbs. of cake or meal in admixture, they will eat straw
+    with great avidity, and do well upon it, and make a profit. It is,
+    however, often the case that bullocks receive 100 lbs., or upwards,
+    of roots per day, with a large quantity of cake or meal, often
+    10 or 12 lbs. per day; they will not then look at straw, and are
+    obliged to be fed with hay. The cost price of these quantities
+    and kinds of food stands so high that the animals do not yield a
+    profit; for although they may make meat a little faster, yet the
+    proportionate increase is nothing compared to the increased cost
+    of the feeding materials used.
+
+
+Mr. Blundell gives us also the tabulated results of one of his
+experiments, which prove that by the use of straw there is to be
+obtained something more than manure by the feeding of stock:--
+
+  COST OF FEEDING AN OX PER WEEK WITH STRAW, ETC.,
+  ACCORDING TO MR. BLUNDELL.
+
+                                                       s.  d.
+   4 lbs. of oil-cake per day,
+          or 38 lbs. per week, at L10 per ton          2   6
+  64 lbs. of roots ditto,
+          or 4 cwt. ditto, at 13s. 4d. ditto           2   8
+  20 lbs. of straw feeding,
+          or 1-1/4 cwt. ditto, at 30s. ditto           1  10-1/2
+  20 lbs. of straw litter,
+          or 1-1/4 cwt. ditto, at 15s. ditto           0  11
+
+          Attendance, &c., per week                    0   1
+                                                      ----------
+                                                       8   0-1/2
+          Deduct value of manure, per week             1   3-1/2
+                                                      ----------
+                                                       6   9
+          Increased value of ox per week              10   0
+          Deduct cost of feeding                       6   9
+                                                      ----------
+                                                       3   3
+
+If we now turn to the study of the composition of straw regarded from
+an economic point of view, we shall find that the theoretical deductions
+therefrom harmonise with the results of actual feeding experiments. Let
+us assume that 100 parts of oat-straw contain on an average--
+
+   1 part of oil,
+   4 parts of flesh-formers,
+  10 parts of sugar, gum, and other fat-formers, and
+  30 parts of digestible fibre;
+
+and if the price of the straw be 30s. per ton, we shall have at that
+cost the following quantities of digestible substances:--
+
+  ONE TON OF OAT-STRAW, AT 30s., CONTAINS:--
+
+                                                            lbs.
+
+  [31] Oil                                                  22.4
+  Flesh-forming principles                                  89.6
+  Sugar, gum, and other fat-forming substances             224.0
+  Digestible fibre                                         672.0
+                                                         -------
+                                                         1,008.0
+  [32] Total amount of fat-formers, calculated as starch   952.0
+  Add flesh-formers                                         89.6
+                                                         -------
+  Total amount of nutritive matter                       1,041.6
+
+We shall now compare this table with a similar one in relation to the
+composition of linseed cake, which will place the greater comparative
+value of straw in a clearer light.
+
+A fair sample of linseed-cake contains, centesimally--
+
+  Flesh-formers                                               26
+  Oil                                                         12
+  Gum, mucilage, sugar, &c.                                   34
+  Woody fibre                                                  6
+
+  ONE TON OF LINSEED CAKE, AT L11, CONTAINS:--
+
+                                                            lbs.
+
+  Flesh-forming principles                                 582.4
+  Oil                                                      268.8
+  Gum, sugar, and other fat-formers                        761.6
+  Woody fibre                                               74.4
+                                                         -------
+                                                         1,687.2
+  Total amount of fat-formers, calculated as starch      1,508.0
+  Add flesh-formers                                        582.4
+                                                         -------
+  Total amount of nutriment                              2,090.4
+
+These comparisons are very instructive and important. We learn from
+them that we pay L11 for 2,000 lbs. of nutriment, when we purchase a
+ton of linseed-cake, whereas, when we invest 30s. in a ton of straw, we
+receive 1,000 lbs. of digestible aliment. It cannot be said that I have
+strained any points in favour of the straw; on the contrary, I believe
+that when that article is cut in proper season and well harvested,
+its composition will be found far superior to that detailed in the
+comparative analysis. It must be borne in mind, too, that I take no
+account of the 30 per cent. of the so-called indigestible woody fibre
+which straw contains, and which, I believe, is partly assimilable
+under ordinary circumstances, and could be rendered nearly altogether
+digestible by proper treatment; on the other hand, I have assumed that
+the woody fibre of the oil-cake is completely digestible, although
+I believe it is in reality less so than the fibre of straw.
+
+It is an important point in the composition of oil-cakes, that they
+contain a large proportion of ready-formed fatty matters which can,
+with but little alteration, be at once transmuted into animal fat.
+There are some individuals of the genus _Homo_ to whose stomachs fat,
+_per se_, is intolerable; nevertheless, as a general rule, fatty
+substances exercise a favorable influence in the process of digestion,
+and, either in a separate state, or intimately commingled with other
+aliments, constitute a large proportion of the food of man. Digestion in
+the lower animals is, no doubt, similarly promoted by mixing with the
+aliments which are to be subjected to that process, a due proportion of
+oily or fatty matter. Straw is relatively deficient in the flesh-forming
+principles, and abounds in the fat-forming elements--of which, however,
+the most valuable, oil, is the least abundant. Now, if we add to straw
+a due proportion of some substance very rich in flesh-formers and oil,
+the compound will possess in nicely adjusted proportions all the
+elements of nutrition. Perhaps the best kind of food which we could
+employ for this purpose is linseed meal. It contains about 24 per
+cent. of flesh-formers, 35 per cent. of a very bland oil, and 24 per
+cent. of gum, sugar, and mucilage. Linseed-cake may be substituted for
+linseed-meal; but the meal, though its cost is 15 per cent. greater, is,
+I believe, rather the better article of the two. Its flesh-formers are
+more soluble, and its oil thrice more abundant and far more palatable
+than the same principles in most samples of oil-cake. An important
+point, too, is, that linseed, unlike linseed-cake, is not liable to
+adulteration. As linseed possesses laxative properties it cannot be
+largely employed; the addition, however, of bean-meal--the binding
+tendency of which is well known--to a diet partly composed of linseed
+will neutralise, so to speak, the relaxing influence of the oily seed.
+If oil-cakes be used as an adjunct to straw, rape-cake will be found
+more economical than linseed-cake. If it be free from mustard, well
+steamed, and flavored with a little treacle, or a small quantity of
+locust-beans, it will be readily consumed, and even relished, by dairy
+and fattening stock.
+
+_Hay._--There is no food substance more variable or more complex than
+hay, for under that term are included, not only mixtures of grasses,
+but also of leguminous plants--clover, for example. The herbage of no
+two meadows is exactly alike; and the composition of the meadow plants
+is so greatly modified by differences of climate, soil, and mode of
+culture, that we have nothing to excite our wonder in the extreme
+variability of hay.
+
+The composition of the hay made from clover, lucerne, and various other
+kinds of artificial grasses, is shown in the table--which is based on
+the results of Way's analyses:--
+
+  COMPOSITION OF THE HAY OF ARTIFICIAL GRASSES.
+
+                               +-------------------------------------------
+                               | KEY:
+                               | A.--Flesh-forming Substances.
+                               | B.--Fatty Matters.
+                               | C.--Respiratory Substances.
+                               | D.--Woody Fibre.
+                               | E.--Ash.
+                               | F.--Water.
+  -----------------------------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+-----
+                               |   A.  |  B.  |   C.  |   D.  |  E.  |  F.
+                               +-------+------+-------+-------+------+-----
+  Trifolium pratense--         |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Red clover                 | 18.79 | 3.06 | 37.06 | 16.46 | 7.97 | 16.6
+  Trifolium pratense perenne-- |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Purple clover              | 15.98 | 3.41 | 35.35 | 21.63 | 6.96 |   "
+  Trifolium incarnatum--       |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Crimson clover             | 13.83 | 3.11 | 31.25 | 26.99 | 8.15 |   "
+  Trifolium medium--           |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Cowgrass                   | 20.27 | 2.97 | 30.30 | 20.12 | 9.67 |   "
+  Do., second specimen         | 15.64 | 3.98 | 41.38 | 15.70 | 6.64 |   "
+  Trifolium procumbens--       |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Hop trefoil                | 17.07 | 3.89 | 36.55 | 18.88 | 6.94 |   "
+  Trifolium repens--           |       |      |       |       |      |
+    White trefoil              | 15.63 | 3.65 | 33.37 | 22.11 | 8.57 |   "
+  Vicia sativa--               |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Common Vetch               | 19.68 | 2.55 | 32.87 | 22.82 | 5.42 |   "
+  Vicia sepium--               |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Bush vetch                 | 19.23 | 2.40 | 27.62 | 25.87 | 8.21 |   "
+  Onobrychis sativa--          |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Sainfoin                   | 15.38 | 2.51 | 38.30 | 20.59 | 6.56 |   "
+  Medicago sativa--            |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Lucerne                    | 10.63 | 2.30 | 33.47 | 28.51 | 8.42 |   "
+  Medicago lupulina--          |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Yellow clover              | 20.50 | 3.38 | 27.76 | 22.66 | 9.03 |   "
+  Plantago lanceolata--        |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Rib grass                  | 11.91 | 3.06 | 33.58 | 27.56 | 7.23 |   "
+  Poterium sanguisorba--       |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Burnet                     | 13.96 | 3.34 | 39.50 | 19.89 | 6.64 |   "
+  Achillea millefolium--       |       |      |       |       |      |
+    Millefoil                  |  8.62 | 2.09 | 37.88 | 27.24 | 7.50 |   "
+                               +-------+------+-------+-------+------+-----
+         Mean                  | 15.81 | 3.18 | 34.42 | 22.47 | 7.59 | 16.6
+  -----------------------------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+-----
+
+Very many analyses of hay have been made by British and Continental
+chemists, the results of which are of great interest to the
+agriculturist. The composition of the natural and artificial grasses,
+which is shown in the tables given in pages 158-9 will, if we reduce
+their per-centage of water to 16, give us an approximation to the
+composition of hay. If the herbage, too, be sown in the proper time, and
+the hay-making process be skilfully conducted, there will be but little
+difference, except in the amount of water, between the plants in their
+fresh and dry state; but owing to inopportune wet weather, and
+carelessness in manipulation, excellent herbage is not unfrequently
+converted into inferior hay.
+
+According to Dr. Voelcker, the average composition of meadow-hay, as
+deduced from the results of twenty-five analyses, is as follows:--
+
+  Water                                                    14.61
+  Flesh-forming constituents                                8.44
+  Respiratory and fatty matters                            43.63
+  Woody fibre                                              27.16
+  Mineral matter (ash)                                      6.16
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100.00
+
+Dr. Anderson's analysis of meadow-hay, one year old, and of inferior
+quality, gave the following results:--
+
+  Water                                                    13.13
+  Flesh-forming matters                                     4.00
+  Non-nitrogenous substances                               77.61
+  Mineral matter                                            5.26
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100.00
+
+The results of the investigations of Way prove that the herbage of
+water-grass meadows is more nutritious than that of dry meadows--results
+perfectly harmonious with the experience of practical men.
+
+It is a somewhat general belief, that the aftermath, or second cutting,
+is less nutritious than the first cutting; but there appears to be no
+chemical difference between the two crops, provided they be saved under
+equally favorable conditions. According to Dr. Anderson, the composition
+of clover-hay of the second cutting is as follows:--
+
+  Water                                                    16.84
+  Flesh-forming principles                                 13.52
+  Non-nitrogenous matters                                  64.43
+  Mineral matter (ash)                                      5.21
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100.00
+
+I have already shown the importance of reaping in proper season--not
+less necessary is it to mow before the plants ripen fully, and even
+before they flower. The results of the experiments of Stoeckhardt,
+Hellreigel, and Wolff, in relation to this point, are very interesting,
+and are well worthy of reproduction here.
+
+  RESULTS OF STOeCKHARDT'S AND HELLREIGEL'S EXPERIMENTS.
+
+  --------------------------+-----------------------++-----------------------
+                            |         Stem.         ||        Leaves.
+                            +-------+---------------||-------+---------------
+                            |       |      Hay.     ||       |      Hay.
+                            | Water +--------+------|| Water +--------+------
+                            |  in   |Flesh-  |      ||  in   |Flesh-  |
+                            | Fresh |forming | Ash. || Fresh |forming | Ash.
+                            | Plant.|Matters.|      || Plant.|Matters.|
+                            +-------+--------+------||-------+--------+------
+  Clover cut on the         |       |        |      ||       |        |
+    4th June, quite young   | 82.80 | 13.16  | 9.71 || 83.50 | 27.17  |  9.42
+    23rd " ready for cutting| 81.72 | 12.72  | 9.00 || 82.68 | 27.69  |  9.00
+    9th July, beginning to  |       |        |      ||       |        |
+      flower                | 82.41 | 12.40  | 6.12 || 77.77 | 15.83  | 10.46
+    29th July, full flower  | 78.30 |  9.28  | 4.63 || 70.80 | 19.20  |  9.58
+  21st August, ripe         | 69.40 |  6.75  | 4.82 || 65.70 | 18.94  | 12.33
+  --------------------------+-------+--------+------++-------+--------+------
+
+  RESULTS OF WOLFF'S EXPERIMENT.
+
+  -------------+------------------------------++-----------------------------
+               |           Red Clover.        ||         Alsike Clover.
+               +--------------+---------------++---------------+-------------
+               | Beginning    |    Full       ||  Beginning    |    Full
+               | to flower,   |   flower,     ||  to flower,   |   flower,
+               | 11th June.   |  25th June.   ||  23rd June.   |  29th June.
+               +--------------+---------------++-------+-------+------+------
+               |Fresh.| Hay.  | Fresh.| Hay.  || Fresh.| Hay.  |Fresh.| Hay.
+               +------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+------+------
+               | pct. | pct.  | pct.  | pct.  || pct.  | pct.  | pct. | pct.
+  Water        | 83.07| 16.66 | 76.41 | 10.66 || 86.98 | 16.66 | 82.60| 16.66
+  Ash          |  1.43|  7.04 |  1.67 |  5.90 ||  1.12 |  7.17 |  1.45|  6.94
+  Woody fibre  |  4.24| 20.87 |  8.88 | 37.37 ||  3.79 | 24.26 |  5.11| 24.47
+  Nutritive    |      |       |       |       ||       |       |      |
+    substances | 11.26| 55.43 | 13.04 | 46.07 ||  8.11 | 51.91 | 10.84| 51.93
+  -------------+------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+------+------
+
+During the operation of converting the grass--"natural" or
+"artificial"--into hay, there is more or less loss of nutritive matter
+sustained by fermentation, the dispersion of the smaller leaves by the
+wind, and other agencies. But this unavoidable loss is trivial when
+compared with the prodigious waste sustained, in Ireland at least, by
+allowing the hay to remain too long in cocks in the field. "Within the
+last three or four years," says Mr. Baldwin, of the Glasnevin Albert
+Model Farm, "we have made agricultural tours through twenty-five of
+the thirty-two counties of Ireland; and from careful consideration
+of the subject, and having in some instances used a tape-line and
+weighing-machine to assist our judgment, we have come to the conclusion
+that one-twentieth of the hay-crop of Ireland is permitted to rot
+in field-cocks. The portion on the ground, as well as that on the
+outside of the cocks, is too often only fit for manure. And the loss
+of aftermath, and of the subsequent year's crop (if hay or pasture),
+suffers to the extent of from sixpence to one shilling per acre. If we
+unite all these sources, the loss sustained annually in this country is
+something serious to contemplate. On an average, for all Ireland, it is
+not under 20 per cent., or a fifth of the actual value of the crop."
+This is a startling statement; but I do not believe it to be an
+exaggeration of the actual state of things.
+
+_Damaged Hay and Straw._--Damaged corn and potatoes, so much injured as
+to be unfit for human food, are generally given, and with apparently
+good results, to the inferior animals. The "meat manufacturing
+machines," as the edible varieties of the domesticated animals are now
+generally termed, are not very dainty in their choice of food; and
+vegetable substances which would excite the disgust of the lords of the
+creation are rendered nutritious and agreeable by being reorganised in
+the mechanisms of oxen, sheep, and pigs.
+
+Now, although it is pretty generally known that musty corn and
+diseased potatoes form good feeding stuffs, it is not so patent whether
+or not the natural food of stock, such as hay and straw in a diseased
+state, is proper food for those animals. This question is worthy of
+consideration. Firstly, I shall describe the nature of the diseases
+which most frequently affect fodder; these are, "mildew" and "mould."
+These diseases are produced by the ravages of minute and very low forms
+of vegetable life, termed by the botanists _epiphytical fungi_. The
+mildew (_Puccinia graminis_) generally attacks the grasses when they are
+growing, and is more frequently met with on rich and heavily manured
+soils. In localities where heavy night-fogs and dews are of common
+occurrence, this pest often destroys whole crops. On the other hand, in
+light, sandy, and well-drained soils, and in warm and dry districts,
+the mildew is a rare visitant. The "blue mould" (_Aspergillis glaucus_)
+attacks hay and straw in the stack or rick, and without any regard to
+their origin--no matter whether they were the produce of the wettest or
+the dryest, the warmest or the coldest of soils. The chief condition
+in the existence of the blue mould is excessive moisture. If the hay or
+straw be too green and succulent when put up, or if rain get at them
+in the rick, the mould is very likely to make its appearance, and the
+well-known odor termed _musty_ will speedily be developed.
+
+Neither the mildew nor the mould can, strictly speaking, be regarded as
+parasites, such as, for example, the flax-dodder, which feeds upon the
+healthy juices of the plant to which it is attached. It appears to me
+that the tissues and juices of the fodder-plants decay _first_, and then
+the mould or the mildew appears and feeds upon the decomposing matter.
+Now, as these vegetables belong to a poisonous class of fungi, it is
+more than probable that they convert the decomposing substance of the
+straw or hay into unwholesome, if not poisonous matter; and it is not
+unlikely but that the disagreeable odor which they evolve is designed by
+nature as a sign to the lower animals not to partake of mouldy food.
+There is no doubt but that most animals will instinctively reject fodder
+in this state; and the question arises, ought this odour to be destroyed
+or disguised, in order to induce the animals to eat the damaged stuff?
+The experience of most feeders who have largely consumed mouldy provender
+is, that although cattle may be induced to eat it, they never thrive
+upon such stuff if it form a heavy item in their diet. The reason of
+this is obvious. The nitrogenous portion of the straw is that which is
+chiefly assimilated by the fungi. And as this constituent is the one
+which contributes to the formation of muscle, and is naturally extremely
+deficient in straw and hay--more particularly the former--it follows
+that the animals fed upon mouldy fodder cannot elaborate it into lean
+flesh (muscle).
+
+In the case of young stock, mouldy fodder is altogether inadmissible,
+for these animals require abundance of flesh-forming materials--precisely
+those which the fungi almost completely remove from the diseased fodder.
+
+As large quantities of mouldy or mildewed provender are at the present
+moment to be found in many farmsteads, and as they are unsaleable,
+and must therefore be made use of in some way at home, it is well to
+consider the best way to dispose of them. In the case of straw, the
+greater portion will be required for litter, and if the whole of the
+damaged article can be disposed of in this way so much the better. If,
+however, there is more than is necessary for the bedding of the stock,
+it may be used in conjunction with sound fodder, but always in a cooked
+state. The greater part, if not the whole, of the diseased nitrogenous
+part of the straw is soluble in warm water, so that if the fodder be
+well steamed the poisonous matter will be eliminated to such an extent
+as to leave the article almost as wholesome as good straw, but not so
+nutritious. The straw cleansed in this way will be very deficient in
+flesh-forming, though not in fat-forming power, and this fact should
+be duly considered when the other items of the animal's food are
+being weighed out. Beans, malt-combs, and linseed-cake are rich in
+muscle-forming principles, and are consequently suitable adjuncts to
+damaged fodder; but the latter should never constitute the staple food,
+or be given unmixed with some sweet provender.
+
+When the fodder is considerably damaged it becomes, after steaming,
+nearly as tasteless as sawdust. To this kind of stuff the addition of a
+small amount of some flavorous material is very useful. For damaged hay,
+Mr. Bowick recommends the following mixture:--
+
+  Fenugreek (powdered)                                112 parts.
+  Pimento                                               4   "
+  Aniseed                                               4   "
+  Caraways                                              4   "
+  Cummin                                                2   "
+
+A pinch of this compound will render agreeably-flavored the most insipid
+kinds of fodder.
+
+Mr. Bowick states that he had fed large numbers of bullocks on damaged
+hay, flavored with this compound, and that their health was not thereby
+injured in the slightest degree.
+
+
+SECTION V.
+
+ROOTS AND TUBERS.
+
+The important part which the so-called root crops play in the modern
+systems of agriculture, has secured for them a large share of the
+attention of the chemist, so that our knowledge of their composition
+and relative nutritive value is very extensive. As compared with most
+other articles of food, the roots, as they are popularly called, of
+potatoes, turnips, mangels, carrots, and such like plants, contain a
+high proportion of water, and are not very nutritious; indeed, with the
+exception of the potato, none of them contain 20 per cent. of solid
+matter, and some not more than five per cent. They are, however, easily
+produced in great quantities, which compensates for their low nutritive
+value. I shall consider each of the more important roots separately.
+
+_The Turnip._--There are numerous varieties of this plant, which differ
+from each other in the relative proportions and total amount of their
+constituents, and even in different individuals of the same variety
+there is considerable variation in composition; hence the difficulty
+which has been felt by those who have endeavored to assign to this plant
+its relative nutritive value. From the average results of a great number
+of experiments, conducted both in the laboratory and the feeding-house,
+it is concluded that turnips are the most inferior roots produced in the
+field. The Swedish turnips are the most valuable kind: they contain a
+higher proportion of solid matter than the other varieties, and they are
+firmer and store better. The average composition of five varieties of
+turnips, as deduced from the results of the analyses of Anderson and
+Voelcker, is shown in the following table:--
+
+  ANALYSES OF TURNIPS.
+
+  ----------------------------+-------+-------+--------+---------+-------
+                              |Swedish| White |Aberdeen|Purpletop|Norfolk
+                              |Turnip.| Globe.|Yellows.|Yellows. |Bell.
+                              +-------+-------+--------+---------+-------
+  Water                       | 89.460| 90.430|  90.578|  91.200 | 92.280
+  Albuminous, or              |       |       |        |         |
+    flesh-forming substances  |  1.443|  1.143|   1.802|   1.117 |  1.737
+  Non-nitrogenous, or         |       |       |        |         |
+    fat-forming substances    |       |       |        |         |
+    (fat, gum, sugar, &c.)    |  5.932|  5.457|   4.622|   4.436 |  2.962
+  Woody fibre                 |  2.542|  2.342|   2.349|   2.607 |  2.000
+  Mineral matter (ash)        |  0.623|  0.628|   0.649|   0.640 |  1.021
+                              +-------+-------+--------+---------+-------
+                              |100.000|100.000| 100.000| 100.000 |100.000
+  ----------------------------+-------+-------+--------+---------+-------
+
+The _Greystone Turnip_ is a variety which has only quite recently been
+introduced. It is stated to be an uncommonly productive crop, usually
+yielding returns from 30 to 50 per cent. greater than those obtained
+from other varieties of the turnip. The composition of the Greystone
+turnip appears to be inferior, so that probably it is not, after all,
+a more economical plant than the ordinary kinds of turnips.
+
+  DR. ANDERSON'S ANALYSIS OF THE GREYSTONE TURNIP.
+
+                                           No. 1.            No. 2.
+                                       Grown on Clay.    Grown on Sand.
+
+  Water                                   93.84              94.12
+  Oil                                      0.26               0.34
+  Soluble albuminous matters               0.35               0.56
+  Insoluble ditto                          0.20               0.18
+  Soluble respiratory matters              2.99               2.32
+  Insoluble ditto (chiefly fibre)          1.73               1.85
+  Ash                                      0.63               0.63
+                                         ------             ------
+                                         100.00             100.00
+
+It was at one time the fashion--not yet become quite obsolete--to regard
+the proportion of nitrogen in the turnip as the measure of the nutritive
+value of the bulb; but the fallacy of this opinion has been shown by
+several late investigators, and more particularly by the results of
+one of the numerous series of feeding experiments conducted by Mr.
+Lawes. Many bulbs exceedingly rich in nitrogen are very deficient
+in nutritive power--partly from a deficiency in the other elements of
+nutrition--partly because most of their nitrogen is in so low a degree
+of elaboration as to be incapable of assimilation by animals. The value
+of a food-substance does not merely depend upon the amount and the
+relative proportion of its constituents, but also, and to a very great
+extent, upon their easy assimilability. There is but little doubt that
+the nutritive matters contained in the Swedish turnip when the bulb is
+fresh are very crude. By storing, certain chemical changes take place
+in the bulb, which render it more nutritious and palatable. A large
+proportion of the non-nitrogenous matters exist in the fresh root as
+pectin; but this substance, if the bulb be preserved for a couple of
+months, becomes in great part converted into sugar, which is one of the
+most palatable and fattening ingredients of cattle-food. By storing,
+too, the bulbs lose a portion of their excessive amount of water, and
+become less bulky, which is unquestionably a desideratum. These facts
+suggest the necessity for cultivating the earlier varieties of the
+turnip, for it may be fairly doubted if a late-grown crop, left
+for consumption in the field, ever, even under the most favorable
+circumstances, attains its perfect development. At the same time it
+must not be forgotten that turnips _fully matured_ in the field rather
+deteriorate than otherwise after a few weeks' storage.
+
+Many agriculturists consider that there is a strict relation between the
+specific gravity, or comparative weight of the bulb, and its nutritive
+value; others believe that a very large turnip must necessarily be
+inferior in feeding qualities to a small one; whilst not a few maintain
+that neither its size nor its specific gravity is an indication of its
+feeding qualities. Dr. Anderson, who has specially investigated a
+portion of this subject, states that "the specific gravity of the whole
+turnip cannot be accepted as indicating its real nutritive value, the
+proportion of air in the cells being the determining element in such
+results; that there is no constant relation between the specific gravity
+of, and the nitrogen compounds in, the bulb; and that such relation
+does exist between the specific gravity of the expressed juice and
+the nitrogen compounds and solid constituents." Dr. Anderson allows,
+however, that the best varieties of the turnip have the highest specific
+gravity; which admission--coupled with the fact admitted by all
+experimenters that the heavy roots store best--lead me to adopt the
+opinions of those who consider great specific gravity as one of the
+favorable indications of its nutritive value. With respect to size,
+I prefer bulbs of moderate dimensions; the monsters that win the prizes
+at our agricultural shows--and which, in general, are _forced_--are
+inferior in feeding qualities, are always _spongy_, and almost
+invariably rot when stored.
+
+The composition of the turnip is influenced not only by the nature of
+the soil on which it is grown, but also by that of the manure applied
+to it. The most reliable authorities are agreed that turnips raised on
+Peruvian guano are watery, and do not keep well; but that with a mixture
+of Peruvian guano and superphosphate of lime, with phospho-guano, or
+with farmyard manure supplemented with a moderate amount of guano, the
+most nutritious and firm bulbs are produced.
+
+Turnip-tops have been analysed by Voelcker, with the following
+results:--
+
+  ONE HUNDRED PARTS CONTAIN--
+
+                                                White.  Swedish.
+
+  Water                                         91.284    88.367
+  Nitrogen compounds                             2.456     2.087
+  Non-nitrogenous matters (gum, sugar, &c.)      0.648     1.612
+  Ditto, as woody fibre                          4.092     5.638
+  Mineral matter                                 1.520     2.296
+                                               -------   -------
+                                               100.000   100.000
+
+These figures apparently show that the tops of turnips are more
+valuable than their bulbs; but, in the absence of any feeding
+experiments made to determine the point, we believe they are less so,
+as a very large proportion of the solid matter in the tops of turnips
+is in too low a degree of elaboration to be assimilable. Their high
+proportions of nitrogen and mineral matter constitute them, however,
+a very useful manure--nearly twice as valuable as the bulbs; this
+fact should be borne in mind when turnips are sold off the land.
+
+_The Mangel-wurtzel_ is one of the most valuable of our green crops.
+Its root is more nutritious than the turnip, occupying a position in
+the scale of food equivalents midway between that bulb and the parsnip.
+Mangels, when fresh, possess a somewhat acrid taste, and act as a
+laxative when given to stock; but after a few months' storing they
+become sweet and palatable, and their _scouring_ property completely
+disappears.
+
+Although the mangel is one of the most nutritious articles of food
+which can be given to cattle, yet it is stated on the best authority
+that sheep do not thrive upon it. Voelcker, who has investigated this
+subject, informs us that a lot of sheep which he fed on a limited
+quantity of hay and an unlimited quantity of mangels, did not, during a
+period of four months, increase in weight, whilst another lot of sheep
+supplied with a small quantity of hay, and Swedish turnips _ad libitum_
+increased on an average 2-1/2 lbs. weekly. I believe the experience of
+the greater number of feeders agrees with the results of Dr. Voelcker's
+experiment.
+
+The chemistry of the mangel-wurtzel has been thoroughly studied by Way
+and Ogston, Fromberg, Wolff, Anderson, and Voelcker. According to the
+last-named chemist, its average composition is as follows:--
+
+  Water                                                    87.78
+  Flesh-forming matters                                     1.54
+  Sugar                                                     6.10
+  Gum, pectin, &c.                                          2.50
+  Woody fibre                                               1.12
+  Mineral matter (ash)                                      0.96
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100.00
+
+It is difficult to accurately determine by a comparative trial the
+relative feeding properties of mangels and turnips, for the former
+are only in a fit state to be given to the animals when the latter
+are deteriorating. However, by comparing the composition of the two
+substances, and the results obtained from numerous feeding experiments,
+it would appear, that on the average 75 lbs. weight of mangels are equal
+to 100 lbs. weight of turnips. Of the different varieties of the mangel
+the long yellow appears to be the most nutritious, and the long red the
+least so.
+
+The leaves of the mangel--some of which are occasionally pulled and used
+for feeding purposes, during the growth of the bulb--are an excellent
+feeding substance: their composition indicates a nutritive value but
+little inferior to that of the root; but as their constituents cannot be
+in a highly elaborated condition, it is probable they are not more than
+equal to half their weight of the bulbs.
+
+One _questio vexata_ of the many which at present occupy the attention
+of the agricultural world is, whether or not the leaves of mangels may
+be removed with advantage during the latter part of the development of
+the plants. This practice prevailed rather extensively a few years since,
+but latterly it has fallen somewhat into disuse.
+
+Those who adopt this plan urge, as its advantages, that a large quantity
+of food is obtained at a time when it is urgently needed, and that
+instead of the removal of the leaves exercising an injurious influence
+on the development of the roots, the latter are actually increased in
+size.
+
+In 1859 an experimental investigation was carried out at the Glasnevin
+Model Farm, with the view of throwing new light on the question. The
+outside leaves were very gradually removed on different occasions--from
+the 12th August to the 15th October. In this way five tons of leaves per
+statute acre were removed, and subsequently made use of for feeding
+purposes. The experiment was conducted on a field of four acres, of
+which the produce of 12 drills, each 200 yards in length, was left
+untouched. The result was that the produce of the roots of the untouched
+plants was only 40 tons 8 cwt. 6 qrs. per acre, whilst the roots of the
+plants which had been partly denuded of their leaves weighed at the rate
+of 45 tons 1 cwt. This experiment afforded results which are apparently
+favorable to the practice of stripping the leaves; but it is to be
+regretted that it was not rendered more complete by an analysis of the
+roots, as a great bulk of roots does not necessarily imply a great
+weight of dry food, and it is just possible, though not very probable,
+that the roots of the stripped mangels contained a larger proportion of
+water than those of the untouched plants.
+
+The results of the experiments of Buckman, and of Professor Wolff, of
+the Royal Agricultural College at Hohenheim, are at direct variance with
+those obtained at Glasnevin. Both of these experimenters found that the
+removal of the leaves occasioned a diminution in the produce of the
+roots to the amount of 20 per cent. Nor was this the only loss, for it
+was found by the German professor that the roots of the untouched plants
+possessed a far higher nutritive value than those of the stripped
+mangels.
+
+When doctors differ, who is to decide? Here we have high authorities in
+the agricultural world at direct variance on a matter of fact. The names
+of Buckman and Wolff are a sufficient guarantee that the experimental
+results which they announce are trustworthy, and I can testify, from
+observation, that no field experiments could be more carefully conducted
+than those carried out at the Albert Model Farm. We can only, then,
+under the circumstances, admit that both Mr. Boyle, on the one side,
+and Professors Buckman and Wolff on the other, are correct in their
+statements of fact; but as it is evident both cannot be right in the
+general inferences therefrom, it is desirable that the subject should be
+still further investigated, and the truth be placed beyond doubt. It is
+a question which appears so simple that one is at a loss to account for
+the discrepant opinions in relation to it which prevail. "Let nothing
+induce the growers," says Mr. Paget, in a paper on the cultivation of
+the mangel, "to strip the leaves from the plant before taking up the
+root. A series of careful experiments has convinced me that by so doing
+we borrow food at a most usurious interest." "Although," says Mr. Boyle,
+"the practice of stripping has been followed for many years on the farm
+without any perceptible injury to the crop, these results, showing so
+considerable an addition to the crop from taking off the leaves, were
+hardly anticipated." It certainly does appear somewhat at variance with
+our notion of the functions of the leaves of plants, that their partial
+removal could possibly cause an increase in the weight of the roots;
+but granting such to be the fact, it is not altogether _theoretically_
+inexplicable. We know that highly nitrogenous manure has a tendency to
+increase the development of the leaves of turnips at the _expense_ of
+the roots. Gardeners, too, not unfrequently remove some of the buds from
+their fruit trees, lest the excessive development of foliage should
+retard or check the _growth_ of the fruit. _Theoretically_ an excessive
+development of the leaves of the mangel may be inimical to the growth
+of the root. Probably, too, it may be urged, the outer leaves, which
+soon become partially disorganised and incapable of elaborating mineral
+matter into vegetable products, prevent the access of light to the more
+vigorous inner leaves. In conclusion, I may say of this subject that it
+is worthy of further elucidation; and I would suggest to my readers,
+and more especially to the managers of the various model farms, the
+desirability of fully testing the matter.
+
+The _White Beet_ is a congener of the mangel. It is largely grown on the
+continent as a sugar-producing plant, but is seldom cultivated in these
+countries. It produces about 15 tons of roots per acre, and its roots on
+the average contain--
+
+  Water                                                     83.0
+  Sugar                                                     10.0
+  Flesh-formers                                              2.5
+  Fat-formers                                                1.5
+  Fibre                                                      2.0
+  Ash                                                        1.0
+                                                           -----
+                                                           100.0
+
+This plant is deserving of more extensive growth in Great Britain.
+
+The _Parsnip_ is, after the potato, the most valuable of roots. It
+differs from the turnip and the mangel in containing a high proportion
+of starch, and but little sugar; and its flesh-forming constituents are
+largely made up of casein, instead of, as in the case of the turnip,
+albumen.
+
+The average composition of the parsnip is as follows:--
+
+  Water                                                    82.00
+  Flesh-forming principles                                  1.30
+  Fat-formers (starch, sugar, &c.)                          7.75
+  Woody fibre                                               8.00
+  Mineral matter (ash)                                      0.95
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100.00
+
+The parsnip is extensively grown in many foreign countries, on
+account of its valuable feeding properties. As a field-crop it is but
+little cultivated in Great Britain, and its use is--if we except the
+table--almost restricted to pigs. Its food equivalent is about double
+that of the turnip; that is, one pound of parsnips is equal to two
+pounds of turnips.
+
+The _Carrot_ bears a close resemblance to the parsnip, from which,
+however, it differs, containing no starch, and being somewhat inferior
+in nutritive value. According to Voelcker, its average composition is
+as follows:--
+
+  Water                                                    88.50
+  Flesh-formers                                             0.60
+  Fat-formers (including woody fibre)                      10.18
+  Mineral matter (ash)                                      0.72
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100.00
+
+As carrots contain a high proportion of fat-forming matters, and a low
+per-centage of flesh-forming substances, they are better adapted for
+fattening purposes. Dairy stock greedily eat them; and they are given
+with great advantage to horses out of condition.
+
+_Kohl-Rabi._--This plant, though early introduced into the agriculture
+of these countries, has made but little progress in the estimation
+of the farmer. It belongs to the order and genus which include the
+turnip, but differs widely from that plant in its mode of growth. Its
+bulb--which is formed by an enormous development of the overground
+stem--is, according to some authorities, less liable than the turnip
+to injury from frost. It is subject to no diseases, save anbury and
+clubbing; and, owing to its position above the soil, it can be readily
+eaten off by sheep. The bulbs store better than Swedes, and, according
+to some farmers, keep even better than mangels. With respect to the
+flavor of this bulb, there is some difference of opinion. Professor
+Wilson, of Edinburgh, quotes several eminent feeders to prove that
+"whether in the fold for sheep, in the yard for cattle, or in the
+stables for horses, it will generally be preferred to the other
+descriptions of homegrown keep." Mr. Baldwin, on the contrary, states
+that although good food for sheep, it is too hard-fleshed for old ewes,
+and that carrots are better food for horses, and Swedish turnips for
+cattle.
+
+An accurately conducted comparative trial to test the nutritive value
+of the Kohl-rabi, was conducted at the Glasnevin Model Farm, under the
+direction of Mr. Baldwin. The experiment was commenced in January, 1863.
+Four oxen were selected, and divided into two lots. Nos. 1 and 2 (Lot 1)
+were fed on Kohl-rabi, oil-cake, and hay, and Nos. 3 and 4 (Lot 2) on
+Swedish turnips, oil-cake, and hay. As the animals supplied with the
+Kohl-rabi did not appear to relish it, and as it was desirable to
+gradually accustom them to the change of food, the experiment did not
+really commence till the 12th January. On that date the weights of the
+animals were as follows:--
+
+                      cwt.  st.    |                   cwt.  st.
+                                   |
+     Lot 1.  {No. 1.   10    1     |   Lot 2.  {No. 3.   7    5
+             {No. 2.    7    4     |           {No. 4.  10    2
+                       -------     |                    -------
+                       17    5     |                    17    7
+
+The lots, therefore, counterpoised each other pretty fairly. From the
+12th to the 28th January they received the following quantities of food
+per diem:--
+
+                                   1.      2.      3.      4.
+
+  Roots                   stones   7-1/2   6       6       7-1/2
+  Oil cake                pounds   4-1/2   3       3       4-1/2
+  Hay                     pounds  10-1/2  10-1/2  10-1/2  10-1/2
+
+The animals fed upon the Kohl-rabi evinced from the first a
+disinclination to it, but they nevertheless ate it before their meal of
+oil-cake was supplied to them. On the morning of the 28th January they
+were put upon the dietary shown in the table, and which induced them to
+eat the Kohl-rabi more quickly.
+
+                                   1.      2.      3.      4.
+
+  At 6.30 a.m.    {Roots, Stones   3       2-1/2   2-1/2   3-1/2
+                  {Cake, lbs.      1-1/2   1       1       1
+
+  At 12.30 a.m.   {Roots, Stones   3       2-1/2   2-1/2   3-1/2
+                  {Cake, lbs.      1-1/2   1       1       1
+
+  At 6.30 p.m.    {Roots, Stones   3       2-1/2   2-1/2   3-1/2
+                  {Cake, lbs.      1-1/2   1       1       1
+
+  At 9.30 p.m.     Hay, lbs.       7       7       7       7
+
+On the 11th February the cattle were again weighed, when their increase
+was found to be as follows:--
+
+                               Weight on   Weight on  Increase in
+                               Jan. 12.    Feb. 11.   30 days.
+
+                               cwt. st.    cwt. st.       st.
+
+  1} Lot 1, fed on Kohl-rabi,}  10   1      10   4         3
+  2}   &c.                   }   7   4       7   6         2
+                                                          ---
+            Total                                          5
+
+  3} Lot 2, fed on Swedes,   }   7   5       8   3         6
+  4}   &c.                   }  10   2      10   7-1/4     5-1/2
+                                                          ------
+            Total                                         11-1/2
+
+The results of this experiment show that the animals fed upon Swedish
+turnips, hay, and oil-cake, increased in weight at a rate more than
+100 per cent. greater than the lot supplied with equal quantities of
+Kohl-rabi, hay, and oil-cake. The superiority of the Swedish turnips was
+rendered more evident by the results of subsequent experiments. Nos. 1
+and 4 were not tried after the 11th February; but Nos. 2 and 3 were kept
+under experiment. No. 2 was put on Swedes, and No. 3 on mangel-wurtzel,
+and after an interval of a fortnight No. 2 had increased much more than
+they had done on Kohl-rabi.
+
+Specimens of the Kohl-rabi and Swedish turnips employed in this
+experiment were submitted to me for analysis by Mr. Baldwin, and yielded
+the following results:--
+
+                                                          Swedish
+                                              Kohl-rabi.  Turnip.
+
+  Water                                         87.62      88.84
+  Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles       2.24       1.66
+  Non-nitrogenous, or fat-forming principles     7.78       6.07
+  Woody fibre                                    1.34       2.73
+  Mineral matter (ash)                           1.22       0.70
+                                               ------     ------
+                                               100.00     100.00
+
+These results show a slight superiority of the Kohl-rabi over the Swedish
+turnip; the great difference in their nutritive power, as shown by Mr.
+Baldwin's experimental results, must therefore be due to the superior
+flavor and digestibility of the turnip.
+
+Dr. Anderson's analysis of Kohl-rabi afforded results more favorable to
+the highly nutritive character assigned by some feeders to that bulb
+than those arrived at by me. The bulbs, it should however be remarked,
+were grown, no doubt with great care, by Messrs. Lawson and Son, the
+well-known seedsmen:--
+
+  ANALYSIS OF KOHL-RABI, BY DR. ANDERSON.
+
+                                              Bulbs.       Tops.
+
+  Water                                       86.74        86.68
+  Flesh-forming principles                     2.75         2.37
+  Fat-forming principles                       8.62         8.29
+  Woody fibre                                  0.77         1.21
+  Mineral matter                               1.12         1.45
+                                             ------       ------
+                                             100.00       100.00
+
+The _Radish_ is a plant which deserves a place amongst our field crops,
+though hitherto its cultivation has been restricted to the garden. At
+one time its leaves were boiled and eaten, but in these latter days they
+are subjected to neither of these processes. The root, however, in its
+raw state, is, as every one is aware, considered one of the dainties of
+the table.
+
+Many of those who devote themselves to the important study of dietetics,
+consider the use of raw vegetables to be objectionable; but be their
+objections groundless, or the reverse, it is certain that a vegetable
+which, like the radish, may be eaten raw with apparently good results,
+cannot be otherwise than a good article of food when cooked. I once
+tried the experiment of eating matured radishes, not as a salad, but
+cooked like any other boiled vegetable, and I must say that I found
+their flavor rather agreeable than otherwise. Boiled radishes--roots and
+tops--form excellent feeding for pigs. How could it be otherwise? for
+what is good for the family of man must surely be a luxury to the swine
+tribe. I have known horses to eat radishes greedily, and I am certain
+that they would prove acceptable to all the animals of the farm. But
+it may be asked, why it is that I recommend the use of radishes as
+food for stock, when there are already so many more nutritious roots
+at our disposal--turnips, mangels, and potatoes. Simply for this
+reason:--Between the departure of the roots and the advent of the
+grasses, there is a kind of interregnum.[33] Now we want a good tuberous,
+bulbous, or tap-rooted plant to fill up this interregnum. Such a plant
+we have in the radish. The root is certainly a small one, but then it
+grows so rapidly that a good supply can be had within thirty days from
+the sowing of the seed, and a crop can be matured before the time for
+sowing turnips. Two crops may be easily obtained from land under
+potatoes--one before the tops cover the ground, the other after the
+tubers have been dug out. The yield of radishes, judging from the
+produce in the garden, would be at least six tons of roots and three
+tons of tops. I would suggest, then, that the radish should at once
+get a fair chance as a stolen crop. If it succeed as such, it will
+not be the first gift of the gardener to the husbandman. Was not the
+mangel-wurtzel once known only as the produce of the garden?
+
+The composition of the radish indicates a nutritive value less than that
+of the white turnip. I have analysed both the root and the tops, and
+obtained the following results:--
+
+  ANALYSIS OF THE RADISH.
+
+                                              Root.        Tops.
+
+  Water                                      95.09         94.30
+  Flesh-forming principles                    0.52          0.75
+  Fat-formers (starch, gum, fat, &c.)         1.06          1.16
+  Woody fibre                                 2.22          2.36
+  Mineral matter (ash)                        1.11          1.43
+                                            ------        ------
+                                            100.00        100.00
+
+The _Jerusalem Artichoke_ has long been cultivated as a field-crop on
+the Continent, and in certain localities the breadth occupied by it
+is very considerable. The French term the tuberous root of this plant
+_poitre de terre_, or _topin ambour_; and although they expose it for
+sale in the markets, it is not much relished by our lively neighbours,
+who are so remarkable for their _cuisiniere_. As food for cattle,
+however, the French agricultural writers state it to be excellent.
+It is much relished by horses, dairy cows, and pigs; store horned-stock
+also eat it when seasoned with a little salt, and appear to enjoy it
+amazingly when permitted to pull up the roots from the soil. The green
+tops are also given to sheep and cattle, and, it is stated, are readily
+eaten by those animals.
+
+The Jerusalem artichoke (_Helianthus Tuberoses_) differs from its half
+namesake, the common artichoke, and resembles the potato in being
+valuable chiefly for its tubers. It is perennial, and attains on the
+Continent a height varying from 7 to 10 feet. In this country its
+dimensions are less. The stem is erect, thick, coarse, and covered with
+hairs. It is a native of Mexico, and although introduced 200 years ago
+into Europe, it can hardly be said to be acclimatised, since it very
+seldom flowers, and never develops seed. The plant is therefore
+propagated by cuttings from its tubers, each containing one or two eyes;
+or if the tubers be very small, which is often the case, a whole one is
+planted. The tubers possess great vitality, and remain in the ground
+during the most severe frosts, without sustaining the slightest injury.
+For this reason it is usual to devote a corner of the garden to the
+cultivation of the Jerusalem artichoke; for, no matter how completely
+the crop may appear to have been removed from the soil, portions of the
+tubers will remain and shoot up into plants during the following season.
+This peculiarity of the plant it is likely may prove an obstacle to its
+having a place assigned to it in the rotation system.
+
+The question now presents itself--What are the peculiar advantages which
+the crop possesses which should commend it to the notice of the British
+farmer? I shall try to answer the question.
+
+1st. No green crop (except furze) can be grown in so great a variety of
+soils; except marshy or wet lands, there is no soil in which it refuses
+to grow.
+
+2nd. It does not suffer from disease, is very little affected by the
+ravages of insects, is completely beyond the influence of cold, and may
+remain either above or below ground for a long time without undergoing
+any injurious changes in composition.
+
+3rd. It gives a good return, when we consider that it requires very
+little manure, and but little labor in its management.
+
+At Bechelbronn, the farm of the celebrated Boussingault, the average
+yield is nearly eleven tons per acre, but occasionally over fourteen
+tons is obtained. Donoil, a farmer of Bailiere, in the department of
+Haut-loire, states that he fed sheep exclusively on the tops and tubers
+of this plant, and that he estimated his profits at L23 per hectare
+(L9 3s. 4d. per acre). The soil was very inferior. Donoil terms it
+third-rate, and it does not appear to have been manured even once
+during the fifteen years it was under Jerusalem artichoke. I fear our
+artificial manure manufacturers will hardly look with a favorable eye
+on the advent of a crop into our agriculture which can get on so well
+without the intervention of any fertilising agents. Indeed, several of
+the French writers state that little or no manure is necessary for this
+plant. But this can hardly be the case; for it is evident that a crop
+which, according to Way and Ogston, removes 35 lbs. of mineral matter
+per ton from the soil, or three times as much potash as turnips do, must
+certainly be greatly benefited by the application of manure. And I have
+no doubt but that the Jerusalem artichoke, if well manured and grown
+in moderately fertile soil, would produce a much heavier crop than our
+Continental neighbors appear to get from it.
+
+4th. The Jerusalem artichoke may be cultivated with advantage in places
+where ordinary root-crops either fail or thrive badly. In such cases
+the ground should be permanently devoted to this crop. Kade gives an
+instance where a piece of indifferent ground had for thirty-three years
+produced heavy crops of this plant, although during that time neither
+manure nor labor had been applied to it. In Ireland the potato has been
+grown under similar circumstances.
+
+The nutritive constituents of tubers of the Jerusalem artichoke bear
+a close resemblance in every respect, save one, to those of the
+potato. Both contain about 75 per cent. of water, about 2 per cent.
+of flesh-forming substances, and 20 per cent. of non-nitrogenous, or
+fat-forming and heat-giving elements. In one respect there is a great
+difference--namely, that sugar makes up from 8 to 12 per cent. of the
+Jerusalem artichoke, whilst there is but a small proportion of that
+substance in the potato.
+
+The large quantity of sugar contained in this root is no doubt the cause
+of its remarkable keeping properties in winter, and it also readily
+accounts for the avidity with which most of the domesticated animals
+eat it.
+
+On the whole, then, I think that the facts I have brought forward
+relative to the advantages which the Jerusalem artichoke presents as a
+farm crop, justify the recommendation that it should get a fair trial
+from the British farmer, who is now so much interested in the production
+of suitable forage for stock.
+
+  COMPOSITION OF (DRY) JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE
+
+  Albuminous matters                                         4.6
+  Fatty matters                                              0.4
+  Starch, gum, &c.                                          19.8
+  Sugar                                                     69.5
+  Fibre and ash                                              5.7
+                                                           -----
+                                                           100.0
+
+The _Potato_, regarded from every point of view, is by far the most
+important of the plants which are cultivated for the sake of their
+roots. Its tubers form the chief--almost sole--pabulum of many millions
+of men, enter more or less into the dietary of most civilised peoples,
+and constitute a large proportion of the food of the domesticated
+animals. The great importance of this plant, arising from its enormous
+consumption, has caused its composition to be very minutely studied by
+many British, Continental, and American chemists. With respect to its
+nutritive properties, the least favorable results were obtained by the
+American chemists, Hardy and Henry, and the most by the European
+chemists.
+
+The flesh-forming principles vary from 1 per cent., as found by Hardy,
+to 2.41 per cent., the mean results of the analyses of Krocker and
+Horsford. The proportion of starch in different varieties of the potato
+also varies, but not to the same degree as the nitrogenous principles.
+In new potatoes, only 5 per cent. has been found; in ash-leaved kidneys,
+9.50 per cent.; and in different kinds of cups, from 15 to 24 per cent.
+The amount of starch is also influenced by the soil, the manure, the
+climate, and the various other conditions under which the plant is
+developed. The proportion of starch increases during the growth, and
+diminishes during the storage of the tubers.
+
+Dr. Anderson is the most recent investigator into the composition of the
+potato; the chief results of his inquiries are given in the following
+table:--
+
+  ANALYSIS OF THE POTATO BY DR. ANDERSON.
+
+  --------------+--------+----------+-------------+-------+-------+-------
+                |Regents.|Dalmahoys.|Skerry-blues.|White  |Orkney |Flukes.
+                |        |          |             |Rocks. |Reds.  |
+                +--------+----------+-------------+-------+-------+-------
+  Water         |  76.32 |    75.91 |    76.60    | 75.93 | 78.57 | 74.41
+  Starch        |  12.21 |    12.58 |    11.79    | 12.77 | 10.85 | 12.55
+  Sugar, &c.    |   2.75 |     2.93 |     3.09    |  2.17 |  2.78 |  2.89
+  Flesh-formers |        |          |             |       |       |
+    soluble     |   2.16 |     2.10 |     1.90    |  1.88 |  1.48 |  1.98
+    insoluble   |   0.21 |     0.15 |     0.16    |  0.24 |  0.21 |  0.20
+  Fibre         |   5.53 |     5.21 |     5.41    |  5.55 |  5.93 |  6.71
+  Ash           |   0.88 |     0.81 |     0.94    |  1.04 |  0.98 |  0.98
+                +--------+----------+-------------+-------+-------+-------
+                | 100.06 |    99.69 |    99.89    | 99.58 |100.80 | 99.72
+  --------------+--------+----------+-------------+-------+-------+-------
+
+The potato is relatively deficient in flesh-forming matters, and contains
+the respiratory elements in exceedingly high proportions; hence it is
+well adapted for fattening purposes, and in this respect is equal to
+double its weight of the best kind of turnips. When used as food for
+man, it should be supplemented by some more fatty or nitrogenous
+substance--such, for example, as flesh, oatmeal, or peas. Buttermilk,
+a fluid which is rich in nitrogen, is an excellent supplement to
+potatoes, and compensates to a great extent for the deficiency of those
+tubers in muscle-forming matters. If, then, the potato is destined to
+retain its place as the "national esculent" of the Irish, I trust their
+national beverage may be--so far at least as the masses of the people
+are concerned--buttermilk, and _not_ whiskey.
+
+Potatoes so far diseased as to be unsuited for use as food for man, may
+be given with advantage to stock. They may be used either in a raw or
+uncooked state, but the latter is the preferable form. Sheep do not like
+them at first, but on being deprived of turnips they acquire a taste
+for them; on a daily allowance, composed of 1 lb. of oil-cake or corn,
+and an unlimited quantity of potatoes, they fatten rapidly. Cattle
+thrive well on a diet composed of equal parts of turnips and diseased
+potatoes, and do not require oil-cake. The evening feed of horses may
+advantageously be composed of potatoes and turnips. If raw, the potatoes
+should be given in a very limited quantity--four or five pounds; in the
+cooked state, however, they may be given in abundance, but the animals
+should not, after their meal, be permitted to drink water for some
+hours. As a feeding substance, diseased potatoes, unless they be very
+much injured, are equal to twice their weight of white turnips; it is
+certain that they do not injure the health or impair the condition of
+the animals which feed upon them.
+
+
+SECTION VI.
+
+SEEDS.
+
+In seeds the elements of nutrition exist not only in the most highly
+elaborated, but also in the most concentrated state; hence their
+nutritive value is greater than that of any other class of food
+substances.
+
+_Wheat Grain_ is the most valuable of seeds, as it contains, in admirably
+adjusted proportions, the bone, the fat, and the muscle-forming
+principles. In the form of bread, it has been, not inaptly, termed the
+"staff of life," for no other grain is so well adapted, _per se_, for
+the sustenance of man; and many millions of human beings subsist almost
+exclusively on it. The lower animals are in general fed upon the grain
+of oats, of barley, and of the leguminous plants, and the use of wheat
+is almost completely restricted to the human family.
+
+Wheat grain, by the processes of grinding and sifting, is resolvable
+into two distinct parts--bran and flour. In twenty-four analyses made
+by Boussingault, the proportion of the bran was from 13.2 to 38.5
+per cent. and that of the flour from 61.5 to 86.8 per cent. The floury
+part is of very complex structure; it includes starch, gluten, albumen,
+oil, gum, gummo-gelatinous matter, sugar,[34] and various saline matters.
+The gluten and albumen constitute the nitrogenous, or flesh-forming
+principles of flour, and make up from 16 to 20 per cent. of that
+substance; the non-nitrogenous, or fat-forming elements, such as
+starch and gum, form from 74 to 82 per cent. According to Payen, the
+proportion of gluten diminishes towards the centre of the seed, from
+which it follows that the part of the grain nearest the husk is the
+most nutritious--so far at least as muscle-making is concerned. The
+desire on the part of the public for very white bread has led to the
+_fine_ dressing of Wheat-grain, and consequently to the separation from
+that substance of a very large proportion of one of its most nutritious
+constituents. Crude gluten may be obtained by kneading the dough of
+flour in a muslin bag under a small current of water; the starch, or
+fecula, and the gum, are carried away by the water, and the gluten in
+an impure form remains as an elastic viscous substance, which on drying
+becomes hard and brittle. It is to the gluten of flour that its property
+of panification, or bread-making, is due. On the addition of a ferment,
+a portion of the starch is converted into sugar and carbonic acid gas,
+and the latter causes the gluten to expand into the little cells, or
+vesicles, which confer upon baked bread its light, spongy texture.
+
+  ANALYSES OF WHEAT.
+
+                              1.        2.         3.        4.
+
+                            Whole
+                            Grain.     Flour.     Bran.     Husk.
+
+  Water                     15.00      14.0        13       13.9
+  Flesh-formers             12.00      11.0        14       14.9
+  Fat-formers               68.50      73.5        55       55.8
+  Woody fibre                2.75       0.7        12        9.7
+  Mineral matter             1.75       0.8         6        5.7
+                           ------     -----       ---      -----
+                           100.00     100.0       100      100.0
+
+  _Nos. 1, 2, and 3.--The mean results of a great number of analyses._
+
+  _No. 4.--By_ MILLON.
+
+_Over-ripening of Grain._--The final act of vegetation is the production
+of seed, after the performance of which function many plants, having
+accomplished their destined purpose, perish. The grasses (which include
+the cereals) are _annuals_, or plants which have but a year's existence,
+consequently their development ceases so soon as they have produced
+their seed. When wheat, oats, and the other cereals, attain to this
+final point in their growth, the circulation of their sap ceases,
+their color changes from green to yellow, and they undergo certain
+changes which destroy their power of assimilating mineral matter, and
+consequently render them no longer capable of increasing their weight.
+
+The proper time for cutting wheat and the other cereals is immediately
+after their grain has been fully matured. When the green color of the
+straw just below the ears changes to yellow, the grain, be it ripe or
+unripe at the time, cannot afterwards be more fully developed. This is
+rendered impossible in consequence of the disorganisation of the upper
+part of the stem--indicated by, but not the result of, its altered
+hue--which cuts off the supply of sap to the ears, and the latter do
+not possess the power of absorbing nutriment from the air.
+
+When the vital processes which are incessantly going on in the growing
+plants are brought to a close, the purely chemical forces come into
+operation. If the seed be perfectly matured and allowed to remain
+ungathered, it is attacked in wet weather by the oxygen of the air, a
+portion of its carbon is burned off, some of its starch is converted
+into sugar, and in extreme cases it germinates and becomes _malty_.
+But not only is the seed liable to injury from the elements; it is also
+exposed to the ravages of the feathered tribe, and no matter how well
+a field of corn may be watched, or how great the number of _scarecrows_
+erected in it, there is always a certain diurnal loss, occasioned by the
+ravages of birds.
+
+It is not only necessary that ripe corn should be cut as soon as
+possible, but it is sometimes desirable to reap it before it becomes
+fully matured. When the grain is intended for consumption as food, the
+less bran it contains the better. Now the bran, as is well known, forms
+the integument, or covering of the vital constituents of the seed; and
+it is the last part of the organ to be perfected. The growth of the
+seed for several days before its perfect development, is confined to
+the _testa_ or covering. Now as this is the least valuable part of the
+article, its increase is matter of but little moment; and when it is
+excessive it renders the grain less valuable in the eyes of the miller.
+That the cutting of the grain before it is perfectly ripe is attended
+with a good result, is clearly proved by the results of an experiment
+recorded in Johnston's "Agricultural Chemistry." A crop of wheat was
+selected; one-third was cut twenty days before it was ripe; another
+third ten days afterwards; and the remaining portion when its grain had
+been fully matured. The relative produce in grain of the three portions
+taken, as stated above, was as 1, 1.325, and 1.260. The following table
+exhibits the relative proportions of their constituents:--
+
+                                  In 100 parts of the grain cut at
+                                  20 days.   10 days.    Dead ripe.
+
+  Flour                             74.7       79.1         72.2
+  Sharps                             7.2        5.5         11.0
+  Bran                              17.5       13.2         16.0
+                                    ----       ----         ----
+                                    99.4       97.8         99.2
+
+  The flour contained gluten         9.3        9.9          9.6
+
+The results of this experiment, and of the general experience of
+intelligent growers, show that grain cut a week or ten days before it is
+perfectly ripe contains more flour, and of a better quality, too, than
+is found in either ripe or very unripe seed. But this is not the only
+advantage, for the straw of the green, or rather of the greenish-yellow
+corn, is fully twice as valuable for feeding purposes as that of the
+over-ripe cereals. There is an extraordinary decrease in the amount
+of the albuminous constituents of the stems of the cereals during the
+last two or three weeks of their maturation, and as there is not a
+corresponding increase of those materials in the seed, they must be
+evolved in some form or other from the plants.
+
+There can be only one object attained by allowing the seed to fully
+ripen itself, and that is the insurance of its more perfect adaptability
+to the purpose of reproduction. When the _testa_ is thick it best
+protects the germ of the future plant enclosed in it from the ordinary
+atmospheric influences until it is placed under the proper conditions
+for its germination.
+
+_Wheat, a costly food._--It occasionally happens that the wheat harvest
+is so abundant, that many feeders give large quantities of this grain to
+their stock. Now, as Indian corn is at least 25 per cent. cheaper than
+wheat, even when the price of the latter is at its _minimum_, I believe
+that it is always more economical to sell the wheat raised on the farm,
+and to purchase with the proceeds of its sale an equivalent of Indian
+corn, which is a more fattening kind of food.
+
+_Bran_ is, with perhaps the exception of malt-dust, the most nutritious
+of the refuse portions of grains. It is usually given to horses, and
+owing to its high proportion of nitrogen, is, perhaps, better expended
+in the bodies of those hard-working animals, than in those of pigs and
+cows--animals that occasionally come in for a share of this valuable
+feeding-stuff. It should be borne in mind that bran commonly acts as
+a slight laxative, and that it is less digestible than flour, a large
+portion of it usually passing through the animal's body unchanged.
+This drawback to the use of bran may be obviated by either cooking or
+fermenting the article, or by combining it with beans or some other
+kind of binding food.
+
+  AVERAGE ANALYSES OF GRAIN.
+
+  --------------+-------+------+-----+--------+------+-----+--------+------
+                |       |      |     |        |Indian|     |  Rye   |Buck-
+                |Barley.| Bere.|Oats.|Oatmeal.| Corn.|Rice.|(Irish).|wheat.
+                +-------+------+-----+--------+------+-----+--------+------
+  Water         |  16.0 | 14.25| 14.0|  13.00 | 14.5 | 14.0|   16.0 | 14.19
+  Flesh-formers |  10.5 | 10.10| 11.5|  16.00 | 10.0 |  5.3|    9.0 |  8.58
+  Fat-formers   |  67.0 | 64.60| 64.5|  68.00 | 69.0 | 78.5|   66.0 | 51.91
+  Woody fibre   |   3.5 |  9.03|  7.0|   1.75 |  5.0 |  2.5|    8.0 | 23.12
+  Mineral matter|   3.0 |  2.02|  3.0|   1.25 |  1.5 |  0.7|    1.0 |  2.20
+                +-------+------+-----+--------+------+-----+--------+------
+                | 100.0 |100.00|100.0| 100.00 |100.0 |100.0|  100.0 |100.00
+  --------------+-------+------+-----+--------+------+-----+--------+------
+
+_Barley_ is inferior in composition to wheat. As a feeding stuff, the
+English farmers assign to it a higher, and the Scotch farmers a lower,
+place than oats, which, perhaps, merely proves that in Scotland the oat
+thrives better than the barley, and in England the barley better than
+the oat. Barley-meal is extensively used by the English feeders, and
+with excellent results. Where _barley-dust_ can be obtained it is a far
+cheaper feeding stuff than the meal. Barley husks should never be given
+to animals unless in a cooked or fermented state.
+
+_Oat Grain_ is, perhaps, the most valuable of the concentrated foods
+which are given to fattening stock. When it is cheap it will be found
+a more economical feeding stuff than linseed-cake, and, unlike that
+substance, can be used without the fear of adulteration. Oats are equal
+to wheat in their amount of flesh-forming matters; but their very high
+proportion of indigestible woody fibre detracts from their nutritive
+value. Oat-meal is more nutritious than wheat-meal; and oat-flour,
+especially if finely dressed, greatly excels wheat-flour in its
+nutrimental properties, because, unlike the latter, the finer it is the
+greater is its amount of flesh-formers. Bread made of oat-flour is very
+heavy, and is far less palatable than the bread of wheat. Oat-meal has
+been found to contain nearly 20 per cent. of nitrogenous matters. The
+white oat is more nutritious than the black, and the greatest amount of
+aliment is found in the grain which has not been allowed to over-ripen
+in the field. Oat husk is very inferior to the bran of wheat. Toppings
+are seldom worth the price at which they are sold.
+
+_Indian Corn_ has been highly extolled as a fattening food for stock,
+and its chemical composition would seem to justify the high opinion
+which practical men have formed of its relative nutritive value. In the
+United States, the feeding of horses on Indian corn and hay has been
+found very successful; but in these countries oats will be found a more
+economical food. For fattening purposes Indian corn appears exceedingly
+well adapted, as it contains more ready-formed fat--4.5 per cent.--than
+is found in most of the other grains, and, on an average, 70 per cent.
+of starch. Pigs thrive well on this grain. The Galatz round yellow grain
+is somewhat superior to the American flat yellow seed.
+
+_Rye_ is not extensively cultivated in this country, but on the
+Continent it is raised in large quantities. In the north of Europe
+it forms a considerable proportion of the food of both man and the
+domesticated animals. In Holland it is commonly consumed by horses, but
+in England there has always been a prejudice against the use of this
+grain as food for the equine tribe. It has been highly recommended for
+dairy stock, five pounds of rye-meal, with a sufficiency of cut straw,
+constituting, it is stated, a dietary on which cows yield a maximum
+supply of milk. Irish-grown rye contains less starch, and more
+flesh-formers and oil, than the Black Sea grain.
+
+_Rice_, although it forms the chief pabulum of nearly one-third of
+the human family, is the least nutritious of the common food grains.
+Rice-dust, an article obtained in cleaning rice for European consumption,
+is said to promote the flow of milk when given to cows. It is sold in
+large quantities in Liverpool, where, according to Voelcker, it often
+commands a higher price than it is worth.
+
+_Buckwheat_ is chiefly used as a food for game and poultry.
+
+_Malted Corn._--During a late session of Parliament a Bill was passed to
+exempt from duty malt intended to be used as food for cattle. As feeders
+may now become their own maltsters, it may be of some use to them to
+have here a _resume_ of this Bill:--
+
+    1. Any person giving security and taking out a licence may make
+    malt in a malt-house approved by the Excise for the purpose; and
+    all malt so made and mixed with linseed-cake or linseed-meal as
+    directed, shall be free from duty.
+
+    2. The security required is a bond to Her Majesty, with sureties
+    to the satisfaction of the Excise, not to take from any such
+    malt-house any malt except duly mixed with material prescribed
+    by the Act.
+
+    3. The malt-house must be properly named upon its door.
+
+    4. All malt made in it shall be deposited in a store-room, and
+    shall be conveyed to and from the room upon such notice as the
+    officer of Excise shall appoint.
+
+    5. The maltster shall provide secure rooms in his malt-house,
+    to be approved in writing by the supervisor, for grinding the
+    malt made by him in such malt-house, and mixing and storing the
+    same when mixed; and all such rooms shall be properly secured
+    and kept locked by the proper officer of Excise.
+
+    6. All malt before removal from the malt-house shall be ground
+    and thoroughly mixed with one-tenth part at least of its weight
+    of ground linseed-cake or linseed-meal, and ground to such a
+    degree of fineness and in such manner as the commissioners shall
+    approve, and mixed together in a quantity not less than forty
+    bushels at a time in the presence of an officer of Excise.
+
+    7. The maltster shall keep account of the quantity of all malt
+    mixed as aforesaid which he shall from time to time send out or
+    deliver from his malt-house, with the dates and addresses of the
+    person for whom such mixed malt shall be so sent or delivered.
+
+    8. If any person shall attempt to separate any malt from any
+    material with which the same shall have been mixed as aforesaid,
+    or shall use this malt for the brewing of beer or distilling of
+    spirits, he shall forfeit the sum of L200.
+
+    9 and 10. The penalties of existing Acts are recited.
+
+    11. This Act shall continue and be in force for five years.
+
+
+Some samples of malt and barley examined in May, 1865, by Dr. Voelcker
+for the Central Anti-Malt Tax Association, afforded the following
+results:--
+
+  -------------------------+-------+---------------------------------------
+                           |Barley |             Malt marked
+                           |marked |
+                           | No. 1.| No. 5.| No. 7.| No. 9.|No. 14.|No. 16.
+  -------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
+  Moisture                 |  11.76|   8.72|   7.43|   7.76|   8.35|   7.06
+  Sugar                    |   3.75|   4.29|   5.48|   7.85|   9.46|   9.86
+  Starch and dextrine      |  70.40|  71.03|  69.70|  67.57|  67.53|  67.67
+  [*] Albuminous compounds |       |       |       |       |       |
+    (flesh-forming matters)|   7.75|   8.44|   8.81|   9.37|   8.60|   8.31
+  Woody fibre (cellular)   |   4.46|   5.22|   6.38|   5.38|   4.14|   5.11
+  Mineral matter (ash)     |   1.88|   2.30|   2.20|   2.07|   1.92|   1.99
+                           +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
+                           | 100.00| 100.00| 100.00| 100.00| 100.00| 100.00
+  [* Containing nitrogen]  |   1.24|   1.35|   1.41|   1.50|   1.38|   1.33
+  -------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
+
+A great deal has been said and written in favor of malt as a feeding
+stuff, but I greatly doubt its alleged decided superiority over barley;
+and until the results of accurately conducted comparative experiments
+made with those articles incontestably prove that superiority, I think
+it is somewhat a waste of nutriment to convert barley into malt for
+feeding purposes. The gentlemen who verbally, or in writing, refer
+so favorably to malt, acknowledge, with one or two exceptions, that
+their experience of the article is limited. Mr. John Hudson, of
+Brandon, states that he made a comparative experiment, the results
+of which proved the superiority of malt. But, in fact, the only
+properly-conducted experiments to determine the relative values of malt
+and barley were those made some years ago by Dr. Thompson, of Glasgow,
+by the direction of the Government, and those recently performed by Mr.
+Lawes, both producing results unfavorable to the malt. The issue of Dr.
+Thompson's investigations proved that milch cows fed on barley yielded
+more milk and butter than when supplied with an equal weight of malt.
+
+I do not deny the probability that malt, owing to its agreeable flavor
+and easy solubility, may be a somewhat better feeding stuff than barley;
+and that, weight for weight, it may produce a somewhat greater increase
+in the weight of the animals fed upon it: but although a pound-weight of
+malt may be better than a pound-weight of barley, I am quite satisfied
+that a pound's worth of barley will put up more flesh than a pound's
+worth of malt. Barley-seeds consist of water, starch, nitrogenous
+substances--such as gluten and albumen--fatty substances, and saline
+matter. The amount of starch is considerable, being sometimes about
+70 per cent. In the process of malting (which is simply the germination
+of the seed under peculiar conditions), a portion of the starch is
+converted into sugar and gum, the grain increases in size and becomes
+friable when dried, and the internal structure of the seed is completely
+broken up. During these changes a partial decomposition of the solid
+matter of the seeds takes place, and a large amount of nutriment is
+dissipated, chiefly in the form of carbonic acid gas. From the results
+of the experience of the maltster, and of special experiments made by
+scientific men, it would appear that a ton of barley will produce only
+16 cwt. of malt. Allowance must, however, be made for the difference
+between the amount of water contained in barley and in malt, the latter
+being much drier. According to Mr. E. Holden, the centesimal loss
+sustained in malting may be stated thus:--
+
+  Water                                                     6.00
+  Organic matter                                           12.52
+  Saline matter                                             0.48
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100.00
+
+Dr. Thompson[35] sets down the loss of nutriment (exclusive of that
+occasioned by kiln-drying), as follows:--
+
+  Carried off by the steep                                  1.5
+  Dissipated on the floor                                   3.0
+  Roots separated by cleaning                               3.0
+  Waste                                                     0.5
+                                                            ---
+                                                            8.0
+
+We may say, then, that by the malting of barley we lose at least 2-1/2
+cwt. of solid nutriment out of every ton of the article, and this loss
+falls heaviest on the nitrogenous, or flesh-forming constituents of
+the grain. When there are added to this loss the expense of carting
+the grain to and from the malt-house, and the maltster's charge for
+operating upon it (I presume in this case that the feeder is not his own
+maltster), it will be found that two tons of malt will cost the farmer
+nearly as much as three tons of barley; and he will then have to solve
+the problem--_Whether or not malt is 40 or 50 per cent. more valuable
+as a feeding-stuff than barley_.
+
+The difference in value between barley and malt is generally 14s. per
+barrel; but it is sometimes more or less, according to the supply and
+demand. Barley, well malted, will lose on the average 25 per cent. of
+its weight, the loss depending, to some extent, upon the degree to which
+the process is carried, and on the germinating properties of the barley.
+Barley malted for roasters ought not to lose more than 21 per cent. of
+its original weight--53 lbs. to the barrel. The heavier the barley the
+less it loses in malting; a barrel of 224 lbs., and value from 15s. to
+16s., ought to produce a barrel of malt of 196 lbs., value 29s. to 30s.
+
+If we deduct from the cost of a barrel of malt the amount of duty at
+present levyable upon it, the price of the article will be still nearly
+50 per cent. greater than that of an equal weight of barley. The cheaper
+barley is the greater will be the relative cost of malt. The maltster's
+charge for converting a barrel of barley into malt is about 4s.; so
+that if the price of the grain be so low as 12s. per barrel, which it
+sometimes is, the cost of malting it would amount to 33 per cent. of its
+price. Then, the diminution in the weight of, and the cost of carting
+the grain, must be taken into account; and when the whole expense
+attendant upon the process of malting is ascertained, it will be found
+that I have not exaggerated in stating that a ton of malt costs as much
+as a ton and a half of barley.
+
+If the consumer of malt germinate the seeds himself, he may probably,
+if he require large quantities of the article, produce it at a somewhat
+cheaper rate than if he bought it from the maltster; but few persons who
+have the slightest knowledge of the vexatious restrictions of the Inland
+Revenue authorities would be likely to place his premises under the
+_espionage_ of an excise officer.
+
+As the superiority of malt over barley (if such be really the case) must
+be chiefly due to the looseness of its texture, which allows the juices
+of the stomach to act readily upon it, barley in a cooked state might be
+found quite as nutritious: It would not be fair to institute comparisons
+between dense hard barley-seeds and the easily soluble malted grains.
+During the cooking of barley a portion of the starch is changed into
+sugar, but in this case with only an inappreciable waste of nutriment.
+When the cooking process is continued for a few hours, a considerable
+amount of sugar is formed, and the barley acquires a very sweet flavor.
+
+When the malt for cattle question was under discussion, I made a little
+experiment in relation to it, the results of which are perhaps of
+sufficient interest to mention:--Two pounds weight of barley-meal were
+moistened with warm water; after standing for three hours more water was
+added, and sufficient heat applied to cause the fluid to boil. After
+fifteen minutes' ebullition, a few ounces of the pasty-like mass which
+was produced were removed, thoroughly dried, and on being submitted
+to analysis yielded six per cent. of sugar. The addition of a small
+quantity of malt to barley undergoing the process of cooking will
+rapidly convert the starch into sugar.
+
+Barley is naturally a well-flavored grain, and all kinds of stock eat
+it with avidity. It may be rendered still more agreeable if properly
+cooked, and this process will, by disintegrating its hard, fibrous
+structure, set free its stores of nutriment. I incline strongly to
+the opinion that barley, when well boiled, is almost, if not quite,
+as digestible as malt.
+
+A serious disadvantage in the use of malt is, that it must be consumed,
+it is said, in combination with 10 per cent. of its weight of linseed-meal
+or cake. Now, malt is a very laxative food, and so is linseed; and if
+the diet of stock were largely made up of these articles the animals
+would, sooner or later, suffer from diarrhoea. In such case, then,
+the addition of bean-meal, or of some other binding food, would become
+necessary, and the compound of malt, linseed, and bean-meal thereby
+formed would certainly prove anything but an economical diet.
+
+_Malt Combs._--I should mention that a portion of the nutriment which
+the barley loses in malting passes into the radicles, or young roots,
+which project from the seeds, and are technically known by the term
+"combs," "combings," or "dust." At present these combs are separated
+from the malt, but if the latter be intended for feeding purposes this
+separation is unnecessary, and in such case the barley will not be so
+much deteriorated. The combs, which constitute about 4 per cent. of the
+weight of the malt, are sometimes employed as a feeding stuff. I have
+made an analysis of malt-combings for the County of Kildare Agricultural
+Society, and have obtained the following results:--
+
+  100 PARTS CONTAINED--
+
+  Water                                                     8.42
+  [*] Flesh-forming (albuminous) substances                21.50
+  Digestible fat-forming substances (starch, sugar,
+     gum, &c.)                                             53.47
+  Indigestible woody fibre                                  8.57
+  [+] Saline matter (ash)                                   8.04
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100.00
+
+  [* Yielding nitrogen                                      3.44]
+  [+ Containing potash                                      1.35
+     Containing phosphoric acid                             1.74]
+
+This article was sold as a manure at L3 6s. per ton--a sum for which it
+was not good value; but as a feeding substance it was probably worth L4
+or L5 per ton. Its composition indicates a high nutritive power; but it
+is probable that its nitrogenous matters are partly in a low degree of
+elaboration, which greatly detracts from its alimental value.
+
+In conclusion, then, I would urge the following points upon the
+attention of the farmer:--
+
+1st. Before using malt for feeding purposes, wait until you learn the
+general results of the experience of other farmers with that article.
+The manufacture of malt for feeding purposes is rapidly on the decline,
+instead of, as had been anticipated, on the increase.
+
+2nd. Should you experiment with barley and malt, use equal money's worth
+of each, and employ the barley in a cooked state.
+
+3rd. Use malt-combings as a feeding stuff, and not as a manure. They are
+good value for at least L3 10s. per ton.
+
+4th. Bear in mind that a ton of barley contains more saline matter than
+an equal weight of malt; consequently, that stock fed upon barley will
+produce a manure richer in potash and phosphates than those supplied
+with malt.
+
+_Leguminous Seeds._--The seeds of the bean, of the pea, and of several
+other leguminous plants, are largely made use of as food for both man
+and the domesticated animals. They all closely resemble each other in
+composition, but in that respect differ considerably from the grains of
+the _Cerealiae_, for whilst the latter contain on an average 12 per cent.
+of flesh-formers, beans and peas contain 24 per cent. The flesh-forming
+constituent of the leguminous seeds is not gluten, as in the grain
+of the cereals, but a substance termed _legumin_, which so closely
+resembles the cheesy matter of milk that it has also received the name
+of _vegetable casein_. Indeed, the Chinese make a factitious cheese out
+of peas, which it is difficult to discriminate from the article of
+animal origin.
+
+_Beans_ are used as fattening food for cattle, for which purpose they
+should be ground into meal, as otherwise a large proportion of their
+substance would pass through the animal's body unchanged. It is not good
+economy to give a fattening bullock more than 3 or 4 lbs. weight per
+diem; a larger proportion is apt to induce constipation. The very small
+proportion of ready-formed fat, the moderate amount of starch, and the
+exceedingly high per-centage of flesh-formers which beans contain, prove
+that they are better adapted as food for beasts of burthen than for the
+fattening of stock. Oats, Indian corn, or oil-cake, will be found to
+produce a greater increase of meat than equal money's worth of beans
+or peas, and I would therefore recommend the restriction of leguminous
+seeds, under ordinary circumstances, to horses and bulls. It has been
+stated, on good authority, that when oats are given whole to horses,
+a large proportion passes unchanged through the animal's body, but that
+on the addition of beans, the oats are thoroughly digested.
+
+  COMPOSITION OF LEGUMINOUS SEEDS.
+
+  --------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+----------
+                      | Common|Foreign|  Peas.|Lentils.| Winter
+                      | Beans.| Beans.|       |        |  Tares
+                      |       |       |       |        |(foreign).
+  --------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+----------
+  Water               |  13.0 |  14.5 |  14.0 |   13.0 |   15.5
+  Flesh-formers       |  25.5 |  23.0 |  23.5 |   24.0 |   26.5
+  Fat-formers         |  48.5 |  48.7 |  50.0 |   50.5 |   47.5
+  Woody fibre         |  10.0 |  10.0 |  10.0 |   10.0 |    9.0
+  Mineral matter      |   3.0 |   3.8 |   2.5 |    2.5 |    1.5
+  --------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+----------
+                      | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 |  100.0 |  100.0
+  --------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+----------
+
+_Oil Seeds._--The seeds of a great variety of plants, such as the flax,
+hemp, rape, mustard, cotton, and sunflower, are exceedingly rich in oil,
+some of them containing nearly half their weight of that substance. Of
+these oil-seeds there are many which might with advantage be employed as
+fattening, food, although one only--linseed--has come into general use
+for that purpose.
+
+_Rape-seeds_ closely resemble linseeds in composition, but they are
+considerably cheaper. They contain an acrid substance, but the large
+proportion of oil with which it is associated almost completely
+disguises its unpleasant flavor.
+
+_Linseed_ is one of the most valuable kinds of food which could be given
+to fattening animals. Its exceedingly high proportion of ready-formed
+fatty matter, the great comparative solubility of its constituents, and
+its mild and agreeable flavor, constitute it an article superior to
+linseed cake. The laxative properties of linseed are very decided; it
+should therefore be given only in moderate quantities. As peas and
+beans exercise, as I have already stated, a relaxing influence upon
+the bowels, a mixture of linseed and peas or beans would be an
+excellent compound, the laxative influence of the one being corrected
+by the binding tendency of the other. Linseed being one of the most
+concentrated feeding stuffs in use, it will be found an excellent
+addition to bulky food, such as chaff and turnips. Linseed oil has
+been used as a fattening food, but there is nothing to be gained by
+expressing seeds for the purpose of using their oil as a feeding
+material. When hay is scarce, and straw abundant, the latter may be
+made almost as nutritious as the former by mixing it with linseed, and
+steaming the compound. A stone of linseed and two cwt. of oat-straw
+chaff, when properly cooked, constitute a most economical and
+nutritious food.
+
+Mr. Horne, who experimented with linseed two or three years ago,
+obtained results highly favorable to the nutritive value of that
+article. Six bullocks were selected, and each animal placed in a
+separate box. They were fed with cut roots--at first Swedes, then
+mangels and Swedes, and lastly, mangels alone: in addition, there were
+supplied to each 6 lbs. rough meadow-hay reduced to chaff, and 5 lbs.
+oil-cake, or value to that amount. They were divided into three lots,
+two in each. Lot 1 had 5 lbs. oil-cake for each animal; lot 2, barley
+and wheat-meal, equal in value to the 5 lbs. oil-cake; and lot 3, an
+equal money's worth of bruised linseed. The oil-cake cost L10 16s. per
+ton, the mixture of barley and wheat L8 15s. per ton, and the bruised
+linseed L13 per ton. The experiment lasted 112 days, and at its close
+the results, which proved very favorable to the bruised linseed, were
+as follows:--
+
+                                                    Increase in
+                                                    live weight.
+
+  Lot 1. Oil-cake                                       637 lbs.
+  Lot 2. Wheat and barley-meal                          667 lbs.
+  Lot 3. Bruised linseed                                718 lbs.
+
+During the 112 days each bullock consumed 5 cwt. oil-cake (or an
+equivalent amount of linseed or wheat and barley), 6 cwt. hay, and
+90 cwt. of roots. The average increase in each animal's weight was
+337 lbs. = 224 lbs. _dead_ weight. The economic features of this
+experiment are best shown in the following figures:--
+
+  FOOD CONSUMED.
+
+                                                        L  s.  d.
+
+   5 cwt. oil-cake, at 10s. 6d. per cwt.                2  12  6
+   6 cwt. hay, at 3s. per cwt.                          0  18  0
+  16 weeks' attendance, at 6d. per week                 0   8  0
+                                                       ---------
+                                                       L3  18  6
+                                                       ---------
+  Gained 16 stones per week, at 8s. per stone           6  8   0
+                                                       ---------
+  Balance to pay for 90 cwt. of roots                   2  9   6
+
+The manure obtained afforded a good profit.
+
+The seed-pods, or, as they are termed, the _bolls_ of the flax,
+have been recommended as an excellent feeding stuff. They are not
+so nutritious as linseed, but they are cheaper, and when produced
+on the farm must be an economical food. Mr. Charley, an intelligent
+stock-feeder in the county of Antrim, and an eminent authority in every
+subject in relation to flax, strongly recommends the use of flax-bolls.
+He says:--
+
+    The cost of rippling is considerable; but I believe, for
+    every L1 expended, on an average a return is realised of L2,
+    particularly on a farmstead where many horses and cattle are
+    regularly kept. The flax-bolls contain much more nourishment
+    than the linseed-cake from which the oil has, of course, been
+    expressed, and they form a most valuable addition to the warm
+    food prepared during winter for the animals just named. I believe
+    they have also a highly beneficial effect in warding off internal
+    disease, owing, no doubt, to the soothing and slightly purgative
+    properties of the oil contained in the seed. The change made in
+    the appearance of the animals receiving some of the bolls in their
+    steamed food is very apparent after a few weeks' trial; and the
+    smoothness and sleekness of their shining coats plainly show the
+    benefit derived. Is it not surprising, with this fact before our
+    eyes, that many agriculturists--indeed, I fear the majority--persist
+    in the old-fashioned system of taking the flax to a watering-place
+    with its valuable freight of seed unremoved, and plunge the sheaves
+    under water, losing thereby, _in the most wanton manner_, rich
+    feeding materials, worth from L1 to L3 per statute acre?
+
+
+In the following table, the composition of all the more important
+oil-seeds is given:--
+
+  COMPOSITION OF OIL-SEEDS, ACCORDING TO DR. ANDERSON.
+
+  --------------------------+---------+----------+----------+---------------
+                            |         |          |          | Cotton-seed
+                            |Linseed. |Rape-seed.|Hemp-seed.|(decorticated).
+                            +---------+----------+----------+---------------
+                            |         |          |          |
+  Water                     |    7.50 |    7.13  |     6.47 |     6.57
+                            |         |          |          |
+  Oil                       |   34.00 |   36.81  |    31.84 |    31.24
+                            |         |          |          |
+  Albuminous compounds      |         |          |          |
+    (Flesh-formers)         |   24.44 |   21.50  |    22.60 |    31.86
+                            |         |          |          |
+  Gum, mucilage, sugar, &c. | \       |   18.73  |  \       |    14.12
+                            |  }30.73 |          |   }32.72 |
+  Woody-fibre               | /       |    6.86  |  /       |     7.30
+                            |         |          |          |
+  Mineral matter (ash)      |    3.33 |    8.97  |     6.37 |     8.91
+                            +---------+----------+----------+---------------
+                            |  100.00 |  100.00  |   100.00 |   100.00
+  --------------------------+---------+----------+----------+---------------
+
+_Fenugreek-seed_ is used very extensively in the preparation of
+"Condimental food." It is often given to horses out of condition.
+Sheep have been liberally supplied with this food, which, however,
+it is stated, communicates a disagreeable flavor to the mutton.
+It contains, according to Voelcker, the following:--
+
+  Water                                                   11.994
+  Flesh-formers                                           26.665
+  Starch, gum, and pectin                                 37.111
+  Sugar                                                    2.220
+  Fatty and oily matters                                   8.320
+  Woody fibre                                             10.820
+  Inorganic matter                                         2.870
+                                                         -------
+                                                         100.000
+
+
+SECTION VII.
+
+OIL-CAKES, AND OTHER ARTIFICIAL FOODS.
+
+Oil-seeds, on being subjected to considerable pressure, part with
+a large proportion of their oil, the remaining part of that fluid,
+together with the various other ingredients of the seeds, constitute
+the substances so well known to agriculturists under the name of
+oil-cakes. These cakes contain a larger proportion of ready-formed
+fatty matter than is found in any other feeding stuff, and an amount
+of flesh-forming principles far greater than that yielded by corn,
+or even by beans; the manure, too, which is produced by the cattle fed
+upon some of them, is often good value for nearly half the sum expended
+on the food.
+
+The principal kinds of oil-cake employed for feeding purposes are the
+following:--Linseed-cake, Rape-cake, and cotton-seed cake. Poppy cake is
+not much in use. Their average composition, deduced from the results of
+numerous analyses made by Voelcker, Anderson, and myself, are shown in
+the following table:--
+
+  AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF OIL-CAKES.
+
+  ---------------------------+---------+------+------------+-------
+                             | Linseed |      |Decorticated|
+                             | Cake,   | Rape | Cottonseed | Poppy
+                             | English.| Cake.|    Cake.   | Cake.
+                             +---------+------+------------+-------
+  Water                      |    12   |   11 |       9    |   12
+  Flesh-forming principles   |    28   |   30 |      38    |   32
+  Oil                        |    10   |   11 |      13    |    6
+  Gum, mucilage, &c.         |    34   |   30 |      23    |   30
+  Woody fibre                |    10   |   10 |       9    |    9
+  Mineral matter (ash)       |     6   |    8 |       8    |    1
+                             +---------+------+------------+-------
+                             |   100   |  100 |     100    |  100
+  ---------------------------+---------+------+------------+-------
+
+_Linseed Cake._--Within the last quarter of a century great attention
+has been given to the feeding of stock, and the effects are observable
+in the improved quality and greatly increased weight of the animals.
+In the year 1839 the average weight of the horned beasts from Ireland
+sold in the London market was only 650 lbs., whereas at the present
+time their average weight is about 740 lbs. This remarkable advance
+in the production of meat is in great part due to the cattle being more
+liberally supplied with food, and that, too, of a more concentrated
+nature. The practice of feeding animals destined for the shambles
+exclusively on roots containing 90 and even 95 per cent. of water, which
+once prevailed so generally in this country, is now limited to the
+farmsteads of a few old-fashioned feeders; and the necessity for the
+admixture of highly-nutritious aliment with the bulky substances which
+form the staple food of stock is almost universally recognised.
+
+Of concentrated foods used for fattening stock, none stands higher in
+the estimation of the farmer than linseed-cake, although it appears to
+me that the price of the article is somewhat too high in relation to
+its amount of nutriment, and that corn, if its price be moderate, is
+a more economical food. Straw, turnips, and mangels form the bone and
+sinew of the animals, and enable them to carry on the vital operations
+which are essential to their existence. Oil-cake and similar foods are
+supplemental, and contribute directly to the animal's increase, so that
+their nutritive value appears to be greater than it really is. If an
+animal were fed exclusively upon oil-cake, the greater part of it would
+be appropriated to the reparation of the waste of the body, and the rest
+would be converted into permanent flesh--the animal's "increase." The
+addition of straw would produce a still further increase in the animal's
+weight--an increase which would be directly proportionate to the amount
+of straw consumed. Thus it will be seen that, whatever the staple food
+may be, it will have to sustain the life of the animal, and will be
+principally expended for that purpose, whereas the supplemental food
+will be chiefly, if not entirely, made use of in increasing the weight
+of flesh. To me it appears manifestly incorrect to consider, as feeders
+practically do, the value of linseed-cake to be seven or eight times
+greater than that of oat-straw, and twenty times greater than that of
+roots. Let us assume the case of an animal fed upon roots, straw, and
+oil-cake. Seventy-five per cent. of its food, say, is expended in
+repairing the waste of its body, and 25 per cent. is stored up in its
+increase. Now, if the three kinds of food contributed proportionately
+to the reparation of the body and to its increase, the roots and straw
+would be found to possess a far higher nutritive value, in relation to
+the oil-cake, than is usually ascribed to them.
+
+But it may be asked why straw, if it be relatively a much more
+economical feeding stuff than oil-cake, is not employed to the complete
+exclusion of the latter. I have already given an answer to such a
+question, namely, that animals thrive better on a diet composed partly
+of bulky, partly of concentrated aliments. This much, however, is
+certain, that animals can be profitably fed upon roots and straw, whilst
+it is equally certain that to feed them upon oil-cake alone (assuming
+them to thrive upon such a diet) would entail a very heavy loss upon
+the feeder. At the same time it must be admitted that the oil of the
+linseed-cake exercises in all probability a beneficial influence on the
+digestion of the animal, so that the nutritive value of the article may
+be somewhat higher than its mere composition would indicate.
+
+The quantity of oil-cake given to fattening stock varies from 2 lbs. to
+14 lbs. per diem. I believe there is no greater mistake made by feeders
+than that of giving excessive quantities of this substance to stock. If
+their object in so doing be to enrich their manure-heap, they would find
+it far more economical to add the cake directly to the manure--or rather
+of adding rape-cake to it, for this variety of cake is fully as valuable
+for manurial purposes as the linseed-cake, and is nearly 50 per cent.
+cheaper. A larger quantity of oil-cake than 7 lbs. daily should not be
+given to even the largest-sized milch cows or fattening bullocks. If a
+larger amount be employed, it will pass unchanged through the animal's
+body. Young cattle may with advantage be supplied with from 1 to 3 lbs.,
+according to their size, and from 1/2 to 1 lb. will be a sufficient
+quantity for sheep. Intelligent feeders have remarked, that cattle which
+had been always supplied with a moderate allowance of this food fattened
+more readily upon it, during their finishing stage, than did stock which
+had not been accustomed to its use.
+
+_Adulteration of Linseed Cake._--The great drawback to the use of
+linseed-cake is the liability of the article to be adulterated. The
+sophistication is sometimes of a harmless nature, if we except its
+injurious effect on the farmer's pocket; but not unfrequently the
+substances added to the cakes possess properties which completely unfit
+them to be used as food. Amongst the injurious substances found in
+linseed and linseed-cake I may mention the seeds of the purging-flax,
+darnel, spurry, corn-cockle, curcus-beans, and castor-oil beans.
+Several of these seeds are highly drastic purgatives, and they have
+been known to cause intense inflammation of the bowels of animals fed
+upon oil-cake, of which they composed but a small proportion. Amongst
+the adulterations of linseed-cake, which lower its nutritive value
+without imparting to it any injurious properties, are the seeds of
+the cereals and the grasses, bran, and flax-straw. Little black seeds
+belonging to various species of _Polygonum_, are very often present
+in even good cakes; they are very indigestible, but otherwise are not
+injurious. Rape-cake is stated to be occasionally used as adulterant
+of the more costly linseed, but I have never met with an admixture of
+the two articles.
+
+The only way in which a correct estimate of the value of linseed-cake
+can be arrived at is by a combined microscopical and chemical analysis;
+but as the feeder is not always disposed to incur the cost of this
+process, he should make himself acquainted with the characteristic
+of the genuine cake, in order to be able to discriminate, as far as
+possible, between it and the sophisticated article. I will indicate a
+few of the more prominent features of cake of excellent quality, and
+point out a few simple and easily-performed tests, which may serve
+to detect the existence of gross adulteration. Good cake is hard, of
+a reddish-brown color, uniform in appearance, and possesses a rather
+pleasant flavor and odour. The adulterated cake is commonly of a greyish
+hue, and has a disagreeable odour. A weighed quantity of the cake--say
+100 grains--in the state of powder should be formed into a paste with
+an ounce of water; if it be good, the paste will be light colored,
+moderately stiff, and endowed with a pleasant odour and flavor. If the
+paste be thin, the presence of bran, or of grass seeds, is probable.
+The latter are easily seen through a magnifying-glass; indeed, most
+of them are readily recognisable by the unassisted eye: they may,
+therefore, be picked out, and their weight determined. Sand--a frequent
+adulterant--may be detected by mixing a small weighed quantity of the
+powdered cake with about twelve times its weight of water, allowing the
+mixture to stand for half an hour, and collecting and weighing the sand
+which will be found at the bottom of the vessel employed. If there be
+bran present it will be found lying on the sand, and its structure
+is sufficiently distinct to admit of its detection by a mere glance.
+There are a great variety of linseed-cakes in the market, of which
+the home-made article is the best. On the Continent the oil-seeds are
+subjected to the action of heat in order to obtain from them a greater
+yield of oil. Their cakes, therefore, contain less oil, and their
+flesh-forming principles are less soluble, in comparison with British
+linseed-cake. Next to our home-made oil-cakes, the American is the
+best. Indeed, I have met with some American cakes which were equal to
+the best English.
+
+_Rape Cake._--The use of rape-cake was limited almost completely to the
+fertilising of the soil until the late Mr. Pusey, in a paper published
+in the tenth volume of the _Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of
+England_, advocated its employment as a substitute for the more costly
+linseed-cake. The recommendation of this distinguished agriculturist
+has not been disregarded; and since his time the use of this cake as a
+feeding stuff has been steadily on the increase, and at the present time
+its annual consumption is not far short of 50,000 tons.
+
+In relation to the nutritive value of rape-cake there exists considerable
+diversity of opinion. Certain feeders assert that animals fed upon it go
+out of condition; others, whilst admitting that stock thrive upon it,
+maintain the economic superiority of linseed-cake; whilst a third
+set believe rape-cake to be the most economical of feeding-stuffs.
+How are we to account for these great differences of opinion--not
+amongst _theorists_, be it observed, but amongst practical men?
+It is not difficult to explain them away satisfactorily. Rape-cake
+and linseed-cake are about equally rich in muscle and fat-forming
+principles; and, supposing both to be equally well-flavored, there can
+be no doubt but that one is just as nourishing as the other. But it so
+happens that a large proportion of the rape-cake which comes into the
+British market possesses a flavor which renders it very disagreeable
+to animals. One variety--namely, the East Indian--is almost poisonous,
+whilst the very best kind is slightly inferior to linseed-cake. Now, if
+an experiment with a very inferior kind of rape-cake and a good variety
+of linseed-cake were tried, who can doubt but that the results would be
+very unfavorable to the former article? Mr. Callan,[36] of Rathfarnham,
+county Dublin; Mr. Bird,[37] of Renton Barns, and some other feeders,
+who found rape-cake to be worse than useless, experimented, in all
+probability, with an adulterated article, for they do not appear to
+have had the cake analysed. On the other hand, those whose experience
+with rape-cake has proved favorable, must have employed the article
+in a genuine state, fresh, and moderately well-flavored. It is
+noteworthy that amongst the advocates for the use of rape-cake as
+a substitute--partly or entirely--for the more costly linseed-cake,
+are to be found the most successful feeders in England and Scotland.
+Horsfall, Mechi, Lawrence, Bond, Hope, and many other feeders of equal
+celebrity, have assigned to rape-cake the highest place, in an economic
+point of view, amongst the concentrated feeding stuffs. Mr. Mechi
+says:--"I invariably give to all my animals as much rape-cake as they
+choose to eat, however abundant their roots or green food may be. It
+pays in many ways, and not to do this is a great pecuniary mistake.
+Even when fed on green rape, they will eat rape-cake abundantly.
+My cattle are now under cover, eating the steamed chaff, rape-cake,
+malt-combs, and bran, all mixed together in strict accordance with
+the proportions named by Mr. Horsfall in the _Journal of the Royal
+Agricultural Society_, vol. xviii., p. 150,[38] which I find by far
+the most profitable mode of feeding bullocks and cows." Mr. Hope, of
+Edinburgh, states that rape-cake is the best substitute for turnips,
+and that, excepting cases where spurious kinds had been used, he never
+knew bullocks or milch cows to refuse it. This gentleman states that
+it is best given in combination with locust-beans, or a mixture of
+locust-beans and Indian corn; and suggests the proportions set down
+in the tables as the best adapted for lean cattle; but I think about
+two-thirds of the quantities would be quite sufficient.
+
+                                      Feed per week.  Per week.
+
+                                           lbs.        s.  d.
+
+  Rape-cake at L5 15s. per ton              8          2  10-1/2
+       Do.         do.                     10          3   7
+  Mixture of two-thirds rape-cake and
+    one-third locust-beans L6               8          3   0
+       Do.         do.                     10          3   9
+  Rape-cake, locust-beans, and Indian
+    Corn in equal proportions               8          3   2-1/2
+       Do.         do.                     10          3  11-1/4
+
+An intelligent Scotch dairy farmer bears the following testimony in
+favor of this cake:--
+
+    I have tried pease-meal, bean-meal, oat-meal, and linseed-cake,
+    and after carefully noting the results, I consider rape-cake,
+    weight for weight, at least equal to any of them for milch cows;
+    and if I give the same money value for each, I get at least
+    one-third more produce, and the butter is always of a very
+    superior quality. Two years ago, I took some of my best oats
+    (41 lbs. per bushel), and ground them for the cows, and although
+    I was at about one-third more expense, I lost fully one-third of
+    the produce that I had by using rape-cake. I always dissolve it
+    by pouring boiling water on it, and give each cow 6 lbs. daily.
+    I have tried a larger quantity, and found I was fully repaid for
+    the extra expense. I generally use it the most of the summer,
+    but always during the spring months. A number of my neighbours
+    who have tried it all agree that it is the best and cheapest
+    feed for milch cows they have used.--_North British Agriculturist_,
+    Edinburgh, February 29, 1860.
+
+
+The best kinds of rape-cake come from Germany and Denmark. When
+neither too old nor too fresh, and of a pale-green color, these
+foreign cakes are tolerably well-flavored, and are but slightly
+inferior to good linseed-cake. Most varieties of this cake, however,
+contain a small proportion of acrid matter, which often renders them
+more or less distasteful to stock, more particularly to cattle. This
+substance may be rendered quite innocuous by steaming or boiling the
+cake; either of these processes will also, according to Mr. Lawrence,
+destroy the disagreeable flavor which mustard-seed--a frequent
+adulterant of rape-cake--confers upon that article. Molasses or treacle
+is an excellent adjunct to the cake, as it serves in a great measure to
+correct its somewhat unpleasant flavor. Carob, or locust-beans, answer,
+perhaps better, the same purpose. It is better, as a general rule,
+to give less rape-cake than linseed-cake, unless the pale-green kind
+to which I have referred is obtainable; that variety may be largely
+employed. The animals should be gradually accustomed to its use. At
+first, in the case of bullocks, they should get only 1 lb. per diem,
+and the quantity should be gradually increased to about 4 lbs.; but
+I would not advise, under any circumstances, a larger daily allowance
+than 5 lbs. Given in moderate amounts, it will, supposing it to be of
+fair quality, be found to give a better return in meat than almost any
+other kind of concentrated food; and, what is of great importance, it
+will not injuriously affect the animal's health. "Our experience of the
+use of rape-cake," says Mr. Lawrence, "thus used (cooked), extends over
+a period of ten years of feeding from 20 to 24 bullocks annually. We
+have not had a single death during that period, and the animals have
+been remarkably free from any kind of ailment."
+
+Rape-cake of good quality possesses a dark-green color (the greener
+the better), and when broken exhibits a mottled aspect--yellowish and
+dark-brown spots. Sometimes a tolerably good specimen has a brownish
+color; but the German and Danish cakes are always of a greenish hue.
+The odor is stronger than that of linseed-cake, and differs but little
+from that of rape-oil. The only serious adulteration of rape-cake
+is the addition to it of mustard-seed--sometimes accidentally--less
+frequently, as I believe, intentionally. This sophistication admits of
+easy detection. Scrape into small particles about half an ounce of the
+cake, add six times its weight of water, form the solid and liquid
+into a paste, and allow the mixture to stand for a few hours. If the
+cake contain mustard the characteristic odor of that substance will be
+evolved, and its intensity will afford a rough indication of the amount
+of the adulterant. As some specimens of genuine rape-cake possess a
+somewhat pungent odor, care must be taken not to confound it with that
+of mustard; but, indeed, it is not difficult to discriminate the latter.
+The paste of rape-cake which contains an injurious proportion of
+mustard, has a very pungent flavor. Rape-cake improves somewhat if kept
+for say six months; but old cake is worse than the fresh article.
+
+_Cottonseed Cake_ is one of the most valuable feeding stuffs that
+have come into use of late years. Its chemical composition shows it
+to be about equal to that of the best linseed-cake, and as its price
+is much lower than that of the latter, it may be fairly considered
+a more economical food. These remarks apply only to the shelled, or
+decorticated seed-cake, for the article prepared from the whole seed is
+of very inferior composition, and should never be employed. The use of
+the cake made from the whole seed has proved fatal in many instances,
+not from its possessing any poisonous quality, but in consequence
+of its hard, indigestible husk, accumulating in, and inflaming, the
+animal's bowels.
+
+The composition of this cake varies somewhat. The following analysis of
+a sample from one of the Western States of North America, imported by
+Messrs. G. Seagrave and Co., of Liverpool, was made by me:--
+
+  COMPOSITION OF DECORTICATED COTTON-SEED CAKE.
+
+  Water                                                     8.20
+  Oil                                                      10.16
+  Albuminous, or flesh-forming principles                  40.25
+  Gum, sugar, &c.                                          21.10
+  Fibre                                                     9.23
+  Ash (mineral matter)                                     11.06
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100.00
+
+In some specimens so much as 16 per cent. of oil has been found. The
+purchaser of cotton-seed cake should be certain that it is not old and
+mouldy, which is frequently the case. The recently prepared cake has
+a very yellow color, which becomes fainter as the cake becomes older.
+Freshness is a very desirable quality in nearly every kind of cake.
+I have known animals to have a greater relish for, and thrive better
+upon, home-made linseed-cake than upon cake of foreign manufacture of
+superior composition, but of greater age.
+
+_Palm-nut Meal, or Cake_ is a very valuable fattening food. It is
+extremely rich in ready-formed fatty matters, but at the same time it is
+not very deficient in albuminous substances. Its strong flavor is rather
+a drawback to its use in the case of all the farm animals, except pigs.
+This difficulty may, however, be got over by using the cake in moderate
+quantities, and by combining it with other food possessed of a good
+flavor. Reports of practical trials made with this food appear to have
+almost uniformly given very favorable results. This food is only three
+or four years in use. The first samples that came into my hand were
+richer in fatty matters than those which I have recently examined.
+The average results of eight analyses made from 1864 to 1866 were
+as follows:--
+
+  100 PARTS CONTAINED--
+
+  Water                                                     7.48
+  Albuminous matters                                       17.26
+  Fatty substances                                         21.59
+  Gum, sugar, &c.                                          32.14
+  Fibre                                                    17.18
+  Mineral matter                                            4.35
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100.00
+
+This year I have not found more than 17 per cent. of fat in any sample
+of palm-nut cake. One specimen which I analysed for Mr. J. G. Alexander,
+seed merchant, of Dublin, had the following composition:--
+
+  Water                                                     9.24
+  Albuminous matters                                       19.28
+  Fatty matters                                             9.36
+  Gum, starch, fibre, &c.                                  53.22
+  Mineral matters                                           8.90
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100.00
+
+But although inferior samples are occasionally met with, I may say
+of palm-nut cake that on the whole it is a food which deserves to be
+largely used, and which at its present price is the most economical
+source of fat. To milch-cows and fattening cattle about 3 lbs. per diem
+may be given; 1/4 lb. will be sufficient for young sheep, whilst pigs
+may be very liberally supplied with this food.
+
+The _Locust, or Carob Bean_, is now largely used by the stock-feeder.
+It is extremely rich in sugar, and is therefore an excellent fattening
+and milk-producing food. It is used largely in the preparation of the
+sweet kinds of artificial food for cattle. It is not well adapted for
+young animals, owing to its deficiency of albuminous matters. The
+following analysis shows the average composition of this food:--
+
+  Water                                                       14
+  Sugar                                                       50
+  Albuminous matters                                           8
+  Oil                                                          1
+  Gum, &c.                                                    20
+  Woody fibre                                                  5
+  Ash                                                          2
+                                                             ---
+                                                             100
+
+_Dates_ have been used, but only in very small quantities, as cattle
+food. Their composition is not constant, some samples being greatly
+inferior in nutritive power to others; they are rich in sugar,
+and if they were obtained in sufficient quantities they might, like
+carob-beans, come into general use with the stock-feeder. They contain
+about 2 per cent. of flesh-formers, 10 per cent. of fat-formers (chiefly
+sugar), and 2 per cent. of mineral matter.
+
+Distillery and brewery dregs (or wash) are chiefly used by dairymen.
+According to Dr. Anderson, an imperial gallon (700,000 grains) of
+distillery wash (from a distillery near Edinburgh) contained 4,130
+grains of organic matter, and 276 grains of mineral substances.
+He considers that 15 gallons of this stuff were equal in nutritive
+materials to 100 pounds of turnips. The following is the centesimal
+composition of brewery wash:--
+
+  Water                                                    75.85
+  Albuminous matters                                        0.62
+  Gummy matters                                             1.06
+  Other organic matter (husks, &c.)                        21.28
+  Mineral matters                                           1.19
+                                                          ------
+                                                          100.00
+
+_Molasses_ constitute a very fattening food, sometimes, but not
+often, given to stock. Treacle and molasses are composed of
+non-crystallisable sugar, cane-sugar, water, and saline and other
+impurities. The composition of average specimens of molasses, as
+imported, is as follows:--
+
+
+  Cane-sugar                                                  50
+  Non-crystallisable sugar and grape-sugar                    25
+  Water, saline matter, and organic impurities                25
+                                                             ---
+                                                             100
+
+If admitted duty free, molasses would be a much more economical food
+than it now is, but at its present price it must be regarded as a mere
+flavoring food.
+
+Mr. T. Cooke Burroughs, a West Suffolk feeder, who used treacle in 1864,
+gives the following mode of mixing it with other food:--
+
+    My plan has been (and is still carried on) to give to each
+    bullock per day (divided into three meals) one pint of treacle
+    dissolved in two gallons of water, and sprinkled, by means of
+    a garden water-pot, over four bushels of cut chaff (two-thirds
+    straw and one-third hay) amongst which a quarter of a peck of
+    meal (barley and wheat) is mixed, the animals also having free
+    access to water. The cost of the treacle and meal together
+    is about 3s. per bullock per week. My bullocks (two-year old
+    Shorthorns) have grown and thrived upon the above diet to my
+    utmost satisfaction; and even during the present dry and warm
+    weather they evince no lingering after roots or grass. I am well
+    aware that the use of treacle for neat stock is no new discovery
+    of my own, as I learnt the system while on a visit to a friend
+    in Norfolk, where some graziers have used it in combination with
+    roots during many years past. Perhaps flax-seed (linseed) boiled
+    into a jelly and used in a similar way, may be a more profitable
+    "substitute for roots" than treacle; but the preparation of it is
+    attended with more expense and trouble.
+
+
+SECTION  VIII.
+
+CONDIMENTAL FOOD.
+
+Although every farmer may not have used, there are few who have not
+heard of "Thorley's Condimental Food for Cattle." This nostrum is a
+compound of some of the ordinary foods with certain well-known aromatic
+and carminative substances. It possesses a very agreeable flavor, and it
+is therefore much relished by horses, and indeed by every kind of stock.
+The price of this compound was at first so much as L60 per ton; but
+owing to competition, and perhaps to the attacks made upon the
+enormously high price of this article, it is now to be obtained at
+prices varying from L12 to L24 per ton.
+
+The inventor of condimental food, and the numerous fabricators of that
+compound, claim for it merits of no ordinary nature. Its use, they
+assert, not only maintains the animals fed upon it in excellent health,
+but it also exercises so remarkable an action upon the adipose tissues
+that fat accumulates to an immense extent. Moreover, it is said that an
+animal supplied with a very moderate daily modicum of this wonderful
+compound, will consume less of its ordinary food, though rapidly
+becoming fat.
+
+Now, if these assertions were perfectly, or even approximatively,
+true, Mr. Thorley would be well deserving of a niche in the temple of
+fame, and stock-feeders would ever regard him as a benefactor to his
+own and the bovine species; but I fear that Mr. Thorley's imagination
+outstripped his reason when he described in such glowing terms the
+wonderful virtues of his tonic food.
+
+Mr. J. B. Lawes, of Rothamstead, than whom there is no more accurate
+experimenter in agricultural practice, states that he made many careful
+trials with Thorley's food, and that he never found it to exercise
+the slightest influence upon the nutrition of the animals fed upon it.
+In his report upon this subject, Mr. Lawes, after describing the
+experiments which he made, sums up as follows:--
+
+    There is nothing therefore in the above results to recommend the
+    use of Thorley's condiment with inferior fattening food, to those
+    who feed pigs for profit. In fact, the following balance-sheet of
+    the experiment shows that, in fattening for twelve weeks, there
+    was a balance of L1 10s. 11d. in favor of the lot fed without
+    Thorley's food, notwithstanding that one of the pigs in that lot
+    did badly throughout the experiment, as above stated.
+
+  LOT 1.--WITH BARLEY-MEAL AND BRAN.
+
+                                                L  s. d.
+
+  4 pigs bought in at 41s. 6d. each             8  6  0
+  1,860-3/4 lbs. barley, at 37s. 6d. per
+    quarter of 416 lbs., including grinding     8  7  8-3/4
+  1,024-3/4 lbs. bran at 5s. 6d. per cwt.       2 10  3-3/4
+                                               ------------
+                                               19  4  0-1/2
+  88 stone 5 lbs. of pork sold at 4s. 4d.
+    per stone, sinking the offal               19  4  0-1/2
+
+  LOT 2.--WITH BARLEY-MEAL, BRAN, AND THORLEY'S FOOD.
+
+                                                L  s. d.
+
+  4 pigs bought in at 41s. 6d. each             8  6  0
+  1,862-3/4 lbs. barley, at 37s. 6d. per
+    quarter of 416 lbs., including grinding     8  7 10-1/4
+  1,020-3/4 lbs. bran at 5s. 6d. per cwt.       2 10  1-1/2
+  105 lbs. Thorley's food at 40s. per cwt.      1 17  6
+                                               ------------
+                                               21  1  5-3/4
+  90 stone 1 lb. pork sold at 4s. 4d.
+    per stone, sinking the offal               19 10  6-1/2
+                                               ------------
+                                                1 10 11-1/4
+
+The results of these experiments with pigs, in which Thorley's condiment
+was used with inferior fattening food, may be summed up as follows:--
+
+    1. The addition of Thorley's condimental food increased the
+    amount of food consumed by a given weight of animal within
+    a given time.
+
+    2. When Thorley's condiment was given it required more food
+    to produce a given amount of increase in live-weight.
+
+    3. In fattening for twelve weeks there was a difference of
+    L1 10s. 11d. on the lot of 4 pigs in favor of barley-meal
+    and bran alone, over barley-meal, bran, and Thorley's food
+    in addition.
+
+
+At a meeting of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of
+England, held some time ago, the subject of the nutrimental value of
+condimental cattle food was discussed. As there is scarcely any kind of
+quackery, from spirit manifestations to Holloway's pills, that has not
+got its believers, there were, as might have been anticipated, some
+voices raised at this meeting in favor of Thorley's food; but the
+_sense_ of the meeting was decidedly against it. Professor Simonds
+pronounced it to be worthless.
+
+Although the greater number of equine proprietors and feeders of stock
+are too sensible to throw their money away in the purchase of those
+costly foods, still there are by no means an insignificant number who
+employ it, under the idea that it preserves the health of the animals;
+these stuffs are also highly appreciated by many grooms and herds.
+Now, for the information of all believers, I may state that there is
+no mystery whatever in the nature of condimental cattle foods. They
+consist in substance of such matters as linseed-cake, Indian corn,
+rice, bean-meal, locust-beans, and malt-combings. These substances
+are flavored by the addition of turmeric-root, ginger, coriander-seed,
+carraway-seed, fenugreek-seed, aniseed, liquorice, and similar
+substances. In addition to the nutritive and flavorous articles employed
+in the manufacture of these foods, purely medicinal substances are also
+made use of with the idea that they would prove useful in maintaining
+the health and stimulating the appetite of the animals. These medicinal
+ingredients constitute but a small proportion of the compound, although
+they add considerably to the cost of manufacture. The following is a
+formula for a condimental food, which in every respect will be found
+fully equal, if not superior, to the ordinary high-priced articles.
+
+                                                cwt.   qrs.   lbs.
+
+  Linseed-meal, or cake                          7      0      0
+  Locust beans (ground)                          8      0      0
+  Indian corn                                    4      1      0
+  Powdered turmeric                              0      1      4
+  Ginger                                         0      0      3
+  Fenugreek-seed                                 0      0      2
+  Gentian                                        0      0     10
+  Cream of tartar                                0      0      2
+  Sulphur                                        0      0     20
+  Common salt                                    0      0     10
+  Coriander-seed                                 0      0      5
+                                               -----------------
+                                                     One ton.
+
+A ton of condimental food manufactured according to this formula will
+cost only about the same amount as an equal weight of linseed, and will
+produce an effect fully equal to that of the food which at one time was
+sold at L60 per ton.
+
+Whatever may be the medicinal virtues of these foods, or however
+appropriate the term "condimental" which has been applied to them,
+it is quite certain that their whilom designation "concentrated"
+was a misnomer. Their composition shows that they possess a degree of
+nutritive power considerably below that of linseed-cake, and but little,
+if at all, superior to that of Indian corn.
+
+The following analytical statement, which I published some years ago,
+will give an insight into the nature of these articles:--
+
+  ANALYSES OF CONDIMENTAL FOOD.
+
+                                           Thorley's.   Bradley's.
+
+  Water                                       12.00        12.09
+  Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles    14.92        10.36
+  Oil                                          6.08         5.80
+  Gum, sugar, mucilage, &c.                   56.86        60.21
+  Woody fibre                                  5.46         5.32
+  Mineral matter (ash)                         4.68         6.22
+                                             ------       ------
+                                             100.00       100.00
+
+As a ton of linseed-cake contains a greater amount of nutriment than
+an equal quantity of condimental food, the latter should be clearly
+proved to possess very valuable specific virtues, in order to induce the
+feeder to use it extensively. Cattle and horses out of condition may be
+benefited by its carminative and tonic properties; but if they are, it
+surely must be a bad practice to feed healthy animals upon a substance
+which is a remedy in disease. It is asserted, and probably with some
+degree of truth, that when dainty, over-fed stock loathe their food,
+they are induced to eat greedily by mixing the "condimental" with their
+ordinary food. If such really be the case, let the feeder compound the
+article himself, and effect thereby a saving of perhaps 50 or 80 per
+cent. in the cost of it. A good condimental food, rich in actual
+nutriment, and pleasantly flavored, is no doubt a compound which might
+be used with advantage; but it should be sold at a moderate and fair
+price.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Footnote 26: See Transactions of Highland and Agricultural Society of
+Scotland for 1852.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Zig-zag clover, or Marl grass? Cowgrass is _Trifolium
+pratense perenne_.]
+
+[Footnote 28: This gentleman has invented an exceedingly simple but
+effective furze-bruiser, which I hope soon to see in general use.]
+
+[Footnote 29: H. Le Docte, in _Journal de la Societe Centrale
+d'Agriculture de Belgique_.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Cellulose is the term applied to the chemical substance
+which forms woody fibre. The latter is made up of very minute
+spindle-shaped tubes. In young and succulent plants these tubes are
+often lined with layers of soft cellulose. In many plants--such as
+trees--in a certain stage of development, the substance lining the cells
+is very hard, and is termed _lignin_, or _sclerogen_. This substance is
+merely a modification of cellulose; and both resemble in composition
+sugar and starch so closely that, by heating them with sulphuric acid,
+they may be converted into sugar.]
+
+[Footnote 31: One part of oil is equal to 2-1/2 parts of starch--that is,
+2-1/2 parts of starch are expended in the production of
+1 part of fat.]
+
+[Footnote 32: No difference is here assumed between the nutritive value
+of sugar and starch.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Unless when Kohl-rabi is cultivated, for the bulbs of this
+plant may be preserved in good condition up to June. I have advocated
+the cultivation of the radish as a food crop in the "Agricultural
+Review" for 1861.]
+
+[Footnote 34: According to some chemists, sugar does not exist in ripe
+grain, but is produced in it, during the process of analysis, by the
+action of the re-agents employed and the influence of the air.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Report to Government on feeding cattle with Malt, 1844.]
+
+[Footnote 36: _Monthly Agricultural Review_, Dublin, February, 1859.]
+
+[Footnote 37: _Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society
+of Scotland,_ October, 1858.]
+
+[Footnote 38: 3 lbs. of rape-cake, 3/4 lb. malt combs, 3/4 lb. bran,
+steamed together with a sufficient quantity of straw.]
+
+
+SECTION IX.--ANALYSES OF THE ASHES OF PLANTS.
+
+(_Extracted from the Author's "Chemistry of Agriculture."_)
+
+Those numbers marked with an asterisk refer to 100 parts of the
+substance in its natural or undried state; the remaining numbers
+refer to 100 parts when dried.
+
+  +----------------------+-------+---------------+-------+-------+-------+
+  |                      |       |     Flax.     |       |       |       |
+  |                      |       +-------+-------+       |       | White |
+  |                      | Rape  |       |       | Peas. | Kidney| Turnip|
+  |                      | Seed. | Stalk.| Seed. |       | Beans.| Seed. |
+  +----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  |Potash                | 25.18 | 34.96 | 32.55 | 43.09 | 36.83 | 21.91 |
+  |Soda                  |  ...  |  ...  |  2.51 |  ...  | 18.40 |  1.23 |
+  |Lime                  | 12.91 | 15.87 |  9.45 |  4.77 |  7.75 | 17.40 |
+  |Magnesia              | 11.39 |  3.68 | 16.23 |  8.06 |  6.33 |  8.74 |
+  |Sesquioxide of Iron   |  0.62 |  4.84 |  0.38 |  ...  |  2.24 |  1.95 |
+  |     "      Manganese |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |
+  |Sulphuric Acid        |  0.53 |  4.99 |  1.43 |  0.44 |  3.96 |  7.10 |
+  |Muriatic Acid         |  0.11 |  ...  |  ...  |  1.96 |  ...  |  ...  |
+  |Carbonic Acid         |  2.20 | 13.39 |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  0.82 |
+  |Phosphoric Acid       | 45.95 |  8.48 | 35.99 | 40.56 | 11.60 | 40.17 |
+  |Silica                |  1.11 |  5.60 |  1.46 |  0.79 |  4.09 |  0.67 |
+  |Chloride of Potassium |  ...  |  7.65 |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |
+  |Chloride of Sodium    |  ...  |  0.54 |  ...  |  ...  |  2.80 |  ...  |
+  |                      +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  |   Total              |100.00 |100.00 |100.00 | 99.67 |100.00 | 99.99 |
+  |   Per-centage of Ash |  4.51 |  5.00 |  3.05 |  5.21 |  0.68 |  3.98 |
+  |                      |       |       |       |       |   *   |       |
+  +----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+
+  +----------------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+--------+
+  |                      |         |         |        |         |        |
+  |                      | Turnip  |         | Mangel |         |        |
+  |                      |  Bulb   |Cucumber.| Wurtzel|Potatoes |  Hop   |
+  |                      | (Swede).|         |  Seed. |(tubers).|Flowers.|
+  +----------------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+--------+
+  |Potash                |   39.82 |   47.52 |  16.08 |   35.15 |  19.41 |
+  |Soda                  |   10.86 |    ...  |   6.86 |    5.77 |   0.70 |
+  |Lime                  |   12.75 |    6.31 |  13.42 |    2.14 |  14.15 |
+  |Magnesia              |    4.68 |    4.26 |  15.22 |    2.69 |   5.34 |
+  |Sesquioxide of Iron   |    0.89 |    ...  |   0.40 |    1.79 |   2.41 |
+  |     "      Manganese |    ...  |    ...  |   ...  |    ...  |   ...  |
+  |Sulphuric Acid        |   13.15 |    4.60 |   3.64 |    3.29 |   8.28 |
+  |Muriatic Acid         |    3.68 |    ...  |   ...  |    ...  |   2.26 |
+  |Carbonic Acid         |    ...  |    ...  |  13.85 |   17.14 |  11.01 |
+  |Phosphoric Acid       |    6.69 |   18.03 |  13.35 |   20.70 |  14.64 |
+  |Silica                |    7.05 |    7.12 |   1.86 |    3.00 |  18.56 |
+  |Chloride of Potassium |    ...  |    4.19 |   ...  |    1.84 |   ...  |
+  |Chloride of Sodium    |    ...  |    9.06 |  15.30 |    6.49 |   2.95 |
+  |                      +---------+---------+--------+---------+--------+
+  |   Total              |   99.57 |  100.09 |  99.98 |  100.00 |  99.71 |
+  |   Per-centage of Ash |    7.60 |    0.63 |   6.58 |         |   6.05 |
+  |                      |         |     *   |        |         |        |
+  +----------------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+--------+
+
+The number marked with an asterisk refers to 100 parts of the
+substance in its natural or undried state; the remaining numbers
+refer to 100 parts when dried.
+
+  +----------------------+--------+--------+--------+------+-------------+
+  |                      |        |        |        |Husks |     Rye.    |
+  |                      |Cauli-  |Hopeton |Potato  |  of  +-------------+
+  |                      |flowers.|Oats    |Oats.   |Potato|Grain.|Straw.|
+  |                      |        |(Grain).|(Grain).|Oats. |      |      |
+  +----------------------+--------+--------+--------+------+------+------+
+  |Potash                |  34.39 |  20.65 | \      |  2.23| 31.76| 17.36|
+  |                      |        |        |  }31.56|      |      |      |
+  |Soda                  |  14.79 |   ...  | /      |  8.97|  4.45|  0.31|
+  |Lime                  |   2.96 |  10.28 |    5.32|  4.30|  2.92|  9.06|
+  |Magnesia              |   2.38 |   7.82 |    8.69|  2.35| 10.13|  2.41|
+  |Sesquioxide of Iron   |   1.69 |   3.85 |    0.88|  0.32|  0.82|  1.36|
+  |    "       Manganese |   ...  |   0.42 |    ... |  ... |  ... |  ... |
+  |Sulphuric Acid        |  11.16 |   ...  |    ... |  4.30|  1.46|  0.83|
+  |Muriatic Acid         |   ...  |   ...  |    ... |  ... |  ... |  0.46|
+  |Carbonic Acid         |   ...  |   ...  |    ... |  ... |  ... |  ... |
+  |Phosphoric Acid       |  27.85 |  50.44 |   49.19|  0.66| 47.29|  3.82|
+  |Silica                |   1.92 |   4.40 |    1.87| 74.18|  0.17| 64.50|
+  |Chloride of Potassium |   ...  |   1.03 |    ... |  ... |  ... |  ... |
+  |Chloride of Sodium    |   2.86 |   ...  |    0.35|  2.39|  ... |  ... |
+  |                      +--------+--------+--------+------+------+------+
+  |   Total              | 100.00 |  98.89 |   97.86| 99.70|100.00|100.11|
+  |   Per-centage of Ash |   0.71 |        |    2.22|      |  2.30|  2.60|
+  |                      |    *   |        |        |      |      |      |
+  +----------------------+--------+--------+--------+------+------+------+
+
+  +----------------------+-------+---------------------------------------+
+  |                      |       |         Grasses (in flower).          |
+  |                      | Hay.  +---------------------------------------+
+  |                      |       |Bromus  |Lolium  | Annual  |   Avena   |
+  |                      |       |erectus.|perenne.|Ryegrass.|flavesceus.|
+  +----------------------+-------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+
+  |Potash                | 20.80 |  20.33 |  24.67 |   28.99 |    36.06  |
+  |Soda                  | 10.85 |   ...  |   ...  |    0.87 |     0.73  |
+  |Lime                  |  8.24 |  10.38 |   9.64 |    6.82 |     7.98  |
+  |Magnesia              |  4.01 |   4.99 |   2.85 |    2.59 |     3.07  |
+  |Sesquioxide of Iron   |  1.83 |   0.26 |   0.21 |    0.28 |     2.40  |
+  |    "        Manganese|  ...  |   ...  |   ...  |    ...  |     ...   |
+  |Sulphuric Acid        |  2.11 |   5.46 |   5.20 |    3.45 |     4.00  |
+  |Muriatic Acid         |  ...  |   ...  |   ...  |    ...  |     ...   |
+  |Carbonic Acid         |  0.68 |   0.55 |   0.49 |    ...  |     ...   |
+  |Phosphoric Acid       | 15.43 |   7.53 |   8.73 |   10.07 |     9.31  |
+  |Silica                | 30.01 |  38.48 |  27.13 |   41.79 |    35.20  |
+  |Chloride of Potassium |  ...  |  10.63 |  13.80 |    ...  |     ...   |
+  |Chloride of Sodium    |  5.09 |   1.38 |   7.25 |    5.11 |     1.25  |
+  |                      +-------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+
+  |   Total              | 99.05 |  99.99 |  99.97 |   99.97 |   100.00  |
+  |   Per-centage of Ash |       |   5.21 |   7.54 |    6.45 |     5.20  |
+  |                      |       |        |        |         |           |
+  +----------------------+-------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+
+
+Those numbers marked with an asterisk refer to 100 parts of the
+substance in its natural or undried state; the remaining numbers
+refer to 100 parts when dried.
+
+  +----------------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
+  |                      |               |               |Kohl-rabi, from|
+  |                      |   Broccoli.   | Cow Cabbage.  |  chalk soil.  |
+  |                      +-------+-------+-------+-------+---------------+
+  |                      | Root. |Leaves.|Leaves.|Stalk. |Leaves.| Tuber.|
+  +----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  |Potash                | 47.16 | 22.10 | 40.86 | 40.93 |  9.31 | 36.27 |
+  |Soda                  |  ...  |  7.55 |  2.43 |  4.05 |  ...  |  2.84 |
+  |Lime                  |  4.70 | 28.44 | 15.01 | 10.61 | 30.31 | 10.20 |
+  |Magnesia              |  3.93 |  3.43 |  2.39 |  3.85 |  3.62 |  2.36 |
+  |Sesquioxide of Iron   |  ...  |  ...  |  0.77 |  0.41 |  5.50 |  0.38 |
+  |     "      Manganese |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |
+  |Sulphuric Acid        | 10.35 | 16.10 |  7.27 | 11.11 | 10.63 | 11.43 |
+  |Muriatic Acid         |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |
+  |Carbonic Acid         |  ...  |  ...  | 16.68 |  6.33 |  8.97 | 10.24 |
+  |Phosphoric Acid       | 25.83 | 19.81 | 12.52 | 19.57 |  9.43 | 13.46 |
+  |Silica                |  1.81 |  2.83 |  1.66 |  1.04 |  9.57 |  0.82 |
+  |Chloride of Potassium |  6.22 |  ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  5.99 |  ...  |
+  |Chloride of Sodium    |a trace|  ...  |  ...  |  2.08 |  6.66 | 11.90 |
+  |                      +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  |  Total               |100.00 |100.26 | 99.99 | 99.98 | 99.99 | 99.90 |
+  |  Per-centage of Ash  |  1.01 |  1.70 |  0.70 |  1.24 | 18.54 |  8.09 |
+  |                      |   *   |   *   |   *   |   *   |       |       |
+  +----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+
+  +----------------------+----------+-----------------+------------------+
+  |                      |          |                 |                  |
+  |                      |  Wheat   |      Wheat.     |      Barley.     |
+  |                      | (Grain). +--------+--------+---------+--------+
+  |                      |          | Grain. | Straw. | Grain.  | Straw. |
+  +----------------------+----------+--------+--------+---------+--------+
+  |Potash                |   29.51  | 25.92  | 10.78  |  32.02  |  14.37 |
+  |Soda                  |   10.61  |  ...   |  ...   |   1.21  |   0.28 |
+  |Lime                  |    0.99  |  3.80  |  2.44  |   3.39  |   8.50 |
+  |Magnesia              |   10.60  | 12.27  |  3.23  |  10.99  |   1.70 |
+  |Sesquioxide of Iron   |    ...   |  1.12  |  0.54  |   0.15  |   0.20 |
+  |     "      Manganese |    ...   |  ...   |  ...   |   ...   |   ...  |
+  |Sulphuric Acid        |    0.09  |  ...   |  1.77  |   ...   |   2.22 |
+  |Muriatic Acid         |    ...   |  ...   |  ...   |   ...   |   ...  |
+  |Carbonic Acid         |    ...   |  4.43  |  6.01  |   0.48  |   1.25 |
+  |Phosphoric Acid       |   47.55  | 43.44  |  3.69  |  29.92  |   4.22 |
+  |Silica                |    0.11  |  7.16  | 64.84  |  21.12  |  62.89 |
+  |Chloride of Potassium |    ...   |  1.03  |  3.96  |   ...   |   ...  |
+  |Chloride of Sodium    |    0.54  |  ...   |  0.42  |   0.72  |   4.37 |
+  |                      +----------+--------+--------+---------+--------+
+  |  Total               |  100.00  | 99.17  | 99.68  | 100.00  | 100.00 |
+  |  Per-centage of Ash  |    2.32  |  1.645 |  5.252 |   2.22  |   5.49 |
+  |                      |          |        |        |         |        |
+  +----------------------+----------+--------+--------+---------+--------+
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+Whilst this Work was passing through the press, a valuable Report on
+Agricultural Statistics was issued by the Board of Trade. The following
+statistics, collected from this Report, are here given, because they
+modify the statements made in page 5:--
+
+  POPULATION, AREA, ACREAGE UNDER CROPS, ETC., AND NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK,
+  IN THE UNITED KINGDOM IN 1867.
+
+  +-------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |                         |            |           |           |           |
+  |                         |            |           |           |           |
+  |                         |  England.  |  Wales.   | Scotland. |  Ireland. |
+  |                         |            |           |           |           |
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Population (1866)        | 20,276,494 | 1,187,103 | 3,136,057 |  5,571,971|
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Area (in Statute Acres)  | 32,590,397 | 4,734,486 |19,639,377 | 20,322,641|
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Under Corn Crops         |  7,399,347 |   521,404 | 1,364,029 |  2,115,137|
+  |  "   Green Crops        |  2,691,734 |   138,387 |   668,042 |  1,432,252|
+  |  "   Bare Fallow        |    753,210 |    86,257 |    83,091 |     26,191|
+  |  "   Grass--Clover, &c.,|  2,478,117 |   300,756 | 1,211,101 |  1,658,451|
+  |        Under Rotation   |            |           |           |           |
+  |Permanent Pasture,       |            |           |           |           |
+  |  not broken up in       |            |           |           |           |
+  |  Rotation[39]           |  9,545,675 | 1,472,359 | 1,053,285 | 10,057,072|
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Per-centage of           |            |           |           |           |
+  |  Acreage:[40]--         |            |           |           |           |
+  |Under Corn Crops         |    32.3    |    20.7   |   31.1    |    13.6   |
+  |  "   Green Crops        |    11.7    |     5.5   |   15.3    |     9.2   |
+  |  "   Bare Fallow        |     3.3    |     3.4   |    1.9    |      .2   |
+  |  "   Grass--Clover, &c.,|            |           |           |           |
+  |        under Rotation   |    10.8    |    11.9   |   27.7    |    10.7   |
+  |Permanent Pasture[41]    |    41.6    |    58.5   |   24.0    |    64.7   |
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Number of Cattle         |  3,469,026 |   544,538 |   979,470 |  3,702,378|
+  |  "    of Sheep          | 19,798,337 | 2,227,161 | 6,893,603 |  4,826,015|
+  |  "    of Pigs           |  2,548,755 |   229,917 |   188,307 |  1,233,893|
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Number of Live Stock     |            |           |           |           |
+  |    to every 100 Acres   |            |           |           |           |
+  |    under Crops, Fallow, |            |           |           |           |
+  |    and Grass:--         |            |           |           |           |
+  |  Cattle                 |    15.1    |    21.6   |   22.4    |    23.8   |
+  |  Sheep                  |    86.3    |    88.4   |  157.4    |    31.1   |
+  |  Pigs                   |    11.1    |     9.1   |    4.3    |     7.9   |
+  +-------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+  +-------------------------+------------+-----------------------+-----------+
+  |                         |            |    Channel Islands.   |           |
+  |                         |   Isle of  +-----------+-----------+ Total for |
+  |                         |    Man.    |           | Guernsey, | United    |
+  |                         |            |   Jersey. |   &c.     | Kingdom   |
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Population (1866)        |    52,469  |   55,613  |   35,365  | 30,315,072|
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Area (in Statute Acres)  |   180,000  |   28,717  |   17,967  | 77,513,585|
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Under Corn Crops         |    27,039  |    2,827  |    2,157  | 11,431,940|
+  |  "   Green Crops        |    12,670  |    5,636  |    3,075  |  4,951,796|
+  |  "   Bare Fallow        |     1,990  |    2,550  |      709  |    953,998|
+  |  "   Grass--Clover, &c.,|    26,884  |    3,250  |      874  |  5,679,433|
+  |        Under Rotation   |            |           |           |           |
+  |Permanent Pasture,       |            |           |           |           |
+  |  not broken up in       |            |           |           |           |
+  |  Rotation[39]           |    15,915  |    6,092  |    6,143  | 22,156,541|
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Per-centage of           |            |           |           |           |
+  |  Acreage:[40]--         |            |           |           |           |
+  |Under Corn Crops         |     32.0   |    13.9   |    16.7   |    25.1   |
+  |  "   Green Crops        |     15.0   |    27.6   |    23.7   |    10.9   |
+  |  "   Bare Fallow        |      2.4   |    12.5   |     5.5   |     2.1   |
+  |  "   Grass--Clover, &c.,|            |           |           |           |
+  |        under Rotation   |     31.8   |    16.0   |     6.7   |    12.4   |
+  |Permanent Pasture[41]    |     18.8   |    30.0   |    47.4   |    48.7   |
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Number of Cattle         |    18,672  |   10,081  |    7,308  |  8,731,473|
+  |  "    of Sheep          |    70,958  |      529  |    1,348  | 33,817,951|
+  |  "    of Pigs           |     7,706  |    5,804  |    6,718  |  4,221,100|
+  |                         +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Number of Live Stock     |            |           |           |           |
+  |    to every 100 Acres   |            |           |           |           |
+  |    under Crops, Fallow, |            |           |           |           |
+  |    and Grass:--         |            |           |           |           |
+  |  Cattle                 |     22.1   |    49.5   |    56.4   |    19.2   |
+  |  Sheep                  |     84.0   |     2.6   |    10.4   |    74.3   |
+  |  Pigs                   |      9.1   |    28.5   |    51.8   |     9.3   |
+  +-------------------------+------------+-----------------------+-----------+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Footnote 39: Exclusive of heath or mountain land.]
+
+[Footnote 40: The per-centage of acreage is exclusive of Hops in Great
+Britain, and Flax in Ireland.]
+
+[Footnote 41: Including under Flax, 253,105 acres.]
+
+
+
+
+
+
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