diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 02:17:37 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 02:17:37 -0700 |
| commit | 557373c03b852e7c099e95913339c2b377fc2595 (patch) | |
| tree | 3dabf4f36e91aeefc29c6409e685eccf8d4b2edf /25520-h/25520-h.htm | |
Diffstat (limited to '25520-h/25520-h.htm')
| -rw-r--r-- | 25520-h/25520-h.htm | 12570 |
1 files changed, 12570 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/25520-h/25520-h.htm b/25520-h/25520-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..08019f5 --- /dev/null +++ b/25520-h/25520-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,12570 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" + content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> +<meta content="pg2html (binary v0.18)" name="generator" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of + The Stock Feeder's Manual + by Charles A. Cameron, Ph.D., M.D., +</title> +<style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[*/ + <!-- + body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; } + p { text-indent: 1em; + margin-top: .75em; + font-size: 100%; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { text-align: center; } + h4 {text-align: center; padding-top: 2em; } + hr { width: 50%; } + hr.full { width: 100%; } + .foot { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 85%; } + .poem { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left; } + .poem .stanza { margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em; } + .poem p { margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; } + .poem p.i2 { margin-left: 1.5em; } + .quote { margin-left: 6%; margin-right: 6%; text-indent: 0em; font-size: 90%; } + .figure { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; text-indent: 0em; text-align: center; font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps; } + .center { text-align: center; text-indent: 0; } + .sc { font-variant: small-caps; } + span.pagenum { position: absolute; left: 1%; right: 91%; font-size: 8pt; color: gray; background-color: inherit; } + p.toc-hang { padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; } + + a,img { text-decoration: none; border: none!important; } + + /* Tabular style definitions */ + + .table-title { font-size: 90%; border-bottom: 1px solid black; text-align: center; text-indent: 0; border-right: none; padding-bottom: .5em;} + .table-key { text-align: left; padding-left: .5em; border: none; } + table { padding: 0; border-spacing: 0; margin-top: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 1em; border-collapse: collapse; } + td { text-align: right; font-size: 90%; border-right: 1px solid black; background-color: inherit; padding: .15em .5em .15em .5em;} + td.c { text-align: center; text-indent: 0; } + td.l { text-align:left; text-indent: 0; } + th { text-align: center; padding: .25em; font-weight: normal; font-size: 90%; border-right: 1px solid black; border-left: none; border-bottom: none; border-top: none!important; } + th.l { text-align: left; padding: .25em; font-weight: normal; font-size: 90%; border-right: 1px solid black; border-left: none; border-bottom: none; border-top: none!important; } + + /* Done as descendant selectors so IE doesn't explode */ + tr.b2 td,th { border-bottom: 3px double black; border-left: none; border-top: 1px solid black; } + tr.b1 td,th { border-bottom: 1px solid black; border-left: none; border-top: none!important; } + + tr.total * { line-height: 20%; } /* cheat to let rows of em-dashes act as rules for table totals */ + tr.tiny * { font-size: 70%; } /* for the not-quite-footnote notes in some tables */ + + /* override the above table settings for the TOC based on ID */ + #tableofcontents * { border: none!important; margin: .75em 0em 1.25em 0em; font-size: 100%; } + + /* override the above for "open" (unruled) tables by assigning them a class, but keep border under title since that looks nice */ + table.open * { border: none; } + table.open .table-title { font-size: 90%; border-bottom: 1px solid black; text-align: center; text-indent: 0; border-right: none; } + + /* but allow double for possible totals lines */ + .b2 { border-bottom: 3px double black; border-left: none; border-top: 1px solid black; } + + /* Close the left side border for table class "closed" and wrap entire table in 1px border */ + table.closed { border: 1px solid black; } + table.closed th.l,th { border-left: 1px solid black; } + +/*]]>*/ + // --> +</style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's The Stock-Feeder's Manual, by Charles Alexander Cameron + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Stock-Feeder's Manual + the chemistry of food in relation to the breeding and + feeding of live stock + +Author: Charles Alexander Cameron + +Release Date: May 19, 2008 [EBook #25520] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STOCK-FEEDER'S MANUAL *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, David Garcia and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div style="height: 6em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagei" name="pagei"></a>[i]</span></p> + +<a name="image-0001"><!--IMG--></a> +<div class="figure"> +<a href="images/frontis.jpg"><img src="images/frontis-s.png" width="500" height="300" +alt="PRIZE YEARLING SHORT-HORN BULL, "VICTOR EMMANUEL,"" /></a> +<br /> +<p class="center"> +PRIZE YEARLING SHORT-HORN BULL, "VICTOR EMMANUEL," +<br /> +<small>THE PROPERTY OF LORD TALBOT DE MALAHIDE,</small> +</p> + +<p style="text-indent: -2em; font-variant: normal;">Was awarded the First Prize in his Section (there being sixteen +competitors), at the Show of the Royal Agricultural Society, held +at Belfast, in August, 1861. Calved June 24, 1860; sire, Prince +Duke the Second (16,731); dam, Turfoida, by Earl of Dublin (10,178); +gd., Rosina, by Gray Friar (9,172); ggd., Hinda, by Little John (4,232). +</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pageii" name="pageii"></a>[ii]</span></p> + +<a name="h2H_4_0001" id="h2H_4_0001"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h1> + THE STOCK-FEEDER'S MANUAL. +</h1> + +<h2> +<small>THE</small><br /> +CHEMISTRY OF FOOD<br /> +<small>IN RELATION TO THE</small><br /> +BREEDING AND FEEDING<br /> +<small>OF</small><br /> +LIVE STOCK.<br /> +</h2> + +<h3> +BY CHARLES A. CAMERON, Ph.D., M.D., +</h3> + +<p class="quote"> + Licentiate of the King and Queen's College of Physicians + in Ireland; Honorary Corresponding Member of the New York + State Agricultural Society; Member of the Agricultural + Society of Belgium; Professor of Hygiene or Political + Medicine in the Royal College of Surgeons; Professor of + Chemistry and Natural Philosophy in Steevens' Hospital + and Medical College; Lecturer on Chemistry in the Ledwich + School of Medicine; Analyst to the City of Dublin; Chemist + to the County of Kildare Agricultural Society, the Queen's + County Agricultural Society, c.; Member of the International + Jury of the Paris Exhibition, 1867; Editor of the + "Agricultural Review;" one of the Editors of the "Irish + Farmer's Gazette;" Author of the "Chemistry of Agriculture," + "Sugar and the Sugar Duties," &c. &c. +</p> + +<div style="height: 2em;"><br /><br /></div> + +<p class="center"> +LONDON AND NEW YORK:<br /> +CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN.<br /> +1868. +</p> + +<p class="center">[<i>All rights reserved.</i>]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pageiii" name="pageiii"></a>[iii]</span></p> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<p class="center"> +LONDON<br /> +CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN, BELLE SAUVAGE WORKS,<br /> +LUDGATE HILL, E. C. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pageiv" name="pageiv"></a>[iv]</span></p> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<p class="center"> +<small>THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE</small><br /> +Dedicated +</p> +<p class="center"> +<small>TO</small><br /> +THE RIGHT HONORABLE<br /> +THE LORD TALBOT DE MALAHIDE, F.R.S.,<br /> +<i>President of the Royal Irish Academy, &c. &c. &c.</i>,<br /> +</p> +<p class="center"><small> +ONE OF THE MOST ENLIGHTENED AND LIBERAL PROMOTERS +OF AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENTS.</small> +</p> +<p class="center"><small> +THE AUTHOR IS UNDER MANY OBLIGATIONS TO HIS LORDSHIP, FOR +WHICH HE CAN MAKE NO RETURN SAVE THIS PUBLIC ACKNOWLEDGMENT +OF HIS INDEBTEDNESS.</small> +</p> + +<div style="height: 2em;"><br /><br /></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagev" name="pagev"></a>[v]</span></p> + +<a name="h2H_PREF" id="h2H_PREF"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + PREFACE. +</h2> +<p> +Some papers on the Chemistry of Food, read before the Royal Agricultural +Society of Ireland and the Athy Farmers' Club, and a few articles on the +Management of Live Stock, published in the <i>Weekly Agricultural Review</i>, +constitute the basis of this Work. It describes the nature of the food +used by the domesticated animals, explains the composition of the animal +tissues, and treats generally upon the important subject of nutrition. +The most recent analyses of all the kinds of food usually consumed by +the animals of the farm are fully stated; and the nutritive values of +those substances are in most instances given. Some information is +afforded relative to the breeds and breeding of live stock; and a +division of the Work is wholly devoted to the consideration of the +economic production of "meat, milk, and butter." +</p> +<p> +Within the last twenty years the processes of chemical analysis have +been so much improved, that the composition of organic bodies is now +determined with great accuracy. The analyses of foods made from twenty +to fifty years ago, possess now but little value. In this Work the +analyses of + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="pagevi" name="pagevi"></a>[vi]</span> + + vegetables quoted are chiefly those recently performed by the +distinguished Scotch chemist, Dr. Thomas Anderson, and by Dr. Voelcker. +The Author believes that in no other Work of moderate size are there so +many analyses of food substances given, and ventures to hope that the +success of this Work may fully justify the belief that a "handy" book +containing such information as that above mentioned, is much required +by stock feeders. +</p> +<p><br /> + <i>102, Lower Baggot Street, Dublin</i>,<br /> + <span class="sc">April</span>, 1868. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagevii" name="pagevii"></a>[vii]</span></p> + +<a name="h2H_TOC" id="h2H_TOC"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + TABLE OF CONTENTS +</h2> + +<table id="tableofcontents" border="0" summary="Table of Contents"> + +<tr><td></td><td><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="bottom"> +<p class="toc-hang"> +<span class="sc">Introduction</span>: History of Agriculture—Agricultural Statistics—Imports + of Live Stock</p> +</td><td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#h2H_INTR"> 1 </a></td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2" align="center">PART I. ON THE GROWTH AND COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS.</th></tr> + +<tr><td valign="bottom"> +<p class="toc-hang"> +<span class="sc">Section I.</span> <span class="sc">Animal and Vegetable Life</span>. Functions of Plants. Animal + Life.—<span class="sc">Section II.</span> <span class="sc">Composition of Organic Substances</span>. Elements of + Organic Bodies. Proximate Composition of Organic Substances.—<span class="sc">Section III.</span> + <span class="sc">Use of Fat in the Animal Economy</span>. Fatty Food necessary in Cold Climates. + Fat Equivalents.—<span class="sc">Section IV.</span> <span class="sc">Relation between the Composition of an + Animal and that of its Food</span>. Tables of Experimental Results.—<span class="sc">Section V.</span> + <span class="sc">Relation between the quantity of Food consumed by an Animal and + the Increase of its Weight, or of the Amount of its Work</span>. Weights + of Foods necessary to sustain a Man's Life for twenty-four hours. + Value of Manure.</p> +</td><td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#h2H_4_0005"> 8 </a></td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2" align="center">PART II. ON THE BREEDING AND BREEDS OF STOCK.</th></tr> + +<tr><td valign="bottom"> +<p class="toc-hang"> +<span class="sc">Section I.</span> <span class="sc">The Breeding of Stock</span>.—<span class="sc">Section II.</span> <span class="sc">The Breeds of Stock</span>. + The Form of Animals. <i>Breeds of the Ox.</i> Shorthorns. Devons. + Herefords. Ayrshires. Polled Cattle. Kyloes. Long-horned. + Kerrys. Alderneys. <i>Sheep.</i> The Leicester. Lincoln. Cotswold. + Cheviot. Southdown. Shropshire. Blackfaced. <i>Breeds of the + Pig.</i> Berkshire. Yorkshire. <i>Breeds of the Horse.</i> Clydesdales. + Suffolk Punch. Hunters and Racers.</p> +</td><td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#h2H_4_0006"> 47 </a></td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2" align="center">PART III. ON THE MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCK.</th></tr> + +<tr><td valign="bottom"> +<p class="toc-hang"> +<span class="sc">Section I.</span> <span class="sc">The Ox</span>. Breeding Cows. Wintering of Young Stock. Shelter + of Stock. Milch Cows. Stall Feeding. Cost of Maintaining Animals. + Cooking and Bruising Food. Value for Feeding Purposes of various + Foods. Bedding Cattle.—<span class="sc">Section II.</span> <span class="sc">The Sheep</span>. Breeding Ewes. + Yeaning. Rearing of Lambs. Sheep Feeding. Sheep Dips.—<span class="sc">Section III.</span> <span class="sc">The + Pig</span>. Young Pigs. Store Pigs. Fattening Pigs.—<span class="sc">Section IV.</span> <span class="sc">The Horse</span>. + Foals. Dietaries for the Horse.</p> +</td><td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#h2H_4_0007"> 74 </a></td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2" align="center">PART IV. MEAT, MILK, AND BUTTER.</th></tr> + +<tr><td valign="bottom"> +<p class="toc-hang"> +<span class="sc">Section I.</span> <span class="sc">Meat</span>. Quality of Meat. Is very Fat Meat Unwholesome? + Diseased Meat.—<span class="sc">Section II.</span> <span class="sc">Milk</span>. Composition of Milk of Different + Animals. Yield of Milk. Preserved Milk.—<span class="sc">Section III.</span> <span class="sc">Butter</span>. History + of Butter. Irish Butter. Composition of Butter. The Butter + Manufacture.</p> +</td><td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#h2H_4_0008"> 112 </a></td></tr> + +<tr> +<th colspan="2" align="center"> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="pageviii" name="pageviii"></a>[viii]</span> +PART V. ON THE COMPOSITION AND VALUE OF VEGETABLE FOODS.</th></tr> + +<tr><td valign="bottom"> +<p class="toc-hang"> +<span class="sc">Section I.</span> <span class="sc">The Money Value of Food Substances</span>.—<span class="sc">Section II.</span> <span class="sc">Proximate + Constituents of Vegetables</span>. Starch. Sugar. Inulin. Gum. Pectin. + Cellulose. Oils and Fats. Stearin. Margarin. Olein. Palmitin. + Albumen. Fibrin. Legumin.—<span class="sc">Section III.</span> <span class="sc">Green Food</span>. The + Grasses. Schrœder Brome. Tussac Grass. The Clovers. Leguminous + Plants—Vetch, Sainfoin, &c. The Yellow Lupine. Rib Grass Plantain. + Ergot in Grasses. Holcus Saccharatus. Green Rye. Buckwheat. Rape. + Mustard. Comfrey. Chicory. Yarrow. Melons and Marrows. Cabbage. + Furze.—<span class="sc">Section IV.</span> <span class="sc">Straw and Hay</span>. <i>Straw.</i> Anderson's, Voelcker's, + and Cameron's Analyses of Straws. Feeding Experiments with Straw. + Relative Values of Straw and Oil-cake. <i>Hay.</i> Composition of the + Hay of different Grasses. Over-ripening of Hay. Damaged Hay and + Straw.—<span class="sc">Section V.</span> <span class="sc">Roots and Tubers</span>. <i>Turnips.</i> Swedish. White + Globe. Aberdeen Yellow. Purple-top. Norfolk Bell. Greystone. + Turnip Tops. Analyses of Turnips. Mangel Wurtzel. Chemistry of + the Mangel. Stripping Leaves off the Mangel. Beet-root. Parsnip. + Carrot. Kohl-rabi. Analyses of Kohl-rabi. Radish. The Radish as + a Field Crop. Composition of Radish. Jerusalem Artichoke: Advantages + of Cultivating it. Analysis of Jerusalem Artichoke. Potato: Analyses + of six varieties. Feeding Value of Potatoes.—<span class="sc">Section VI.</span> <span class="sc">Seeds</span>. <i>Wheat.</i> + Analyses of Wheat, Flour, Bran, and Husks. Over-ripening of + Grain. Wheat a Costly Food. Analyses of Barley, Oat Grain, Indian + Corn, Rye, Rice, Rice-dust, and Buckwheat. Malted Corn. Voelcker's + Analyses of Malt and Barley. Experiments of Thompson, Lawes, &c., + with Malt. Malt Combings. <i>Leguminous Seeds.</i> Beans. Composition + of Common Beans, Foreign Beans, Peas. Lentils and Winter Tares. + <i>Oil Seeds.</i> Rape Seeds. Experiments with Rapeseed. Flax Bolls. + Composition of Linseed, Rape-seed, Hemp-seed, and Cotton-seed. + Fenugreek Seed.—<span class="sc">Section VII.</span> <span class="sc">Oil-cakes and other Artificial Foods</span>. + Composition of Linseed, Rape-seed, Cotton-seed, and Poppy-seed + Cake. Linseed-cake. Adulteration of Linseed-cake. Rape-cake. + Feeding Experiments with Rape-cake. Adulterations of Rape-cake. + Cotton-seed Cake. Analyses of Decorticated Cotton-seed Cake. + Palm-nut Meal: its Composition and Nutritive Properties. Locust, + or Carob Bean: its Composition. Dates. Brewers' Dregs and + Distillery Wash. Molasses and Treacle.—<span class="sc">Section VIII.</span> <span class="sc">Condimental Food</span>. + Lawes' Experiments with Thorley's Food. Analyses of Condimental + Food. Formula for a Tonic Food.—<span class="sc">Section IX.</span> <span class="sc">Tables of the Analyses + of the Ashes of Plants</span>.</p> +</td><td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#h2H_4_0009"> 147 </a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="bottom"> +<p class="toc-hang"> +APPENDIX. <span class="sc">Agricultural Statistics</span>. Numbers of Live Stock in the United + Kingdom. Value of the Agriculture Products of Great Britain.</p> +</td><td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#h2H_APPE"> 254 </a></td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page1" name="page1"></a>[1]</span></p> + +<a name="h2H_4_0003" id="h2H_4_0003"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + The +</h2> +<h3> + CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. +</h3> +<a name="h2H_INTR" id="h2H_INTR"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + INTRODUCTION. +</h2> +<p> +When Virgil composed his immortal "Bucolics," and Varro indited his +profound Essays on Agriculture, the inhabitants of the British Islands +were almost completely ignorant of the art of cultivating the soil. +The rude spoils torn from the carcasses of savage animals protected the +bodies of their hardly less savage victors; and the produce of the chase +served almost exclusively to nourish the hardy frames of the ancient +Celtic hunters. In early ages wild beasts abounded in the numerous and +extensive forests of Britain and Ireland; but men were few, for the +conditions under which the maintenance of a dense population is possible +did not then exist. As civilisation progressed, men rapidly multiplied, +and the demand for food increased. The pursuit of game became merely the +pastime of the rich; and tame sheep and oxen furnished meat to the lowly +as well as to the great. Nor were the fruits of the earth neglected; for +during the latter days of the dominion of the Romans, England raised +large quantities of corn. Gradually the food of the people, which at +first was almost purely animal, became chiefly vegetable. The shepherds, +who had supplanted the hunters, became less numerous than the tillers of +land; and the era of tillage husbandry began. +</p> +<p> +At present the great mass of the rural population of these countries +subsist almost exclusively upon vegetable aliment—a + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page2" name="page2"></a>[2]</span> + + diet which poverty, +and not inclination, prescribes for them. Were the flesh of animals +the staple food of the British peasantry, their numbers would not be +nearly so large as they now are, for a given area of land is capable of +sustaining a far larger number of vegetarians than of meat eaters. The +Chinese are by no means averse to animal food, but they are so numerous, +that they are in general obliged to content themselves on a purely +vegetable diet. +</p> +<p> +In the manufacturing districts of Great Britain, there are several +millions of people whose condition in relation to food is somewhat +different from that of the small farmer and agricultural laborer. The +artizans employed in our great industries are comparatively well paid +for their toil; and the results of their labor place within their reach +a fair share of animal food. This section of the population is rapidly +increasing, and consequently is daily augmenting the demand for meat. +The rural population is certainly not increasing; rather the reverse. +Less manual labor is now expended in the operations of agriculture, and +even horses are retiring before the advance of the steam plough. The +only great purely vegetable-feeding class is diminishing, and the upper, +the middle, and the artizan classes—the beef and mutton eating sections +of society—are rapidly increasing. It is clear, then, that we are +threatened with a revival of the pastoral age, and that in one way, at +least, we are returning to the condition of our ancestors, whose staple +food consisted of beef, mutton, and pork. +</p> +<p> +And here two questions arise. How long shall we be able to supply the +increasing demand for meat? How long shall we be able to compete with +the foreign feeders? These are momentous queries for the British farmer, +and I trust they may be solved in a satisfactory manner. At any time +during the present century the foreign or colonial grower of wheat could +have undersold the British producer of that article, were the latter not +protected by a tariff; but cattle could not, as a general rule, be +imported into Great Britain at a cheaper rate than they could be +produced at home. Were there no + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page3" name="page3"></a>[3]</span> + + corn imported, it is certain that the +price of bread would be greater than it is now, even if the grain +harvests had been better than they have been for some years past. A bad +cereal harvest in England raises the price of flour, but only to a small +and strictly limited extent, because, practically, there is no limit to +the amount of bread-stuffs procurable from abroad. When, on the +contrary, the turnip crop fails, or that excessive drought greatly +curtails the yield of grass, the price of meat and butter increases +greatly, and is but slightly modified by the importation of foreign +stock. +</p> +<p> +Hitherto the difficulty of transit has been so great that we have only +derived supplies of live stock from countries situated at a short +distance, such as Holstein and Holland. Vast herds of cattle are fed +with but little expense in America, and myriads of sheep are maintained +cheaply in Australia; but the immense distances which intervene between +our country and those remote and sparsely populated regions have, +hitherto, prevented the superabundant supply of animal food produced +therein from being available to the teeming population of the British +Isles. Should, however, any cheap mode of conveying live stock, or even +their flesh, from those and similarly circumstanced countries be +devised, it might render the production of meat in Britain a far less +profitable occupation than it is now. That we are increasing the area +from whence we draw our supplies of live stock is evident from the fact, +that within the last two years enormous numbers of horned stock have +been imported from Spain. In that extensive country there are noble +breeds of the ox; and it would appear that very large numbers of animals +could be annually exported, without depriving the inhabitants of a due +supply of bovine meat. As Spain is not very distant, it is likely that +this traffic will be increased, and that in a short time we shall be as +well supplied with Spanish beef as we are now provided with French +flour. Meat is at present dear, and is likely to continue so for some +time; but still it is evident that, sooner or later, the British feeders +will come into keen competition + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page4" name="page4"></a>[4]</span> + + with the foreign producer of meat, and +that the price of their commodity will consequently fall. The mere +probability of such a state of things, were there no other reason, +should induce the feeder to devote increased attention to the +improvement of his stock, and to discover more economical methods of +feeding them. There is still much to be learned relative to the precise +nutritive values of the various feeding stuffs. The proper modes of +cooking, or otherwise preparing, food, are still to be satisfactorily +determined; and there are many very important questions in relation to +the breeding of stock yet unanswered. +</p> +<p> +It is but fair to admit that the farmer is earnestly endeavouring to +improve his art, and that he is willing, nay anxious, to obtain the +co-operation of scientific men, in order to increase his knowledge of +the theory as well as the practice of his ancient calling. Indeed, he +not only admits the utility of science in agriculture, but often places +an undue degree of value upon the theories of the chemist, of the +botanist, and of the geologist. This is encouraging to the men of +science; but, on the other hand, they must admit that by far the greater +portion of the sum of human knowledge has been derived from the +experience and observation of men utterly unacquainted with science, in +the ordinary signification of that term. This portion of our knowledge +is also, in its practical application, the most valuable. In the most +important branch of industry—agriculture—the labors of the purely +scientific man have as yet borne but scant fruit; whilst the unaided +efforts of the husbandman have reclaimed from sterility extensive +tracts, and caused them to "blossom as the rose." That practical men +should have done so much, and scientific men so little, for agriculture, +may easily be explained. Countless millions of men, during many +thousands of years, have incessantly been occupied in improving the +processes of mechanical agriculture, which, as an <i>art</i>, has +consequently been brought to a high degree of perfection: but scientific +agriculture is a creation of almost our own time, and the number of its +cultivators is, and + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page5" name="page5"></a>[5]</span> + + always has been, very small; all its theories cannot, +therefore, justly claim that degree of confidence which, as a rule, is +only reposed in the opinions founded on the experience of practical +workers in the field and in the feeding-house. Still, the farmer has +derived a great amount of useful information from the chemist and +physiologist; and they alone can explain to him the causes of the +various phenomena which the different branches of his art present. There +was a time when it was the fashion of the man of science to look down +with contempt, from the lofty pedestal on which he placed himself, upon +the lessons of practical experience read to him by the cultivator of the +soil; whilst at the same time the farmer treated as foolish visionaries +those who applied the teachings of science to the improvement of their +art. But this time has happily passed away. The scientific man no longer +despises the knowledge of the mere farmers, but turns to good account +the information derivable from their experience; whilst the farmer, on +the other side, has ceased to speak in contemptuous terms of mere "book +learning." It is to this happy combination of the theorist with the +practical man that the recent remarkable advance in agriculture is +chiefly due; and to it we may confidently look for improvement in the +economic production of meat and butter, and for the enlargement of our +knowledge of the relative value of food substances. +</p> + +<table align="center" width="100%" summary="NUMBERS OF LIVE STOCK IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND"> + +<tr><td colspan="7" class="table-title">STATEMENT OF THE NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.</td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td rowspan="2"></td><th colspan="3"> Enumerated, 1866. </th><th colspan="3"> Estimated, 1865. </th></tr> +<tr class="b1"> <th> Cattle. </th><th> Sheep. </th><th> Pigs. </th><th> Cattle. </th><th> Sheep. </th><th> Pigs. </th></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> England </td><td>3,307,034 </td><td> 15,124,541 </td><td> 2,066,299 </td><td>3,422,165 </td><td> 18,691,088 </td><td> 2,363,724 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Wales </td><td> 541,401 </td><td> 1,668,663 </td><td> 191,604 </td><td class="c"> — </td><td class="c"> — </td><td class="c"> — </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Islands </td><td> 17,700 </td><td> 57,685 </td><td> 22,887 </td><td class="c"> — </td><td class="c"> — </td><td class="c"> — </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Scotland </td><td> 937,411 </td><td> 5,255,077 </td><td> 219,716 </td><td> 974,437 </td><td> 5,683,168 </td><td> 146,354 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ireland </td><td>3,493,414 </td><td> 3,688,742 </td><td> 1,299,893 </td><td>3,493,414 </td><td> 3,688,742 </td><td> 1,299,893 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Total </td><td>8,316,960 </td><td> 25,794,708 </td><td> 3,800,399 </td><td>7,890,016 </td><td> 28,062,998 </td><td> 3,809,971 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page6" name="page6"></a>[6]</span> +</p> +<table border="0" align="center" width="100%" summary="Population and number of livestock by country"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="8"> STATEMENT OF THE POPULATION AND NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK IN THE +UNITED KINGDOM AND VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES, ACCORDING TO +THE LATEST RETURNS. +</td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"> +<th rowspan="2">Countries.</th> +<th rowspan="2">Date of Returns<br /> of Live Stock.</th> +<th rowspan="2">Population according<br /> to Latest Returns.</th> +<th colspan="3">Cattle.</th> +<th rowspan="2">Sheep.</th> +<th rowspan="2">Pigs.</th></tr> + +<tr class="b1"> +<th> Cows. </th> +<th> Other Cattle. </th> +<th> Total. </th> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> United Kingdom</td><td class="c">1865–66</td><td>29,070,932</td><td>3,286,308</td><td>5,030,652</td><td> 8,316,960</td><td>25,795,708</td><td> 3,802,399</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Russia </td><td class="c">1859–63</td><td>74,139,394</td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td>25,444,000</td><td>45,130,800</td><td>10,097,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Denmark Proper</td><td class="c"> 1861 </td><td> 1,662,734</td><td> 756,834</td><td> 361,940</td><td> 1,118,774</td><td> 1,751,950</td><td> 300,928</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sleswig </td><td class="c"> 1861 </td><td> 421,486</td><td> 217,751</td><td> 172,250</td><td> 390,001</td><td> 362,219</td><td> 87,867</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Holstein </td><td class="c"> 1861 </td><td> 561,831</td><td> 198,310</td><td> 92,062</td><td> 290,372</td><td> 165,344</td><td> 82,398</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sweden </td><td class="c"> 1860 </td><td> 3,859,728</td><td>1,112,944</td><td> 803,714</td><td> 1,916,658</td><td> 1,644,156</td><td> 457,981</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Prussia </td><td class="c"> 1862 </td><td>18,491,220</td><td>3,382,703</td><td>2,251,797</td><td> 5,634,500</td><td>17,428,017</td><td> 2,709,709</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Hanover </td><td class="c"> 1861 </td><td> 1,880,070</td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 949,179</td><td> 2,211,927</td><td> 554,056</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Saxony </td><td class="c"> 1861 </td><td> 2,225,240</td><td> 411,563</td><td> 226,897</td><td> 638,460</td><td> 371,986</td><td> 270,462</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Wurtemburg </td><td class="c"> 1861 </td><td> 1,720,708</td><td> 466,758</td><td> 490,414</td><td> 957,172</td><td> 683,842</td><td> 216,965</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Grand Duchy<br /> + of Baden </td><td class="c"> 1861 </td><td> 1,429,199</td><td> 348,418</td><td> 273,068</td><td> 621,486</td><td> 177,322</td><td> 307,198</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> " Hesse </td><td class="c"> 1863 </td><td> 853,315</td><td> 187,442</td><td> 129,211</td><td> 316,653</td><td> 231,787</td><td> 195,596</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> " Nassau </td><td class="c"> 1864 </td><td> 468,311</td><td> 116,421</td><td> 84,224</td><td> 200,645</td><td> 152,584</td><td> 65,979</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> " Mecklenb.<br /> + Schwerin </td><td class="c"> 1857 </td><td> 539,258</td><td> 197,622</td><td> 69,215</td><td> 266,837</td><td> 1,198,450</td><td> 157,522</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> " Oldenburg </td><td class="c"> 1852 </td><td> 279,637</td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 219,843</td><td> 295,322</td><td> 87,336</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Holland </td><td class="c"> 1864 </td><td> 3,618,459</td><td> 943,214</td><td> 390,673</td><td> 1,333,887</td><td> 930,136</td><td> 294,636</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Belgium </td><td class="c"> 1856 </td><td> 4,529,461</td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 1,257,649</td><td> 583,485</td><td> 458,418</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> France </td><td class="c"> 1862 </td><td>37,386,313</td><td>5,781,465</td><td>8,415,895</td><td>14,197,360</td><td>33,281,592</td><td> 5,246,403</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Spain </td><td class="c"> 1865 </td><td>15,658,531</td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 2,904,598</td><td>22,054,967</td><td> 4,264,817</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Austria </td><td class="c"> 1863 </td><td>36,267,648</td><td>6,353,086</td><td>7,904,030</td><td>14,257,116</td><td>16,964,236</td><td> 8,151,608</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Bavaria </td><td class="c"> 1863 </td><td> 4,807,440</td><td>1,530,626</td><td>1,655,356</td><td> 3,185,882</td><td> 2,058,638</td><td> 926,522</td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> United States </td><td class="c"> 1860 </td><td>31,445,080</td><td>8,728,862</td><td>8,182,813</td><td>16,911,475</td><td>23,317,756</td><td>32,555,267</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page7" name="page7"></a>[7]</span></p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Livestock and animal food import numbers"> + +<tr><td colspan="3" class="table-title"> NUMBERS OF THE LIVE STOCK IMPORTED INTO GREAT BRITAIN +DURING THE ELEVEN MONTHS ENDED 31<span class="sc">st</span> NOVEMBER, 1867.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l" colspan="2"> Bullocks, bulls, and cows </td><td> 150,518 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l" colspan="2"> Calves </td><td> 20,720 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l" colspan="2"> Sheep and lambs </td><td> 504,514 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l" colspan="2"> Pigs </td><td> 45,566 </td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td>————</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td> 721,318</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" class="table-title"> AMOUNT OF ANIMAL FOOD IMPORTED DURING SAME PERIOD.</td></tr> + +<tr><th class="l"> Bacon and hams </th><td class="c">cwts. </td><td> 452,132 </td></tr> +<tr><th class="l"> Salt beef </th><td class="c"> " </td><td> 163,638 </td></tr> +<tr><th class="l"> Salt pork </th><td class="c"> " </td><td> 123,257 </td></tr> +<tr><th class="l"> Butter </th><td class="c"> " </td><td> 1,000,095 </td></tr> +<tr><th class="l"> Lard </th><td class="c"> " </td><td> 213,599 </td></tr> +<tr><th class="l"> Cheese </th><td class="c"> " </td><td> 798,267 </td></tr> +<tr><th class="l"> Eggs </th><td class="c"> </td><td>373,042,000 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +I am indebted to Professor Ferguson, Chief of the Veterinary Department +of the Irish Privy Council Office, for the following statement:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Horned Cattle"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3"> RETURN OF HORNED CATTLE EXPORTED FROM THE SEVERAL IRISH +PORTS AT WHICH VETERINARY INSPECTORS HAVE BEEN APPOINTED, +AND CERTIFIED AS FREE FROM DISEASE, FROM THE 18<span class="sc">th</span> OF +NOVEMBER, 1866, TO THE 16<span class="sc">th</span> OF NOVEMBER, 1867 (52 WEEKS).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Fat Stock </td><td>187,483 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Store Stock </td><td>317,331 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Breeding and Dairy Stock </td><td> 36,599 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td>————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Total </td><td>541,413 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td>————<br />————</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page8" name="page8"></a>[8]</span></p> + +<a name="h2H_4_0005" id="h2H_4_0005"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + PART I. +</h2> +<h3> + ON THE GROWTH AND COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS. +</h3> + +<hr /> + +<h4> +SECTION I. +</h4> + +<h5> +ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE. +</h5> + +<p> +<i>Functions of Plants.</i>—It is the primary function of plants to convert +the inorganic matter of the soil and air into organised structures +of a highly complex nature. The food of plants is purely mineral, and +consists chiefly of water, carbonic acid, and ammonia. Water is composed +of the elements oxygen and hydrogen; carbonic acid is a compound of +oxygen and carbon; and ammonia is formed of hydrogen and nitrogen. These +four substances are termed the <i>organic elements</i>, because they form by +far the larger portion—sometimes the whole—of organic bodies. The +combustible portion of plants and animals is composed of the organic +elements; the incombustible part is made up of potassium, sodium, and +the various other elements enumerated in another page. The organic +elements are furnished chiefly by the atmosphere, and the incombustible +matters are supplied by the soil. +</p> +<p> +Water in the state of vapor forms, according to the temperature and +other conditions of the atmosphere, from a half per cent. to four and a +half per cent. of the weight of that fluid—about 1·25 per cent. being +the average; carbonic acid exists in it to the extent of <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2000</sub>th; and +ammonia forms a minute portion of it—according to Dr. Angus Smith, one +grain weight in 412·42 cubic feet of air (of a town), or 0·000453 per +cent. It is remarkable that the most abundant + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page9" name="page9"></a>[9]</span> + + constituents of atmospheric +air—oxygen and nitrogen—are not assimilable by plants, although these +elements enter largely into the composition of vegetable substances. In +the soil, also, the part which ministers to the wants of vegetables is +relatively quite insignificant in amount. +</p> +<p> +Plants are unendowed with organs of locomotion, their food must +therefore be within easy reach. Every breeze wafts gaseous nutriment to +their expanded leaves, and their rootlets ramify throughout the soil in +search of appropriate mineral aliment. But no matter how abundant, or +however easy of reach may be the food of plants, the vegetable organism +is incapable of partaking of it unless under the influence of light. +Exposed to this potent stimulus, the plant collects the gaseous carbonic +acid and the vaporous water, solidifies them, decomposes them, and +combines their elements into new and organised forms. In effecting these +changes—in conferring vitality upon the atoms of lifeless matter—the +plant acts merely as the <i>mechanism</i>, the light is the <i>force</i>. As the +work performed by the steam-engine is proportionate to the amount of +force developed by the combustion of the fuel beneath its boiler, +so is the rapidity of the elaboration of organic substances by plants +proportionate to the amount of sunlight to which they are exposed. It is +an axiom that matter is indestructible; we may alter its form as often +as we please, but we cannot destroy a particle of it. It is the same +with <i>force</i>: we may convert one kind of it into another—heat into +light, or magnetism into electricity—but our power ends there; we can +only cause force, or <i>motion</i>, to pass from one of its conditions to +another, but its <i>quantity</i> can never be diminished by the power of man. +</p> +<p> +The principle of the Conservation of the Forces gives us a clear +explanation of the fact that animals can obtain their food only through +the medium of the vegetable kingdom. Plants are stationary mechanisms; +they have no need to develop motive power, as animals have, in moving +themselves from place to place. Their temperature is, we may say, the +same + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page10" name="page10"></a>[10]</span> + + as that of the medium in which they exist. Such beings as plants +do not, therefore, require the expenditure of force to maintain their +vitality; on the contrary, their mechanisms are, for a beneficent +purpose, constructed for the <i>accumulation</i> of force. The growing +plant absorbs, together with carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, a +proportionate amount of light, heat, and the various other subtile +forces which have their abiding place in the sun-beam— + +<!-- Here, the transcriber expresses his deep and abiding dislike for poetry, etc. inlined mid-paragraph --> + +<span class="poem" style="display: block;"> +<span class="stanza" style="display: block;"> + <span style="margin-left: 12em;"> "That golden chain,</span><br/> + <span>Whose strong embrace holds heaven and earth and main."</span> +</span> +</span> + +Co-incidentally with the conversion of the mineral constituents of the +food of plants into organised structures—albumen, fibre, and such +like substances—the light, and the heat, and the various other forces +likewise suffer a change. Although the precise nature of the new force +into which they are converted is still a mystery—one, too, which may +never be revealed to us—still we know sufficient of it to satisfy +us that it can only exist in connection with organic or organised +structures. It is owing to its presence that the elements of these +structures (the natural state of which is mineral) are bound together +in what may be aptly designated a constrained state; or, as Liebig +aptly expresses it, like the matter in a bent spring. So long as the +organic structure retains its form, it will be a reservoir of latent +force—which will manifest itself in some form during the recoil of the +atoms of the matter forming the structure to their original mineral, or +statical condition: so the bent spring, when the pressure is removed, +returns to its original straight form. +</p> +<p> +<i>Animal Life.</i>—The chief manifestation of the life of a plant is the +accumulation of force; very different are the functions of animal life. +It is only by the continuous <i>expenditure</i> of force that the vitality of +animals is preserved; the heat of a man's body, his power of locomotion, +the performance of his daily toil, even his very faculty of thought, are +all dependent upon, and to a great extent proportionate to, the amount +of organised matter disorganised in his body. It is by the conversion + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page11" name="page11"></a>[11]</span> + + of this organised matter into its original mineral state of water, +carbonic acid, and ammonia, that the force originally expended in +arranging, through the agency of plants, its atoms, is again restored, +chiefly in the form of heat and animal motive power. +</p> +<p> +Animals, as a class, are completely dependent upon vegetables for +their existence. There is every reason to believe that the most lowly +organised beings in the scale of animal life, even those of so +simple a structure as to have been long regarded as vegetables or as +plant-animals, are incapable of organising mineral matter. The so-called +vegetative life of animals—for I believe the term to be exceedingly +inexact—is applied to their growth, that is, to the increase in their +weight. This increase takes place by their power of reorganising, or +of assimilating to the nature of their own organisms, certain of the +substances elaborated by plants, and destined to become food for +animals. +</p> + + +<h4> +SECTION II. +</h4> + +<h5> +COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. +</h5> + +<p> +<i>Elements of Organic Bodies.</i>—The number of distinct kinds of +substances—each distinguishable from all the others by the peculiarity +of its properties, taken as a whole—is exceedingly great, yet all +these substances are resolvable into a very small number of bodies. +As an illustration, I shall take a well-known substance, common +green copperas, or, as the chemists term it, protosulphate of iron. +By submitting this compound to the process termed chemical analysis, +two other kinds of matter may be obtained from it, namely, oxide of iron +and oil of vitrol, or sulphuric acid. If we continued this process—if +we submitted the acid and the oxide to analysis—we could separate the +former into sulphur and oxygen, and the latter into iron and oxygen. +Now, by these means we could + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page12" name="page12"></a>[12]</span> + + demonstrate the compound nature of +copperas; we could prove that it was <i>proximately</i> composed of sulphuric +acid and oxide of iron; and, <i>ultimately</i>, of iron, sulphur, and oxygen. +</p> +<p> +Iron, sulphur, and oxygen, are elementary, or simple bodies. They cannot +be decomposed; they cannot be analysed. Torture them as we will in our +crucibles; expose them as we please to the highest temperature of a wind +furnace, or to the more intense heat evolved by a powerful galvanic +battery; subject them to the influence of any agent, or force, or +process we may choose, and still they will yield nothing but iron, +sulphur, and oxygen: hence these undecomposable bodies are regarded as +<i>elements</i>, or simple substances. So far as our knowledge extends, there +are about sixty-six of these undecomposable bodies, of which about one +half occurs in but exceedingly minute quantities, and a considerable +number of the others exists in comparatively small amounts. As by far +the greater proportion of compounds is made up of two or more of about +a dozen elementary bodies, it would at first sight appear as if the +distinct kinds of compounds which exist, or which may be called into +existence by the chemist, must be limited to, at most, a realisable +number; but the fact is there is no practical limit to the variety of +substances which may be artificially formed. Every difference in the +mode of the arrangement of the constituent atoms of a compound, causes +its metamorphosis into another kind of substance. To prove that the +number of these changes is bounded by no narrow limits, I need but refer +to the rules of Permutation, which demonstrate that twelve letters of +the alphabet may be arranged in no fewer than 479,000,000 different +ways.<sup><a name="noteref-1"><!--1--></a><a href="#note-1">1</a></sup> The elements are the letters of + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page13" name="page13"></a>[13]</span> + + Nature's alphabet, their +compounds are the words of the language of Creation. The combinations +of sounds and of signs which express the ideas and sensations of man may +be limited to millions; but numberless are the hieroglyphs by which the +Divine wisdom and beneficence is inscribed on the pages of the +magnificent volume of Nature. +</p> +<p> +Of the sixty-six elementary bodies, not more than a dozen occur +commonly in animal and vegetable substances; these are Oxygen, Hydrogen, +Nitrogen, Carbon, Sulphur, Phosphorus, Chlorine, Silicium, Potassium, +Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, and Iron. In addition to these, Iodine, and +sometimes Bromine, are found in plants which grow in or near the sea; +and the former element has also been detected in some of the lower +animals, and in land plants. Manganese, Lithium, Cæsium, Rubidium, +and a few others of the simple bodies, occasionally occur in plants and +animals, but I believe their presence therein is always accidental. +</p> +<p> +<i>Proximate Composition of Animal Substances.</i>—The differences between +vegetable and animal substances are often more apparent than real. +Indeed many of the more important of these substances are almost +identical in composition. The albumen which coagulates when the juices +of vegetables are boiled, is identical with the albumen of the white +of eggs; the fibrine of wheat is in no respect chemically different +from the fibrine, or clot, of the blood; and, lastly, the legumine, +or <i>vegetable caseine</i>, of peas is almost indistinguishable from the +curd of milk, or <i>animal caseine</i>. But not only has chemical research +demonstrated the identity of the albumen, fibrine, and caseine of +vegetables with three of the more important constituents of animals, it +has gone a step further, and proved that they differ from each other in +but a few unimportant respects. They are unquestionably convertible into +each other<sup><a name="noteref-2"><!--2--></a><a href="#note-2">2</a></sup> within + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page14" name="page14"></a>[14]</span> + + the animal organism; and their functions, as elements +of nutrition, are almost, if not quite, identical. +</p> +<p> +Exclusive of the blood, which contains the elements of every part of +the body, the animal organism is composed of three distinct classes of +substances—namely, <i>nitrogenous</i>, <i>non-nitrogenous</i>, and <i>mineral</i>. +All of these constituents, or substances capable of being converted +into them, must exist in the food. Certain articles, for example, milk, +contains all of them; but in others, for instance, butter, only one of +these substances is found. The nitrogenous part of the body embraces the +muscles, or lean flesh, the gelatine of the bones, and the skin and its +appendages—such as hair and horns; the non-nitrogenous constituents are +its fat and oil; and its mineral matter is found chiefly in the bony +framework. These constituents are not, however, isolated: the mineral +matter, no doubt, accumulates in certain parts, but in small quantities +it is found in every portion of the body; and although the fat forms a +distinct tissue, the muscles of the leanest animal are never free from +a sensible proportion of it. +</p> +<p> +Albumen, fibrine, and caseine are the principal nitrogenous constituents +of food, and as they are employed in the reparation of the nitrogenous +tissues of the animal body, they have been termed <i>flesh-formers</i>. +</p> +<p> +The fat and oil of animals are derived either from vegetable oil and +fat, or from some such substance as starch or sugar. The constituents +of food which form fat are termed <i>fat-formers</i>, and sometimes +<i>heat-givers</i> or <i>respiratory elements</i>, from the notion that their +slow combustion in the animal body is the chief cause of its high +temperature. +</p> +<p> +The mineral elements of the body are furnished principally by the +varieties of food which contain nitrogen. The whey of milk is rich in +them; but they do not exist in pure butter, in starch, or in sugar. +</p> +<p> +Fat is a much more abundant constituent of the animal body than is +generally supposed, That this substance should + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page15" name="page15"></a>[15]</span> + + constitute the greater +portion of the weight of an obese pig seems probable enough; but few +are aware that even in a lean sheep there is 50 per cent. more fat than +lean. +</p> +<p> +For a very accurate knowledge of the relative proportions of the fatty, +nitrogenous, and mineral constituents of the carcasses of animals used +as human food, we are indebted to Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert. Before +these investigators turned their attention to this subject, it had +scarcely attracted the notice of scientific men; but a notion appears to +have been current, amongst non-scientific people, at least, that in all, +save the fattest animals, the lean flesh greatly preponderated over the +fat. That this idea was unsustained by a foundation of fact, has been +clearly proved by the results of an investigation<sup><a name="noteref-3"><!--3--></a><a href="#note-3">3</a></sup> undertaken a few +years ago by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert—an investigation which I cannot +avoid characterising as one of the most laborious and apparently +trustworthy on record. The mere statement of the results of this inquiry +occupies 187 pages of one of the huge volumes of the Transactions of the +Royal Society—a fact which best indicates the immensity of the labour +which these gentlemen imposed upon themselves, and which, independently +of their other and numerous contributions to scientific agriculture, +entitles their names to most honourable mention in the annals of +science. +</p> +<p> +I shall now briefly advert to a few of the more important facts +established by Lawes and Gilbert. From a large number of oxen, sheep, +and pigs, on which feeding experiments were being conducted, ten +individuals were selected. These were, a fat calf, a half-fat ox, a +moderately fat ox, a fat lamb, a store sheep, a half-fat old sheep, a +fat sheep, a very fat sheep, a store pig, and a fat pig. These animals +were + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page16" name="page16"></a>[16]</span> + + killed, and the different organs and parts of their bodies were +separately weighed and analysed. The results were, that, with the +exception of the calf, all the animals contained, respectively, more fat +than lean. The fat ox and the fat lamb contained each three times as +much fat as lean flesh, and the proportion of the fatty matters to the +nitrogenous constituents of the carcass of the very fat sheep was as 4 +to 1. In the pig the fat greatly preponderated over the lean; the store +pig containing three times as much, and the fat pig five times as much +fat as lean. +</p> +<p> +That part of the animal which is consumed as food by man, is termed the +<i>carcass</i> by the butcher, and contains by far the greater portion of +the fat of the animal. The <i>offal</i>, in the language of the butcher, +constitutes those parts which are not commonly consumed as human food, +at least by the well-to-do classes. In calves, oxen, lambs, and sheep, +the offal embraces the skin, the feet, and the head, and all the +internal organs, excepting the kidneys and their fatty envelope. The +offal of the pig is made up of all the internal organs, excepting the +kidneys and kidney fat. It is the relative proportion of fat in the +carcasses analysed by Lawes and Gilbert that I have stated; but as the +nitrogenous matters occur in greatest quantity in the offal, it is +necessary that the relative proportions of the constituents of the body, +taken as a whole, should be considered. On an average, then, it will be +found that a fat fully-grown animal will contain 49 per cent. of water, +33 per cent. of dry fat, 13 per cent. of dry nitrogenous matter—muscles +separated from fat, hide, &c.—and 3 per cent. of mineral matter. In a +lean animal the average proportions of the various constituents will be +54 per cent. of water, 25½ per cent. dry fat, 17 per cent. of dry +nitrogenous substances, and 3½ per cent. of mineral matter. In the +following table these proportions are set forth. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page17" name="page17"></a>[17]</span></p> + +<table class="closed" border="0" align="center" summary="Summary of Composition of Animals"> + +<tr><td colspan="17" class="table-title"> +SUMMARY OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE TEN ANIMALS—SHOWING THE +PER-CENTAGES OF MINERAL MATTER, DRY NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS, +FAT, TOTAL DRY SUBSTANCE, AND WATER. +</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="17" class="table-title"> +1st. In Fresh Carcass. 2nd. In Fresh Offal (equal Sum of Parts, +excluding Contents of Stomachs and Intestines). 3rd. In Entire +Animal (Fasted Live-weight, including therefore the weight of +Contents of Stomachs and Intestines). +</td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><th rowspan="2" style="border-left: thin solid black;"><span class="sc">Description of Animal.</span></th><th colspan="5">Per cent. in Carcass. </th><th colspan="6">Per cent. in Offal. </th><th colspan="5">Per cent. in Entire Animal. </th></tr> + +<tr class="b1"> <th> A. </th><th> B. </th><th> C. </th><th> D. </th><th> E. </th><th> A. </th><th> B. </th><th> C. </th><th> D. </th><th> E. </th><th> A. </th><th> B. </th><th> C. </th><th> D. </th><th> F. </th><th> E. </th></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fat calf </td><td> 4·48 </td><td> 16·6 </td><td> 16·6 </td><td> 37·7 </td><td>62·3 </td><td> 3·41 </td><td> 17·1 </td><td> 14·6 </td><td> 35·1 </td><td>64·9 </td><td>3·80 </td><td> 15·2 </td><td> 14·8 </td><td> 33·8 </td><td> 3·17 </td><td>63·8 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Half-fat ox </td><td> 5·56 </td><td> 17·8 </td><td> 22·6 </td><td> 46·0 </td><td>54·0 </td><td> 4·05 </td><td> 20·6 </td><td> 15·7 </td><td> 40·4 </td><td>59·6 </td><td>4·66 </td><td> 16·6 </td><td> 19·1 </td><td> 40·3 </td><td> 8·19 </td><td>51·5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fat ox </td><td> 4·56 </td><td> 15·0 </td><td> 34·8 </td><td> 54·4 </td><td>45·6 </td><td> 3·40 </td><td> 17·5 </td><td> 26·3 </td><td> 47·2 </td><td>52·8 </td><td>3·92 </td><td> 14·5 </td><td> 30·1 </td><td> 48·5 </td><td> 5·98 </td><td>45·5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fat lamb </td><td> 3·63 </td><td> 10·9 </td><td> 36·9 </td><td> 51·4 </td><td>48·6 </td><td> 2·45 </td><td> 18·9 </td><td> 20·1 </td><td> 41·5 </td><td>58·5 </td><td>2·94 </td><td> 12·3 </td><td> 28·5 </td><td> 43·7 </td><td> 8·54 </td><td>47·8 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Store sheep </td><td> 4·36 </td><td> 14·5 </td><td> 23·8 </td><td> 42·7 </td><td>57·3 </td><td> 2·19 </td><td> 18·0 </td><td> 16·1 </td><td> 36·3 </td><td>63·7 </td><td>3·16 </td><td> 14·8 </td><td> 18·7 </td><td> 36·7 </td><td> 6·00 </td><td>57·3 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Half-fat old sheep </td><td> 4·13 </td><td> 14·9 </td><td> 31·3 </td><td> 50·3 </td><td>49·7 </td><td> 2·72 </td><td> 17·7 </td><td> 18·5 </td><td> 38·9 </td><td>61·1 </td><td>3·17 </td><td> 14·0 </td><td> 23·5 </td><td> 40·7 </td><td> 9·05 </td><td>50·2 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fat sheep </td><td> 3·45 </td><td> 11·5 </td><td> 45·4 </td><td> 60·3 </td><td>39·7 </td><td> 2·32 </td><td> 16·1 </td><td> 26·4 </td><td> 44·8 </td><td>55·2 </td><td>2·81 </td><td> 12·2 </td><td> 35·6 </td><td> 50·6 </td><td> 6·02 </td><td>43·4 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Extra fat sheep </td><td> 2·77 </td><td> 9·1 </td><td> 55·1 </td><td> 67·0 </td><td>33·0 </td><td> 3·64 </td><td> 16·8 </td><td> 34·5 </td><td> 54·9 </td><td>45·1 </td><td>2·90 </td><td> 10·9 </td><td> 45·8 </td><td> 59·6 </td><td> 5·18 </td><td>35·2 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Store pig </td><td> 2·57 </td><td> 14·0 </td><td> 28·1 </td><td> 44·7 </td><td>55·3 </td><td> 3·07 </td><td> 14·0 </td><td> 15·0 </td><td> 32·1 </td><td>67·9 </td><td>2·67 </td><td> 13·7 </td><td> 23·3 </td><td> 39·7 </td><td> 5·22 </td><td>55·1 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Fat pig </td><td> 1·40 </td><td> 10·5 </td><td> 49·5 </td><td> 61·4 </td><td>38·6 </td><td> 2·97 </td><td> 14·8 </td><td> 22·8 </td><td> 40·6 </td><td>59·4 </td><td>1·65 </td><td> 10·9 </td><td> 42·2 </td><td> 54·7 </td><td> 3·97 </td><td>41·3 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Means of all </td><td> 3·69 </td><td> 13·5 </td><td> 34·4 </td><td> 51·6 </td><td>48·4 </td><td> 3·02 </td><td> 17·2 </td><td> 21·0 </td><td> 41·2 </td><td>58·8 </td><td>3·17 </td><td> 13·5 </td><td> 28·2 </td><td> 44·9 </td><td> 6·13 </td><td>49·0 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Means of 8 of the half-fat, + fat, and very fat animals </td><td> 3·75 </td><td> 13·3 </td><td> 36·5 </td><td> 53·6 </td><td>46·4 </td><td> 3·12 </td><td> 17·4 </td><td> 22·4 </td><td> 42·9 </td><td>57·1 </td><td>3·23 </td><td> 13·3 </td><td> 29·9 </td><td> 46·4 </td><td> 6·26 </td><td>47·3 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Means of 6 of the fat, + and very fat animals </td><td> 3·38 </td><td> 12·3 </td><td> 39·7 </td><td> 55·4 </td><td>44·6 </td><td> 3·03 </td><td> 16·9 </td><td> 24·1 </td><td> 44·0 </td><td>56·0 </td><td>3·00 </td><td> 12·7 </td><td> 32·8 </td><td> 48·5 </td><td> 5·48 </td><td>46·0 </td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td class="table-key"><b>KEY:</b></td> +<td class="table-key" colspan="8"> +A.—Mineral matter.<br /> +B.—Dry nitrogenous compounds.<br /> +C.—Fat. +</td> +<td class="table-key" colspan="8"> +D.—Dry substance.<br /> +E.—Water.<br /> +F.—Contents of viscera. +</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page18" name="page18"></a>[18]</span></p> + +<h4> +SECTION III. +</h4> +<h5> +USE OF FAT IN THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. +</h5> +<p> +As fat forms so large a portion of the body, it is evident that +the part it plays in the animal economy must be a most important one. +The general opinion which prevails amongst scientific men as to its +physiological functions was originated by the celebrated Liebig. +According to his theory, the food of animals includes two distinct kinds +of substances—<i>plastic</i><sup><a name="noteref-4"><!--4--></a><a href="#note-4">4</a></sup> and <i>non-plastic</i>. The plastic materials are +composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and a little sulphur +and phosphorus. Albumen, fibrine, and casein are plastic elements of +nutrition; they form the lean flesh, or muscles, the membranes, and +cartilages, the gelatine of the bones, the skin, the hair, and, in +short, every part of the body which contains nitrogen. The <i>non-plastic</i> +elements of nutrition include fat, oil, starch, sugar, gum, and certain +constituents of fruits, such as pectine. +</p> +<p> +All non-plastic substances—and of each kind there are numerous +varieties—are capable of conversion, in the animal mechanism, into fat +and oil. The non-plastic food substances do not contain nitrogen, hence +they are commonly termed non-nitrogenous elements. The oily and fatty +matters contain a large proportion of carbon, their next most abundant +component is hydrogen, and they contain but little oxygen. Unlike the +plastic elements, they are—except the fats of the brain and nervous +tissue—altogether destitute of sulphur and phosphorus. The starchy, +saccharine, and gummy substances are composed of the same elements as +the fatty bodies, but they contain a higher proportion of oxygen. + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page19" name="page19"></a>[19]</span> + + According to Liebig, fat is used in the animal economy as a source of +internal heat. We all know that it is a most combustible body, and that +during its inflammation the most intense heat is developed. It is less +evident, but not less true, that heat is evolved during its slow +oxidation, or decay. +</p> + + +<p> +The more rapidly a body burns, the greater is the amount of heat evolved +by it in a <i>given time</i>; but the total amount of heat developed by a +specific weight of the body is the same, whether the combustion takes +place rapidly or slowly. An experiment performed with phosphorus +illustrates the case perfectly. If we burned two pieces of equal weight, +the one in oxygen, the other in atmospheric air, we should find that the +former would emit a light five times as brilliant as that evolved by the +latter, for the simple reason that its combustion would be five times as +rapid. The white, vapor-like matter into which phosphorus is converted +by its combustion, is termed <i>phosphoric acid</i>. It is composed of +phosphorus and oxygen. In forming an ounce of this compound, by the +direct oxidation, or combustion of phosphorus, the amount of force, +either as heat, or as heat and light, evolved is precisely the same, +whether the time expended in the process be a minute or a month.<sup><a name="noteref-5"><!--5--></a><a href="#note-5">5</a></sup> If, +in the experiment I have described, we were to substitute two pieces of +fat for the fragments of phosphorus, the results would be precisely +similar. The fat burned in oxygen gas would emit intense light and heat; +but the total amount of these forces evolved would be neither greater +nor less than that developed during + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page20" name="page20"></a>[20]</span> + + the slower and therefore less +brilliant combustion of the fat in ordinary atmospheric air. Now, as we +can demonstrate that an ounce of fat will emit a certain amount of heat, +if burned within a minute of time, and that neither a larger nor a +smaller amount will be developed if the combustion of the fat extend +over a period of five minutes, I think we may fairly assume that the +amount of heat evolved by the complete oxidation of a specific quantity +of fat is constant under all conditions, except, as I have already +explained, at high temperatures, when a portion of the heat is converted +into light. +</p> +<p> +In the animal organism fat is burned. The process of combustion no +doubt is a very slow one, but still the total amount of heat evolved +is just the same as if the fat were consumed in a furnace. When the +fat constituting a candle is burned, what becomes of it? Its elements, +carbon and hydrogen (we may disregard its small amount of oxygen) +combine with the oxygen of the air, and form carbonic acid gas and +water. What becomes of the fat consumed within the animal body? It also +is converted into carbonic acid gas and water. It is not difficult +to prove these statements to be facts. A candle will not burn in +atmospheric air which has been deprived of its oxygen, because there is +no substance present with which the elements of the taper can combine, +consequently the process of combustion cannot go on. Now, a man may in +one respect be compared with this taper. He is partly made up of fat; +that fat is consumed by the oxygen of the air, and the heat developed +thereby keeps the body warm. In the process of respiration oxygen is +introduced into the lungs, and from thence, by means of the blood +vessels, is conveyed throughout every part of the body. In some way, at +present not thoroughly understood, the elements of the fat combine with +the oxygen, and are converted into carbonic acid gas and water, which +are exhaled from the lungs and from the surface of the body. +</p> +<p> +Fat is a constituent of both animals and plants. The animal derives a +portion of its fat directly from the vegetable; + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page21" name="page21"></a>[21]</span> + + but it possesses the +power of forming this substance from other organic bodies, such, for +example, as starch. Plants elaborate fat directly from the +minerals—carbonic acid gas, and water. +</p> +<p> +I have already explained that the growth of plants is, <i>cæteris +paribus</i>, directly proportionate to the amount of sunlight to which +they are exposed. Not less certainly is the force which constitutes the +sun-beam expended in grouping mineral atoms into organic forms, than is +the heat which converts water into steam. But in neither case is the +force destroyed. When the vaporous steam is condensed into the liquid +water, all the heat is restored, and becomes palpable. By the ultimate +decomposition of vegetable substances all the force expended on their +production is liberated, and, in some form, becomes manifest. +</p> +<p> +When the fat formed in the mechanisms of plants is decomposed in +the animal organism, two results follow:—The atoms of the fat are +re-converted to their original mineral, or statical conditions of +carbonic acid gas and water; and the force which maintained them in +their organic state is set free as heat, and its equivalent, motive +power. +</p> +<p> +One of the most useful instruments which the ingenuity of man has +devised, is the Thermometer. It is so familiarly known that I need +not describe it. This instrument does not enable us to estimate the +actual quantity of heat contained in a substance, but it indicates +the proportion of that subtile element which is <i>sensible</i>—that is +recognisable by the sense of touch. The dusky Hindu, clad in his single +cotton garment, and the Laplander in his suit of fur, are placed under +the most opposite conditions in relation to the heat of the sun—the +Indian is exposed during the whole year to Sol's most ardent beams, +whilst but a scant share of its genial rays goes to warm the body of +the Laplander. Now, if we placed the bulb of a thermometer beneath the +tongue of a Hindu, we would find the mercury to stand at 98 degrees on +Fahrenheit's scale, and if we repeated the experiment + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page22" name="page22"></a>[22]</span> + + on a Laplander, +we would obtain an identical result. Numerous experiments of this +nature have been made on individuals in most parts of the world, and +the results have proved that the temperature of the blood of man is +98 degrees Fahrenheit, whether he be in India or at Nova Zembla, on +the <i>steppes</i> of Russia, or the elevated <i>plateaus</i> of America. This +invariability<sup><a name="noteref-6"><!--6--></a><a href="#note-6">6</a></sup> of the temperature of the bodies of men and of all +other warm-blooded animals, appears the more wonderful when it it is +considered that the range of the temperature of the medium in which +they exist exceeds 200 degrees Fahrenheit. In India, the mercury in the +thermometer has been observed to stand at 145 degrees in the direct +sunlight, and at 120 degrees in the shade. In high latitudes the +temperature is sometimes so low as 100 degrees below zero. A Russian +army, in an expedition to China, in 1839, was exposed for several +successive days to a temperature of 42 degrees below zero, and suffered +severely in consequence. +</p> +<p> +The facts which I have cited clearly prove that the animal body +possesses the power of generating, or, to speak more correctly, +liberating heat, either from portions of its own mechanism or from +substances placed within that mechanism. +</p> +<p> +At one time it was the general belief amongst physiologists that one +portion of the food consumed by an animal was employed in repairing +the waste of its body, and the remaining part was burned as fuel, +evolving heat just in the same way as if it had been consumed in a +furnace. It was this theory that led to the classification of food into +flesh-formers, and heat-givers. It is now doubted if any portion of the +food be really burned in this way; and I, for one, think it far more +probable that, before its conversion into carbonic acid gas and water +(whereby, according to this theory, it develops the heat which keeps the +body warm), it first becomes assimilated, that is, + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page23" name="page23"></a>[23]</span> + + becomes an integral +part of the animal body—blood, fat, muscle. Perhaps we would be +nearer the truth if we were to assume that heat is evolved during the +decomposition of both the nitrogenous and fatty constituents of the +body. +</p> +<p> +The constantly recurring contractions of the muscles must alone be a +source of much heat. The development of animal motive power is said to +be strictly proportionate to the amount of muscular tissue decomposed. +As the nitrogen of the latter is almost completely excreted under the +form of urea, the quantity of the latter daily eliminated from the +body of an animal is a measure of the decomposed muscular tissue, and +consequently of the amount of muscular power generated in the animal +organism.<sup><a name="noteref-7"><!--7--></a><a href="#note-7">7</a></sup> The correspondence between the amount of the motive power +of an animal, and the quantity of effete nitrogen excreted from the +body, is limited to laboring men and to the lower animals. Strange as +it may appear, it is an incontrovertible fact that men whose pursuits +require the constant exercise of the intellectual faculties—lawyers, +writers, statesmen, students, scientific men, and other +brain-workers—excrete more urea than do men engaged in the most +physically laborious occupations. An activity of thoughts and ideas +involves a corresponding destruction of the tissues, and these require, +for their reparation, the consumption of food. Here, then, we have a +physical meaning for the common expression—"food for thought." +</p> +<p> +That the amount of heat developed in the animal organism, is +proportionate to the quantity of fatty matters (or of substances capable +of forming them) supplied to it in the shape of food, is a proposition +which admits of easy demonstration. The natives of warm regions do not +require the generation of much heat within their bodies, because the +temperature of the medium in which they exist is generally as high as, +or higher than, that of their blood. But as they must consume food for + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page24" name="page24"></a>[24]</span> + + the purpose of repairing the waste of their nitrogenous tissues, and as +every kind of food contains heat-producing elements, an excess of heat +is developed within their bodies, which, if allowed to accumulate, would +speedily produce fatal results. The means by which nature removes this +superabundant heat are admirably simple, as indeed all its contrivances +are. The skin is permeated with millions of pores, and through these +openings a large quantity of vapor is given off, and carries with it the +surplus heat. The pores are the orifices of minute convoluted tubes +which lie beneath the skin, and when straightened measure each about the +tenth of an inch, or, according to a writer in the <i>British and Foreign +Medico-Chirurgical Review</i> (1859, page 349), the one-fifteenth of an +inch in length. According to Erasmus Wilson, the number of these tubes +which open into every square inch of the surface of the body is 2,800. +The total number of square inches on the surface of an average sized man +is 2,500, consequently the surface of his body is drained by not less +than twenty-eight miles of tubing, furnished with 7,000,000 openings. +The cooling of the body, by the evaporation of water from it, admits of +explanation by well-known natural laws. Water, in the state of vapor, +occupies a space 1,700 fold greater than it does in its liquid +condition. It is heat which causes its vaporous form, but it ceases to +be heat when it has accomplished this change in the condition of the +liquid; for, suffering itself an alteration, it passes into another form +of force—mechanical, or motive power. The heat generated within the +body is absorbed by the liquid water, the conversion of the latter into +vapor follows, and both the heat and the water, in their altered forms, +escape through the pores. +</p> +<p> +<i>Fatty food necessary in cold climates.</i>—As a grave objection against +the chemical theory of heat, it has been urged that rice—the pabulum of +hundreds of millions of the inhabitants of tropical regions—contains an +exceedingly high proportion of heat-giving substances. I have, however, +great doubt as to rice ever forming the exclusive food of those people, +without + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page25" name="page25"></a>[25]</span> + + their health being impaired in consequence of the deficiency in +that substance of the plastic elements of nutrition. Indeed I believe +it is a great mistake to assert that the natives of India live almost +exclusively on rice. This article, no doubt, forms a large proportion of +their food, but it is supplemented with pulse (the produce of leguminous +plants), which is rich in flesh-forming materials, also with dried fish, +butter, and various kinds of vegetable and animal food rich in nitrogen. +The innutritious nature of rice is clearly shown by its chemical +composition, and so large a quantity of it must the Hindu consume in +order to repair the waste of his body, that his stomach sometimes +acquires prodigious dimensions; hence the term "pot-bellied," so often +applied to the Indian ryot. I doubt very much, however, if the stomach +of the Hindu, large as it is, could accommodate a quantity of rice, the +combustion of which would produce a very excessive development of heat. +This substance, when cooked, contains a high proportion of water, the +evaporation of which carries off a large amount of the heat generated +by the combustion of its respiratory constituents. The amount of motive +power developed by the Hindu is small as compared with that which the +European is capable of exerting; hence he has less necessity for a +highly nitrogenous diet. On the whole, then, I am disposed to think +that the food of the natives of tropical climates contains sufficient +nitrogenous matters to effectually build up and keep in repair their +bodies; it also appears clear to me that the amount of heat developed +in their bodies is not excessive, and that it is readily disposed of +in converting the water, which enters so largely into their diet, into +vapor. The proportion of plastic to non-plastic elements in the diet +of the Hindu and of the well-fed European, is probably as follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" align="center" border="0" summary="Comparison of plastic/non-plastic elements in Hindu vs. European food"> + +<tr><td> </td><th>Nitrogenous. </th><td> </td><th>Non nitrogenous<br /> (calculated as starch.)</th></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Hindu </td><td class="c"> 1 </td><td class="c">to </td><td class="c"> 9 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> European </td><td class="c"> 1 </td><td class="c">to </td><td class="c"> 8 </td></tr> +</table> + +<br /> + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page26" name="page26"></a>[26]</span> + +<p style="text-indent: 0;"><!--[**not really a new paragraph]--> + This statement does not quite correspond with Liebig's, +who estimates the proportion of nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous +substances in rice as 10 to 123, in beef as ten to seventeen, and in +veal as ten to one. The results of Lawes and Gilbert's investigations, +already alluded to, have, however, dispelled the illusion that the +plastic constituents of flesh exceed its non-plastic. In the potato, +which at one time constituted more of the food of the Irish peasantry +than rice does that of the Hindu, the proportion of plastic to +non-plastic materials is as 10 to 110. The results of some analyses of +the food grains consumed in the Presidency of Madras, made by Professor +Mayer, of the University of Madras, clearly prove that the food of the +inhabitants of that part of India is of a far more highly nitrogenous +character than is generally supposed. That the Hindu, who subsists +exclusively on rice, exhibits all the symptoms of deficient nutrition, +is a fact to which numerous competent observers have testified. +</p> +<p> +A slight consideration of the facts which I have mentioned leads to the +conclusion that the food of the inhabitants of very cold regions is +required to produce a large amount of heat. Melons, rice, and other +watery vegetable productions, however delicious to the palate of the +Hindu, would be rejected with disgust by the Esquimaux, whilst the train +oil, blubber, and putrid seal's flesh which the children of the icy +North consider highly palatable, would excite the loathing of the East +Indian. On this subject I may appositely quote the following remarks by +Dr. Kane, the Arctic explorer:—"Our journeys have taught us the wisdom +of the Esquimaux appetite, and there are few among us who do not relish +a slice of raw blubber, or a chunk of frozen walrus beef. The liver of +a walrus (awuktanuk), eaten with little slices of his fat—of a verity +it is a delicious morsel. Fire would seem to spoil the curt, pithy +expression of vitality which belongs to its uncooked juices. Charles +Lamb's roast pig was nothing to awuktanuk. I wonder that raw beef is not +eaten at home. Deprived of extraneous fibre, it is neither indigestible +nor difficult to masticate. With acids + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page27" name="page27"></a>[27]</span> + + and condiments, it makes a salad +which an educated palate cannot help relishing; and as a powerful and +condensed heat-making and anti-scorbutic food, it has no rival. I make +this last broad assertion after carefully considering its truth. The +natives of South Greenland prepare themselves for a long journey, by a +course of frozen seal. At Upper Navik they do the same with the narwhal, +which is thought more heat-making than the seal; while the bear, to use +their own expression, is 'stronger travel than all.' In Smith's Sound, +where the use of raw meat seems almost inevitable from the modes of +living of the people, walrus holds the first rank. Certainly this +pachyderm (Cetacean?) whose finely condensed tissue and delicately +permeating fat (oh! call it not blubber) assimilate it to the ox, is +beyond all others, and is the best <i>fuel</i> a man can swallow." The +gastronomic capabilities of the Esquimaux and of other northern races, +and their fondness for fatty food, are exhibited in a sufficiently +strong light in the following statements:— +</p> +<p> +Captain Parry weighed and presented to an Esquimaux lad the following +articles:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Articles given to an Esquimaux lad"> +<tr><td> </td><th> lb. </th><th> oz.</th></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Frozen seahorse flesh </td><td> 4 </td><td> 4 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Wild seahorse flesh </td><td> 4 </td><td> 4 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Bread and bread dust </td><td> 1 </td><td> 12 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Rich gravy soup </td><td> 1 </td><td> 4 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 10 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Strong grog </td><td colspan="2"> 1 tumbler. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Raw spirits </td><td colspan="2">3 wine glasses.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +This large quantity of food, which the lad did not consider excessive, +was consumed by him within twenty-four hours. According to Captain +Cochrane a reindeer suffices but for one repast for three Yakutis, and +five of them will devour at a sitting a calf weighing 200 lbs. Mr. +Hooper, one of the officers of the <i>Plover</i>, in his narrative of their +residence on the shores of Arctic America, states that "one of the +ladies who visited them was presented, as a jest, with a small tallow + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page28" name="page28"></a>[28]</span> + + candle, called a purser's dip. It was, notwithstanding, a very pleasant +joke to the damsel, who deliberately munched it up with evident relish, +and finally drew the wick between her set teeth to clean off any +remaining morsels of fat." +</p> +<p> +The partiality for certain kinds of food, and disgust at other +varieties, which particular races of men exhibit, is an instinct which +they cannot avoid obeying. Instead of exciting our disgust, as it too +frequently does, it should exalt our admiration of the infinite wisdom +of the Creator, who by simply adapting man's desire for particular kinds +of food to the external conditions under which he is placed, enables him +to occupy and "subdue the earth" from the Equator to the Poles. +</p> +<p> +The food of human beings and of the lower animals who inhabit cold +countries is nearly exclusively composed of animal substances. +The flesh, fat, and oil of animals occupy less space than do the +corresponding elements of vegetables; consequently the nutriment they +afford is more concentrated, and a larger quantity can be stowed away +without inconvenience in the stomach. The heat-forming constituents of +these substances constitute not only the chief part of their bulk, but +they are also capable of evolving a greater amount of heat than any +other of the respiratory elements. One pound of dry fat will develop as +much heat as two and a half pounds of dry starch, and the fattest flesh +includes four times as much plastic materials as rice. The diet of +people all over the world, unless under circumstances which prevent the +gratification of the natural appetite, establishes the intimate relation +which subsists between cold and food. The appetite of man is at a +minimum at the Equator, and at a maximum within the Arctic circle. The +statements as to the voracity of Hottentots and Bosjesmans, recorded in +the narratives of travellers, do not in the slightest degree affect the +general rule that more is eaten in cold climates than in hot regions. +These are mere records of gluttony, and it would not be difficult to +find parallel cases in our own country. Gluttony is an abnormal +appetite, and the + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page29" name="page29"></a>[29]</span> + + greater part of the food devoured under its unnatural, +and generally unhealthy stimulus is not applied to the wants of the body. +</p> +<p> +The bodies of animals are heated masses of matter, and are subject to +the ordinary laws of <i>radiation</i>. Every substance radiates its heat, and +receives in return a portion of that emitted from surrounding bodies. If +two bodies of unequal temperature be placed near each other, the warmer +of the two will radiate a portion of its heat to the colder, and will +receive some of the heat of the latter in return; but as the warmer body +will emit more heat than it will receive, the result will be, that after +a time, the length of which will depend on the nature of the bodies, +both will acquire the same temperature. In very warm climates the bodies +of animals derive from the sun, and from the heated bodies surrounding +them, more heat than they give in return; and were it not for their +internal cooling apparatus, which I have described, the heat so absorbed +would prove fatal. In every climate, on the contrary, where the +temperature is lower than 98°, or "blood heat," the bodies of animals +lose more heat by radiation than they receive by the same means. The +philosophy of the <i>clothing</i> of men and the <i>sheltering</i> of the lower +animals is now evident. It is not only necessary that heat should be +developed within the body, but also that its wasteful expenditure should +be prevented. The latter is effected by interposing between the warm +body and the cold air some substances (such as fur or wool) which do not +readily permit the transmission of heat—<i>non-conductors</i> as they are +termed. The close down of the eider duck is destined to protect its +bosom from the chilling influence of the icy waters of the North Polar +Sea, and the quadrupeds of the dreary Arctic Circle are sheltered by +thick fur coverings from the piercing blasts of its long winter. +</p> +<p> +<i>Fat Equivalents.</i>—Whilst it is quite certain that neither nerves nor +muscles can be elaborated exclusively out of fat, starch, sugar, or any +other non-nitrogenous substance, it is almost equally clear that fat may +be formed out of nitrogenous + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page30" name="page30"></a>[30]</span> + + tissue. The quantity of fat, however, which +is produced in the animal mechanism, from purely nitrogenous food +appears to be relatively very small. No animal is capable of subsisting +solely on muscle-forming materials, no matter how abundantly supplied. +The food of the Carnivora contains a large proportion of fat, and the +nutriment of the Herbivora is largely made up of starch and other +fat-formers. Dogs, geese, and other animals fed exclusively upon albumen +or white of egg rapidly decreased in weight, and after presenting all +the symptoms of starvation, died in three or four weeks.<sup><a name="noteref-8"><!--8--></a><a href="#note-8">8</a></sup> The fat of +the bodies of the Carnivora is almost entirely formed—and probably with +little if any alteration—from the fatty constituents of their food. +Herbivorous animals, on the contrary, derive nearly all their fat from +starch, sugar, gum, cellulose, and other non-nitrogenous, but not fatty, +materials. +</p> +<p> +Although starch is convertible into fat, it is not to be understood that +a pound weight of one of these bodies is equivalent to an equal quantity +of the other. During the conversion of starch into fat, the greater +number of its constituent atoms is converted into water and carbonic +acid gas. The greater number of the more important metamorphoses of +organised matter, which take place in the animal organum, is the result +of either oxidation or fermentation: in the conversion of starch or +sugar into fat or oil, both of these processes, it is stated, take +place; a portion of the hydrogen is converted by oxidation into water, +and by fermentation carbonic acid gas is formed, which removes both +oxygen and carbon. Perhaps in the formation of fat fermentation is alone +employed—a portion of the oxygen being removed as water, and another +portion as carbonic acid. The chief difference between the ultimate +composition of starch + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page31" name="page31"></a>[31]</span> + + and fat is, that the latter contains a much larger +proportion of hydrogen and carbon. The knowledge of the exact quantity +of starch required for the formation of a given amount of fat is of +importance in enabling us to estimate the relative feeding value of both +substances. Certain difficulties stand in the way of our acquiring an +accurate knowledge on this point. Not only are there several distinct +kinds of fat, but the precise formula, or atomic constitution of each, +is as yet veiled in doubt. There are three fats which occur in man +and the domesticated animals, and in vegetables. These are stearine, +margarine, and oleine. The relative proportions of these vary in each +animal: thus, in man and in the goose margarine is the most abundant +fat, whilst oleine<sup><a name="noteref-9"><!--9--></a><a href="#note-9">9</a></sup> exists in the pig in a greater proportion than in +man, the sheep, or the ox. The composition of the animal fats does not, +however, vary much; and this fact, together with other considerations, +have led chemists to assume that two-and-a-half parts of starch are +required for the production of one part of the mixed fats of the +different animals. Grape sugar and the pectine bodies—substances which +form a large proportion of the food of the Herbivora—contain more +oxygen and hydrogen than exist in starch, and, consequently, are not +capable of forming so large an amount of fat as an equal weight of +starch. We may assume, then, that 2·50 parts of starch, 2·75 parts of +sugar, or 3 parts of the pectine bodies, are equivalent to 1 part of +fat. +</p> + + +<h4> +SECTION IV. +</h4> +<h5> +RELATION BETWEEN THE COMPOSITION OF AN ANIMAL AND THAT OF ITS FOOD. +</h5> +<p> +I have already stated that the results of the admirable investigations +of Lawes and Gilbert prove that the non-nitrogenous + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page32" name="page32"></a>[32]</span> + + constituents of the +carcasses of oxen, sheep, and pigs exceed in weight their nitrogenous +elements. This fact is suggestive of many important questions. What +relation is there between the composition of an animal and that of +its food? Should an animal whose body contains three times as much +fat as lean flesh, be supplied with food containing three times +as much fat-formers as flesh-formers? To these questions there is +some difficulty in replying. There <i>is</i> a relationship between the +composition of the body of an animal and that of its food; but the +relationship varies so greatly that it is impossible to determine with +any degree of accuracy the quantity of fat-formers which is required to +produce a given weight of fat in animals, taken <i>in globo</i>. If, however, +we deal with a particular animal placed under certain conditions, it is +then possible to ascertain the amount of fat which a given weight of +non-plastic food will produce. For the greater part of our knowledge +on this point, as on so many others, in the feeding of stock, we are +indebted to Lawes and Gilbert. In the case of sheep fed upon fattening +food these inquirers found that every 100 lbs. of dry<sup><a name="noteref-10"><!--10--></a><a href="#note-10">10</a></sup> non-nitrogenous +substances consumed by them produced, on an average, an increase of 10 +lbs. in the weight of their fat. In the case of pigs, also, supplied +with food, the proportion of non-nitrogenous matters appropriated to +the animal's increase was double that so applied in the bodies of the +sheep. As the food supplied to these animals contained but a very small +proportion of ready-formed fat, it was inferred that four-fifths of the +fat of the increase was derived from the sugar, starch, cellulose, and +pectine bodies. +</p> +<p> +These tables exhibit in a condensed form the results of one of the +elaborate series of experiments in relation to this point carried out +by Lawes and Gilbert:— +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page33" name="page33"></a>[33]</span></p> + +<table border="0" align="center" width="100%" summary="Increase in constituents per 100 parts of food in sheep"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="10">ESTIMATED AMOUNT OF CERTAIN CONSTITUENTS STORED UP IN <i>INCREASE</i>, FOR 100 PARTS OF EACH CONSUMED IN FOOD BY FATTENING SHEEP.</td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><th colspan="6"><span class="sc">General Particulars of the Experiments.</span></th><th colspan="4"> Amount of each Class in<br /> Increase for 100 of the<br /> same consumed in Food. </th></tr> + +<tr class="b2"> +<th rowspan="2"> <span class="sc">Breed.</span></th> +<th rowspan="2" title="No. of Animals."> A. </th> +<th rowspan="2" colspan="2"> Duration.</th> +<th colspan="2"> Description of Fattening Food.</th> +<th rowspan="2" title="Mineral matters (ash)."> B. </th> +<th rowspan="2" title="Nitrogenous compounds (dry)."> C. </th> +<th rowspan="2" title="Non-nitrogenous substance."> D. </th> +<th rowspan="2" title="Total dry substance."> E. </th> +</tr> + +<tr class="b2"> +<th> Given in limited quantity.</th> +<th> Given ad libitum. </th> +</tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td class="c" colspan="10"><span class="sc">Class I.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td></td> <td> </td><td>wks.</td><td>dys.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="l">Cotswolds </td><td class="c">46</td><td> 19 </td><td> 5 </td><td class="l"> Oilcake and clover chaff. </td> + <td class="c"> Swedish turnips. </td> + <td>3·98</td><td>4·43</td><td>11·6</td><td>9·60</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l">Leicesters </td><td class="c">40</td><td> 20 </td><td> 0 </td><td class="c">"</td><td class="c">"</td> <td>3·15</td><td>3·39</td><td>12·0</td><td>9·48</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l">Cross-bred wethers </td><td class="c">40</td><td> 20 </td><td> 0 </td><td class="c">"</td><td class="c">"</td> <td>3·24</td><td>3·60</td><td>11·6</td><td>9·31</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l">Cross-bred ewes </td><td class="c">40</td><td> 20 </td><td> 0 </td><td class="c">"</td><td class="c">"</td> <td>3·25</td><td>3·60</td><td>11·8</td><td>9·40</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l">Hants Downs </td><td class="c">40</td><td> 26 </td><td> 0 </td><td class="c">"</td><td class="c">"</td> <td>3·40</td><td>4·28</td><td>10·3</td><td>8·49</td></tr> +<tr class="b1"> + <td class="l">Sussex Downs </td><td class="c">40</td><td> 26 </td><td> 0 </td><td class="c">"</td><td class="c">"</td> <td>3·30</td><td>4·16</td><td>10·3</td><td>8·44</td></tr> +<tr class="b2"><td colspan="6"> Means</td> <td>3·39</td><td>3·91</td><td>11·3</td><td>9·12</td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td class="c" colspan="10"><span class="sc">Class III.</span>—(Series 1.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l" rowspan="2"> + Hants Downs </td><td class="c"> 5</td><td> 13 </td><td> 6 </td><td class="l"> Oilcake. </td><td class="c"> Swedish turnips. </td> + <td>4·16</td><td>4·01</td><td>11·1</td><td>9·33</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="c"> 5</td><td> 13 </td><td> 6 </td><td class="l"> Oats. </td><td class="c">"</td> <td>5·73</td><td>7·07</td><td>10·0</td><td>9·45</td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td></td> <td class="c"> 5</td><td> 13 </td><td> 6 </td><td class="l"> Clover chaff. </td><td class="c">"</td> <td>3·98</td><td>7·44</td><td> 9·0</td><td>8·49</td></tr> +<tr class="b2"><td colspan="6"> Means </td> <td>4·62</td><td>6·17</td><td>10·0</td><td>9·09</td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td class="c" colspan="10"><span class="sc">Class IV.</span>—(Series 2.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l" rowspan="3"> + Hants Downs </td><td class="c"> 5</td><td> 19 </td><td> 1 </td><td class="l"> Oilcake. </td><td class="c">Clover chaff.</td> + <td>1·69</td><td>2·20</td><td>6·3</td><td>5·07</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="c"> 5</td><td> 19 </td><td> 1 </td><td class="l"> Linseed. </td><td class="c">"</td> <td>1·81</td><td>2·32</td><td>6·2</td><td>5·19</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="c"> 5</td><td> 19 </td><td> 1 </td><td class="l"> Barley. </td><td class="c">"</td> <td>1·75</td><td>2·82</td><td>5·7</td><td>5·00</td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td></td> <td class="c"> 5</td><td> 19 </td><td> 1 </td><td class="l"> Malt. </td><td class="c">"</td> <td>1·46</td><td>2·17</td><td>5·3</td><td>4·61</td></tr> +<tr class="b2"><td colspan="6"> Means </td> <td>1·68</td><td>2·38</td><td>5·9</td><td>4·97</td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td class="c" colspan="10"> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page34" name="page34"></a>[34]</span> + <span class="sc">Class V.</span>—(Series 4.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l" rowspan="4"> + Hants Downs </td><td class="c"> 4</td><td> 10 </td><td> 0 </td><td class="l"> Barley ground. </td><td class="c"> Mangolds.</td> + <td>3·80</td><td>5·65</td><td> 9·8</td><td>8·91</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="c"> 5</td><td> 10 </td><td> 0 </td><td class="l"> Malt, ground, & malt dust.</td><td class="c">"</td> <td>4·04</td><td>6·18</td><td>10·4</td><td>9·49</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="c"> 4</td><td> 10 </td><td> 0 </td><td class="l"> Barley ground and steeped.</td><td class="c">"</td> <td>3·72</td><td>6·35</td><td> 8·9</td><td>8·28</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="c"> 4</td><td> 10 </td><td> 0 </td><td class="l"> Malt, ground and steeped, & malt dust.</td><td class="c">"</td> <td>2·95</td><td>4·34</td><td> 9·3</td><td>8·23</td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td></td> <td class="c"> 5</td><td> 10 </td><td> 0 </td><td class="l"> Malt, ground, & malt dust.</td><td class="c">"</td> <td>3·46</td><td>5·46</td><td> 9·1</td><td>8·25</td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td colspan="6"> Means </td><td>3·59</td><td>5·60</td><td> 9·5</td><td>8·63</td></tr> +<tr class="b2"><td colspan="6"> Means of all </td><td>3·27</td><td>4·41</td><td> 9·4</td><td>8·06</td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td class="table-key"><b>KEY:</b></td> +<td class="table-key" colspan="5"> +A.—No. of Animals.<br /> +B.—Mineral matter (ash).<sup><a name="noteref-11"><!--11--></a><a href="#note-11">11</a></sup><br /> +C.—Nitrogenous compounds (dry). +</td> +<td class="table-key" colspan="5"> +D.—Non-nitrogenous substance.<br /> +E.—Total dry substance. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" align="center" width="100%" summary="Increase in constituents per 100 parts of food in pigs"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="10"> ESTIMATED AMOUNT OF CERTAIN CONSTITUENTS STORED UP IN <i>INCREASE</i>, FOR 100 OF EACH CONSUMED IN FOOD, BY FATTENING PIGS.</td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><th colspan="4"><span class="sc">General Particulars of the Experiments.</span></th><th colspan="5"> Amount of each Class in<br /> Increase for 100 of the<br /> same consumed in Food. </th></tr> + +<tr class="b2"> +<th rowspan="2" title="No. of Animals."> A. </th> +<th rowspan="2"> Duration.<br />(weeks)</th> +<th colspan="2"> Description of Fattening Food.</th> +<th rowspan="2" title="Mineral matter (ash)."> B. </th> +<th rowspan="2" title="Nitrogenous compounds (dry)."> C. </th> +<th rowspan="2" title="Non-nitrogenous substance."> D. </th> +<th rowspan="2" title="Total dry substance."> E. </th> +<th rowspan="2" title="Fat."> F. </th> +</tr> + +<tr class="b2"> +<th> Given in limited quantity.</th> +<th> Given ad libitum. </th> +</tr> + +<tr><th colspan="9"><span class="sc">The Analysed "Fat Pig."</span><sup><a name="noteref-12"><!--12--></a><a href="#note-12">12</a></sup></th></tr> + +<tr class="b2"><td> 1 </td><td class="c"> 10 </td><td colspan="2"> Mixture of bran 1, bean and lentil-meal 2, and barley-meal 3 parts, ad libitum.</td><td>2·66 </td><td>7·76 </td><td>17·6 </td><td>14·9 </td><td>405 </td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"> +<td class="c" colspan="9"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page35" name="page35"></a>[35]</span> + <span class="sc">Series I.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> 8 </td><td class="l"> None. </td><td class="l"> Bean & lentil-meal.</td><td>0·68 </td><td>4·88 </td><td>25·3 </td><td>17·5 </td><td>621 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="l"> Indian-meal. </td><td class="c"> " </td><td>1·86 </td><td> 6·39 </td><td>23·7 </td><td>17·9 </td><td>477 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="l"> Indian-meal and bran.</td><td class="c"> " </td><td>0·33 </td><td> 5·02 </td><td>21·1 </td><td>16·1 </td><td>362 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="l"> None. </td><td class="l"> Indian meal. </td><td>2·09 </td><td> 9·28 </td><td>20·9 </td><td>18·6 </td><td>300 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="l"> Bean and lentil-meal.</td><td class="c"> " </td><td>0·99 </td><td> 9·18 </td><td>20·9 </td><td>18·4 </td><td>324 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="l"> Bran. </td><td class="c"> " </td><td>2·35 </td><td>12·10 </td><td>20·3 </td><td>18·7 </td><td>300 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="l"> Bean, lentil-meal, and bran. </td> + <td class="c"> " </td><td>2·71 </td><td>10·03 </td><td>21·3 </td><td>18·5 </td><td>307 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="l" colspan="2"> Bean, lentil-meal, Indian-meal, bran, ad libitum. </td> + <td>0·22 </td><td> 5·65 </td><td>21·1 </td><td>16·8 </td><td>362 </td></tr> +<tr class="b2"><td colspan="4"> Means </td><td>0·74 </td><td> 7·82 </td><td>21·8 </td><td>17·8 </td><td>382 </td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td class="c" colspan="9"><span class="sc">Series II.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> 8 </td><td class="l"> None. </td><td class="l"> Bean & lentil-meal.</td><td>3·20 </td><td>3·12 </td><td>26·5 </td><td>18·2 </td><td>801 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="l"> Barley-meal. </td><td class="c"> " </td><td>0·16 </td><td> 4·65 </td><td>19·2 </td><td>14·7 </td><td>575 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="l"> Bran. </td><td class="c"> " </td><td>0·16 </td><td> 3·99 </td><td>21·2 </td><td>15·2 </td><td>547 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="l"> Barley-meal and bran.</td><td class="c"> " </td><td>0·75 </td><td> 4·57 </td><td>20·1 </td><td>15·6 </td><td>514 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="l"> None. </td><td class="l"> Barley-meal. </td><td>0·56 </td><td>10·09 </td><td>18·5 </td><td>16·9 </td><td>574 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="l"> Bean and lentil-meal.</td><td class="c"> " </td><td>0·53 </td><td> 6·57 </td><td>21·1 </td><td>17·5 </td><td>620 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="l"> Bran. </td><td class="c"> " </td><td>0·49 </td><td> 9·79 </td><td>18·9 </td><td>16·9 </td><td>506 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="l"> Bean, lentil-meal, + and bran. </td><td class="c"> " </td><td>4·33 </td><td> 4·49 </td><td>22·7 </td><td>18·0 </td><td>578 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 6 </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="l" colspan="2"> Mixture of bran 1, barley-meal 2, and + bean lentil-meal 3 parts, ad libitum. </td><td>0·27 </td><td>5·65 </td><td>20·4 </td><td>16·1 </td><td>495 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 6 </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="l" colspan="2"> Mixture of bran 1, bean lentil-meal 2, + barley-meal 3 parts, ad libitum. </td><td>1·58 </td><td>8·10 </td><td>21·1 </td><td>17·6 </td><td>515 </td></tr> + +<tr class="b2"><td colspan="4"> Means </td><td>0·59 </td><td>6·10 </td><td>21·0 1</td><td>6·7 </td><td>572 </td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td class="c" colspan="9"><span class="sc">Series III.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td> 4 </td><td class="c"> 8 </td><td class="l"> Dried Cod Fish. </td><td class="l"> Bran & Indian-meal. (equal parts).</td><td>1·06 </td><td>5·06 </td><td>24·3 </td><td>18·1 </td><td>315 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 4 </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="l"> Indian-meal. </td><td>0·26 </td><td>8·16 </td><td>25·6 </td><td>20·9 </td><td>352 </td></tr> +<tr class="b2"><td colspan="4"> Means </td><td>0·66 </td><td> 6·61 </td><td>24·9 </td><td>19·5 </td><td>333 </td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td class="c" colspan="9"> + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page36" name="page36"></a>[36]</span> + <span class="sc">Series IV.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> 10 </td><td class="l"> Lentil-meal & bran. </td><td class="l">Sugar. </td><td>3·07 </td><td> 9·30 </td><td>19·4 </td><td>16·9 </td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="l">Starch. </td><td>3·18 </td><td> 9·36 </td><td>19·4 </td><td>16·9 </td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="l">Sugar & starch. </td><td>4·06 </td><td>10·78 </td><td>17·7 </td><td>16·1 </td><td></td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> " </td><td class="l" colspan="2"> Lentils, bran, sugar, starch, ad libitum.</td><td>4·80 </td><td> 9·96 </td><td>18·7 </td><td>16·5 </td><td></td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td colspan="4"> Means </td><td>3·78 </td><td> 9·85 </td><td>18·8 </td><td>16·6 </td><td></td></tr> +<tr class="b2"><td colspan="4"> Means of all </td><td>0·58 </td><td> 7·34 </td><td>21·2 </td><td>17·3 </td><td>472 </td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td class="table-key" colspan="2"><b>KEY:</b></td> +<td class="table-key" colspan="2"> +A.—No. of Animals.<br /> +B.—Mineral matter (ash).<br /> +C.—Nitrogenous compounds (dry). +</td> +<td class="table-key" colspan="4"> +D.—Non-nitrogenous substance.<br /> +E.—Total dry substance.<br /> +F.—Fat. +</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<p> +The larger appropriation of the non-nitrogenous constituents of its food +by the pig, as compared with the sheep, must not be attributed solely to +its greater tendency to fatten, but partly to the far more digestible +nature of the food supplied to it. +</p> + +<h4> +SECTION V. +</h4> +<h5> +RELATION BETWEEN THE QUANTITY OF FOOD CONSUMED BY AN ANIMAL, AND THE +INCREASE IN ITS WEIGHT, OR OF THE AMOUNT OF ITS WORK. +</h5> +<p> +The manifestations of that wondrous and mysterious principle, <i>life</i>, +are completely dependent upon the decomposition of organised matter. Not +an effort of the mind, not a motion of the body, can be accomplished +without involving the destruction of a portion of the tissues. In a +general sense we may regard the fat of the animal to be its store of +fuel, and its lean flesh to be the source of its motive power. As the +evolution of heat within the body is proportionate to the + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page37" name="page37"></a>[37]</span> + + quantity of +fat consumed, so also is the amount of force developed in the animal +mechanism in a direct ratio to the proportion of flesh decomposed. +The quantity of fat burned in the body is estimated by the amount of +carbonic acid gas expired from the lungs and perspired through the skin; +the proportion of flesh disorganised is ascertained by the quantity of +urea eliminated in the liquid egesta. The amount of urea excreted daily +by a man is influenced by the activity of his mind, as well as by that +of his body. A man engaged in physical labor wears out more of his body +than one who does no work; and a man occupied in a pursuit involving +intense mental application, consumes a greater proportion of his tissue +than the man who works only with his body.<sup><a name="noteref-13"><!--13--></a><a href="#note-13">13</a></sup> In each of these cases, +there is a different amount of tissue disorganised, and consequently a +demand for different amounts of food, with which to repair the waste. +But all the food consumed by a man is not devoted to the reparation of +the tissue worn out in the operations of thinking and working. A human +being whose mind is a perfect blank, and who performs no bodily work, +excretes a large quantity of urea, the representative of an equivalent +amount of worn-out flesh. In fact the greater part of the food consumed +by a man serves merely to sustain the functions of the body—the +circulation of the blood—the action of the heart—the movements of the +muscles concerned in respiration—in a word, the various motions of the +body which are independent of the will. According to + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page38" name="page38"></a>[38]</span> + + Professor Haughton, +about three-fourths of the food of a working man of 150 lbs. weight, are +used in merely keeping him <i>alive</i>, the remaining fourth is expended in +the production of mechanical force, constituting his daily toil. +</p> +<p> +In the nutrition of the lower animals, as in that of man, the amount of +food made use of by a particular individual depends upon its age, its +weight, the amount of work it performs, and probably its temper. As +three-fourths of the weight of the food of a laboring man are expended +in merely keeping him alive, it is obvious that the withholding of the +remaining fourth would render him incapable of working. An amount of +food which adequately maintains the vital and mechanical powers of three +men, serves merely to keep four alive. It is the same with the horse, +the ox, and every other animal useful to man: each makes use of a +certain amount of food, <i>for its own purposes</i>; all that is consumed +beyond that is applied for the benefit of its owner. Let us take the +case of two of our most useful quadrupeds—the horse and the ox. The +horse is used as an immediate source of motive power. For this purpose +food is supplied to it, the greater portion of which is consumed in +keeping the animal alive, and the rest for the development of its motive +power. Abundance of food is as necessary to the natural mechanism, +the horse, as fuel is to the artificial mechanism, the steam-engine. +In each case the amount of force developed is, within certain limits, +proportionate to the quantity of vegetable or altered vegetable matter +consumed. The greater portion of the ox's food is also consumed in +keeping its body alive, and the rest, instead of being expended in the +development of motive power, accumulates as surplus stores of flesh, +which in due time are applied to the purpose of repairing the organisms +of men. It is evident then, that the greater sufferer from the deficient +supply of food to animals is their owner. That they cannot be <i>taught</i> +to <i>fast</i> is a fact which does not appear very patent to some minds. +The man who sought by gradually reducing the daily quantum of his +horse's provender to accustom + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page39" name="page39"></a>[39]</span> + + it to work without eating, was justly +punished for his ignorant cruelty. The day before the horse's allowance +was to be reduced to pure water, and when its owner's hope appeared +certain of speedy realisation, the animal died. There are men who act +almost as foolishly as the parsimonious horse owner in this fable did; +and who are as properly punished as he was. Such men are to be found in +the farmers who overstock their sheep pastures, and whose "lean kine" +are the <i>laughing stock</i> of their more intelligent neighbours. +</p> +<p> +The weight of a working full-grown horse does not vary from day +to day, as the weight of its egesta is equal to that of its food. +The desideratum in the case of the working animal is that its food +should be as thoroughly decomposed as possible, and the force pent +up in it liberated within the animal's body: as an ox, on the contrary, +increases in weight from day to day, it is desirable that as little as +possible of its food should be disorganised. The wasteful expenditure +of the animal's fat may be obviated by shelter, and the application of +artificial heat: the retardation of the destruction of its flesh is even +more under our control; for, as active muscular exertion involves the +decomposition of tissue, we have merely to diminish the activity of +the motions which cause this waste. This, in practice, is effected by +stall-feeding. Confined within the narrow boundaries of the stall, the +muscular action of the animal is reduced to a minimum, or limited to +those uncontrollable actions which are conditions in the maintenance +of animal life. +</p> +<p> +The proportion of the food of oxen, sheep, and pigs, which is +consumed in maintaining their vital functions, has not been accurately +ascertained; probably, as in the case of man, it is strictly +proportionate to the animal's weight. We can determine the amount +of plastic food consumed by an animal during a given period: we can +ascertain the increase (if any) in the weight of its body; and finally, +we can weigh and analyse its egesta. With these data it is comparatively +easy to ascertain the quantity of food which produced the increase in + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page40" name="page40"></a>[40]</span> + + the animal's weight; but they do not enable us to determine the amount +expended in keeping it alive, because the egesta might be largely made +up of unappropriated food—organised matter which had done no work in +the animal body. When we come to know the precise quantity of nitrogen, +in a purely, or nearly pure, mineral form<sup><a name="noteref-14"><!--14--></a><a href="#note-14">14</a></sup> excreted by an animal, +then we shall be in a position to estimate the proportion of its food +expended in sustaining the essential vital processes which continuously +go on in its body. But although we are in ignorance as to the precise +quantity of flesh-formers expended in keeping the animal alive, we know +pretty accurately the amount which is consumed in producing a given +weight of its flesh, or rather in causing a certain increase in its +weight. This knowledge is the result of numerous investigations, of +which by far the most valuable are those of Lawes and Gilbert. These +experimenters found that fattening pigs stored up about 7½ per +cent. of the plastic materials of their food, whilst sheep accumulated +somewhat less than 5 per cent. That is, 92½ out of every 100 lbs. +weight of the nitrogenous food of the pig, and 95 out of every 100 lbs. +of that of the sheep, are eliminated in the excretions of those animals. +</p> +<p> +It appears from the results of Lawes and Gilbert's experiments, that +pigs store up in their <i>increase</i> about 20 per cent., sheep 12 per +cent., and oxen 8 per cent. of their (dry) food. The relative increase +of the fatty, nitrogenous, and mineral constituents whilst fattening, +are shown in this table. +</p> + +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Estimated increase for fattening various animals"> + +<tr><td colspan="5" class="table-title"> </td></tr> +<tr><th rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Cases</span>.</th><th colspan="4">Estimated per cent. in Increase whilst Fattening.</th></tr> + +<tr> <th>Mineral matter (ash.)</th><th>Nitrogenous matter (dry).</th><th> Fat (dry). </th><th> Total dry substance. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Average of 98 oxen </td><td> 1·47 </td><td> 7·69 </td><td> 66·2 </td><td> 75·4 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Average of 348 sheep </td><td> 1·80 </td><td> 7·13 </td><td> 70·4 </td><td> 79·53 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Average of 80 pigs </td><td> 0·44 </td><td> 6·44 </td><td> 71·5 </td><td> 78·40 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page41" name="page41"></a>[41]</span></p> + +<p> +The quantity of food consumed daily by an animal is, as might be expected, +proportionate to the weight of its body. The pig consumes, for every 100 +lbs. of its weight, from 26 to 30 lbs. of food, the sheep 15 lbs., and +the ox 12 to 13 lbs. These figures and the statements which I have made +relative to the proportions of fat and plastic elements in the animals' +bodies, apply to them in their fattening state, and when the food is +of a highly nutritious character. The calf and the young pig will +make use—to cause their increase—of a larger portion of nitrogenous +matters. The sheep, however, being early brought to maturity, will, even +when very young, store up the plastic and non-plastic constituents of +its food, in nearly the same relative proportions that I have mentioned. +</p> +<p> +As it is the food taken into the body that produces heat and motion, it +might at first sight appear an easy matter to determine the amount of +heat or of motion which a given weight of a particular kind of food is +capable of producing within the animal mechanism. But this performance +is not so easy a task as it appears to be. In the first place, all of +the food may not be perfectly oxidised, though thoroughly disorganised +within the body; secondly, as animals rarely subsist on one kind of +food, it is difficult, when they are supplied with mixed aliments, to +determine which of them is the most perfectly decomposed. But though the +difficulties which I have mentioned, and many others, render the task +of determining the nutritive values of food substances difficult, the +problem is by no means insoluble, and, in fact, is in a fair way of +being solved. Professor Frankland, in a paper published in the number +of the <i>Philosophical Magazine</i> for September, 1866, determines the +relative alimental value of foods by ascertaining the quantity of heat +evolved by each when burned in oxygen gas. From the results of these +researches he has constructed a table, showing the amount of food +necessary to keep a man alive for twenty-four hours. The following +figures, which I select from this table, are of interest to the +stock-feeder:— +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page42" name="page42"></a>[42]</span></p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Weight of foods to sustain human life per 24 hours"> + +<tr><td></td><th> Weight necessary to sustain a man's life<br /> for twenty-four hours.</th></tr> +<tr><th> Kinds of Food. </th><th>Ounces. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Potatoes </td><td>13·4 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Apples </td><td>20·7 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Oatmeal </td><td> 3·4 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flour </td><td> 3·5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Pea Meal </td><td> 3·5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Bread </td><td> 6·4 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Milk </td><td>21·2 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Carrots </td><td>25·6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Cabbage </td><td>31·8 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Butter </td><td> 1·8 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Lump Sugar </td><td> 3·9 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +These figures show the relative calefacient, or heat-producing powers of +the different foods named <i>outside</i> the body; but there is some doubt as +to their having the same relative values when burned <i>within</i> the body. +The woody fibre of the carrots and cabbages is very combustible in the +coal furnace, but it is very doubtful if more than 20 or 30 per cent. of +this substance is ever burned in the <i>animal furnace</i>. However, such +inquiries as those carried out by Frankland possess great value; and +tables constructed upon their results cannot fail to be useful in the +drawing up of dietary scales, whether for man or for the inferior +animals. +</p> +<p> +I may here remark, that in my opinion the nutritive value of food admits +of being very accurately determined by the adoption of the following +method:— +</p> +<p> +1. The animal experimented upon to be supplied daily with a weighed +quantity of food, the composition and calefacient value of which had +been accurately determined. 2. The gases, vapors, and liquid and solid +egesta thrown off from its body to be collected, analysed, and the +calefacient<sup><a name="noteref-15"><!--15--></a><a href="#note-15">15</a></sup> value of the combustible portion of them to be + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page43" name="page43"></a>[43]</span> + + determined. +3. The increase (if any) of the weight of the animal to be ascertained. +4. The difference between the amount of heat evolvable by the foods +before being consumed, and that actually obtained by the combustion +of the egesta into which they were ultimately converted, would be the +amount actually set free and rendered available within the body. The +calculations would be somewhat affected by an increase in the weight +of the animal's body; but it would not be difficult to keep the weight +stationary, or nearly so, and there are other ways of getting over +such a difficulty. An experiment such as this would be a costly one, +and could not be properly conducted unless by the aid of an apparatus +similar to that employed by Pettenkofer in his experiments on +respiration. This apparatus, which was made at the expense of the King +of Bavaria, cost nearly £600. +</p> +<p> +<i>Value of Manure.</i>—It is a complication in the question of the +economic feeding of the farm animals that the value of their manure +must be taken into account. Of the three classes of food constituents, +two—the mineral and nitrogenous—are recoverable in the animal's body +and manure; the non-nitrogenous is partly recoverable in the fat. +I shall take the case of a sheep, which will consume weekly per 100 +lbs. of its weight, 12 lbs. of fat-formers, and 3 lbs. of flesh-formers. +Twelve per cent. of the fat-formers will be retained in the <i>increase</i>, +but the rest will be expended in keeping the animal warm, and the +products of its combustion—carbonic acid and water—will be useless to +the farmer. It is, therefore, desirable to diminish as much as possible +the combustion of fatty matter in the animal's body; and this is +effected, as I have already explained, by keeping it in a warm place. +Of the flesh-forming substance only five per cent. is retained in the +increase, the rest is partly consumed in carrying on the movements of +the animal—partly expelled from its body unaltered, or but slightly +altered, in composition. The solid excrement of the animal contains +all the undigested food; but of this only the mineral and nitrogenous +constituents are valuable as + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page44" name="page44"></a>[44]</span> + + manure. The nitrogen of the plastic +materials which are expended in maintaining the functions of the body is +eliminated from the lungs, through the skin, and by the kidneys—perhaps +also, but certainly only to a small extent, by the rectum. +</p> +<p> +The food consumed by an animal is disposed of in the following way:—A +portion passes unchanged, or but slightly altered, through the body; +another part is assimilated and subsequently disorganised and ejected; +the rest is converted into the carcass of the animal at the time of its +death. The undigested food and aliment which had undergone conversion +into flesh and other tissues, and subsequent disorganisation, constitute +the excrements, or manure, of the animal. The richer in nitrogen and +phosphoric acid the food is, the more valuable will be the manure; so +that the money value of a feeding stuff is not determinable merely by +the amount of flesh which it makes, but also, and to a great extent, +by the value of the manure into which it is ultimately converted. +</p> +<p> +Corn and oil-cakes are powerful fertilisers of the soil; but the three +principles which constitute their manurial value—namely, nitrogen +(ammonia), phosphoric acid, and potash—are purchasable at far lower +prices in guano and other manures. Nevertheless, many farmers believe +that the most economical way to produce good manure is to feed their +stock with concentrated aliment, in order to greatly increase the value +of their excreta. They consider that a pound's worth of oil-cake, or of +corn, will produce at least a pound's worth of meat, and that the manure +will be had for nothing, or, rather, will be the profit of the business. +The richer food is in nitrogen and phosphoric acid, the more valuable +will be the manure it yields. It follows, therefore, that if two kinds +of feeding stuff produce equal amounts of meat, that the preference +should be given to that which contains the more nitrogen and phosphoric +acid. Mr. Lawes, who has thrown light upon this point, as well as upon +so many others, has made careful estimates of the value of the manure +produced + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page45" name="page45"></a>[45]</span> + + from different foods. They are given in the following table:— +</p> + + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Estimated values of manures per ton of food"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="5"> +TABLE<br /> +Showing the estimated value of the manure obtained on the<br /> +consumption of one ton of different articles of food; each<br /> +supposed to be of good quality of its kind. +</td></tr> + +<tr> +<th colspan="2">Description of Food.</th> +<th colspan="3">Estimated Money<br /> Value of the Manure<br /> from One Ton<br /> of each Food.</th> +</tr> + +<tr><td> 1.</td><td class="l">Decorticated cotton-seed cake </td><td>£6 </td><td> 10 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 2.</td><td class="l">Rape-cake </td><td> 4 </td><td> 18 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 3.</td><td class="l">Linseed-cake </td><td> 4 </td><td> 12 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 4.</td><td class="l">Malt-dust </td><td> 4 </td><td> 5 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 5.</td><td class="l">Lentils </td><td> 3 </td><td> 17 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 6.</td><td class="l">Linseed </td><td> 3 </td><td> 13 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 7.</td><td class="l">Tares </td><td> 3 </td><td> 13 </td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 8.</td><td class="l">Beans </td><td> 3 </td><td> 13 </td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 9.</td><td class="l">Peas </td><td> 3 </td><td> 2 </td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 10.</td><td class="l">Locust beans </td><td> 1 </td><td> 2 </td><td> (?)6 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 11.</td><td class="l">Oats </td><td> 1 </td><td> 14 </td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 12.</td><td class="l">Wheat </td><td> 1 </td><td> 13 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 13.</td><td class="l">Indian corn </td><td> 1 </td><td> 11 </td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 14.</td><td class="l">Malt </td><td> 1 </td><td> 11 </td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 15.</td><td class="l">Barley </td><td> 1 </td><td> 9 </td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 16.</td><td class="l">Clover-hay </td><td> 2 </td><td> 5 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 17.</td><td class="l">Meadow-hay </td><td> 1 </td><td> 10 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 18.</td><td class="l">Oat-straw </td><td> 0 </td><td> 13 </td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 19.</td><td class="l">Wheat-straw </td><td> 0 </td><td> 12 </td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 20.</td><td class="l">Barley-straw </td><td> 0 </td><td> 10 </td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 21.</td><td class="l">Potatoes </td><td> 0 </td><td> 7 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 22.</td><td class="l">Mangolds </td><td> 0 </td><td> 5 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 23.</td><td class="l">Swedish turnips </td><td> 0 </td><td> 4 </td><td> 3 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 24.</td><td class="l">Common turnips </td><td> 0 </td><td> 4 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 25.</td><td class="l">Carrots </td><td> 0 </td><td> 4 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +All the saline matter contained in the food is either converted into +flesh, or is recoverable in the form of manure, but a portion of its +nitrogen appears to be lost by respiration and perspiration. Reiset +states that 100 parts of the nitrogen of food given to sheep upon +which he experimented, were disposed of as follows:— +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page46" name="page46"></a>[46]</span></p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Nitrogen disposition in sheep, by Reiset"> +<tr><td class="l"> Recovered in the excreta </td><td>58·3 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Recovered in the meat, tallow, and skin</td><td>13·7 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Lost in respiration </td><td>28·0 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00</td></tr> +</table> + + +<p> +Haughton's experiments, performed upon men, gave results which proved +that no portion of the nitrogen of their food was lost by perspiration +or by respiration. Barral, on the contrary, asserts that nitrogen +is given off from the bodies of both man and the inferior animals. +Boussingault states that horses, sheep, and pigs exhale nitrogen. +A cow, giving milk, on which he had experimented, lost 15 per cent. +of the nitrogen of its food by perspiration. The amount of nitrogen +which Reiset states that sheep exhale is exceedingly great, and it +is difficult to reconcile his results with those obtained by Voit, +Bischoff, Regnault, Pettenkofer, and Haughton. Of course, men and sheep +are widely different animals; but still it is unlikely that all the +nitrogen of the food of man should be recoverable in his egesta, whilst +nearly a third of the nitrogen of the food of the sheep should be +dissipated as gas. I think further experiments are necessary before this +point can be regarded as settled; and it is probable that it will yet be +found that all, or nearly all, of the nitrogen of the food of animals is +recoverable in their egesta. +</p> +<p> +Regarding, then, an animal as a mechanism by which meat is to be +"manufactured," five economic points in relation to it demand the +feeder's attention: these are—the first cost of the mechanism, the +expense of maintaining the mechanism in working order, the price of +the raw materials intended for conversion into meat, the value of the +meat, and the value of the manure. In proportion to the attention given +to these points, will be the feeder's profits; but they are, to some +extent, affected by the climatic, geographic, and other conditions under +which the farm is placed. +</p> + + +<hr class="full" /> + +<a name="note-1"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-1">1</a>) +If the elements were only capable of combining with each +other in simple ratios, the number of their combinations would be as +limited as that of the letters of the alphabet; but as one, two, or +more atoms of oxygen can combine with one, two, or more atoms of +other elements, we can assign no limits to the number of <i>possible</i> +combinations. There are hundreds of distinct substances formed of but +two elements, namely, hydrogen and carbon. +</p> + +<a name="note-2"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-2">2</a>) +In a paper by Professor Sullivan, of Dublin, the conversion +of one of these substances into another <i>outside</i> the animal mechanism, +is almost incontrovertibly proved. +</p> + +<a name="note-3"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-3">3</a>) +<i>Experimental Inquiry into the Composition of some of +the Animals Fed and Slaughtered as Human Food.</i> By John Bennet Lawes, +F.R.S., F.C.S., and Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D., F.C.S. <i>Philosophical +Transactions of the Royal Society.</i> Part II., 1860. +</p> + +<a name="note-4"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-4">4</a>) +From the Greek <i>plasso</i>, "to form." Plastic materials are +sometimes termed <i>formative</i> elements; both terms imply the belief that +they are capable of giving shape, or form, not only to themselves, but +also to other kinds of matter not possessed of formative power. +</p> + +<a name="note-5"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-5">5</a>) +The slow conversion of phosphorus into phosphoric acid +takes place in the animal organism; its gradual oxidation in the open +air gives rise only to an imperfectly oxidised body—<i>phosphorous acid</i>. +But the latter fact does not invalidate the general proposition, that +the heat emitted by a substance undergoing the process of oxidation is +proportionate to the amount of oxygen with which it combines, and is not +influenced by the length of time occupied by the process, further than +this, that if the oxidation be <i>very</i> rapidly effected, a portion of the +heat will be converted into an <i>equivalent</i> amount of light. +</p> + +<a name="note-6"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-6">6</a>) +This statement is not absolutely correct, but the range +of variation is confined within such narrow limits as to be quite +insignificant. +</p> + +<a name="note-7"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-7">7</a>) +Doubt has recently been thrown on the truth of this belief +by Frankland, Fick, and Wislicenus. +</p> + +<a name="note-8"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-8">8</a>) +The results of Savory's experiments on rats appear to prove +that animals can live on food destitute of fat, sugar, starch, or any +other fat-forming substance. I think, however, that animals could hardly +thrive on purely nitrogenous food. The conclusions which certain late +writers, who object to Liebig's theory of animal heat, have deduced from +Savory's investigations, appear to me to be quite unfounded. +</p> + +<a name="note-9"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-9">9</a>) +So termed because it is the basis of the common oils; the +fluid portion of fat is composed of oleine. +</p> + +<a name="note-10"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-10">10</a>) +The term <i>dry</i> is applied to the <i>solid</i> constituents of +the food. Thus, a pig fed with 100 lbs. of potatoes would be said to +have been supplied with 25 lbs. of dry potatoes, because water forms +75 per cent. of the weight of those tubers. +</p> + +<a name="note-11"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-11">11</a>) +The amounts of "mineral matter" are too high, owing to the +adventitious matters (dirt) retained by the wool. +</p> + +<a name="note-12"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-12">12</a>) +This pig was completely analysed by Lawes and Gilbert. +</p> + +<a name="note-13"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-13">13</a>) +The results of recent and accurately conducted +investigations prove that men engaged in occupations requiring the +highest exercise of the intellectual faculties, require more nutritious +food, and even a greater quantity of nutriment, than the hardest worked +laborers, such as paviours, and navvies. I have been assured by an +extensive manufacturer, that on promoting his workmen to situations of +<i>greater</i> responsibility but <i>less</i> physically laborious than those +previously filled by them, he found that they required more food and +that, too, of a better quality. This change in their appetite was +not the result of increased wages, which in most cases remained the +same—the decrease in the amount of labour exacted being considered in +most cases a sufficient equivalent for the increased responsibility +thrown upon them. +</p> + +<a name="note-14"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-14">14</a>) +As ammonia, urea, uric acid, or hippuric acid; all of which +are nearly or perfectly mineralised substances. +</p> + +<a name="note-15"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-15">15</a>) +The excrements of animals are capable of evolving, by +combustion, enormous amounts of heat. +</p> + + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page47" name="page47"></a>[47]</span></p> + +<a name="h2H_4_0006" id="h2H_4_0006"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + PART II. +</h2> +<h3> + ON THE BREEDING AND BREEDS OF STOCK. +</h3> +<h4> +SECTION I. +</h4> +<h5> +THE BREEDING OF STOCK. +</h5> +<p> +<i>Cross Breeding.</i>—For many years past feeders have zealously occupied +themselves in the improvement of their stock, and the result of their +labors is observable in the marked superiority of the breeds of the +present day over their ancestors in the last century. The improvement +of animals designed as food for man is effected by keeping them on a +liberal dietary, by selecting only the best individuals for sires and +dams, and by combining the excellencies of two or more varieties of a +species in one breed. A species consists of a number of animals which +exhibit so many points of resemblance, that they are regarded by the +great majority of naturalists to be the descendants of a single pair. +If we except the believers in the hypotheses relative to the origin +of existing varieties of animals and plants, propounded by Lamarck, +Darwin, and other naturalists of the "advanced school," there is a +general belief in the immutability of species. The individuals of an +existing species, say dogs, can never acquire the peculiar features +of another species; nor can their descendants, if we except hybrids, +ever become animals in which the characteristics of the dog tribe are +irrecognisable. By various influences, such as, for example, differences +in food and climate, and domestication, a species may be split into +<i>varieties</i>, or <i>breeds</i>, all of which, however, retain the more +important characteristics + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page48" name="page48"></a>[48]</span> + + of the primordial type. There appears to be +no limit to the varieties of dogs, yet one can perceive by a glance that +there is no specific difference between the huge Mont St. Bernard dog +and the diminutive poodle, or between the sparse greyhound and the burly +mastiff. All the varieties of our domestic fowl have been traced to +a common origin—the wild Indian fowl (<i>Gallus bankiva</i>). Even Darwin +admits that all the existing kinds of horses are, in all probability, +the descendants of an original stock; and it is generally agreed that +the scores of varieties of pigeons own a common ancestor in the rock +pigeon (<i>Columba livia</i>). +</p> +<p> +As certain individuals are grouped by naturalists into species, so +particular species, which in habits and general appearance resemble each +other, are arranged under the head of genus. The horse, the ass, and the +zebra are formed on nearly the same anatomical plan; they are therefore +classed together, and designated the genus <i>Equus</i>, a term derived from +the Latin word <i>equus</i>, a horse—that animal being regarded as the type, +or perfect member of the group. Thus the horse, in the nomenclature of +the naturalist, is termed <i>Equus caballus</i>; the ass, <i>Equus asinus</i>; and +the zebra, <i>Equus zebra</i>. By a further extension of this principle of +classification, very closely allied genera are united under the term +of <i>family</i>. +</p> +<p> +The different varieties of the same species breed, as might be +anticipated, freely together; but it frequently happens that two +individuals of different species pair, and produce an animal which +inherits some of the properties of each of its progenitors. These +half-breeds are termed <i>hybrids</i>, or <i>mules</i>, and we have familiar +examples of them in the common mule and the jennet. As a general rule, +animals exhibit a disinclination to breed with other than members of +their own species; and although the interference of man may overcome +this natural repugnance, he can only effect the fruitful congress of +individuals belonging to closely allied species, being members of the +same genus. Hybrids in the genus <i>Equus</i> are very common. A cross has +been produced between the he-goat and + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page49" name="page49"></a>[49]</span> + + the ewe; the camel and the +dromedary have bred together; and Buffon succeeded in producing a hybrid +in which three animals were represented—namely, the bison, the zebu, +and the ox. On the other hand, attempts to effect a cross between +animals belonging to different families have generally failed; nor is +it at all probable that a cross will ever be produced between the pig +and the sheep, between the horse and the cow, or, most unlikely of all, +between the dog and the cat. +</p> +<p> +It is the general belief that hybrids are sterile, or, at least, that +they are incapable of propagation <i>inter se</i>. This may be true with +respect to the hybrids of species not very closely allied; but that +there are exceptions to the rule is quite clear from Roux's experiments +with hares and rabbits. This gentleman, who is, or was, the president +of a French agricultural society, but who makes no profession of +scientific knowledge, has succeeded, after several failures, in producing +a fruitful cross between the rabbit and the hare. This hybrid has +received the name of leporide (from the Latin <i>leporinus</i>, pertaining to +a hare), and it is different from former crosses, in being five parts +hare, and three parts rabbit. M. Roux has bred this hybrid during the +last eighteen years, and has not observed the slightest appearance +of decay of race manifest itself up to the present, so that, for all +practical purposes, the leporide may be regarded as an addition to the +distinct species of animals. The leporide fattens rapidly, and with but +little expenditure of food. Sold at the age of four months, it realises, +in France, a price four times greater than that commanded by a rabbit of +the same age; and at a year old it weighs on an average ten pounds, and +sometimes as much as sixteen pounds. It breeds at four months, continues +thirty days in gestation, and yearly produces five or six litters of +from five to eight young. To produce this hybrid is by no means +difficult. A leveret, just old enough to dispense with the maternal +nutriment, should be placed with a few doe rabbits of his own age, +apart from other animals. He will soon become familiar with the does, + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page50" name="page50"></a>[50]</span> + + and when they attain the age of puberty, all the rabbits save one or two +should be removed. Speedily those left with the hare will become with +young, upon which they should be removed, and replaced by others. After +this the hare should be kept in a hutch by himself, and a doe left with +him at night only. As the hare is naturally a very shy animal, it will +only breed when perfect quietness prevails. The half-bred produced in +the first instance should now be put to the hare, and a cross, three +parts hare, and one part rabbit, obtained. The permanent breed should +then be obtained by crossing the quadroon doe leporide, if I may use the +term, with the half-bred buck. +</p> +<p> +I have directed attention to the production of the leporide because +I believe that the problems in relation to it, which have been solved +by M. Roux, have an important bearing upon the breeding of animals +of greater importance than hares and rabbits. Here we find a race of +animals produced by the fusion of two species, which naturally exist in +a state of mutual enmity, and which differ in many important respects. +The hare and the rabbit are respectively of but little value as food, at +least they are of no importance to the feeder; yet a cross between them +turns out to be an excellent meat-producing animal, which may be reared +with considerable profit to the feeder. It is thus clearly shown that +two kinds of animals, neither of which is of great utility, may give +rise to an excellent cross, if their blood, so to speak, be blended in +proper proportions. A half-bred animal may be less valuable than its +parents, but a quadroon may greatly excel its progenitors. The goat +and sheep are so closely related that they are classed by naturalists +under one head—<i>Capridæ</i>. Some kinds of sheep have hair like goats, and +certain varieties of goats have fleeces that closely resemble those on +the sheep. There are sheep with horns, and goats without those striking +appendages. The Cape of Good Hope goat might easily be mistaken for a +sheep. It would seem, judging by the results of Roux's experiments, that +there is no great difficulty in the way of obtaining a cross between the +sheep + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page51" name="page51"></a>[51]</span> + + and the goat. I do not mean an ordinary half-breed, but a prolific +hybrid similar to the leporide. Of course, it is impossible, <i>a priori</i>, +to say whether or not such a hybrid race, supposing it produceable, +would be valuable; but as goats can find a subsistence on mountains +where sheep would starve, it is possible that an animal, essentially a +sheep, but with a streak of goat blood in it, could be profitably kept +on very poor uplands. Whether a race of what we might term <i>caprides</i> be +formed or not we have derived most suggestive information from M. Roux's +experiments, which I hope may be turned to account in what is by far the +most important field of enquiry, the judicious crossing of varieties of +the same species. +</p> +<p> +It is a <i>quæstio vexata</i> whether or not the parents generally exercise +different influences upon the shape and size of their offspring. Mr. +Spooner supports the supposition—a very popular one—that the sire +gives shape to the external organs, whilst the dam affects the internal +organisation. I have considerable doubt as to the probability of this +theory. The children who spring from the union of a white man with a +negress possess physical and intellectual qualities which are nearly if +not quite the <i>mean</i> of their parents; but the offspring of parents, +both of the same race—be it Caucasian, Mongolian, or Indian—frequently +conform, intellectually and corporeally, to either of their progenitors. +Thus, of the children of a tall, thin, dark man, and a short, fat, +fair woman, some will be like their father, and the others will +resemble their mother, or, perhaps, all may "take after" either parent. +Sometimes a child appears to be in every respect unlike its parents, +and occasionally the likeness of an ancestor appears in a descendant, in +whom no resemblance to his immediate progenitors can be detected. It is +highly probable that both parents exercise, under most circumstances, a +joint influence upon the qualities of their offspring, but that one of +them may produce so much greater an effect that the influence of the +other is not recognisable, except perhaps to a very close observer. But +I doubt very much that any particular organ of the offspring is, as a +rule, more liable to the + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page52" name="page52"></a>[52]</span> + + influence of the sire than of the dam, or <i>vice +versâ</i>; and the breeder who believes that the sire alone is concerned in +moulding the external form of the offspring, and who consequently pays +no attention to this point in the dam, will often find himself out in +his reckonings. In order to be certain of a satisfactory result, the dam +should in every respect be equal to the sire. In practice, however, this +is not always the case, for as sires are so few as compared with the +number of dams, the greatest efforts have been directed towards the +improvement of the former. +</p> +<p> +There is, or ought to be, a familiar maxim with breeders, that "like +begets like, or the likeness of an ancestor." This is a "wise saw," of +which there are many "modern instances:" the excellencies or defects of +sire or dam are certain to be transmitted through several generations, +though they may not appear in all. As a general rule, good animals will +produce a good, and defective animals a defective, offspring, but it +sometimes happens that a bull or cow, of the best blood, is decidedly +inferior, whilst really good animals are occasionally the produce of +parents of "low degree." If the defects or excellencies of animals were +ineradicable there would be no need for the science of breeding; but by +the continual selection of only the most superior animals for breeding +purposes the defects of a species gradually disappear, and the good +qualities are alone transmitted. As, however, animals that are used as +food for man are to some extent in an abnormal condition, the points +which may be excellencies in that state, would not have been such in the +original condition of the animal. We find, therefore, that the improved +breeds of oxen and sheep exhibit some tendency to revert to their +original condition, and it is only by close attention to the diet, +breeding, and general management of these animals that this tendency can +be successfully resisted. Sometimes, however, an animal of even the best +breed will "return to nature," or will acquire some undesirable quality; +such an animal should be rejected for breeding purposes, for its defects +would in all probability be transmitted to its descendants, + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page53" name="page53"></a>[53]</span> + + near or +remote. A case, which admirably illustrates this point, is recorded in +the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> for 1813, and it is sufficiently +interesting to be mentioned here:— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + Seth Wright, who possessed a small farm on the Charles River, + about sixteen miles from Boston, had a small flock, consisting + of fifteen ewes and one ram. One of these ewes, in 1791, produced + a singular-shaped male lamb. Wright was advised to kill his former + ram and keep this new one in place of it; the consequence was, the + formation of a new breed of sheep, which gradually spread over a + considerable part of New England, but the introduction of the Merino + has nearly destroyed them again. This new variety was called the + Otter, or "Ankon" breed. They are remarkable for the shortness of + their legs, and the crookedness of their forelegs, like an elbow. + They are much more feeble and much smaller than the common sheep, + and less able to break over low fences; and this was the reason + of their being continued and propagated. +</p> +<p> +Here we have an instance of an animal propagating a defect through +a great number of descendants, though it had not acquired it from +its own ancestors. It is, however, probable that occasionally a male +descendant of this short-legged ram possessed considerably longer organs +of locomotion than the founder of his breed; and, consequently, if +selected for breeding purposes might become the founder of a long-legged +variety, in which, however, a couple of pairs of short-legs would +occasionally present themselves. I have a notion that the higher animals +are in the scale of being, the greater is their tendency to transmit +their acquired good or bad habits to their posterity. Dogs are, perhaps, +the most intelligent of the inferior animals, and it is well known +that they transmit to their offspring their acquired as well as their +natural habits. I doubt very much that those most stupid of creatures, +guinea-pigs, possess this property in any sensible degree; or, indeed, +that like the canine tribe, they can be readily made to acquire +artificial peculiarities: but there once flourished a "learned pig," +and it would be worth inquiring whether or not its descendants, like the +descendants of the trained setter, and pointer, were at all benefited by +the education of their ancestor. I shall + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page54" name="page54"></a>[54]</span> + + conclude this part of my subject +in the words of Professor Tanner: "In all cases where the breed has been +carefully preserved pure, great benefit will result from doing so. The +character of a breed becomes more and more concentrated and confirmed in +a pedigree animal, and this character is rendered more fully hereditary +in proportion to the number of generations through which it has been +transmitted. By the aid of pedigree, purity of blood may be insured, and +a systematic plan adopted by which we can perpetuate distinct families, +and thereby obtain a change of blood without its being a cross. It is +evident that any one adopting a systematic arrangement will be able to +do this more effectually than another without this aid. This is the more +important when the number of families is small, as is the case with +Devons and Herefords, especially the former. The individual animals from +which the Devons are descended are very limited in number, and in a few +hands; but, with some honourable exceptions, little attention is given +to this point. The importance is rendered evident by the decreasing size +of the breed, the number of barren heifers, and the increased delicacy +of constitution shown in the stock of many breeders of that district who +are not particular in this respect. The contrast between such herds, +and those in which more care and judgment are exercised, renders the +advantages of attention to pedigree very evident; for here the strength +of constitution is retained, together with many of the advantages of +this valuable breed." +</p> +<h4> +SECTION II. +</h4> +<h5> +THE BREEDS OF STOCK. +</h5> +<p> +The nature of the animal determines, as I have already stated, the +proportion of its food carried off in its increase; but this point is +also greatly influenced by its <i>variety</i>, or + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page55" name="page55"></a>[55]</span> + + <i>breed</i>. Certain breeds +which have for a long period been kept on bulky food, and obliged +to roam in quest of it, appear to have acquired a normal tendency to +<i>leanness</i>. No doubt, if they were supplied with highly nutritious +food for many successive generations, these breeds might eventually +exhibit as great a tendency to fatten as they now do to remain in a +lean condition. As it is, the horned cattle of Kerry, Wales, and some +other regions, rarely become fat, no matter how abundantly they may be +supplied with fattening food. On the other hand, the Herefords, but more +especially the Shorthorns, exhibit a natural disposition to obesity, and +such animals alone should be stall-fed. It is noteworthy that animals +which are naturally disposed to yield abundance of milk are often the +best adapted for fattening; but it would appear that the continuous +use of highly fattening food, and the observance of the various other +conditions in the <i>forcing</i> system, diminish the activity of the lacteal +secretion, and increase the tendency to fatness in the races of the +bovine tribe. The Shorthorns were at one time famous for their milking +capabilities, but latterly their galactophoric reputation has greatly +declined. Still I am disposed to believe, that if some of those animals +were placed under conditions favorable to the improvement of dairy +stock, herds of Shorthorn milch cows could be obtained which would vie +in their own line with the famous fat-disposed oxen of the same breed. +</p> +<p> +In sheep the tendency to early maturity and to fatten is greatly +influenced by the breed. The Leicester, even when kept on inferior +pasture, fattens so rapidly that in eighteen months it is fit for the +butcher; whilst the Merino, though supplied with excellent herbage, must +be preserved for nearly four years before it is ready for the shambles. +The crossing of good herds has resulted in the development of numerous +varieties, all remarkable for their aptitude to fatten and to arrive +early at maturity. The Leicester—itself supposed to be a cross—has +greatly improved the Lincoln, and the Hampshire and Southdown have +produced an excellent cross. Of + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page56" name="page56"></a>[56]</span> + + course, each breed and cross has its +admirers; indeed, the differences of opinion which prevail in relation +to the relative merits of the Lincoln and the Leicester—the Southdown +and the Shropshiredown—the Dorset and the Somerset—occasionally +culminate into newspaper controversies of an exceedingly ascerb +character. There is no doubt but that particular breeds of sheep +thrive in localities and under conditions which are inimical to other +varieties; but still it is equally evident that, <i>cæteris paribus</i>, one +kind of sheep will store up in its increase a larger proportion of its +food than another kind, and will arrive earlier at maturity. It is the +knowledge of this fact which has led to the great estimation in which +are held some half-dozen out of the numerous breeds and cross-breeds +of that animal. In 1861 an interesting experiment was made by the +Parlington Farmers' Club with the object of testing the relative merits +of several varieties of sheep. The results are shown in the tables:— +</p> + +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Relative merits of sheep varieties, Table 1"> + +<tr><td colspan="14" class="table-title">TABLE I.</td></tr> + +<tr> +<th rowspan="2">Description of Class of Sheep.</th> +<th rowspan="2" colspan="2">Live Weight of Six Wethers when Shorn, 26th Feburary, 1862.</th> +<th rowspan="2" colspan="2">Weight of Mutton when slaughtered.</th> +<th rowspan="2">Weight of Tallow.</th> +<th rowspan="2">Weight of Wool.</th> +<th rowspan="2">Weight of Pelts.</th> +<th colspan="6">Weights gained during the time of Feeding from the 11th November, 1861, to 14th February, 1862.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<th colspan="2">In Live Weight.</th> +<th colspan="2">In Mutton.</th> +<th colspan="2">In Wool.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<th>st.</th> +<th>lb.</th> +<th>st.</th> +<th>lb.</th> +<th>lb.</th> +<th>lb.</th> +<th>lb.</th> +<th>st.</th> +<th>lb.</th> +<th>st.</th> +<th>lb.</th> +<th>lb.</th> +<th>oz.</th> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Cross from + the Teeswater </td><td> 85 </td><td> 3 </td><td> 53 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 106 </td><td> 43 </td><td> 85</td><td> 13 </td><td> 7 </td><td> 8 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 14 </td><td> 5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> North Sheep </td><td> 83 </td><td>12 </td><td> 53 </td><td>12 </td><td> 96 </td><td>43½ </td><td> 83</td><td> 12 </td><td>11 </td><td> 8 </td><td> 3 </td><td> 14 </td><td> 8 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Lincolns </td><td> 92 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 59 </td><td>12 </td><td> 105 </td><td> 66 </td><td> 103</td><td> 16 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 10 </td><td> 7 </td><td> 22 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> South Downs </td><td> 71 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 47 </td><td> 7 </td><td> 97¼ </td><td> 28 </td><td>65¾</td><td> 11 </td><td>13 </td><td> 8 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 9 </td><td> 5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Shropshire Downs</td><td> 85 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 53 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 103 </td><td>42½ </td><td> 91</td><td> 15 </td><td>11 </td><td> 9 </td><td> 12 </td><td> 14 </td><td> 3 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Leicesters </td><td> 80 </td><td> 9 </td><td> 53 </td><td> 4 </td><td> 90½ </td><td> 44 </td><td>78½</td><td> 14 </td><td>10 </td><td> 9 </td><td> 10 </td><td> 14 </td><td>11 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Cotswolds </td><td> 76 </td><td> 5 </td><td> 47 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 79 </td><td> 54 </td><td> 90</td><td> 12 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 7 </td><td> 11 </td><td> 18 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page57" name="page57"></a>[57]</span></p> + +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Relative merits of sheep varieties, Table 2"> + +<tr><td colspan="20" class="table-title">TABLE II.</td></tr> + +<tr> +<th rowspan="2">Description of Sheep.</th> +<th colspan="8">Value of the preceding Mutton and Wool so gained.</th> +<th rowspan="2" colspan="2">Food consumed during time of feeding.</th> +<th rowspan="2" colspan="3">Value of the Food, Calculating Turnips at 6s. 8d., and Cake at £10 10s. per ton.</th> +<th rowspan="2" colspan="3">Value of the Mutton and Wool.</th> +<th rowspan="2" colspan="3">Value of Food deducted from Value of Mutton and Wool, showing real value of the different sheep.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<th colspan="4">Price of the Mutton.</th> +<th colspan="4">Price of the Wool.</th> +</tr> + +<tr><td> </td><th>p. lb.</th><td colspan="3"></td><th>p. lb.</th><td colspan="3"></td><th> Swd. Tnp. </th><th> Lnd. Cke. </th><td colspan="3"></td><td colspan="3"></td><td colspan="3"></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>d. </td><td> £ </td><td> s. </td><td>d. </td><td> d. </td><td> £ </td><td> s.</td><td> d. </td><td> st. </td><td> lb. </td><td> £ </td><td> s.</td><td> d. </td><td> £ </td><td> s. </td><td>d. </td><td> £ </td><td> s.</td><td> d. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Teeswater, Cross </td><td>6 </td><td> 2 </td><td>19 </td><td>0 </td><td> 18 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 978 </td><td> 300 </td><td> 3 </td><td> 8 </td><td> 10½ </td><td> 4 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 11 </td><td> 7 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> North Shropshire </td><td>6 </td><td> 2 </td><td>17 </td><td>6 </td><td> 17½ </td><td> 1 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 1¾ </td><td> 914 </td><td> 300 </td><td> 3 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 2½ </td><td> 3 </td><td> 18 </td><td>7¾ </td><td> 0 </td><td> 12 </td><td> 5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Lincolnshire<sup><a name="noteref-16"><!--16--></a><a href="#note-16">16</a></sup> + </td><td>5¾ </td><td> 3 </td><td>10 </td><td> 5¼ </td><td> 18 </td><td> 1 </td><td>13 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 936 </td><td> 363 </td><td> 3 </td><td>13 </td><td> 0¼ </td><td> 5 </td><td> 3 </td><td> 5¼ </td><td> 1 </td><td> 10 </td><td> 5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Southdowns </td><td>6½ </td><td> 3 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 8 </td><td> 17 </td><td> 0 </td><td>13 </td><td> 2½ </td><td> 684 </td><td> 300 </td><td> 2 </td><td>16 </td><td> 7½ </td><td> 3 </td><td> 13 </td><td>10½ </td><td> 0 </td><td> 17 </td><td> 3 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Shropshire </td><td>6¼ </td><td> 3 </td><td>11 </td><td>10½ </td><td> 17½ </td><td> 1 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 7¾ </td><td> 924 </td><td> 300 </td><td> 3 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 7¾ </td><td> 4 </td><td> 12 </td><td> 6¼ </td><td> 1 </td><td> 5 </td><td> 10 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Leicester </td><td>5¾ </td><td> 3 </td><td> 5 </td><td> 2 </td><td> 18 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 2 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 877 </td><td> 300 </td><td> 3 </td><td> 4 </td><td> 8 </td><td> 4 </td><td> 7 </td><td> 2 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 2 </td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Cotswolds </td><td>6 </td><td> 2 </td><td>14 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 18 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 7 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 926 </td><td> 300 </td><td> 3 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 8½ </td><td> 4 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 14 </td><td> 9½ </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +These results, taken with the customary <i>grain of salt</i>, tell well for +the improved Lincoln; they also clearly show the aptitude to fatten, +without much loss in offal, of the Leicester;<sup><a name="noteref-17"><!--17--></a><a href="#note-17">17</a></sup> and they commend to the +lover of good mutton the Shropshire and South-Downs. +</p> +<p> +In the sixteenth volume of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society +of England, Mr. Lawes gives some valuable information relative to the +comparative fattening qualities of different breeds of sheep. The +following table, on this author's authority, shows the average food +consumed in producing 100 lbs. increase in live weight:— +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page58" name="page58"></a>[58]</span></p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average food consumed to produce 100 lbs. increase in live weight."> + +<tr><th> Breed. </th><th>Oil Cake. </th><th>Clover. </th><th>Swedes. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l">Sussex </td><td>297¼ </td><td>285½ </td><td>3·835¾ </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l">Hampshire </td><td>291½ </td><td>261¼ </td><td>3·966¾ </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l">Cross-bred Wethers </td><td>264½ </td><td>251¾ </td><td>3·725¼ </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Do. Ewes </td><td>263½ </td><td>250¼ </td><td>3·671 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l">Leicesters </td><td>263¾ </td><td>251¼ </td><td>3·761 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l">Cotswolds </td><td>253½ </td><td>216¾ </td><td>3·557½ </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +Some breeds are profitably kept in certain localities, where other kinds +would not pay so well: for example, the Devons, according to Mr. Smith, +are better adapted than larger breeds for "converting the produce of +cold and hilly pastures into meat." It is remarkable that nearly all the +best existing breeds of oxen and sheep are crosses. Major Rudd states +that the dam of Hubback, the famous founder of pure improved Shorthorns, +owed her propensity to fatten to an admixture of Kyloe blood, and also +that the sire of Hubback had a stain of Alderney, or Normandy blood. +Although the Rudd account of the ancestry of Hubback is not accepted by +all the historians of this splendid breed of cattle, there is no doubt +but that the breed owes its origin as much to judicious crossing as to +careful selection of sires and dams. It must not, however, be imagined +that there are no good pure races of stock. There is a perfectly pure, +but now scarce, tribe of Kerry oxen, admirably adapted to poor uplands. +The excellent Southdown sheep, though in every respect immensely +superior to their ancestors in the last century, have not attained to +their present superior state by crossing. The high value placed by +breeders upon good sires and dams in the approved breeds of stock is +shown by the large sums which they frequently realise at sales, or when +the former are let out for service. Bakewell received in one season for +the use of a ram 400 guineas each from two breeders, and they did not +retain the animal during the whole season. Several hundred guineas have +lately been more than once paid for a celebrated tup. Colonel Towneley's +Shorthorn bull, Master Butterfly, was, not long since, disposed of to an + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page59" name="page59"></a>[59]</span> + + Australian buyer for £1,260. At the sale of Mr. Bates's stock in 1850, +a stock of Shorthorns, including calves, brought on the average £116 5s. +per head. At the Earl Ducie's sale in 1852, a three year old +cow—Duchess—realised 700 guineas. +</p> +<p> +The color of an animal is, to some extent, a criterion of the purity +of its breed. Roan is a favourite hue with the breeders of Shorthorns. +There have been celebrated sires and dams of that breed perfectly white; +but that color, or rather absence of color, is now somewhat unpopular, +partly from the idea that it is a sign of weakness of constitution—a +notion for which there appears to me to be no foundation in fact. +The slightest spot of black, or even a very dark shade, is regarded +to be a blemish of the most serious kind when observed on the pelt +of a Shorthorn. The Herefords are partly white, partly red; the Devon +possesses in general a deep red hue; the Suffolks are usually of a dun +or faint reddish tint; the Ayrshires are commonly spotted white and red; +and the Kerrys are seen in every shade between a jet black and a deep +red. Uniformity in color would be most desirable in the case of each +variety, and this object could easily be attained if breeders devoted +some attention to it. +</p> +<p> +<i>The Form of Animals.</i>—The functions of an animal are arranged by +Bichat, an eminent physiologist, into two classes—those relating to +its nutrition, and those exhibited by its muscular and mental systems. +The first class of functions comprise the <i>vegetative</i>, or organic life +of the animal, and the second class constitute its <i>relative</i> life. +Adopting this arrangement, we may say, then, that those animals in which +the vegetative life is far more energetic than the relative life are +best suited for the purposes of the feeder. In tigers, wolves, and dogs +the relative life predominates over the vegetative; the muscles are +almost constantly in a high degree of tension, and the processes of +nutrition are in constant requisition to supply the waste of muscle. +On the + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page60" name="page60"></a>[60]</span> + + other hand, in oxen, sheep, and pigs, at least when in a state +of domesticity, the muscles are not highly developed; they do not +largely tax the vegetative processes, and, consequently, the substances +elaborated under the influence of the vegetative life rapidly increase. +The form of an animal is therefore mainly determined by the activity of +its relative life. In a greyhound, the nervous power of which is highly +developed, the muscles are large and well-knit, the stomach, intended +for the reception of concentrated nutriment only, is small, and the +lungs are exceedingly capacious. In such an animal the arrangements for +the rapid expenditure of nervous power must be perfect. It is not merely +necessary that its muscles should be large and powerful, its lungs must +also admit of deep inspirations of oxygen, whereby the motive power +wielded by these muscles may be rapidly generated. Now, an animal +exactly opposite in organisation to the greyhound would, according +to theory, be just the kind to select for the production of meat. +The greyhound and the horse expend all their food in the production +of motive power; the ox and the sheep, being endowed with but a feeble +muscular organisation, use a smaller proportion of their food for +carrying on the functions of their relative life, consequently, the +weight of their bodies is augmented by the surplus nutriment. It is +clear, then, that an animal of a lymphatic temperament, an indolent +disposition, a low degree of nervous power, and a tendency to rapid +growth, is the <i>beau ideal</i> of a "meat-manufacturing machine." Now, as +the larger the lungs of an animal are, the greater is its capacity for +"burning," or consuming its tissues, one might suppose that small lungs +would be a <i>desideratum</i> in an ox, or other animal destined for the +shambles. This appears to be Liebig's opinion, for in one of his +books he states that "a narrow chest (small lungs) is considered by +experienced agriculturists a sure sign, in pigs, for example, of easy +fattening; and the same remark applies to cows, in reference to the +produce of milk—that is, of butter." On this subject Professor Tanner +makes the following remarks, + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page61" name="page61"></a>[61]</span> + + in his excellent Essay on Breeding and +Rearing Cattle:<sup><a name="noteref-18"><!--18--></a><a href="#note-18">18</a></sup>—"In our high-bred animals we find a small liver +and a small lung, accompanied with a gentle and peaceful disposition. +Now, these conditions, which are so desirable for producing fat, are +equally favorable for yielding butter. The diminished organs economise +the consumption of the carbonaceous matters in the blood, hence, more +remains for conversion into fat, but equally prepared for yielding +cream, if the tendency of the animal is equally favorable to the same." +One would imagine, from the foregoing passage, that Mr. Tanner and Baron +Liebig coincided in believing small lungs necessary to rapid fattening; +but in another part of his essay, Tanner thus describes one of the +points indicative of a tendency to fatten early:—"The chest should be +bold and prominent, wide and deep, furnished with a deep but not coarse +dewlap." On comparing the two passages which I have quoted from Tanner's +essay, a contradiction is apparent. Mr. Bowly, Major Rudd, and other +eminent breeders and feeders, appear to regard a capacious chest as the +best sign of a fattening property which an animal could show. Lawes and +Gilbert have recorded the weights of the viscera of a number of animals +which, though supplied with equal quantities of the same kind of food, +attained to different degrees of fatness. On carefully scrutinising +these records, I failed to perceive any constant relation between the +weight of their lungs and their tendency to fatten rapidly. Some animals +with large lungs converted a larger proportion of their food into meat +than others with smaller respiratory organs, and <i>vice versâ</i>. In a +state of nature, there is no doubt but that the lungs of the ox and of +the sheep are moderately large; and it is evident that in their case, as +well as in that of man, over-feeding and confinement tend to diminish +their muscular energy, and, of course, to decrease the capacity of the +lungs. That such a practice does not tend to the improvement + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page62" name="page62"></a>[62]</span> + + of the +health of an animal is perfectly evident, but then the perfect ox of +nature is very different from the perfect ox of man. The latter is +a wide departure from the original type of its species: any marked +development of its nervous system is undesirable; and it is valuable +in proportion as its purely vegetative functions are most strongly +manifested. A young bullock, therefore, of this kind would, no doubt, +be the most economical kind to rear, provided that it was perfectly +healthy, and capable of assimilating the liberal amount of food supplied +to it. But it rarely happens that a young animal with a weakly chest +turns out other than a scrofulous or otherwise diseased adult. On the +whole, then, I am disposed to believe that whilst naturally small-lunged +species may be more prone to fatten than large-chested ones, it is not +the case that small-chested individuals fatten more rapidly than larger +lunged individuals of the same kind. +</p> +<p> +The conditions under which oxen, sheep, and pigs have been so long +maintained in civilised countries, must have diminished the capacity of +their chests in relation to other parts of their bodies; and it may be +fairly doubted if any good could result by reducing to still smaller +dimensions those most important organs. Probably the lungs and hearts of +the improved breeds of stock are already too small, and that it is only +the individuals which are least affected in this respect that answer to +Mr. Bowly's description of a fat-disposed beast. Whether or not small +lungs are desirable in a bullock or milch cow, it is certain that a ram +or a bull should be possessed of a capacious chest, for otherwise he +will have but little vigour, and will be likely to produce a weakly +offspring. A sire should be a perfectly developed animal in every +respect—sound lungs and heart, and not over fat. It is sufficient that +it belongs to a good fattening breed; but to produce offspring with a +tendency to fatness and early maturity, it is not necessary that the +sire should himself be obese. It is to be regretted that so many sires +of the Shorthorns and other improved varieties should be used for +breeding purposes, + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page63" name="page63"></a>[63]</span> + + when their hearts and lungs have become, by +over-feeding the animals, unfitted for the proper discharge of their +function. The progeny of such sires must <i>naturally</i> inherit the +<i>acquired taint</i> of their diseased progenitors, and prove weakly and +unhealthy animals. +</p> +<p> +With respect to the general outline structure of a bull, he should have +a small, well-set head, rounded ribs, straight legs, small bones, and +sound internal organs. The following are considered to be the best +points in a Shorthorn bull:—A short and moderately small head, with +tapering muzzle and broad forehead, furnished with short, white, +curved, graceful looking horns; bright, yet mild, large eyes, placed in +prominent orbits; dilated nostrils, and flesh-colored nose, and long, +thin ears. The neck should be broad, deep, and muscular, sloping in a +graceful line from the shoulder to the head. The chest should be wide, +deep, projecting, but level in front. The shoulders should be oblique, +the blades well set in towards the ribs. The forelegs should be stout, +muscular above the knee, and slender below it; the hind legs should be +slender to the hock, and from thence increase in thickness to the +buttocks, which should be well developed. The carcass should be well +rounded at each side, but level on the back and on the belly. There +should be no hollows between the shoulder and the ribs, the line from +the highest part of the shoulder to the insertion of the tail should be +a perfect level. The flank should be full, the loins broad, and the tail +finely formed and only partially covered with hair. The skin is a prime +point: it must be covered with hair of a roan, or other <i>fashionable</i> +color, and communicate to the hand of the experienced feeler, a peculiar +sensation, which it is impossible to describe. With regard to this +point, I cannot do better than quote the words of an experienced +"handler":— +</p> +<p> +"A nice or good judge of cattle or sheep, with a slight touch of the +fingers upon the fatting points of the animal—viz., the hips, rump, +ribs, flanks, breast, twist, shoulder score, &c. will know immediately +whether it will make fat or not, and in + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page64" name="page64"></a>[64]</span> + + which part it will be the +fattest. I have often wished to convey in language that idea or +sensation we acquire by the touch or feel of our fingers, which enables +us to form a judgment when we are handling an animal intended to be +fatted, but I have as often found myself unequal to that wish. It is +very easy to know where an animal is fattest which is already made fat, +because we can evidently feel a substance or quantity of fat—all those +parts which are denominated the fatting points; but the difficulty is to +explain how we know or distinguish animals, in a lean state, which will +make fat and which will not—or rather, which will make fat in such +points or parts, and not in others—which a person of judgment (<i>in +practice</i>) can tell, as it were, instantaneously. I say <i>in practice</i>, +because I believe that the best judges <i>out of practice</i> are not able to +judge with precision—at least, I am not. We say this beast <i>touches</i> +nicely upon its ribs, hips, &c., &c., because we find a mellow, pleasant +feel on those parts; but we do not say soft, because there are some of +this same sort of animals which have a soft, loose handle, of which we +do not approve, because, though soft and loose, have not the mellow feel +above mentioned. For though they both handle soft and loose, yet we know +that the one will make fat and the other will not; and in this lies the +difficulty of the explanation. We clearly find a particular kindliness +or pleasantness in the feel of the one much superior to the other, by +which we immediately conclude that this will make fat, and the other not +so fat; and in this a person of judgment, and <i>in practice</i>, is very +seldom mistaken." +</p> +<p> +In many respects the good points in a Shorthorn cow resemble those in +the male of that breed, but in others there is considerable difference. +As I have described in prose the excellencies which a bull should +possess, I will now give a poetical summary of the good points of a cow +of that breed, extracted from the <i>Journal of Agriculture</i>, and composed +evidently by an excellent breeder and poet, Mr. Carr:— +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page65" name="page65"></a>[65]</span></p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i2"> The following features constitute, I trow, </p> +<p class="i2"> The beau ideal of a short-horn cow:— </p> +<p class="i2"> Frame massive, round, deep-barrell'd, and straight-back'd; </p> +<p class="i2"> Hind quarters level, lengthy, and well pack'd; </p> +<p class="i2"> Thighs wide, flesh'd inwards, plumb almost to hock; </p> +<p class="i2"> Twist deep, conjoining thighs in one square block; </p> +<p class="i2"> Loin broad and flat, thick flesh'd, and free from dip; </p> +<p class="i2"> Back ribs "well home," arch'd even with the hip; </p> +<p class="i2"> Hips flush with back, soft-cushion'd, not too wide; </p> +<p class="i2"> Flanks full and deep, well forward on the side; </p> +<p class="i2"> Fore ribs well-flesh'd, and rounded like a drum; </p> +<p class="i2"> Fore flanks that even with the elbow come; </p> +<p class="i2"> Crop "barrell'd" flush with shoulders and with side; </p> +<p class="i2"> Girth large and round—not deep alone, but wide; </p> +<p class="i2"> Shoulders sloped back, thick cover'd wide at chine; </p> +<p class="i2"> Points snug, well-flesh'd, to dew-lap tapering fine; </p> +<p class="i2"> Neck vein fill'd up to well-clothed shoulder-point; </p> +<p class="i2"> Arm full above, turn'd in at elbow-joint; </p> +<p class="i2"> Legs short and straight, fine boned 'neath hock and knee; </p> +<p class="i2"> Belly cylindrical, from drooping free; </p> +<p class="i2"> Chest wide between the legs, with downward sweep; </p> +<p class="i2"> Brisket round, massive, prominent, and deep; </p> +<p class="i2"> Neck fine at head, fast thickening towards its base; </p> +<p class="i2"> Head small, scope wide, fine muzzle and dish'd face; </p> +<p class="i2"> Eyes prominent and bright, yet soft and mild; </p> +<p class="i2"> Horns waxy, clear, of medium size, unfiled; </p> +<p class="i2"> Tail fine, neat hung, rectangular with back; </p> +<p class="i2"> Hide soft, substantial, yielding, but not slack; </p> +<p class="i2"> Hair furry, fine, thick set, of colour smart; </p> +<p class="i2"> Udder well forward, with teats wide apart. </p> +<p class="i2"> These points proportion'd well delight the eye </p> +<p class="i2"> Of grazier, dairyman, and passer-by; </p> +<p class="i2"> And these to more fastidious minds convey </p> +<p class="i2"> Appearance stylish, feminine, and gay. </p> +</div> +</div> + +<p> +<i>Breeds of the Ox.</i>—The Shorthorned cattle are now generally regarded +as the most valuable breed in these countries. They are the descendants +of a short-horned breed of cattle which existed for centuries in the +north-east of England. They were not held in much estimation, their +flesh being coarse; but the cows of this breed yielded abundance of +milk. In the eighteenth century + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page66" name="page66"></a>[66]</span> + + this breed, it is said, was greatly +improved by a large infusion of blood from Dutch Shorthorns: but it is +very doubtful that any such event took place, for during that period +the importation of cattle into Great Britain was prohibited by very +stringent laws. The present race of Shorthorns owe most of their +valuable qualities to the brothers, Charles and Robert Colling, of the +county of Durham. The former was the more successful breeder, and +established the celebrated breed of Ketton Shorthorns. His whole process +appears to have consisted in the careful selection of parents, and in +"close" breeding. He must, however, have been an admirable judge of the +good points of the ox, for beginning with animals not worth more on an +average than £10 each, he produced in less than a quarter of a century +a stock worth on the average £150 each. The most famous bull of Charles +Colling's was Comet. The sale of this animal realised the handsome sum +of 1,000 guineas. The bull Hubback is said by many writers to have been +the great improver of Shorthorn blood. He was bought by Robert Colling +for the trifling sum of £8; but although this animal was kept by both +Collings for three years, there is good reason to believe that they made +but little use of him. It would appear, indeed, that to the cows first +used by the Collings—Lady Maynard, and young Strawberry—many of the +good qualities of this breed are traceable. Shorthorns are now to be +found in almost every part of the United Kingdom, capable of maintaining +heavy stock. In Ireland the breed has been greatly improved, and it is +gradually supplanting most of the other varieties. +</p> +<p> +Shorthorn males have a short, wide head, covered very often with short +curly hair; the muzzle is taper; the ear rather long and narrow; the eye +large, and bright, and mild. The shape is symmetrical, the carcass deep, +the back level, ribs spreading out widely, and the limbs fine. The color +is a mixture of red and white, sometimes a rich roan. The females are +not so large in the head, which tapers more, and the neck is much +thinner. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page67" name="page67"></a>[67]</span></p> + +<p> +The <span class="sc">Devons</span> are not so large as the Shorthorns. Their shape is +symmetrical; fine head, horns of medium size, often tapering gracefully; +rich red or orange red color; fore-quarters rather oblique. The meat of +this breed is much esteemed: they yield excellent milk, but in rather +limited quantity; and the bullocks answer the plough much better than +many other kinds do. These animals arrive early at maturity. +</p> +<p> +The <span class="sc">Herefords</span> are a rather small-boned breed; their horns are +medium sized, straight or slightly curved upwards; their color is dark +red; neat shoulders, thin thighs, and wide sirloin. They fatten well, +but are not generally kept on dairy farms. In many respects they +resemble the Devons. +</p> +<p> +The <span class="sc">Ayrshires</span> have a tapering head, fine neck, and large, bony, +but not coarse carcass; flat ribs; short and rather ugly horns; their +skin is soft, and covered with hair, which is usually red and white in +spots. The Ayrshire cows are invaluable for dairy purposes. +</p> +<p> +The <span class="sc">Polled Angus</span>, <span class="sc">Polled Aberdeens</span>, and <span class="sc">Polled +Galloways</span> are very large cattle, with big heads, unfurnished with +horns. Their color is in general a decided black, but occasionally it +exhibits a mixture of black and white. Their flesh is in general not of +the best quality, but some of their crosses with Shorthorns yield +excellent meat, and at an early age, too. +</p> +<p> +The <span class="sc">Kyloes</span> are a breed peculiar to the Highlands of Scotland. +They are rather rough, but very picturesque animals, covered with long, +shaggy hair. Their horns are rather long, and curve upwards. Their hair +is differently colored—red, yellow, dun, and black, the latter being +the prevailing hue. No variety of the ox yields a sweeter meat than the +Kyloes, and other mountain breeds of these countries. The animals, +however, arrive slowly to maturity, and in this respect there is great +room for improvement. These mountain-bred animals are now transferred +in large numbers to lowland tillage farms, where the fattening process + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page68" name="page68"></a>[68]</span> + + is more expeditiously performed. There are excellent crosses between +Shorthorn bulls and Highland cows. +</p> +<p> +<span class="sc">Longhorned Cattle</span> are rapidly advancing towards extinction. At one +time they were the chief breed kept by most farmers. In general they may +be regarded as an inferior variety, being slow feeders, and producing +rather coarse beef. They are, however, capable of great improvement, as +instanced in the case of Bakewell's celebrated Longhorn herds. +</p> +<p> +The <span class="sc">Kerrys</span> are a diminutive breed, peculiar to Ireland. They +have small heads, fine necks, fine horns of medium length, and curved +upwards near their summits. They have a soft skin; the hair is generally +black, interspersed with a few white streaks; sometimes their color is +red, and occasionally brown. They are a very hardy race, being +indigenous to mountains. Their flesh is very good, more especially if +the animals have been kept on fattening food. The Kerrys are good milch +cows. +</p> +<p> +The <span class="sc">Alderneys</span> are a small race of oxen with deer-like faces. +They exhibit various shades of red, white, brown, and roan. No cows +yield better milk, or larger quantities of that fluid. +</p> +<p> +<i>Sheep.</i>—The different breeds of sheep are classified under three +heads—viz., <i>Long-woolled</i>, <i>Short-woolled</i>, and <i>Middle-woolled</i>. +</p> +<p> +The <span class="sc">Leicester</span> is, perhaps, the most celebrated breed of sheep +reared in these countries. It was immensely improved by Bakewell about a +century ago, and the breed is often termed the Dishley, after the name +of Bakewell's residence. This sheep has a wide, clean head, broad +forehead, fine eyes, long, thin ears, thick neck, round body, deep +chest, straight, broad back, high ribs, and muscular thighs. The wool is +long, very thick, and fine. At from fifteen to eighteen months old, the +Leicester weighs from 25 to 30 lbs. per quarter; but a fat animal often +weighs from 38 to 40 lbs. per quarter. The fleece weighs from 6 to 8 +lbs. This breed is well adapted for Ireland. It is reared on very poor +land: but in order to + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page69" name="page69"></a>[69]</span> + + maintain its good quality, this sheep requires +abundance of food, and also good shelter during the winter. +</p> +<p> +The <span class="sc">Lincoln</span> is distinguished for its large bones and strong +muscles. Originally a gaunt and ugly animal, it has of late years been +much improved. Indeed, the prices lately realised by Lincoln sheep are +extremely high. The Lincoln has a long, white face, long body, and thick +legs. The wool is long, thick, and moderately fine. The flesh of the +Lincoln is lean, owing to its great muscular development. At fifteen +months old it yields about 30 lbs. weight per quarter. It is said that a +Lincoln wether has attained the weight of 304½ lbs. The average +weight of the wool of a hogget is 9½ lbs. +</p> +<p> +The <span class="sc">Cotswold</span> breed arose in the Cotswold hills, in +Gloucestershire. In this variety the skeleton is large, the chest +capacious, the back broad and straight, and the ribs well arched. It has +good quarters, and a finely-arched neck. It is distinguished by a large +tuft of wool—"fore-top," on the forehead. It fattens early, and +produces about 25 lbs. per quarter when fifteen months old, and 40 lbs. +when two years old. The wool is rather coarse; its yield is about 8 lbs. +</p> +<p> +The <span class="sc">Cheviot</span> has a long body, long face, long legs, and long +ears. The chest projects slightly, and is rather narrow. The forehead is +bare of wool; the legs and face are white, sometimes approaching to a +dun shade. Weight from 70 to 80 lbs.; weight of fleece, from 3 to 4 lbs. +The wool is of excellent quality, and is used largely in the manufacture +of tweeds. The Cheviot is a mountain sheep, and, as might be expected, +its flesh is well flavored. There are several crosses of the Cheviot +with the Leicester, the Southdown, and the Shropshire. +</p> +<p> +The <span class="sc">Southdown</span> is generally regarded as the best breed for wool +reared in these countries. It is indigenous to the chalk hills of Kent, +Sussex, Hampshire, and Dorsetshire. It has a small head; its back is +broad and straight; the ribs spring out at nearly right angles from the +vertebræ. It is rather light in the fore-quarters, and full in the hind +quarters. + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page70" name="page70"></a>[70]</span> + + Its chest is pretty deep; its face and legs are grey or brown. +The wool of the Southdown is short, and extremely fine; the fleece +weighs about 3 lbs. This sheep arrives early at maturity. It weighs at +15 months old about 80 lbs. The flesh is very well flavored. +</p> +<p> +<span class="sc">The Shropshire</span> is said to combine in itself the good qualities +of the Southdown, the Cotswold, and the Leicester. It resembles the +Southdown more than any other breed, having the same grey, or brownish +grey hue, and a similar shape. It is, however, larger than the +Southdown, and yields a larger quantity of wool. This breed is becoming +a great favorite in both England and Ireland. +</p> +<p> +The <span class="sc">Black-Faced</span> sheep is peculiar to Scotland. It is equipped +with horns, has a bold long face, and possesses a tuft of wool on its +forehead; its limbs are strong, and its body is somewhat long. The wool +of this breed is very coarse, the fleece weighs about 3½ lbs. The +average weight of this sheep is 75 lbs., the quality of the mutton is +excellent, but it is long before it becomes matured. There are several +other breeds of the sheep, but they are of far less importance than +those which I have described. +</p> +<p> +<i>Breeds of the Pig.</i>—There are several breeds of this useful animal, of +which those known as <span class="sc">Berkshire</span> and <span class="sc">Yorkshire</span> appear to +be the greatest favorites. The Berkshire is black or dusky brown, very +rarely reddish brown. It has a very small head. Its sides are extremely +deep, and its legs very short. There are several sub-varieties of the +Yorkshire. This breed is white, has a compact body, and very broad +sides. The head is very small, somewhat like that of the Berkshire. Both +Berkshire and Yorkshire pigs attain to the enormous weight of 1,000 lbs. +The old Irish "racer" pig is the least profitable kind to keep, but +fortunately it is, as a pure breed, nearly extinct. +</p> +<p> +<i>Breeds of the Horse.</i>—There are a great many breeds of horses. The +Shetland pony is so small, that many specimens are no larger than a +Newfoundland dog; on the other hand, Clydesdale horses sometimes attain +to almost elephantine proportions. + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page71" name="page71"></a>[71]</span> + + There is a wide difference between +the bull-like Suffolk Punch and the greyhound-like <i>racer</i>. The English +and Irish racer is said to owe its origin to a cross between the old +English light-legged breed and the Arabian. The most valuable kind of +carriage horse is the joint product of the draught-horse and the racer. +The dray-horse of these countries has a large share of Flemish blood in +him. The best horses for agricultural purposes are unquestionably the +<span class="sc">Clydesdale</span> and the <span class="sc">Suffolk Punch</span>. The latter is +perhaps to be preferred in most instances, especially on light lands. +Very light and feeble horses are the most expensive variety on almost +any kind of farm; for whilst they consume nearly as much food as the +most powerful animals, and are therefore nearly as costly, they are +incapable of effectively performing their work. A large proportion of +the farm horses used by the small farmers of Ireland are totally +unsuited for tillage purposes. On the other hand, there is no need to +employ horses equal in size to the ponderous creatures that draw +brewers' carts. Moderate sized horses, with well rounded, compact +bodies, and muscular but not too heavy limbs, are the kind best adapted +for farm purposes. In Ireland, where there are not fewer than 600,000 +horses, a considerable infusion of blood from Clydesdales and Suffolk +Punches is much required. +</p> +<p> +<i>Hunters and Racers.</i>—There is a strong tendency in the human mind to +look with a regretful feeling to the past, and to compare it to the +disadvantage of the present. It is a general belief with most people +that the old time was the best time; that the seasons were more genial +formerly; that provisions were cheaper and more abundant; that men were +taller, and stouter, and healthier; that, in a word, everything was +better in the days of yore than it is now, and that degeneracy and +effeteness are the prevailing characteristics of our age. Philosophers, +statists, and political economists tell us that all this regret for the +"good old time" is mis-spent sympathy; for that we are in every respect +superior—in physique, health, morals, and wealth—to our ancestors. On + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page72" name="page72"></a>[72]</span> + + the whole, I rather incline myself to this comfortable philosophy; but +we must admit that we have not progressed in all things since the times +of our fathers. +</p> +<p> +In a work entitled "A Comparative View of the Form and Character of the +English Racer and Saddle Horse during the Last and Present Centuries," +published by Hookham, of Old Bond Street, London, it is proved very +clearly that the English race-horse has sadly degenerated. The author +very properly traces the cause of its decay to the avarice of the +turfites: they look upon the noble animal as a mere gambling machine; +and they sacrifice all its other qualities to the excessive development +of that one which is likely to put money in their pockets. Formerly, +gentlemen kept horses for their own sakes—for their admiration and +enjoyment of one of the most beautiful, docile, and useful of animals. +They were incessant in their efforts to develop into perfection all the +really valuable points in the animal; and the result was, that the +English and Irish racer of the last century was unmatched for strength, +speed, and endurance. Models of this splendid race of horses are seldom +to be found at the present time; but there are, perhaps, sporting men +living who saw them in the celebrated Mambrino, Sweet Briar, and Sweet +William. Those horses possessed compact bodies, capacious lungs, strong +loins, large joints, and enormous masses of muscular tissue on the +shoulder-blades and arms. They were good weight-carrying hunters as well +as racers, and they could carry eight stones over a six miles heat, +or twelve stones over a four miles one. The Irish horses, at least, +were capable of safely carrying thirteen stones over what would now be +considered a very ugly ditch, and could get over a long steeplechase in +a style which would astonish the owners of the modern "weeds." Since the +distance to be traversed by competing horses has been reduced from the +old-fashioned three heats of four miles each to a single run of a mile +or two, and also since the weight imposed upon the animals has been +reduced to six or seven stones, from ten to twelve, the anatomical + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page73" name="page73"></a>[73]</span> + + structure of the race-horse has undergone a remarkable and serious +alteration. The back has become very long, the sides flat, the loins +weak, the limbs long and very thin; and this alteration in structure has +been attended by weakness of constitution and a remarkable tendency +to disease. The modern horse has attained to a remarkable degree of +rapidity of locomotion, but it has been at the expense of its vigor, +endurance, and health; it can run with great velocity for a short +distance, but in a four-mile heat, and mounted by a man of average +weight, a mediocre horse of the style of the middle of the last century +would come to the post long before the winner of the last St. Leger. +</p> +<p> +The decay of the breed of horses in this country is a serious matter, +and the attention of all who are interested in the preservation of this +animal should be earnestly and promptly directed towards discovering +the means of regeneration. My remarks are directed towards racers and +hunters. The quality of speed which they possess has been developed +to an extent which is incompatible with the development of equally +essential properties. Encouragement should be given to the production of +weight-carrying hunters; steeple-chasing should be restored to its old +state, when only a powerful horse had a chance of success. The quality +of speed should be promoted in the animal up to a certain point; but +when the development of this attribute begins to cause a loss of +strength and endurance, it is high time to check it. There are a few +horses at present which are strong and moderately fast: why should not +steeple-chasing be of the kind which would call this style of animal +into competition? Only a "weed" can now enter with any probability of +success at a race of this kind; and when he has won it, of what use +is he as a good hunter? What we want are good, stout, healthy horses, +capable of carrying, in good style, twelve stones weight over a rough +country; and the object of steeple-chasing should be the production of +such a race of horses. +</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<a name="note-16"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-16">16</a>) +Improved by Leicester blood. +</p> + +<a name="note-17"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-17">17</a>) +The object of the first breeders of the Leicester was +to produce a sheep which would yield a great carcass, and small offal +weight. So far as the results of these experiments go, I think the idea +of the founder of this breed has been realised. +</p> + +<a name="note-18"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-18">18</a>) +"Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of +Scotland," for July, 1860. +</p> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page74" name="page74"></a>[74]</span></p> + +<a name="h2H_4_0007" id="h2H_4_0007"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + PART III. +</h2> +<h3> + ON THE MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCK. +</h3> +<h4> +SECTION I. +</h4> +<h5> +THE OX. +</h5> +<p> +<i>Breeding Cows.</i>—The period of gestation in the cow is about nine +months. The earliest time at which it is at all safe to breed from these +animals is when they are one year and eight months old. Shorthorns breed +early, whilst the mountain varieties are seldom in calf before they are +three years old. The practice of very early breeding, though approved of +by some extensive rearers of stock, is not to be commended for sound +physiological reasons. Cows calve at all times of the year; but the most +favorable time is near the end of winter, or in early spring. The cows +should at this time be in fair condition—neither too fat nor too lean. +Parturition should take place in a roomy, covered place, provided with +abundance of clean litter. If such a place be not available, a nice +paddock close to the house must answer. After having given birth to +the calf, the cow should receive an oatmeal drink, or some warm and +nutritious mash, and afterwards be liberally fed. The cow is usually +allowed to run dry four or five weeks before calving: this period should +not be curtailed; on the contrary, it would be better to extend it to +six weeks, so as not to allow her condition to become too poor. +</p> +<p> +<i>The Wintering of Young Stock.</i>—There are certain localities wherein +the rearing of young stock is one of the easiest tasks which devolve +upon the farmer. Well-drained and shady fields, + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page75" name="page75"></a>[75]</span> + + yielding abundance of +sound herbage, and through which streams of <i>pure</i> water unceasingly +flow, are just the proper <i>locale</i> for economically feeding young +animals. But there are districts in which those favorable conditions do +not exist; yet they are not better adapted to other uses. It is only the +feeders of young stock in wet, moory, sandy, or undrained, heavy soils +who really have cause for anxiety and incessant watchfulness. In rearing +a calf the great object is to cause a rapid and uninterrupted increase +in the weight of its body. At first the food of the animal should be +furnished solely from the maternal founts; but at an early stage of its +existence—about the third or fourth week—other food may wholly, or in +part, be substituted for the natural aliment. It is important that no +great interval should elapse between the hours of feeding. The digestive +apparatus of the young animal is small, and its powers of assimilation +are very energetic. The food with which it is supplied should, +therefore, be given in moderate quantities, and very frequently. This +is, in fact, what takes place when the calf is allowed free access to +its dam; for the instant it feels a desire for aliment, the supply is at +once available. Of course, there may be objections to this plan on the +score of economy; but as a general rule, too much liberality cannot be +exercised in feeding growing animals; and there is nothing more certain +than that the calf which is illiberally fed will never be developed into +a valuable, matured animal. When carefully tended from their birth, +comfortably housed in winter, and abundantly supplied with nutritious +food, it is sometimes wonderful the rapid progress which young stock +make. Mr. Wright mentions a remarkable case of early maturity, which +occurred in his own herd. A young steer, one year old, exhibited all the +development of an animal twice its age. This bullock had been suckled +for three months, whereby it had not only kept its calf-flesh, but +gained and retained a step in advance. Its weight when only a year old +was no less than 50 stones; and as the price of beef at the time was 8s. +9d. per stone, live weight, the carcass of the animal was worth £21 17s. +6d. Mr. + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page76" name="page76"></a>[76]</span> + + Wright offers this fact as a suggestive one to "those farmers who +think of bringing up their calves on old milk, or who would otherwise +stint their growth." +</p> +<p> +Supposing, then, that we have young stock which had been liberally +treated when in their "baby" state, how are we to most economically +maintain them throughout the winter? In the first place, they should be +kept in warm sheds, and well sheltered from both rain and wind. Some +authorities contend that exercise is necessary to young stock, and deny +that a proper development of the muscles (lean flesh) can take place if +they are cooped up like fattening turkeys during the winter. There is +some truth in this opinion; and if the animals be designed for breeding +or dairy purposes, their freedom of motion should only be partially +restrained. On the other hand, if they be intended for an early +introduction to the shambles, the less exercise they get the greater +will be the profit on their keep. I have known cases where animals were +closely housed for seven months, and yet their health did not appear +to suffer in the slightest degree. In fact, so predominant are the +vegetative functions of the ruminants over their nervous attributes, +that the only essential conditions of their existence are adequate +supplies of good air and food. That the health of these animals does +occasionally suffer when the motions of their bodies are reduced to a +<i>minimum</i> is quite true; but in most of these instances the real cause +is, not the want of exercise, but the want of pure air. The greatest +care should, therefore, be taken in the ventilation of the places where +stock, whether old or young, are kept; and no economy of space or heat +will compensate for the want of wholesome air. Under the fallacious idea +that exposure to cold renders young stock hardy, many farmers turn them +out to eat straw in the open fields in frosty weather. Treatment of this +kind, instead of being productive of good, almost invariably lays the +foundation of disease, which will manifest itself at some stage of the +animal's growth. There are a few favored localities, such as those to +which I have already alluded, where yearlings may be + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page77" name="page77"></a>[77]</span> + + occasionally allowed +a turn through the fields in winter; but on cold clays, wet moors, and +sandy soils the young stock should never be permitted to leave their +sheds or courts from the time they are housed till late in the spring. +</p> +<p> +Young stock are best fed on good meadow hay and turnips, with a moderate +supplement of oil-cake; this, however, is expensive feeding in many +farms, and a little filling-in may be done with cheaper or more easily +obtainable stuffs. A mixture of cut chaff, with pulped mangels, is a +good substitute for the more costly hay; and particularly in the case +of animals intended for breeding or for the dairy. The roots should be +pulped, and allowed to remain until, owing to a slight fermentation, +they become warm. This change takes place in from twenty-four hours to +sixty hours, according to the temperature; but the fermentation should +not be carried farther than the earliest stage. The heated pulp should +then be thoroughly mixed with the chaff, and the compound, after an +hour or two, will be ready for use. A little chopped hay—no matter if +inferior or slightly mildewed—may be substituted for the chaff, and +turnips employed instead of the mangels, but the latter are the more +desirable roots. +</p> +<p> +Until lately, the use of oil-cake was confined to fattening animals, +but latterly it is freely given to calves, even when they are only +a month old; and there is no doubt but that it is a suitable and +economical food for store stock. It is, however, sometimes given in +excess: from half a pound to two and a half pounds daily will be +sufficient for animals under one year; and this addition to their food +will be found to exercise a beneficial influence on them when they +are placed in stalls for finishing. The experience of several eminent +breeders has proved that fattening beasts, which had in their youth +a supply of oil-cake, or its equivalent, invariably store up a larger +portion of their food than those which had been reared on hay and roots +only. +</p> +<p> +Mr. George Stodart, of Cultercullen, an Aberdeenshire farmer, describes, +in the <i>Irish Farmer's Gazette</i>, his method of rearing calves:— +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page78" name="page78"></a>[78]</span></p> + +<p class="quote"> + I occupy (says Mr. Stodart) a farm of 380 acres. I usually rear + twenty-four calves yearly, and buy in sixteen one-year-olds. + I generally breed from cross cows (the same as mentioned above), + served by a pure Shorthorn bull. When the calves are dropped I put + two calves to suck one cow for six months. In autumn, spring calves + are put into the house upon turnips and straw, with about 1 lb. of + oil-cake per day to each, until they are put out to grass in spring + following, at which time they are one year old. Then, of course, + they have grass in summer, and at the approach of winter they are + again housed upon turnips and straw, which bring them to be two + years old in spring. Now they are sent out to the best grass, and + again brought into the house at the beginning of September, and + fed on turnips and straw until the end of November or middle of + December, when they usually fetch from £25 to £32 a-head. This + year (1864), however, they will average £32. a-head. Before selling + I give each 3½ lbs. of oil-cake per day for six weeks, and during + this time they have swede turnips; at other times yellow. We give as + much turnips at all times as they can eat. +</p> +<p> +Mr. Bowick, in his excellent paper on the rearing of calves, published +in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, gives the following +information on this subject:— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + We consider it desirable to allow the calf to remain with its + dam for the first three or four days after calving. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + Not much trouble is generally experienced in getting it to take + to the pail. We find it better to miss the evening's meal, and + next morning a very little attention induces the majority of them + to partake of what is set before them. At most the guidance of the + fingers may be wanted for the first meal or two. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + As regards the quantity of milk which is needful to keep a + moderately bred Shorthorn calf in a thriving condition, we have + found the following allowance to come pretty near the mark, + although the appetite of calves varies, both in individuals and + at different times with the same animal:— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 1st week with the dam; or 4 quarts per day, at two meals. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 2nd to 4th week, 5 to 6 quarts per day, at two meals. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 4th to 6th week, 6 to 7 quarts per day, at two meals. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + And the quantity need not, during the ensuing six weeks (after + which it is weaned), exceed a couple of gallons per day. This + implies that the calf is fed upon new milk only, and that no + other feeding liquids are employed. But, in addition to the above, + the calf will, towards the fourth week, begin to eat a little + green hay; and in a week or two later, some sliced roots, or meal, + or finely crushed cake, mixed with hay-chaff; and, if really good, + creditable beasts are wanted—such as will realise £25 a-head from + the + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page79" name="page79"></a>[79]</span> + + butcher when turned two and a half years old—a little cake + or meal in their early days will be found a desirable investment. + In fact, we doubt not but 1 lb. of cake per day to the calf will + make as much flesh as triple the quantity of cake at any period + of after life. As regards meal, if that is given with the chaff, + we prefer oatmeal, or barley-meal, or wheaten flour, but not the + meal of beans or pease. Others may see it differently, but we + believe beans to be too heating for any class of young stock. For + roots, the best we know of is the carrot, grated and mixed with + the chaff, or sliced thin with a knife and given alone. It is also, + of all roots, the one which we find them most fond of, and which + they will most readily take to. As soon as they can eat them + freely, an immediate reduction in the supply of milk may be made. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + In most articles it holds good in the end that "the best is the + cheapest." So with the rearing of calves; the best class of food, + or that above referred to, is found to give the greatest ultimate + satisfaction. But practically the question often is, how to rear + good calves with comparatively little new milk, a condition which + circumstances often render almost imperative; for where dairy + produce, in any other form, is the chief object, the calves stand + in a secondary position, and are treated accordingly. But let us + ask whether you cannot rear good stock under such circumstances + also? We believe that this may be, and often is done. We manage to + turn out from twenty-five to thirty calves annually—such as will + pass muster anywhere—and never use at any one time more than six + gallons of new milk daily. For this purpose, as well as to obtain + a regular supply of milk for other purposes, the calves are allowed + to come at different periods, extending from October to May. Hence + the calf-house has generally a succession of occupants throughout + the season; and as one lot are ready to be removed, and placed loose + in a small hovel, with yard attached, others fill their places. + We begin with new milk from the pail, which is continued for a + fortnight after leaving the cow. Then skim-milk—boiled, and allowed + to cool to the natural warmth—is substituted to the extent of + one-third of the allowance. In another week the new milk is reduced + to half, and at the same time, not before, boiled linseed is added + to the mess.<sup><a name="noteref-19"><!--19--></a><a href="#note-19">19</a></sup> As soon as they take freely to this food, the new + milk may be replaced with that from the dairy, and the calf is + encouraged to indulge in a few sliced carrots and the other dry + foods named. +</p> +<p> +Mr. Murray, of Overstone, thus states the expense of + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page80" name="page80"></a>[80]</span> + + rearing the calf +until it is two years old, when, after the weaning process is completed, +it is turned out to grass:— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + During the summer they have the run of a grass paddock during + the day, but return regularly to their yards at night; the + following winter they are kept in larger yards, and which contain + a greater number of animals. Their bill of fare for this winter is + 2 lbs. of oil-cake, half a bushel of cut roots, with cut chaff <i>ad + libitum</i>. The chaff has a small quantity of flour or pollard mixed + with it, is moistened with water, and the whole mass turned over; + this is done the day previous to using it. By this means they eat + the chaff with more relish, and moistening it prevents the flour + being wasted. They are put to grass the following summer, generally + from the 15th to the 20th of May, or as soon as the pastures are in + a state to receive them; they remain there on second-rate land till + about the end of October, when they are brought home and tied up in + the stalls. The daily allowance is then 4 lbs. linseed-cake, 4 lbs. + flour—¾ bean, ¼ barley—1 bushel of cut roots with cut chaff; + the flour and chaff is mixed as already described. At about the end + of December the quantity of cake is increased to 8 lbs., and the + flour to 6 lbs.; this they continue to receive till they are sold + to the butcher during the months of March and April, when they + weigh, on an average, 90 stones of 8 lbs. per bullock, and under + two years and six months old. At this season of the year beef + generally makes 5s. per stone—we often make 9s.—but taking that + as an average would make the value of each beast £22 10s. The cost + of keeping to this age will be as follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Cost of keeping cattle to two years six months age"> + +<tr><td> </td><td> £</td><td> s.</td><td>d. </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> One calf </td><td> 2</td><td> 0 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Milk, &c., nine weeks </td><td> 1</td><td> 5 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Cake, grass, &c., forty-three weeks, at 1s. 6d. </td><td> 3</td><td> 4 </td><td>6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Second year, November till May, cake, flour, + roots, &c., 2s. 6d. per week, for twenty-six weeks </td><td> 3</td><td> 5 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> May till November, grass, twenty-six weeks, at 2s. 6d. </td><td> 3</td><td> 5 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Third year, November till April, twenty weeks, at 8s. </td><td> 8</td><td> 0 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td colspan="4"> ————</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>£20</td><td>19 </td><td>6 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l" colspan="4">Which leaves a gain to each animal of £1 10s. 6d., besides the manure.</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +<i>Shelter of Stock.</i>—The great diminution of temperature, and the +falling off in the supply of herbage, that are coincident + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page81" name="page81"></a>[81]</span> + + with the +close of the autumn, render it necessary to remove our cattle from the +open fields, and provide them with some sort of shelter during the +winter months and early part of the spring. +</p> +<p> +The particular period at which this change of quarters takes place of +course varies, and is, in fact, altogether dependent upon the character +of the season. There are some years in which there is, so to speak, a +kind of relapse of the summer, November being bright and warm, instead +of, as is usually the case, cold and foggy. In such a year there is some +herbage to be picked up until the very end of December. On the other +hand, the latter part of October is often very wet, and October frosts +are by no means uncommon. Tempestuous, biting winds in November, or +torrents of rain, or both, tell severely upon the poor animals in the +fields, even where there is abundance of herbage; and hence, should such +weather take place at the latter part of October, the true economy would +be to remove the animals at once to sheltered places. +</p> +<p> +Nothing lowers the temperature of the surface so rapidly as a cold wind. +Captain Parry, one of the explorers of the Arctic regions, states that +his men, when well clothed, suffered no inconvenience on exposure to the +low temperature of 55 degrees below zero, provided the air was perfectly +calm; but the slightest breeze, when the air was at this temperature, +caused the painful sensation produced by intense cold. I could adduce +the experience of many practical men in favor of the plan of affording +shelter to animals, but more especially to those kept in situations +much exposed to winds. Mr. Nesbit relates a case bearing on this +point:—A farmer in Dorsetshire put up twenty or thirty sheep, under +the protection of a series of upright double hurdles lined with straw, +having as a sort of roof, or lean-to, a single hurdle, also lined with +straw. A like number of sheep, of the same weight, were fed in the open +field, without shelter of any kind. Each set was fed with turnips <i>ad +libitum</i>. The result was, that + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page82" name="page82"></a>[82]</span> + + those without shelter increased in weight +1 lb. per week for each sheep, whilst those under shelter, although they +consumed less food, increased respectively 3 lbs. per week. +</p> +<p> +As a general rule, the latter part of October, or early in November, is +the time for the removal of live stock from the pastures to the shelter +of the farmstead. In England and Scotland the transference is seldom +delayed after these dates; but in Ireland it is no uncommon thing to see +the animals grazing very much later in the year—a circumstance which +the lateness and mildness of our climate account for. But whatever the +date may be, the importance of such shelter is universally recognised, +even by those who most neglect it and are least acquainted with the +principles upon which its necessity depends. The more important of these +principles have already been explained, but they may be here summarised +as follows:— +</p> +<p> +1. A certain amount of warmth is an indispensable condition for the +maintenance of the life of animals. +</p> +<p> +2. The internal heat of the bodies of animals is supplied by the +chemical combination which takes place between the oxygen of the +atmospheric air which they inspire and certain of the constituents +(carbon and hydrogen) of the food which they consume, or, to speak more +accurately, of the tissues of their bodies, which are formed out of +their food. It is very much in the same way in which our houses are +heated by the burning of coal, turf, or wood in their fire-places, since +the heat derived in the latter case is obtained from a similar source as +in the former one—namely, by the union of the oxygen of the air with +the carbon and hydrogen of the fuel. The only real difference between +the two kinds of combustion is, that in respiration the process is +conducted with an extreme degree of slowness, whilst in the ordinary +fire the combinations take place rapidly, and the heat being evolved +in a much shorter time is proportionately the more intense. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page83" name="page83"></a>[83]</span></p> + +<p> +3. The temperature of the external parts of the animal body varies with +the nature and quantity of the food supplied to it, and also depends +upon the state of the weather and the character of the protection +afforded to it. +</p> +<p> +The colder the air, the greater will be the quantity of food required, +and the more complete the shelter. In other words, a diminution of +temperature, no matter how caused, will necessitate an increased amount +of food and more perfect shelter, in order to maintain at the proper +degree of heat the fluids of the body. It is only the external parts of +the body that become cold: so long as the animal is in health its blood +always maintains the same degree of temperature; but in cold weather the +blood is subjected to a greater cooling power than it is in warm +weather, and this cooling power it can only resist by taxing more +extensively the heat-producing resources of the body. +</p> +<p> +4. Exposure to wet, even in warm weather, will tend to reduce the +temperature of the body, since the conversion of water into vapor can +only be effected at the expense of heat, which heat must be in great +part extracted from the body of the animal itself. +</p> +<p> +5. No possible increase of food, however nutritious it may be, can +suffice to keep up the due warmth and healthy condition of the animal +frame in winter, if shelter from cold and rain be not simultaneously +effected. On the contrary, an animal well protected from the winter +blasts will require much less food than if it were placed in an exposed +position. The reason of this is, that the amount of food which an animal +exposed to great cold consumes to maintain the temperature of its body +would, under opposite conditions, be stored up in the form of permanent +"increase"—beef or mutton for the butcher, in fact. +</p> +<p> +The fat-forming constituents of the food of stock are in no case +converted into permanent fat, except when they exceed in quantity the +amount required to keep up the internal heat of the animal; but when +this is constantly reduced by exposure + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page84" name="page84"></a>[84]</span> + + to a wintry temperature, the +food becomes insufficient for even that purpose, no matter how much +aliment is given. What, then, must not be the condition of the +unfortunate animals whose fate it is to be the property of a farmer +who neither shelters them from the weather nor provides them with a +sufficient quantity of nourishing food! +</p> +<p> +<i>Milch Cows.</i>—When dairy-farming is conducted on pure pastures, the +cows are altogether dependent upon the grasses; and in winter, the +animals suffer much from scarcity of food. This is the very worst system +of cow-keeping, but it is prevalent amongst many small farmers in +Ireland, and is to be met with even in England and Scotland. I am +strongly of opinion that it would be far more economical to keep cows +(and other cattle) altogether in the house, and feed them with cut +grass, than to allow them to remain out altogether in the field. There +are several disadvantages resulting from the depasturing of cows. In the +warm weather, the animals are greatly annoyed by the attacks of flies: +there is a considerable waste of muscle, caused by the movements of +the animals whilst in search of their food; and the excrements of the +animals and their footmarks injure a large portion of the grass. It may +be somewhat troublesome and expensive to cut the grass, and convey it +from the field to the house; but the labor and the cost will be more +than repaid by the greatly-increased yield of food. A grass-field, +mowed, will produce from 20 to 30 per cent. more food than it would if +it were trampled upon and soiled by cattle. Exercise for an hour or two +in the cool of the evening, or early in the morning (during the hot +weather), will be quite sufficient to keep the animals in health. This +may be taken in a field, better in a paddock, best of all in a roomy +yard. When cattle are supplied with cut grass, or clover, care should +be taken not to give it to them when very wet, for otherwise there is +danger of the excessively moist herbage producing the <i>hoove</i>. Neither +should large quantities of the green food be given to them—the supply +should be "little and often." Should the food be too succulent, the +addition of a + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page85" name="page85"></a>[85]</span> + + little straw will correct its laxative effects. When +the stock is about passing from the winter keep to summer food, the +transition should be gradual; a well-made compound of straw or hay with +grass (natural or artificial) is much relished by cows. A supply of +good water is absolutely necessary; but sufficient attention to this +important point is seldom given. Cooked food is well adapted for milch +cows. Mangels, kohl-rabi, and cabbages are each of them better food than +turnips, as the latter is apt to impart a disagreeable flavour to the +butter. Three feeds in the day is a sufficient number for cows. The +first meal should be early in the morning, and may consist of roots, +mixed with straw or hay. Some feeders prefer using dry fodder, or cooked +food of some kind, and not raw roots. The second meal is given at +mid-day, and the third in the evening. The daily allowance of roots +varies from 2 to 8 stones, depending upon the quantities of other foods +used. Mr. Horsfall's diet is as follows:—Hay, 9 lbs.; rape-cake, 6 +lbs.; malt-combs, 1 lb.; bran, 1 lb.; roots, 28 lbs. These substances +are mixed and cooked, and the animals receive them in a warm state. +In addition to this food, Mr. Horsfall's cows get bean-meal—a cow in +full milk 2 lbs., others from ½ lb. to 1½ lbs.; cost per week per +cow, 8s. 7d.<sup><a name="noteref-20"><!--20--></a><a href="#note-20">20</a></sup> Mr. Alcock, of Skipton, feeds his cows as follows:—Raw +mangels, 20 lbs.; carob beans, 3 lbs.; bran and malt-combs, 1¾ lbs.; +bean-meal, 3½ lbs.; rape-cake, 3 lbs.; per diem. A steamed mixture +of wheat and bean straws and shells of oats <i>ad libitum</i>. Oats, to the +extent of 2 or 3 lbs. daily, are an excellent food for cows. +</p> +<p> +An important point in dairy economics is the feeding of the cows at +<i>regular</i> intervals. If the usual time for the feed be allowed to pass, +the animals are almost certain to become very uneasy—to <i>worry</i>; and +every feeder knows, or ought to know, that a fretting beast will neither +fatten nor yield milk satisfactorily. The cow-house ought to be kept as +clean as + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page86" name="page86"></a>[86]</span> + + possible; and the excreta, therefore, should be removed several +times a day. +</p> +<p> +Mr. Harvey, of Glasgow, has probably one of the largest dairies +in the world. His cow byres, 56 yards long, and from 12 to 24 feet +wide—according as one or two rows of cows are to be accommodated—stand +closely packed, the whole surface of the ground being thus covered by +a kind of roof. From 900 to 1,000 cows are constantly in milk. They are +fed during winter partly on steamed turnips (7 tons being steamed daily +in order to give one meal daily to 900 cows), partly on coarse hay, of +which, as of straw, they get between 20 and 30 lbs. a day each. They are +also fed on draff, of which they receive half a bushel daily each; on +Indian corn meal, of which they have 3 lbs. daily each; and on pot-ale, +of which they receive three times a day nearly as much as they will +consume, <i>i.e.</i>, from 6 to 10 gallons daily. During the summer they are +let out, a byreful at a time, for half a day to grass, and on coming +in receive their spent malt and still liquor, and hay in addition. They +are managed, cleaned, and fed by two men to each byre holding about 100 +cows. The milking is done three times a day, by women who take charge +of 13 cows in full milk, or double that number in half milk, apiece. +Between 4 and 5 o'clock a.m. (taking the winter management), the byres +are cleaned out, and the cows receive a "big shovelful" of draff +apiece, and half their steamed turnips and meal, and a "half stoupful," +(probably 2 gallons) of pot-ale. They are milked very early. At 7 they +receive their fodder-straw or hay. At 10 they get a "full stoupful" +(probably 3 or 4 gallons) of pot-ale. They are milked at noon. At 2 +p.m., or thereabouts, they are foddered again, and at 4 p.m. receive +the same food as at the morning meal. They are again milked at 5 to 6, +cleaned out and left till morning. The average produce is stated to be +2 gallons a day per cow. +</p> +<p> +Mrs. Scott, of Weekston, Peebles, who keeps one of the best managed +dairy farms in the United Kingdom, thus conducts + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page87" name="page87"></a>[87]</span> + + her operations in +the winter:—At 6 o'clock in the morning the cows are well wiped or +scrubbed, have their bedding removed, and receive each about 4 or 5 lbs. +of straw. At 8 o'clock the cows are milked, and Mrs. Scott examines each +to ascertain whether or not the milk-maid has left any fluid in the +udder—and woe betide the careless maid if her work has been carelessly +done! At 10 o'clock a barrowful of turnips is divided amongst three +cows, and when these roots are not available, a quantity of peas or bean +meal, with a pint of cold water, takes their place. At 1 o'clock the +cows are allowed out to be watered, and during their absence from the +byre it is thoroughly cleansed and ventilated. When the state of the +weather prevents the cows from being turned out, they receive twice a +day a handful of oatmeal diffused throughout three pints of water—a +handful of salt being given in the first of these drinks. When the cows +return to the byre, they receive each about 4 or 5 lbs. of straw, and at +4 or 5 o'clock an evening meal of turnips equal to their morning feed. +At 8 o'clock a "windling" of meadow hay is given to each pair of cows, +the quantity being always regulated according to the requirements of +each cow. The cows upon calving receive, in addition to this allowance +of hay, half a pailful of boiled turnips, mixed with a quart of peas +or bean-meal. This mess is given in a lukewarm state. Mrs. Scott's +system may be thus epitomised: Regularity in feeding; sufficient but +not excessive food; regularity in milking; and minute attention to +cleanliness and ventilation. +</p> +<p> +<i>Stall-feeding.</i>—What becomes of the 90 per cent. of the weight of +the non-nitrogenous constituents of the food of the sheep, and of the +80 per cent. of that of the nutriment of the pig, which they consume +but do not store up? I have already partly answered this question. This +portion of the food is chiefly expended in the production of the heat +with which the high temperature of the animal's body is maintained. Part +of it, no doubt, passes unchanged through its body, either owing to its +indigestibility, or to its being given in excess. The + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page88" name="page88"></a>[88]</span> + + quantity of +non-nitrogenous matters consumed by a man is influenced greatly by the +temperature of the air which he habitually breathes, and by the nature +of the artificial covering of his body; there may be other conditions +at present unknown to us, but these are amongst the chief ones. Now, as +there is sufficient reason to lead us to believe that the consumption +of carbonaceous food by the lower animals is influenced in the same +way by the temperature of the medium in which they exist, the question +naturally suggests itself, would it not be cheaper to maintain the heat +of the animal by burning the carbon of cheap coal or turf outside its +body, than by consuming the carbon of costly fat within it? The answer +to this question is not so simple as at first sight it appears to be. We +must not consider that, because 10 lbs. weight of carbon, as coal, costs +but a penny, whilst an equal weight of the same element in starch costs +twenty pence, heat may be furnished to a fattening animal twenty times +cheaper by the combustion of coal than by that of starch. No doubt the +amount of heat evolved by the conversion of a pound-weight of carbon +into carbonic acid is the same, whether it be a constituent of starch or +of coal; but the application of the heat so produced is less under our +control in the latter case. All the heat evolved during the combustion +of the starch within the animal's body is made use of; whilst a very +large proportion of that developed by the combustion of coal in a +furnace cannot in practice be applied to the purpose of heating the +animal's body. +</p> +<p> +It is only the handiwork of the Creator which is perfect, and no machine +constructed by the skill of man, for the direction of force, can rival +that wondrous heat-producing, force-directing mechanism—the animal +organism. According to Dumas, the combustion of about 2½ lbs. of +carbon in a steam-engine is required to generate sufficient force to +convey a man from the level of the sea to the summit of Mont Blanc; but +a man will ascend the mountain in two days, and burn in his mechanism +only half a pound of carbon. There is no machine + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page89" name="page89"></a>[89]</span> + + in which heat and +force are more completely made available than the animal organism; and +were it not—thanks to the influence of antediluvian sunshine—that +the carbon of fuel in these countries is so very much cheaper than the +carbon of food, there is no doubt but that the cheapest mode of keeping +an animal warm would be to allow it to burn its carbon within its +body. As the matter stands, however, there is no question as to the +advisability of keeping fattening animals in a warm place. If the +temperature of the stall be equal to that of the animal's body there +will be less food consumed in the increase of its fat; because less of +the fat-forming materials will be expended in the production of heat. +In this sense, therefore, heat is an equivalent to food, but only within +certain limits; because heat is developed in large quantity within the +animal body independently of the temperature of the air. There is, +therefore, no object to be attained by having the stalls heated beyond +70 or 80 degrees. Indeed, it is to be questioned whether or not stalls +artificially heated are ever properly ventilated. If they be not, the +health of the animal will suffer, and its appetite—so essential a point +in fattening stock—will become impaired. We may conclude—firstly, +that animals, when fattening, should be kept at a temperature not under +70 degrees nor above 90 degrees Fahrenheit; secondly, that the mode of +heating must be such that there is as little wasteful combustion of fuel +as is possible under the circumstances; and, lastly, that no motives of +economy of fuel should prevent the feeding places from being thoroughly +ventilated. +</p> +<p> +Stall-feeding is not so extensively carried on in Ireland as it is in +Great Britain. There is a general impression that it does not pay in the +former country; but if such be the case, it is simply owing to the want +of skill on the part of the Irish feeders. +</p> +<p> +The cattle intended for stall-feeding should be removed (if out) from +the field in October, and put into the house, or court, or crib, or +hammel, as the case may be. They are fed upon roots, straw, hay, grain, +and artificial food. The greatest skill is required in their treatment. +It is a nice point to determine + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page90" name="page90"></a>[90]</span> + + which foods are the most economical, +and also to ascertain in what foods excessive proportions of certain +nutritive elements exist. Sufficient food should be given; but any +approach to waste should be avoided. Three feeds a day are usually +given, and should be supplied at the same hours each day. For about two +weeks the animals are furnished with white turnips <i>ad libitum</i>; but +after the expiration of that time they receive Swedish turnips, straw, +and grain, or oil-cake. Late in the season mangels will replace turnips. +Almost every extensive feeder now uses oil-cakes in large quantities; +but when oats are low in price, they will in general be found a cheap +equivalent for a large proportion of the oil-cake. Different feeders +have different dietaries, and the nature of the aliments supplied to +fattening stock depends very much upon the market prices of food-stuffs, +and the locality in which the feeding-house is situated. The following +dietaries are but examples of the methods of feeding adopted in +different districts and by different persons:— +</p> +<p> +Mr. McCombie, of Tillyfour, fattens from 300 to 400 beasts annually, +and obtained for them in 1861 £35 per head. He never exceeds 4 lbs. of +oil-cake per diem, nor 2 lbs. of bruised oats, for each beast. He gives +as much turnip and straw as they can consume. He realises £12 per acre +in feeding on Aberdeen and Swedish turnips. +</p> +<p> +"For fatting cattle," says Mr. Edmonds, of Cirencester, "I should +recommend two parts hay and one part straw, or in forward animals +three parts hay and one part straw cut in chaff. Those of average size +will eat somewhere about five bushels per day, with 4 lbs. to 5 lbs. +oil-cake, and half a peck of mixed meal, barley and peas, or beans, and, +if cheap, a proportion of wheat also, to be increased to one peck per +day in a month or six weeks after they have come to stall, the oil-cake +and meal to be boiled in water for half-an-hour or three-quarters, and +thrown in the form of rich soup over the chaff, and well mixed, to which +add a little salt." +</p> +<p> +Colonel M'Douall, of Logan, Wigtonshire, gives 3 lbs. of + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page91" name="page91"></a>[91]</span> + + bean-meal and +3 lbs. of cut straw cooked together, and 84 lbs. of Swedish turnips. +</p> +<p> +According to the researches of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, an ox weighing +1,400 lbs. ought to gain 20 lbs. weekly when fed under cover with 8 lbs. +of crushed oil-cake, 13 lbs. of chopped clover hay, and 47 lbs. of +turnips. The chemical constituents (in a dried state) of this allowance +are as follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Constituents of food allowance"> + +<tr><td></td><th>Ounces.</th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Fat-formers, or heat givers </td><td>232 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-formers </td><td> 55 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter </td><td> 29 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +<i>Cost of Maintaining Animals.</i>—The animal mechanism, which exhibits +the least tendency to fatten, is the most costly to keep in repair, in +relation to the work performed by it. If, for example, a sheep store up +in its increase one-fifth of its food, then the remaining four-fifths +are expended in preserving it alive, and their cost represents, so to +speak, the expense of preserving the animal's body in repair. If another +sheep store up only one-tenth of its food, then the cost of its +maintenance may be said to be double that of the animal which retains +the larger proportion of its nutriment in the form of flesh. Of course +in both cases the value of the manure will to a great extent compensate +for the cost of the food expended in merely keeping the animal alive; +but that does not affect the proposition, that the less food expended by +an animal in carrying on its vital functions the more valuable is it as +a "meat-manufacturing machine." From the moment it is brought into the +world until it is "ripe" for the shambles, an animal should steadily +increase in weight: every week that it does not store up a portion of +its food in permanent increase is the loss of a week's food to the +feeder; for all the fodder consumed during that time by the animal is, +so to speak, devoted to its own private purposes. Sheep overcrowded +on pastures, milch cows on "short commons," calves kept on bulky +innutritious food, are all so many sources of positive loss to the +feeder—and as many proofs that he who aspires to + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page92" name="page92"></a>[92]</span> + + be a successful +producer of meat, must, in one respect at least, be a devout believer +in the doctrine of Progressive Development. +</p> +<p> +<i>Cooking and Bruising Food.</i>—The cooking, or the otherwise preparing, +of the food of the domesticated animals is a subject which until +recently was completely ignored by the vast majority of stock feeders. +It is now, however, beginning to attract a fair amount of attention; and +no doubt ere long the best modes of treating the food of cattle will be +discovered. +</p> +<p> +As might be expected from our limited experience of the subject, there +exists considerable difference of opinion relative to the proper method +of cooking cattle food; and there are many very extensive feeders who +object to the plan altogether, and contend that as the food of the +inferior animals is naturally supplied to them in a raw condition, it +would be quite unnatural to give it to them in a cooked state. +</p> +<p> +Whatever difference of opinion there may be with regard to the propriety +of cooking the food of stock, we believe there ought not to be a doubt +as to the desirability of mechanically treating the harder kinds of +feeding stuff. It is quite evident that a horse fed upon hard grains of +oats and wiry fibres of uncut hay or straw must expend no inconsiderable +proportion of his motive power in the process of mastication. After a +hard day's work of eight or ten hours he has before him the laborious +task of reducing to a pulp from 12 lbs. to 20 lbs. weight of exceedingly +hard and tough vegetable matter; and as this operation is carried on +during the hours which should be devoted to rest, the repose of the +animal is to some extent interfered with. Indeed, it not unfrequently +happens that a horse, after a hard day's work, is too tired to chew his +food properly; he consequently bolts his oats, a large proportion of +which, as a matter of course, passes unchanged through the animal's +body. +</p> +<p> +In order to render fully effective the motive power of the horse, it is +absolutely necessary to pay attention to the condition, as well as to +the quantity and quality of his nutriment. The force wasted by a horse +in the comminution of his food, when composed of whole oats and uncut +hay and straw, cannot, + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page93" name="page93"></a>[93]</span> + + at the lowest estimate, be less than that which +he expends in an hour of ordinary work, such as, for example, in +ploughing. The preparation of his food by means of water or steam power, +or even by animal motive power, would economise by at least 50 per cent. +the labor expended in its mastication; and this would be equivalent to +nearly half a day's work in each week, and, consequently, a clear gain +of so much labor to the owner of the animal. In the present time of +water-power and steam-power corn-mills, one man is able to grind the +flour necessary for the support of several thousand men; in early ages +the labor of one person in the grinding of wheat served but to supply +the wants of twenty others. In both cases machinery was employed +for reducing the grain to flour; but in the one case, the mechanisms +employed were more than a hundred times more effective than in the +other. But even the most imperfect flour mill is by far a more +economical system of comminuting corn than the jaws of animals; and if +every man were obliged, as the horse is, to grind his corn by means of +his teeth alone, he would find his powers for the performance of other +kinds of labor considerably lessened. +</p> +<p> +It has been urged as an objection to the use of bruised oats by horses, +that they exercise in that state a laxative influence upon the animal's +bowels. I doubt very much that such is frequently the case, when the +animal is fed only upon oats and hay and straw; but even if the oats +produce such an effect, the addition of a small proportion of beans—the +binding properties of which are well known—will obviate the +disadvantage. +</p> +<p> +The desirability of mechanically acting upon soft food is not so +apparent as the necessity for the bruising of oats is. Roots are so +easily masticable that if they are rendered more so there is danger of +their being so hastily swallowed as to escape thorough insalivation, +which is so necessary to ensure perfect digestion. To guard against this +danger, perhaps the best way would be to give pulped mangels and turnips +mixed with cut straw; a mixture which could not easily be bolted. Mr. +Charles Lawrence, of Cirencester, who is a great advocate + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page94" name="page94"></a>[94]</span> + + for the +cooking of food, and has frequently published his experience of the +benefits derivable therefrom, thus describes his method of combining +pulped roots with dry fodder:— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + We find that, taking a score of bullocks together fattening, + they consume per head per diem three bushels of chaff, mixed + with just half a cwt. of pulped roots, exclusive of cakes of + corn; that is to say, rather more than two bushels of chaff + are mixed with the roots, and given at two feeds, morning and + evening, and the remainder is given with the cake, &c., at the + middle-day feed, thus:—We use the steaming apparatus of Stanley, + of Peterborough, consisting of a boiler in the centre, in which + the steam is generated, and which is connected by a pipe on the + left hand with a large galvanised iron receptacle for steaming + food for pigs, and on the right with a large wooden tub, lined + with copper, in which the cake, mixed with water, is made into + a thick soup. Adjoining this is a slate tank, of sufficient size + to contain one feed for the entire lot of bullocks feeding. Into + this tank is laid chaff with a three-grained fork, and pressed + down firmly; and this process is repeated until the slate tank + is full, when it is covered down for an hour or two before + feeding time. The soup is then found entirely absorbed by the + chaff, which has become softened and prepared for ready digestion. +</p> +<p> +Mr. Wright, near Dunbar, gives the following account of an experiment +with pulped roots and straw and oil-cake. It appears to prove the +superiority of mixed foods over the same foods consumed separately:— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + Two lots of year-old cattle were fed; the one in the usual + way—sliced turnips and straw, <i>ad libitum</i>—the others with + the minced turnips, mixed with cut straw. The first lot consumed + daily 84 lbs. sliced turnips, 1 lb. oil-cake, 1 lb. rape-cake, + ½ lb. bean-meal, broken small and mixed with a little salt, + and what straw they liked. The second lot ate, each, daily, + 50 lbs. minced turnips, 1 lb. oil-cake, 1 lb. rape-cake, ½ lb. + bean-meal, and a little salt, the whole being mixed with double + the bulk of cut straw or wheat chaff. In spring, the lot of + cattle which had the mixed food were in good condition, and + equally well grown as others, though they had consumed in five + months two tons less of roots apiece. The reporter does not + advise the mincing process to be commenced when cattle are very + forward in condition, as any change of food requires a certain + time to accustom the animals to it, and in the meantime fat + cattle are apt to fall off in condition. It ought to be begun + when they are young and lean. +</p> +<p> +Mr. Duckham, of Baysham Court, Ross, Herefordshire, says:— +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page95" name="page95"></a>[95]</span></p> + +<p class="quote"> + The advantages of pulping roots for cattle are—1st, Economy + of food; for the roots being pulped and mixed with the chaff, + either from threshing or cut hay or straw, the whole is consumed + without waste, the animals not being able to separate the chaff + from the pulped roots, as is the case when the roots are merely + sliced by the common cutter, neither do they waste the fodder as + when given without being cut. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 2. The use of ordinary hay or straw. After being mixed with the + pulp for about twelve hours, fermentation commences, and this + soon renders the most mouldy hay palatable, and animals eat with + avidity that which they would otherwise reject. This fermentation + softens the straw, makes it more palatable, and puts it in a state + to assimilate more readily with the other food. In this respect + I think the pulper of great value, particularly upon corn farms + where large crops of straw are grown, and where there is a limited + acreage of pasture, as by its use the pastures may be grazed, the + expensive process of haymaking reduced, and, consequently, an + increased number of cattle kept. I keep one-third more, giving + the young stock a small quantity of oil-cake, which I mix with + the chaff, &c. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 3. Choking is utterly impossible, and I have only had one case of + hoove in three years, and that occurred when the mixture had not + fermented. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 4. There is an advantage in mixing the meal with the chaff and + pulped roots for fattening animals, as thereby they cannot separate + it, and the moisture from the fermentation softens the meal and + ensures its thorough digestion, whereas, when given in a dry state + without any mixture, frequently a great portion passes away in the + manure. +</p> +<p> +On the value of the process for a grazing farm with but a small quantity +of plough-land, Mr. Corner, of Woodlands, Holford, Bridgewater, thus +speaks:— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + My plan is, first commencing with the grazing beasts, to cut about + an equal quantity of hay and straw and mix with a sufficient + quantity of roots (mostly mangel) to well moisten the chaff; and as + the beasts advance in condition, I lessen the straw and increase + the hay, and in their further progress I mix—in addition to all + hay, chaff, and roots—from 6 to 10 lb. per day to each bullock of + barley and bean-meal, according to its size—and I have them large + sometimes. I sold last week for the London market a lot of Devon + oxen of very prime quality, averaging in weight upwards of 100 stone + imperial each. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + For my horses, cows, yearlings, and oxen—the latter to be kept in + a thriving condition, and turned to grass, and kept through the + summer for Christmas, 1860—I cut nearly all straw, with a very + small quantity of hay, and this the offal of the rick. These also + have as many pulped roots as will moisten the chaff, except the + horses, and to them I give, along with bruised oats, just enough + roots to keep their bowels in a proper condition. + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page96" name="page96"></a>[96]</span> + + To the two or + three-year-old beasts I give some long straw and a part chaff, and + the offal (if any) of the food of the above lots of stock. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + My farm is but a small one—under 200 acres. My predecessor always + mowed nearly all the pastures for hay, which is about half the + farm, and with this scarcely ever grazed any beasts, and kept but + very few sheep. Since my occupation I scarcely ever exceed ten acres + of meadow with one field of seeds for hay. I keep from 250 to 300 + large-size Leicester sheep, and graze from 20 to 25 large-size + beasts a year, with other breeding stock in proportion. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + I consider the pulping of roots is better for fatting pigs than + anything else. My plan is to have a large two-hogshead vat as near + the pulping machine as possible, so as to fill it with a malt + shovel as it comes from the machine; at the same time I keep a lad + sprinkling meal (either barley or Indian corn) with the roots; and + this is all done in fifteen or twenty minutes. It is then ready for + use, to be carried to the pigs in the stalls alongside the fatting + beasts. I never could fatten a pig with profit until I used pulped + roots. +</p> +<p> +Although the practice of cooking food has been advocated by several +eminent feeders, it has been condemned by others. Mr. Lawes is not +favorable to the cooking of food unless when it is scarce. The results +of Colonel M'Douall's experiments go to prove that cattle can be more +economically kept upon a mixture of raw and cooked foods than upon +either raw or cooked fodder given separately. One meal of cooked food +and two feeds of raw turnips gave better results than three feeds of +raw turnips; whilst two cooked feeds and a raw one resulted in a loss. +</p> +<p> +The fermentation of food, if not the best, is certainly the cheapest +mode of preparing it. If the process be not pushed too far the loss of +nutriment sustained is inconsiderable. When a mixture of straw and roots +is fermented, the hard fibres of the latter are, to a great extent, +broken up, and the nutrient particles which they envelop are fully +exposed to the action of the solvent juices of the stomach. +</p> +<p> +A great advantage in cooking or fermenting food is that the most +rubbishy materials can be used up. Indeed, as a general rule, the better +soft food is, the less the necessity for cooking it; but washed out hay +and hard, over-ripened straw are of but little value, except when cooked +and given in combination with some agreeably-flavored substance. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page97" name="page97"></a>[97]</span></p> + + +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Value of various foods for feeding purposes"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="20"> VALUE FOR FEEDING PURPOSES OF VARIOUS FOODS.<sup><a name="noteref-21"><!--21--></a><a href="#note-21">21</a></sup> +</td></tr> + +<tr> +<th rowspan="3"><span class="sc">Material.</span></th> +<th colspan="5"><span class="sc">Cost.</span></th> +<th colspan="9"><small>100 LBS. CONTAIN.</small></th> +<th colspan="5"></th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<th colspan="3" rowspan="2">Per ton.</th> +<th colspan="2" rowspan="2">Per 100 lbs.</th> +<th rowspan="2">Oil.</th> +<th rowspan="2">Starch, Sugar, &c.</th> +<th rowspan="2">Oil, Starch, &c., computed as Oil.</th> +<th colspan="2">Nitrogen.</th> +<th colspan="2">Phosphoric Acid.</th> +<th colspan="2">Potash.</th> +<th colspan="2" rowspan="2">Value of Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid, and Potash.</th> +<th rowspan="2">Deduct Nitrogen for perspiration.</th> +<th colspan="2" rowspan="2">Net Value for Manure.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<th>Weight.</th><th>Value.</th><th>Weight.</th><th>Value.</th><th>Weight.</th><th>Value.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td><th>£</th><th>s.</th><th>d.</th><th>s.</th><th>d.</th><th>lbs.</th><th>lbs.</th><th>lbs.</th><th>lbs.</th><th>d.</th><th>lbs.</th><th>d.</th><th>lbs.</th><th>d.</th><th>s.</th><th>d.</th><th>d.</th><th>s.</th><th>d.</th> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Meadow-hay </td><td> 4 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 3 </td><td> 7 </td><td> 2·68 </td><td> 39·75 </td><td> 24·63 </td><td> 1·48 </td><td> 10·62 </td><td>0·90</td><td> 1·35 </td><td> 1·50 </td><td> 4·50 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 4½ </td><td> 2<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>12</sub> </td><td> 1 </td><td>2¼ </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Wheat-straw </td><td> 1 </td><td>15 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 7 </td><td> 0·50 </td><td> 32·0 </td><td> 18·50 </td><td> 0·42 </td><td> 3·0 </td><td>0·14</td><td> 0·21 </td><td> 0·65 </td><td> 2·16 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 5 </td><td> ½ </td><td> 0 </td><td>5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Swedish Turnips </td><td> 4 </td><td>10 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 4 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 2·0 </td><td> 60·0 </td><td> 35·0 </td><td> 2·40 </td><td> 17·28 </td><td>0·80</td><td> 1·20 </td><td> 2·25 </td><td> 6·75 </td><td> 2 </td><td> 1¼ </td><td> 3½ </td><td> 1 </td><td>9¾ </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Oil-cake </td><td> 9 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 8 </td><td> 8 </td><td> 4 </td><td> 12·0 </td><td> 38·0 </td><td> 33·0 </td><td> 5·0 </td><td> 36·0 </td><td>2·25</td><td> 3·37 </td><td> 1·75 </td><td> 5·25 </td><td> 3 </td><td> 8½ </td><td> 7¼ </td><td> 3 </td><td>1¾ </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Beans </td><td> 9 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 8 </td><td> 8 </td><td> 4 </td><td> 2·0 </td><td> 42·0 </td><td> 25·30 </td><td> 4·45 </td><td> 32·0 </td><td>0·86</td><td> 1·29 </td><td> 1·11 </td><td> 3·33 </td><td> 3 </td><td> 0½ </td><td> 6½ </td><td> 2 </td><td>6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Indian Meal </td><td> 9 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 8 </td><td> 8 </td><td> 4 </td><td> 7·0 </td><td> 60·0 </td><td> 40·0 </td><td> 2·25 </td><td> 16·20 </td><td>0·19</td><td> 0·28 </td><td> 0·17 </td><td> 0·51 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 5 </td><td> 3¼ </td><td> 1 </td><td>1¾ </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Carob, or + Locust Bean </td><td> 9 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 8 </td><td> 8 </td><td> 4 </td><td> 6·76 </td><td> 57·0 </td><td> 35·0 </td><td> 0·64 </td><td> 3·75 </td><td colspan="3" class="c">No analysis of ash. </td><td> </td><td colspan="2" class="c"> say 5¾ </td><td class="c"> — </td><td> 0 </td><td>5 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page98" name="page98"></a>[98]</span></p> + +<p> +<i>Bedding Cattle.</i>—Instead of wasting straw in bedding cattle, it would +be much better to pass it through their bodies. If straw must be used +for litter, let it be employed as economically as possible. Good +substitutes, wholly or in part, for straw bedding may be found in +sawdust, ashes, tan and ferns. Leaves of trees if procurable in +quantity constitute an excellent litter. +</p> +<h4> +SECTION II. +</h4> +<h5> +THE SHEEP. +</h5> +<p> +The management of sheep varies greatly—depending upon the breeds of +the animal, the localities in which they are reared and fattened, and +various economic conditions. The tupping season varies of course with +the country: in Ireland it commences about the middle of September and +lasts for two months; in England and parts of Scotland, the season is +about a month earlier. The best kinds of sheep admit of being very early +put to breed. Both ram and ewe are ready for this purpose when about +fifteen months old. One ram is sufficient for about 80 ewes. The +breeding flock should be in a sound, healthy condition, and the ram +ought to be as near perfection as possible. The condition of the sire +ought to be good, but at the same time it is not desirable to have him +over fat. The more striking indications of good health in the sheep are +dry eyes, red gums, sound teeth, smooth, oily skin, and regular +rumination. The color of the excreta should be natural. +</p> +<p> +<i>Breeding Ewes.</i>—After the tupping season, which generally lasts for +a month, the sheep are usually put on a pasture, which need not be +very rich. In cold situations ample shelter should be afforded to the +breeding flocks; and in severe weather they should, if possible, be +removed to sheds. When snow covers the ground, the animals must be +supplied with turnips, or cooked food of some kind. At such time a +little oil-cake will be found very useful. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page99" name="page99"></a>[99]</span></p> + +<p> +<i>Yeaning.</i>—In March the yeaning season sets in; and as this time +approaches, the food of the animals should be improved, and the greatest +care must be taken of them. The shepherd should be unceasing in his +watchfulness, frequently examining every individual animal. The lambing, +if possible, ought to take place in sheds, or some covered place. +</p> +<p> +<i>Rearing of Lambs.</i>—Delicate lambs require great care. Very weak ones +often require to be hand fed. Should a mother die, her offspring may be +placed with another ewe; on the other hand, should a lamb perish, its +mother may be appointed to rear one of another ewe's twins (if such +be available). The ram lambs, not intended for breeding purposes, are +subjected to a necessary mutilation when they are about three weeks old. +If this operation be performed later, there is great danger that fatal +inflammatory action may set in; on the other hand, a lamb much younger +than three weeks is hardly strong enough to bear the pain of the +operation. The tails of the lambs are shortened about the same time; +but it would be better in the case of the rams not to perform both +operations on the same day. These operations are best performed during +moist or cloudy weather; if they must be done on frosty or stormy +days, the lambs should be kept under shelter for two or three days, as +otherwise the cold might induce inflammation. The lambs remain with +their mothers for about four months, after which they are weaned, and +put upon a good pasture. When the herbage is poor, oil-cake, say ¼ lb. +daily, or some other nutritious food, should be used to supplement it. +During the summer and part of the autumn the young stock, as a rule, +subsist upon grass; but many flock-masters give them other kinds of food +in addition. As winter approaches, the young sheep on tillage farms +receive soft turnips, and sometimes a little hay or straw. The allowance +of oil-cake may be increased to ½ lb., or if corn be cheap, it may be +substituted for the oil-cake. After Christmas Swedish turnips are used. +</p> +<p> +Mr. Mechi gives the following information on the subject of rearing +lambs during a season when roots are scarce:— +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page100" name="page100"></a>[100]</span></p> + +<p class="quote"> + Two hundred lambs, which cost 22s. 6d. each on September 12th, + were kept on leas and stubble until November 3rd, then on + turnips until December 19th, when fifty of them were drafted to + another flock getting a little cotton-cake. On the 3rd of February + fatting commenced with linseed-cake in addition to cut Swedes. On + the 7th of April the fifty tegs were put on rye with mangels, and + they were sold on the 4th of May at 61s. each. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + The remaining 150 lambs were wintered as stores at little cost, + on inferior turnips uncut; they were put on rye from March 8th + till May 4th, when they were valued at 48s. each. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + The district just referred to became so exhausted of its stock, + that at some of the later fairs the number of lambs and of ewes + exhibited was less than one-fourth of the average. But in Essex, + on six adjoining farms, including that from which I write, the + number of sheep wintered has been greater than these heavy lands + ever carried before. This has been effected by the extension of + a system of management often practised on heavy land, that of + eking out a scanty supply of green food by a liberal allowance + of straw, chaff, and grain; which happily were good in quality, + as well as plentiful and low in price in 1864. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + By these means we were enabled last winter to keep 1,500 sheep + on about 650 acres of arable, and 350 acres of dry upland + pasture—chiefly park surrounding a mansion. The arable land + does not very well bear folding in winter, as a preparation for + spring corn. Neither climate nor soil are favorable to turnips, + and notwithstanding our efforts in assisting Nature, our crops + of turnips, rape, or Swedes, are never first-rate, and sometimes + very bad. Strong stubbles, good beans, clover-seed, and mangel, + are the specialities of the locality, and they indicate heavy + land, corn-growing, and yard-feeding. Sheep have been generally + "conspicuous by their absence," though even the heavy-land farmer + is glad to winter a yard of them instead of cattle, that he may + keep some, at least, of the stock that pays best. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + In the autumn of 1864 our root crops consisted of some white + turnips and rape, eaten by the ewes in September, and of a very + bad crop of mangel, the whole of which was reserved for the ewes + at lambing-time. In this predicament we wintered about 1,000 + half-bred lambs, more than 400 ewes, and some fatting sheep. + All, except the fatting sheep, were folded on the stubbles, and + allowed a daily run on the park of about an hour for each flock. + The freshest grass was reserved for the ewes, and a very meagre + bite remained for the lambs; in fact, except for a few weeks + in autumn, the parks afforded them little or nothing except + exercise and water. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + The flocks were divided between three separate farms, and their + food was prepared at the respective homesteads. The treatment + was in every + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page101" name="page101"></a>[101]</span> + + respect similar; we shall therefore only notice in + detail the management at one farm. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + The following details are taken from our "Live Stock Book:"— +</p> + + +<table class="open" style="width: 90%;" border="0" align="center" summary="Extracts from stock book."> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="6"> EXTRACTS FROM STOCK BOOK.</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="5"><i>Lambs.</i></th></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="4">Payments.</th> +<td rowspan="15" style="border-right: thin solid black;"></td> +<th style="width: 30%;">Remarks.</th> +</tr> + +<tr><th colspan="4"><i>November 4th, 1864.</i></th></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><th> £ </th><th>s.</th><th>d. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> 352 lambs, cost at date, 30s. 9½d. each </td><td> 542</td><td> 2</td><td> 3 </td><td class="l"> Total cost of keeping 352 lambs for 24 weeks, £298 4s. 3d. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> <i>Cost of keeping 24 weeks to April 21, 1865:—</i></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="l"> Cost per head, 16s. 11d. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Corn and cake, as per granary book </td><td> 245</td><td>16</td><td> 9 </td><td class="l"> Cost, food only, 14s. 11d. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Cutting 25 tons of chaff, at 6s. </td><td> 7</td><td>13</td><td> 0 </td><td class="l"> Value of the manure, reckoned at one-fifth the cost of the corn and cake, £49 3s. 4d. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Grinding 96 qrs. 6 bshls. of corn, at 9d. </td><td> 3</td><td>12</td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Attendance, at 19s. 10d. per week </td><td> 23</td><td>16</td><td> 0 </td><td class="l"> Cost of the lambs, per head, £2 7s. 8d. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Horse labor, at 6s. per week </td><td> 7</td><td> 4</td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Coal, 3s. 2d. per week </td><td> 3</td><td>16</td><td> 0 </td><td class="l"> Value of manure, per head, 2s. 10d. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Use of 21 troughs, at 3d. each per month </td><td> 1</td><td>11</td><td> 6 </td><td class="l"> No charge made for the straw-chaff eaten on the land. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Use of 180 hurdles, at 1d. each per month </td><td> 4</td><td>10</td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> 1½ cwt. of rock salt </td><td> 0</td><td> 4</td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td colspan="4">————<br />————</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>£840</td><td> 6</td><td> 6 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p class="quote"> + The tegs would probably have been sold at a profit in April; + they were, however, put on grass and clover, and were fattened + in the summer. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + <i>September 29th.</i>—352 lambs in the parks, on a little cotton-cake + and some oats, until November 4th, when they were folded on a wheat + stubble. Gave them 5 bushels of meal daily, mixed with 468 lb. of + straw chaff. Cost 3½d. each per week for meal. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + <i>December 20th.</i>—Increased the food to 6½ bushels of meal and + 1 bushel of oil-cake. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + <i>December 18th.</i>— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" width="50%" summary="Extracts from stock book."> + +<tr><td></td><th> lb.</th></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> 2¾ bushels of maize crushed and boiled </td><td>143 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> 4½ bushels of mixed meal </td><td>200 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> 1 bushel of oil-cake </td><td> 50 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td colspan="2"> ——</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> 393</td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td colspan="2"> ——<br />——</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page102" name="page102"></a>[102]</span></p> + +<p class="quote"> + Cost 5½d. per week for corn and cake; chaff, 2¼ lb. each, + between these and the ewes, the lambs eating rather less than + 2 lb. each. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + Eight pounds of rock-salt licked up by the 352 lambs per week. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + <i>January 23rd.</i>—The food was increased to 7½ bushels of meal, + 2 bushels of oil-cake, and 2 bushels of rape-cake. +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" width="90%" summary="Feed mixtures and associated cost"> + +<tr><th colspan="2"> Mixture of Corn. </th> +<td rowspan="8" style="border-right: thin solid black;"></td> +<th colspan="3"> Cost per stone (14 lb.) </th> +</tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>s. </td><td> d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Wheat </td><td class="c">4 parts. </td><td class="l"> Wheat </td><td>1 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Barley </td><td class="c">4 " </td><td class="l"> Barley </td><td>0 </td><td>10 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Oats </td><td class="c">2 " </td><td class="l"> Oats </td><td>1 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Maize </td><td class="c">4 " </td><td class="l"> Maize </td><td>0 </td><td>10 </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td class="l"> Oil-cake </td><td>1 </td><td> 4¼ </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td class="l"> Rape-cake</td><td>0 </td><td> 9 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +<i>Sheep Feeding.</i>—In Ireland sheep are often exclusively fed on grass; +but in most cases the addition of other food is desirable, and more +especially is it necessary during winter. When confined to roots, sheep, +on an average, consume about 26 lbs. daily, unless when under shelter, +which diminishes the quantity by from five to ten per cent. Some sheep +on which Dr. Voelcker experimented were fed as follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" width="50%" summary="Feed mixture"> + +<tr><td> </td><th>lbs. </th><th> ounces. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Mangel wurtzel </td><td class="c"> 19 </td><td class="c"> 8 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Chopped clover hay </td><td class="c"> 1 </td><td class="c"> <sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>10</sub> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Linseed cake </td><td class="c"> 0 </td><td class="c"> 4 <sup>8</sup>⁄<sub>100</sub> </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td colspan="3"> ———————</td></tr> +<tr><td> Total </td><td class="c"> 20 </td><td class="c">15 <sup>38</sup>⁄<sub>100</sub> </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +On this diet four sheep were maintained from the 22nd of March until +the 10th of May, a period of forty-seven days. The weights were as +follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" width="65%" align="center" summary="Weights of sheep fed on previous mixture"> + +<tr><td> </td><th>22nd Mar. </th><th>10th May. </th><th>Gain. </th></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> No. 1 </td><td class="c"> 153 </td><td class="c"> 170½ </td><td class="c">17½ </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> No. 2 </td><td class="c"> 134 </td><td class="c"> 151½ </td><td class="c">17½ </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> No. 3 </td><td class="c"> 170 </td><td class="c"> 187 </td><td class="c">17½ </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> No. 4 </td><td class="c"> 136 </td><td class="c"> 155 </td><td class="c">19 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +This experiment shows that the sheep can increase in weight on a daily +allowance of food, much less than is usually given to them; but it will +be found that growing sheep will usually consume a greater quantity of +food than that used by Dr. Voelcker's fattening animals. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page103" name="page103"></a>[103]</span></p> + +<p> +Sheep washing is performed before the animal is shorn. It is a process +which should never be neglected, as dirty wool is certain to bring a +less price than the same quality would if clean. After being washed, +sheep should be kept in dry pasture for about ten days in order to allow +the loss of yolk removed by the washing to be repaired; they will then +be in proper condition for the shearer. +</p> +<p> +<i>Sheep Dips</i> are used for the purpose of removing parasites from the +animal's skin. They often contain arsenic, or bichloride of mercury +(corrosive sublimate), which are very objectionable ingredients. The +glycerine sheep dip, prepared by Messrs. Hendrick and Guerin, of London, +is a safe mixture, as it is free from mineral poisons, whilst the tar +substances which it includes, act as a powerful cleanser of the skin, +without injuriously affecting the yolk of the wool. +</p> + +<h4> +SECTION III. +</h4> +<h5> +THE PIG. +</h5> +<p> +In the breeding of pigs, as in the breeding of other kinds of stock, +great care should be taken in the selection of both sire and dam. A good +pig should have a small head, short nose, plump cheek, a compact body, +short neck, and thin but very hairy skin, and short legs. The black +breed is considered to be more hardy than the white; and pure—all black +or all white—colors as a rule indicate the purest blood. +</p> +<p> +The sow should not be bred from until she is a year old, and the boar +especially should not be employed at an earlier age. Although one boar +is sometimes left with forty pigs and even a greater number, he will not +be able to serve more than a dozen about the same time, if vigorous +progeny be expected. The sow's regular period of gestation is 113 days; +she can have two litters a year, and in each there are from five to +fourteen young. Moderate sized litters are the best, the young of very + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page104" name="page104"></a>[104]</span> + + numerous ones being often weakly. The best time to rear young pigs is +during the warm or mild parts of the year. +</p> +<p> +During gestation the sow should be liberally fed, but not with excessive +amounts. The food at this time should rather excel in quality than in +quantity; but so soon as she begins to nurse, her allowance must be +increased, and may be rendered more stimulating. For a week or so before +farrowing, the sow ought to be kept alone. Its sty should not be too +small—not less than 8 or 10 feet square—for pigs require good air in +abundance as well as other animals. +</p> +<p> +The straw used for litter should neither be too abundant nor too long; +in the latter case some of the young might be covered by it, and +escaping the notice of the sow, might unconsciously be crushed by the +latter. If the young are very feeble, it may become necessary to +hand-feed them. Some sows eat their young: and when they have this +habit, the better plan is to cease breeding from them; for it appears to +be incurable. After parturition some bran and liquid or semi-liquid food +should be given to the sow. +</p> +<p> +<i>Young Pigs</i> subsist exclusively on their mother's milk but for a short +time. In two or three weeks they may receive skimmed or butter-milk from +the dairy. At a month old such of them as are not designed for breeding +purposes may be subjected to the usual mutilations; and at from five to +six weeks old the young are weaned, and converted into <i>stores</i>. +</p> +<p> +<i>Store Pigs</i>, when young, are best fed upon skimmed milk, oatmeal, +and potatoes, in a cooked state. When they are approaching three months +old, they may be supplied with raw food, if the weather be warm; +but in winter, cooked and warm food will be found the more economical. +Cabbages, roots, potatoes, and all kinds of grain that are cheap are +used in pig feeding. The number of meals varies from six or seven in the +case of very young animals, to three in the case of those nearly ready +for fattening. Store pigs should be allowed a few hours' exercise daily +in a paddock, or field, or at least in a large yard. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page105" name="page105"></a>[105]</span></p> + +<p> +The dietaries of store pigs vary greatly, for these animals being +omnivorous readily eat almost every kind of food. Mr. Baldwin, of Bredon +House, near Birmingham, an extensive pig breeder, gave (in 1862) stores +the following allowance:—At three months old, a quart of peas, Egyptian +beans, or Indian corn. He considered English beans to be too <i>heating</i> +for young pigs. The animals were allowed the <i>run</i> of a grass field. +On this diet the stores were kept until they were eight months old +(increasing at the average rate of five pounds per week), after which +they were allowed an extra half-pint of corn. He calculated the weekly +cost as follows:—Dry food, 1s.; grass, 2d.; man's time, 1d.; total, 1s. +3d. These results yielded a profit of 1s. per week per pig, pork being +at the time 6d. per lb. Some feeders give young store pigs half-a-pint +of peas, mixed with pulped mangel, and the quantum of peas is gradually +increased to one pint per diem. All kinds of food-refuse from the house +are welcomed by the pig. Skins, dripping, damaged potatoes, cabbage, +&c., may be given to them; but they should not be altogether substituted +for the ordinary food-stuffs. Coal-dust, cinders, mortar rubbish, and +similar substances are often swallowed by pigs, and sometimes even +given to them by the feeder. In certain cases Lawes and Gilbert found +that superphosphate of lime was a useful addition to the food of pigs. +A little salt should invariably be given, more especially if mangels +(which are rich in salt) do not enter into the animals' dietary. +</p> +<p> +<i>Fattening Pigs.</i>—For some time before store pigs are put up to be +fattened, the quality and quantity of their food should be increased, +for it is not economy to put a rather lean animal suddenly upon a very +fattening diet. The sty should be well supplied with clean litter, and +should be darkened. Three feeds per diem will be a sufficient number, +and the remains (if any) of one should be removed from the trough before +the fresh feed is put into it. The feeding trough (which should be made +of iron) should be so constructed that the animals cannot place their +fore feet in it. The pig is naturally a clean animal, and therefore it +should be washed occasionally, as there is every + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page106" name="page106"></a>[106]</span> + + reason to believe +that such a procedure will tend to promote the animal's health. It +should be supplied with clean water. +</p> +<p> +In Stephen's "Book of the Farm," it is stated that two pecks of +steamed potatoes, and 9 lbs. of barley-meal, given every day to a pig +weighing from 24 to 28 stones, will fatten it perfectly in nine weeks. +Barley-meal is largely used in England as food for pigs. It is given +generally in the form of a thin paste, and in large quantities. Lawes +and Gilbert found that 1 cwt. of barley-meal given to pigs increased +their weight by 22½ lbs. Indian meal is fully equal, if it is not +superior to barley-meal, as food for pigs; and for this purpose it is +far more extensively employed in Ireland. Every kind of grain given to +pigs should be ground and cooked. In Scotland pigs are often fattened +solely on from 28 to 35 lbs. of barley-meal weekly, and mangels or +turnips <i>ad libitum</i>. Pollard is a good food for pigs, being rich in +muscle-forming materials; it is a good addition to very fatty or starchy +food. A mixture of pollard and palm-nut meal is an excellent fattening +food. Potatoes are now so dear, that they are seldom—unless the very +worst and diseased kinds—used in pig feeding. They should never be +given raw. The more inferior feeding-stuffs should be used up first in +the fattening of pigs, and the more valuable and concentrated kinds +during the latter part of the process. +</p> +<h4> +SECTION IV. +</h4> +<h5> +THE HORSE. +</h5> +<p> +The horse is subject to many diseases, not a few of which arise from the +defective state of his stable. The best kinds of stables are large and +lofty, well ventilated and drained, smoothly paved, and well provided +with means for admitting the direct sunlight. The walls should be +whitewashed occasionally, and for disinfecting and general sanitary +purposes, four ounces of + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page107" name="page107"></a>[107]</span> + + chloride of lime (bleaching powder) mixed with +each bucket of whitewash, will be found extremely useful. +</p> +<p> +Farm horses are kept in stalls, which should not be less than six feet +wide, and (exclusive of rack and rere passage) 10 feet long. For hunters +and thorough-breds, <i>loose boxes</i> are now generally used. +</p> +<p> +The mare commences to breed at four years, and the period of gestation +is 340 days. She may be worked until within a fortnight of the time at +which parturition is expected to occur. After foaling, the mare should +be turned into a grass field (unless the weather is severe) and kept +there idly for three or four weeks. +</p> +<p> +<i>Foals</i> are kept with their mothers until they are about five or six +months old: after weaning, their food must be tender and nutritious—well +bruised oats, cut hay, bean or oatmeal mashes; carrots are very +suitable. +</p> +<p> +Working horses are fed chiefly upon oats and hay, which undoubtedly are +the best foods for these animals, both being rich in muscle-forming +materials. Bruised oats are far more economical than the whole grains: +and if the animals eat too rapidly, that habit is easily overcome by +mixing chopped straw or hay with the grain. +</p> +<p> +According to Playfair, a horse not working can subsist and remain in +fair condition on a daily allowance of 12 lbs. of hay and 5 lbs. of +oats. According to the same authority, a working horse should receive +14 lbs. of hay, 12 lbs. of oats, and 2 lbs. of beans. +</p> +<p> +Beans are a very concentrated food, rich in flesh-formers, and are, +therefore, well adapted for sustaining hard-working horses. They are +rather <i>binding</i>; but this property is easily neutralised by combining +the beans with some laxative food. Turnips, carrots, furze, and various +other foods are given to the horse, often in large quantities. The +following are some among the many dietaries on which this animal +is kept:— +</p> +<p> +Professor Low's formula is, 30 to 35 lbs. of a mixture of equal parts +of chopped straw, chopped hay, bruised grain, and steamed potatoes. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page108" name="page108"></a>[108]</span></p> + +<p> +The daily rations of horses of the London Omnibus Company, are 16 lbs. +of bruised oats, 7½ lbs. of cut hay, and 2½ lbs. of chopped straw. +</p> +<p> +Stage coach-horses in the United States receive daily about 19 lbs. of +Indian meal and 13 lbs. of cut hay. +</p> +<p> +Mr. Robertson, of Clandeboye, near Belfast, gives the following +information on the subject of horse-keeping:— +</p> + +<p class="quote"> + The year we divide into three periods—October, November to + May inclusive, June to September inclusive. During the first + period, the horses get about 18 lb. of chaff and 12 lb. of + crushed oats and beans; "10½ oats and 1½ beans" per head + per day. During the second period they get about 15 lb. of hay + chaff, 12 lb. of crushed oats and beans, and about 3 gallons + of boiled turnips per head per day. During the third period + they were turned out to graze during the night. In the day time, + whilst in the stable, each animal is allowed about 50 lb. of cut + clover, and about 12 lb. of crushed oats and beans per day. The + feeding is all under the charge of one person. He uses his own + discretion in feeding the animals, though he is not allowed to + exceed the quantities named. The horses to which I allude are the + same on which the experiments commenced two years ago—six cart + horses, one cart pony, and one riding horse. From Sept. 1, 1865, + to and including August 31, 1866, the cost of maintaining these + horses in good working condition; keeping the carts, harness, + &c., in repair; shoeing, c., was as follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Cost of maintaining horses, Sept. 1, 1865 to Aug. 31, 1866"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Oats, 14 tons, at 16s. per cwt. </td><td>£112 </td><td> 0 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Beans, 2 tons, at 18s. per cwt. </td><td> 18 </td><td> 0 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Hay, 13 tons, at 30s. per ton </td><td> 19 </td><td>10 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Green Clover </td><td> 15 </td><td> 0 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Turnips </td><td> 5 </td><td> 0 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Night grazing </td><td> 18 </td><td> 0 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Engine, cutting chaff, crushing oats, &c. </td><td> 7 </td><td> 4 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Attendance </td><td> 26 </td><td> 0 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Blacksmith </td><td> 12 </td><td> 0 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Saddler </td><td> 12 </td><td> 0 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Carpenter </td><td> 10 </td><td> 0 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Five per cent. interest on value, £110 </td><td> 5 </td><td>10 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Depreciation in value 10 per cent. </td><td> 11 </td><td> 0 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td colspan="3"> ——————</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>£271 </td><td> 4 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Deduct cost of riding horse</td><td> 35 </td><td> 0 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td colspan="3"> ——————</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>£236 </td><td> 4 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page109" name="page109"></a>[109]</span></p> + +<p class="quote" style="text-indent: 0;"> + £33 11s. 10d. per head; if we suppose the available working + days to be 300, allowing 13 for wet days, holidays, &c., the + daily cost will be 2s. 2½d.; to this if we add 1s. 8d., + the wages of the driver, we shall have a total of 3s. 10½d. + as the cost of a horse, cart, and driver per day. I would only + add, in conclusion, that the horses are kept in good working + condition; and, as a proof of their good health under this + system, I may state that during the past two years we have not + had occasion to require the services of a veterinary surgeon. +</p> +<p> +Musty hay or straw should not be given to horses. Furze is said to be +a heating food; but it is very nutritious, and when young, may be given +as <i>part</i> of the food of the horse. +</p> +<p> +Boiled turnips and mangels are often given in winter; but they are +not sufficiently nutritious to constitute a substantial portion of the +animal's diet. Oil-cake is occasionally given to horses; but seldom in +larger quantities than 1½ lbs. per diem. On the whole, experience is +in favor of occasionally giving cooked food to horses; and the practice +meets with the full approval of the veterinarian. To most kinds of food +for horses, the addition of one or two ounces of salt is necessary. +</p> +<p> +In the <i>Agricultural Gazette</i> for November 25, 1865, the following +instructive tables are given:— +</p> + +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Feed mixtures and cost for autumn, by stable"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="8"> STABLE FEEDING DURING AUTUMN.</td></tr> + +<tr><th> No. </th><th>Name and Address of Authorities. </th><th> Hay. </th><th> Oats. </th><th>Beans. </th><th>Clover, &c. </th><th colspan="2">Weekly Cost. </th></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td class="c"> lb. </td><td class="c"> lb. </td><td class="c"> lb. </td><td> </td><td class="c"> s.</td><td class="c"> d. </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="c"> 1 </td><td class="l">W. Gater, Botley </td><td> 168 </td><td> 63* </td><td> 32* </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td>12 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 2 </td><td class="l">W. C. Spooner </td><td> 112 </td><td> 84 </td><td> 24 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td>11 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 3 </td><td class="l">T. Aitken, Spalding. </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 37½ </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c">ad lib. </td><td> 7 </td><td> 6? </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 4 </td><td class="l">T. Aitken, Spalding. </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 37½ </td><td> 35 </td><td class="c">ad lib. </td><td>10 </td><td> 0? </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 5 </td><td class="l">T. P. Dods, Hexham. </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td>105 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c">ad lib. </td><td>10 </td><td> 6? </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 6 </td><td class="l">T. P. Dods, Hexham. </td><td class="c">ad lib. </td><td>105 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td>10 </td><td> 6? </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 7 </td><td class="l">A. Ruston, I. of Ely. </td><td class="c">ad lib. ½ </td><td> 84 </td><td> 10 </td><td class="c">Straw ad lib.<br /> ½ Bran.<br /> <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub> bush. </td><td> 9 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 8 </td><td class="l">A. Simpson, Beauly </td><td> 168 </td><td> 70 </td><td> 14 </td><td class="c">24 lb.<br /> Straw. </td><td>10 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 9 </td><td class="l">H. J. Wilson, Mansfield </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 52½ </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c">ad lib. </td><td> 7 </td><td> 3? </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="c"> 10 </td><td class="l">H. J. Wilson, Mansfield </td><td> 42 </td><td> 87½ </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c">ad lib. </td><td> 9 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td class="c" colspan="8"> In this table the asterisk (*) means that the grain is crushed or ground.</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page110" name="page110"></a>[110]</span></p> + +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Feed mixtures and cost for winter, by stable"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="10"> STABLE FEEDING DURING WINTER.</td></tr> + +<tr><th> No.</th><th>Name and Address. </th><th> Hay. </th><th> Oats. </th><th>Beans.</th><th> Roots. </th><th>Sundries.</th><th>Straw.</th><th colspan="2">Weekly Cost.</th></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><th> lb. </th><th> lb. </th><th>lb. </th><th> lb. </th><th> lb. </th><th> lb. </th><th> s.</th><th> d. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="c"> 1 </td><td class="l">Professor Low—Elements of Agriculture </td><td class="c"> 56* </td><td class="c"> 56* </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c">Potatoes<br /> 56+ </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> 56* </td><td> 6 </td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 2 </td><td class="l">H. Stephens—Book of the Farm </td><td class="c">112 </td><td class="c"> 35 </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c">Turnips<br /> 112 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 6 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 3 </td><td class="l">J. Gibson, Woolmet—H. Soc. 1850 </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c"> 84 </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c">Potatoes<br /> 217+ </td><td class="c"> 217+ </td><td class="c"> 112 </td><td> 9 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 4 </td><td class="l">—— Binnie, Seaton </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c"> 70* </td><td class="c"> 28* </td><td class="c">Barley<br /> 243+ </td><td class="c"> 42+ </td><td class="c">ad lib. </td><td>11 </td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 5 </td><td class="l">—— Thomson, Hangingside </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c"> 84 </td><td class="c"> 14 </td><td class="c"> 336 </td><td class="c"> 14 </td><td class="c">ad lib. </td><td> 9 </td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 6 </td><td class="l">W. C. Spooner, Ag. Soc. Journ. vol. ix. </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c"> 63 </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c"> 42 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> 196 </td><td> 4 </td><td> 9 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 7 </td><td class="l">T. Aitken, Spalding, Lincolnshire </td><td class="c">ad lib. (<sup>2</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub>)</td><td class="c"> 37 </td><td class="c"> 35 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c">ad lib. (<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub>)</td><td> 9 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 8 </td><td class="l">G. W. Baker, Woburn, Bedfordshire </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c"> 60* </td><td class="c"> 20* </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 9 </td><td> 8 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 9 </td><td class="l">R. Baker, Writtle, Essex </td><td class="c"> 70 </td><td class="c"> 42 </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> 140 </td><td> 5 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 10 </td><td class="l">J. Coleman, Cirencester </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c"> 84 </td><td class="c"> 16 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c">ad lib. </td><td> 7 </td><td> 3 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 11 </td><td class="l">T. P. Dods, Hexham </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c"> 95 </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c"> 56 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c">ad lib. </td><td> 8 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 12 </td><td class="l">J. Cobban, Whitfield </td><td class="c"> 84* </td><td class="c"> 60* </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c">Linseed<br /> 3½</td><td class="c">ad lib.* </td><td> 7 </td><td> 3 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 13 </td><td class="l">S. Druce, jun., Ensham </td><td class="c">112 </td><td class="c"> 52 </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c">Swedes<br /> 70 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> 2 bu.* </td><td> 7 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 14 </td><td class="l">C. Howard, Biddenham </td><td class="c">(<sup>2</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub>)</td><td class="c"> 52 </td><td class="c"> 17 </td><td class="c"> 84 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c">ad lib. <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub>* </td><td> 8 </td><td> 6? </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 15 </td><td class="l">J. J. Mechi, Tiptree. </td><td class="c"> 49* </td><td class="c"> 70* </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c">M. Wurzel<br /> 210 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c">ad lib.* </td><td> 7 </td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 16 </td><td class="l">W. J. Pope, Bridport </td><td class="c"> 2* </td><td class="c"> 84 </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c">ad lib. </td><td> 9 </td><td> 0? </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 17 </td><td class="l">S. Rich, Didmarton, Gloucestershire </td><td class="c">168 </td><td class="c"> 63 </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c">Grains<br />2 bush.</td><td class="c">ad lib. </td><td>10 </td><td> 8 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 18 </td><td class="l">H. E. Sadler, Lavant, Sussex </td><td class="c">140 </td><td class="c"> 84 </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 9 </td><td> 9 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 19 </td><td class="l">J. Morton, Whitfield Farm </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c">126 </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c">Carrots<br /> 350 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c">ad lib. </td><td>10 </td><td> 9 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 20 </td><td class="l">E. H. Sandford, Dover </td><td class="c"> 56 </td><td class="c"> 42 </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c">Bran<br />12 </td><td class="c">ad lib. </td><td> 5 </td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 21 </td><td class="l">A. Simpson, Beauly, N.B. </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c"> 49 </td><td class="c"> 7 </td><td class="c"> 105 </td><td class="c">Tail Corn<br />21 </td><td class="c">ad lib.* </td><td> 5 </td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 22 </td><td class="l">H. J. Wilson, Mansfield </td><td class="c"> 42 </td><td class="c"> 52½ </td><td class="c">... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c">Bran<br />21 </td><td class="c">ad lib. </td><td> 6 </td><td> 6? </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="c"> 23 </td><td class="l">F. Sowerby, Aylesby, North Lincolnshire </td><td class="c">112 </td><td class="c"> 28 </td><td class="c" colspan="2">Cut Oat Sheaf.</td> <td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c">ad lib.* </td><td> 8 </td><td> 0? </td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"> +<td class="c" colspan="10"> +Where an asterisk (*) is attached to any item, it is to be understood +that the corn has been bruised or ground, or the hay or straw has been +cut into chaff. Where a dagger (+) is appended, the article so marked +has been boiled or steamed. A mark of interrogation (?) indicates that +the result so marked is uncertain, owing to some indefiniteness in the +account given. +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page111" name="page111"></a>[111]</span></p> + +<p> +On feeding horses with pulped roots, Mr. Slater, of Weston Colville, +Cambridgeshire, says:— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + I give all my cart horses a bushel per day of pulped mangel, mixed + with straw and corn-chaff. I begin in September, and continue using + them all winter and until late in the summer, nearly, if not quite, + all the year round, beginning, however, with smaller quantities, + about a peck, and then half a bushel, the first week or two, as too + many of the young-growing mangel would not suit the stock. I believe + pulped mangels, with chaff, are the best, cheapest, and most healthy + food horses can eat. I always find my horses miss them when I have + none, late in the summer. I give them fresh ground every day. Young + store beasts, colts, &c., do well with them. +</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<a name="note-19"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-19">19</a>) +Five pounds of linseed will make about seven gallons of +gruel, and suffice for five good-sized calves; considerable allowance +must, however, be made for differences of quality in the linseed, that +from India not being gelatinous enough, and therefore boiling hard, +instead of "coming down kindly." +</p> + +<a name="note-20"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-20">20</a>) +"Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society," vol. xxxix. +</p> + +<a name="note-21"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-21">21</a>) +From Mr. Horsfall's Essay on Dairy Management, in "Journal +of Royal Agricultural Society," vol. xviii., part i. +</p> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page112" name="page112"></a>[112]</span></p> + +<a name="h2H_4_0008" id="h2H_4_0008"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + PART IV. +</h2> +<h3> + MEAT, MILK, AND BUTTER. +</h3> +<h4> +SECTION I. +</h4> +<h5> +MEAT. +</h5> +<p> +No one ought to feel a greater interest in the subject of meat in +all its branches than the stock feeder. Just in proportion as this +kind of food is agreeable to the taste, easily digestible, and rich in +nutriment, will the demand for it increase. The quality of meat is, in +fact, a primary consideration with the producer of that article; and he +whose beef and mutton are the most tender and the best flavored will +make the most profit. +</p> +<p> +<i>Quality of Meat.</i>—The flesh of herbivorous animals is composed of +muscular and adipose (fatty) tissues. The muscles consist of bundles of +elastic fibres (<i>fibrine</i>), enclosed in an albuminous tissue formed of +little vessels, termed cells, and intimately commingled with water, and +a mixture of albuminous, fatty, and saline matters. The leanest flesh +(muscles) contains fat, but the latter accumulates in certain parts of +the body—often to such an extent as to seriously interfere with the +functions of life. The red color of flesh is due to a rather large +proportion of blood, which it contains in minute vessels; and the slight +acidity of its juice is owing to the presence of <i>inosinic</i> acid, and +probably of several other acids. The agreeable odour of meat, when it +is subjected to the process of cooking, is developed from a complex +substance termed <i>osmazome</i>.<sup><a name="noteref-22"><!--22--></a><a href="#note-22">22</a></sup> + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page113" name="page113"></a>[113]</span> + + This constituent varies in nature and +quantity in the different animals—hence the variety in flavor and odour +of their flesh—and its amount increases with the age of the animal. +The albumen of the muscles, and their fatty and saline constituents, +are digestible; but it is generally believed that the elastic fibres, +and the horny cellular tissue which binds them into bundles, are not +assimilable. It is more certain that the crystalline substances found in +flesh, such as, for example, <i>kreatine</i>, are incapable of ministering to +the nutrition of animals. +</p> +<p> +The composition of flesh varies very much—that of a very obese pig +containing more than half its weight of fat, whilst in some specimens +of "jerked beef," imported from Monte Video, scarcely 5 per cent. of +that substance was found. The flesh of a fat ox has on an average the +following composition:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average composition of flesh of fat ox"> + +<tr><td></td><th>Per cent.</th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 45 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fatty substances </td><td> 35 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Lean flesh, or muscle </td><td> 15 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matters </td><td> 5 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td> ————</td></tr> +<tr><td> Total </td><td>100 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +I have examined for Dr. Morgan several specimens of the corned beef +recently prepared in South America, by "Morgan's process." The following +were the average results of three analyses:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of corned beef"> + +<tr><td></td><th>Per cent.</th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 40 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fatty matters </td><td> 21 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Lean, or muscular flesh </td><td> 27 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matters (chiefly common salt) </td><td> 12 </td></tr> + +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td> ————</td></tr> +<tr><td> Total </td><td>100 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +It may not here be out of place to direct attention to the composition +of a kind of animal food extensively purchased by the poorer classes, +and known under the term of slink veal. It is the flesh of calves that +are killed on the first day of their existence, and also, I have reason +to believe, that of very immature animals—of calves that have never +breathed. The flesh is of a + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page114" name="page114"></a>[114]</span> + + very loose texture naturally, and is still +further puffed out by air, which is usually supplied from the lungs of +the operator. This kind of meat, though regarded as a delicacy by some +people, is not held in much estimation, otherwise its price would be +higher than it is. It is at present sold at about 4d. or 5d. per pound, +sometimes even at a lower rate. Apart from the disgusting process of +"blowing" veal, so generally adopted, the use of this food is extremely +objectionable, owing to its great tendency to produce diarrhœa. To +the truth of this assertion every physician who has studied the subject +of dietetics can testify. I have analysed a specimen of it (purchased +from a person who admitted that it was part of a calf a day old), and +obtained the following results:— +</p> + +<p> +100 parts contain— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of slink veal"> + +<tr><td></td><th>Per cent.</th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 72·25 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fat </td><td> 6·17 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Lean flesh </td><td> 18·46 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter </td><td> 3·12 </td></tr> + +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td> ————</td></tr> +<tr><td> Total </td><td>100·00 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +I believe that a large portion of the lean flesh is indigestible; and +altogether I may safely say of this kind of meat that it is, especially +during the prevalence of cholera, an unsafe article of diet. Of course +these observations do not apply to <i>fed</i> veal, the only kind which +respectable butchers, as a rule, offer for sale. +</p> +<p> +Young meat is richer in soluble albumen and poorer in fibrine and +fat than the matured flesh of the same animal. The flesh of the goat +contains <i>hircic</i> acid, which renders it almost uneatable, but this +substance is either altogether absent from, or present but in minute +proportion in, the well-flavored meat of the kid. The flesh of game +contains abundance of osmazome, a substance which is somewhat deficient +in that of the domestic fowl. +</p> +<p> +Owing to the marked individuality which man exhibits in the selection of +his food, and to the intimate relationship subsisting + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page115" name="page115"></a>[115]</span> + + between food and +the organism it nourishes, it is impossible to arrange the alimental +substances in the strict order of their nutritive values. You can bring +a horse to the water, but you cannot compel him to drink it; you can +swallow any kind of food you please, but you cannot force your stomach +to digest it. It is, therefore, vain to tell a man that a certain kind +of food is shown by chemical analysis to be nutritious, when his stomach +tells him unmistakeably that it is poisonous, and refuses to digest it. +In the matter of dietetics Nature is a safer guide than the chemist. +Many substances, when viewed only in the light shed upon them by +chemical analysis, appear to be rich in the elements of nutrition, yet +when they are introduced into the stomachs of certain individuals, they +disarrange the digestive organs, and sometimes cause the whole system to +go out of order. Every day we see exemplified the truth of the proverb, +that "one man's meat is another man's poison." There are persons who +relish and readily digest fat pork, and yet they cannot eat a single +egg with impunity; others enjoy and easily assimilate eggs, but their +stomachs cannot tolerate a particle of fat bacon. +</p> +<p> +It is not merely the composition of an aliment and its adaptability to +the organism which determine its nutritive value—its digestibility +and flavor are points which affect it. There are few people in these +countries who are disposed to quarrel with beef; but no one would +prefer the leg of an elderly milch cow to the sirloin of a well-fed +three-year-old bullock: yet if our selection were to be determined by +the analysis of the two kinds of beef, we would be just as likely to +prefer the one as the other. No doubt the relative tenderness of meats +may be ascertained by experiments conducted <i>outside</i> the body; but +tenderness is not in every case synonymous with easy digestibility. +Veal contains more soluble albumen, and is, consequently, far more +tender than beef; yet, as every one knows, it is less digestible. It is +curious that maturity renders the flesh of some animals more digestible, +and that of others less digestible. Flavor has something to do with +these differences. + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page116" name="page116"></a>[116]</span> + + Beef is richer than veal in the agreeably flavorous +osmazome, and the flesh of the kid is destitute of the disagreeable +odour of the fully-developed goat. The superiority of wild-fowl over the +domesticated birds is solely owing to the finer flavor of their flesh. +</p> +<p> +The habits of animals, and the nature of their food, affect the +quality of their flesh. Exercise increases the amount of osmazome, and +consequently renders the meat more savory. The mutton of Wicklow, Wales, +and other mountainous regions is remarkably sweet, because the animals +that furnish it are almost as nimble as goats, and skip from crag to +crag in quest of their food. The fatty mutton, with pale muscle, which +is so abundant in our markets, is furnished by very young animals forced +prematurely into full development. Those animals have abundance of food +placed within easy reach; their muscular activity is next to <i>nil</i>, +and the result is, that their flesh contains less than its natural +proportion of savory ingredients. It is the same with all other animals. +The flesh of the tame rabbit is very insipid, whilst that of the wild +variety is well flavored. Wild fowls cooped up, and rapidly fattened, +lose their characteristic flavor; and when the domesticated birds become +wild their flesh becomes less fatty, and acquires all the peculiarities +of game. Ducks, whether wild or tame, ordinarily yield goodly meat; +but the flesh of some of those that feed on fish smacks strongly of +cod-liver oil. Birds which subsist partly on aromatic berries assimilate +the odour as well as the nutriment of their food. The flesh of grouse +has very commonly a slight flavor of heather. Foster states that in +Tahiti pigs are fed upon fruit, which renders their fat very bland and +their flesh like veal. Animals subjected to certain kinds of mutilation +fatten more rapidly than they do in their natural state. Capons increase +in weight more rapidly than cocks, poulards than hens, bullocks than +bulls, and cows deprived of their ovaries than perfect cows. Why it is +that the flesh of mutilated animals should be fatter and more tender +than that of whole animals, we know not; we only know that + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page117" name="page117"></a>[117]</span> + + such is the +fact. The hunting of animals renders their flesh more tender; the cause +assigned is, that the great exertion of the muscles liquefies their +fibrine, which is the toughest of their constituents. The meat of +animals brought very early to maturity is seldom so valuable as the +naturally developed article. Lawes and Gilbert state that portions of +a sheep that had been fattened upon <i>steeped</i> barley and mangels, and +which gave a very rapid increase, yielded several per cent. less of +cooked meat, and lost more, both in dripping and by the evaporation of +water, than the corresponding portions of a sheep which had been fed +upon <i>dry</i> barley and mangels, and which gave only about half the +amount of gross increase within the same period of time. +</p> +<p> +Although the digestibility and flavor of meat (and of every other kind +of food) affect its nutritive value, these points are in general of far +less importance than its composition. Potatoes are not so nutritious as +peas, because they contain a smaller amount of fat and flesh-formers; +but they are more digestible. Fish contains less solid matter than +flesh, and is less nutritious, yet a cut of turbot will be, in general, +more easily digested than an equal weight of old beef. The fact is, that +digestibility and flavor are only of great importance to dyspeptic +persons. In the healthy digestive organs a pound weight of (dry) food +of inferior flavor and slow digestibility will be just as useful as the +same weight of well-flavored and easily assimilable aliment, provided +all other conditions be alike. If the food be eaten with a relish, and +tolerated by the stomach, its digestibility will not, except in extreme +cases, affect in a very sensible degree its nutritiveness. +</p> +<p> +Were one question in animal nutrition satisfactorily answered, it +would then be comparatively easy to arrange aliments in the order of +their nutritive value. That question is—What are the proper relative +proportions of the fat-forming and flesh-forming constituents of our +food? It is constantly urged, that the food of the Irish peasantry +contains an excess of the fat-forming materials in relation to the +muscle-forming substances; and + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page118" name="page118"></a>[118]</span> + + the remedy suggested is, that their +staple article of food—potatoes—should be supplemented with flesh, +peas, and such like substances, in which, it is supposed, the elements +of nutrition are more fairly balanced. In potatoes, the proportion of +fat-formers (calculated as fat) is about five times as much as that +of the flesh-formers; but these principles exist in the same relative +proportions in the fat bacon with which the potato-eater loves to +supplement his bulky food. In bread we find the proportion of +fat-formers to be only 2½ times as much as that of the flesh-formers, +whilst, according to Lawes and Gilbert, the edible portion of the +carcass of a fat sheep contains 6½ times as much fat as nitrogenous +(flesh-forming) compounds. It is evident, then, that meat such as, for +example, the beef recently imported from Monte Video, from which the +fatty elements of nutrition are almost completely absent, cannot be a +suitable adjunct to a farinaceous food. +</p> +<p> +There is evidence to prove that in the animal food consumed by the +population of these countries, the proportion of fatty to nitrogenous +matters is greater than in the seeds of cereal and leguminous plants, +and but little less than in potatoes. "It would appear to be +unquestionable," say Lawes and Gilbert, "therefore, that the influence +of our staple <i>animal foods</i>, to supplement our otherwise mainly +farinaceous diet, is, on the large scale, to <i>reduce</i>, and <i>not to +increase</i>, the relation of the <i>assumed</i> flesh-forming material to the +more peculiarly respiratory and fat-forming capacity, so to speak, of +the food consumed." It must be remembered, too, that the fat <i>formers</i> +are ready <i>formed</i> in animal food, whereas they exist chiefly in the +form of starch, gum, sugar, and such-like substances in vegetables. +According to theory, 2½ parts of starch are equivalent to, <i>i.e.</i>, +convertible into, 1 part of fat; but it is not certain whether the force +which effects this change is derivable from the 2½ parts of starch, +or from the destruction of tissue, or of another portion of food. If +there be a tax on the system in order to convert starch into fat, it +is evident that 2½ parts of + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page119" name="page119"></a>[119]</span> + + starch, though convertible into, are not +equivalent in nutritive value to one part of fat. +</p> +<p> +It is quite certain that millions of healthy, vigorous men have +subsisted for years exclusively on potatoes; but it is no less clear +that a diet of meat and potatoes enables the laborer to work harder +and longer than if his food were composed solely of potatoes. But we +have seen that the relation between the flesh-forming and fat-forming +elements is nearly the same in both potatoes and meat; so that the +superiority of a meat or mixed diet cannot be chiefly owing, contrary to +the generally received opinion, to a greater abundance of flesh-forming +materials. As the proportion of flesh-formers to fat-formers is so much +greater in wheaten or oaten bread than in potatoes, and as peas and +other vegetables rich in nitrogenous compounds are practically found to +be an excellent supplement to potatoes, it is probable that the latter +may be somewhat relatively deficient in flesh-forming capacity. It is, +however, in all probability the great bulk of a potato diet, and its +total want of ready formed fat, that render the addition to it of animal +food so very desirable. The concentrated state in which the ingredients +of flesh exist, the intimate way in which they are intermixed, their +agreeable flavor, and their (in general) ready and almost complete +digestibility, appear to be the principal points in which a meat diet +excels a vegetable regimen. There may be others, which, though less +evident, are, perhaps, of equal importance. At all events, the general +experience of mankind testifies to the superiority of a mixed animal +and vegetable diet over a purely vegetable one. +</p> +<p> +<i>Is very Fat Meat wholesome?</i>—The enormous and rapidly increasing +demand for meat which characterises the food markets of these days, +has reacted in a remarkable manner upon the nature of the animals that +supply it. Formerly the animals that furnished pork, mutton, and beef, +were allowed to attain the age of three years old and upwards before +they were considered to be "ripe" for the butcher; but now sheep and pigs +are perfectly <i>matured</i> at the early age of one year, and + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page120" name="page120"></a>[120]</span> + + two-year-old +oxen furnish a large quota of the "roast beef of old England." The +so-called improvement of stock is simply the forcing of them into an +unnatural degree of fatness at an early age; and this end is attained +by dexterous selection and crossing of breeds, by avoidance of cold, by +diminishing as much as possible their muscular activity, and lastly, +and chiefly, by over-feeding them with concentrated aliments. +</p> +<p> +Every one knows that a man so obese as to be unable to walk cannot be +in a healthy state; yet many feeders of stock look upon the monstrously +fat bulls and cows of cattle show prize celebrity as normal types of the +bovine tribe. It requires but little argument to refute so fallacious +a notion. No doubt it is desirable to encourage the breeding of those +varieties of animals which exhibit the greatest disposition to fatten, +and to arrive early at maturity; but the forcing of individual animals +into an unnatural state of obesity, except for purely experimental +purposes, is a practice which cannot be too strongly deprecated. If +breeders contented themselves with handing over to the butcher their +huge living blocks of fat, the matter would not perhaps be very serious; +but, unfortunately, it is too often the practice to turn them to account +as sires and dams. Were I a judge at a cattle show, I certainly should +disqualify every extremely fat animal entered for competition amongst +the breeding stock. Unless parents are healthy and vigorous, their +progeny are almost certain to be unhealthy and weakly; and it is +inconceivable that an extremely obese bull and an unnaturally fat cow +could be the progenitors of healthy offspring. We should by all means +improve our live stock; but we should be careful not to overdo the +thing. If we must have gaily-decked ponderous bulls and cows at our fat +cattle exhibitions, let us condemn to speedy immolation those unhappy +victims to a most absurd fashion; but in the name of common sense let +us leave the perpetuation of the species to individuals in a normal +state, whose muscles are not replaced by fat, whose hearts are not +hypertrophied, and whose lungs are capable of effectively performing +the function of respiration. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page121" name="page121"></a>[121]</span></p> + +<p> +Mr. Gant, in a small volume<sup><a name="noteref-23"><!--23--></a><a href="#note-23">23</a></sup> devoted wholly to the subject, describes +the serious functional and structural disarrangements which over-feeding +produces in stock. He found the heart of a one-year old Southdown +wether, fattened according to the <i>high-pressure system</i>, to be little +more than a mass of fat. In several other young, but so-called "matured" +sheep, he found more or less fatty degeneration of the heart, and +extensively spread disease of the liver and of the lungs. A four-year +old Devon heifer, exhibited by the late Prince Consort at a Smithfield +show, was found to be in a highly diseased state. It was slaughtered, +and of course its flesh sold at a high price as "prize beef," but its +internal organs came into Mr. Gant's possession. The substance of both +ventricles of the heart had undergone all but complete conversion into +fat; one of its muscles was broken up, and many of the fibres of the +others were ruptured. In another animal the muscular fibres of the +heart had given way to so great an extent that if the thin lining +membrane (<i>endocardium</i>) had burst, death would have instantly ensued. +The slightest exertion was likely to cause this catastrophe; but, +fortunately enough in this case, the animal was not capable of exertion, +for though under three years of age, it weighed upwards of 200 stones: +this animal had received for some time before its exhibition, the +liberal allowance of 21 lbs. of oil-cake (besides other food) per diem. +"A pen of three pigs," says Mr. Gant, "belonging to his Royal Highness +the Prince Consort, happened to be placed in a favorable light for +observation, and I particularly noticed their condition. They lay +helpless on their sides, with their noses propped up against each +other's backs, as if endeavouring to breathe more easily, but their +respiration was loud, suffocating, and at long intervals. Then you heard +a short catching snore, which shook the whole body of the animal, and +passed with the motion of a wave over its fat surface, + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page122" name="page122"></a>[122]</span> + + which, moreover, +felt cold. I thought how much the heart under such circumstances must +be laboring to propel the blood through the lungs and throughout the +body. The gold medal pigs of Mr. Moreland were in a similar condition, +if anything, worse; for they snored and gasped for breath, their mouths +being opened, as well as their nostrils dilated, at each inspiration. +From a pig we only expect a grunt, but not a snore. These animals, +only twelve months and ten days old, were marked '<i>improved</i> Chilton +breed.' They, with their fellows just mentioned, of eleven months and +twenty-three days, had early come to grief. Three pigs of the black +breed were in a similar state, at seven months three weeks and five +days, yet such animals 'the judges highly commended.'" +</p> +<p> +Dr. Brinton denies the accuracy of several of Mr. Gant's statements +relative to the structural changes in the muscles of obese animals; +but I do not think that he has succeeded in disproving the principal +assertions made by the latter. +</p> +<p> +There is conclusive evidence to prove that one of the effects of the +present mode of fattening beasts is disease of the internal organs +of the animals; but it is by no means certain that the flesh of those +diseased animals is as unwholesome food as some writers assert it to +be. The flesh of an over-fattened animal differs from that of a lean, or +moderately fat one, in containing an exceedingly high proportion of fat; +but it has not been proved that the fat of prize animals differs from +the fat of lean kine, or that it is less wholesome or nutritious. Be the +flesh of those exceedingly fat animals unwholesome or not, there are +thousands, ay, millions of persons, to whom its greasy quality renders +it peculiarly acceptable; and as for those who dislike fat—they do +not usually invest their money in the flesh of prize sheep or oxen. +At the same time, it must not be understood that all, or even a large +proportion of fully matured stock is in a diseased state; though in most +of them the vital and muscular powers are undoubtedly exceedingly low. +</p> +<p> +There is no doubt but that sheep and oxen, from three to + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page123" name="page123"></a>[123]</span> + + five years old, +moderately fat, and fairly exercising their locomotive powers, furnish +the most savory, and, perhaps, the most nutritious meat: but if such +were the only kind of meat in demand, it may be fairly doubted that the +supply would be equal to it. The produce of meat in these countries has +been rapidly increasing for many years past; and the weight of meat +annually supplied from a given area of land is now from 80 to 100 per +cent. greater than it furnished thirty or forty years ago. It is chiefly +by means of the so-called forcing system that the produce of meat has +been so considerably increased. If this system were abandoned, the +production would be greatly diminished, and the consequently high price +of the article would place it beyond the reach of the masses of the +population. Besides, it has not been proved that the flesh of the +animals brought early to maturity is much inferior, except somewhat in +flavor, to the meat of three-year-old beasts. There is, no doubt, plenty +of unwholesome meat offered for sale, but it is that of animals which +were affected by diseases as likely to attack the young as the old. On +the whole, then, we may say of the improved system of fattening stock, +that it produces a maximum amount of meat on a given area of land; that +the meat so produced is, except in rare cases, perfectly wholesome; that +it is capable of supplying the ingredient—fat—which is almost wholly +absent from a vegetable diet; and, finally, that it places animal food +within the reach of the working classes. +</p> +<p> +<i>Diseased Meat.</i>—The losses occasioned to stockowners by the diseases +of live stock are far greater than is generally supposed. It has been +calculated that in the six years ending 1860, the value of the horned +stock lost by disease amounted to £25,934,650. Pleuro-pneumonia was the +chief cause of these losses. Exclusive of the enormous losses occasioned +by the ravages of the rinderpest, the annual loss by disease in live +stock in these countries for some years past cannot be much under +£6,000,000 sterling. +</p> +<p> +Whether it is owing to the somewhat abnormal condition under which the +domesticated animals are placed, or to causes + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page124" name="page124"></a>[124]</span> + + which operate upon them +when in a state of nature, it is certain that they are remarkably prone +to disease. It is extremely difficult to get a horse six years old that +is not a roarer or a whistler, or "weak on his pins," or in some way or +other unsound. Oxen, sheep, and pigs have almost as many maladies +afflicting them as human flesh is heir to, notwithstanding the short +period of life which they are permitted to enjoy. +</p> +<p> +It is a very serious question whether or not the flesh of animals that +have been killed while they are in a diseased condition is injurious to +health. The opinions on this point are conflicting, but the majority of +medical men believe that the flesh of diseased animals is not wholesome. +There are certain maladies which obviously render meat unsaleable, by +causing a sensible alteration in its quality. For example, blackleg +in cattle and measles in the porcine tribe render the flesh of these +animals, as a general rule, unmarketable, or nearly so. But there are +very serious diseases—often proving rapidly fatal—which, whilst +seriously affecting certain internal organs, do not palpably deteriorate +the quality of the flesh. In such cases are we to rely upon the evidence +of our mere senses in judging of the wholesomeness of the meat? If we +find beef possessing a good color and odour, and firm to the touch, and +<i>appearing</i> to be in every respect healthy flesh, are we under such +circumstances to take it for granted that it must be healthy? This is a +very important question, involving as it does the interests of both the +producers and consumers of animal food. If the flesh of all diseased +animals be unwholesome, a very large number of oxen now sold whilst +laboring under pleuro-pneumonia should not be sent into the market. +This, of course, would be a heavy loss to the stockowner, but a still +heavier one to the meat consumer; because, if there were fewer animals +for sale, the price of meat would ascend, in obedience to the law of +supply and demand. The whole question is, then, well worthy of being +considered in the most careful, unbiassed, and scientific manner; for +at present it is in a state which is the reverse of being satisfactory. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page125" name="page125"></a>[125]</span></p> + +<p> +A large proportion of the animals conducted to the shambles is in a +diseased condition. Professor Gamgee estimates it at no less than +one-fifth. Dr. Letheby, food analyst to the Corporation of London, +condemns weekly about 2,000 pounds weight of flesh; but as his +jurisdiction is limited to the "City," which contains a population of +only about 114,000, the 2,000 pounds of diseased meat are probably only +about 1-30th of the quantity exposed for sale within the whole area of +the metropolis. Making an estimate of the most moderate kind, we may +assume that 30,000 pounds weight of bad meat are weekly offered for +sale in London—<i>three million pounds weight annually</i>. +</p> +<p> +Many persons have been affected with dysentery and choleraic symptoms +after partaking of butcher's meat of apparently the most healthy kind. +The meat has often been subjected to minute chemical and microscopical +examination, but no poison has been discovered. But these cases are +becoming so frequent that they are exciting uneasiness, and demand an +exhaustive investigation. The unskilful persons who officiate in the +capacity of "clerks of the market" and inspectors of meat can only judge +of the quality of flesh that is obviously inferior to the eye, nose, or +touch; but are there not cases where the flesh may appear to be good, +and yet contain some subtle malign principle? It is an ascertained fact +that young or "slink" veal very frequently gives rise to diarrhœa, +more especially when that disease is epidemic. Dr. Parkes, in his +celebrated work on Hygiene, page 162 (second edition), states that +"the flesh of the pig sometimes produced diarrhœa—a fact I have had +occasion to notice in a regiment in India, and which has often been +noticed by others. The flesh is, probably, affected by the unwholesome +garbage on which the pig feeds." Menschell states that 44 persons were +afflicted with anthrax after eating the flesh of oxen affected with +carbuncular fever. Dr. Kesteren, in the <i>Medical Times</i> for March, 1864, +mentions a case where twelve persons were affected with choleraic +symptoms after the use of pork not obviously diseased. At Newtownards, +county of Down, several + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page126" name="page126"></a>[126]</span> + + persons died after eating veal in which no +poisonous matter of any kind could be detected. One instance has come +under my own notice where a man, two dogs, and a pig died after eating +the flesh of an animal killed whilst suffering from splenic apoplexy. +Several butchers have lost their lives in consequence of the blood of +diseased animals being allowed to come in contact with abrasions or +recently received wounds on their arms. The flesh of over-driven animals +is stated by Professor Gamgee to produce a most serious skin disease, +although the meat appeared to be perfectly healthy. The Belgian Academy +of Medicine has decided that the flesh of animals suffering from +carbuncular fever is unwholesome, and its sale in that country is +prohibited. +</p> +<p> +Many persons have died in Germany and a few in England from a disease +produced by eating pork containing a small internal parasite termed +<i>trichina spiralis</i>. I have recently met with a case of <i>trichiniasis</i> +in the human subject. The body of the unfortunate person—who had +been an inmate of the South Dublin Union Workhouse—was found to +contain thousands of the trichinæ. In Iceland a large proportion of +the population suffers from a parasitic disease traceable to the use +of the flesh of sheep and cattle in which flukes abound. +</p> +<p> +Pleuro-pneumonia is in this country the disease which most frequently +affects the ox. It is probable that about 5 per cent. of these animals +sold in Dublin are more or less affected by this malady. There are two +forms of pleuro-pneumonia—the sporadic, or indigenous, and the foreign, +or contagious. It is the latter form which has become the scourge of the +ox tribe in this country, though unknown here until the year 1841, when +it appeared as an epizoötic, and carried off vast numbers of animals. +</p> +<p> +The contagious pleuro-pneumonia is an extremely severe inflammatory +disease, and is produced—not in the same way that common pleuro-pneumonia +is, by exposure to excessive cold, &c.—but by a blood poison received +from an infected animal. In the congestive stage of the disease there is +no + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page127" name="page127"></a>[127]</span> + + structural alteration in the organs of the animal, and if well bled +its flesh might (probably) be safely eaten; but when a large portion of +the lungs becomes solidified, and rendered incapable of purifying the +blood, is it not doubtful, to say the least, that the blood or flesh is +perfectly wholesome? The blood, during the life of the animal, is in a +state of fermentation; there is extreme fever, and the animal presents +all the characteristic symptoms of acute disease. On being killed, the +flesh, if the disease be of a fortnight's duration, will usually be +extremely dark, but in a less advanced stage of the malady the flesh +will generally present a healthy appearance. Is it really so? That +is the question which science has to determine. Going upon a broad +principle, I can hardly conceive that so serious a disease as +pleuro-pneumonia does not injuriously affect the quality of the flesh. +It is no argument to say that thousands consume such flesh, and yet +enjoy good health. Millions of people drink water and breathe air that +are extremely impure, and yet they do not speedily die. It is one thing +to be poisonous, another to be unwholesome. The flesh of animals killed +whilst suffering from lung distemper is not directly poisonous, but who +can prove that it is not, like bad water, unwholesome? +</p> +<p> +As analyst to the city of Dublin, I am almost daily called upon to +inspect meat suspected to be unwholesome; and I have always condemned +as being unfit for human food:— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 1. Animals slaughtered at the time of bringing forth their young. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 2. Oxen affected with pleuro-pneumonia, when pus is present in the + lungs, or the flesh obviously affected; animals suffering from + murrain, black-quarter, and the different forms of anthrax. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 3. Animals in an anæmic, or wasted condition. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 4. Meat in a state of putrefaction. +</p> +<p> +During the present year about 20,000 pounds weight of meat have been +seized and condemned in the city of Dublin. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page128" name="page128"></a>[128]</span></p> + +<h4> +SECTION II. +</h4> +<h5> +MILK. +</h5> +<p> +Milk is a peculiar fluid secreted by the females of all animals +belonging to the class <i>Mammalia</i>; and, being designed for the +nourishment of their offspring, contains all the constituents which +enter into the composition of the animal body. +</p> +<p> +The milk of different animals varies very much in color, taste, and +nutritive value. That of the cow is a little heavier than water—its +specific gravity being, on the average, about 1·030, water being +1·000. It is composed of three constituents—namely, butter, curd, and +whey—each of which is also composed of a number of substances. These +three constituents are of unequal weight, or specific gravity, and their +separation is the chief process carried on in the dairy. The butter is +the lightest and the curd is the heaviest constituent. +</p> +<p> +The following table represents the composition of the milk of different +animals:— +</p> + +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of milk of various animals"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="8"> COMPOSITION OF THE MILK OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS.<br /> +<small>1,000 PARTS CONTAIN—</small></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><th>Specific Gravity, or Density.</th><th>Water. </th><th> Solid Ingredients. </th><th>Cheesy Matter. </th><th>Sugar.</th><th>Butter.</th><th>Mineral Matter.</th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Woman </td><td>1032·67 </td><td>889·08 </td><td> 110·92 </td><td> 39·30 </td><td>43·68 </td><td> 26·66 </td><td> 1·30 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Cow </td><td>1030 </td><td>864·20 </td><td> 135·80 </td><td> 48·80 </td><td>47·70 </td><td> 31·30 </td><td> 6·00 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Goat </td><td>1033·53 </td><td>844·90 </td><td> 155·10 </td><td> 35·14 </td><td>36·91 </td><td> 56·87 </td><td> 6·18 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ewe </td><td>1040·98 </td><td>832·32 </td><td> 167·68 </td><td> 69·78 </td><td>39·43 </td><td> 51·31 </td><td> 7·16 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mare </td><td>1033·74 </td><td>904·30 </td><td> 95·70 </td><td> 33·35 </td><td>32·76 </td><td> 24·36 </td><td> 5·23 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ass </td><td>1034·57 </td><td>890·12 </td><td> 109·88 </td><td> 35·65 </td><td>50·46 </td><td> 18·53 </td><td> 5·24 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"> + <td class="l"> Bitch </td><td>1041·62 </td><td>772·08 </td><td> 227·92 </td><td>116·88 </td><td>15·29 </td><td> 87·95 </td><td> 7·80 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +Milk examined through a microscope is a colorless fluid, containing a +large number of little vesicles, or bags, filled with butter—a mixture +of oily and fatty matters. When the milk stands for some time, the +globules, being lighter than the other constituents, ascend to the top, +and, mixed with a certain proportion + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page129" name="page129"></a>[129]</span> + + of milk, are removed as cream. +The curd is termed in scientific parlance <i>casein</i>, and is in fresh milk +in a state of solution—that is to say, is dissolved in milk in the same +way that we dissolve sugar in water. When milk becomes sour, either +naturally or by the addition of rennet, it can no longer hold casein in +solution, and the curd consequently separates. Casein is the substance +which forms the basis of cheese. The substance that remains after the +removal of the butter and cheese is called <i>serum</i>, or whey, and is +composed of a sweetish substance termed <i>sugar of milk</i>, and certain +saline bodies, termed the ash, dissolved in water. +</p> +<p> +The butter and the sugar of milk are employed in the animal economy in +the production of fat, and are what have been styled by physiologists +<i>heat-producers</i> and <i>fat-formers</i>. The casein resembles the gluten of +wheat in composition; it belongs to the class of food substances termed +<i>flesh-formers</i>. The ash, or mineral part of the milk, is chiefly +employed in forming the bones of the young animals it is destined to +nourish. +</p> +<p> +The quality of milk is influenced by the quantity and quality of the +food given to the animal. The milk of cows fed on distillery wash, +turnip, and mangel tops, coarse herbage, and other kinds of inferior +food, is always of inferior quality. Hence it is of great importance +that dairy stock be kept in good old pastures in summer, and fed on +Swedish turnips, mangel-wurtzel, and oil-cake during winter. It is true +economy to supply dairy cows with abundance of nutritious food; and it +should be constantly borne in mind that the milk from two well-fed cows +will give more butter than can be obtained from the produce of three +badly-fed animals. +</p> +<p> +The butter is the constituent of milk which is most affected by the +nature and amount of the animal's food; and butter is precisely the +article which is of the greatest importance to the Irish dairy farmer, +as the quantity of cheese prepared in this country is inconsiderable. +When, therefore, it is found that a cow pastured on inferior land, or +badly fed in the byre, yields + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page130" name="page130"></a>[130]</span> + + a large supply of milk of a high specific +quantity (which, however, is rarely the case), it must not be concluded +that the result is satisfactory; for if such milk be tested by the +lactometer it will certainly be found wanting in butter. The average +composition of English milk, according to Way, is:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average composition of English milk"> +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>87·02 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Butter </td><td> 3·23 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Casein </td><td> 4·48 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sugar of milk </td><td> 4·67 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ash </td><td> 0·60 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +In several analyses of milk published by Professor Voelcker, the highest +proportion of butter is stated to be 7·62. In that of cows kept on +poor and over-stocked pastures less than 2 per cent. was found. I have +examined in my capacity of Food Analyst to the City of Dublin several +hundred samples of milk, in not one of which have I found the proportion +of butter to amount to more than 5·6 per cent. In no sample did I find +a higher per-centage of solid matter than 13·15, or (when pure) lower +than 12·08. The quality of the food of the milch cow exercises a great +influence on the quality and yield of her milk. Aliments rich in fat and +sugar favor the production of butter, and augment the supply of milk. +Locust-beans, malt, and molasses are good milk-producing foods; but the +chief condition in the production of milk rich in butter is simply that +the animals which yield it must be fed with abundance of nutritious +food. Nor must it be supposed that the richness of milk is due to the +smallness of the yield, for whenever the quality of the secretion is +inferior, it is almost certain to be deficient in quantity. Those cows +which give the richest milk, generally yield the largest quantity. +</p> +<p> +<i>Yield of Milk.</i>—According to Boussingault, a cow daily yields on the +average 10·4 parts of milk per 1,000 parts of her weight. Morton, in his +"Cyclopædia of Agriculture," p. 621, states that Mr. Young, a Scotch +dairy keeper, obtained 680 + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page131" name="page131"></a>[131]</span> + + gallons per cow per annum. Voelcker found +that some common dairy stock gave each of them fifty-two pints of milk +per diem, whilst three pedigree cows yielded respectively forty-nine +pints. +</p> +<p> +Professor Wilson gives the following information on this point:— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + Our principal dairy breeds are the Ayrshire, the Channel Islands, + the Short-horn, the Suffolk, and the Kerry. Some published returns + of two dairies of Ayrshire cows give the annual milk produce per + cow at 650 and 632 gallons respectively. Three returns of dairies, + consisting wholly of Short-horns, show a produce of 540 gallons, + 630 gallons, and 765 gallons respectively, or an average of 625 + gallons per annum for each cow. In two dairies, where half-bred + Short-horns were kept, the yield was 810 and 866 gallons + respectively for each cow. In four dairies in Ireland, where pure + Kerrys and crosses with Short-horns and Ayrshires were kept, the + annual produce per cow was returned at 500 gallons, 600 gallons, + 675 gallons, and 740 gallons respectively; or an average, on the + four dairies, of 630 gallons per annum for each cow. A dairy of + "pure Kerrys" gave an average of 488 gallons per cow, and another + of the larger Irish breed gave an average of 583 gallons per head + per annum. In the great London dairies, now well-nigh extinguished + by the ravages of the cattle disease, these returns are greatly + exceeded. The cows kept are large framed Short-horns and Yorkshire + crosses, which, by good feeding, bring the returns to nearly + 1,000 gallons per annum for each cow kept. The custom in these + establishments is to dispose of a cow directly her milk falls + below two gallons a-day, and buy another in her place. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + The following milk return of one of our best managed dairy farms + (Frocester Court) shows the relative produce of cows in the + successive years of their milking. The first lot was bought in at + two-years old; all the others at three years:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Relative milk produce of cows at various ages"> + +<tr><th> No. of Cows. </th><th> Year of Milk. </th><th> Produce per head. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="c"> 8 </td><td class="c"> 1st </td><td class="c"> 317 gals. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 15 </td><td class="c"> 1st </td><td class="c"> 472 " </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 14 </td><td class="c"> 2nd </td><td class="c"> 353 " </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 15 </td><td class="c"> 3rd </td><td class="c"> 616 " </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 20 </td><td class="c"> 4th </td><td class="c"> 665 " </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 18 </td><td class="c"> 5th </td><td class="c"> 635 " </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 9 </td><td class="c"> 6th </td><td class="c"> 708 " </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c"> 15 </td><td class="c"> Old </td><td class="c"> 651 " </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p class="quote"> + The maximum reliable milk produce that we have recorded was that + of a single cow belonging to the keeper of the gaol at Lewes, the + details of + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page132" name="page132"></a>[132]</span> + + which were authenticated by the Board of Agriculture. + In eight consecutive years she gave 9,720 gallons, or at the rate + of more than 1,210 gallons per annum. In one year she milked 328 + days, and gave 1,230 gallons, which yielded 540 lbs. of butter, + or at the rate of 1 lb. of butter to 22¾ lb. of milk. In the + early part of the present year (1866) a return was published of + the produce of a cow in a Vermont (U.S.) dairy, which was stated + to have given, in the previous year, a butter yield of 504 lbs., + at the rate of 1 lb. of butter to 20 lbs. of milk.<sup><a name="noteref-24"><!--24--></a><a href="#note-24">24</a></sup> +</p> +<p> +<i>Preserved Milk.</i>—Various plans have been proposed to render milk more +portable, and to preserve it sweet for days and even months. Mr. Borden +of Connecticut, United States, prepares a concentrated milk by boiling +the fluid down in vacuo, at a temperature under 140° Fahrenheit, mixing +the resulting solid with sugar, and rapidly placing the compound in +tins, which are then hermetically sealed. It is said that solidified +milk prepared by this process remains sweet for many months. In France, +solidified and concentrated milk are largely prepared; and it is certain +that London and other large towns will yet be supplied with milk +rendered portable and more stable, by the removal of a large proportion +of its water. In many parts of Ireland pure milk could be bought at from +7d. to 8d. per gallon. I do not despair to see factories established in +such places for the manufacture of preserved milk as a substitute for +the dear and impure fluid sold under the name of milk in London and +other large cities. It is stated that solidified milk prepared in +Switzerland is now sold in London. +</p> + +<h4> +SECTION III. +</h4> +<h5> +BUTTER. +</h5> +<p> +<i>History of Butter.</i>—The very general use of butter as an article of +food is demonstrated by the familiar saying—"We should not quarrel with +our bread and butter"; yet this article, + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page133" name="page133"></a>[133]</span> + + now so commonly used throughout +the greater part of Europe, was either unknown or but imperfectly known +to the ancients. In the English translation of the Holy Scriptures the +word butter does certainly frequently occur; but the Hebrew original +is <i>chamea</i>, which, according to the most eminent Biblical critics, +signifies cream, or thick, sour milk. In the 20th chapter of Job the +following passage occurs:—"He shall not see the rivers, the floods, the +brooks of honey and butter." Now, we can conceive streams of thin cream, +but we cannot imagine a river of butter. The oldest mention of butter +is found in the works of Herodotus. In the description of the Scythians +given by this ancient author, reference is made to their practice of +violently shaking the milk of their mares, for the purpose of causing a +solid fatty matter to ascend to its surface, which, when removed from +the milk, they considered a delicious article of food. Hippocrates, who +wrote a little later than Herodotus, describes, but in clearer language, +the manufacture of butter by the Scythians; he also alludes to the +preparation of cheese by the same people. The word, butter, does not +occur in any of Aristotle's writings, and although mention is made of it +in the works of Anaxandrides, Plutarch, and Ælian, it is evident that +they considered it only in the light of a curious substance, employed +partly as an article of food, partly as a medicinal salve, by certain +barbarous nations. About the second or third century, butter was but +little known to the Greeks and Romans, and there is no reason to believe +that it was ever generally used as an article of food by the classic +nations of antiquity; it is noteworthy, that the inhabitants of the +south of Europe even at the present time use butter in very small +quantities, which, indeed, is often sold for medicinal purposes in the +apothecaries' shops in Italy, Spain, and Portugal. From the foregoing +statements it is evident that the butter manufacture can lay no claim to +a classic origin; but that it took its rise in the countries of savage, +of semi-civilised, and barbarous nations. It is probable that the Greeks +were made acquainted with butter by the Thracians, Phrygians, and + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page134" name="page134"></a>[134]</span> + + Scythians; and that the knowledge of this substance was conveyed to +Rome by visitors from Germany. During the middle ages the practice of +butter-making spread throughout Northern, Central, and Western Europe; +but in many parts the commodity was very scarce and highly valued, +notwithstanding its being almost, if not quite, in a semi-fluid state, +instead of possessing the firm consistence of the butter of the present +day. +</p> +<p> +<i>Irish Butter.</i>—Butter is produced in such large quantities in Ireland +that, after the home demand has been supplied, there remains a large +excess—so considerable, indeed, as to constitute one of the more +important of our few commercial staples. The precise quantity of butter +which, during late years, has been annually exported from Ireland is +unknown. The greater part of the commodity is sent to trans-Channel +ports; and, there being no duty on butter in the cross-Channel trade +since 1826, we have no means of accurately estimating the amount of our +exports to Great Britain. If, however, we refer to the statistics of our +commerce for the period beginning in 1787, and ending in 1826, we shall +find that the exportation of butter was enormous, and that a large +proportion of that commodity consumed by the army and navy was supplied +from the dairies of Ireland. During the three years ended on the 5th of +January, 1826, the average annual amount of butter exported was as +follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average annual export of butter from Ireland, 1823 through 1825"> + +<tr><td></td><th>cwts.</th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> To Great Britain </td><td>441,226 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> To foreign countries </td><td> 51,637 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +Of late years the exportation to foreign and colonial countries has +fallen off; still the export trade is very considerable, probably +amounting to 450,000 cwts. per annum. During the year 1867, the imports +of foreign butter into Great Britain amounted to 1,142,262 cwts. +</p> +<p> +I have quoted the above statistics for the purpose of demonstrating +the great importance of the butter trade to this country. Not only is a +large proportion of the agricultural community pecuniarily interested in +the production of this + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page135" name="page135"></a>[135]</span> + + article, but the exportation is the chief cause +of the commercial prosperity of a city, which, in point of population, +ranks third in the kingdom. If butter, then, be an article of so much +importance, it is obvious that the greatest care should be taken in its +preparation, and that the efforts of both scientific and practical men +should be directed towards the best mode of improving its quality. If +the principles involved in the production of butter were thoroughly +understood, and generally known, I believe that such terms as "seconds," +"thirds," and "fourths," would speedily fall into disuse; that there +would be only one kind of butter sent into the market; and that the +article would always be of the best quality, in other words, "firsts." +</p> +<p> +<i>Composition of Butter.</i>—The composition and quality of butter depend +to a great extent upon the condition of the milk or cream from which it +is prepared, and on the skill and cleanliness of the dairy-maid. It +consists essentially of fatty and oily matters, but it is always found +in combination with casein (cheesy matter) and water. The following +analyses, made by Mr. Way, late consulting chemist to the Royal +Agricultural Society of England, shows its composition:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of butter"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="4"> INGREDIENTS PER CENT.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><th> 1. </th><th> 2. </th><th> 3. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Fatty matters </td><td>82·70 </td><td>79·67 </td><td>79·12 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Casein </td><td> 2·45 </td><td> 3·38 </td><td> 3·37 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>14·85 </td><td>16·95 </td><td>17·51 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +No. 1 analysis shows the composition of a specimen obtained from the +well-known Mr. Horsfall's dairy. It was made from raw cream. The other +specimens were the produce of a Devonshire dairy, and were prepared from +scalded cream. In several specimens of well-made and unsalted Irish +butter which I have analysed, I found the proportion of casein or cheesy +matter never to exceed 1 per cent., whilst in the analysis above stated +the centesimal amount is on the average more than 3 per cent. +</p> +<p> +The fatty matter is composed of two substances—one, a + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page136" name="page136"></a>[136]</span> + + solid, termed +<i>margarin</i>; the other fluid, and styled by chemists <i>elaine</i>. The solid +fat is identical in composition with the solid fat of the human body. +The elaine is peculiar to milk, but it differs very slightly from +<i>olein</i>, or fluid fat. The relative proportions of the fluid and solid +fats vary with the seasons. According to Braconnot, the solid fat forms +in summer 40 per cent. of the butter, but in winter the proportion rises +to 65. This decrease in the proportion of the liquid fat in winter is +the cause of the greater hardness of the butter in that season, which is +often incorrectly attributed solely to the cold. +</p> +<p> +The cheesy and acid matters contained in butter are by no means +essential; on the contrary, if it were quite free from them, it might +be retained with little or no salt for a very long period without +becoming rancid. The cheesy matter contains nitrogen; and nearly all +the substances into which this element enters as a constituent are +remarkably prone to decomposition. Yeast, and ferments of every +kind—gunpowder, fulminating silver, chloride of nitrogen—and almost +every explosive compound, contain this element. The cheesy matter is +a very nitrogenous body, and in presence of air and moisture not only +rapidly decomposes, or decays, itself, but induces by mere contact a +like state of decomposition in other substances—such, for instance, as +fat, sugar, and starch, which naturally have no tendency to change their +state. Bearing the foregoing facts in mind, it is obvious that the chief +precautions to be observed in the manufacture of butter are:—Firstly, +to separate to as great an extent as practicable the casein from the +butter; and, secondly, as in practice a small portion of the curd +remains in the butter, to prevent it from undergoing any change—at +least for a prolonged period. How these desiderata may best be +accomplished I shall now proceed to point out. +</p> +<p> +<i>The Butter Manufacture.</i>—The theory of the process of churning is very +simple. By violently agitating the milk or cream the little vesicles, or +bags containing the butter, are broken, and, the fatty matter adhering, +<i>lumps of butter</i> are formed. The operation of churning also introduces +atmospheric + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page137" name="page137"></a>[137]</span> + + air into the milk, which, aided by the high temperature to +which the fluid is raised, converts a portion of the <i>sweet</i> sugar of +milk into the <i>sour</i> lactic acid. By the alteration produced in this way +in the composition of the milk, it is no longer capable of holding the +casein in solution, and the curd therefore separates. +</p> +<p> +The churn and other vessels in which the milk is placed cannot be kept +too clean. No amount of labor bestowed on the scalding and scrubbing +of the vessels is excessive. When wood is the material used in the +milk-pans the utmost care should be taken in cleaning them, as the +porous nature of the material favors the retention of small quantities +of the milk. A simple washing will not suffice to clean such vessels. +They must be thoroughly scrubbed and afterwards well scalded with +<i>boiling</i> water. Tin pans are preferable to wooden ones, as they are +more easily cleaned, but in their turn they are inferior to glass +vessels, which ought to supersede every other kind. Earthenware, lead, +and zinc pans are in rather frequent use. The last-mentioned material +is easily acted upon by the lactic acid of the sour milk, and is, +therefore, objectionable. It is a matter of great importance that the +dairy should not be situated near a pig-stye, sewer, or water-closet, +the effluvia from which would be likely to taint the milk. It is +surprising how small a quantity of putrescent matter is sufficient +to taint a whole churn of milk; and as it has been demonstrated that +the almost inappreciable emanations from a cesspool are capable of +conferring a bad flavor on milk, it is in the highest degree important +to remove from the churn and milk-pail every trace of the sour milk. I +go further, it is even desirable that no one whose hands have a tendency +to perspire should be allowed to manipulate in the dairy; and it should +be constantly borne in mind that the dairy-maid's fingers and hot water +should be on the most intimate visiting terms. +</p> +<p> +Butter is made either from cream—sour and sweet—or from whole milk +which has stood sufficiently long to become distinctly sour. It is +asserted by some makers that butter + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page138" name="page138"></a>[138]</span> + + prepared from whole milk, or +from scalded cream, contains a large proportion of curd. If this be +true—which I greatly doubt—it is a serious matter, for such butter +would speedily become rancid in consequence of the casein acting as +a ferment. I believe that experience points to an exactly opposite +conclusion. From the results of careful inquiries I feel no hesitation +in asserting that the butter should not be made from the cream, but from +the <i>whole milk</i>. When made from the cream alone it is much more likely +to acquire a bad taste, and is generally wanting in keeping qualities. +I have no doubt but that in the process of churning the whole milk there +is a large amount of lactic acid formed, and a much higher temperature +attained, than in the churning of cream; consequently, the separation of +caseous matter must be more perfectly effected in the former than in the +latter case. It is a mistake to think that there is very little casein +in cream: out of 7 or 8 lbs. of thick cream only a couple of pounds of +butter are obtainable; the rest is made up of water, casein, and sugar +of milk. The yield of butter is greater when the whole milk is churned +than when the cream alone is operated upon, and, what is of great +importance, the quality of the butter is uniform during the whole year. +The labor of churning whole milk is, of course, much greater than if the +cream alone were employed, but the increased yield and unvarying quality +of the butter more than compensate for the extra expenditure of labor. +</p> +<p> +The proper temperature of the milk or cream is a point of great +practical importance. If the fluid be too warm or too cold the buttery +particles will only by great trouble be made to cohere; and the quality +of the butter is almost certain to be inferior. When the whole milk +is operated on, the temperature should be from 55 to 60 degs. of +Fahrenheit's thermometer; and if cream be employed the temperature +should never exceed 55 degs. nor be lower than 50 degs. Hence it follows +that in summer the dairy should be kept cooler, and in winter warmer, +than the atmosphere. The temperature of milk is raised or lowered as may +be found necessary, by the addition of hot or cold + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page139" name="page139"></a>[139]</span> + + water—in performing +which operations properly, a good thermometer is indispensable; one +should always be kept in the dairy, and should be so constructed as to +admit of being plunged into the milk. In some dairies the water, instead +of being mixed with the milk, is put into a tub in which the churn is +placed. There is a good kind of churn, which consists of two cylinders, +the one within the other—the interval between them being intended for +the reception of hot or cold water. The influence of temperature upon +the production of butter has been placed beyond all doubt by numerous +carefully-conducted experiments. Mr. Horsfall, a celebrated dairy +farmer, in discussing this question, sums up as follows:—"By a series +of carefully-conducted experiments at varying temperatures, I am of +opinion that a correct scale of the comparative yield of butter at +different temperatures might be arrived at; as thus: From a very low +degree of temperature little or no butter; from a temperature of about +38 degs., 16 oz. from 16 quarts of milk; ditto, 45 degs., 21 oz. from 16 +quarts of milk; ditto, 55 degs., 26 to 27 oz. from 16 quarts of milk." +This is a higher yield of butter than, I suspect, most dairymen get: but +Mr. Horsfall's cows being of the best kind for milking, and well fed, +the milk is, of course, rich in butter; and his experiments prove that +even the richest milk will not throw up its butter unless at a certain +temperature. +</p> +<p> +In the churning of cream the motion should be slow at first until the +cream is thoroughly broken up. In churning milk the agitation should +neither be violent nor irregular; about 40 or 50 motions of the plunger +or board per minute will be sufficient. In steam-worked churns the +motion is often excessively rapid, and the separation of the butter +is effected in a few minutes; but the article obtained in this hasty +way very quickly becomes rancid, and must be disposed of at once. An +hour's churning of sour cream appears in general to produce good butter. +Sweet cream and whole milk require a longer period—the latter about 3 +hours—but in any case prolonged churning is certain, by incorporating +cheesy matter with the butter, to produce an inferior article. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page140" name="page140"></a>[140]</span></p> + +<p> +Sweet milk becomes sour, evolves a considerable quantity of gas during +churning, and its temperature ascends four or five degrees. Oxygen is +unquestionably absorbed, and it is probable that a portion of the sugar +of milk is converted into acid products. +</p> +<p> +I have already stated that even the most carefully prepared butter +contains a small proportion of casein and sugar of milk. This casein +is the good genius of the cheese-maker, but the evil genius of the +butter manufacturer. How? In this way:—When butter containing a +notable proportion of casein and sugar of milk is exposed to the air, +the following changes take place: the casein passes into a state of +fermentation, and acting upon the sugar of milk, converts it, firstly +into the bad-flavored lactic acid, and secondly into the bad odorous +butyric, capric, and caproic acids. The first of these compounds in a +state of purity emits an odor resembling a mixture of vinegar and rancid +butter; the second possesses an odor resembling that of a goat—hence +the name <i>capric</i>; the third has an odor like that of perspiration. In +addition to these acids, there is another simultaneously generated—the +caprylic, but it does not unpleasantly affect the olfactory nerve. +The casein also injuriously affects the fatty constituents of the +butter; under its influence they absorb oxygen from the air, and become +converted into strong-smelling compounds. The washing of butter is +intended to free it from the casein and unaltered cream, and the more +perfectly it is freed from those impurities the better will be its +flavor, and the longer it will remain without becoming rancid. Some +people believe that too much water injures the quality and lessens the +quantity of butter. It cannot do the former, because the essential +constituents of butter are totally insoluble in water; it may do the +latter, but, if it do, so much the better, because the loss of weight +represents the amount of impurities—milk, sugar of milk, &c.—removed. +</p> +<p> +I have already remarked that butter is so susceptible of taint that even +a perspiring hand is sufficient to spoil it; naturally cool hands should +alone be allowed to come in contact + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page141" name="page141"></a>[141]</span> + + with this delicate commodity, and +the hands should be made thoroughly clean by repeated washings with warm +water and oatmeal—the use of soap in the lavatory of the dairymaid +being highly objectionable. Wooden spades are now being commonly made +use of in manipulating the butter, and there is no good reason why they +should not come into universal use. +</p> +<p> +The yield of butter per cow is subject to great variation. Some breeds +of the animal are remarkable as milkers; such, for instance, as the +Alderneys and Kerrys—indeed, I may say all the small varieties of the +bovine race. There are instances of cows yielding upwards of twenty +pounds of butter per week, but these are extraordinary cases. In Holland +a good cow will produce, during the summer months, more than 180 lbs. +of butter. In these countries I think the average annual yield of a +cow is not more than 170 lbs. It sometimes happens that cows yield +a large quantity of milk and a small amount of butter, but it far more +frequently occurs that the cow which gives most milk also yields most +butter. +</p> +<p> +An estimate of the amount of butter contained in milk may be made by +determining the amount of cream. This may be effected by means of an +instrument termed a <i>lactometer</i>, which is simply a glass tube about +five inches long, and graduated into a hundred parts. The specimen to be +examined is poured into this tube up to zero or 0, and allowed to stand +for twelve hours in summer and sixteen or eighteen in winter. At the end +of that time the cream will have risen to the top, and its per-centage +may be easily seen. In good milk the cream will generally extend 11 to +15 degrees down from 0. This instrument, although very useful, is not +reliable in every case, especially in detecting the adulteration of +milk. +</p> +<p> +I have already stated that the complete separation of the butter from +the other constituents of the milk is never accomplished in the dairy. +Now although the proportion of curd in the butter is very small—rarely +more than two per cent. and often not a fourth of one per cent.—yet it +is more than sufficient, under a certain condition, to cause the butter +to become + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page142" name="page142"></a>[142]</span> + + speedily rancid. That condition is simply contact with the +air. If the curd, before it becomes dry and firm, is subjected to the +influence of the air, it rapidly passes into a state of fermentation, +which is very soon communicated to the fatty and saccharine constituents +of the butter (substances not spontaneously liable to sudden changes in +composition) and those peculiar compounds—such, for example, as butyric +and capric acids, are generated, which confer upon rancid butter its +characteristic and very disagreeable odor and flavor. The fermentation +of the curd is prevented by incorporating common salt with the butter, +and by preventing, so far as possible, the access of air to the +vessels in which the article is placed. If fresh butter be placed in +water—which apparently protects it from the influence of the air—it +will soon become rancid. The reason of this is, that water always +contains air, which differs in composition, though derived, from the +atmosphere, by being very rich in oxygen. Now, it is precisely this +oxygen which effects those undesirable changes in the casein, or curd, +to which I have so repeatedly referred; hence its presence in a +concentrated state in water causes that fluid to produce an injurious +effect on the butter placed in it. A saturated solution of salt contains +very little air, and, so long as the curd is immersed therein, it +undergoes no change. The salt, too, acts as a decided preservative; for +although it was long considered to be capable of preserving animal +matters, merely by virtue of its property of absorbing water from them +(the presence of water being a condition in the decomposition of organic +matter), it has lately been shown to possess very antiseptic properties. +</p> +<p> +The mixing of the salt with the butter is effected in the following +manner:—The butter, after being well washed, in order to free it from +the butter-milk, is spread out in a tub, and the salt shaken over it; +the butter is then turned over on the salt by the lower part of the palm +of the hand, and rubbed down until a uniform mixture is attained. A good +plan in salting is to mix in only one half of the quantity of salt, make +up the butter in lumps, and set them aside until the following + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page143" name="page143"></a>[143]</span> + + day; a +quantity of milk is certain to exude, which is to be poured off, and +then the rest of the salt may be incorporated with the butter. +</p> +<p> +According to butter-makers, the quality of the article is greatly +dependent on the quality of the salt used in preserving it. I think +there is a good deal of truth in this belief, and I therefore recommend +that only the very best and <i>driest</i> salt should be used in the dairy. +Common salt is essentially composed of the substance termed by chemists +chloride of sodium, but it often contains other saline matters (chloride +of magnesium, &c.), some of which have a tendency to absorb moisture +from the air, and to dissolve in the water so obtained. These salts are +termed <i>deliquescent</i>, from the Latin <i>deliquere</i>, to melt down. When, +therefore, common salt becomes damp by mere exposure to the air, it is +to be inferred that it contains impurities which, as they possess a very +bitter taste, would, if mixed with butter, confer a bad flavor upon it. +The impurities of salt may be almost completely removed by placing about +a stone weight of it in any convenient vessel, pouring over it a quart +of boiling water, and mixing thoroughly the fluid and solid. In an hour +or two the whole is to be thrown upon a filter made of calico, when the +water will pass through the filter, carrying with it all the impurities, +and the purified salt, in fine crystals, will remain upon the filter. +The solution need not be thrown away: boiled down to dryness it may be +given as salt to cattle; or, if added in solution to the dung-heap, it +will augment the fertilising power of that manure. +</p> +<p> +The proportion of salt used in preserving butter varies greatly. When +the butter is intended for immediate use, I believe a quarter of an +ounce of salt to the pound is quite sufficient; but when designed for +the market, about half an ounce of salt to the pound of butter will be +sufficient. Irish butter at one time commanded the highest price in the +home and foreign markets, but latterly it has fallen greatly in public +estimation; indeed, at the present moment the price of Irish butter at +London is nearly twenty shillings per cwt. under that + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page144" name="page144"></a>[144]</span> + + of the Dutch +article. It is really painful to be obliged to admit that the Irish +farmer is solely to blame for this remarkable depreciation in the value +of one of our best agricultural staples. In a word, by the stupid (and +<i>recent</i>) practice of putting into butter four times the quantity of +salt necessary to its preservation, the Irish dairy farmers—or at least +the great majority of them—have completely ruined the reputation of +Irish butter in those very markets in which, at one time, the Cork +brand on a firkin was sufficient to dispose of its contents at the +very highest price. It is a great mistake to think that the greater the +quantity of salt which can be incorporated with the butter, the greater +will be the profit to the producer. No doubt, every pound of salt sold +as a constituent of butter realises a profit of two thousand per cent.; +but then the addition of every pound of that substance, after a certain +quantity, to the cwt. of butter depreciates the value of the latter to +such an extent as to far more than neutralise the gain on the sale of +salt at the price of butter. In the county of Carlow, less salt is used +in preserving butter than is the case in the county of Cork and the +adjacent counties; the price, therefore, which the Carlow commodity +commands in the London market is higher than that of the Cork butter: +but in every part of Ireland the proportion of salt added to the butter +is excessive. +</p> +<p> +The results of the analyses of butter supplied to the London market, +made by the <i>Lancet</i> Analytical Commission, showed that the proportion +of salt varied from 0·30 to 8·24 per cent. The largest proportion of +salt found in fresh butter was 2·21 and the least 0·30. In salt butter +the highest proportion of salt was 8·24 and the lowest 1·53. The butter +which contained most salt was also generally largely adulterated with +water. Indeed, in several samples the amount of this constituent reached +so high as nearly 30 per cent. Nothing is easier than the incorporation +of water with salt butter. The butter is melted, and whilst cooling the +salt and water are added, and the mixture kept constantly stirred until +quite cold. In this way nearly 50 per cent. of water may be added to + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page145" name="page145"></a>[145]</span> + + butter; but of course the quality of the article will be of the very +worst kind. +</p> +<p> +A correspondent of the <i>Lancet</i> states that, on awakening about +three o'clock in the morning at the house in which he was lodging, he +perceived a light below the door of his room; and apprehending a fire, +he hurried down stairs, and was not a little surprised to discover the +whole family engaged in manipulating butter. He was informed in a jocose +way that they were making Epping butter! For this purpose they used +inferior Irish butter, which, by repeated washings, was freed from its +excessive amount of salt; after which it was frequently bathed in sweet +milk, the addition of a little sugar being the concluding stroke in the +process. This "sweet fresh butter from Epping" was sold at a profit of +100 per cent. Our dairy farmers might take a hint from this anecdote. +Does it not prove that the mere removal of the salt added to Irish +butter doubles the value of the article? +</p> +<p> +It is as necessary to pay attention to the packing of butter as it is +to its salting. If old firkins be employed, great care should be taken +in cleaning them, and if the staves be loose, the firkins should be +steeped in hot water, in order to cause the wood to swell, and thereby +to bring the edges of the staves into close contact. New firkins often +communicate a disagreeable odour to the butter. In order to guard +against this, it is the practice in many parts to fill the firkins with +very moist garden mould, which, after the lapse of a few days, is thrown +out, and the firkin thoroughly scrubbed with hot water, rinsed with the +same fluid in a cold state, and finally rubbed with salt, just before +being used. +</p> +<p> +In packing the butter, the chief object to be kept in view is the +exclusion of air. In order to accomplish this, the lumps of butter +should be pressed firmly together, and also against the bottom and sides +of the vessel. When the products of several churnings are placed in the +same firkin, the surface of each churning should be furrowed, so that +the next layer may be mixed with it. A firkin should never be filled in +a single + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page146" name="page146"></a>[146]</span> + + operation. About six inches of butter of each churning will be +quite sufficient, and in a large dairy two or more firkins can be +gradually but simultaneously filled. I strongly recommend the removal +of the pickle jar from the dairy. When the layers of butter have been +carried up to within an inch or so of the top of the firkin, the space +between the surface of the butter and the edge of the vessel should be +filled with fine dry salt, instead of pickle. A common mistake made is +the holding over for too long a time of the butter: the sooner this +article can be disposed of the better, for <i>it never improves by age</i>. +</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<a name="note-22"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-22">22</a>) +From two Greek words, signifying odour and soup. +</p> + +<a name="note-23"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-23">23</a>) +"A New Inquiry, fully illustrated by coloured engravings of +the heart, lungs, &c., of the Diseased Prize Cattle lately exhibited at +the Smithfield Cattle Club, 1857." By Frederick James Gant, M.R.C.S. +London, 1858. +</p> + +<a name="note-24"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-24">24</a>) +Professor John Wilson's Report of the Agricultural +Exhibition, Aarhuus, 1867. +</p> + + + + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page147" name="page147"></a>[147]</span></p> + +<a name="h2H_4_0009" id="h2H_4_0009"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + PART V. +</h2> +<h3> + ON THE COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF VEGETABLE FOODS. +</h3> +<h4> +SECTION I. +</h4> +<h5> +THE MONEY VALUE OF FOOD SUBSTANCES. +</h5> +<p> +The flesh-forming principles of food are, as I have already stated, +almost identical with the principal nitrogenous constituents of animals. +Unlike the non-plastic substances, they are convertible into each other +with little, if any, loss either of matter or of force. Not many +years since it was the fashion to estimate the nutritive value of a +food-substance by its proportion of nitrogen; but this method—not yet +quite abandoned—was based on erroneous views, and yielded results very +far from the truth. No doubt all the more concentrated and valuable +kinds of food are rich in nitrogenous principles; but there are other +varieties, the nutritive value of which is very low, and yet their +proportion of nitrogen is very high. This point requires explanation. +Both the plastic and the non-plastic materials of food exist in two +distinct states—in one of which they are easily digestible, and in the +other either altogether unassimilable or so nearly so as to be almost +useless. Thus, for example, the cellular tissue of plants, when newly +formed, is to a great extent digestible, whilst the old woody fibre is +nearly, if not quite, incapable of assimilation. Gelatine, which in raw +bones is easily digested in the stomachs of the carnivora, loses a large +proportion of its nutritive value on being + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page148" name="page148"></a>[148]</span> + + subjected to the action of +steam. Again, a portion of the nitrogen of young succulent plants is in +a form not sufficiently organic to admit of its being assimilated to +the animal body. But, independently of these strong objections to the +method of estimating the nutritive value of food by its per-centage of +flesh-formers, there are many other reasons which as clearly prove the +fallacy of this rule. If we were, for instance, to estimate the value +of albumen according to the tables of food equivalents which were +constructed some years ago by Boussingault and other chemists, we would +find one pound weight of it to be equivalent to four pounds weight of +oil-cake, or to twelve pounds weight of hay; yet, it is a fact that +a horse would speedily die if confined to a purely albuminous diet, +whereas hay is capable of supporting the animal's life for an indefinite +period. +</p> +<p> +It is clear, then, from what I have stated, that neither the amount of +flesh-formers, nor of fat-formers, contained in a given quantity of a +substance is a measure of its nutritive value; nevertheless it would +be incorrect to infer from this that the numerous analyses of feeding +substances which have been made are valueless. On the contrary, I am +disposed to believe that the composition of these substances, when +correctly stated by the chemist, enables the physiologist to determine +pretty accurately their relative alimentary value. Theory is certainly +against the assumption that food is valuable in proportion to its +content of nitrogen; nor has practice less strongly disproved its truth. +An illustration drawn from the nutrition of plants will make this matter +more apparent. Every intelligent agriculturist knows that guano contains +nitrogen and phosphoric acid; both substances are indispensable to the +development of plants, and therefore it would be incorrect to estimate +the manurial value of the guano in proportion to the quantity of +nitrogen it was capable of yielding. If the value of manures were +determined only by their per-centage of nitrogen—a mode by which +certain chemists still estimate the nutritive value of food—then +woollen rags would be worth + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page149" name="page149"></a>[149]</span> + + more than bones, and bones would be more +valuable than superphosphate of lime. The truth is, that the analysis of +feeding stuffs and manures is sometimes of little value if the condition +in which the constituents of these substances exist be undetermined. For +example, the analysis of one manure may show it to contain 40 per cent. +of phosphate of lime, and three per cent. of ammonia, whilst, according +to analysis, another fertiliser may include 20 per cent. of phosphate of +lime, and two per cent. of ammonia. Viewed by this light solely, the +first manure would be considered the more valuable of the two, whereas +it might, in reality, be very much inferior. If the phosphate of lime +in the manure, containing 40 per cent. of that body, were derived from +coprolites or apatite, and its ammonia from horns, the former would be +worth little or nothing, and the latter, by reason of its exceedingly +slow evolution from the horns, would possess a very low value. If, on +the contrary, the phosphate of lime, in the manure comparatively poor +in phosphate, were a constituent of bones, and its ammonia ready formed +(say as sulphate of ammonia), then, its value, both commercial and +manurial, would be far greater than the other. +</p> +<p> +In estimating the money value of an article of food, we should omit +such considerations as the relative adjustment of its flesh-formers and +fat-formers, and its suitability to particular kinds of animals, as well +as to animals in a certain stage of development. The manure supplied to +plants contains several elements indispensable to vegetable nutrition; +and, although the agriculturist most commonly purchases all these +elements combined in the one article, still he frequently buys each +ingredient separately. Ammonia is one of these principles, and, whether +it be bought <i>per se</i>, or as a constituent of a compound manure, the +price it commands is invariable. This principle should prevail in the +purchase of food: each constituent of which should have a certain value +placed upon it; and the sums of all the values of the constituents would +then be the value of the article of food taken as a whole. There + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page150" name="page150"></a>[150]</span> + + are, no +doubt, practical difficulties in the way which prevent this method of +valuation from giving more than approximatively correct results; but +are there not precisely similar difficulties in the way of the correct +estimation of the value of a manure according to its analysis? There +are several constituents of food, the money value of which is easily +determinable: these are sugar, starch, and fat. No matter what substance +they are found in, the nutritive value of each varies only within very +narrow limits. The value of cellulose and woody fibre is not so easily +ascertained, as it varies with the age and nature of the vegetable +structure in which these principles occur. There is little doubt but +that the cellulose and fibre of young grass, clover, and other succulent +plants, are, for the most part, digestible; and we should not be far +astray if we were to assume that four pounds weight of soft fibre and +cellulose are equivalent to three pounds weight of starch. As to old +hard fibre, we are not in a position to say whether or not it possesses +any nutrimental value worth taking into account. The estimation of the +value of the flesh-forming materials is far more difficult than that of +sugar, starch, pectine compounds, and fat. The nitrogenous constituents +of food must be in a highly elaborated state before they are capable +of being assimilated. In seeds—in which vegetable substances attain +their highest degree of development—they probably exist in the most +digestible form, whilst much of the nitrogen found in the stems and +leaves of succulent plants, is either in a purely mineral state, or in +so low a degree of elaboration as to be unavailable for the purpose of +nutrition. But even plastic materials, in a high degree of organisation, +present many points of difference, which greatly affect their relative +alimental value; for example, many of them are naturally associated with +substances possessing a disagreeable flavor: and as their separation +from these substances is often practically impossible, the animal that +consumes both will not assimilate the plastic matters so well as if +they were endowed with a pleasant flavor. In seeds and other perfectly +matured + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page151" name="page151"></a>[151]</span> + + vegetable structures, the flesh-formers may exist in different +degrees of availability. The nitrogen of the <i>testa</i>, or covering of the +seeds, will hardly be so assimilable as that which exists in their +cotyledons. The solubility of the flesh-formers—provided they be highly +elaborated—is a very good criterion of their nutritive power. In +linseed the muscle-forming substances are more soluble than in +linseed-cake—the heat which is generally employed in the extraction of +oil from linseed rendering the plastic materials of the resultant <i>cake</i> +less soluble, and diminishing thereby their digestibility, as practice +has proved. +</p> +<p> +From the considerations which I have now entered into, it is obvious +that the chemical analysis of food substances as generally performed, +though of great utility, does not afford strictly accurate information +as to their commercial value, and still less reliable in relation to +their nutritive power. At the same time, they as clearly establish +the feasibility of analyses being <i>made</i> whereby the money value of +feeding-stuffs may be estimated with tolerable exactitude. Let the +chemist determine the presence and relative amounts of the ingredients +of food-substances, and—if it be possible so to do with a degree of +exactness that would render the results useful—place on each a money +value. This done, let the physiologist and the feeder combine the food +in such proportions as they may find best adapted to the nature, age, +and condition of the animal to be fed. +</p> +<p> +It is to be regretted that the market price of feeding stuffs is not, +in consequence of our defective knowledge, strictly determined by their +nutritive value, for if such were the case, the feeder would merely have +to adapt each to the nature and condition of his stock. Even amongst +practical men there prevails, unfortunately, great diversity of opinion +as to the relative nutritive value of the greater number of food +substances; and I am quite certain that many of these command higher +prices than others which in no respect are inferior. It would lead me +too far from my immediate subject were I to + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page152" name="page152"></a>[152]</span> + + enter minutely into the +consideration of such questions as—whether an acre of grass yields more +or less nutriment than an acre of turnips? I shall merely describe the +composition and properties of grass and of turnips, and of the various +other important food substances, and compare their nutritive power, so +far as comparisons are admissible; but I shall say but little on the +subject of the various economic and other conditions which affect the +production of forage plants. When I shall have described the chemical +nature and physical condition of the various articles of food, and the +results of actual feeding experiments made with them, the feeder will +then be in a position to determine which are the most economical to +produce or to purchase. +</p> +<h4> +SECTION II. +</h4> +<h5> +PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS OF VEGETABLES. +</h5> +<p> +The saccharine, or amylaceous substances constitute the most abundant +of the proximate constituents of plants. They are composed of carbon, +hydrogen, and oxygen. I shall briefly describe the more important +members of this group of substances, namely, starch, sugar, inulin, +gum, pectin, and cellulose. +</p> +<p> +<i>Starch</i>, or <i>fecula</i>, occurs largely in dicotyledonous seeds, peas, +&c., and still more abundantly in certain monocotyledonous seeds, such +as wheat and barley. It constitutes the great bulk of many tubers and +roots—for example, the potato and tapioca. It consists of flattened +ovate granules, which vary in size according to the plant. In the +beetroot they are <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>3500</sub> of an inch in diameter, whilst in <i>tous les +mois</i> they are nearly <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>200</sub> of an inch in diameter. Most of the starch +granules are marked by a series of concentric rings. Starch is heavier +than water, and is insoluble in that fluid when cold; neither is it +dissolved by alcohol or ether. When heated in water having a temperature +of at least 140° Fahrenheit, it increases greatly in volume, and +acquires a gelatinous consistence. When the + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page153" name="page153"></a>[153]</span> + + water is allowed to cool, +a portion of the starch becomes insoluble, whilst another portion +remains in solution; the latter form of starch is sometimes termed +<i>amidin</i>, from the French word for starch, <i>amidon</i>. When dry starch +is heated to 400° Fahr., it is converted, without any change in its +composition, into a soluble gum-like substance, termed <i>dextrin</i>, +or British gum. On being boiled in diluted sulphuric acid it is +converted into a kind of sugar; and the same effect is produced by +fermentation—for example, in the germination of seeds. Fresh rice +contains 82, wheat 60, and potatoes 20 per cent. of starch. This +substance constitutes a nutritious and easily digestible food, but +alone cannot support life. Arrowroot is only a pure form of starch. +</p> +<p> +<i>Sugar</i> occurs less abundantly in plants than starch. There are several +varieties of this substance, of which the kinds termed cane sugar +(<i>sucrose</i>) and grape sugar (<i>glucose</i>), are only of importance to +agriculturists. The former enters largely into the composition of the +sugar-cane, the beetroot, the sugar-maple, the sorgho grass, pumpkins, +carrots, and a great variety of other plants. Grape sugar is found in +fruits, especially when dried—raisins and figs—in malted corn, and +in honey. In the sugar-cane there is 18 per cent., and in the beetroot +10 per cent. of sugar. +</p> +<p> +<i>Cane sugar</i>, when pure, consists of minute transparent crystals. It is +1<sup>6</sup>⁄<sub>10</sub> heavier than water, and is soluble in one-third of its weight +of that fluid. By long-continued boiling in water it is changed into +uncrystallizable sugar, or treacle, by which its flavor is altered, but +its sweetening power increased. +</p> +<p> +<i>Grape sugar</i> crystallizes in very small cubes, of inferior color as +compared with cane sugar crystals. It dissolves in its own weight of +water, being three times less soluble than sucrose. In sweetening power +one part of cane sugar is equal to 2½ parts of grape sugar; but there +is probably little if any difference, between the nutritive power of the +two substances. +</p> +<p> +<i>Inulin</i> is a substance somewhat resembling starch. It does + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page154" name="page154"></a>[154]</span> + + not occur +in large quantities. It is met with in the roots of the dandelion, +chicory, and many other plants. +</p> +<p> +<i>Gum</i> is an abundant constituent of plants. The kind termed gum +arabic, so largely employed in the arts, is a very pure variety of this +substance. Common gums are said to be essentially composed of a very +weak acid—<i>gummic</i>, or <i>arabic</i> acid—united with lime and potash. +The solution of gum is very slightly acid, and has a mucilaginous, +ropy consistence: it is almost tasteless. <i>Mucilage</i>, or <i>bassorin</i>, +is simply a modified form of gum, which, though insoluble in water, +forms a gelatinous mixture with that fluid. It exudes from certain +trees—the cherry for example—and exists largely in linseed and other +seeds. Gums are nutritious foods, but it is probable that they are not +equal in alimental power to equal weights of starch or sugar. +</p> +<p> +<i>Vegetable jelly</i>, or <i>pectin</i>, is almost universally diffused +throughout the vegetable kingdom. It is owing to its presence that the +juices of many fruits and roots possess the property of gelatinizing. +It is soluble in water, but prolonged boiling destroys its viscous +property. <i>Pectose</i> is a modification of pectin; it is insoluble in +water. According to Fremy, the hardness of green fruits is due to the +presence of pectose; which is also found in the cellular tissue of +turnips, carrots, and various other roots. +</p> +<p> +<i>Cellulose</i> is a fibrous or cellular tissue, allied in composition to +starch. It is the most abundant constituent of plants, and forms the +very ground-work of the vegetable mechanism. Linen, cotton, and the +pith of the elder and other trees are nearly pure forms of cellulose. +Ligneous, or woody tissue (<i>lignin</i>) is indurated cellulose, hardened +by age. It is almost identical in composition with cellulose. Pure +cellulose is white, colorless, tasteless, insoluble in water, oil, +alcohol, or ether. It is heavier than water. Sulphuric acid is capable +of converting it into grape, or starch sugar. In its fresh and succulent +state cellulose is digestible and nutritious; but in the form of +ligneous tissue it opposes a very great resistance to the action of the +digestive + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page155" name="page155"></a>[155]</span> + + fluids. Digestible cellulose is probably equal in nutritive +power to starch. +</p> +<p> +<i>Oils and fats</i> occur abundantly in vegetables, more particularly in +their seeds. In the seeds of many cruciferous plants the proportion +of fat and oil exceeds 35 per cent. The oils and fats termed <i>fixed</i> +are those which possess the greatest interest to agriculturists; the +<i>volatile oils</i> being those which confer on certain plants their +fragrant odour. There are a great variety of vegetable oils, but the +proximate constituents of most of them are chiefly <i>stearin</i>, +<i>margarin</i>, <i>olein</i>, and <i>palmitin</i>. +</p> +<p> +<i>Stearin</i> is a white crystalline substance, sparingly soluble in alcohol +and ether, but insoluble in water. There are two or three modifications +of this substance, but they do not essentially differ from each other. +The melting point varies from 130° to 160° Fahr. Stearin is the most +abundant of the fats. +</p> +<p> +<i>Margarin</i> presents the appearance of pearly scales. It is the solid fat +present in olive oil, and it is also met with in a great variety of fats +and oils. It melts at 116° Fahr. +</p> +<p> +<i>Olein</i> is the fluid constituent of oils and fatty substances. It +resists an extreme degree of cold, without solidifying. There are +several modifications of this body—the olein of olive oil being +somewhat different from that of castor oil; the olein of linseed is +sometimes termed <i>linolien</i>. +</p> +<p> +<i>Palmitin.</i>—This fat occurs in many plants, but as it makes up the +great bulk of palm oil, it has been termed palmitin. It is white, and +may be obtained in feathery-like masses. Its melting point varies from +114° to 145°, there being, according to Duffy, three modifications of +this substance. +</p> +<p> +The fats and oils are lighter than water. They contain far more carbon +and hydrogen, and less oxygen, than are found in the sugars and +starches. They all consist of acids (stearic, palmitic, &c.) united with +glycerine. On being boiled with potash or soda, the latter take the +place of the glycerine, which is set free, and a <i>soap</i> is produced. +The fatty acids strongly resemble the fats. In nutritive power, one part +of fat is equal to 2½ parts of starch or sugar. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page156" name="page156"></a>[156]</span></p> + +<p> +The Albuminous substances contain, in addition to the elements found +in starch, nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus. <i>Albumen</i>, <i>fibrin</i>, and +<i>legumin</i> constitute the three important members of the "Nitrogenous" +constituents of plants. +</p> +<p> +<i>Albumen</i> is an uncrystallizable substance. It is soluble in water, +unless when heated to 140 deg. Fahr., at which temperature it coagulates, +<i>i.e.</i>, becomes solid and insoluble. The <i>gluten</i> of wheat is composed +chiefly of albumen, and of bodies closely allied to that substance. +</p> +<p> +<i>Fibrin</i>, when dried, is a hard, horny, yellow, solid body. It contains +a little more oxygen than is found in albumen. This substance is best +known as a constituent of animals, and it does not appear to be abundant +in plants. The portion of the gluten of wheat-flour, which is insoluble +in boiling alcohol, is considered by Liebig and Dumas to be coagulated +fibrin. +</p> +<p> +In the seeds of leguminous and a few other kinds of plants large +quantities of a substance termed <i>legumin</i> are found. It resembles the +casein, or cheesy ingredient of milk; indeed, some chemists consider it +to be identical in composition with that substance. When pure, it is +pearly white, insoluble in boiling water, but soluble in cold water and +in vinegar. The saline matters found in plants are always associated +with the albuminous bodies; the latter, therefore, form the bones as +well as the muscles of animals. +</p> +<p> +A great many substances are found in plants, such as wax, mannite, +"extractive matter," citric, malic, and other acids, of the nutritive +value of which very little is known. The substances described in this +section constitute, however, at least 95 per cent. of the weight of the +vegetable matters used as food by live stock. +</p> + +<h4> +SECTION III. +</h4> +<h5> +GREEN FOOD. +</h5> +<p> +<i>The Grasses.</i>—More than one-half the area of Great Britain and Ireland +is under pasture; the grasses, therefore, constitute the most important +and abundant food used by live stock. + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page157" name="page157"></a>[157]</span> + + The composition of the natural +and artificial grasses is greatly influenced by the nature of the soil +on which they are grown, and by the climatic conditions under which +they are developed. Many of them are almost worthless, whilst others +possess a high nutritive value. Amongst the most useful natural +grasses may be enumerated Italian rye-grass, Meadow barley, Annual +Meadow-grass, Crested dogstail-grass, Cocksfoot-grass, Timothy or +Meadow catstail-grass, and Sweet vernal-grass. Amongst grasses of medium +quality I may mention common Oatlike-grass, Meadow foxtail grass, Smooth +and rough stalked Meadow-grass, and Waterwhorl-grass. There are very +many grasses which are almost completely innutritious, and which ought, +under no circumstances, to be tolerated, although too often they make +up the great bulk of the herbage of badly-managed meadows and pastures. +Such grasses are, the Meadow soft-grass, Creeping soft-grass, False +brome-grass, and Upright brome-grass. The rough-stalked Meadow-grass, +though spoken favorably of by some farmers, is hardly worthy of +cultivation, and the same may be said of many of the grasses which have +a place in our meadows and pastures. (See "Analyses of Natural Grasses +in a Fresh State, by Dr. Voelcker," on next page.) +</p> +<p> +The <i>Schræder brome</i> is a perennial lately introduced into France. It +is described as an exceedingly valuable forage crop, and one which is +admirably adapted for the feeding of dairy cows. It would be desirable +to give it a trial in these countries. The composition (which is very +peculiar) of this plant is stated to be as follows, when dry:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of dry Schræder Brome hay"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="2"> ANALYSIS OF SCHRÆDER BROME HAY.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 16·281 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Nitrogenous matters </td><td> 23·443 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fat </td><td> 3·338 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Starch gum, &c. </td><td> 22·549 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Cellulose (fibre) </td><td> 19·843 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ashes </td><td> 14·546 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td>————</td></tr> +<tr><td> Total </td><td>100·000 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page158" name="page158"></a>[158]</span></p> + +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of fresh natural grasses"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="8"> ANALYSES OF NATURAL GRASSES IN A FRESH STATE, BY DR. VOELCKER.</td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"> +<td></td> +<th>Water.</th> +<th>Albuminous or<br /> Flesh-forming<br /> Principles.</th> +<th>Fatty<br /> Matters.</th> +<th>Respiratory<br /> Principles:<br /> Starch, Gum,<br /> Sugar.</th> +<th>Woody<br /> Fibre.</th> +<th>Mineral<br /> Matter<br /> or Ash.</th> +<th>Date of<br /> Collection.</th> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Anthoxanthum odoratum—Sweet-scented vernal grass </td><td> 80·35 </td><td> 2·00 </td><td> ·67 </td><td> 8·54 </td><td> 7·15 </td><td>1·24</td><td class="c">May 25</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Alopecurus pratensis—Meadow foxtail grass </td><td> 80·20 </td><td> 2·44 </td><td> ·52 </td><td> 8·59 </td><td> 6·70 </td><td>1·55</td><td class="c">June 1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Arrhenatherum avenaceum—Common oat-like grass </td><td> 72·65 </td><td> 3·54 </td><td> ·87 </td><td>11·21 </td><td> 9·37 </td><td>2·36</td><td class="c">July 17</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Avena flavescens—Yellow oat-like grass </td><td> 60·40 </td><td> 2·96 </td><td> 1·04 </td><td>18·66 </td><td> 14·22 </td><td>2·72</td><td class="c">June 29</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Avena pubescens—Downy oat-grass </td><td> 61·50 </td><td> 3·07 </td><td> ·92 </td><td>19·16 </td><td> 13·34 </td><td>2·01</td><td class="c">July 11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Briza media— Common quaking grass </td><td> 51·85 </td><td> 2·93 </td><td> 1·45 </td><td>22·60 </td><td> 17·00 </td><td>4·17</td><td class="c">June 29</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Bromus erectus—Upright brome grass </td><td> 59·57 </td><td> 3·78 </td><td> 1·35 </td><td class="c" colspan="2" style="border-top: 1px solid gray; border-bottom: 1px solid gray;">33·19</td><td>2·11</td><td class="c"> " 23</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Bromus mollis—Soft brome grass </td><td> 76·62 </td><td> 4·05 </td><td> ·47 </td><td> 9·04 </td><td> 8·46 </td><td>1·36</td><td class="c"> May 8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Cynosurus cristatus—Crested dogstail grass </td><td> 62·73 </td><td> 4·13 </td><td> 1·32 </td><td>19·64 </td><td> 9·80 </td><td>2·38</td><td class="c">June 21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Dactylus glomerata—Cocksfoot grass </td><td> 70·00 </td><td> 4·06 </td><td> ·94 </td><td>13·30 </td><td> 10·11 </td><td>1·54</td><td class="c"> " 13</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ditto, seeds ripe </td><td> 52·57 </td><td>10·93 </td><td> ·74 </td><td>12·61 </td><td> 20·54 </td><td>2·61</td><td class="c">July 19</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Festuca duriuscula—Hard fescue grass </td><td> 69·33 </td><td> 3·70 </td><td> 1·02 </td><td>12·46 </td><td> 11·83 </td><td>1·66</td><td class="c">June 13</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Holcus lanatus—Soft meadow grass </td><td> 69·70 </td><td> 3·49 </td><td> 1·02 </td><td>11·92 </td><td> 11·94 </td><td>1·93</td><td class="c"> " 29</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Hordeum pratense—Meadow barley </td><td> 58·85 </td><td> 4·59 </td><td> ·94 </td><td>20·05 </td><td> 13·03 </td><td>2·54</td><td class="c">July 11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Lolium perenne—Darnel grass </td><td> 71·43 </td><td> 3·37 </td><td> ·91 </td><td>12·08 </td><td> 10·06 </td><td>2·15</td><td class="c">June 8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Lolium italicum—Italian rye-grass </td><td> 75·61 </td><td> 2·45 </td><td> ·80 </td><td>14·11 </td><td> 4·82 </td><td>2·21</td><td class="c"> " 13</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Phleum pratense—Meadow catstail grass </td><td> 57·21 </td><td> 4·86 </td><td> 1·50 </td><td>22·85 </td><td> 11·32 </td><td>2·26</td><td class="c"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Poa annua—Annual meadow grass </td><td> 79·14 </td><td> 2·47 </td><td> ·71 </td><td>10·79 </td><td> 6·30 </td><td> ·59</td><td class="c"> May 28</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Poa pratensis—Smooth-stalked meadow grass </td><td> 67·14 </td><td> 3·41 </td><td> ·86 </td><td>14·15 </td><td> 12·49 </td><td>1·95</td><td class="c">June 11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Poa trivialis—Rough-stalked ditto </td><td> 73·60 </td><td> 2·58 </td><td> ·97 </td><td>10·54 </td><td> 10·11 </td><td>2·20</td><td class="c"> " 18</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Grass from water meadow </td><td> 87·58 </td><td> 3·22 </td><td> ·81 </td><td> 3·98 </td><td> 3·13 </td><td>1·28</td><td class="c">Apr. 30</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ditto, second crop </td><td> 74·53 </td><td> 2·78 </td><td> ·52 </td><td>11·17 </td><td> 8·76 </td><td>2·24</td><td class="c">June 26</td></tr> +<tr class="b1"> + <td class="l"> Annual rye-grass </td><td> 69·00 </td><td> 2·96 </td><td> ·69 </td><td>12·89 </td><td> 12·47 </td><td>1·99</td><td class="c"> " 8</td></tr> +<tr class="b1"> + <td class="c" colspan="8"> Most of the grasses here mentioned were analysed when in flower.</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page159" name="page159"></a>[159]</span></p> + +<p> +<i>Tussac Grass</i> (<i>Dactylis cæspitus</i>) is recommended as an excellent +plant to grow on very poor, wet, or mossy soils.<sup><a name="noteref-25"><!--25--></a><a href="#note-25">25</a></sup> It is an evergreen +grass, somewhat resembling coltsfoot. It is relished by cattle. +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of tussac grass"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3"> ANALYSIS OF TUSSAC GRASS BY JOHNSTONE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><th>Lower part. </th><th>Upper part. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 86·09 </td><td> 75·17 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-formers </td><td> 2·47 </td><td> 4·79 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sugar, gum, &c. </td><td> 4·62 </td><td> 6·81 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre (with a little albumen) </td><td> 5·68 </td><td> 11·86 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ash </td><td> 1·14 </td><td> 1·37 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td> ———— </td><td>————</td></tr> +<tr><td> Total </td><td> 100·00 </td><td>100·00 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +The "artificial grasses" embrace the clovers, vetches, lucerne, and +a few other plants, some of which are seldom cultivated. +</p> + +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of various clovers (Anderson)"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="7"> ANALYSES OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF CLOVER, BY DR. ANDERSON.</td></tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<th colspan="4">Per-centage in the Fresh Clover.</th> +<th colspan="2">Per-centage in Dry Clover. </th> +</tr> + +<tr class="b1"> +<td></td> +<th>Water.</th> +<th>Dry<br /> Substances.</th> +<th>Ash.</th> +<th>Nitrogenised<br /> Substances.</th> +<th>Ash.</th> +<th>Nitrogenised<br /> Matters.</th> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Red clover—Trifolium pratense:</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> 1. From English seed </td><td>85·30 </td><td> 14·70 </td><td> 1·30 </td><td>2·31 </td><td> 8·90 </td><td> 15·87 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> 2. From German seed (from the Rhine) </td><td>81·68 </td><td> 18·32 </td><td> 1·49 </td><td>2·81 </td><td> 8·15 </td><td> 15·50 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> 3. From French seed </td><td>83·51 </td><td> 16·49 </td><td> 1·95 </td><td>2·25 </td><td>11·82 </td><td> 13·56 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> 4. From American seed </td><td>79·98 </td><td> 21·02 </td><td> 1·58 </td><td>2·87 </td><td> 8·05 </td><td class="c"> ... </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> 5. From Dutch seed </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 8·82 </td><td> 12·43 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Cowgrass—Trifolium medium:<sup><a name="noteref-26"><!--26--></a><a href="#note-26">26</a></sup></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Variety, Duke of Norfolk </td><td>77·39 </td><td> 22·61 </td><td> 2·73 </td><td>2·25 </td><td>12·09 </td><td> 10·19 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Variety, common </td><td>81·76 </td><td> 18·24 </td><td> 1·92 </td><td>3·19 </td><td>10·53 </td><td> 14·37 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Crimson clover—Trifolium incarnatum:</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> From French seed </td><td>82·56 </td><td> 17·44 </td><td> 1·88 </td><td>3·25 </td><td>10·81 </td><td> 18·56 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Yellow clover—Medicago lupulina:</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> From English seed </td><td>77·38 </td><td> 22·62 </td><td> 2·02 </td><td>3·50 </td><td> 8·95 </td><td> 15·44 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"> + <td class="l"> From French seed </td><td>78·60 </td><td> 21·40 </td><td> 1·75 </td><td>2·94 </td><td> 8·18 </td><td> 13·69 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page160" name="page160"></a>[160]</span></p> + +<p> +<i>Clover</i> is very rich in flesh-forming and heat-producing substances. +There are several varieties of this plant, of which the Alsike Clover +appears to be the most valuable, as it contains a high proportion of +organic matter and gives the largest acreable produce. The nature of the +soil influences, to a great extent, the composition of this plant: this +no doubt accounts for the somewhat discrepant result of the analyses of +it made by Way, Voelcker, and Anderson. +</p> +<p> +The composition of the Vetch, Sainfoin, and Lucerne, resembles very +closely that of the Clover: indeed, it appears to me that all these +leguminous plants are nearly equally valuable as green forage, but that +the best adapted for hay is the Clover. In the following table the +composition of these plants is shown:— +</p> + +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of various clovers (Voelcker)"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="6"> ANALYSES OF CLOVER, BY DR. VOELCKER.</td></tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<th> I. <br /> Red <br /> Clover. </th> +<th> II. <br /> White <br /> Clover. </th> +<th>III. <br /> Yellow <br /> Clover. </th> +<th> IV. <br /> Alsike <br /> Clover. </th> +<th> V. <br /> Bokhara <br /> Clover. </th> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 80·64 </td><td> 83·65 </td><td> 77·57 </td><td> 76·67 </td><td> 81·30 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Soluble in Water— </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> <i>a.</i> Organic substances </td><td> 6·35 </td><td> 4·98 </td><td> 8·26 </td><td> 4·91 </td><td> 6·80 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> <i>b.</i> Inorganic substances </td><td> 1·55 </td><td> 1·13 </td><td> 1·40 </td><td> 1·33 </td><td> 1·54 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Insoluble in water— </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> <i>a.</i> Impure vegetable fibre </td><td> 11·04 </td><td> 9·80 </td><td> 12·17 </td><td> 16·36 </td><td> 10·01 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> <i>b.</i> Inorganic matters (ash) </td><td> 0·42 </td><td> 0·44 </td><td> 0·60 </td><td> 0·73 </td><td> 0·35 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> </td><td> 100·00 </td><td>100·00 </td><td> 100·00 </td><td>100·00 </td><td> 100·00 </td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="6" style="border: none!important;"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="6"> ANALYSES OF LUCERNE, SAINFOIN, AND VETCH.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3"></td> +<th> I. <br /> Lucerne. </th> +<th> II. <br /> Sainfoin. </th> +<th>III. <br /> Vetch. </th> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="l" colspan="3"> Water </td><td> 73·41 </td><td> 77·32 </td><td> 82·16 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l" colspan="3"> Soluble in Water </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l" colspan="3"> <i>a.</i> Organic substances </td><td> 9·43 </td><td> 8·00 </td><td> 6·07 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l" colspan="3"> <i>b.</i> Inorganic substances </td><td> 2·33 </td><td> 1·20 </td><td> 1·07 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l" colspan="3"> Insoluble in water </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l" colspan="3"> <i>a.</i> Impure vegetable fibre </td><td> 14·08 </td><td> 12·95 </td><td> 10·23 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l" colspan="3"> <i>b.</i> Inorganic matters (ash)</td><td> 0·75 </td><td> 0·53 </td><td> 0·47 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l" colspan="3"> </td><td> 100·00 </td><td>100·00 </td><td> 100·00 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page161" name="page161"></a>[161]</span></p> + +<p> +The artificial grasses are, on the whole, more nutritious than the +natural grasses; but I should explain that the analyses of the natural +grasses which I have quoted refer to those plants in what may be almost +termed their wild state: under the influence of good cultivation—when +irrigated or top-dressed with abundance of appropriate manure—their +analyses would indicate a higher nutritive value. The grasses, and more +especially the so-called artificial grasses, are more nutritious and +digestible when young. In old clover the proportion of insoluble woody +fibre is often so considerable as to greatly detract from the alimental +value of the plant. +</p> +<p> +The <i>Lentils</i>, the <i>Birdsfoot</i>, the <i>Trefoil</i>, and the <i>Melilot</i> are +leguminous plants which occasionally are found as constituents of forage +crops. Lentils are extensively cultivated on the Continent, and are +the only kind of these plants the chemistry of which has been at all +studied. The straw contains 7 per cent. of flesh-formers. +</p> +<p> +<i>The Yellow Lupine</i> is cultivated rather extensively in Germany, +France, and Belgium, partly for feeding purposes, partly to furnish a +green manure. Its seeds constitute a nutritious article of food for man, +and its stems and leaves are given to cattle. An attempt was made a few +years ago to introduce its cultivation, as a field crop, into England, +and very satisfactory results attended the first trials made with it. +Mr. Kimber, who has cultivated this crop, states that it is likely to +prove valuable on light sandy soils, where the ordinary green fodder +crops are not easily cultivated. The produce per acre obtained in +Mr. Kimber's trial was about nineteen tons. Cattle and sheep relish +the Yellow Lupine, but according to Mr. Kimber, pigs reject it. +Professor Voelcker examined this plant, and found that it resembled in +composition the ordinary artificial grasses, except in one respect, +namely, a remarkable deficiency in sugar. Altogether, it is not so rich +in nutriment as any of the commonly cultivated leguminous plants; but +as it can be cultivated on a very poor soil, and gives a good return, +it is probable that the Yellow Lupine will yet become a common crop + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page162" name="page162"></a>[162]</span> + + in +Britain. The following table exhibits the results of Dr. Voelcker's +analysis. +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of yellow lupines"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3"> COMPOSITION OF YELLOW LUPINES (CUT DOWN IN A GREEN STATE).</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><th>In natural state.</th><th>Dried at 212°F.</th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 89·20 </td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Oil </td><td> ·37 </td><td> 3·42 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> <b>*</b> Soluble albuminous compounds </td><td> 1·37 </td><td> 12·68 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Soluble mineral (saline) substances </td><td> ·61 </td><td> 5·64 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> <b>†</b> Insoluble albuminous compounds </td><td> 1·01 </td><td> 9·35 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sugar, gum, bitter extractive matter, + and digestible fibre </td><td> 3·96 </td><td> 36·68 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Indigestible woody fibre (cellulose) </td><td> 3·29 </td><td> 30·48 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Insoluble mineral matters </td><td> ·19 </td><td> 1·75 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td class="l"> </td><td> ——— </td><td> ——— </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> </td><td> 100·00 </td><td> 100·00 </td></tr> +<tr class="tiny"><td class="l"> <b>*</b> Containing nitrogen </td><td> ·22 </td><td> 2·03 </td></tr> +<tr class="tiny"><td class="l"> <b>†</b> Containing nitrogen </td><td> ·16 </td><td> 1·48 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +<i>Rib grass plantain</i> (<i>Plantago lanceolata</i>) is one of those plants, the +value of which for forage purposes is questionable. Many persons believe +it to be a useful food. Its composition, which looks favorable, is as +follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of rib grass plantain"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>84·78 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Albuminous matters </td><td> 2·18 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fatty matters </td><td> 0·56 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Starch, gum, &c. </td><td> 6·08 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 5·10 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter </td><td> 1·30 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +The grasses, natural and artificial, are occasionally affected by a +formidable and well-known fungus, the <i>ergot</i>. Italian rye-grass is the +most liable to the ravages of this pest, and there are on record several +cases in which ergotted rye-grass proved fatal to the animal fed upon +it. Clover and the various leguminous plants appear more liable to the +ergot disease than the natural grasses (except rye-grass), but I have +on several occasions noticed this fungus on the spikelets of <i>Hordeum +pratense</i>, <i>Festuca pratense</i>, and <i>Bromus erectus</i>. It has also been +noticed that rye-grass rapidly developed under the influence of liquid +manure is so rank that young animals fed upon it are poisonously +affected. + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page163" name="page163"></a>[163]</span> + + Alderman Mechi states that in July, 1864, ten out of his +thirty Shorthorn calves died in consequence of eating the heads of +Italian rye-grass, and that the survivors' health was seriously injured. +He was also unfortunate with his lambs, which, during the same month, +were folded on Italian rye-grass. "Four days ago," writes the Alderman, +"it was sewaged, having been prior to the former growth also guanoed. +In four days it had grown from four to five inches, was of an intense +green, and pronounced to be, by sharp practical men, just the food for +lambs. Well, we put on our lambs, taking care to do so in the evenings +after they had been well fed. My bailiff accompanied them, and, within +five minutes, turning accidentally round, he saw two of the lambs with +their heads in the air staggering (stomach staggers it is called) and +frothing at the mouth. He immediately saw the mischief, removed the +lambs, and on their way back to a bare fold some of them vomited the +Italian rye-grass that they had just eaten, accompanied by frothy slime; +others brought it up during the night. Some of them trembled, gaped, +and showed all the same symptoms that my calves had done, such as rapid +pulse, &c. Two or three of them are rather queer to-day. I hope that +Professor Simmonds or some capable person will tell us how this is? If +we mow this grass, bring it home, and cut it into chaff, all which tends +to heat or dry it, it becomes wholesome food. The same remarks apply in +degree to very succulent tares. If the Italian grass is brought home and +given long and quite fresh to the calves, it will kill them. It does not +appear to injure old ewes as it does lambs or shearlings. The dry +weather has something to do with it. In wet weather the evil is much +diminished, or disappears." +</p> +<p> +It is probable that the juice of this poisonous herbage was extremely +rich in matters only semi-organised, and perhaps abounded in the crude +substances from which the vegetable tissues are elaborated. Such +rank grass as this was should not be used until it has attained to a +tolerably developed state: in mature plants the juices contain more +highly organised matters than are found in young vegetables. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page164" name="page164"></a>[164]</span></p> + +<p> +The <i>Sorghuo</i>, <i>or Holcus Saccharatus</i>.—This plant, introduced to +the notice of the British farmer but a few years ago, is only grown +in these countries in small quantities. It is very rich in sugar, and +cattle relish it greatly. Its composition, according to Dr. Voelcker, +is as follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of Sorghuo"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>81·80 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Albuminous matters </td><td> 1·53 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Insoluble ditto </td><td> 0·66 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sugar </td><td> 5·85 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Wax and fatty matter </td><td> 2·55 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mucilage, pectin, and digestible matters </td><td> 2·59 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Indigestible woody fibre </td><td> 4·03 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter </td><td> 0·99 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +The plants referred to in the above analysis were cut in September. +It is found that the composition of the plant is very different at +different seasons. +</p> +<p> +<i>Green Rye</i> is employed as a forage crop, for which purpose it is well +adapted. It is about equal in nutritive power to clover. According to +Dr. Voelcker its composition is as follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of green rye"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>75·423 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-formers </td><td> 2·705 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fatty matter </td><td> 0·892 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Gum, pectin, sugar, &c. </td><td> 9·134 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody-fibre </td><td>10·488 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter </td><td> 1·358 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·000 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +<i>Buckwheat</i> is occasionally cut in a green state and used as food for +stock. Its composition, according to Einhof and Crome, is as follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of buckwheat"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>82·5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Nitrogenous compounds </td><td> 0·2 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Extractive matters </td><td> 2·6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Starch, &c. </td><td> 4·7 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Cellulose </td><td>10·0 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·0 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page165" name="page165"></a>[165]</span></p> + +<p> +Rape is one of our most valuable plants for stock feeding. Two varieties +are cultivated in these countries—the summer rape (<i>Brassica Campestris +oleifera</i>) and winter rape (<i>Brassica rapus</i>). The great utility of +rape arises from the circumstance of its being generally obtained as a +<i>stolen</i> crop; for otherwise it is not quite equal to other plants that +might be substituted for it—cabbages, &c. This plant is very rich in +oily matters, and has been found well adapted both for the feeding of +cattle and the fattening of sheep. Its composition, according to +Voelcker, is shown in this table:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of green rape"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="2"> COMPOSITION OF GREEN RAPE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>87·050 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-formers </td><td> 3·133 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fatty matters </td><td> 0·649 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Other respiratory substances </td><td> 4·000 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 3·560 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter (ash) </td><td> 1·608 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·000 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +With respect to the value of rape for the feeding of stock in spring, +Mr. Rham makes the following remarks:— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + If the crop is very forward it may be slightly fed off, but in + general it is best to let it remain untouched till spring. In the + end of March and the beginning of April it will be a great help + to the ewes and lambs. It will produce excellent food till it + begins to be in flower, when it should immediately be ploughed up. + The ground will be found greatly recruited by this crop, which has + taken nothing from it, and has added much by the dung and urine of + the sheep. Whatever be the succeeding crop, it cannot fail to be + productive; and if the land is not clean, the farmer must have + neglected the double opportunity of destroying weeds in the + preceding summer, and in the early part of spring. If the rape is + fed off in time, it may be succeeded by barley or oats, with clover + or grass seeds, or potatoes, if the soil is not too wet. Thus no + crop will be lost, and the rape will have been a clear addition to + the produce of the land. Any crop which is taken off the land in a + green state, especially if it be fed off with sheep, may be repeated + without risk of failure, provided the land be properly tilled; but + where cole or rape have produced seed, they cannot be profitably + sown in less than five or six years after on the same land. The + cultivation of rape or cole for spring food cannot be too strongly + recommended to the farmers of heavy clay soils. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page166" name="page166"></a>[166]</span></p> + +<p> +<i>The Mustard Plant</i> is occasionally used as food for sheep, for which +purpose its composition shows it to be well adapted. Voelcker's analysis +proves it to be very rich, relatively, in muscle-forming elements and in +mineral matters; it might, therefore be with advantage combined with +food relatively deficient in these principles. +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of fresh mustard"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="2"> COMPOSITION OF FRESH MUSTARD.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>86·30 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Albuminous matters </td><td> 2·87 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Non-nitrogenous matters (gum, sugar, oil, &c.) </td><td> 4·40 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 4·39 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ash </td><td> 2·04 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +<i>The Prickly Comfrey</i> has been recommended as a good forage plant. +It yields an abundant crop—or rather crops, for it may be cut several +times in the year. The plant is a handsome one, and it might combine the +useful with the ornamental if it were cultivated on demesne or villa +farms. Dr. Voelcker states its composition to be as follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of prickly comfrey"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>88·400 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-forming substances </td><td> 2·712 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Heat and fat-producing matters </td><td> 6·898 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ash </td><td> 1·990 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·000 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +<i>Chicory</i> is used as a forage crop on the Continent, and Professor John +Wilson surmises that it may yet be generally cultivated for this purpose +in Great Britain. At present it is rarely grown except for the sake of +its roots, which are used as partial substitutes for, or adulterants of, +coffee. +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of chicory"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3"> COMPOSITION OF CHICORY, ACCORDING TO ANDERSON.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><th>Fresh roots. </th><th>Fresh leaves.</th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 80·58 </td><td> 90·94 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Nitrogenous matters </td><td> 1·72 </td><td> 1·01 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Non-nitrogenous substances </td><td> 16·39 </td><td> 6·63 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ash </td><td> 1·31 </td><td> 1·42 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> 100·00 </td><td> 100·00 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page167" name="page167"></a>[167]</span></p> + +<p> +<i>Yarrow</i> (<i>Achillæa millefolium</i>) is usually regarded as a weed, but +sheep are very fond of it, and when they can get it, never fail to eat +it greedily. It possesses astringent properties. Some writers have +recommended it as a good crop for warrens and sands. Its composition, +according to Way, is as follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of dry yarrow"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="2"> DRIED YARROW.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Albuminous matter </td><td>10·34 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fatty matters </td><td> 2·51 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Starch, gum, &c. </td><td>45·46 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td>32·69 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter </td><td> 9·00 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +<i>Melons</i> and <i>Marrows</i> have been used, but to a very limited extent, as +food for stock. Mr. Blundell advocates their use in seasons of drought. +He states that he has obtained more than forty tons per acre of both +melons and marrows. They are relished by horses, oxen, sheep, and pigs. +Mr. Blundell's advocacy has not been attended with much success, but it +would be desirable to give these vegetables a further trial. +</p> +<p> +Dr. Voelcker's analysis of the cattle melon shows that it contains:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of cattle melon"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>92·98 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Albuminous matters </td><td> 1·53 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Oil </td><td> ·73 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sugar, gum, &c. </td><td> 2·51 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fibre </td><td> 1·65 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ash </td><td> ·60 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +<i>The Cabbage.</i>—The composition of the Drumhead Cabbage has been studied +by Dr. Anderson. He found a larger proportion of nutriment in the outer +leaves than in the "heart," and ascertained that the young plants were +richer in nutriment than those more advanced in age. His results show +the desirability of cultivating the open-leaved, rather than the compact +varieties of this plant. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page168" name="page168"></a>[168]</span></p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of cabbage; outer and heart leaves"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3"> ANALYSIS OF THE CABBAGE.—BY DR. ANDERSON.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><th>Outer leaves. </th><th>Heart leaves. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 91·08 </td><td> 94·48 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Compounds containing nitrogen </td><td> 1·63 </td><td> 0·94 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Compounds destitute of nitrogen, such as gum, sugar, fibre, &c.</td> + <td> 5·06 </td><td> 4·08 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ash (mineral matter) </td><td> 2·23 </td><td> 0·50 </td></tr> + +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> 100·00 </td><td> 100·00 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +According to Fromberg, the composition of the whole plant is as +follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of cabbage; whole plant"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>93·40 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming compounds </td><td> 1·75 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Non-nitrogenous substances such as gum, sugar, &c. </td><td> 4·05 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter </td><td> 0·80 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +Dr. Voelcker, who has more recently analysed the cattle cabbage, +furnishes us with the following details of its composition:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of cabbage; outer leaves only"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="2"> COMPOSITION OF CABBAGE LEAVES (OUTSIDE GREEN LEAVES).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>83·72 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Dry matter </td><td>16·28 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +The fresh and the dry matter consisted of:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of fresh and dry matter in cabbage"> + +<tr><td> </td><th> Fresh <br />Matter. </th><th>Dry matter. <br /> Per cent. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> <b>*</b> Protein compounds </td><td> 1·65 </td><td> 10·19 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Non-nitrogenous matter </td><td> 13·38 </td><td> 82·10 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter </td><td> 1·25 </td><td> 7·71 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> </td><td> 16·28 </td><td> 100·00 </td></tr> +<tr class="tiny"><td class="l"> <b>*</b> Containing nitrogen</td><td> ·26 </td><td> 1·63 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +In the following table the results of a more elaborate analysis of the +<i>heart</i> and inner leaves are shown:— +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page169" name="page169"></a>[169]</span></p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of heart and inner leaves"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="4"> COMPOSITION OF HEART AND INNER LEAVES.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><th>In natural state.</th><th>Dry. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 89·42 </td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Oil </td><td> ·08 </td><td> ·75 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> <b>*</b> Soluble protein compounds </td><td> 1·19 </td><td> 11·24 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sugar, digestible fibres, &c. </td><td> 7·01 </td><td> 66·25 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Soluble mineral matter </td><td> ·73 </td><td> 6·89 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> <b>†</b> Insoluble protein compounds </td><td> ·31 </td><td> 2·93 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 1·14 </td><td> 10·77 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Insoluble mineral matter </td><td> ·12 </td><td> 1·17 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> </td><td> 100·00 </td><td>100·00 </td></tr> +<tr class="tiny"><td class="l"> <b>*</b> Containing nitrogen </td><td> ·19 </td><td> 1·79 </td></tr> +<tr class="tiny"><td class="l"> <b>†</b> Containing nitrogen </td><td> ·05 </td><td> ·47 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +If I were asked what plant I considered the most valuable for forage, +I certainly should pronounce an opinion in favor of cabbage. This crop +yields a much greater return than that afforded by the Swedish turnip, +and it is richer in nutritive matter. Cabbages are greedily eaten by +sheep and cattle, and the butter of cows fed upon them is quite free +from the disagreeable flavor which it so often possesses when the food +of the animal is chiefly composed of turnips. If the cabbage admitted of +storing, no more valuable crop could be cultivated as food for stock. +</p> +<p> +Mr. John M'Laren, of Inchture, Scotland, gives in the "Transactions of +the Highland Agricultural Society of Scotland for 1857," a report on the +feeding value of cabbage, which is highly favorable to that plant:— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + On the 1st December, 1855 (says the reporter), two lots of + Leicester wethers, bred on the farm, and previously fed alike, + each lot containing ten sheep, were selected for the trial by + competent judges, and weighed. Both lots were put into a field + of well-sheltered old lea, having a division between them. All + the food was cut and given them in troughs, three times a day. + They had also a constant supply of hay in racks. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + At the end of the trial, on the 1st of March, 1856, the sheep + were all re-weighed, sent to the Edinburgh market, and sold same + day, but in their separate lots. As I had no opportunity of + getting the dead weights, I requested Mr. Swan, the salesman, to + give his opinion on their respective qualities. This was to the + effect that no difference existed in their market + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page170" name="page170"></a>[170]</span> + + value, but that + the sheep fed on turnips would turn out the best quality of mutton, + with most profit for the butcher. Both lots were sold at the same + price, viz., 52s. 6d. During the three months of trial, we found + that each lot consumed about the same weight of food—viz., 8 tons + 13 cwt. 47 lb. of cabbage, being at the rate of 21<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub> lbs. per day + for each sheep, and 8 tons 10 cwt. 7 lb. Swedes, being at the rate + of 20<sup>9</sup>⁄<sub>10</sub> lb. per day. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + It will be seen, by referring to the table (see next page), that in + this trial the Swede has proved of higher value for feeding purposes + than the cabbage, making 11 st. 4 lb. of gain in weight, whilst the + cabbage made 10 st. 9 lb. At the same time, 3 cwt. 40 lb. less food + were consumed; and taking the mutton gained at 6d. per lb., the + Swedes consumed become worth 9s. 3¼d. per ton, while the gain on + the cabbage, at the same rate, makes them worth 8s. 7d. per ton. + But from the great additional weight of the one crop grown over the + other, the balance, at the prices, c., mentioned, is in favor of the + cabbage by £1 15s. 11¾d. per acre. +</p> +<p> +These results certainly speak strongly in favor of the cabbage; but the +weight of the acreable crop of cabbages stated in the table appears to +be unusually great. So heavy a crop is rarely obtained. +</p> +<p> +<i>Furze</i> (<i>Gorse, or Whins</i>).—Notwithstanding the natural historical +knowledge of Goldsmith, his poetical description of the furze is far +from accurate. This plant, instead of being "unprofitably gay," deserves +to rank amongst the most valuable vegetables cultivated for the use of +the domestic animals. It grows and flourishes under conditions which +most injuriously affect almost every other kind of fodder and green +crop. Prolonged drought in spring and early summer not unfrequently +renders the hay crop a scanty one; while autumn and winter frosts change +the nutriment of the mangels and turnips into decaying and unwholesome +matter. Under such circumstances as these, the maintenance of cattle in +good condition is very expensive, unless in places where a supply of +furze is available. This plant is rather improved than otherwise by +exposure to a temperature which would speedily destroy a mangel or a +turnip; and, although it thrives best when abundantly supplied with +rain, it can survive an exceedingly prolonged drought without sustaining +much injury. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page171" name="page171"></a>[171]</span></p> + +<table class="closed" border="0" align="center" summary="Comparison of sheep weight grown on diets of cabbage versus swedes"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="30"> + TABLE + <br /> + <span class="sc">Showing the Difference of Weight grown on an Acre of Cabbage and an + Acre of Swedes, and the Value of each for Feeding</span>. +</td></tr> + +<tr> +<th colspan="1">No. Of Sheep In Each Lot.</th> +<th colspan="1">Kinds of Food.</th> +<th colspan="2">Weight of Ten Sheep, 1st Dec., 1855.</th> +<th colspan="2">Weight of Ten Sheep, 1st Mar., 1856.</th> +<th colspan="2">Gain.</th> +<th colspan="3">Value of Gain taking Mutton at 6d. per lb.</th> +<th colspan="3">Total Weight of Food consumed in Three Months by each lot.</th> +<th colspan="2">Value of Food consumed per Ton.</th> +<th colspan="2">Total Weight per Acre of each Crop.</th> +<th colspan="3">Value of each Crop per Acre.</th> +<th colspan="3">Extra Cost on each Crop per Acre.</th> +<th colspan="3">Free Value of each Crop per Acre.</th> +<th colspan="3">Balance in favor of Cabbage per Acre.</th> +</tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><th> st. </th><th>lb. </th><th>st. </th><th>lb. </th><th>st. </th><th>lb. </th><th>£ </th><th>s. </th><th>d. </th><th>tons. </th><th>cwt. </th><th>lb. </th><th>s. </th><th>d. </th><th>tons. </th><th>cwt. </th><th>£ </th><th>s. </th><th>d. </th><th>£ </th><th>s. </th><th> d. </th><th>£ </th><th>s. </th><th>d. </th><th>£ </th><th>s. </th><th>d. </th></tr> + +<tr><td> 10 </td><td>Cabbage</td><td> 90 </td><td>10 </td><td>101 </td><td> 5 </td><td>10 </td><td> 9 </td><td>3 </td><td>14 </td><td>6 </td><td> 8 </td><td>13 </td><td>47 </td><td>8 </td><td>7 </td><td> 42 </td><td>14 </td><td>18 </td><td>6 </td><td>6 </td><td>4 </td><td>10 </td><td>11 </td><td>13 </td><td>15 </td><td>7 </td><td rowspan="2">1 </td><td rowspan="2">15 </td><td rowspan="2">11¾</td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td> 10 </td><td>Swedes </td><td> 89 </td><td> 3 </td><td>100 </td><td> 7 </td><td>11 </td><td> 4 </td><td>3 </td><td>19 </td><td>0 </td><td> 8 </td><td>10 </td><td> 7 </td><td>9 </td><td>3¼</td><td> 26 </td><td>12 </td><td>12 </td><td>6 </td><td>7¼ </td><td>0 </td><td> 7 </td><td> 0 </td><td>11 </td><td>19 </td><td>7¼ </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page172" name="page172"></a>[172]</span></p> + +<p> +The furze is a member of the family <i>Leguminosæ</i>, which includes so many +useful plants, such as, for example, the pea, the bean, and the clovers. +There are three varieties of it met with in this country—namely, the +common furze, <i>Ulex europæus</i>, the dwarf furze, <i>Ulex nanus</i>, and the +Irish, or upright furze, <i>Ulex strictus</i>. +</p> +<p> +The common furze is a hardy shrub, and grows luxuriantly at an elevation +far higher than the limits of cereal cultivation. It flourishes on any +kind of soil which is moderately dry, and heavy crops may easily be +raised on uplands almost incapable of producing grass. The dwarf furze +is never cultivated, but as it grows at a still greater elevation, and +on a poorer soil than the larger varieties, it might be profitably +cultivated on very high uplands. The Irish furze yields a softer and +less prickly food than the other kinds, but as it does not usually bear +seed, and must therefore be propagated by cuttings, its cultivation has +hitherto been limited to but a few localities. +</p> +<p> +The produce of an acre of furze appears to be at least equal to that +of an acre of good meadow. The Rev. Mr. Townsend of Aghada, county of +Cork—the most zealous and successful advocate for the cultivation of +this plant—informed me that he had obtained so much as 14 tons per +acre; a fact which proves that the furze is a plant which is well +deserving of the attention of the farmer. +</p> +<p> +Furze is an excellent food for every kind of stock. Cattle, although +they may at first appear not to relish its prickly shoots, soon acquire +a fondness for it. I have known several instances of herds being fed +almost if not entirely on the bruised plant, and to keep in good +condition. The late Professor Murphy, of Cork, stated that on the farm +of Mr. Boulger, near Mallow, thirty-five cows were fed on crushed furze, +which they "devoured voraciously." Each animal received daily from four +to six stones of the crushed plant, to which were added a little turnip +pulp and a small quantity of oats. The milk and butter yielded by these +cows were considered excellent. In a letter addressed + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page173" name="page173"></a>[173]</span> + + to me by a very +intelligent feeder, Mr. John Walsh,<sup><a name="noteref-27"><!--27--></a><a href="#note-27">27</a></sup> of Stedalt, county of Dublin, +the following remarks in relation to this subject are made:— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + I had lately an opportunity of seeing a herd of cattle of about + sixty head, of which twenty had been fed with furze prepared with + my machine for about six weeks before being put out to grass. The + condition of these was so superior that I pointed out every one of + them, one after the other, out of the herd. The owner of the cattle + had made the same observation; it was new to him but not to me. +</p> +<p> +Furze is seldom given to sheep or pigs, but I believe that it might with +advantage enter into the dietary of those animals. Some of my friends +who have lately tried it with pigs report favorably as to its effects. +Horses partly fed upon this plant keep in good condition; it is usually +given to them cut merely into lengths of half an inch or an inch, but it +would be better to give it to them finely bruised. A horse during the +night will eat a much larger quantity of coarsely cut furze than of the +well bruised article, because he is obliged to expend a great deal of +muscular power in bruising the furze, and must, consequently, use an +additional quantity of the food to make up for the corresponding waste +of tissue. +</p> +<p> +Until quite recently, the chemistry of the furze was very little +studied. The analysis of this plant made many years ago by Sprengel +gave results which, in the present advanced condition of agricultural +chemistry, are quite valueless. The late Professor Johnston merely +determined its amount of water, organic matter, and ash. I believe I was +the first to make a complete investigation into the composition of this +plant according to the methods of modern chemical analysis. I made two +examinations. The first was of shoots cut on the 25th April, 1860, on +the lands of Mr. Walsh of Stedalt, near Balbriggan, in the county of +Dublin. The shoots were, in great part, composed of that year's growth, +with a small proportion of the + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page174" name="page174"></a>[174]</span> + + shoots of the previous year. They were +very moist, and their spines, or thorns, were rather soft. Their +centesimal composition was as follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of furze"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>78·05 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles </td><td> 2·18 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fat-forming principles (oil, starch, sugar, gum, &c.) </td><td> 8·20 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td>10·17 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter (ash) </td><td> 1·40 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> </td><td>100·00 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +The second analysis was made of furze cut on the 15th August, 1862. +The following were the results obtained:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of furze, second analysis"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>72·00 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles </td><td> 3·21 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Oil </td><td> 1·18 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Other fat-forming principles (starch, gum, &c.) </td><td> 8·20 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td>13·33 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter </td><td> 2·08 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> </td><td>100·00 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +The specimen was allowed to lie for a few days in a dry room, so that +it lost a little water whilst in my possession, before it was subjected +to analysis. +</p> +<p> +The sample cut in August contained a larger amount of nutriment than +the specimen analysed in the spring; but its constituents appeared to +be much less soluble in water, and therefore, less digestible. +</p> +<p> +Professor Blyth, of the Queen's College, Cork, has more recently made +a very elaborate analysis of furze, grown in the county of Cork, which +gave results still more favorable to the plant than those arrived at +by me—probably because the specimens furnished to him were drier than +mine. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page175" name="page175"></a>[175]</span></p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of fresh furze"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3"> ANALYSIS OF FRESH FURZE, BY DR. BLYTH.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l" colspan="3"> 100 parts contain:—</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="c" colspan="3"> <i>Matters readily soluble in water and easily digested.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> * Albuminous, or flesh-forming compounds </td><td> 1·68 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fat and heat-producing, or respiratory elements, + viz., sugar, gum, &c. &c. </td><td> 7·83 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ash </td><td> 0·83 </td></tr> + +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l" colspan="2"> Total matters soluble in water </td><td> 10·34 </td></tr> +<tr class="tiny"><td class="l"> <b>*</b> Containing nitrogen </td><td> 0·265 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="c" colspan="3"> <i>Matters insoluble in water.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Oil </td><td> 2·14 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> † Albuminous, or flesh-producing compounds </td><td> 2·83 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fat and heat-producing, or respiratory elements </td><td> 1·00 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td>28·80 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ash </td><td> 3·23 </td></tr> + +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l" colspan="2"> Total matters insoluble in water </td><td> 38·00 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l" colspan="2"> Water, expelled at 212 </td><td> 51·50 </td></tr> + +<tr class="total"><td colspan="2"></td><td> ———</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td> 99·48</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Total nitrogen in plant </td><td> 0·71 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Total albuminous, or flesh-producing compounds </td><td> 4·51 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Total respiratory, or heat and fat-producing compounds </td><td> 8·83 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Total ash </td><td> 4·06 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l" colspan="3"> The ash contains in 100 parts:— </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Potash </td><td>20·00 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Phosphoric acid </td><td> 8·72 </td></tr> +<tr class="tiny"><td class="l"> <b>†</b> Containing nitrogen </td><td> 0·445</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +If the large per-centage of water be deducted, the dry, nutritive +matters can then be more readily compared with the amount of the same +substances in other feeding articles:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of dried furze"> + +<tr><td class="c" colspan="3"> <i>Composition of 100 parts of furze dried at 212°. Matters soluble in + water in the dry furze.</i> +</td></tr> + + +<tr><td class="l"> * Albuminous compounds </td><td> 3·47 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Respiratory elements </td><td>16·15 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ash </td><td> 1·71 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l" colspan="2"> Total matters soluble in water </td><td> 21·33 </td></tr> +<tr class="tiny"><td class="l"> <b>*</b> Containing nitrogen </td><td> 0·546 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="c" colspan="3"> + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page176" name="page176"></a>[176]</span> + + <i>Matters insoluble in water in the dry furze.</i> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Oil </td><td> 4·41 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> † Albuminous compounds </td><td> 5·84 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Respiratory elements </td><td> 2·06 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td>59·38 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ash </td><td> 6·66 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l" colspan="2"> Total matters insoluble in water </td><td> 78·35 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td colspan="2"></td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td>99·68</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Total nitrogen in dry furze </td><td> 1·46 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Total albuminous compounds </td><td> 9·13 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Total respiratory elements </td><td>18·20 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Total ash </td><td> 8·36 </td></tr> +<tr class="tiny"><td class="l"> <b>†</b> Containing nitrogen </td><td> 0·917</td></tr> +<tr><td class="c" colspan="3"> <i>Composition of ash per cent.</i> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Potash </td><td>20·00 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Phosphoric Acid. </td><td> 8·72 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +The results of these analyses show that dry furze contains an amount +of nutriment equal to that found in dry grass. The nature of its +composition resembles, as might be expected, that of its allied plants, +vetches, &c., and therefore it exceeds the grasses in its amount of +ready formed fatty matter. +</p> + +<h4> +SECTION IV. +</h4> +<h5> +STRAW AND HAY. +</h5> +<p> +<i>Straw.</i>—At the present time, when the attention of the farmer is +becoming more and more devoted to the production of meat, it is very +desirable that his knowledge of the exact nutritive value of the various +feeding substances should be more extensive than it is. No doubt, most +feeders are practically acquainted with the relative value of corn and +oil-cake—of Swedish turnips and white turnips; but their knowledge of +the food equivalents of many other substances is still very defective. +For example, every farmer is not aware that Indian corn + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page177" name="page177"></a>[177]</span> + + is a more +economical food than beans for fattening cattle, and less so for beasts +of burthen. Locust-beans, oat-dust, malt-combings, and many other +articles, occasionally consumed by stock, have not, as yet, determinate +places assigned to them in the feeder's scale of food equivalents. +</p> +<p> +The points involved in the economic feeding of stock are not quite +so simple as some farmers, more especially those of the amateur +class, appear to believe. There are many feeders who sell their +half-finished cattle at a profit, and yet they cannot, without loss, +convert their stock into those obese monsters which are so much +admired at agricultural shows. The complete fattening of cattle is +a losing business with some feeders, and a profitable one with others. +Stall-feeding is a branch of rural economy which, perhaps more than any +other, requires the combination of "science with practice;" yet how few +feeders are there who have the slightest knowledge of the composition of +food substances, or who are agreed as to the feeding value, absolute or +relative, of even such well-known materials as oil-cake, straw, or oats! +"It is thus seen how inexact are the equivalents which are understood to +be established for the different foods used for the maintenance of the +animals. It is equally plain, when we reflect on the different methods +pursued for the preservation of the animals, that we are still far +from having attained that perfection towards which our efforts tend. +Visit one hundred farms, taken by chance in different parts of the +country, and you will find in each, methods directly opposite—a totally +peculiar manner of managing the stalls; you will see, in short, that the +conditions of food, of treatment, and of hygiene, remain not understood +in seven-eighths of rural farms."<sup><a name="noteref-28"><!--28--></a><a href="#note-28">28</a></sup> +</p> +<p> +The straws of the cereal and leguminous plants are a striking +illustration of the erroneous opinions and practices which prevail +amongst agriculturists with respect to particular branches of their +calling. The German farmers regard straw as the most valuable +constituent of home-made fertilisers, and + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page178" name="page178"></a>[178]</span> + + their leases in general +prohibit their selling off the straw produced on their farms. Yet +chemical analysis has clearly proved that the manurial value of straw is +perfectly insignificant, and that, as a constituent of stable manure, it +is chiefly useful as an absorbent of the liquid egesta of the animals +littered upon it. As food for stock, straw was at one time regarded by +our farmers as almost perfectly innutritious; some even went so far as +to declare that it possessed no nutriment whatever, and even those who +used it, did so more with the view of correcting the too watery nature +of turnips, than with the expectation of its being assimilated to the +animal body. Within the last few years, however, straw has been largely +employed by several of the most intelligent and successful feeders in +England, who report so favorably upon it as an economical feeding stuff, +that it has risen considerably in the estimation of a large section +of the agricultural public. Now, even without adopting the very high +opinion which Mechi and Horsfall entertain relative to the nutritive +power of straw, I am altogether disposed to disagree with those who +affirm that its application should be restricted to manurial purposes. +Unless under circumstances where there is an urgent demand for straw as +litter, that article should be used as food for stock, for which purpose +it will be found, if of good quality, and given in a proper state, a +most economical kind of dry fodder—equal, if not superior to hay, when +the prices of both articles are considered. +</p> +<p> +The composition of straw is very different from that of grain. +The former contains no starch, but it includes an exceedingly high +proportion of woody fibre; the latter is in great part composed of +starch, and contains but an insignificant amount of woody fibre. Dr. +Voelcker, the consulting chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society of +England, and Dr. Anderson, chemist to the Highland and Agricultural +Society of Scotland, have made a large number of analyses of the straws +of the cereal and leguminous plants, the results of which are of the +highest interest to the agriculturist. In the following tables the more +important results of these investigations are given:— +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page179" name="page179"></a>[179]</span></p> + + + +<table class="closed" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of straw (Voelcker)"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="11"> ANALYSES OF STRAW, BY DR. VOELCKER.</td></tr> + +<tr> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> +<th>No. 1. </th> +<th>No. 2. </th> +<th>No. 3. </th> +<th>No. 4. </th> +<th>No. 5. </th> +<th>No. 6. </th> +<th>No. 7. </th> +<th>No. 8. </th> +<th>No. 9. </th> +<th>No. 10.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<th>Wheat, just ripe and well harvested.</th> +<th>Wheat, over ripe.</th> +<th>Barley, dead ripe.</th> +<th>Barley, not too ripe.</th> +<th>Oat, cut green.</th> +<th>Oat, cut when fairly ripe.</th> +<th>Oat, over ripe.</th> +<th>Bean.</th> +<th>Pea.</th> +<th>Flax Chaff.</th> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 13·33 </td><td> 9·17 </td><td> 15·20 </td><td> 17·50 </td><td> 16·00 </td><td> 16·00 </td><td> 16·00 </td><td> 19·40 </td><td> 16·02 </td><td> 14·60 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Albumen, and other + protein compounds:— </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> <i>a.</i> Soluble in water </td><td> 1·28 </td><td> 0·06 </td><td> 0·68 </td><td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:200%;">}</span>5·73</td><td> 5·51 </td><td> 2·62 </td><td> 1·29 </td><td> 1·51 </td><td> 3·96 </td><td rowspan="2"> <span style="font-size:200%;">}</span>4·75 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> <i>b.</i> Insoluble in water</td><td> 1·65 </td><td> 2·06 </td><td> 3·75 </td> <td> 2·98 </td><td> 1·46 </td><td> 2·36 </td><td> 1·85 </td><td> 5·90 </td> </tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Oil </td><td> 1·74 </td><td> 0·65 </td><td> 1·36 </td><td> 1·17 </td><td> 1·57 </td><td> 1·05 </td><td> 1·25 </td><td> 1·02 </td><td> 2·34 </td><td> 2·82 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Sugar, mucilage, + extractive matters, + &c. (soluble in water) </td><td> 4·26 </td><td> 3·46 </td><td> 2·24 </td><td rowspan="3"><span style="font-size:300%;">}</span>71·44 </td><td> 16·04 </td><td> 10·57 </td><td> 3·19 </td><td> 4·18 </td><td> 8·32 </td><td> 8·72 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Digestible woody + fibre and cellulose </td><td> 19·40 </td><td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:200%;">}</span>82·26 </td><td> 5·97 </td> <td> 26·34 </td><td> 30·17 </td><td> 27·75 </td><td> 2·75 </td><td> 17·74 </td><td> 18·56 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Indigestible fibre &c. </td><td> 54·13 </td> <td> 66·54 </td> <td> 24·86 </td><td> 31·78 </td><td> 41·82 </td><td> 65·58 </td><td> 42·79 </td><td> 43·12 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Inorganic matter:— </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> <i>a.</i> Soluble </td><td> 1·13 </td><td> 1·29 </td><td> 2·88 </td><td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:200%;">}</span>4·52 </td><td> 5·76 </td><td> 3·64 </td><td> 2·26 </td><td> 2·31 </td><td> 2·72 </td><td> 4·07 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> <i>b.</i> Insoluble </td><td> 3·08 </td><td> 1·05 </td><td> 0·38 </td> <td> 0·94 </td><td> 2·71 </td><td> 4·08 </td><td> 1·40 </td><td> 2·21 </td><td> 3·36 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr class="b1"> + <td> </td><td> 100·00 </td><td> 100·00 </td><td>100·00 </td><td> 100·00 </td><td>100·00 </td><td> 100·00 </td><td> 100·00 </td><td>100·00 </td><td> 100·00 </td><td>100·00 </td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="11"> +<p>⁂<!--Asterism--> This table contains in a condensed form all the +results of Voelcker's analyses of the straws which are given in his paper +published in the <i>Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England</i>, +vol. xxii., part 2. 1862.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="11"> +<p>Nos. 5, 6, and 7 were analysed shortly after being cut, when they +contained a high proportion of water. They have, therefore, been +calculated to contain 16 per cent. of moisture so as to arrive at +accurate relative results.</p> +</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page180" name="page180"></a>[180]</span></p> + +<table class="closed" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of Straw (Anderson)"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="13">ANALYSES OF STRAW, BY DR. ANDERSON.</td></tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<th colspan="2">Wheat from East Lothian. </th> +<th colspan="1">Wheat from Kent. </th> +<th colspan="2">Barley from East Lothian. </th> +<th colspan="1">Barley from Kent. </th> +<th colspan="2">Sandy Oat from Kent. </th> +<th colspan="1">Oat from Sea level, East Lothian. </th> +<th colspan="1">Oat from 850 feet above Sea level, East Lothian. </th> +<th colspan="1">Oat from Mellhill, Inchture, Scotland. </th> +<th colspan="1">Oat from Kent (White one side.) </th> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 10·62 </td><td> 10·93 </td><td> 11·15 </td><td> 11·44 </td><td> 11·15 </td><td> 11·10 </td><td>11·70 </td><td> 10·95 </td><td> 12·60 </td><td> 11·28 </td><td> 11·70 </td><td> 10·55 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-formers— </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Soluble </td><td> 0·86 </td><td> 0·37 </td><td> 1·37 </td><td> 1·42 </td><td> 0·39 </td><td> 0·66 </td><td> 0·40 </td><td> 1·03 </td><td> 0·67 </td><td> 0·92 </td><td> 0·95 </td><td> 0·33 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Insoluble </td><td> 0·51 </td><td> 1·12 </td><td> 1·00 </td><td> 1·54 </td><td> 1·12 </td><td> 1·98 </td><td> 0·93 </td><td> 0·43 </td><td> 0·38 </td><td> 0·39 </td><td> 1·21 </td><td> 0·33 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Oil </td><td> 0·80 </td><td> 1·00 </td><td> 1·50 </td><td> 0·97 </td><td> 0·88 </td><td> 1·05 </td><td> 1·45 </td><td> 0·77 </td><td> 1·25 </td><td> 1·36 </td><td> 1·60 </td><td> 1·00 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Respiratory + elements— </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Soluble </td><td> 2·68 </td><td> 6·68 </td><td> 5·26 </td><td> 3·22 </td><td> 6·11 </td><td> 4·56 </td><td>10·12 </td><td> 6·90 </td><td> 7·16 </td><td> 7·42 </td><td> 12·01 </td><td> 6·23 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Insoluble </td><td> 44·88 </td><td> 36·43 </td><td> 38·79 </td><td> 35·56 </td><td> 38·38 </td><td> 27·95 </td><td>33·52 </td><td> 34·77 </td><td> 24·28 </td><td> 29·55 </td><td> 23·35 </td><td> 30·95 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 32·88 </td><td> 34·78 </td><td> 35·01 </td><td> 41·34 </td><td> 36·62 </td><td> 47·53 </td><td>35·36 </td><td> 38·73 </td><td> 48·49 </td><td> 44·40 </td><td> 45·27 </td><td> 47·40 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ash </td><td> 6·20 </td><td> 8·04 </td><td> 6·32 </td><td> 4·21 </td><td> 5·62 </td><td> 4·85 </td><td> 6·36 </td><td> 6·28 </td><td> 5·11 </td><td> 5·07 </td><td> 3·95 </td><td> 3·62 </td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td> </td><td> 99·43 </td><td> 99·35 </td><td> 100·40 </td><td> 99·70 </td><td> 100·27 </td><td> 99·68 </td><td>99·84 </td><td> 99·86 </td><td> 99·94 </td><td> 100·39 </td><td> 100·14 </td><td>100·41 </td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="13"> +<p>⁂<!--Asterism--> This table is compiled from Dr. Anderson's paper in +the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland +for March, 1862.</p> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page181" name="page181"></a>[181]</span></p> + +<p> +Many very important conclusions are deducible from the facts recorded +in these valuable tables. We learn from them that straw is more +nutritious when it is cut in the ripe state than when it is permitted +to over-ripen, and that <i>green</i> straw contains a far greater amount of +nutriment than is found even in the ripe article. It appears also that +the least nutritious kind of straw equals the best variety of turnips in +its amount of flesh-forming principles, and greatly exceeds them in its +proportion of fat-forming elements. We further learn that in general the +different kinds of straw will be found to stand in the following order, +the most nutritious occupying the highest, and the least nutritious the +lowest place:— +</p> + +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li> 1. Pea-haulm.</li> +<li> 2. Oat-straw.</li> +<li> 3. Bean-straw with the pods.</li> +<li> 4. Barley-straw.</li> +<li> 5. Wheat-straw.</li> +<li> 6. Bean-stalks without the pods.</li> +</ul> + +<p> +It is a matter to be regretted that we possess so little accurate +knowledge of the chemical composition of the plants cultivated in +Ireland. No doubt the analyses of English grown wheat, beans, mangels, +and other plants, serve to give us a general idea of the nature of those +vegetables when produced in this country. But this kind of information, +though very important, must necessarily be defective, as differences +in climate modify—often to a considerable extent—the composition of +almost every vegetable. Thus, the results of Anderson's analyses prove +Scotch oats to be superior, as a feeding stuff, to Scotch barley, +whilst, according to Voelcker and the experience of most English +feeders, the barley of parts of England is superior to its oats. It +follows, then, that whilst the results of the analyses of straw, made by +Voelcker and Anderson are of great interest to the Irish farmer, they +would be still more important to him had the straw to which they relate +been the produce of Irish soil. In order, therefore, to enable the Irish + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page182" name="page182"></a>[182]</span> + + farmer to form a correct estimate of the value of his straw, we should +put him in possession of a more perfect knowledge of its composition +than that which is derivable from the investigations to which I have +referred. The straws of the cereals—which alone are used here to any +extent—should be analysed as carefully and as frequently as those of +Great Britain have been; and if such were done, I have no doubt but that +the results would indicate a decided difference in composition between +the produce of the two countries. Some time ago I entered upon what, at +the time, I had intended should be a complete investigation into the +composition of Irish straws; but which want of time prevented me from +making more than a partial one. The results are given in the following +tables:— +</p> + +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Analyses of Irish oat-straw"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="5"> ANALYSES OF IRISH OAT-STRAW.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><th>No. 1. </th><th colspan="3">Obtained in the Dublin Market.</th></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><th>From Co.<br /> Wicklow. </th><th> No. 2. </th><th> No. 3. </th><th> No. 4. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 14·00 </td><td> 14·00 </td><td> 14·00 </td><td> 14·00 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-forming principles— </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> <i>a.</i> Soluble in water </td><td> 4·08 </td><td> 2·02 </td><td> 2·04 </td><td> 1·46 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> <i>b.</i> Insoluble in water </td><td> 2·09 </td><td> 3·16 </td><td> 3·00 </td><td> 2·23 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Oil </td><td> 1·84 </td><td> 1·40 </td><td> 1·26 </td><td> 1·00 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sugar, gum, and other + fat-forming matters </td><td> 13·79 </td><td> 12·67 </td><td> 10·18 </td><td> 11·16 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 59·96 </td><td> 61·79 </td><td> 65·45 </td><td> 65·29 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter </td><td> 4·24 </td><td> 4·96 </td><td> 4·07 </td><td> 4·86 </td></tr> + +<tr class="total"> +<td></td> +<td>———</td> +<td>———</td> +<td>———</td> +<td>———</td> +</tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td> </td><td> 100·00 </td><td>100·00 </td><td>100·00 </td><td> 100·00 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +All the specimens of oats, the analyses of which are given in the +preceding table, are assumed to contain 14 per cent. of water, in order +the more correctly to compare their nutritive value. No. 1 contained +18·23 per cent. of water; No. 2, 12·90; No. 3, 12·74; and No. 4, 12·08. +Oat straw, before its removal from the field, often contains nearly half +its weight of water; but after being for some time stacked, the +proportion of moisture rarely exceeds 14 per cent. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page183" name="page183"></a>[183]</span></p> + +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Analyses of Irish wheat-straw"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="7"> ANALYSES OF IRISH WHEAT-STRAW.</td></tr> + + +<tr><td> </td><th>No. 1. </th><th>No. 2.</th><th>No. 3. </th><th colspan="3">Obtained in the Dublin Markets.</th></tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<th>Green, changing <br />to yellow. <br />County Kildare.</th> +<th>Ripe.<br /> County Dublin.</th> +<th>Over Ripe.<br /> County Dublin.</th> +<th>No. 4.</th><th>No. 5.</th><th> No. 6.</th> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 13·00 </td><td> 13·15</td><td> 12·14</td><td> 10·88 </td><td > 11·22 </td><td> 12·12 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-forming + principles— </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> <i>a.</i> Soluble in + water </td><td> 1·25 </td><td> 0·98</td><td> 0·44</td><td> 0·06 </td><td> 0·42 </td><td> 0·30 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> <i>b.</i> Insoluble in + water </td><td> 1·26 </td><td> 1·40</td><td> 1·41</td><td> 1·90 </td><td> 1·00 </td><td> 1·76 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Oil </td><td> 1·22 </td><td> 1·13</td><td> 1·14</td><td> 0·90 </td><td> 1·17 </td><td> 1·08 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sugar, gum, and other + fat-forming matters </td><td> 4·18 </td><td> 3·98</td><td> 3·88</td><td> 4·08 </td><td> 3·89 </td><td> 4·30 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 75·84 </td><td> 76·17</td><td> 77·76</td><td> 78·67 </td><td> 79·18 </td><td> 77·15 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter (ash) </td><td> 3·25 </td><td> 3·19</td><td> 3·23</td><td> 3·51 </td><td> 3·12 </td><td> 3·29 </td></tr> + +<tr class="total"> +<td></td> +<td>———</td> +<td>———</td> +<td>———</td> +<td>———</td> +<td>———</td> +<td>———</td> +</tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td> </td><td> 100·00 </td><td> 100·00</td><td> 100·00</td><td> 100·00</td><td> 100·00</td><td> 100·00 +</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +The results of these analyses are somewhat different from those arrived +at by Voelcker and Anderson. They show that properly harvested Irish +oat and wheat straws are far more valuable than those of Scotland, and +somewhat less nutritive than those produced in England. They also +show that wheat-straw is allowed to over-ripen, by which a very large +proportion of its nutritive principles is eliminated and altogether +lost, and a considerable part of the remainder converted into an +insoluble, and therefore less easily digestible state. Nor is there any +advantage to the grain gained by allowing it to remain uncut after the +upper portion of the stem has changed from a green to a yellowish color; +on the contrary, it also loses a portion—often a very considerable +one—of its nitrogenous, or flesh-forming constituents. It has been +clearly proved that wheat cut when green, yields a greater amount of +grain, and of a better quality too, than when it is allowed to ripen +fully; yet, how often do we not see fields of wheat in this country +allowed to remain unreaped for many days, and even weeks, after the +crop has attained to its full development! +</p> +<p> +The oat-straw obtained in the Dublin Market proved less + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page184" name="page184"></a>[184]</span> + + valuable than +the green straw which I selected myself from a field of oats; but the +discrepancy between them was far less than between the nearly ripe +wheat-straw and the straw of that plant purchased in Dublin. During +visits which I have paid in harvest-time to the North of Ireland, I +noticed that the oats were generally cut whilst green, whereas wheat was +almost invariably left standing for at least a week after its perfect +maturation, probably for the following reasons:—Firstly, because +oats are more liable to shed their seed; secondly, because there is +a greater breadth of that crop to be reaped, which necessitates an +early beginning; and, lastly, because most farmers know that over-ripe +oat-straw is worth but little for feeding purposes, as compared with +the greenish-yellow article. +</p> +<p> +As compared with white turnips, the nutritive value of oat-straw stands +very high, for whilst the former contains but little more than 1 per +cent. of flesh-formers, and less than 5 per cent. of fat-formers, the +latter includes about 4 per cent. of flesh-formers, and 13 per cent. of +fat-formers. Again, whilst the amount of woody fibre in turnips is only +about 3 per cent., that substance constitutes no less than 60 per cent. +of oat-straw. In comparison with hay—taking into consideration the +prices of both articles—oat-straw also stands high, as will be seen +by comparing the following analyses of common meadow hay with that of +properly harvested straw:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Comparison of common meadow hay versus oat straw"> + +<tr><td> </td><th>Meadow Hay. </th><th>Oat Straw. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 14·61 </td><td> 14·00 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-forming constituents </td><td> 8·44 </td><td> 6·17 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Respiratory and fatty matters </td><td> 43·63 </td><td> 15·63 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 27·16 </td><td> 59·96 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter (ash) </td><td> 6·16 </td><td> 4·24 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td> ——— </td><td> ——— </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> 100·00 </td><td> 100·00 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +Woody fibre is as abundant a constituent of the straw of the cereals +as starch is of their seeds, and if the two substances were equally +digestible, straw would be a very valuable food—superior + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page185" name="page185"></a>[185]</span> + + even to the +potato. At one time it was the general belief that woody fibre was +incapable of contributing in the slightest degree to the nutrition of +animals, but the results of recent investigations prove that it is, to a +certain extent, digestible. In the summer of 1859 two German chemists, +Stöckhardt and Sussdorf, made a series of experiments, with the view +of ascertaining whether or not the cellulose<sup><a name="noteref-29"><!--29--></a><a href="#note-29">29</a></sup> of the food of the +sheep is assimilated by that animal. The results of this inquiry are of +importance, seeing that they clearly prove that even the hardest kind of +cellulose—<i>sclerogen</i>, in fact—is capable of being assimilated by the +Ruminants. The animals selected were two wethers, aged respectively five +and six years. They were fed—firstly, upon hay alone; secondly, upon +hay and rye-straw; thirdly upon hay and the sawdust of poplar wood, +which had been exhausted with lye (to induce the sheep to eat the +sawdust, it was found necessary to mix through it some rye-bran and a +little salt); fourthly, hay and pine-wood sawdust, to which was added +bran and salt; fifthly, spruce sawdust, bran and salt; sixthly, hay, +pulp of linen rags (from the paper-maker), and bran. The experiments +were carried on from July till November, excepting a short time, during +which the animals were turned out on pasture-land, to recover from the +injurious effects of the fifth series of experiments—produced probably +by the resin of the spruce. The animals, together with their food, +drink, and egesta, were weighed daily. The amount of cellulose in the +food was determined, and the proportion of that substance in the egesta +was also ascertained; and as there was a considerable discrepancy +between the two amounts, it was evident that the difference represented +the + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page186" name="page186"></a>[186]</span> + + weight of the cellulose assimilated by the animals. In this way it +was ascertained that from 60 to 70 per cent. of the cellulose of hay, +40 to 60 per cent. of the cellulose of straw, 45 to 50 per cent. of the +cellulose of the poplar wood, 30 to 40 per cent. of the cellulose of the +pine, and 80 per cent. of the cellulose of the paper pulp was digested. +</p> +<p> +In stating the results of his analyses of the straws, Professor Voelcker +sets down as "digestible" that portion of the cellulose which he found +to be soluble in dilute acids and alkaline solutions; but he admits that +the solvents in the stomach might dissolve a larger amount. The results +of the experiments of Stöckhardt and Sussdorf prove that 80 per cent. of +the cellulose of paper (the altered fibre of flax) is assimilable, and +it is, therefore, not unreasonable to infer that the cellulose of a more +palatable substance than paper might be altogether digestible. +</p> +<p> +The facts which I have adduced clearly prove that the straws of the +cereals possess a far higher nutritive power than is commonly ascribed +to them; that when properly harvested they contain from 20 to 40 per +cent. of undoubted nutriment; and lastly, that it is highly probable +that their so-called indigestible woody fibre is to a great extent +assimilable. +</p> +<p> +The composition of cellulose is nearly, if not quite, identical with +that of starch, and it may therefore be assumed to be equal in nutritive +power to that substance—that is, it will, if assimilated, be converted +into four-tenths of its weight of fat. Now as cellulose forms from +six-tenths to eight-tenths of the weight of straws, it is evident that +if the whole of this substance were digestible, straws would be an +exceedingly valuable fattening food. When straw in an unprepared state +is consumed, there is no doubt but that a large proportion of its +cellulose remains unappropriated—nay more, it is equally certain that +the hard woody fibre protects, by enveloping them, the soluble and +easily digestible constituents of the straw from the action of the +<i>gastric juice</i>. I would, therefore, recommend that straw should be +either cooked or fermented before being made use of; in either of these +states its constituents are far more digestible + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page187" name="page187"></a>[187]</span> + + than when the straw +is merely cut, or even when it is in the form of chaff. An excellent +mode of treating straw is to reduce it to chaff, subject it to the +action of steam, and mix it with roots and oil-cake or corn. Mr. +Lawrence, of Cirencester, one of the most intelligent agriculturists +in England, cooks his chaff, which he largely employs, in the following +manner:—"We find that, taking a score of bullocks together fattening, +they consume, per head per diem, 3 bushels of chaff mixed with just half +a hundred-weight of pulped roots, exclusive of cake or corn; that is to +say, rather more than 2 bushels of chaff are mixed with the roots, and +given at two feeds, morning and evening, and the remainder is given +with the cake, &c., at the middle day feed, thus:—We use the steaming +apparatus of Stanley, of Peterborough, consisting of a boiler in the +centre, in which the steam is generated, and which is connected by a +pipe on the left hand with a large galvanised iron receptacle for +steaming food for pigs, and on the right with a large wooden tub lined +with copper, in which the cake, mixed with water, is made into a thick +soup. Adjoining this is a slate tank of sufficient size to contain one +feed for the entire lot of bullocks feeding. Into this tank is laid +chaff, about one foot deep, upon which a few ladles of soup are thrown +in a <i>boiling state</i>; this is thoroughly mixed with the chaff with a +three-grained fork, and pressed down firm; and this process is repeated +until the slate tank is full, when it is covered down for an hour or two +before feeding time. The soup is then found entirely absorbed by the +chaff, which has become softened, and prepared for ready digestion." +A cheap plan is to mix the straw with sliced roots, moisten the mass +with water, and allow it to remain until a slight fermentation has set +in. This process effectually softens and disintegrates, so to speak, the +woody fibre, and sets free the stores of nutritious matters which it +envelopes. Some farmers who hold straw in high estimation, prefer giving +it just as it comes from the field; they base this practice on the +belief that Ruminants require a bulky and solid food, and that their +digestive powers are quite sufficient to effect + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page188" name="page188"></a>[188]</span> + + the solution of all the +useful constituents of the straw. It may be quite true that cattle, as +asserted, can extract more nutriment out of straw than horses can, but +that merely proves the greater power of their digestive organs. No doubt +the food of the Ruminants should be bulky; but I am quite sure that +cooked or fermented straw is sufficiently so to satisfy the desire of +those animals for quantity in their food. +</p> +<p> +So far as I can learn, all the carefully conducted feeding experiments +to test the value of straw which have been made, have yielded results +highly favorable to that article. Mr. Blundell, in a paper on "The Use +and Abuse of Straw," read before the Botley (Hampshire) Farmer's Club, +states that in his experience he found straw to be more economical than +its equivalent of roots or oil-cake, in the feeding of all kinds of +cattle:— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + I find (says Mr. Blundell) that dairy cows, in the winter months, + if fed on large quantities of roots, particularly mangels and + carrots, will refuse to eat straw almost entirely, and become + very lean; but they will always eat a full portion of sweet, + well-harvested straw, when they get a small and moderate allowance + of roots, say, for an ordinary-sized cow, 15 lbs. of mangel three + times per day, the roots being given whole, just in the state they + come from the store heap. Again, calves and yearlings being fed + with roots in the same way, will eat a large quantity of straw, and + when they have been kept under cover I have had them in first-rate + condition for many years past. Also, in fattening beasts, when they + get a fair allowance of roots, say 65 to 70 lbs. per day, with + from 3 to 4 lbs. of cake or meal in admixture, they will eat straw + with great avidity, and do well upon it, and make a profit. It is, + however, often the case that bullocks receive 100 lbs., or upwards, + of roots per day, with a large quantity of cake or meal, often + 10 or 12 lbs. per day; they will not then look at straw, and are + obliged to be fed with hay. The cost price of these quantities + and kinds of food stands so high that the animals do not yield a + profit; for although they may make meat a little faster, yet the + proportionate increase is nothing compared to the increased cost + of the feeding materials used. +</p> +<p> +Mr. Blundell gives us also the tabulated results of one of his +experiments, which prove that by the use of straw there is to be +obtained something more than manure by the feeding of stock:— +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page189" name="page189"></a>[189]</span></p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Cost of feeding an ox per week for various feeds"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="4"> COST OF FEEDING AN OX PER WEEK WITH STRAW, ETC., ACCORDING TO MR. BLUNDELL.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><th> s.</th><th> d. </th></tr> +<tr><td> 4 </td><td class="l">lbs. of oil-cake per day, or 38 lbs. per week, at £10 per ton </td><td> 2 </td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 64 </td><td class="l">lbs. of roots ditto, or 4 cwt. ditto, at 13s. 4d. ditto </td><td> 2 </td><td> 8 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 20 </td><td class="l">lbs. of straw feeding, or 1¼ cwt. ditto, at 30s. ditto </td><td> 1 </td><td>10½ </td></tr> +<tr><td> 20 </td><td class="l">lbs. of straw litter, or 1¼ cwt. ditto, at 15s. ditto </td><td> 0 </td><td>11 </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td class="l">Attendance, &c., per week </td><td> 0 </td><td> 1 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"> ————</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> 8 </td><td> 0½ </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td class="l"> Deduct value of manure, per week </td><td> 1 </td><td> 3½ </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"> ————</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> 6 </td><td> 9 </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td class="l"> Increased value of ox per week </td><td>10 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td class="l"> Deduct cost of feeding </td><td> 6 </td><td> 9 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"> ————</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> 3 </td><td> 3 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +If we now turn to the study of the composition of straw regarded from +an economic point of view, we shall find that the theoretical deductions +therefrom harmonise with the results of actual feeding experiments. Let +us assume that 100 parts of oat-straw contain on an average— +</p> + +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li> 1 part of oil, </li> +<li> 4 parts of flesh-formers, </li> +<li> 10 parts of sugar, gum, and other fat-formers, and </li> +<li> 30 parts of digestible fibre; </li> +</ul> + +<p style="text-indent: 0;"> +and if the price of the straw be 30s. per ton, we shall have at that +cost the following quantities of digestible substances:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Digestible substances per ton of oat straw"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="2"> ONE TON OF OAT-STRAW, AT 30s., CONTAINS:—</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><th> lbs.</th></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> <sup><a name="noteref-30"><!--30--></a><a href="#note-30">30</a></sup> + Oil </td><td> 22·4 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-forming principles </td><td> 89·6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sugar, gum, and other fat-forming substances </td><td> 224·0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Digestible fibre </td><td> 672·0 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> 1,008·0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> <sup><a name="noteref-31"><!--31--></a><a href="#note-31">31</a></sup> + Total amount of fat-formers, calculated as starch </td><td> 952·0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Add flesh-formers </td><td> 89·6 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Total amount of nutritive matter </td><td>1,041·6 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page190" name="page190"></a>[190]</span></p> + +<p> +We shall now compare this table with a similar one in relation to the +composition of linseed cake, which will place the greater comparative +value of straw in a clearer light. +</p> +<p> +A fair sample of linseed-cake contains, centesimally— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of linseed-cake"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-formers </td><td> 26 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Oil </td><td> 12 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Gum, mucilage, sugar, &c. </td><td> 34 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="c" colspan="2"> <small>ONE TON OF LINSEED CAKE, AT £11, CONTAINS:—</small></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><th>lbs.</th></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-forming principles </td><td> 582·4 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Oil </td><td> 268·8 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Gum, sugar, and other fat-formers </td><td> 761·6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 74·4 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td>————</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> 1,687·2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Total amount of fat-formers, calculated as starch </td><td>1,508·0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Add flesh-formers </td><td> 582·4 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td>————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Total amount of nutriment </td><td>2,090·4 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +These comparisons are very instructive and important. We learn from +them that we pay £11 for 2,000 lbs. of nutriment, when we purchase a +ton of linseed-cake, whereas, when we invest 30s. in a ton of straw, we +receive 1,000 lbs. of digestible aliment. It cannot be said that I have +strained any points in favour of the straw; on the contrary, I believe +that when that article is cut in proper season and well harvested, +its composition will be found far superior to that detailed in the +comparative analysis. It must be borne in mind, too, that I take no +account of the 30 per cent. of the so-called indigestible woody fibre +which straw contains, and which, I believe, is partly assimilable +under ordinary circumstances, and could be rendered nearly altogether +digestible by proper treatment; on the other hand, I have assumed that +the woody fibre of the oil-cake is completely digestible, although +I believe it is in reality less so than the fibre of straw. +</p> +<p> +It is an important point in the composition of oil-cakes, that they +contain a large proportion of ready-formed fatty matters + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page191" name="page191"></a>[191]</span> + + which can, +with but little alteration, be at once transmuted into animal fat. +There are some individuals of the genus <i>Homo</i> to whose stomachs fat, +<i>per se</i>, is intolerable; nevertheless, as a general rule, fatty +substances exercise a favorable influence in the process of digestion, +and, either in a separate state, or intimately commingled with other +aliments, constitute a large proportion of the food of man. Digestion in +the lower animals is, no doubt, similarly promoted by mixing with the +aliments which are to be subjected to that process, a due proportion of +oily or fatty matter. Straw is relatively deficient in the flesh-forming +principles, and abounds in the fat-forming elements—of which, however, +the most valuable, oil, is the least abundant. Now, if we add to straw +a due proportion of some substance very rich in flesh-formers and oil, +the compound will possess in nicely adjusted proportions all the +elements of nutrition. Perhaps the best kind of food which we could +employ for this purpose is linseed meal. It contains about 24 per +cent. of flesh-formers, 35 per cent. of a very bland oil, and 24 per +cent. of gum, sugar, and mucilage. Linseed-cake may be substituted for +linseed-meal; but the meal, though its cost is 15 per cent. greater, is, +I believe, rather the better article of the two. Its flesh-formers are +more soluble, and its oil thrice more abundant and far more palatable +than the same principles in most samples of oil-cake. An important +point, too, is, that linseed, unlike linseed-cake, is not liable to +adulteration. As linseed possesses laxative properties it cannot be +largely employed; the addition, however, of bean-meal—the binding +tendency of which is well known—to a diet partly composed of linseed +will neutralise, so to speak, the relaxing influence of the oily seed. +If oil-cakes be used as an adjunct to straw, rape-cake will be found +more economical than linseed-cake. If it be free from mustard, well +steamed, and flavored with a little treacle, or a small quantity of +locust-beans, it will be readily consumed, and even relished, by dairy +and fattening stock. +</p> +<p> +<i>Hay.</i>—There is no food substance more variable or more complex than +hay, for under that term are included, not only + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page192" name="page192"></a>[192]</span> + + mixtures of grasses, +but also of leguminous plants—clover, for example. The herbage of no +two meadows is exactly alike; and the composition of the meadow plants +is so greatly modified by differences of climate, soil, and mode of +culture, that we have nothing to excite our wonder in the extreme +variability of hay. +</p> +<p> +The composition of the hay made from clover, lucerne, and various other +kinds of artificial grasses, is shown in the table—which is based on +the results of Way's analyses:— +</p> + +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of hay of various artificial grasses"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="7"> COMPOSITION OF THE HAY OF ARTIFICIAL GRASSES.</td></tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<th>Flesh-forming<br /> Substances.</th> +<th>Fatty<br /> Matters.</th> +<th>Respiratory<br /> Substances.</th> +<th>Woody<br /> Fiber.</th> +<th>Ash.</th> +<th>Water.</th> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Trifolium pratense—Red clover </td><td>18·79 </td><td>3·06 </td><td>37·06 </td><td>16·46 </td><td>7·97 </td><td class="c"> 16·6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Trifolium pratense perenne—Purple clover </td><td>15·98 </td><td>3·41 </td><td>35·35 </td><td>21·63 </td><td>6·96 </td><td class="c"> " </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Trifolium incarnatum—Crimson clover </td><td>13·83 </td><td>3·11 </td><td>31·25 </td><td>26·99 </td><td>8·15 </td><td class="c"> " </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Trifolium medium—Cowgrass </td><td>20·27 </td><td>2·97 </td><td>30·30 </td><td>20·12 </td><td>9·67 </td><td class="c"> " </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Do., second specimen </td><td>15·64 </td><td>3·98 </td><td>41·38 </td><td>15·70 </td><td>6·64 </td><td class="c"> " </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Trifolium procumbens—Hop trefoil </td><td>17·07 </td><td>3·89 </td><td>36·55 </td><td>18·88 </td><td>6·94 </td><td class="c"> " </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Trifolium repens—White trefoil </td><td>15·63 </td><td>3·65 </td><td>33·37 </td><td>22·11 </td><td>8·57 </td><td class="c"> " </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Vicia sativa—Common Vetch </td><td>19·68 </td><td>2·55 </td><td>32·87 </td><td>22·82 </td><td>5·42 </td><td class="c"> " </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Vicia sepium—Bush vetch </td><td>19·23 </td><td>2·40 </td><td>27·62 </td><td>25·87 </td><td>8·21 </td><td class="c"> " </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Onobrychis sativa—Sainfoin </td><td>15·38 </td><td>2·51 </td><td>38·30 </td><td>20·59 </td><td>6·56 </td><td class="c"> " </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Medicago sativa—Lucerne </td><td>10·63 </td><td>2·30 </td><td>33·47 </td><td>28·51 </td><td>8·42 </td><td class="c"> " </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Medicago lupulina—Yellow clover </td><td>20·50 </td><td>3·38 </td><td>27·76 </td><td>22·66 </td><td>9·03 </td><td class="c"> " </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Plantago lanceolata—Rib grass </td><td>11·91 </td><td>3·06 </td><td>33·58 </td><td>27·56 </td><td>7·23 </td><td class="c"> " </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Poterium sanguisorba—Burnet </td><td>13·96 </td><td>3·34 </td><td>39·50 </td><td>19·89 </td><td>6·64 </td><td class="c"> " </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"> + <td class="l"> Achillea millefolium—Millefoil </td><td> 8·62 </td><td>2·09 </td><td>37·88 </td><td>27·24 </td><td>7·50 </td><td class="c"> " </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"> + <td> Mean </td><td>15·81 </td><td>3·18 </td><td>34·42 </td><td>22·47 </td><td>7·59 </td><td> 16·6 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page193" name="page193"></a>[193]</span></p> + +<p> +Very many analyses of hay have been made by British and Continental +chemists, the results of which are of great interest to the +agriculturist. The composition of the natural and artificial grasses, +which is shown in the tables given in pages 158-9 will, if we reduce +their per-centage of water to 16, give us an approximation to the +composition of hay. If the herbage, too, be sown in the proper time, and +the hay-making process be skilfully conducted, there will be but little +difference, except in the amount of water, between the plants in their +fresh and dry state; but owing to inopportune wet weather, and +carelessness in manipulation, excellent herbage is not unfrequently +converted into inferior hay. +</p> +<p> +According to Dr. Voelcker, the average composition of meadow-hay, as +deduced from the results of twenty-five analyses, is as follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average composition of meadow-hay"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>14·61 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-forming constituents </td><td> 8·44 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Respiratory and fatty matters </td><td>43·63 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td>27·16 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter (ash) </td><td> 6·16 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +Dr. Anderson's analysis of meadow-hay, one year old, and of inferior +quality, gave the following results:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of meadow-hay, one year old"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>13·13 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-forming matters </td><td> 4·00 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Non-nitrogenous substances </td><td>77·61 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter </td><td> 5·26 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +The results of the investigations of Way prove that the herbage of +water-grass meadows is more nutritious than that of dry meadows—results +perfectly harmonious with the experience of practical men. +</p> +<p> +It is a somewhat general belief, that the aftermath, or second cutting, +is less nutritious than the first cutting; but there appears to be no +chemical difference between the two crops, provided they be saved under +equally favorable + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page194" name="page194"></a>[194]</span> + + + conditions. According to Dr. Anderson, the composition +of clover-hay of the second cutting is as follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of clover-hay"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>16·84 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-forming principles </td><td>13·52 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Non-nitrogenous matters </td><td>64·43 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter (ash) </td><td> 5·21 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +I have already shown the importance of reaping in proper season—not +less necessary is it to mow before the plants ripen fully, and even +before they flower. The results of the experiments of Stöckhardt, +Hellreigel, and Wolff, in relation to this point, are very interesting, +and are well worthy of reproduction here. +</p> + +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Results of Stöckhardt's and Hellreigel's experiments"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="7"> RESULTS OF STÖCKHARDT'S AND HELLREIGEL'S EXPERIMENTS.</td></tr> + +<tr> +<td rowspan="3"></td> +<th colspan="3">Stem.</th> +<th colspan="3">Leaves.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<th rowspan="2">Water in Fresh Plant.</th> +<th colspan="2">Hay.</th> +<th rowspan="2">Water in Fresh Plant.</th> +<th colspan="2">Hay.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<th>Flesh-forming Matters.</th> +<th>Ash.</th> +<th>Flesh-forming Matters.</th> +<th>Ash.</th> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Clover cut on the + 4th June, quite young </td><td> 82·80 </td><td> 13·16 </td><td> 9·71 </td><td> 83·50 </td><td> 27·17 </td><td> 9·42 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> 23rd " ready for cutting</td><td> 81·72 </td><td> 12·72 </td><td> 9·00 </td><td> 82·68 </td><td> 27·69 </td><td> 9·00 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> 9th July, beginning to + flower </td><td> 82·41 </td><td> 12·40 </td><td> 6·12 </td><td> 77·77 </td><td> 15·83 </td><td> 10·46 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> 29th July, full flower </td><td> 78·30 </td><td> 9·28 </td><td> 4·63 </td><td> 70·80 </td><td> 19·20 </td><td> 9·58 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"> + <td class="l"> 21st August, ripe </td><td> 69·40 </td><td> 6·75 </td><td> 4·82 </td><td> 65·70 </td><td> 18·94 </td><td> 12·33 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Results of Wolff's experiment"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="9"> RESULTS OF WOLFF'S EXPERIMENT.</td></tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<th colspan="4">Red Clover.</th> +<th colspan="4">Alsike Clover.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<th colspan="2">Beginning to flower, 11th June.</th> +<th colspan="2">Full flower, 25th June.</th> +<th colspan="2">Beginning to flower, 23rd June.</th> +<th colspan="2">Full flower, 29th June.</th> +</tr> + +<tr><td> </td><th>Fresh. </th><th>Hay. </th><th> Fresh. </th><th> Hay. </th><th> Fresh. </th><th> Hay. </th><th>Fresh. </th><th>Hay. </th></tr> +<tr><td> </td><th> per cent. </th><th> per cent. </th><th> per cent. </th><th> per cent. </th><th> per cent. </th><th> per cent. </th><th> per cent. </th><th> per cent. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 83·07 </td><td> 16·66 </td><td> 76·41 </td><td> 10·66 </td><td> 86·98 </td><td> 16·66 </td><td> 82·60 </td><td> 16·66 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ash </td><td> 1·43 </td><td> 7·04 </td><td> 1·67 </td><td> 5·90 </td><td> 1·12 </td><td> 7·17 </td><td> 1·45 </td><td> 6·94 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 4·24 </td><td> 20·87 </td><td> 8·88 </td><td> 37·37 </td><td> 3·79 </td><td> 24·26 </td><td> 5·11 </td><td> 24·47 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"> + <td class="l"> Nutritive + substances </td><td> 11·26 </td><td> 55·43 </td><td> 13·04 </td><td> 46·07 </td><td> 8·11 </td><td> 51·91 </td><td> 10·84 </td><td> 51·93 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page195" name="page195"></a>[195]</span></p> + +<p> +During the operation of converting the grass—"natural" or +"artificial"—into hay, there is more or less loss of nutritive matter +sustained by fermentation, the dispersion of the smaller leaves by the +wind, and other agencies. But this unavoidable loss is trivial when +compared with the prodigious waste sustained, in Ireland at least, by +allowing the hay to remain too long in cocks in the field. "Within the +last three or four years," says Mr. Baldwin, of the Glasnevin Albert +Model Farm, "we have made agricultural tours through twenty-five of +the thirty-two counties of Ireland; and from careful consideration +of the subject, and having in some instances used a tape-line and +weighing-machine to assist our judgment, we have come to the conclusion +that one-twentieth of the hay-crop of Ireland is permitted to rot +in field-cocks. The portion on the ground, as well as that on the +outside of the cocks, is too often only fit for manure. And the loss +of aftermath, and of the subsequent year's crop (if hay or pasture), +suffers to the extent of from sixpence to one shilling per acre. If we +unite all these sources, the loss sustained annually in this country is +something serious to contemplate. On an average, for all Ireland, it is +not under 20 per cent., or a fifth of the actual value of the crop." +This is a startling statement; but I do not believe it to be an +exaggeration of the actual state of things. +</p> +<p> +<i>Damaged Hay and Straw.</i>—Damaged corn and potatoes, so much injured as +to be unfit for human food, are generally given, and with apparently +good results, to the inferior animals. The "meat manufacturing +machines," as the edible varieties of the domesticated animals are now +generally termed, are not very dainty in their choice of food; and +vegetable substances which would excite the disgust of the lords of the +creation are rendered nutritious and agreeable by being reorganised in +the mechanisms of oxen, sheep, and pigs. +</p> +<p> +Now, although it is pretty generally known that musty corn and diseased +potatoes form good feeding stuffs, it is not so patent whether or not +the natural food of stock, such as hay and straw in a diseased state, +is proper food for those animals. + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page196" name="page196"></a>[196]</span> + + This question is worthy of +consideration. Firstly, I shall describe the nature of the diseases +which most frequently affect fodder; these are, "mildew" and "mould." +These diseases are produced by the ravages of minute and very low forms +of vegetable life, termed by the botanists <i>epiphytical fungi</i>. The +mildew (<i>Puccinia graminis</i>) generally attacks the grasses when they are +growing, and is more frequently met with on rich and heavily manured +soils. In localities where heavy night-fogs and dews are of common +occurrence, this pest often destroys whole crops. On the other hand, in +light, sandy, and well-drained soils, and in warm and dry districts, +the mildew is a rare visitant. The "blue mould" (<i>Aspergillis glaucus</i>) +attacks hay and straw in the stack or rick, and without any regard to +their origin—no matter whether they were the produce of the wettest or +the dryest, the warmest or the coldest of soils. The chief condition +in the existence of the blue mould is excessive moisture. If the hay or +straw be too green and succulent when put up, or if rain get at them +in the rick, the mould is very likely to make its appearance, and the +well-known odor termed <i>musty</i> will speedily be developed. +</p> +<p> +Neither the mildew nor the mould can, strictly speaking, be regarded as +parasites, such as, for example, the flax-dodder, which feeds upon the +healthy juices of the plant to which it is attached. It appears to me +that the tissues and juices of the fodder-plants decay <i>first</i>, and then +the mould or the mildew appears and feeds upon the decomposing matter. +Now, as these vegetables belong to a poisonous class of fungi, it is +more than probable that they convert the decomposing substance of the +straw or hay into unwholesome, if not poisonous matter; and it is not +unlikely but that the disagreeable odor which they evolve is designed by +nature as a sign to the lower animals not to partake of mouldy food. +There is no doubt but that most animals will instinctively reject fodder +in this state; and the question arises, ought this odour to be destroyed +or disguised, in order to induce the animals to eat the damaged stuff? +The experience of most feeders who have largely consumed mouldy + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page197" name="page197"></a>[197]</span> + + provender +is, that although cattle may be induced to eat it, they never thrive +upon such stuff if it form a heavy item in their diet. The reason of +this is obvious. The nitrogenous portion of the straw is that which is +chiefly assimilated by the fungi. And as this constituent is the one +which contributes to the formation of muscle, and is naturally extremely +deficient in straw and hay—more particularly the former—it follows +that the animals fed upon mouldy fodder cannot elaborate it into lean +flesh (muscle). +</p> +<p> +In the case of young stock, mouldy fodder is altogether inadmissible, +for these animals require abundance of flesh-forming materials—precisely +those which the fungi almost completely remove from the diseased fodder. +</p> +<p> +As large quantities of mouldy or mildewed provender are at the present +moment to be found in many farmsteads, and as they are unsaleable, +and must therefore be made use of in some way at home, it is well to +consider the best way to dispose of them. In the case of straw, the +greater portion will be required for litter, and if the whole of the +damaged article can be disposed of in this way so much the better. If, +however, there is more than is necessary for the bedding of the stock, +it may be used in conjunction with sound fodder, but always in a cooked +state. The greater part, if not the whole, of the diseased nitrogenous +part of the straw is soluble in warm water, so that if the fodder be +well steamed the poisonous matter will be eliminated to such an extent +as to leave the article almost as wholesome as good straw, but not so +nutritious. The straw cleansed in this way will be very deficient in +flesh-forming, though not in fat-forming power, and this fact should +be duly considered when the other items of the animal's food are +being weighed out. Beans, malt-combs, and linseed-cake are rich in +muscle-forming principles, and are consequently suitable adjuncts to +damaged fodder; but the latter should never constitute the staple food, +or be given unmixed with some sweet provender. +</p> +<p> +When the fodder is considerably damaged it becomes, + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page198" name="page198"></a>[198]</span> + + after steaming, +nearly as tasteless as sawdust. To this kind of stuff the addition of a +small amount of some flavorous material is very useful. For damaged hay, +Mr. Bowick recommends the following mixture:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Recommended mixture to add to inferior hay"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Fenugreek (powdered) </td><td>112</td><td class="c">parts. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Pimento </td><td> 4</td><td class="c"> " </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Aniseed </td><td> 4</td><td class="c"> " </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Caraways </td><td> 4</td><td class="c"> " </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Cummin </td><td> 2</td><td class="c"> " </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +A pinch of this compound will render agreeably-flavored the most insipid +kinds of fodder. +</p> +<p> +Mr. Bowick states that he had fed large numbers of bullocks on damaged +hay, flavored with this compound, and that their health was not thereby +injured in the slightest degree. +</p> + +<h4> +SECTION V. +</h4> +<h5> +ROOTS AND TUBERS. +</h5> +<p> +The important part which the so-called root crops play in the modern +systems of agriculture, has secured for them a large share of the +attention of the chemist, so that our knowledge of their composition +and relative nutritive value is very extensive. As compared with most +other articles of food, the roots, as they are popularly called, of +potatoes, turnips, mangels, carrots, and such like plants, contain a +high proportion of water, and are not very nutritious; indeed, with the +exception of the potato, none of them contain 20 per cent. of solid +matter, and some not more than five per cent. They are, however, easily +produced in great quantities, which compensates for their low nutritive +value. I shall consider each of the more important roots separately. +</p> +<p> +<i>The Turnip.</i>—There are numerous varieties of this plant, which differ +from each other in the relative proportions and + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page199" name="page199"></a>[199]</span> + + total amount of their +constituents, and even in different individuals of the same variety +there is considerable variation in composition; hence the difficulty +which has been felt by those who have endeavored to assign to this plant +its relative nutritive value. From the average results of a great number +of experiments, conducted both in the laboratory and the feeding-house, +it is concluded that turnips are the most inferior roots produced in the +field. The Swedish turnips are the most valuable kind: they contain a +higher proportion of solid matter than the other varieties, and they are +firmer and store better. The average composition of five varieties of +turnips, as deduced from the results of the analyses of Anderson and +Voelcker, is shown in the following table:— +</p> + +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Analyses of Turnips"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="6"> ANALYSES OF TURNIPS.</td></tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<th>Swedish Turnip.</th> +<th>White Globe.</th> +<th>Aberdeen Yellows.</th> +<th>Purpletop Yellows.</th> +<th>Norfolk Bell.</th> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>89·460 </td><td>90·430 </td><td>90·578 </td><td>91·200 </td><td> 92·280 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Albuminous, or flesh-forming substances + </td><td> 1·443 </td><td> 1·143 </td><td> 1·802 </td><td> 1·117 </td><td> 1·737 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Non-nitrogenous, or fat-forming substances (fat, gum, sugar, &c.) + </td><td> 5·932 </td><td> 5·457 </td><td> 4·622 </td><td> 4·436 </td><td> 2·962 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 2·542 </td><td> 2·342 </td><td> 2·349 </td><td> 2·607 </td><td> 2·000 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"> + <td class="l"> Mineral matter (ash) </td><td> 0·623 </td><td> 0·628 </td><td> 0·649 </td><td> 0·640 </td><td> 1·021 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"> + <td> </td><td>100·000</td><td>100·000 </td><td> 100·000</td><td>100·000</td><td>100·000 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +The <i>Greystone Turnip</i> is a variety which has only quite recently been +introduced. It is stated to be an uncommonly productive crop, usually +yielding returns from 30 to 50 per cent. greater than those obtained +from other varieties of the turnip. The composition of the Greystone +turnip appears to be inferior, so that probably it is not, after all, +a more economical plant than the ordinary kinds of turnips. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page200" name="page200"></a>[200]</span></p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of Greystone turnip (Anderson)"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3"> DR. ANDERSON'S ANALYSIS OF THE GREYSTONE TURNIP.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td> +<th>No. 1.<br />Grown on Clay.</th> +<th>No. 2.<br />Grown on Sand.</th> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 93·84 </td><td> 94·12 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Oil </td><td> 0·26 </td><td> 0·34 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Soluble albuminous matters </td><td> 0·35 </td><td> 0·56 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Insoluble ditto </td><td> 0·20 </td><td> 0·18 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Soluble respiratory matters </td><td> 2·99 </td><td> 2·32 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Insoluble ditto (chiefly fibre) </td><td> 1·73 </td><td> 1·85 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ash </td><td> 0·63 </td><td> 0·63 </td></tr> + +<tr class="total"><td></td><td>———</td><td>———</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td> 100·00 </td><td> 100·00 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +It was at one time the fashion—not yet become quite obsolete—to regard +the proportion of nitrogen in the turnip as the measure of the nutritive +value of the bulb; but the fallacy of this opinion has been shown by +several late investigators, and more particularly by the results of +one of the numerous series of feeding experiments conducted by Mr. +Lawes. Many bulbs exceedingly rich in nitrogen are very deficient +in nutritive power—partly from a deficiency in the other elements of +nutrition—partly because most of their nitrogen is in so low a degree +of elaboration as to be incapable of assimilation by animals. The value +of a food-substance does not merely depend upon the amount and the +relative proportion of its constituents, but also, and to a very great +extent, upon their easy assimilability. There is but little doubt that +the nutritive matters contained in the Swedish turnip when the bulb is +fresh are very crude. By storing, certain chemical changes take place +in the bulb, which render it more nutritious and palatable. A large +proportion of the non-nitrogenous matters exist in the fresh root as +pectin; but this substance, if the bulb be preserved for a couple of +months, becomes in great part converted into sugar, which is one of the +most palatable and fattening ingredients of cattle-food. By storing, +too, the bulbs lose a portion of their excessive amount of water, and +become less bulky, which is unquestionably a desideratum. These facts +suggest the necessity for cultivating the earlier varieties of the +turnip, for it may be fairly doubted if a late-grown crop, left for +consumption in the field, ever, + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page201" name="page201"></a>[201]</span> + + even under the most favorable +circumstances, attains its perfect development. At the same time it must +not be forgotten that turnips <i>fully matured</i> in the field rather +deteriorate than otherwise after a few weeks' storage. +</p> +<p> +Many agriculturists consider that there is a strict relation between the +specific gravity, or comparative weight of the bulb, and its nutritive +value; others believe that a very large turnip must necessarily be +inferior in feeding qualities to a small one; whilst not a few maintain +that neither its size nor its specific gravity is an indication of its +feeding qualities. Dr. Anderson, who has specially investigated a +portion of this subject, states that "the specific gravity of the whole +turnip cannot be accepted as indicating its real nutritive value, the +proportion of air in the cells being the determining element in such +results; that there is no constant relation between the specific gravity +of, and the nitrogen compounds in, the bulb; and that such relation +does exist between the specific gravity of the expressed juice and +the nitrogen compounds and solid constituents." Dr. Anderson allows, +however, that the best varieties of the turnip have the highest specific +gravity; which admission—coupled with the fact admitted by all +experimenters that the heavy roots store best—lead me to adopt the +opinions of those who consider great specific gravity as one of the +favorable indications of its nutritive value. With respect to size, +I prefer bulbs of moderate dimensions; the monsters that win the prizes +at our agricultural shows—and which, in general, are <i>forced</i>—are +inferior in feeding qualities, are always <i>spongy</i>, and almost +invariably rot when stored. +</p> +<p> +The composition of the turnip is influenced not only by the nature of +the soil on which it is grown, but also by that of the manure applied +to it. The most reliable authorities are agreed that turnips raised on +Peruvian guano are watery, and do not keep well; but that with a mixture +of Peruvian guano and superphosphate of lime, with phospho-guano, or +with farmyard manure supplemented with a moderate amount of guano, the +most nutritious and firm bulbs are produced. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page202" name="page202"></a>[202]</span></p> + +<p> +Turnip-tops have been analysed by Voelcker, with the following +results:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of turnip tops (Voelcker)"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3"> ONE HUNDRED PARTS CONTAIN—</td></tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<th>White.</th> +<th>Swedish.</th> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 91·284 </td><td> 88·367 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Nitrogen compounds </td><td> 2·456 </td><td> 2·087 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Non-nitrogenous matters (gum, sugar, &c.) </td><td> 0·648 </td><td> 1·612 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ditto, as woody fibre </td><td> 4·092 </td><td> 5·638 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter </td><td> 1·520 </td><td> 2·296 </td></tr> + +<tr class="total"><td></td><td>———</td><td>———</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>100·000 </td><td> 100·000 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +These figures apparently show that the tops of turnips are more +valuable than their bulbs; but, in the absence of any feeding +experiments made to determine the point, we believe they are less so, +as a very large proportion of the solid matter in the tops of turnips +is in too low a degree of elaboration to be assimilable. Their high +proportions of nitrogen and mineral matter constitute them, however, +a very useful manure—nearly twice as valuable as the bulbs; this +fact should be borne in mind when turnips are sold off the land. +</p> +<p> +<i>The Mangel-wurtzel</i> is one of the most valuable of our green crops. +Its root is more nutritious than the turnip, occupying a position in +the scale of food equivalents midway between that bulb and the parsnip. +Mangels, when fresh, possess a somewhat acrid taste, and act as a +laxative when given to stock; but after a few months' storing they +become sweet and palatable, and their <i>scouring</i> property completely +disappears. +</p> +<p> +Although the mangel is one of the most nutritious articles of food +which can be given to cattle, yet it is stated on the best authority +that sheep do not thrive upon it. Voelcker, who has investigated this +subject, informs us that a lot of sheep which he fed on a limited +quantity of hay and an unlimited quantity of mangels, did not, during a +period of four months, increase in weight, whilst another lot of sheep +supplied with a small quantity of hay, and Swedish turnips <i>ad libitum</i> +increased + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page203" name="page203"></a>[203]</span> + + on an average 2½ lbs. weekly. I believe the experience of +the greater number of feeders agrees with the results of Dr. Voelcker's +experiment. +</p> +<p> +The chemistry of the mangel-wurtzel has been thoroughly studied by Way +and Ogston, Fromberg, Wolff, Anderson, and Voelcker. According to the +last-named chemist, its average composition is as follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average composition of mangel-wurtzel (Voelcker)"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>87·78 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-forming matters </td><td> 1·54 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sugar </td><td> 6·10 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Gum, pectin, &c. </td><td> 2·50 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 1·12 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter (ash) </td><td> 0·96 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +It is difficult to accurately determine by a comparative trial the +relative feeding properties of mangels and turnips, for the former +are only in a fit state to be given to the animals when the latter +are deteriorating. However, by comparing the composition of the two +substances, and the results obtained from numerous feeding experiments, +it would appear, that on the average 75 lbs. weight of mangels are equal +to 100 lbs. weight of turnips. Of the different varieties of the mangel +the long yellow appears to be the most nutritious, and the long red the +least so. +</p> +<p> +The leaves of the mangel—some of which are occasionally pulled and used +for feeding purposes, during the growth of the bulb—are an excellent +feeding substance: their composition indicates a nutritive value but +little inferior to that of the root; but as their constituents cannot be +in a highly elaborated condition, it is probable they are not more than +equal to half their weight of the bulbs. +</p> +<p> +One <i>questio vexata</i> of the many which at present occupy the attention +of the agricultural world is, whether or not the leaves of mangels may +be removed with advantage during the latter part of the development of +the plants. This practice + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page204" name="page204"></a>[204]</span> + + prevailed rather extensively a few years since, +but latterly it has fallen somewhat into disuse. +</p> +<p> +Those who adopt this plan urge, as its advantages, that a large quantity +of food is obtained at a time when it is urgently needed, and that +instead of the removal of the leaves exercising an injurious influence +on the development of the roots, the latter are actually increased in +size. +</p> +<p> +In 1859 an experimental investigation was carried out at the Glasnevin +Model Farm, with the view of throwing new light on the question. The +outside leaves were very gradually removed on different occasions—from +the 12th August to the 15th October. In this way five tons of leaves per +statute acre were removed, and subsequently made use of for feeding +purposes. The experiment was conducted on a field of four acres, of +which the produce of 12 drills, each 200 yards in length, was left +untouched. The result was that the produce of the roots of the untouched +plants was only 40 tons 8 cwt. 6 qrs. per acre, whilst the roots of the +plants which had been partly denuded of their leaves weighed at the rate +of 45 tons 1 cwt. This experiment afforded results which are apparently +favorable to the practice of stripping the leaves; but it is to be +regretted that it was not rendered more complete by an analysis of the +roots, as a great bulk of roots does not necessarily imply a great +weight of dry food, and it is just possible, though not very probable, +that the roots of the stripped mangels contained a larger proportion of +water than those of the untouched plants. +</p> +<p> +The results of the experiments of Buckman, and of Professor Wolff, of +the Royal Agricultural College at Hohenheim, are at direct variance with +those obtained at Glasnevin. Both of these experimenters found that the +removal of the leaves occasioned a diminution in the produce of the +roots to the amount of 20 per cent. Nor was this the only loss, for it +was found by the German professor that the roots of the untouched plants +possessed a far higher nutritive value than those of the stripped +mangels. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page205" name="page205"></a>[205]</span></p> + +<p> +When doctors differ, who is to decide? Here we have high authorities in +the agricultural world at direct variance on a matter of fact. The names +of Buckman and Wolff are a sufficient guarantee that the experimental +results which they announce are trustworthy, and I can testify, from +observation, that no field experiments could be more carefully conducted +than those carried out at the Albert Model Farm. We can only, then, +under the circumstances, admit that both Mr. Boyle, on the one side, +and Professors Buckman and Wolff on the other, are correct in their +statements of fact; but as it is evident both cannot be right in the +general inferences therefrom, it is desirable that the subject should be +still further investigated, and the truth be placed beyond doubt. It is +a question which appears so simple that one is at a loss to account for +the discrepant opinions in relation to it which prevail. "Let nothing +induce the growers," says Mr. Paget, in a paper on the cultivation of +the mangel, "to strip the leaves from the plant before taking up the +root. A series of careful experiments has convinced me that by so doing +we borrow food at a most usurious interest." "Although," says Mr. Boyle, +"the practice of stripping has been followed for many years on the farm +without any perceptible injury to the crop, these results, showing so +considerable an addition to the crop from taking off the leaves, were +hardly anticipated." It certainly does appear somewhat at variance with +our notion of the functions of the leaves of plants, that their partial +removal could possibly cause an increase in the weight of the roots; +but granting such to be the fact, it is not altogether <i>theoretically</i> +inexplicable. We know that highly nitrogenous manure has a tendency to +increase the development of the leaves of turnips at the <i>expense</i> of +the roots. Gardeners, too, not unfrequently remove some of the buds from +their fruit trees, lest the excessive development of foliage should +retard or check the <i>growth</i> of the fruit. <i>Theoretically</i> an excessive +development of the leaves of the mangel may be inimical to the growth +of the root. Probably, too, it may be urged, the outer leaves, which + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page206" name="page206"></a>[206]</span> + + soon become partially disorganised and incapable of elaborating mineral +matter into vegetable products, prevent the access of light to the more +vigorous inner leaves. In conclusion, I may say of this subject that it +is worthy of further elucidation; and I would suggest to my readers, and +more especially to the managers of the various model farms, the +desirability of fully testing the matter. +</p> +<p> +The <i>White Beet</i> is a congener of the mangel. It is largely grown on the +continent as a sugar-producing plant, but is seldom cultivated in these +countries. It produces about 15 tons of roots per acre, and its roots on +the average contain— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average composition of white beet roots"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>83·0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sugar </td><td>10·0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-formers </td><td> 2·5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fat-formers </td><td> 1·5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fibre </td><td> 2·0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ash </td><td> 1·0 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·0</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +This plant is deserving of more extensive growth in Great Britain. +</p> +<p> +The <i>Parsnip</i> is, after the potato, the most valuable of roots. It +differs from the turnip and the mangel in containing a high proportion +of starch, and but little sugar; and its flesh-forming constituents are +largely made up of casein, instead of, as in the case of the turnip, +albumen. +</p> +<p> +The average composition of the parsnip is as follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average composition of parsnip"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>82·00 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-forming principles </td><td> 1·30 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fat-formers (starch, sugar, &c.) </td><td> 7·75 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 8·00 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter (ash) </td><td> 0·95 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +The parsnip is extensively grown in many foreign countries, on account +of its valuable feeding properties. As a field-crop it is but little +cultivated in Great Britain, and its use is—if we + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page207" name="page207"></a>[207]</span> + + except the table—almost +restricted to pigs. Its food equivalent is about double that of the +turnip; that is, one pound of parsnips is equal to two pounds of +turnips. +</p> +<p> +The <i>Carrot</i> bears a close resemblance to the parsnip, from which, +however, it differs, containing no starch, and being somewhat inferior +in nutritive value. According to Voelcker, its average composition is +as follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average composition of carrot (Voelcker)"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>88·50 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-formers </td><td> 0·60 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fat-formers (including woody fibre) </td><td>10·18 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter (ash) </td><td> 0·72 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00</td></tr> +</table> + + +<p> +As carrots contain a high proportion of fat-forming matters, and a low +per-centage of flesh-forming substances, they are better adapted for +fattening purposes. Dairy stock greedily eat them; and they are given +with great advantage to horses out of condition. +</p> +<p> +<i>Kohl-Rabi.</i>—This plant, though early introduced into the agriculture +of these countries, has made but little progress in the estimation +of the farmer. It belongs to the order and genus which include the +turnip, but differs widely from that plant in its mode of growth. Its +bulb—which is formed by an enormous development of the overground +stem—is, according to some authorities, less liable than the turnip +to injury from frost. It is subject to no diseases, save anbury and +clubbing; and, owing to its position above the soil, it can be readily +eaten off by sheep. The bulbs store better than Swedes, and, according +to some farmers, keep even better than mangels. With respect to the +flavor of this bulb, there is some difference of opinion. Professor +Wilson, of Edinburgh, quotes several eminent feeders to prove that +"whether in the fold for sheep, in the yard for cattle, or in the +stables for horses, it will generally be preferred to the other +descriptions of homegrown keep." Mr. Baldwin, on the contrary, states +that although good food for sheep, it is too hard-fleshed for old + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page208" name="page208"></a>[208]</span> + + ewes, +and that carrots are better food for horses, and Swedish turnips for +cattle. +</p> +<p> +An accurately conducted comparative trial to test the nutritive value +of the Kohl-rabi, was conducted at the Glasnevin Model Farm, under the +direction of Mr. Baldwin. The experiment was commenced in January, 1863. +Four oxen were selected, and divided into two lots. Nos. 1 and 2 (Lot 1) +were fed on Kohl-rabi, oil-cake, and hay, and Nos. 3 and 4 (Lot 2) on +Swedish turnips, oil-cake, and hay. As the animals supplied with the +Kohl-rabi did not appear to relish it, and as it was desirable to +gradually accustom them to the change of food, the experiment did not +really commence till the 12th January. On that date the weights of the +animals were as follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Weights of animals in kohl-rabi nutritive test"> + +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><th>cwt. </th><th>st. </th><td> </td><td> </td><th>cwt. </th><th>st. </th></tr> + +<tr><td rowspan="2"> Lot 1. <span style="font-size: 200%">{</span></td> + <td> No. 1. </td><td> 10 </td><td> 1 </td><td rowspan="2">Lot 2. <span style="font-size: 200%">{</span></td> + <td> No. 3.</td><td> 7 </td><td> 5 </td></tr> +<tr> <td> No. 2. </td><td> 7 </td><td> 4 </td> <td> No. 4.</td><td> 10 </td><td> 2 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"> ——— </td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"> ——— </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> 17 </td><td> 5 </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> 17 </td><td> 7 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +The lots, therefore, counterpoised each other pretty fairly. From the +12th to the 28th January they received the following quantities of food +per diem:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Per diem quantities of feeds in kohl-rabi nutritive test"> + +<tr><td class="l"> </td><td> </td><th> 1. </th><th> 2. </th><th> 3. </th><th> 4. </th></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Roots </td><td>stones </td><td> 7½ </td><td> 6 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 7½ </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Oil cake </td><td>pounds </td><td> 4½ </td><td> 3 </td><td> 3 </td><td> 4½ </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Hay </td><td>pounds </td><td>10½ </td><td>10½ </td><td>10½ </td><td>10½ </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +The animals fed upon the Kohl-rabi evinced from the first a +disinclination to it, but they nevertheless ate it before their meal of +oil-cake was supplied to them. On the morning of the 28th January they +were put upon the dietary shown in the table, and which induced them to +eat the Kohl-rabi more quickly. +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Amended diet of kohl-rabi test"> + +<tr><td colspan="3"></td><th>1. </th><th>2. </th><th>3. </th><th>4. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l" rowspan="2"> At 6.30 a.m. </td><td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%">{</span> </td> + <td class="l">Roots, Stones </td><td>3 </td><td>2½ </td><td>2½ </td><td>3½2 </td></tr> +<tr> <td class="l">Cake, lbs. </td><td>1½ </td><td>1 </td><td>1 </td><td>1 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l" rowspan="2"> At 12.30 a.m. </td><td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%">{</span> </td> + <td class="l">Roots, Stones </td><td>3 </td><td>2½ </td><td>2½ </td><td>3½ </td></tr> +<tr> <td class="l">Cake, lbs. </td><td>1½ </td><td>1 </td><td>1 </td><td>1 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l" rowspan="2"> At 6.30 p.m. </td><td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%">{</span> </td> + <td class="l">Roots, Stones </td><td>3 </td><td>2½ </td><td>2½ </td><td>3½ </td></tr> +<tr> <td class="l">Cake, lbs. </td><td>1½ </td><td>1 </td><td>1 </td><td>1 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l" colspan="2"> At 9.30 p.m. </td><td class="l">Hay, lbs. </td><td>7 </td><td>7 </td><td>7 </td><td>7 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page209" name="page209"></a>[209]</span></p> + +<p> +On the 11th February the cattle were again weighed, when their increase +was found to be as follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Increase in cattle weights in the kohl-rabi test"> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2"></td> +<th colspan="2">Weight on<br /> Jan. 12.</th> +<th colspan="2">Weight on<br /> Feb. 11.</th> +<th colspan="1">Increase<br /> in 30 days.</th> +</tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><th>cwt.</th><th>st. </th><th>cwt.</th><th> st. </th><th> st. </th></tr> + +<tr><td> 1</td><td class="l" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%">}</span> Lot 1, fed on Kohl-rabi, &c. <span style="font-size: 200%">}</span> + </td><td> 10 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 10 </td><td> 4 </td><td> 3 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 2</td> <td> 7 </td><td> 4 </td><td> 7 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 2 </td></tr> + +<tr class="total"><td colspan="6"></td><td>———</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td class="l"> Total </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> 5 </td></tr> + +<tr class="total"><td colspan="6"></td><td>———</td></tr> + +<tr><td> 3</td><td class="l" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%">}</span> Lot 2, fed on Swedes, &c. <span style="font-size: 200%">}</span> + </td><td> 7 </td><td> 5 </td><td> 8 </td><td> 3 </td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr><td> 4</td> <td> 10 </td><td> 2 </td><td> 10 </td><td> 7¼ </td><td> 5½ </td></tr> + +<tr class="total"><td colspan="6"></td><td>———</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td class="l"> Total </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> 11½ </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +The results of this experiment show that the animals fed upon Swedish +turnips, hay, and oil-cake, increased in weight at a rate more than +100 per cent. greater than the lot supplied with equal quantities of +Kohl-rabi, hay, and oil-cake. The superiority of the Swedish turnips was +rendered more evident by the results of subsequent experiments. Nos. 1 +and 4 were not tried after the 11th February; but Nos. 2 and 3 were kept +under experiment. No. 2 was put on Swedes, and No. 3 on mangel-wurtzel, +and after an interval of a fortnight No. 2 had increased much more than +they had done on Kohl-rabi. +</p> +<p> +Specimens of the Kohl-rabi and Swedish turnips employed in this +experiment were submitted to me for analysis by Mr. Baldwin, and yielded +the following results:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Comparision of compositions of Kohl-rabi and Swedish turnips"> + +<tr><td> </td><th>Kohl-rabi. </th><th>Swedish<br /> Turnip. </th></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 87·62 </td><td> 88·84 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles </td><td> 2·24 </td><td> 1·66 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Non-nitrogenous, or fat-forming principles </td><td> 7·78 </td><td> 6·07 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 1·34 </td><td> 2·73 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter (ash) </td><td> 1·22 </td><td> 0·70 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td> ——— </td><td>——— </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> 100·00 </td><td>100·00 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +These results show a slight superiority of the Kohl-rabi over the +Swedish turnip; the great difference in their nutritive power, as +shown by Mr. Baldwin's experimental results, must + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page210" name="page210"></a>[210]</span> + + therefore be due to the +superior flavor and digestibility of the turnip. +</p> +<p> +Dr. Anderson's analysis of Kohl-rabi afforded results more favorable to +the highly nutritive character assigned by some feeders to that bulb +than those arrived at by me. The bulbs, it should however be remarked, +were grown, no doubt with great care, by Messrs. Lawson and Son, the +well-known seedsmen:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of Kohl-rabi (Anderson)"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3"> ANALYSIS OF KOHL-RABI, BY DR. ANDERSON.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><th> Bulbs. </th><th> Tops. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 86·74 </td><td> 86·68 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-forming principles </td><td> 2·75 </td><td> 2·37 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fat-forming principles </td><td> 8·62 </td><td> 8·29 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 0·77 </td><td> 1·21 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter </td><td> 1·12 </td><td> 1·45 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td> ——— </td><td>——— </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00 </td><td>100·00 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +The <i>Radish</i> is a plant which deserves a place amongst our field crops, +though hitherto its cultivation has been restricted to the garden. At +one time its leaves were boiled and eaten, but in these latter days they +are subjected to neither of these processes. The root, however, in its +raw state, is, as every one is aware, considered one of the dainties of +the table. +</p> +<p> +Many of those who devote themselves to the important study of dietetics, +consider the use of raw vegetables to be objectionable; but be their +objections groundless, or the reverse, it is certain that a vegetable +which, like the radish, may be eaten raw with apparently good results, +cannot be otherwise than a good article of food when cooked. I once +tried the experiment of eating matured radishes, not as a salad, but +cooked like any other boiled vegetable, and I must say that I found +their flavor rather agreeable than otherwise. Boiled radishes—roots and +tops—form excellent feeding for pigs. How could it be otherwise? for +what is good for the family of man must surely be a luxury to the swine +tribe. I have known horses to eat radishes greedily, and I am certain +that they would prove acceptable to all the animals of the farm. But it + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page211" name="page211"></a>[211]</span> + + may be asked, why it is that I recommend the use of radishes as +food for stock, when there are already so many more nutritious roots +at our disposal—turnips, mangels, and potatoes. Simply for this +reason:—Between the departure of the roots and the advent of the +grasses, there is a kind of interregnum.<sup><a name="noteref-32"><!--32--></a><a href="#note-32">32</a></sup> Now we want a good tuberous, +bulbous, or tap-rooted plant to fill up this interregnum. Such a plant +we have in the radish. The root is certainly a small one, but then it +grows so rapidly that a good supply can be had within thirty days from +the sowing of the seed, and a crop can be matured before the time for +sowing turnips. Two crops may be easily obtained from land under +potatoes—one before the tops cover the ground, the other after the +tubers have been dug out. The yield of radishes, judging from the +produce in the garden, would be at least six tons of roots and three +tons of tops. I would suggest, then, that the radish should at once +get a fair chance as a stolen crop. If it succeed as such, it will +not be the first gift of the gardener to the husbandman. Was not the +mangel-wurtzel once known only as the produce of the garden? +</p> +<p> +The composition of the radish indicates a nutritive value less than that +of the white turnip. I have analysed both the root and the tops, and +obtained the following results:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of the radish"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3"> ANALYSIS OF THE RADISH.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><th> Root. </th><th> Tops. </th></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 95·09 </td><td> 94·30 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-forming principles </td><td> 0·52 </td><td> 0·75 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fat-formers (starch, gum, fat, &c.) </td><td> 1·06 </td><td> 1·16 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 2·22 </td><td> 2·36 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter (ash) </td><td> 1·11 </td><td> 1·43 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td> ——— </td><td>——— </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00 </td><td>100·00 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +The <i>Jerusalem Artichoke</i> has long been cultivated as a field-crop on +the Continent, and in certain localities the breadth + + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page212" name="page212"></a>[212]</span> + + occupied by it is +very considerable. The French term the tuberous root of this plant +<i>poitre de terre</i>, or <i>topin ambour</i>; and although they expose it for +sale in the markets, it is not much relished by our lively neighbours, +who are so remarkable for their <i>cuisiniere</i>. As food for cattle, +however, the French agricultural writers state it to be excellent. +It is much relished by horses, dairy cows, and pigs; store horned-stock +also eat it when seasoned with a little salt, and appear to enjoy it +amazingly when permitted to pull up the roots from the soil. The green +tops are also given to sheep and cattle, and, it is stated, are readily +eaten by those animals. +</p> +<p> +The Jerusalem artichoke (<i>Helianthus Tuberoses</i>) differs from its half +namesake, the common artichoke, and resembles the potato in being +valuable chiefly for its tubers. It is perennial, and attains on the +Continent a height varying from 7 to 10 feet. In this country its +dimensions are less. The stem is erect, thick, coarse, and covered with +hairs. It is a native of Mexico, and although introduced 200 years ago +into Europe, it can hardly be said to be acclimatised, since it very +seldom flowers, and never develops seed. The plant is therefore +propagated by cuttings from its tubers, each containing one or two eyes; +or if the tubers be very small, which is often the case, a whole one is +planted. The tubers possess great vitality, and remain in the ground +during the most severe frosts, without sustaining the slightest injury. +For this reason it is usual to devote a corner of the garden to the +cultivation of the Jerusalem artichoke; for, no matter how completely +the crop may appear to have been removed from the soil, portions of the +tubers will remain and shoot up into plants during the following season. +This peculiarity of the plant it is likely may prove an obstacle to its +having a place assigned to it in the rotation system. +</p> +<p> +The question now presents itself—What are the peculiar advantages which +the crop possesses which should commend it to the notice of the British +farmer? I shall try to answer the question. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page213" name="page213"></a>[213]</span></p> + +<p> +1st. No green crop (except furze) can be grown in so great a variety of +soils; except marshy or wet lands, there is no soil in which it refuses +to grow. +</p> +<p> +2nd. It does not suffer from disease, is very little affected by the +ravages of insects, is completely beyond the influence of cold, and may +remain either above or below ground for a long time without undergoing +any injurious changes in composition. +</p> +<p> +3rd. It gives a good return, when we consider that it requires very +little manure, and but little labor in its management. +</p> +<p> +At Bechelbronn, the farm of the celebrated Boussingault, the average +yield is nearly eleven tons per acre, but occasionally over fourteen +tons is obtained. Donoil, a farmer of Bailiere, in the department of +Haut-loire, states that he fed sheep exclusively on the tops and tubers +of this plant, and that he estimated his profits at £23 per hectare +(£9 3s. 4d. per acre). The soil was very inferior. Donoil terms it +third-rate, and it does not appear to have been manured even once +during the fifteen years it was under Jerusalem artichoke. I fear our +artificial manure manufacturers will hardly look with a favorable eye +on the advent of a crop into our agriculture which can get on so well +without the intervention of any fertilising agents. Indeed, several of +the French writers state that little or no manure is necessary for this +plant. But this can hardly be the case; for it is evident that a crop +which, according to Way and Ogston, removes 35 lbs. of mineral matter +per ton from the soil, or three times as much potash as turnips do, must +certainly be greatly benefited by the application of manure. And I have +no doubt but that the Jerusalem artichoke, if well manured and grown +in moderately fertile soil, would produce a much heavier crop than our +Continental neighbors appear to get from it. +</p> +<p> +4th. The Jerusalem artichoke may be cultivated with advantage in places +where ordinary root-crops either fail or thrive badly. In such cases +the ground should be permanently devoted to this crop. Kade gives an +instance where a piece of indifferent ground had for thirty-three years +produced heavy + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page214" name="page214"></a>[214]</span> + + crops of this plant, although during that time neither +manure nor labor had been applied to it. In Ireland the potato has been +grown under similar circumstances. +</p> +<p> +The nutritive constituents of tubers of the Jerusalem artichoke bear +a close resemblance in every respect, save one, to those of the +potato. Both contain about 75 per cent. of water, about 2 per cent. +of flesh-forming substances, and 20 per cent. of non-nitrogenous, or +fat-forming and heat-giving elements. In one respect there is a great +difference—namely, that sugar makes up from 8 to 12 per cent. of the +Jerusalem artichoke, whilst there is but a small proportion of that +substance in the potato. +</p> +<p> +The large quantity of sugar contained in this root is no doubt the cause +of its remarkable keeping properties in winter, and it also readily +accounts for the avidity with which most of the domesticated animals +eat it. +</p> +<p> +On the whole, then, I think that the facts I have brought forward +relative to the advantages which the Jerusalem artichoke presents as a +farm crop, justify the recommendation that it should get a fair trial +from the British farmer, who is now so much interested in the production +of suitable forage for stock. +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of dry Jerusalem artichoke"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="2"> COMPOSITION OF (DRY) JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Albuminous matters </td><td> 4·6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fatty matters </td><td> 0·4 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Starch, gum, &c. </td><td>19·8 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sugar </td><td>69·5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fibre and ash </td><td> 5·7 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td>——— </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·0</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +The <i>Potato</i>, regarded from every point of view, is by far the most +important of the plants which are cultivated for the sake of their +roots. Its tubers form the chief—almost sole—pabulum of many millions +of men, enter more or less into the dietary of most civilised peoples, +and constitute a large proportion of the food of the domesticated +animals. The great importance of this plant, arising from its enormous +consumption, + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page215" name="page215"></a>[215]</span> + + has caused its composition to be very minutely studied by +many British, Continental, and American chemists. With respect to its +nutritive properties, the least favorable results were obtained by the +American chemists, Hardy and Henry, and the most by the European +chemists. +</p> +<p> +The flesh-forming principles vary from 1 per cent., as found by Hardy, +to 2·41 per cent., the mean results of the analyses of Krocker and +Horsford. The proportion of starch in different varieties of the potato +also varies, but not to the same degree as the nitrogenous principles. +In new potatoes, only 5 per cent. has been found; in ash-leaved kidneys, +9·50 per cent.; and in different kinds of cups, from 15 to 24 per cent. +The amount of starch is also influenced by the soil, the manure, the +climate, and the various other conditions under which the plant is +developed. The proportion of starch increases during the growth, and +diminishes during the storage of the tubers. +</p> +<p> +Dr. Anderson is the most recent investigator into the composition of the +potato; the chief results of his inquiries are given in the following +table:— +</p> + +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of the potato, various (Anderson)"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="7"> ANALYSIS OF THE POTATO BY DR. ANDERSON.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><th>Regents.</th><th>Dalmahoys.</th><th>Skerry-blues.</th><th>White Rocks. </th><th>Orkney Reds.</th><th>Flukes. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 76·32 </td><td> 75·91 </td><td> 76·60 </td><td> 75·93 </td><td> 78·57 </td><td> 74·41 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Starch </td><td> 12·21 </td><td> 12·58 </td><td> 11·79 </td><td> 12·77 </td><td> 10·85 </td><td> 12·55 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sugar, &c. </td><td> 2·75 </td><td> 2·93 </td><td> 3·09 </td><td> 2·17 </td><td> 2·78 </td><td> 2·89 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-formers </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> soluble </td><td> 2·16 </td><td> 2·10 </td><td> 1·90 </td><td> 1·88 </td><td> 1·48 </td><td> 1·98 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> insoluble </td><td> 0·21 </td><td> 0·15 </td><td> 0·16 </td><td> 0·24 </td><td> 0·21 </td><td> 0·20 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fibre </td><td> 5·53 </td><td> 5·21 </td><td> 5·41 </td><td> 5·55 </td><td> 5·93 </td><td> 6·71 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Ash </td><td> 0·88 </td><td> 0·81 </td><td> 0·94 </td><td> 1·04 </td><td> 0·98 </td><td> 0·98 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td> </td><td> 100·06 </td><td> 99·69 </td><td> 99·89 </td><td> 99·58 </td><td>100·80 </td><td> 99·72 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +The potato is relatively deficient in flesh-forming matters, and contains +the respiratory elements in exceedingly high proportions; hence it is +well adapted for fattening purposes, and in this respect is equal to +double its weight of the best kind of turnips. When used as food for +man, it should be supplemented by some more fatty or nitrogenous +substance—such, + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page216" name="page216"></a>[216]</span> + + for example, as flesh, oatmeal, or peas. Buttermilk, +a fluid which is rich in nitrogen, is an excellent supplement to +potatoes, and compensates to a great extent for the deficiency of those +tubers in muscle-forming matters. If, then, the potato is destined to +retain its place as the "national esculent" of the Irish, I trust their +national beverage may be—so far at least as the masses of the people +are concerned—buttermilk, and <i>not</i> whiskey. +</p> +<p> +Potatoes so far diseased as to be unsuited for use as food for man, may +be given with advantage to stock. They may be used either in a raw or +uncooked state, but the latter is the preferable form. Sheep do not like +them at first, but on being deprived of turnips they acquire a taste +for them; on a daily allowance, composed of 1 lb. of oil-cake or corn, +and an unlimited quantity of potatoes, they fatten rapidly. Cattle +thrive well on a diet composed of equal parts of turnips and diseased +potatoes, and do not require oil-cake. The evening feed of horses may +advantageously be composed of potatoes and turnips. If raw, the potatoes +should be given in a very limited quantity—four or five pounds; in the +cooked state, however, they may be given in abundance, but the animals +should not, after their meal, be permitted to drink water for some +hours. As a feeding substance, diseased potatoes, unless they be very +much injured, are equal to twice their weight of white turnips; it is +certain that they do not injure the health or impair the condition of +the animals which feed upon them. +</p> +<h4> +SECTION VI. +</h4> +<h5> +SEEDS. +</h5> +<p> +In seeds the elements of nutrition exist not only in the most highly +elaborated, but also in the most concentrated state; hence their +nutritive value is greater than that of any other class of food +substances. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page217" name="page217"></a>[217]</span></p> + +<p> +<i>Wheat Grain</i> is the most valuable of seeds, as it contains, in admirably +adjusted proportions, the bone, the fat, and the muscle-forming +principles. In the form of bread, it has been, not inaptly, termed the +"staff of life," for no other grain is so well adapted, <i>per se</i>, for +the sustenance of man; and many millions of human beings subsist almost +exclusively on it. The lower animals are in general fed upon the grain +of oats, of barley, and of the leguminous plants, and the use of wheat +is almost completely restricted to the human family. +</p> +<p> +Wheat grain, by the processes of grinding and sifting, is resolvable +into two distinct parts—bran and flour. In twenty-four analyses made +by Boussingault, the proportion of the bran was from 13·2 to 38·5 +per cent. and that of the flour from 61·5 to 86·8 per cent. The floury +part is of very complex structure; it includes starch, gluten, albumen, +oil, gum, gummo-gelatinous matter, sugar,<sup><a name="noteref-33"><!--33--></a><a href="#note-33">33</a></sup> and various saline matters. +The gluten and albumen constitute the nitrogenous, or flesh-forming +principles of flour, and make up from 16 to 20 per cent. of that +substance; the non-nitrogenous, or fat-forming elements, such as +starch and gum, form from 74 to 82 per cent. According to Payen, the +proportion of gluten diminishes towards the centre of the seed, from +which it follows that the part of the grain nearest the husk is the +most nutritious—so far at least as muscle-making is concerned. The +desire on the part of the public for very white bread has led to the +<i>fine</i> dressing of Wheat-grain, and consequently to the separation from +that substance of a very large proportion of one of its most nutritious +constituents. Crude gluten may be obtained by kneading the dough of +flour in a muslin bag under a small current of water; the starch, or +fecula, and the gum, are carried away by the water, and the gluten in +an impure form remains as an elastic viscous substance, which on drying +becomes hard and brittle. It is to the gluten of flour that its + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page218" name="page218"></a>[218]</span> + + property +of panification, or bread-making, is due. On the addition of a ferment, +a portion of the starch is converted into sugar and carbonic acid gas, +and the latter causes the gluten to expand into the little cells, or +vesicles, which confer upon baked bread its light, spongy texture. +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of wheat"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="5"> ANALYSES OF WHEAT.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><th> 1. </th><th> 2. </th><th> 3. </th><th> 4. </th></tr> +<tr><td> </td><th> Whole Grain. </th><th> Flour. </th><th>Bran. </th><th> Husk. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 15·00 </td><td> 14·0 </td><td> 13 </td><td> 13·9 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-formers </td><td> 12·00 </td><td> 11·0 </td><td> 14 </td><td> 14·9 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fat-formers </td><td> 68·50 </td><td> 73·5 </td><td> 55 </td><td> 55·8 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 2·75 </td><td> 0·7 </td><td> 12 </td><td> 9·7 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter </td><td> 1·75 </td><td> 0·8 </td><td> 6 </td><td> 5·7 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td>——— </td><td>——— </td><td>——— </td><td>——— </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00 </td><td>100·0 </td><td>100 </td><td>100·0 </td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="5"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l" colspan="5"> <i>Nos. 1, 2, and 3.—The mean results of a great number of analyses.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="l" colspan="5"> <i>No. 4.—By</i> <span class="sc">Millon</span>.</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +<i>Over-ripening of Grain.</i>—The final act of vegetation is the production +of seed, after the performance of which function many plants, having +accomplished their destined purpose, perish. The grasses (which include +the cereals) are <i>annuals</i>, or plants which have but a year's existence, +consequently their development ceases so soon as they have produced +their seed. When wheat, oats, and the other cereals, attain to this +final point in their growth, the circulation of their sap ceases, +their color changes from green to yellow, and they undergo certain +changes which destroy their power of assimilating mineral matter, and +consequently render them no longer capable of increasing their weight. +</p> +<p> +The proper time for cutting wheat and the other cereals is immediately +after their grain has been fully matured. When the green color of the +straw just below the ears changes to yellow, the grain, be it ripe or +unripe at the time, cannot afterwards be more fully developed. This is +rendered impossible in consequence of the disorganisation of the upper +part of the stem—indicated by, but not the result of, its altered +hue—which + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page219" name="page219"></a>[219]</span> + + cuts off the supply of sap to the ears, and the latter do +not possess the power of absorbing nutriment from the air. +</p> +<p> +When the vital processes which are incessantly going on in the growing +plants are brought to a close, the purely chemical forces come into +operation. If the seed be perfectly matured and allowed to remain +ungathered, it is attacked in wet weather by the oxygen of the air, a +portion of its carbon is burned off, some of its starch is converted +into sugar, and in extreme cases it germinates and becomes <i>malty</i>. +But not only is the seed liable to injury from the elements; it is also +exposed to the ravages of the feathered tribe, and no matter how well +a field of corn may be watched, or how great the number of <i>scarecrows</i> +erected in it, there is always a certain diurnal loss, occasioned by the +ravages of birds. +</p> +<p> +It is not only necessary that ripe corn should be cut as soon as +possible, but it is sometimes desirable to reap it before it becomes +fully matured. When the grain is intended for consumption as food, the +less bran it contains the better. Now the bran, as is well known, forms +the integument, or covering of the vital constituents of the seed; and +it is the last part of the organ to be perfected. The growth of the +seed for several days before its perfect development, is confined to +the <i>testa</i> or covering. Now as this is the least valuable part of the +article, its increase is matter of but little moment; and when it is +excessive it renders the grain less valuable in the eyes of the miller. +That the cutting of the grain before it is perfectly ripe is attended +with a good result, is clearly proved by the results of an experiment +recorded in Johnston's "Agricultural Chemistry." A crop of wheat was +selected; one-third was cut twenty days before it was ripe; another +third ten days afterwards; and the remaining portion when its grain had +been fully matured. The relative produce in grain of the three portions +taken, as stated above, was as 1, 1·325, and 1·260. The following table +exhibits the relative proportions of their constituents:— +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page220" name="page220"></a>[220]</span></p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Relative proportions of wheat parts at various harvest times"> + +<tr><td></td><th colspan="3">In 100 parts of the grain cut at</th></tr> +<tr><td></td><th>20 days. </th><th>10 days. </th><th>Dead ripe. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Flour </td><td> 74·7 </td><td> 79·1 </td><td> 72·2 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sharps </td><td> 7·2 </td><td> 5·5 </td><td> 11·0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Bran </td><td> 17·5 </td><td> 13·2 </td><td> 16·0 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ——— </td><td> ——— </td><td> ——— </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> 99·4 </td><td> 97·8 </td><td> 99·2 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> The flour contained gluten </td><td> 9·3 </td><td> 9·9 </td><td> 9·6 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +The results of this experiment, and of the general experience of +intelligent growers, show that grain cut a week or ten days before it is +perfectly ripe contains more flour, and of a better quality, too, than +is found in either ripe or very unripe seed. But this is not the only +advantage, for the straw of the green, or rather of the greenish-yellow +corn, is fully twice as valuable for feeding purposes as that of the +over-ripe cereals. There is an extraordinary decrease in the amount +of the albuminous constituents of the stems of the cereals during the +last two or three weeks of their maturation, and as there is not a +corresponding increase of those materials in the seed, they must be +evolved in some form or other from the plants. +</p> +<p> +There can be only one object attained by allowing the seed to fully +ripen itself, and that is the insurance of its more perfect adaptability +to the purpose of reproduction. When the <i>testa</i> is thick it best +protects the germ of the future plant enclosed in it from the ordinary +atmospheric influences until it is placed under the proper conditions +for its germination. +</p> +<p> +<i>Wheat, a costly food.</i>—It occasionally happens that the wheat harvest +is so abundant, that many feeders give large quantities of this grain to +their stock. Now, as Indian corn is at least 25 per cent. cheaper than +wheat, even when the price of the latter is at its <i>minimum</i>, I believe +that it is always more economical to sell the wheat raised on the farm, +and to purchase with the proceeds of its sale an equivalent of Indian +corn, which is a more fattening kind of food. +</p> +<p> +<i>Bran</i> is, with perhaps the exception of malt-dust, the most nutritious +of the refuse portions of grains. It is usually given to horses, and +owing to its high proportion of nitrogen, is, + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page221" name="page221"></a>[221]</span> + + perhaps, better expended +in the bodies of those hard-working animals, than in those of pigs and +cows—animals that occasionally come in for a share of this valuable +feeding-stuff. It should be borne in mind that bran commonly acts as +a slight laxative, and that it is less digestible than flour, a large +portion of it usually passing through the animal's body unchanged. +This drawback to the use of bran may be obviated by either cooking or +fermenting the article, or by combining it with beans or some other +kind of binding food. +</p> + +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Average analyses of various grains"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="9"> AVERAGE ANALYSES OF GRAIN.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><th>Barley.</th><th>Bere.</th><th>Oats.</th><th>Oatmeal.</th><th>Indian Corn.</th><th>Rice.</th><th>Rye (Irish).</th><th>Buckwheat.</th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 16·0 </td><td> 14·25</td><td> 14·0 </td><td> 13·00 </td><td> 14·5 </td><td> 14·0 </td><td> 16·0 </td><td> 14·19 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-formers </td><td> 10·5 </td><td> 10·10</td><td> 11·5 </td><td> 16·00 </td><td> 10·0 </td><td> 5·3 </td><td> 9·0 </td><td> 8·58 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fat-formers </td><td> 67·0 </td><td> 64·60</td><td> 64·5 </td><td> 68·00 </td><td> 69·0 </td><td> 78·5 </td><td> 66·0 </td><td> 51·91 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 3·5 </td><td> 9·03</td><td> 7·0 </td><td> 1·75 </td><td> 5·0 </td><td> 2·5 </td><td> 8·0 </td><td> 23·12 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Mineral matter </td><td> 3·0 </td><td> 2·02</td><td> 3·0 </td><td> 1·25 </td><td> 1·5 </td><td> 0·7 </td><td> 1·0 </td><td> 2·20 </td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td> </td><td>100·0 </td><td>100·00</td><td>100·0 </td><td>100·00 </td><td>100·0 </td><td>100·0 </td><td>100·0 </td><td>100·00 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +<i>Barley</i> is inferior in composition to wheat. As a feeding stuff, the +English farmers assign to it a higher, and the Scotch farmers a lower, +place than oats, which, perhaps, merely proves that in Scotland the oat +thrives better than the barley, and in England the barley better than +the oat. Barley-meal is extensively used by the English feeders, and +with excellent results. Where <i>barley-dust</i> can be obtained it is a far +cheaper feeding stuff than the meal. Barley husks should never be given +to animals unless in a cooked or fermented state. +</p> +<p> +<i>Oat Grain</i> is, perhaps, the most valuable of the concentrated foods +which are given to fattening stock. When it is cheap it will be found +a more economical feeding stuff than linseed-cake, and, unlike that +substance, can be used without the fear of adulteration. Oats are equal +to wheat in their amount of flesh-forming matters; but their very high +proportion of indigestible woody fibre detracts from their nutritive +value. Oat-meal is more nutritious than wheat-meal; and oat-flour, + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page222" name="page222"></a>[222]</span> + + especially if finely dressed, greatly excels wheat-flour in its +nutrimental properties, because, unlike the latter, the finer it is the +greater is its amount of flesh-formers. Bread made of oat-flour is very +heavy, and is far less palatable than the bread of wheat. Oat-meal has +been found to contain nearly 20 per cent. of nitrogenous matters. The +white oat is more nutritious than the black, and the greatest amount of +aliment is found in the grain which has not been allowed to over-ripen +in the field. Oat husk is very inferior to the bran of wheat. Toppings +are seldom worth the price at which they are sold. +</p> +<p> +<i>Indian Corn</i> has been highly extolled as a fattening food for stock, +and its chemical composition would seem to justify the high opinion +which practical men have formed of its relative nutritive value. In the +United States, the feeding of horses on Indian corn and hay has been +found very successful; but in these countries oats will be found a more +economical food. For fattening purposes Indian corn appears exceedingly +well adapted, as it contains more ready-formed fat—4·5 per cent.—than +is found in most of the other grains, and, on an average, 70 per cent. +of starch. Pigs thrive well on this grain. The Galatz round yellow grain +is somewhat superior to the American flat yellow seed. +</p> +<p> +<i>Rye</i> is not extensively cultivated in this country, but on the +Continent it is raised in large quantities. In the north of Europe +it forms a considerable proportion of the food of both man and the +domesticated animals. In Holland it is commonly consumed by horses, but +in England there has always been a prejudice against the use of this +grain as food for the equine tribe. It has been highly recommended for +dairy stock, five pounds of rye-meal, with a sufficiency of cut straw, +constituting, it is stated, a dietary on which cows yield a maximum +supply of milk. Irish-grown rye contains less starch, and more +flesh-formers and oil, than the Black Sea grain. +</p> +<p> +<i>Rice</i>, although it forms the chief pabulum of nearly one-third of +the human family, is the least nutritious of the common food grains. +Rice-dust, an article obtained in cleaning rice + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page223" name="page223"></a>[223]</span> + + for European consumption, +is said to promote the flow of milk when given to cows. It is sold in +large quantities in Liverpool, where, according to Voelcker, it often +commands a higher price than it is worth. +</p> +<p> +<i>Buckwheat</i> is chiefly used as a food for game and poultry. +</p> +<p> +<i>Malted Corn.</i>—During a late session of Parliament a Bill was passed to +exempt from duty malt intended to be used as food for cattle. As feeders +may now become their own maltsters, it may be of some use to them to +have here a <i>résumé</i> of this Bill:— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 1. Any person giving security and taking out a licence may make + malt in a malt-house approved by the Excise for the purpose; and + all malt so made and mixed with linseed-cake or linseed-meal as + directed, shall be free from duty. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 2. The security required is a bond to Her Majesty, with sureties + to the satisfaction of the Excise, not to take from any such + malt-house any malt except duly mixed with material prescribed + by the Act. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 3. The malt-house must be properly named upon its door. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 4. All malt made in it shall be deposited in a store-room, and + shall be conveyed to and from the room upon such notice as the + officer of Excise shall appoint. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 5. The maltster shall provide secure rooms in his malt-house, + to be approved in writing by the supervisor, for grinding the + malt made by him in such malt-house, and mixing and storing the + same when mixed; and all such rooms shall be properly secured + and kept locked by the proper officer of Excise. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 6. All malt before removal from the malt-house shall be ground + and thoroughly mixed with one-tenth part at least of its weight + of ground linseed-cake or linseed-meal, and ground to such a + degree of fineness and in such manner as the commissioners shall + approve, and mixed together in a quantity not less than forty + bushels at a time in the presence of an officer of Excise. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 7. The maltster shall keep account of the quantity of all malt + mixed as aforesaid which he shall from time to time send out or + deliver from his malt-house, with the dates and addresses of the + person for whom such mixed malt shall be so sent or delivered. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 8. If any person shall attempt to separate any malt from any + material with which the same shall have been mixed as aforesaid, + or shall use this malt for the brewing of beer or distilling of + spirits, he shall forfeit the sum of £200. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 9 and 10. The penalties of existing Acts are recited. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 11. This Act shall continue and be in force for five years. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page224" name="page224"></a>[224]</span> +</p> +<p> +Some samples of malt and barley examined in May, 1865, by Dr. Voelcker +for the Central Anti-Malt Tax Association, afforded the following +results:— +</p> + +<table border="0" align="center" width="90%" summary="Analyses of malt and barley" style="border-top: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black;"> + +<tr class="b1"><td rowspan="2"> </td><th rowspan="2">Barley marked<br /> No. 1 </th><th colspan="5">Malt marked </th></tr> +<tr> <th> No. 5.</th><th> No. 7.</th><th> No. 9.</th><th>No. 14.</th><th>No. 16.</th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Moisture </td><td> 11·76 </td><td> 8·72 </td><td> 7·43 </td><td> 7·76 </td><td> 8·35</td><td> 7·06 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sugar </td><td> 3·75 </td><td> 4·29 </td><td> 5·48 </td><td> 7·85 </td><td> 9·46</td><td> 9·86 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Starch and dextrine </td><td> 70·40 </td><td>71·03 </td><td>69·70 </td><td>67·57 </td><td> 67·53</td><td> 67·67 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> <b>*</b> Albuminous compounds + (flesh-forming matters)</td><td> 7·75 </td><td> 8·44 </td><td> 8·81 </td><td> 9·37 </td><td> 8·60</td><td> 8·31 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre (cellular) </td><td> 4·46 </td><td> 5·22 </td><td> 6·38 </td><td> 5·38 </td><td> 4·14</td><td> 5·11 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Mineral matter (ash) </td><td> 1·88 </td><td> 2·30 </td><td> 2·20 </td><td> 2·07 </td><td> 1·92</td><td> 1·99 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> </td><td> 100·00 </td><td> 100·00</td><td> 100·00</td><td> 100·00</td><td>100·00</td><td> 100·00 </td></tr> +<tr class="tiny"><td class="l"> <b>*</b> Containing nitrogen </td><td> 1·24 </td><td> 1·35 </td><td> 1·41 </td><td> 1·50 </td><td> 1·38</td><td> 1·33 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +A great deal has been said and written in favor of malt as a feeding +stuff, but I greatly doubt its alleged decided superiority over barley; +and until the results of accurately conducted comparative experiments +made with those articles incontestably prove that superiority, I think +it is somewhat a waste of nutriment to convert barley into malt for +feeding purposes. The gentlemen who verbally, or in writing, refer +so favorably to malt, acknowledge, with one or two exceptions, that +their experience of the article is limited. Mr. John Hudson, of +Brandon, states that he made a comparative experiment, the results +of which proved the superiority of malt. But, in fact, the only +properly-conducted experiments to determine the relative values of malt +and barley were those made some years ago by Dr. Thompson, of Glasgow, +by the direction of the Government, and those recently performed by Mr. +Lawes, both producing results unfavorable to the malt. The issue of Dr. +Thompson's investigations proved that milch cows fed on barley yielded +more milk and butter than when supplied with an equal weight of malt. +</p> +<p> +I do not deny the probability that malt, owing to its agreeable flavor +and easy solubility, may be a somewhat better + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page225" name="page225"></a>[225]</span> + + feeding stuff than barley; +and that, weight for weight, it may produce a somewhat greater increase +in the weight of the animals fed upon it: but although a pound-weight of +malt may be better than a pound-weight of barley, I am quite satisfied +that a pound's worth of barley will put up more flesh than a pound's +worth of malt. Barley-seeds consist of water, starch, nitrogenous +substances—such as gluten and albumen—fatty substances, and saline +matter. The amount of starch is considerable, being sometimes about +70 per cent. In the process of malting (which is simply the germination +of the seed under peculiar conditions), a portion of the starch is +converted into sugar and gum, the grain increases in size and becomes +friable when dried, and the internal structure of the seed is completely +broken up. During these changes a partial decomposition of the solid +matter of the seeds takes place, and a large amount of nutriment is +dissipated, chiefly in the form of carbonic acid gas. From the results +of the experience of the maltster, and of special experiments made by +scientific men, it would appear that a ton of barley will produce only +16 cwt. of malt. Allowance must, however, be made for the difference +between the amount of water contained in barley and in malt, the latter +being much drier. According to Mr. E. Holden, the centesimal loss +sustained in malting may be stated thus:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Centesimal loss in malting (Holden)"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 6·00 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Organic matter </td><td>12·52 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Saline matter </td><td> 0·48 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +Dr. Thompson<sup><a name="noteref-34"><!--34--></a><a href="#note-34">34</a></sup> sets down the loss of nutriment (exclusive of that +occasioned by kiln-drying), as follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Centesimal loss in malting (Thomspon)"> +<tr><td class="l"> Carried off by the steep </td><td>1·5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Dissipated on the floor </td><td>3·0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Roots separated by cleaning </td><td>3·0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Waste </td><td>0·5 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td> <td> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>8·0</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page226" name="page226"></a>[226]</span></p> + +<p> +We may say, then, that by the malting of barley we lose at least 2½ +cwt. of solid nutriment out of every ton of the article, and this loss +falls heaviest on the nitrogenous, or flesh-forming constituents of +the grain. When there are added to this loss the expense of carting +the grain to and from the malt-house, and the maltster's charge for +operating upon it (I presume in this case that the feeder is not his own +maltster), it will be found that two tons of malt will cost the farmer +nearly as much as three tons of barley; and he will then have to solve +the problem—<i>Whether or not malt is 40 or 50 per cent. more valuable +as a feeding-stuff than barley</i>. +</p> +<p> +The difference in value between barley and malt is generally 14s. per +barrel; but it is sometimes more or less, according to the supply and +demand. Barley, well malted, will lose on the average 25 per cent. of +its weight, the loss depending, to some extent, upon the degree to which +the process is carried, and on the germinating properties of the barley. +Barley malted for roasters ought not to lose more than 21 per cent. of +its original weight—53 lbs. to the barrel. The heavier the barley the +less it loses in malting; a barrel of 224 lbs., and value from 15s. to +16s., ought to produce a barrel of malt of 196 lbs., value 29s. to 30s. +</p> +<p> +If we deduct from the cost of a barrel of malt the amount of duty at +present levyable upon it, the price of the article will be still nearly +50 per cent. greater than that of an equal weight of barley. The cheaper +barley is the greater will be the relative cost of malt. The maltster's +charge for converting a barrel of barley into malt is about 4s.; so +that if the price of the grain be so low as 12s. per barrel, which it +sometimes is, the cost of malting it would amount to 33 per cent. of its +price. Then, the diminution in the weight of, and the cost of carting +the grain, must be taken into account; and when the whole expense +attendant upon the process of malting is ascertained, it will be found +that I have not exaggerated in stating that a ton of malt costs as much +as a ton and a half of barley. +</p> +<p> +If the consumer of malt germinate the seeds himself, he + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page227" name="page227"></a>[227]</span> + + may probably, +if he require large quantities of the article, produce it at a somewhat +cheaper rate than if he bought it from the maltster; but few persons who +have the slightest knowledge of the vexatious restrictions of the Inland +Revenue authorities would be likely to place his premises under the +<i>espionage</i> of an excise officer. +</p> +<p> +As the superiority of malt over barley (if such be really the case) must +be chiefly due to the looseness of its texture, which allows the juices +of the stomach to act readily upon it, barley in a cooked state might be +found quite as nutritious: It would not be fair to institute comparisons +between dense hard barley-seeds and the easily soluble malted grains. +During the cooking of barley a portion of the starch is changed into +sugar, but in this case with only an inappreciable waste of nutriment. +When the cooking process is continued for a few hours, a considerable +amount of sugar is formed, and the barley acquires a very sweet flavor. +</p> +<p> +When the malt for cattle question was under discussion, I made a little +experiment in relation to it, the results of which are perhaps of +sufficient interest to mention:—Two pounds weight of barley-meal were +moistened with warm water; after standing for three hours more water was +added, and sufficient heat applied to cause the fluid to boil. After +fifteen minutes' ebullition, a few ounces of the pasty-like mass which +was produced were removed, thoroughly dried, and on being submitted +to analysis yielded six per cent. of sugar. The addition of a small +quantity of malt to barley undergoing the process of cooking will +rapidly convert the starch into sugar. +</p> +<p> +Barley is naturally a well-flavored grain, and all kinds of stock eat +it with avidity. It may be rendered still more agreeable if properly +cooked, and this process will, by disintegrating its hard, fibrous +structure, set free its stores of nutriment. I incline strongly to +the opinion that barley, when well boiled, is almost, if not quite, +as digestible as malt. +</p> +<p> +A serious disadvantage in the use of malt is, that it must be consumed, +it is said, in combination with 10 per cent. of + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page228" name="page228"></a>[228]</span> + + its weight of linseed-meal +or cake. Now, malt is a very laxative food, and so is linseed; and if +the diet of stock were largely made up of these articles the animals +would, sooner or later, suffer from diarrhœa. In such case, then, +the addition of bean-meal, or of some other binding food, would become +necessary, and the compound of malt, linseed, and bean-meal thereby +formed would certainly prove anything but an economical diet. +</p> +<p> +<i>Malt Combs.</i>—I should mention that a portion of the nutriment which +the barley loses in malting passes into the radicles, or young roots, +which project from the seeds, and are technically known by the term +"combs," "combings," or "dust." At present these combs are separated +from the malt, but if the latter be intended for feeding purposes this +separation is unnecessary, and in such case the barley will not be so +much deteriorated. The combs, which constitute about 4 per cent. of the +weight of the malt, are sometimes employed as a feeding stuff. I have +made an analysis of malt-combings for the County of Kildare Agricultural +Society, and have obtained the following results:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of malt combings"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="2"> 100 PARTS CONTAINED—</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 8·42 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> <b>*</b> Flesh-forming (albuminous) substances </td><td>21·50 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Digestible fat-forming substances (starch, sugar, + gum, &c.) </td><td>53·47 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Indigestible woody fibre </td><td> 8·57 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> <b>†</b> Saline matter (ash) </td><td> 8·04 </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00</td></tr> + +<tr class="tiny"><td class="l"><b>*</b> Yielding nitrogen </td><td> 3·44 </td></tr> +<tr class="tiny"><td class="l"><b>†</b> Containing potash </td><td> 1·35 </td></tr> +<tr class="tiny"><td class="l"> Containing phosphoric acid </td><td> 1·74 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +This article was sold as a manure at £3 6s. per ton—a sum for which it +was not good value; but as a feeding substance it was probably worth £4 +or £5 per ton. Its composition indicates a high nutritive power; but it +is probable that its nitrogenous matters are partly in a low degree of +elaboration, which greatly detracts from its alimental value. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page229" name="page229"></a>[229]</span></p> + +<p> +In conclusion, then, I would urge the following points upon the +attention of the farmer:— +</p> +<p> +1st. Before using malt for feeding purposes, wait until you learn the +general results of the experience of other farmers with that article. +The manufacture of malt for feeding purposes is rapidly on the decline, +instead of, as had been anticipated, on the increase. +</p> +<p> +2nd. Should you experiment with barley and malt, use equal money's worth +of each, and employ the barley in a cooked state. +</p> +<p> +3rd. Use malt-combings as a feeding stuff, and not as a manure. They are +good value for at least £3 10s. per ton. +</p> +<p> +4th. Bear in mind that a ton of barley contains more saline matter than +an equal weight of malt; consequently, that stock fed upon barley will +produce a manure richer in potash and phosphates than those supplied +with malt. +</p> +<p> +<i>Leguminous Seeds.</i>—The seeds of the bean, of the pea, and of several +other leguminous plants, are largely made use of as food for both man +and the domesticated animals. They all closely resemble each other in +composition, but in that respect differ considerably from the grains of +the <i>Cerealiæ</i>, for whilst the latter contain on an average 12 per cent. +of flesh-formers, beans and peas contain 24 per cent. The flesh-forming +constituent of the leguminous seeds is not gluten, as in the grain +of the cereals, but a substance termed <i>legumin</i>, which so closely +resembles the cheesy matter of milk that it has also received the name +of <i>vegetable casein</i>. Indeed, the Chinese make a factitious cheese out +of peas, which it is difficult to discriminate from the article of +animal origin. +</p> +<p> +<i>Beans</i> are used as fattening food for cattle, for which purpose they +should be ground into meal, as otherwise a large proportion of their +substance would pass through the animal's body unchanged. It is not good +economy to give a fattening bullock more than 3 or 4 lbs. weight per +diem; a larger proportion is apt to induce constipation. The very small +proportion of ready-formed fat, the moderate amount of starch, + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page230" name="page230"></a>[230]</span> + + and the +exceedingly high per-centage of flesh-formers which beans contain, prove +that they are better adapted as food for beasts of burthen than for the +fattening of stock. Oats, Indian corn, or oil-cake, will be found to +produce a greater increase of meat than equal money's worth of beans +or peas, and I would therefore recommend the restriction of leguminous +seeds, under ordinary circumstances, to horses and bulls. It has been +stated, on good authority, that when oats are given whole to horses, +a large proportion passes unchanged through the animal's body, but that +on the addition of beans, the oats are thoroughly digested. +</p> + +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of leguminous seeds"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="6"> COMPOSITION OF LEGUMINOUS SEEDS.</td></tr> + + +<tr class="b1"><td> </td><th>Common<br /> Beans.</th><th>Foreign<br /> Beans.</th><th> Peas.</th><th>Lentils.</th><th> Winter Tares<br /> (foreign).</th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 13·0 </td><td> 14·5 </td><td> 14·0 </td><td> 13·0 </td><td> 15·5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-formers </td><td> 25·5 </td><td> 23·0 </td><td> 23·5 </td><td> 24·0 </td><td> 26·5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fat-formers </td><td> 48·5 </td><td> 48·7 </td><td> 50·0 </td><td> 50·5 </td><td> 47·5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 10·0 </td><td> 10·0 </td><td> 10·0 </td><td> 10·0 </td><td> 9·0 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Mineral matter </td><td> 3·0 </td><td> 3·8 </td><td> 2·5 </td><td> 2·5 </td><td> 1·5 </td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td> </td><td>100·0 </td><td> 100·0 </td><td>100·0 </td><td> 100·0 </td><td> 100·0 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +<i>Oil Seeds.</i>—The seeds of a great variety of plants, such as the flax, +hemp, rape, mustard, cotton, and sunflower, are exceedingly rich in oil, +some of them containing nearly half their weight of that substance. Of +these oil-seeds there are many which might with advantage be employed as +fattening, food, although one only—linseed—has come into general use +for that purpose. +</p> +<p> +<i>Rape-seeds</i> closely resemble linseeds in composition, but they are +considerably cheaper. They contain an acrid substance, but the large +proportion of oil with which it is associated almost completely +disguises its unpleasant flavor. +</p> +<p> +<i>Linseed</i> is one of the most valuable kinds of food which could be given +to fattening animals. Its exceedingly high proportion of ready-formed +fatty matter, the great comparative + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page231" name="page231"></a>[231]</span> + + solubility of its constituents, and +its mild and agreeable flavor, constitute it an article superior to +linseed cake. The laxative properties of linseed are very decided; it +should therefore be given only in moderate quantities. As peas and +beans exercise, as I have already stated, a relaxing influence upon +the bowels, a mixture of linseed and peas or beans would be an +excellent compound, the laxative influence of the one being corrected +by the binding tendency of the other. Linseed being one of the most +concentrated feeding stuffs in use, it will be found an excellent +addition to bulky food, such as chaff and turnips. Linseed oil has +been used as a fattening food, but there is nothing to be gained by +expressing seeds for the purpose of using their oil as a feeding +material. When hay is scarce, and straw abundant, the latter may be +made almost as nutritious as the former by mixing it with linseed, and +steaming the compound. A stone of linseed and two cwt. of oat-straw +chaff, when properly cooked, constitute a most economical and +nutritious food. +</p> +<p> +Mr. Horne, who experimented with linseed two or three years ago, +obtained results highly favorable to the nutritive value of that +article. Six bullocks were selected, and each animal placed in a +separate box. They were fed with cut roots—at first Swedes, then +mangels and Swedes, and lastly, mangels alone: in addition, there were +supplied to each 6 lbs. rough meadow-hay reduced to chaff, and 5 lbs. +oil-cake, or value to that amount. They were divided into three lots, +two in each. Lot 1 had 5 lbs. oil-cake for each animal; lot 2, barley +and wheat-meal, equal in value to the 5 lbs. oil-cake; and lot 3, an +equal money's worth of bruised linseed. The oil-cake cost £10 16s. per +ton, the mixture of barley and wheat £8 15s. per ton, and the bruised +linseed £13 per ton. The experiment lasted 112 days, and at its close +the results, which proved very favorable to the bruised linseed, were +as follows:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Increase in live weights of bullocks raised on various feeds"> + +<tr><td> </td><th>Increase in<br /> live weight.</th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Lot 1. Oil-cake </td><td class="c">637 lbs. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Lot 2. Wheat and barley meal </td><td class="c">667 lbs. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Lot 3. Bruised linseed </td><td class="c">718 lbs. </td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page232" name="page232"></a>[232]</span></p> + +<p> +During the 112 days each bullock consumed 5 cwt. oil-cake (or an +equivalent amount of linseed or wheat and barley), 6 cwt. hay, and +90 cwt. of roots. The average increase in each animal's weight was +337 lbs. = 224 lbs. <i>dead</i> weight. The economic features of this +experiment are best shown in the following figures:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Amounts and cost of feeds"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="4"> FOOD CONSUMED.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><th> £ </th><th>s. </th><th>d.</th></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> 5 cwt. oil-cake, at 10s. 6d. per cwt. </td><td> 2 </td><td>12 </td><td>6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> 6 cwt. hay, at 3s. per cwt. </td><td> 0 </td><td>18 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> 16 weeks' attendance, at 6d. per week </td><td> 0 </td><td> 8 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td colspan="3"> ————————</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>£3 </td><td>18 </td><td>6 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td colspan="3"> ————————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Gained 16 stones per week, at 8s. per stone </td><td> 6 </td><td>8 </td><td>0 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td colspan="3"> ————————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Balance to pay for 90 cwt. of roots </td><td> 2 </td><td>9 </td><td>6 </td></tr> +</table> + + +<p> +The manure obtained afforded a good profit. +</p> +<p> +The seed-pods, or, as they are termed, the <i>bolls</i> of the flax, +have been recommended as an excellent feeding stuff. They are not +so nutritious as linseed, but they are cheaper, and when produced +on the farm must be an economical food. Mr. Charley, an intelligent +stock-feeder in the county of Antrim, and an eminent authority in every +subject in relation to flax, strongly recommends the use of flax-bolls. +He says:— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + The cost of rippling is considerable; but I believe, for + every £1 expended, on an average a return is realised of £2, + particularly on a farmstead where many horses and cattle are + regularly kept. The flax-bolls contain much more nourishment + than the linseed-cake from which the oil has, of course, been + expressed, and they form a most valuable addition to the warm + food prepared during winter for the animals just named. I believe + they have also a highly beneficial effect in warding off internal + disease, owing, no doubt, to the soothing and slightly purgative + properties of the oil contained in the seed. The change made in + the appearance of the animals receiving some of the bolls in their + steamed food is very apparent after a few weeks' trial; and the + smoothness and sleekness of their shining coats plainly show the + benefit derived. Is it not surprising, with this fact before our + eyes, that many agriculturists—indeed, I fear the majority—persist + in the old-fashioned system of taking the flax to a watering-place + with its valuable freight of seed unremoved, and plunge the sheaves + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page233" name="page233"></a>[233]</span> + + under water, losing thereby, <i>in the most wanton manner</i>, rich + feeding materials, worth from £1 to £3 per statute acre? +</p> +<p> +In the following table, the composition of all the more important +oil-seeds is given:— +</p> + +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of oil-seeds (Anderson)"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="5"> COMPOSITION OF OIL-SEEDS, ACCORDING TO DR. ANDERSON.</td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td> </td><th> Linseed. </th><th> Rape-seed. </th><th> Hemp-seed. </th><th> Cotton-seed (decorticated).</th></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 7·50 </td><td> 7·13 </td><td> 6·47 </td><td> 6·57 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Oil </td><td> 34·00 </td><td> 36·81 </td><td> 31·84 </td><td> 31·24 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Albuminous compounds + (Flesh-formers) </td><td> 24·44 </td><td> 21·50 </td><td> 22·60 </td><td> 31·86 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l">Gum, mucilage, sugar, &c.</td><td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%">}</span>30·73 </td><td> 18·73 </td><td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%">}</span>32·72 </td><td> 14·12 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody-fibre </td> <td> 6·86 </td> <td> 7·30 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Mineral matter (ash) </td><td> 3·33 </td><td> 8·97 </td><td> 6·37 </td><td> 8·91 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td> </td><td> 100·00 </td><td>100·00 </td><td> 100·00 </td><td> 100·00 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +<i>Fenugreek-seed</i> is used very extensively in the preparation of +"Condimental food." It is often given to horses out of condition. +Sheep have been liberally supplied with this food, which, however, +it is stated, communicates a disagreeable flavor to the mutton. +It contains, according to Voelcker, the following:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of Fenugreek-seed (Voelcker)"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>11·994 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-formers </td><td>26·665 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Starch, gum, and pectin </td><td>37·111 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sugar </td><td> 2·220 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fatty and oily matters </td><td> 8·320 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td>10·820 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Inorganic matter </td><td> 2·870 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·000</td></tr> +</table> + +<h4> +SECTION VII. +</h4> +<h5> +OIL-CAKES, AND OTHER ARTIFICIAL FOODS. +</h5> +<p> +Oil-seeds, on being subjected to considerable pressure, part with +a large proportion of their oil, the remaining part of that fluid, +together with the various other ingredients of the seeds, + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page234" name="page234"></a>[234]</span> + + constitute +the substances so well known to agriculturists under the name of +oil-cakes. These cakes contain a larger proportion of ready-formed +fatty matter than is found in any other feeding stuff, and an amount +of flesh-forming principles far greater than that yielded by corn, +or even by beans; the manure, too, which is produced by the cattle fed +upon some of them, is often good value for nearly half the sum expended +on the food. +</p> +<p> +The principal kinds of oil-cake employed for feeding purposes are the +following:—Linseed-cake, Rape-cake, and cotton-seed cake. Poppy cake is +not much in use. Their average composition, deduced from the results of +numerous analyses made by Voelcker, Anderson, and myself, are shown in +the following table:— +</p> + +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Average composition of oil-cakes"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="5"> AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF OIL-CAKES.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><th>Linseed Cake,<br /> English. </th><th>Rape<br /> Cake. </th><th>Decorticated<br /> Cottonseed Cake.</th><th> Poppy<br /> Cake.</th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 12 </td><td> 11 </td><td> 9 </td><td> 12 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Flesh-forming principles </td><td> 28 </td><td> 30 </td><td> 38 </td><td> 32 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Oil </td><td> 10 </td><td> 11 </td><td> 13 </td><td> 6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Gum, mucilage, &c. </td><td> 34 </td><td> 30 </td><td> 23 </td><td> 30 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 10 </td><td> 10 </td><td> 9 </td><td> 9 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Mineral matter (ash) </td><td> 6 </td><td> 8 </td><td> 8 </td><td> 1 </td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td> </td><td> 100 </td><td> 100 </td><td> 100 </td><td> 100 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +<i>Linseed Cake.</i>—Within the last quarter of a century great attention +has been given to the feeding of stock, and the effects are observable +in the improved quality and greatly increased weight of the animals. +In the year 1839 the average weight of the horned beasts from Ireland +sold in the London market was only 650 lbs., whereas at the present +time their average weight is about 740 lbs. This remarkable advance +in the production of meat is in great part due to the cattle being more +liberally supplied with food, and that, too, of a more concentrated +nature. The practice of feeding + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page235" name="page235"></a>[235]</span> + + animals destined for the shambles +exclusively on roots containing 90 and even 95 per cent. of water, which +once prevailed so generally in this country, is now limited to the +farmsteads of a few old-fashioned feeders; and the necessity for the +admixture of highly-nutritious aliment with the bulky substances which +form the staple food of stock is almost universally recognised. +</p> +<p> +Of concentrated foods used for fattening stock, none stands higher in +the estimation of the farmer than linseed-cake, although it appears to +me that the price of the article is somewhat too high in relation to +its amount of nutriment, and that corn, if its price be moderate, is +a more economical food. Straw, turnips, and mangels form the bone and +sinew of the animals, and enable them to carry on the vital operations +which are essential to their existence. Oil-cake and similar foods are +supplemental, and contribute directly to the animal's increase, so that +their nutritive value appears to be greater than it really is. If an +animal were fed exclusively upon oil-cake, the greater part of it would +be appropriated to the reparation of the waste of the body, and the rest +would be converted into permanent flesh—the animal's "increase." The +addition of straw would produce a still further increase in the animal's +weight—an increase which would be directly proportionate to the amount +of straw consumed. Thus it will be seen that, whatever the staple food +may be, it will have to sustain the life of the animal, and will be +principally expended for that purpose, whereas the supplemental food +will be chiefly, if not entirely, made use of in increasing the weight +of flesh. To me it appears manifestly incorrect to consider, as feeders +practically do, the value of linseed-cake to be seven or eight times +greater than that of oat-straw, and twenty times greater than that of +roots. Let us assume the case of an animal fed upon roots, straw, and +oil-cake. Seventy-five per cent. of its food, say, is expended in +repairing the waste of its body, and 25 per cent. is stored up in its +increase. Now, if the three kinds of food contributed proportionately +to the reparation of + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page236" name="page236"></a>[236]</span> + + the body and to its increase, the roots and straw +would be found to possess a far higher nutritive value, in relation to +the oil-cake, than is usually ascribed to them. +</p> +<p> +But it may be asked why straw, if it be relatively a much more +economical feeding stuff than oil-cake, is not employed to the complete +exclusion of the latter. I have already given an answer to such a +question, namely, that animals thrive better on a diet composed partly +of bulky, partly of concentrated aliments. This much, however, is +certain, that animals can be profitably fed upon roots and straw, whilst +it is equally certain that to feed them upon oil-cake alone (assuming +them to thrive upon such a diet) would entail a very heavy loss upon +the feeder. At the same time it must be admitted that the oil of the +linseed-cake exercises in all probability a beneficial influence on the +digestion of the animal, so that the nutritive value of the article may +be somewhat higher than its mere composition would indicate. +</p> +<p> +The quantity of oil-cake given to fattening stock varies from 2 lbs. to +14 lbs. per diem. I believe there is no greater mistake made by feeders +than that of giving excessive quantities of this substance to stock. If +their object in so doing be to enrich their manure-heap, they would find +it far more economical to add the cake directly to the manure—or rather +of adding rape-cake to it, for this variety of cake is fully as valuable +for manurial purposes as the linseed-cake, and is nearly 50 per cent. +cheaper. A larger quantity of oil-cake than 7 lbs. daily should not be +given to even the largest-sized milch cows or fattening bullocks. If a +larger amount be employed, it will pass unchanged through the animal's +body. Young cattle may with advantage be supplied with from 1 to 3 lbs., +according to their size, and from ½ to 1 lb. will be a sufficient +quantity for sheep. Intelligent feeders have remarked, that cattle which +had been always supplied with a moderate allowance of this food fattened +more readily upon it, during their finishing stage, than did stock which +had not been accustomed to its use. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page237" name="page237"></a>[237]</span></p> + +<p> +<i>Adulteration of Linseed Cake.</i>—The great drawback to the use of +linseed-cake is the liability of the article to be adulterated. The +sophistication is sometimes of a harmless nature, if we except its +injurious effect on the farmer's pocket; but not unfrequently the +substances added to the cakes possess properties which completely unfit +them to be used as food. Amongst the injurious substances found in +linseed and linseed-cake I may mention the seeds of the purging-flax, +darnel, spurry, corn-cockle, curcus-beans, and castor-oil beans. +Several of these seeds are highly drastic purgatives, and they have +been known to cause intense inflammation of the bowels of animals fed +upon oil-cake, of which they composed but a small proportion. Amongst +the adulterations of linseed-cake, which lower its nutritive value +without imparting to it any injurious properties, are the seeds of +the cereals and the grasses, bran, and flax-straw. Little black seeds +belonging to various species of <i>Polygonum</i>, are very often present +in even good cakes; they are very indigestible, but otherwise are not +injurious. Rape-cake is stated to be occasionally used as adulterant +of the more costly linseed, but I have never met with an admixture of +the two articles. +</p> +<p> +The only way in which a correct estimate of the value of linseed-cake +can be arrived at is by a combined microscopical and chemical analysis; +but as the feeder is not always disposed to incur the cost of this +process, he should make himself acquainted with the characteristic +of the genuine cake, in order to be able to discriminate, as far as +possible, between it and the sophisticated article. I will indicate a +few of the more prominent features of cake of excellent quality, and +point out a few simple and easily-performed tests, which may serve +to detect the existence of gross adulteration. Good cake is hard, of +a reddish-brown color, uniform in appearance, and possesses a rather +pleasant flavor and odour. The adulterated cake is commonly of a greyish +hue, and has a disagreeable odour. A weighed quantity of the cake—say +100 grains—in the state of powder should be formed into a paste with +an ounce of water; + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page238" name="page238"></a>[238]</span> + + if it be good, the paste will be light colored, +moderately stiff, and endowed with a pleasant odour and flavor. If the +paste be thin, the presence of bran, or of grass seeds, is probable. +The latter are easily seen through a magnifying-glass; indeed, most +of them are readily recognisable by the unassisted eye: they may, +therefore, be picked out, and their weight determined. Sand—a frequent +adulterant—may be detected by mixing a small weighed quantity of the +powdered cake with about twelve times its weight of water, allowing the +mixture to stand for half an hour, and collecting and weighing the sand +which will be found at the bottom of the vessel employed. If there be +bran present it will be found lying on the sand, and its structure +is sufficiently distinct to admit of its detection by a mere glance. +There are a great variety of linseed-cakes in the market, of which +the home-made article is the best. On the Continent the oil-seeds are +subjected to the action of heat in order to obtain from them a greater +yield of oil. Their cakes, therefore, contain less oil, and their +flesh-forming principles are less soluble, in comparison with British +linseed-cake. Next to our home-made oil-cakes, the American is the +best. Indeed, I have met with some American cakes which were equal to +the best English. +</p> +<p> +<i>Rape Cake.</i>—The use of rape-cake was limited almost completely to the +fertilising of the soil until the late Mr. Pusey, in a paper published +in the tenth volume of the <i>Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of +England</i>, advocated its employment as a substitute for the more costly +linseed-cake. The recommendation of this distinguished agriculturist +has not been disregarded; and since his time the use of this cake as a +feeding stuff has been steadily on the increase, and at the present time +its annual consumption is not far short of 50,000 tons. +</p> +<p> +In relation to the nutritive value of rape-cake there exists considerable +diversity of opinion. Certain feeders assert that animals fed upon it go +out of condition; others, whilst admitting that stock thrive upon it, +maintain the economic superiority of linseed-cake; whilst a third set +believe rape-cake to be the + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page239" name="page239"></a>[239]</span> + + most economical of feeding-stuffs. +How are we to account for these great differences of opinion—not +amongst <i>theorists</i>, be it observed, but amongst practical men? +It is not difficult to explain them away satisfactorily. Rape-cake +and linseed-cake are about equally rich in muscle and fat-forming +principles; and, supposing both to be equally well-flavored, there can +be no doubt but that one is just as nourishing as the other. But it so +happens that a large proportion of the rape-cake which comes into the +British market possesses a flavor which renders it very disagreeable +to animals. One variety—namely, the East Indian—is almost poisonous, +whilst the very best kind is slightly inferior to linseed-cake. Now, if +an experiment with a very inferior kind of rape-cake and a good variety +of linseed-cake were tried, who can doubt but that the results would be +very unfavorable to the former article? Mr. Callan,<sup><a name="noteref-35"><!--35--></a><a href="#note-35">35</a></sup> of Rathfarnham, +county Dublin; Mr. Bird,<sup><a name="noteref-36"><!--36--></a><a href="#note-36">36</a></sup> of Renton Barns, and some other feeders, +who found rape-cake to be worse than useless, experimented, in all +probability, with an adulterated article, for they do not appear to +have had the cake analysed. On the other hand, those whose experience +with rape-cake has proved favorable, must have employed the article +in a genuine state, fresh, and moderately well-flavored. It is +noteworthy that amongst the advocates for the use of rape-cake as +a substitute—partly or entirely—for the more costly linseed-cake, +are to be found the most successful feeders in England and Scotland. +Horsfall, Mechi, Lawrence, Bond, Hope, and many other feeders of equal +celebrity, have assigned to rape-cake the highest place, in an economic +point of view, amongst the concentrated feeding stuffs. Mr. Mechi +says:—"I invariably give to all my animals as much rape-cake as they +choose to eat, however abundant their roots or green food may be. It +pays in many ways, and not to do this is a great pecuniary mistake. +Even when fed on green rape, they will eat rape-cake + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page240" name="page240"></a>[240]</span> + + abundantly. +My cattle are now under cover, eating the steamed chaff, rape-cake, +malt-combs, and bran, all mixed together in strict accordance with +the proportions named by Mr. Horsfall in the <i>Journal of the Royal +Agricultural Society</i>, vol. xviii., p. 150,<sup><a name="noteref-37"><!--37--></a><a href="#note-37">37</a></sup> which I find by far +the most profitable mode of feeding bullocks and cows." Mr. Hope, of +Edinburgh, states that rape-cake is the best substitute for turnips, +and that, excepting cases where spurious kinds had been used, he never +knew bullocks or milch cows to refuse it. This gentleman states that +it is best given in combination with locust-beans, or a mixture of +locust-beans and Indian corn; and suggests the proportions set down +in the tables as the best adapted for lean cattle; but I think about +two-thirds of the quantities would be quite sufficient. +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Recommended feed for lean cattle (Hope)"> + +<tr><td> </td><th>Feed<br /> per week. </th><th colspan="2">Per week. </th></tr> +<tr><td> </td><th> lbs. </th><th> s.</th><th> d. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Rape-cake at £5 15s. per ton </td><td class="c"> 8 </td><td> 2 </td><td class="c">10½ </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Do. do. </td><td class="c"> 10 </td><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> 7 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mixture of two-thirds rape-cake and + one-third locust-beans £6 </td><td class="c"> 8 </td><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Do. do. </td><td class="c"> 10 </td><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> 9 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Rape-cake, locust-beans, and Indian + Corn in equal proportions </td><td class="c"> 8 </td><td> 3 </td><td class="c"> 2½ </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Do. do. </td><td class="c"> 10 </td><td> 3 </td><td class="c">11¼ </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +An intelligent Scotch dairy farmer bears the following testimony in +favor of this cake:— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + I have tried pease-meal, bean-meal, oat-meal, and linseed-cake, + and after carefully noting the results, I consider rape-cake, + weight for weight, at least equal to any of them for milch cows; + and if I give the same money value for each, I get at least + one-third more produce, and the butter is always of a very + superior quality. Two years ago, I took some of my best oats + (41 lbs. per bushel), and ground them for the cows, and although + I was at about one-third more expense, I lost fully one-third of + the produce that I had by using rape-cake. I always dissolve it + by pouring boiling water on it, and give each cow 6 lbs. daily. + I have tried a larger quantity, and found I was fully repaid for + the extra expense. I generally use it the + + + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page241" name="page241"></a>[241]</span> + + most of the summer, + but always during the spring months. A number of my neighbours + who have tried it all agree that it is the best and cheapest + feed for milch cows they have used.—<i>North British Agriculturist</i>, + Edinburgh, February 29, 1860. +</p> +<p> +The best kinds of rape-cake come from Germany and Denmark. When +neither too old nor too fresh, and of a pale-green color, these +foreign cakes are tolerably well-flavored, and are but slightly +inferior to good linseed-cake. Most varieties of this cake, however, +contain a small proportion of acrid matter, which often renders them +more or less distasteful to stock, more particularly to cattle. This +substance may be rendered quite innocuous by steaming or boiling the +cake; either of these processes will also, according to Mr. Lawrence, +destroy the disagreeable flavor which mustard-seed—a frequent +adulterant of rape-cake—confers upon that article. Molasses or treacle +is an excellent adjunct to the cake, as it serves in a great measure to +correct its somewhat unpleasant flavor. Carob, or locust-beans, answer, +perhaps better, the same purpose. It is better, as a general rule, +to give less rape-cake than linseed-cake, unless the pale-green kind +to which I have referred is obtainable; that variety may be largely +employed. The animals should be gradually accustomed to its use. At +first, in the case of bullocks, they should get only 1 lb. per diem, +and the quantity should be gradually increased to about 4 lbs.; but +I would not advise, under any circumstances, a larger daily allowance +than 5 lbs. Given in moderate amounts, it will, supposing it to be of +fair quality, be found to give a better return in meat than almost any +other kind of concentrated food; and, what is of great importance, it +will not injuriously affect the animal's health. "Our experience of the +use of rape-cake," says Mr. Lawrence, "thus used (cooked), extends over +a period of ten years of feeding from 20 to 24 bullocks annually. We +have not had a single death during that period, and the animals have +been remarkably free from any kind of ailment." +</p> +<p> +Rape-cake of good quality possesses a dark-green color + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page242" name="page242"></a>[242]</span> + + (the greener +the better), and when broken exhibits a mottled aspect—yellowish and +dark-brown spots. Sometimes a tolerably good specimen has a brownish +color; but the German and Danish cakes are always of a greenish hue. +The odor is stronger than that of linseed-cake, and differs but little +from that of rape-oil. The only serious adulteration of rape-cake +is the addition to it of mustard-seed—sometimes accidentally—less +frequently, as I believe, intentionally. This sophistication admits of +easy detection. Scrape into small particles about half an ounce of the +cake, add six times its weight of water, form the solid and liquid +into a paste, and allow the mixture to stand for a few hours. If the +cake contain mustard the characteristic odor of that substance will be +evolved, and its intensity will afford a rough indication of the amount +of the adulterant. As some specimens of genuine rape-cake possess a +somewhat pungent odor, care must be taken not to confound it with that +of mustard; but, indeed, it is not difficult to discriminate the latter. +The paste of rape-cake which contains an injurious proportion of +mustard, has a very pungent flavor. Rape-cake improves somewhat if kept +for say six months; but old cake is worse than the fresh article. +</p> +<p> +<i>Cottonseed Cake</i> is one of the most valuable feeding stuffs that +have come into use of late years. Its chemical composition shows it +to be about equal to that of the best linseed-cake, and as its price +is much lower than that of the latter, it may be fairly considered +a more economical food. These remarks apply only to the shelled, or +decorticated seed-cake, for the article prepared from the whole seed is +of very inferior composition, and should never be employed. The use of +the cake made from the whole seed has proved fatal in many instances, +not from its possessing any poisonous quality, but in consequence +of its hard, indigestible husk, accumulating in, and inflaming, the +animal's bowels. +</p> +<p> +The composition of this cake varies somewhat. The following analysis of +a sample from one of the Western States of + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page243" name="page243"></a>[243]</span> + + North America, imported by +Messrs. G. Seagrave and Co., of Liverpool, was made by me:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of decorticated cotton-seed cake"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="2"> COMPOSITION OF DECORTICATED COTTON-SEED CAKE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 8·20 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Oil </td><td>10·16 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Albuminous, or flesh forming principles </td><td>40·25 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Gum, sugar, &c. </td><td>21·10 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fibre </td><td> 9·23 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ash (mineral matter) </td><td>11·06 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +In some specimens so much as 16 per cent. of oil has been found. The +purchaser of cotton-seed cake should be certain that it is not old and +mouldy, which is frequently the case. The recently prepared cake has +a very yellow color, which becomes fainter as the cake becomes older. +Freshness is a very desirable quality in nearly every kind of cake. +I have known animals to have a greater relish for, and thrive better +upon, home-made linseed-cake than upon cake of foreign manufacture of +superior composition, but of greater age. +</p> +<p> +<i>Palm-nut Meal, or Cake</i> is a very valuable fattening food. It is +extremely rich in ready-formed fatty matters, but at the same time it is +not very deficient in albuminous substances. Its strong flavor is rather +a drawback to its use in the case of all the farm animals, except pigs. +This difficulty may, however, be got over by using the cake in moderate +quantities, and by combining it with other food possessed of a good +flavor. Reports of practical trials made with this food appear to have +almost uniformly given very favorable results. This food is only three +or four years in use. The first samples that came into my hand were +richer in fatty matters than those which I have recently examined. +The average results of eight analyses made from 1864 to 1866 were +as follows:— +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page244" name="page244"></a>[244]</span></p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of palm-nut meal"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="2"> 100 PARTS CONTAINED—</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 7·48 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Albuminous matters </td><td>17·26 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fatty substances </td><td>21·59 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Gum, sugar, &c. </td><td>32·14 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fibre </td><td>17·18 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter </td><td> 4·35 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +This year I have not found more than 17 per cent. of fat in any sample +of palm-nut cake. One specimen which I analysed for Mr. J. G. Alexander, +seed merchant, of Dublin, had the following composition:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of palm-nut meal, specific sample"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 9·24 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Albuminous matters </td><td>19·28 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fatty matters </td><td> 9·36 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Gum, starch, fibre, &c. </td><td>53·22 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matters </td><td> 8·90 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +But although inferior samples are occasionally met with, I may say +of palm-nut cake that on the whole it is a food which deserves to be +largely used, and which at its present price is the most economical +source of fat. To milch-cows and fattening cattle about 3 lbs. per diem +may be given; ¼ lb. will be sufficient for young sheep, whilst pigs +may be very liberally supplied with this food. +</p> +<p> +The <i>Locust, or Carob Bean</i>, is now largely used by the stock-feeder. +It is extremely rich in sugar, and is therefore an excellent fattening +and milk-producing food. It is used largely in the preparation of the +sweet kinds of artificial food for cattle. It is not well adapted for +young animals, owing to its deficiency of albuminous matters. The +following analysis shows the average composition of this food:— +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page245" name="page245"></a>[245]</span></p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average composition of Locust, or Carob bean"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>14 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sugar </td><td>50 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Albuminous matters </td><td> 8 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Oil </td><td> 1 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Gum, &c. </td><td>20 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ash </td><td> 2 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +<i>Dates</i> have been used, but only in very small quantities, as cattle +food. Their composition is not constant, some samples being greatly +inferior in nutritive power to others; they are rich in sugar, +and if they were obtained in sufficient quantities they might, like +carob-beans, come into general use with the stock-feeder. They contain +about 2 per cent. of flesh-formers, 10 per cent. of fat-formers (chiefly +sugar), and 2 per cent. of mineral matter. +</p> +<p> +Distillery and brewery dregs (or wash) are chiefly used by dairymen. +According to Dr. Anderson, an imperial gallon (700,000 grains) of +distillery wash (from a distillery near Edinburgh) contained 4,130 +grains of organic matter, and 276 grains of mineral substances. +He considers that 15 gallons of this stuff were equal in nutritive +materials to 100 pounds of turnips. The following is the centesimal +composition of brewery wash:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Composition of brewery wash"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td>75·85 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Albuminous matters </td><td> 0·62 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Gummy matters </td><td> 1·06 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Other organic matter (husks, &c.) </td><td>21·28 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matters </td><td> 1·19 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100·00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +<i>Molasses</i> constitute a very fattening food, sometimes, but not +often, given to stock. Treacle and molasses are composed of +non-crystallisable sugar, cane-sugar, water, and saline and other +impurities. The composition of average specimens of molasses, as +imported, is as follows:— +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page246" name="page246"></a>[246]</span></p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Average composition of molasses"> + +<tr><td class="l"> Cane-sugar </td><td>50 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Non-crystallisable sugar and grape-sugar </td><td>25 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Water, saline matter, and organic impurities </td><td>25 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>100</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +If admitted duty free, molasses would be a much more economical food +than it now is, but at its present price it must be regarded as a mere +flavoring food. +</p> +<p> +Mr. T. Cooke Burroughs, a West Suffolk feeder, who used treacle in 1864, +gives the following mode of mixing it with other food:— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + My plan has been (and is still carried on) to give to each + bullock per day (divided into three meals) one pint of treacle + dissolved in two gallons of water, and sprinkled, by means of + a garden water-pot, over four bushels of cut chaff (two-thirds + straw and one-third hay) amongst which a quarter of a peck of + meal (barley and wheat) is mixed, the animals also having free + access to water. The cost of the treacle and meal together + is about 3s. per bullock per week. My bullocks (two-year old + Shorthorns) have grown and thrived upon the above diet to my + utmost satisfaction; and even during the present dry and warm + weather they evince no lingering after roots or grass. I am well + aware that the use of treacle for neat stock is no new discovery + of my own, as I learnt the system while on a visit to a friend + in Norfolk, where some graziers have used it in combination with + roots during many years past. Perhaps flax-seed (linseed) boiled + into a jelly and used in a similar way, may be a more profitable + "substitute for roots" than treacle; but the preparation of it is + attended with more expense and trouble. +</p> + +<h4> +SECTION VIII. +</h4> +<h5> +CONDIMENTAL FOOD. +</h5> +<p> +Although every farmer may not have used, there are few who have not +heard of "Thorley's Condimental Food for Cattle." This nostrum is a +compound of some of the ordinary foods with certain well-known aromatic +and carminative substances. It possesses a very agreeable flavor, and it +is therefore + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page247" name="page247"></a>[247]</span> + + much relished by horses, and indeed by every kind of stock. +The price of this compound was at first so much as £60 per ton; but +owing to competition, and perhaps to the attacks made upon the +enormously high price of this article, it is now to be obtained at +prices varying from £12 to £24 per ton. +</p> +<p> +The inventor of condimental food, and the numerous fabricators of that +compound, claim for it merits of no ordinary nature. Its use, they +assert, not only maintains the animals fed upon it in excellent health, +but it also exercises so remarkable an action upon the adipose tissues +that fat accumulates to an immense extent. Moreover, it is said that an +animal supplied with a very moderate daily modicum of this wonderful +compound, will consume less of its ordinary food, though rapidly +becoming fat. +</p> +<p> +Now, if these assertions were perfectly, or even approximatively, +true, Mr. Thorley would be well deserving of a niche in the temple of +fame, and stock-feeders would ever regard him as a benefactor to his +own and the bovine species; but I fear that Mr. Thorley's imagination +outstripped his reason when he described in such glowing terms the +wonderful virtues of his tonic food. +</p> +<p> +Mr. J. B. Lawes, of Rothamstead, than whom there is no more accurate +experimenter in agricultural practice, states that he made many careful +trials with Thorley's food, and that he never found it to exercise +the slightest influence upon the nutrition of the animals fed upon it. +In his report upon this subject, Mr. Lawes, after describing the +experiments which he made, sums up as follows:— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + There is nothing therefore in the above results to recommend the + use of Thorley's condiment with inferior fattening food, to those + who feed pigs for profit. In fact, the following balance-sheet of + the experiment shows that, in fattening for twelve weeks, there + was a balance of £1 10s. 11d. in favor of the lot fed without + Thorley's food, notwithstanding that one of the pigs in that lot + did badly throughout the experiment, as above stated. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page248" name="page248"></a>[248]</span></p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Comparison of feedings with and without Thorley's condimental food"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="4"> LOT 1.—WITH BARLEY-MEAL AND BRAN.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><th> £</th><th> s.</th><th> d. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> 4 pigs bought in at 41s. 6d. each </td><td> 8</td><td> 6 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> 1,860¾ lbs. barley, at 37s. 6d. per + quarter of 416 lbs., including grinding </td><td> 8</td><td> 7 </td><td> 8¾ </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> 1,024¾ lbs. bran at 5s. 6d. per cwt. </td><td> 2</td><td>10 </td><td> 3¾ </td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td colspan="3">——————</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>19</td><td> 4 </td><td> 0½ </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> 88 stone 5 lbs. of pork sold at 4s. 4d. + per stone, sinking the offal </td><td>19</td><td> 4 </td><td> 0½ </td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="4"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="4"> LOT 2.—WITH BARLEY-MEAL, BRAN, AND THORLEY'S FOOD.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><th> £</th><th> s.</th><th> d. </th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> 4 pigs bought in at 41s. 6d. each </td><td> 8</td><td> 6 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> 1,862¾ lbs. barley, at 37s. 6d. per + quarter of 416 lbs., including grinding </td><td> 8</td><td> 7 </td><td>10¼ </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> 1,020¾ lbs. bran at 5s. 6d. per cwt. </td><td> 2</td><td>10 </td><td> 1½ </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> 105 lbs. Thorley's food at 40s. per cwt. </td><td> 1</td><td>17 </td><td> 6 </td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td colspan="3">——————</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>21</td><td> 1 </td><td> 5¾ </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> 90 stone 1 lb. pork sold at 4s. 4d. + per stone, sinking the offal </td><td>19</td><td>10 </td><td> 6½ </td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td colspan="3">——————</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td> 1</td><td>10 </td><td>11¼</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p> +The results of these experiments with pigs, in which Thorley's condiment +was used with inferior fattening food, may be summed up as follows:— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 1. The addition of Thorley's condimental food increased the + amount of food consumed by a given weight of animal within + a given time. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 2. When Thorley's condiment was given it required more food + to produce a given amount of increase in live-weight. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + 3. In fattening for twelve weeks there was a difference of + £1 10s. 11d. on the lot of 4 pigs in favor of barley-meal + and bran alone, over barley-meal, bran, and Thorley's food + in addition. +</p> +<p> +At a meeting of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of +England, held some time ago, the subject of the nutrimental value of +condimental cattle food was discussed. As there is scarcely any kind of +quackery, from spirit manifestations to Holloway's pills, that has not +got its believers, there were, as might have been anticipated, some +voices raised at this meeting in favor of Thorley's food; but the +<i>sense</i> of the meeting was decidedly against it. Professor Simonds +pronounced it to be worthless. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page249" name="page249"></a>[249]</span></p> + +<p> +Although the greater number of equine proprietors and feeders of stock +are too sensible to throw their money away in the purchase of those +costly foods, still there are by no means an insignificant number who +employ it, under the idea that it preserves the health of the animals; +these stuffs are also highly appreciated by many grooms and herds. +Now, for the information of all believers, I may state that there is +no mystery whatever in the nature of condimental cattle foods. They +consist in substance of such matters as linseed-cake, Indian corn, +rice, bean-meal, locust-beans, and malt-combings. These substances +are flavored by the addition of turmeric-root, ginger, coriander-seed, +carraway-seed, fenugreek-seed, aniseed, liquorice, and similar +substances. In addition to the nutritive and flavorous articles employed +in the manufacture of these foods, purely medicinal substances are also +made use of with the idea that they would prove useful in maintaining +the health and stimulating the appetite of the animals. These medicinal +ingredients constitute but a small proportion of the compound, although +they add considerably to the cost of manufacture. The following is a +formula for a condimental food, which in every respect will be found +fully equal, if not superior, to the ordinary high-priced articles. +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Formula for condimental food"> + +<tr><td> </td><th>cwt. </th><th>qrs. </th><th>lbs.</th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Linseed-meal, or cake </td><td> 7 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Locust beans (ground) </td><td> 8 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Indian corn </td><td> 4 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Powdered turmeric </td><td> 0 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 4 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Ginger </td><td> 0 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 3 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Fenugreek-seed </td><td> 0 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 2 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Gentian </td><td> 0 </td><td> 0 </td><td>10 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Cream of tartar </td><td> 0 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 2 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sulphur </td><td> 0 </td><td> 0 </td><td>20 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Common salt </td><td> 0 </td><td> 0 </td><td>10 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Coriander-seed </td><td> 0 </td><td> 0 </td><td> 5 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td></td><td colspan="3">————————</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td class="c" colspan="3">One ton.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +A ton of condimental food manufactured according to this formula will +cost only about the same amount as an equal + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page250" name="page250"></a>[250]</span> + + weight of linseed, and will +produce an effect fully equal to that of the food which at one time was +sold at £60 per ton. +</p> +<p> +Whatever may be the medicinal virtues of these foods, or however +appropriate the term "condimental" which has been applied to them, +it is quite certain that their whilom designation "concentrated" +was a misnomer. Their composition shows that they possess a degree of +nutritive power considerably below that of linseed-cake, and but little, +if at all, superior to that of Indian corn. +</p> +<p> +The following analytical statement, which I published some years ago, +will give an insight into the nature of these articles:— +</p> + +<table class="open" border="0" align="center" summary="Analyses of condimental food"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="3"> ANALYSES OF CONDIMENTAL FOOD.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><th>Thorley's. </th><th>Bradley's.</th></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Water </td><td> 12·00 </td><td> 12·09 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Nitrogenous, or flesh forming principles</td><td> 14·92 </td><td> 10·36 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Oil </td><td> 6·08 </td><td> 5·80 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Gum, sugar, mucilage, &c. </td><td> 56·86 </td><td> 60·21 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Woody fibre </td><td> 5·46 </td><td> 5·32 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Mineral matter (ash) </td><td> 4·68 </td><td> 6·22 </td></tr> +<tr class="total"><td> </td><td> ——— </td><td> ——— </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> 100·00 </td><td> 100·00 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +As a ton of linseed-cake contains a greater amount of nutriment than +an equal quantity of condimental food, the latter should be clearly +proved to possess very valuable specific virtues, in order to induce the +feeder to use it extensively. Cattle and horses out of condition may be +benefited by its carminative and tonic properties; but if they are, it +surely must be a bad practice to feed healthy animals upon a substance +which is a remedy in disease. It is asserted, and probably with some +degree of truth, that when dainty, over-fed stock loathe their food, +they are induced to eat greedily by mixing the "condimental" with their +ordinary food. If such really be the case, let the feeder compound the +article himself, and effect thereby a saving of perhaps 50 or 80 per +cent. in the cost of it. A good condimental food, rich in actual +nutriment, and pleasantly flavored, is no doubt a compound which might +be used with advantage; but it should be sold at a moderate and fair +price. +</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<a name="note-25"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-25">25</a>) +See Transactions of Highland and Agricultural Society of +Scotland for 1852. +</p> + +<a name="note-26"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-26">26</a>) +Zig-zag clover, or Marl grass? Cowgrass is <i>Trifolium +pratense perenne</i>. +</p> + +<a name="note-27"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-27">27</a>) +This gentleman has invented an exceedingly simple but +effective furze-bruiser, which I hope soon to see in general use. +</p> + +<a name="note-28"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-28">28</a>) +H. Le Docte, in <i>Journal de la Société Centrale +d'Agriculture de Belgique</i>. +</p> + +<a name="note-29"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-29">29</a>) +Cellulose is the term applied to the chemical substance +which forms woody fibre. The latter is made up of very minute +spindle-shaped tubes. In young and succulent plants these tubes are +often lined with layers of soft cellulose. In many plants—such as +trees—in a certain stage of development, the substance lining the cells +is very hard, and is termed <i>lignin</i>, or <i>sclerogen</i>. This substance is +merely a modification of cellulose; and both resemble in composition +sugar and starch so closely that, by heating them with sulphuric acid, +they may be converted into sugar. +</p> + +<a name="note-30"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-30">30</a>) +One part of oil is equal to 2½ parts of starch—that is, +2½ parts of starch are expended in the production of +1 part of fat. +</p> + +<a name="note-31"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-31">31</a>) +No difference is here assumed between the nutritive value +of sugar and starch. +</p> + +<a name="note-32"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-32">32</a>) +Unless when Kohl-rabi is cultivated, for the bulbs of this +plant may be preserved in good condition up to June. I have advocated +the cultivation of the radish as a food crop in the "Agricultural +Review" for 1861. +</p> + +<a name="note-33"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-33">33</a>) +According to some chemists, sugar does not exist in ripe +grain, but is produced in it, during the process of analysis, by the +action of the re-agents employed and the influence of the air. +</p> + +<a name="note-34"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-34">34</a>) +Report to Government on feeding cattle with Malt, 1844. +</p> + +<a name="note-35"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-35">35</a>) +<i>Monthly Agricultural Review</i>, Dublin, February, 1859. +</p> + +<a name="note-36"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-36">36</a>) +<i>Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society +of Scotland,</i> October, 1858. +</p> + +<a name="note-37"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-37">37</a>) +3 lbs. of rape-cake, ¾ lb. malt combs, ¾ lb. bran, +steamed together with a sufficient quantity of straw. +</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page251" name="page251"></a>[251]</span></p> + +<h4> +SECTION IX.—ANALYSES OF THE ASHES OF PLANTS. +</h4> +<h5> +(<i>Extracted from the Author's "Chemistry of Agriculture."</i>) +</h5> + +<p> +Those numbers marked with an asterisk refer to 100 parts of the +substance in its natural or undried state; the remaining numbers +refer to 100 parts when dried. +</p> + +<table class="closed" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of the ashes of various plants, Table 1"> + +<tr class="b1"> +<td rowspan="2"></td> +<th rowspan="2">Rape Seed.</th> +<th colspan="2">Flax.</th> +<th rowspan="2">Peas.</th> +<th rowspan="2">Kidney Beans.</th> +<th rowspan="2">White Turnip Seed.</th> +<th rowspan="2">Turnip Bulb (Swede).</th> +<th rowspan="2">Cucumber.</th> +<th rowspan="2">Mangel Wurtzel Seed.</th> +<th rowspan="2">Potatoes (tubers).</th> +<th rowspan="2">Hop Flowers.</th> +</tr> + +<tr class="b1"><th>Stalk.</th><th>Seed.</th></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Potash </td><td> 25·18 </td><td> 34·96 </td><td> 32·55 </td><td> 43·09 </td><td> 36·83 </td><td> 21·91 </td><td> 39·82 </td><td> 47·52 </td><td> 16·08 </td><td> 35·15 </td><td> 19·41 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Soda </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 2·51 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 18·40 </td><td> 1·23 </td><td> 10·86 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 6·86 </td><td> 5·77 </td><td> 0·70 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Lime </td><td> 12·91 </td><td> 15·87 </td><td> 9·45 </td><td> 4·77 </td><td> 7·75 </td><td> 17·40 </td><td> 12·75 </td><td> 6·31 </td><td> 13·42 </td><td> 2·14 </td><td> 14·15 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Magnesia </td><td> 11·39 </td><td> 3·68 </td><td> 16·23 </td><td> 8·06 </td><td> 6·33 </td><td> 8·74 </td><td> 4·68 </td><td> 4·26 </td><td> 15·22 </td><td> 2·69 </td><td> 5·34 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sesquioxide of Iron </td><td> 0·62 </td><td> 4·84 </td><td> 0·38 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 2·24 </td><td> 1·95 </td><td> 0·89 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 0·40 </td><td> 1·79 </td><td> 2·41 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> " of Manganese </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sulphuric Acid </td><td> 0·53 </td><td> 4·99 </td><td> 1·43 </td><td> 0·44 </td><td> 3·96 </td><td> 7·10 </td><td> 13·15 </td><td> 4·60 </td><td> 3·64 </td><td> 3·29 </td><td> 8·28 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Muriatic Acid </td><td> 0·11 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 1·96 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 3·68 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 2·26 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Carbonic Acid </td><td> 2·20 </td><td> 13·39 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 0·82 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 13·85 </td><td> 17·14 </td><td> 11·01 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Phosphoric Acid </td><td> 45·95 </td><td> 8·48 </td><td> 35·99 </td><td> 40·56 </td><td> 11·60 </td><td> 40·17 </td><td> 6·69 </td><td> 18·03 </td><td> 13·35 </td><td> 20·70 </td><td> 14·64 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Silica </td><td> 1·11 </td><td> 5·60 </td><td> 1·46 </td><td> 0·79 </td><td> 4·09 </td><td> 0·67 </td><td> 7·05 </td><td> 7·12 </td><td> 1·86 </td><td> 3·00 </td><td> 18·56 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Chloride of Potassium </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 7·65 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 4·19 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 1·84 </td><td class="c"> ... </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Chloride of Sodium </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 0·54 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 2·80 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 9·06 </td><td> 15·30 </td><td> 6·49 </td><td> 2·95 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Total </td><td>100·00 </td><td> 100·00 </td><td> 100·00 </td><td> 99·67 </td><td> 100·00 </td><td> 99·99 </td><td> 99·57 </td><td> 100·09 </td><td> 99·98 </td><td> 100·00 </td><td> 99·71 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Per-centage of Ash </td><td> 4·51 </td><td> 5·00 </td><td> 3·05 </td><td> 5·21 </td><td> 0·68 </td><td> 3·98 </td><td> 7·60 </td><td> 0·63 </td><td> 6·58 </td><td> </td><td> 6·05 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td class="c"> * </td><td> </td><td> </td><td class="c"> * </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page252" name="page252"></a>[252]</span></p> + +<p> +The number marked with an asterisk refers to 100 parts of the +substance in its natural or undried state; the remaining numbers +refer to 100 parts when dried. +</p> + +<table class="closed" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of the ashes of various plants, Table 2"> + +<tr class="b1"> +<td rowspan="2"></td> +<th rowspan="2">Cauliflowers.</th> +<th rowspan="2">Hopeton Oats (Grain).</th> +<th rowspan="2">Potato Oats (Grain).</th> +<th rowspan="2">Husks of Potato Oats.</th> +<th colspan="2">Rye.</th> +<th rowspan="2">Hay.</th> +<th colspan="4">Grasses (in flower).</th> +</tr> + +<tr class="b1"> +<th>Grain.</th> +<th>Straw.</th> +<th>Bromus erectus.</th> +<th>Lolium perenne.</th> +<th>Annual Ryegrass.</th> +<th>Avena flavesceus.</th> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Potash </td><td> 34·39 </td><td> 20·65 </td><td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:200%;">}</span>31·56 </td><td> 2·23 </td><td> 31·76 </td><td> 17·36</td><td> 20·80 </td><td> 20·33 </td><td> 24·67 </td><td> 28·99 </td><td> 36·06 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Soda </td><td> 14·79 </td><td class="c"> ... </td> <td> 8·97 </td><td> 4·45 </td><td> 0·31</td><td> 10·85 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 0·87 </td><td> 0·73 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Lime </td><td> 2·96 </td><td> 10·28 </td><td> 5·32 </td><td> 4·30 </td><td> 2·92 </td><td> 9·06</td><td> 8·24 </td><td> 10·38 </td><td> 9·64 </td><td> 6·82 </td><td> 7·98 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Magnesia </td><td> 2·38 </td><td> 7·82 </td><td> 8·69 </td><td> 2·35 </td><td> 10·13 </td><td> 2·41</td><td> 4·01 </td><td> 4·99 </td><td> 2·85 </td><td> 2·59 </td><td> 3·07 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sesquioxide of Iron </td><td> 1·69 </td><td> 3·85 </td><td> 0·88 </td><td> 0·32 </td><td> 0·82 </td><td> 1·36</td><td> 1·83 </td><td> 0·26 </td><td> 0·21 </td><td> 0·28 </td><td> 2·40 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> " of Manganese </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 0·42 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sulphuric Acid </td><td> 11·16 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 4·30 </td><td> 1·46 </td><td> 0·83</td><td> 2·11 </td><td> 5·46 </td><td> 5·20 </td><td> 3·45 </td><td> 4·00 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Muriatic Acid </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 0·46</td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Carbonic Acid </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 0·68 </td><td> 0·55 </td><td> 0·49 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Phosphoric Acid </td><td> 27·85 </td><td> 50·44 </td><td> 49·19 </td><td> 0·66 </td><td> 47·29 </td><td> 3·82</td><td> 15·43 </td><td> 7·53 </td><td> 8·73 </td><td> 10·07 </td><td> 9·31 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Silica </td><td> 1·92 </td><td> 4·40 </td><td> 1·87 </td><td> 74·18 </td><td> 0·17 </td><td> 64·50</td><td> 30·01 </td><td> 38·48 </td><td> 27·13 </td><td> 41·79 </td><td> 35·20 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Chloride of Potassium </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 1·03 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 10·63 </td><td> 13·80 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Chloride of Sodium </td><td> 2·86 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 0·35 </td><td> 2·39 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 5·09 </td><td> 1·38 </td><td> 7·25 </td><td> 5·11 </td><td> 1·25 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Total </td><td> 100·00 </td><td> 98·89 </td><td> 97·86 </td><td> 99·70 </td><td>100·00 </td><td>100·11</td><td> 99·05 </td><td> 99·99 </td><td> 99·97 </td><td> 99·97 </td><td> 100·00 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Per-centage of Ash </td><td> 0·71 </td><td> </td><td> 2·22 </td><td> </td><td> 2·30 </td><td> 2·60</td><td> </td><td> 5·21 </td><td> 7·54 </td><td> 6·45 </td><td> 5·20 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> </td><td class="c"> * </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page253" name="page253"></a>[253]</span></p> + +<p> +Those numbers marked with an asterisk refer to 100 parts of the +substance in its natural or undried state; the remaining numbers +refer to 100 parts when dried. +</p> + +<table class="closed" border="0" align="center" summary="Analysis of the ashes of various plants, Table 3"> + +<tr class="b1"> +<td rowspan="2"></td> +<th colspan="2">Broccoli.</th> +<th colspan="2">Cow Cabbage.</th> +<th colspan="2">Kohl-rabi, from chalk soil.</th> +<th rowspan="2">Wheat (Grain).</th> +<th colspan="2">Wheat.</th> +<th colspan="2">Barley.</th> +</tr> + +<tr class="b1"> +<th>Root.</th> +<th>Leaves.</th> +<th>Leaves.</th> +<th>Stalk.</th> +<th>Leaves.</th> +<th>Tuber.</th> +<th>Grain.</th> +<th>Straw.</th> +<th>Grain.</th> +<th>Straw.</th> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Potash </td><td> 47·16 </td><td> 22·10 </td><td> 40·86 </td><td> 40·93 </td><td> 9·31 </td><td> 36·27 </td><td> 29·51 </td><td> 25·92 </td><td> 10·78 </td><td> 32·02 </td><td> 14·37 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Soda </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 7·55 </td><td> 2·43 </td><td> 4·05 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 2·84 </td><td> 10·61 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 1·21 </td><td> 0·28 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Lime </td><td> 4·70 </td><td> 28·44 </td><td> 15·01 </td><td> 10·61 </td><td> 30·31 </td><td> 10·20 </td><td> 0·99 </td><td> 3·80 </td><td> 2·44 </td><td> 3·39 </td><td> 8·50 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Magnesia </td><td> 3·93 </td><td> 3·43 </td><td> 2·39 </td><td> 3·85 </td><td> 3·62 </td><td> 2·36 </td><td> 10·60 </td><td> 12·27 </td><td> 3·23 </td><td> 10·99 </td><td> 1·70 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sesquioxide of Iron </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 0·77 </td><td> 0·41 </td><td> 5·50 </td><td> 0·38 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 1·12 </td><td> 0·54 </td><td> 0·15 </td><td> 0·20 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> " of Manganese </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sulphuric Acid </td><td> 10·35 </td><td> 16·10 </td><td> 7·27 </td><td> 11·11 </td><td> 10·63 </td><td> 11·43 </td><td> 0·09 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 1·77 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 2·22 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Muriatic Acid </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Carbonic Acid </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 16·68 </td><td> 6·33 </td><td> 8·97 </td><td> 10·24 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 4·43 </td><td> 6·01 </td><td> 0·48 </td><td> 1·25 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Phosphoric Acid </td><td> 25·83 </td><td> 19·81 </td><td> 12·52 </td><td> 19·57 </td><td> 9·43 </td><td> 13·46 </td><td> 47·55 </td><td> 43·44 </td><td> 3·69 </td><td> 29·92 </td><td> 4·22 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Silica </td><td> 1·81 </td><td> 2·83 </td><td> 1·66 </td><td> 1·04 </td><td> 9·57 </td><td> 0·82 </td><td> 0·11 </td><td> 7·16 </td><td> 64·84 </td><td> 21·12 </td><td> 62·89 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Chloride of Potassium </td><td> 6·22 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 5·99 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 1·03 </td><td> 3·96 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Chloride of Sodium </td><td>a trace</td><td class="c"> ... </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 2·08 </td><td> 6·66 </td><td> 11·90 </td><td> 0·54 </td><td class="c"> ... </td><td> 0·42 </td><td> 0·72 </td><td> 4·37 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Total </td><td>100·00 </td><td> 100·26 </td><td> 99·99 </td><td> 99·98 </td><td> 99·99 </td><td> 99·90 </td><td> 100·00 </td><td> 99·17 </td><td> 99·68 </td><td> 100·00 </td><td> 100·00 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Per-centage of Ash </td><td> 1·01 </td><td> 1·70 </td><td> 0·70 </td><td> 1·24 </td><td> 18·54 </td><td> 8·09 </td><td> 2·32 </td><td> 1·645 </td><td> 5·252 </td><td> 2·22 </td><td> 5·49 </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td class="c"> * </td><td class="c"> * </td><td class="c"> * </td><td class="c"> * </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page254" name="page254"></a>[254]</span></p> + +<a name="h2H_APPE" id="h2H_APPE"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + APPENDIX. +</h2> + +<p> +Whilst this Work was passing through the press, a valuable Report on +Agricultural Statistics was issued by the Board of Trade. The following +statistics, collected from this Report, are here given, because they +modify the statements made in page 5:— +</p> + +<table class="closed" border="0" align="center" width="100%" summary="Statistics of UK agriculture, 1867"> + +<tr><td class="table-title" colspan="9"> POPULATION, AREA, ACREAGE UNDER CROPS, <span class="sc">etc.</span>, AND NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK, IN THE UNITED KINGDOM IN 1867.</td></tr> + + +<tr><th rowspan="2"> </th><th rowspan="2"> England. </th><th rowspan="2"> Wales. </th><th rowspan="2"> Scotland. </th><th rowspan="2"> Ireland. </th><th rowspan="2"> Isle of Man. </th><th colspan="2">Channel Islands</th><th rowspan="2">Total for United Kingdom</th></tr> + +<tr> <th> Jersey. </th><th> Guernsey, &c.</th></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Population (1866) </td><td>20,276,494 </td><td>1,187,103 </td><td> 3,136,057 </td><td> 5,571,971</td><td> 52,469 </td><td> 55,613 </td><td> 35,365 </td><td>30,315,072</td></tr> + +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Area (in Statute Acres) </td><td>32,590,397 </td><td>4,734,486 </td><td>19,639,377 </td><td>20,322,641</td><td> 180,000 </td><td> 28,717 </td><td> 17,967 </td><td>77,513,585</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Under Corn Crops </td><td> 7,399,347 </td><td> 521,404 </td><td> 1,364,029 </td><td> 2,115,137</td><td> 27,039 </td><td> 2,827 </td><td> 2,157 </td><td>11,431,940</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> " Green Crops </td><td> 2,691,734 </td><td> 138,387 </td><td> 668,042 </td><td> 1,432,252</td><td> 12,670 </td><td> 5,636 </td><td> 3,075 </td><td> 4,951,796</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> " Bare Fallow </td><td> 753,210 </td><td> 86,257 </td><td> 83,091 </td><td> 26,191</td><td> 1,990 </td><td> 2,550 </td><td> 709 </td><td> 953,998</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> " Grass—Clover, &c., + Under Rotation </td><td> 2,478,117 </td><td> 300,756 </td><td> 1,211,101 </td><td> 1,658,451</td><td> 26,884 </td><td> 3,250 </td><td> 874 </td><td> 5,679,433</td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Permanent Pasture, + not broken up in + Rotation<sup><a name="noteref-38"><!--38--></a><a href="#note-38">38</a></sup> + </td><td> 9,545,675 </td><td>1,472,359 </td><td> 1,053,285 </td><td>10,057,072</td><td> 15,915 </td><td> 6,092 </td><td> 6,143 </td><td>22,156,541</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Per-centage of + Acreage:<sup><a name="noteref-39"><!--39--></a><a href="#note-39">39</a></sup>— + </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Under Corn Crops </td><td> 32·3 </td><td> 20·7 </td><td> 31·1 </td><td> 13·6 </td><td> 32·0 </td><td> 13·9 </td><td> 16·7 </td><td> 25·1 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> " Green Crops </td><td> 11·7 </td><td> 5·5 </td><td> 15·3 </td><td> 9·2 </td><td> 15·0 </td><td> 27·6 </td><td> 23·7 </td><td> 10·9 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> " Bare Fallow </td><td> 3·3 </td><td> 3·4 </td><td> 1·9 </td><td> ·2 </td><td> 2·4 </td><td> 12·5 </td><td> 5·5 </td><td> 2·1 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> " Grass—Clover, &c., + under Rotation </td><td> 10·8 </td><td> 11·9 </td><td> 27·7 </td><td> 10·7 </td><td> 31·8 </td><td> 16·0 </td><td> 6·7 </td><td> 12·4 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Permanent Pasture<sup><a name="noteref-40"><!--40--></a><a href="#note-40">40</a></sup> + </td><td> 41·6 </td><td> 58·5 </td><td> 24·0 </td><td> 64·7 </td><td> 18·8 </td><td> 30·0 </td><td> 47·4 </td><td> 48·7 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Number of Cattle </td><td> 3,469,026 </td><td> 544,538 </td><td> 979,470 </td><td> 3,702,378</td><td> 18,672 </td><td> 10,081 </td><td> 7,308 </td><td> 8,731,473</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> " of Sheep </td><td>19,798,337 </td><td>2,227,161 </td><td> 6,893,603 </td><td> 4,826,015</td><td> 70,958 </td><td> 529 </td><td> 1,348 </td><td>33,817,951</td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> " of Pigs </td><td> 2,548,755 </td><td> 229,917 </td><td> 188,307 </td><td> 1,233,893</td><td> 7,706 </td><td> 5,804 </td><td> 6,718 </td><td> 4,221,100</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="l"> Number of Live Stock + to every 100 Acres + under Crops, Fallow, + and Grass:— </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Cattle </td><td> 15·1 </td><td> 21·6 </td><td> 22·4 </td><td> 23·8 </td><td> 22·1 </td><td> 49·5 </td><td> 56·4 </td><td> 19·2 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"> Sheep </td><td> 86·3 </td><td> 88·4 </td><td> 157·4 </td><td> 31·1 </td><td> 84·0 </td><td> 2·6 </td><td> 10·4 </td><td> 74·3 </td></tr> +<tr class="b1"><td class="l"> Pigs </td><td> 11·1 </td><td> 9·1 </td><td> 4·3 </td><td> 7·9 </td><td> 9·1 </td><td> 28·5 </td><td> 51·8 </td><td> 9·3 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<a name="note-38"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-38">38</a>) +Exclusive of heath or mountain land. +</p> + +<a name="note-39"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-39">39</a>) +The per-centage of acreage is exclusive +of Hops in Great Britain, and Flax in Ireland. +</p> + +<a name="note-40"><!--Note--></a> +<p class="foot"> +(<a href="#noteref-40">40</a>) +Including under Flax, 253,105 acres. +</p> + +<div style="height: 6em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Stock-Feeder's Manual, by +Charles Alexander Cameron + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STOCK-FEEDER'S MANUAL *** + +***** This file should be named 25520-h.htm or 25520-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/5/2/25520/ + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, David Garcia and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> |