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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Line and Form (1900), by Walter Crane
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Line and Form (1900)
+
+Author: Walter Crane
+
+Release Date: May 2, 2008 [EBook #25290]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LINE AND FORM (1900) ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, David Cortesi, Jonathan
+Ingram and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                                LINE & FORM
+
+                              BY WALTER CRANE
+
+                               [Illustration]
+
+                       LONDON: G. BELL & SONS, LTD.
+
+                    _First published, medium 8vo_, 1900.
+
+            _Reprinted, crown 8vo_, 1902, 1904, 1908, 1912, 1914.
+
+                 CHISWICK PRESS: CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO.
+
+                     TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON
+
+
+
+
+                           TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+
+
+In the original of this work, most pages are headed by a topic phrase so
+that a topic can be located quickly by riffling the pages of the book.
+In this etext, the same topic phrases can be found right-aligned above
+the paragraph that begins that topic. Thus a topic can be found by
+scrolling the text and scanning the right margin.
+
+The original of this work is copiously illustrated. Although this etext
+cannot include the figures, it does include their caption as lines like
+the following:
+
+[Illustration (f002): The Origin of Outline]
+
+Here f002 is a numeric label for the figure. Because an etext of this
+type does not have page numbers, in references to a figure in the List
+of Illustrations and in the Index these figure labels are used
+instead of page number. In the body text, references to figures by page
+number have been supplemented with the figure labels.
+
+The illustrations f006, f007, f008 and f016 do not have captions in the
+original and descriptive captions have been added.
+
+The caret is used to indicate superscripts, for example ED^wd^ indicates
+ED followed by a small superscript "wd".
+
+Two minor typographical errors were corrected: "thing" to "think" on
+page 10 and "intregal" to "integral" on page 197.
+
+
+
+
+                                 PREFACE
+
+
+As in the case of "The Bases of Design," to which this is intended to
+form a companion volume, the substance of the following chapters on Line
+and Form originally formed a series of lectures delivered to the
+students of the Manchester Municipal School of Art.
+
+There is no pretension to an exhaustive treatment of a subject it would
+be difficult enough to exhaust, and it is dealt with in a way intended
+to bear rather upon the practical work of an art school, and to be
+suggestive and helpful to those face to face with the current problems
+of drawing and design.
+
+These have been approached from a personal point of view, as the results
+of conclusions arrived at in the course of a busy working life which has
+left but few intervals for the elaboration of theories apart from
+practice, and such as they are, these papers are now offered to the
+wider circle of students and workers in the arts of design as from one
+of themselves.
+
+They were illustrated largely by means of rough sketching in line before
+my student audience, as well as by photographs and drawings. The rough
+diagrams have been re-drawn, and the other illustrations reproduced, so
+that both line and tone blocks are used, uniformity being sacrificed to
+fidelity.
+
+                                    WALTER CRANE.
+     Kensington, July, 1900.
+
+
+
+
+                                 CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+  Origin and Function of Outline--Silhouette--Definition of Boundaries
+  by--Power of Characterization by--Formation of Letters--Methods of
+  Drawing in Line--The Progressive Method--The Calligraphic Method--The
+  Tentative Method--The Japanese Direct Brush Method--The Oval Method--
+  The Rectangular Method--Quality of Line--Linear Expression of
+  Movement--Textures--Emotion--Scale of Linear Expression                 1
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+  The Language of Line--Dialects--Comparison of the Style of Various
+  Artists in Line--Scale of Degrees in Line--Picture Writing--Relation
+  of Line to Form--Two Paths--The Graphic Purpose--Aspect--The
+  Ornamental Purpose--Typical Treatment or Convention--Rhythm--Linear
+  Plans in Pattern Designing--Wall-paper Design--Controlling
+  Forms--Memory--Evolution in Design--Variety in Unity--
+  Counterbalance--Linear Logic--Recurring Line and Form--Principle
+  of Radiation--Range and Use of Line                                    23
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+  Of the Choice and Use of Line--Degree and Emphasis--Influence of the
+  Photograph--The Value of Emphasis--The Technical Influence--The
+  Artistic Purpose--Influence of Material and Tools--Brushwork--
+  Charcoal--Pencil--Pen                                                  51
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+  Of the Choice of Form--Elementary Forms--Space-filling--Grouping--
+  Analogies of Form--Typical Forms of Ornament--Ornamental Units--
+  Equivalents in Form--Quantities in Design--Contrast--Value of
+  Variations of Similar or Allied Forms--Use of the Human Figure
+  and Animal Forms in Ornamental Design                                  73
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+  Of the Influence of Controlling Lines, Boundaries Spaces, and Plans in
+  Designing--Origin of Geometric Decorative Spaces and Panels in
+  Architecture--Value of Recurring Line--Tradition--Extension--
+  Adaptability--Geometric Structural Plans--Frieze and Field--
+  Ceiling Decoration--Co-operative Relation                             108
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+  Of the Fundamental Essentials of Design: Line, Form, Space--Principles
+  of Structural and Ornamental Line in Organic Forms--Form and Mass in
+  Foliage--Roofs--The Mediæval City--Organic and Accidental
+  Beauty--Composition: Formal and Informal--Power of Linear
+  Expression--Relation of Masses and Lines--Principles of Harmonious
+  Composition                                                           138
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+  Of the Relief of Form--Three Methods--Contrast--Light and Shade, and
+  Modelling--The Use of Contrast and Planes in Pattern
+  Designing--Decorative Relief--Simple Linear Contrast--Relief by Linear
+  Shading--Different Emphasis in relieving Form by Shading Lines--Relief
+  by means of Light and Shade alone without Outline--Photographic
+  Projection--Relief by different Planes and Contrasts of Concave and
+  Convex Surfaces in Architectural Mouldings--Modelled Relief--
+  Decorative Use of Light and Shade, and different Planes in Modelling
+  and Carving--Egyptian System of Relief Sculpture--Greek and Gothic
+  Architectural Sculpture, influenced by Structural and Ornamental
+  Feeling--Sculptural Tombs, Medals, Coins, Gems--Florentine
+  Fifteenth-century Reliefs--Desiderio di Settignano                    165
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+  Of the Expression of Relief in Line-drawing--Graphic Aim and
+  Ornamental Aim--Superficial Appearance and Constructive
+  Reality--Accidents and Essentials--Representation and Suggestion of
+  Natural Form in Design--The Outward Vision and the Inner Vision       204
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+  Of the Adaptation of Line and Form in Design, in various materials and
+  methods--Mural Decoration--Fresco-work of the Italian Painters--
+  Modern Mural Work--Mural Spacing and Pattern Plans--Scale--The
+  Skirting--The Dado--Field of the Wall--The Frieze--Panelling--
+  Tapestry--Textile Design--Persian Carpets--Effect of Texture on
+  Colour--Prints--Wall-paper--Stained Glass                             224
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+  Of the Expression and Relief of Line and Form by _Colour_--Effect of
+  same Colour upon different Grounds--Radiation of Colour--White Outline
+  to clear Colours--Quality of Tints relieved upon other Tints--
+  Complementaries--Harmony--The Colour Sense--Colour Proportions--
+  Importance of Pure Tints--Tones and Planes--The Tone of Time--
+  Pattern and Picture--A Pattern not necessarily a Picture, but a
+  Picture in principle a Pattern--Chiaroscuro--Examples of Pattern-work
+  and Picture-work--Picture-patterns and Pattern-pictures               256
+
+INDEX                                                                   283
+
+
+
+
+                          LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+ The Origin of Outline                                                 f002
+
+ Silhouettes                                                           f003
+
+ Coast and Mountain Lines--Gulf of Nauplia                             f004
+
+ Proportions of Roman Capital Letters and of lower-case               f005a
+ German text. From Dürer's "Geometrica"
+
+ The Progressive Method of Drawing in Line                            f006a
+
+ The Calligraphic Method                                              f007a
+
+ The Tentative Method                                                 f007b
+
+ The Oval and Rectangular Methods                                      f008
+
+ Lines of Characterization in the Form and Feature of                  f009
+ Flowers: Lily and Poppy
+
+ Silhouette of Beech Leaves and Line Rendering of the same            f010a
+
+ Lines of Movement                                                    f010b
+
+ Effect of Wind upon Trees                                             f011
+
+ Line Arrangement in ribbed Sea-sand                                   f012
+
+ Lines of different Textures, Structures, and Services                 f013
+
+ Lines of Exaltation and Rejoicing in Unison. The Morning              f014
+ Stars, after William Blake
+
+ Lines of Grief and Dejection: Designs from Flaxman's Homer            f015
+
+ Landscape                                                             f016
+
+ Scale of various Degrees of Linear Weight and Emphasis                f017
+
+ Curvilinear Scale of Direction                                        f018
+
+ Rectangular Scale of Direction                                        f018
+
+ Picture Writing                                                       f019
+
+ Olive Branch, from Nature                                             f020
+
+ Olive Branch, simplified in Decorative Treatment                      f021
+
+ Study of Horned Poppy                                                 f022
+
+ Adaptation of Horned Poppy in Design: Vertical Panel for              f023
+ Needlework
+
+ Question and Answer in Line                                     f024, f025
+
+ Diagram showing the Use of a Geometric Basis in Designing a           f026
+ Repeating Pattern
+
+ Use of Controlling Boundaries in Designing Sprays                     f027
+
+ Method of Testing a Repeating Pattern                                 f028
+
+ Sketch to show how a Pattern of Diverse Elements may be               f029
+ harmonized by Unity of Inclosing and Intermediary Lines
+
+ The Principle of Counterbalance in different Systems of               f030
+ Design
+
+ Border Units and Border Motive                                        f031
+
+ Recurring Line and Form in Border Motives                             f032
+
+ Radiating Principle of Line in Natural Form                           f033
+
+ Radiating Lines of the Pectoral Muscles and Ribs                      f034
+
+ Vaulting of Chapter House, Westminster                                f035
+
+ Lines of Characterization of Feathers and Shells                      f036
+
+ Pen Drawing of Fruit                                                  f037
+
+ Effect of different Emphasis in Treatment of the same           f038, f039
+ Designs
+
+ Effect of different Emphasis in the Drawing of Landscape              f040
+
+ Example of Page Treatment to show Ornamental Relation                f041a
+ between Text and Pictures
+
+ Suggestion for a Carpet Pattern and Abstract Treatment of            f041b
+ the same on Point Paper as detail of Brussels Carpet
+
+ Brush Forms                                                           f042
+
+ Direct Brush Expression of Animal Form                                f043
+
+ Japanese Drawing of a Bird. From "The Hundred Birds of Bari"          f044
+
+ Elementary Geometrical Forms                                         f045a
+
+ Use of the same Forms in Architecture                                f045b
+
+ Poppy-heads                                                           f046
+
+ Apple cut to show Position of Seeds                                   f047
+
+ Cube and Sphere in Architectural Ornament                            f048a
+
+ Filling of Square Space                                              f049a
+
+ Filling of Circular Space                                            f049b
+
+ Inlay Design: Pattern Units and Motives                               f050
+
+ Grouping of Allied Forms: Composition of Curves                      f051a
+
+ Grouping of Allied Forms: Composition of Angles                      f051b
+
+ Still-life Group illustrative of Wood-engraving                       f052
+
+ Japanese Diagonal Pattern                                             f053
+
+ Treatment of Fruit and Leaf Forms: Corresponding Curvature            f054
+
+ Correspondence in General Contour between Leaf and Tree              f055a
+
+ Some Analogies in Form                                               f055b
+
+ Tree of Typical Pattern Forms, Units and Systems                      f056
+
+ Sketches to show Use of Counterbalance, Quantity, and                 f057
+ Equivalents in Designing
+
+ Quantities and Counterchange of Border and Field in Carpet            f058
+ Motives
+
+ Sketches to illustrate Value of different Quantities in          f058-f061
+ Persian Rugs
+
+ Recurrence and Contrast in Border Motives                             f062
+
+ Use of inclosing Boundaries in Designing Animal Forms in             f063a
+ Decorative Pattern
+
+ Decorative Spacing of Figures within Geometric Boundaries            f063b
+
+ Simple Linear Motives and Pattern Bases                               f064
+
+ Use of Intervals in Repeating the same Ornamental Units               f065
+
+ Designs of Floral, Human, and Animal Forms, governed by               f066
+ Shape of inclosing Boundary
+
+ The Parthenon: Sketch to show Spaces used for Decorative              f067
+ Sculpture in Greek Architecture
+
+ The Tower of the Winds, Athens                                        f068
+
+ Sketch of part of the Arch of Constantine to show spaces for          f069
+ Decorative Sculpture in Roman Architecture
+
+ Byzantine (Mosaic) Treatment of Architectural Structural              f070
+ Features: Apse, S. Vitale, Ravenna
+
+ Detail of Canopy of Tomb of Gervaise-Alard, Winchelsea                f071
+
+ Walberswick Church: West Door                                         f072
+
+ Miserere in St. David's Cathedral                                     f073
+
+ Recessed Panel from the Tomb of Bishop John Morgan, St.               f074
+ David's Cathedral
+
+ Corbel from Bishop Vaughan's Chapel, St. David's Cathedral            f075
+
+ Gothic Tile Pattern, St. David's Cathedral                            f076
+
+ Surface Pattern Motives derived from Lines of Structure              f077a
+
+ Repeating Patterns built upon Square and Circular Bases              f077b
+
+ Plan of a Drop Repeat                                                 f078
+
+ Sketch Designs to show Relation between Frieze and Field in           f079
+ Wall-paper
+
+ Principles of Structural and Ornamental Line in Natural               f080
+ Forms
+
+ Radiating, Recurring and Counterbalancing Lines in the               f081a
+ Structure of the Skeleton and the Muscles
+
+ General Principles of Line and Form in the Branching and             f081b
+ Foliage Masses of Trees
+
+ Principles of Structure in Foliage Masses                             f082
+
+ Albert Dürer: Detail from "The Prodigal Son"                          f083
+
+ Albert Dürer: St. Anthony                                             f084
+
+ Roof-lines: Rothenburg                                                f085
+
+ St. Margaret Street, Canterbury                                       f086
+
+ Figure Designs controlled by Geometric Boundaries               f087, f088
+
+ Expression of Storm and Calm in Landscape                             f089
+
+ Expression of Repose and Action                                       f090
+
+ Controlling Lines of Movement: Movement in a Procession              f091a
+
+ Lines left by a Watercourse--Lines governing fallen Débris           f091b
+ from a Quarry
+
+ Relief of Form, (1) by Outline, (2) by Contrast, (3) by               f092
+ Light and Shade
+
+ Relief of Form and Line in Pattern Design by means of                 f093
+ Contrast and the Use of Planes
+
+ Treatment of Mantling (14th-16th centuries)                   f094a, f094b
+
+ Brass of Martin de Visch, Bruges, 1452                                f095
+
+ Relief in Pattern Design by means of Simple Linear Contrasts         f096a
+
+ Relief by adding Shading Lines to Outline                            f097a
+
+ Relief by Diagonal Shading                                           f097b
+
+ Different Method and different Emphasis in Relieving Form by          f098
+ Shading Lines
+
+ Albert Dürer's Principle in the Treatment of Drapery: From            f099
+ the Woodcut in the "Life of the Virgin" Series
+
+ Albert Dürer: Pen-drawing                                             f100
+
+ Filippino Lippi: Study of Drapery                                     f101
+
+ Raphael: Studies of Drapery                                           f102
+
+ Relief by means of Light and Shade alone, in Pen-drawing             f103a
+ without Outline
+
+ Relief by means of White Line on a Dark Ground and _vice             f103b
+ versâ_
+
+ Relief in Architectural Mouldings                                     f104
+
+ Roman Treatment of Corinthian Order, Forum of Nerva, Rome             f105
+
+ Egyptian Relief Sculpture: Thebes                                     f106
+
+ Greek Relief: Eleusis                                                 f107
+
+ Egyptian Relief: Denderah                                             f107
+
+ Chartres Cathedral: Carving on West Front                             f108
+
+ Chartres Cathedral: Tympanum of Central Door of West Front
+                                                                       f109
+
+ Medals of the Lords of Mantua, Cesena, and Ferrara, by                f110
+ Vittore Pisano
+
+ Treatment of Draped Figure in Black on White Ground and              f111a
+ _vice versâ_
+
+ Treatment of the same Figure in Light and Shade                      f111b
+
+ The Graphic Principle of the Expression of Form by Light and          f112
+ Shade; with and without Outline
+
+ Linear Expression of Features, Feathers and Fur: Notes from           f113
+ Nature
+
+ Sketches to illustrate the Graphic and the Decorative                 f114
+ Treatment of Draped Figures
+
+ Decorative Treatment of Birds                                         f115
+
+ Floral Designs upon Typical Inclosing Shapes of Indian and            f116
+ Persian Ornament
+
+ Dancing Figure with the Governing Lines of the Movement              f117a
+
+ Lines of Floral Growth and Structure: Lily and Rose                  f117b
+
+ Coast-lines, Gulf of Nauplia                                         f118a
+
+ Lines of Movement in Water, Shallow Stream over Sand                 f118b
+
+ Giotto: Chastity (Lower Church, Assisi)                               f119
+
+ Pinturicchio: Mural Painting (Piccolomini Chapel, Siena)              f120
+
+ Diagram showing the Principal Fundamental Plans or Systems            f121
+ of Line governing Mural Spacing and Decorative Distribution
+
+ Diagram to show how the apparent Depth of a Space is                  f122
+ increased by the Use of Vertical Lines, and its apparent
+ Width by the Use of Horizontal Lines
+
+ Decorative Spacing of the Wall: Sketches (to half-inch                f123
+ scale) to show different Treatment and Proportions
+
+ Figure of Laura, from the Burgundian Tapestries: The                  f124
+ Triumphs of Petrarch, in the South Kensington Museum
+
+ Pinturicchio: Fresco in the Appartimenti Borgia                       f125
+
+ Portion of Detail of the Holy Carpet of the Mosque of                 f126
+ Ardebil: Persian, sixteenth century
+
+ Sketch to illustrate Treatment of Borders in a Persian Rug            f127
+
+ Arras Tapestry: Diagrams to show the Principle of Working             f128
+ and Surface Effect
+
+ Contrasting Surfaces in Warp and Weft in Woven Silk Hanging           f129
+
+ Indian printed Cotton Cover: South Kensington Museum                  f130
+
+ Stained Glass Treatment: Inclosure of Form and Colour by              f131
+ Lead Lines
+
+ Sketch to show Effect of the same Colour and Form upon                f132
+ different Coloured Grounds
+
+ Principle of the Effect of the Blending or Blurring of                f133
+ Colours at their Edges
+
+ Use of Black and White Outline to clear the Edges of                  f133
+ Coloured Forms upon different Coloured Grounds
+
+ J. Van Eyck: Portrait of J. Arnolfini and his Wife                    f134
+
+ Ver Meer of Delft: Lady at a Spinet                                   f135
+
+ Botticelli: The Nativity                                              f136
+
+ Holbein: The Ambassadors                                              f137
+
+ Botticelli: Madonna and Child                                         f138
+
+ Crivelli: The Annunciation                                            f139
+
+ Perugino: The Virgin in Adoration with St. Michael and St.            f140
+ Raphael, and Tobias
+
+ Titian: Bacchus and Ariadne                                           f141
+
+ Madox Brown: Christ Washing St. Peter's Feet                          f142
+
+[Illustration (f002): The Origin of Outline.]
+
+
+
+
+                             OF LINE AND FORM
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER I
+
+
+    Origin and Function of Outline--Silhouette--Definition of
+    Boundaries by--Power of Characterization by--Formation of
+    Letters--Methods of Drawing in Line--The Progressive Method--The
+    Calligraphic Method--The Tentative Method--The Japanese Direct
+    Brush Method--The Oval Method--The Rectangular Method--Quality of
+    Line--Linear Expression of Movement--Textures--Emotion--Scale of
+    Linear Expression.
+
+Outline, one might say, is the Alpha and Omega of Art. It is the
+earliest mode of expression among primitive peoples, as it is with the
+individual child, and it has been cultivated for its power of
+characterization and expression, and as an ultimate test of
+draughtsmanship, by the most accomplished artists of all time.
+
+The old fanciful story of its origin in the work of a lover who traced
+in charcoal the boundary of the shadow of the head of his sweetheart as
+cast upon the wall by the sun, and thus obtained the first profile
+portrait, is probably more true in substance than in fact, but it
+certainly illustrates the _function_ of outline as the definition of the
+boundaries of form.
+
+                                                              [Silhouette]
+
+As children we probably perceive forms in nature defined as flat shapes
+of colour relieved upon other colours, or flat fields of light on dark,
+as a white horse is defined upon the green grass of a field, or a black
+figure upon a background of snow.
+
+[Illustration (f003a): Silhouette]
+
+[Illustration (f003b): Silhouette]
+
+                                                [Definition of Boundaries]
+
+To define the boundaries of such forms becomes the main object in early
+attempts at artistic expression. The attention is caught by the
+edges--the shape of the silhouette which remains the paramount means of
+distinction of form when details and secondary characteristics are
+lost; as the outlines of mountains remain, or are even more clearly
+seen, when distance subdues the details of their structure, and evening
+mists throw them into flat planes one behind the other, and leave
+nothing but the delicate lines of their edges to tell their character.
+We feel the beauty and simplicity of such effects in nature. We feel
+that the mind, through the eye resting upon these quiet planes and
+delicate lines, receives a sense of repose and poetic suggestion which
+is lost in the bright noontide, with all its wealth of glittering
+detail, sharp cut in light and shade. There is no doubt that this
+typical power of outline and the value of simplicity of mass were
+perceived by the ancients, notably the Ancient Egyptians and the Greeks,
+who both, in their own ways, in their art show a wonderful power of
+characterization by means of line and mass, and a delicate sense of the
+ornamental value and quality of line.
+
+[Illustration (f004): Coast and Mountain Lines--Gulf of Nauplia]
+
+                                                    [Formation of Letters]
+
+Regarding line--the use of outline from the point of view of its value
+as a means of definition of form and fact--its power is really only
+limited by the power of draughtsmanship at the command of the artist.
+From the archaic potters' primitive figures or the rudimentary attempts
+of children at human or animal forms up to the most refined outlines of
+a Greek vase-painter, or say the artist of the Dream of Poliphilus, the
+difference is one of degree. The tyro with the pen, learning to write,
+splotches and scratches, and painfully forms trembling, limping O's and
+A's, till with practice and habitude, almost unconsciously, the power to
+form firm letters is acquired.
+
+Writing, after all, is but a simpler form of drawing, and we know that
+the letters of our alphabet were originally pictures or symbols. The
+main difference is that writing stops short with the acquisition of the
+purely useful power of forming letters and words, and is seldom pursued
+for the sake of its beauty or artistic qualities as formerly; while
+drawing continually leads on to new difficulties to be conquered, to new
+subtleties of line, and fresh fascinations in the pursuit of distinction
+and style.
+
+[Illustration (f005a): Proportions of Roman Capital Letters and Method
+of Drawing Them (From Albert Dürer's "Geometrica").]
+
+[Illustration (f005b): Proportions of Lower-Case German Text and Method
+of Drawing the Letters (From Albert Dürer's "Geometrica").]
+
+The practice of forming letters with the pen or brush, from good types,
+Roman and Gothic, however, would afford very good preliminary practice
+to a student of line and form. The hand would acquire directness of
+stroke and touch, while the eye would grow accustomed to good lines of
+composition and simple constructive forms. The progressive nature of
+writing--the gradual building up of the forms of the letters--and the
+necessity of dealing with recurring forms and lines, also, would bear
+usefully upon after work in actual design. Albert Dürer in his
+"Geometrica" gives methods on which to draw the Roman capitals, and also
+the black letters, building the former upon the square and its
+proportions, the thickness of the down strokes being one-eighth of
+square, the thin strokes being one-sixteenth, and the serifs being
+turned by circles of one-fourth and one-eighth diameter. The capital O,
+it will be noted, is formed of two circles struck diagonally.
+
+                                              [Methods of Drawing in Line]
+
+Letters may be taken as the simplest form of definition by means of
+line. They have been reduced through centuries of use from their
+primitive hieroglyphic forms to their present arbitrary and fixed types,
+though even these fixed types are subject to the variation produced by
+changes of taste and fancy.
+
+But when we come to unformulated nature--to the vast world of complex
+forms, ever changing their aspect, full of life and movement, trees,
+flowers, woods and waters, birds, beasts, fishes, the human form--the
+problem how to represent any of these forms, to express and characterize
+them by means of so abstract a method as line-drawing, seems at first
+difficult enough.
+
+But since the growth of perception, like the power of graphic
+representation, is gradual and partial, though progressive, the eye and
+the mind are generally first impressed with the salient features and
+leading characteristics of natural forms, just as the child's first idea
+of a human form is that of a body with four straight limbs, with a
+preponderating head. That is the first impression, and it is
+unhesitatingly recorded in infantine outline.
+
+The first aim, then, in drawing anything in line is to grasp the general
+truths of form, character, and expression.
+
+                                                  [The Progressive Method]
+
+There are various methods of proceeding in getting an outline of any
+object or figure. To begin with, the student might begin progressively
+defining the form by a series of stages in this way. Take the profile
+of a bird, for instance; the form might be gradually built up by the
+combination of a series of lines:
+
+[Illustration (f006a): (bird forms)]
+
+or take the simpler form of a flask bottle:
+
+[Illustration (f006b): (bottle forms)]
+
+or a jar on the same principle:
+
+[Illustration (f006c): (jar forms)]
+
+or, simpler still, a leaf form, putting in the stem first with one
+stroke (1):
+
+[Illustration (f006d): (leaf forms)]
+
+and building the form around it (2, 3).
+
+                                                 [The Calligraphic Method]
+
+[Illustration (f007a): (calligraphic forms)]
+
+This might be termed the calligraphic method of drawing; and in this
+method facility of hand might be further practised by attempting the
+definition of forms by continuous strokes, or building it up by as few
+strokes as possible. The simpler types of ornament consisting of
+meandering and flowing lines can all be produced in this way, i.e., by
+continuous line, as well as natural forms treated in a certain abstract
+or conventional way, which adapts them to decoration.
+
+                                                   [The Tentative Method]
+
+[Illustration (f007b): (jar forms)]
+
+Another method is to sketch in lightly guide lines for main masses,
+building a sort of scaffolding of light lines to assist the eye in
+getting the correct outline in its place, using vertical centre lines
+for symmetrical forms to get the poise right. This is the method very
+generally in use, but I think it very desirable to practise direct
+drawing as well, to acquire certainty of eye and facility of hand; and
+one must not mind failure at first, as this kind of power and facility
+is so much a matter of practice.
+
+[Illustration (f007c): (birdbath sketch)]
+
+                                        [The Japanese Direct Brush Method]
+
+The Japanese, who draw with the brush, have accustomed themselves to
+draw in a direct manner without any preliminary sketching, and the charm
+of their work is largely owing to that crisp freshness of touch only
+possible to their direct method. The great object is to establish a
+perfectly intimate correspondence between eye and hand, so that the
+latter will record what the former perceives.
+
+Abundant specimens of the freedom and naturalism of the modern school of
+Japanese artists in this direct brush method may be found in the work of
+Bari, Hiroshigi, and Hokusai, and in the numerous prints and books of
+designs from their hands. To all draughtsmen and designers they are most
+valuable to study for their direct method and simple means of expression
+of form and fact. Accidental as they frequently seem in composition, the
+placing of the drawing upon the paper is carefully considered before
+starting, and this, of course, is always a very important point.
+
+Yet another method of drawing, more especially in relation to the
+drawing of the human figure and animal forms, I may mention as a help to
+those who do not feel strong enough for the direct method. At the same
+time it must be borne in mind that we can accustom ourselves to _any_
+method; and the more dependent we become upon a single method, the less
+facility we shall have for working in any other. But for all that it is
+desirable to master _one_ method--that is, to be able to draw in line
+_freely_ in one way or another--and experience and practice alone will
+enable us to find the method most satisfactory.
+
+                                        [The Oval and Rectangular Methods]
+
+[Illustration (f008): (human and horse forms)]
+
+                                                  [The Rectangular Method]
+
+This other method is to block in the principal masses of the forms we
+desire to represent by means of a series of ovals, as shown in the
+illustration, and when we have got the masses in their proper relations,
+to proceed to draw in the careful outline of the figure, or whatever it
+may be, upon this substructure of guiding lines, correcting as we go
+along. It would be quite possible to work on the same principle, but
+upon a structure of more or less rectangular masses. The real use of the
+method is to assist the student to get a grasp of the relation of the
+masses of a figure and a sense of structure in drawing; whether square
+or oval blocking in is used may be a matter of choice. It may be said
+for the oval forms that they resemble the contours of the structure in
+human and animal forms.
+
+If one had a tendency to round one's forms too much, it would be well to
+try the rectangular method to correct this, and _vice versâ_.
+
+After a certain facility has been acquired in rendering form by means of
+line, we shall perceive further capacities of expression in its use, and
+begin to note how different characteristics of form and natural fact may
+be expressed by varying the quality of our outline.
+
+If we are drawing a plant or a flower, for instance, we should endeavour
+to show by the quality of our line the difference between the fine
+springing curves in the structure of the lily, the solid seed-centre and
+stiff radiation of the petals of the daisy, and the delicate silky folds
+of the poppy.
+
+                                                         [Quality of Line]
+
+[Illustration (f009): Lines of Characterization in the Form and Feature
+of Flowers: Lily and Poppy.]
+
+But, as leaves come before flowers, it would be best to begin with leaf
+forms and try to express the character of oak and beech, lime and
+chestnut leaves, for instance, by means of outline. Probably at first
+we shall feel dissatisfied with our outline as not being full enough: it
+may look meagre in quality and small in definition of form. This
+probably arises from not allowing enough space--from setting the
+outline too much within the boundary of the form. To correct this one
+cannot do better than block in the form of the object we are drawing
+(leaf, flower, or figure) with a full brush in black silhouette, placing
+the object against the light or white paper, so that its true boundary
+may be seen uninterfered with by surface markings or shadows, and,
+concentrating our attention upon the _edge_, follow it as carefully as
+possible with the solid black. Then, if we compare the result with our
+outline, it will help to show where it has failed; and the practice of
+thus blocking in with the brush in solid silhouette will tend to
+encourage a larger style of drawing, since good outline means good
+perception of mass; and as a general principle in drawing, it may be
+recommended to place one's outline _outside_ the silhouette boundary of
+the form rather than within it; that is to say, when the figure or
+object is relieved in light against dark, as the line in that case
+defines the edge against the background. When the figure or object
+appears as dark upon a light ground, however, the outline should be
+within the silhouette, obviously, or its delicate boundary is lost.
+
+[Illustration (f010a): Silhouette of Beech Leaves and Line Rendering of
+the Same.]
+
+                                           [Linear Expression of Movement]
+
+Another important attribute of line is its power of expressing or
+suggesting _movement_. By a law of inseparable association, undulating
+lines approaching the horizontal, or leading down to it, are connected
+with the sense of repose; whereas broken curves and rectangular lines
+always suggest action and unrest, or the resistance to force of some
+kind.
+
+[Illustration (f010b): Lines of Movement]
+
+The recurrence of a series of lines in the same direction in a kind of
+crescendo or wave-like movement suggests continuous pressure of force in
+the same direction, as in this series of instantaneous actions of a man
+bowling, where the line drawn through or touching the highest points in
+each figure takes the line of the curve of a wave. The wave-line,
+indeed, may be said not only to suggest movement, but also to describe
+its direction and force. It is, in fact, _the line of movement_. The
+principle may be seen in a simpler way, as Hogarth points out in his
+"Analysis of Beauty," by observing the line described along a wall by
+the head of a man walking along the street. Or, as we may see sometimes
+near the coast, trees exposed to the constant pressure of the wind
+illustrate this recurrence of lines in the same direction governing
+their general shape; and as each tree is forced to spread in the
+direction away from the wind, the effect is that of their being always
+struggling against its pressure even in the calmest weather; and this is
+entirely due to our association of wind-movement with this peculiar
+linear expression.
+
+[Illustration (f011): Lines Expressive of Movement: Effect of Wind Upon
+Trees]
+
+Flowing water, again, is expressed by certain recurring wave-lines,
+which remind us of the ancient linear symbols of the zigzag and meander
+used from the earliest times to express water. In the streams that
+channel the sands of the sea-shore when the tide recedes we may see
+beautiful flowing lines, sometimes crossing like a network, and
+sometimes running into a series of shell-like waves; while the sands
+themselves are ribbed and channelled and modelled by the recurring
+movement of the waves, which leave upon them the impress and the
+expression of their motion (much as in a more delicate medium the
+air-currents impress the fields of cloud, and give them their
+characteristic forms).
+
+[Illustration (f012): Line Arrangement in Ribbed Sea Sand]
+
+                                           [Linear Expression of Textures]
+
+Textures and surfaces, too, fall within the range of linear expression.
+One would naturally use lines of totally different consistency and
+character to express rough or smooth surfaces: to express the difference
+of value, for instance, between the ivory-like smoothness of an egg and
+the scaly surface of a pine-cone, entirely different qualities of line
+are obviously wanted. The firm-set yet soft feathers of the plumage of a
+bird must be rendered by a very different touch from the shining scales
+of a fish. The hair and horns of animals, delicate human features,
+flowers, the sinuous lines of thin drapery, or the broad massive folds
+of heavy robes, all demand from the designer and draughtsman in line
+different kinds of suggestive expression, a translation or rendering of
+natural fact subordinate to the artistic purpose of his work, and in
+relation to the material and purpose for which he works.
+
+                                            [Linear Expression of Emotion]
+
+[Illustration (f013): Lines of Different Textures, Structures, and
+Surfaces.]
+
+Then, again, when we come to the expression of ideas--of thought and
+sentiment--we find in line an abstract but direct medium for their
+illustration; and this again, too, by means of that law of inseparable
+association which connects the idea of praise or aspiration and
+ascension, for instance, with long lines inclining towards the severe
+vertical, as when we draw a figure with upraised hands; while the
+feeling might be increased if led up to or re-echoed by other groups and
+objects in the composition, forming a kind of vertical crescendo on the
+same principle which we were considering in regard to the expression of
+lateral movement. Few things in design are finer or more elevated in
+feeling than William Blake's design of the Morning Stars singing
+together, in the series of the Book of Job, yet it is little more than
+a vertical arrangement of figures with uplifted and intercrossing arms.
+The linear plan gives the main impetus to the expressiveness of the
+design, and is the basis of the beauty, which culminates in the rapture
+of the fresh youthful faces.
+
+[Illustration (f014): Expression of Emotion: Lines of Exaltation and
+Rejoicing in Unison. The Morning Stars, After William Blake. (From the
+Book of Job.)]
+
+                                              [Scale of Linear Expression]
+
+Bowed and bent lines tending downwards, on the other hand, convey the
+opposite ideas of dejection and despair. This is illustrated in these
+figures of Flaxman's, who was a great master of style in outline.
+
+[Illustration (f015): Lines of Grief and Dejection. Flaxman: Designs to
+Homer.]
+
+                                                        [Capacity of Line]
+
+We seem here to discover a kind of scale of linear expression--the two
+extremes at either end: the horizontal and the vertical, with every
+degree and modulation between them; the undulating curve giving way to
+the springing energetic spiral, the meandering, flowing line sinking to
+the horizontal: or the sharp opposition and thrust of rectangular, the
+nervous resistance of broken curves, the flame-like, triumphant,
+ascending verticals. Truly the designer may find a great range of
+expression within the dominion of pure line. Line is, indeed, as I have
+before termed it, a language, a most sensitive and vigorous speech of
+many dialects; which can adapt itself to all purposes, and is, indeed,
+indispensable to all the provinces of design in line. Line may be
+regarded simply as a means of record, a method of registering the facts
+of nature, of graphically portraying the characteristics of plants and
+animals, or the features of humanity: the smooth features of youth, the
+rugged lines of age. It is capable of this, and more also, since it can
+appeal to our emotions and evoke our passionate and poetic sympathies
+with both the life of humanity and wild nature, as in the hands of the
+great masters it lifts us to the heavens or bows us down to earth: we
+may stand on the sea-shore and see the movement of the falling waves,
+the fierce energy of the storm and its rolling armament of clouds,
+glittering with the sudden zigzag of the lightning; or we may sink into
+the profound calm of a summer day, when the mountains, defined only by
+their edges, wrapped in soft planes of mist, seem to recline upon the
+level meadows like Titans and dream of the golden age.
+
+[Illustration (f016): (landscape)]
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER II
+
+    The Language of Line--Dialects--Comparison of the Style of
+    various Artists in Line--Scale of Degrees in Line--Picture
+    Writing--Relation of Line to Form--Two Paths--The Graphic
+    Purpose--Aspect--The Ornamental Purpose--Typical Treatment or
+    Convention--Rhythm--Linear Plans in Pattern Designing--Wall-paper
+    Design--Controlling Forms--Memory--Evolution in Design--Variety
+    in Unity--Counterbalance--Linear Logic--Recurring Line and
+    Form--Principle of Radiation--Range and Use of Line.
+
+
+I spoke of Line as a Language, and gave some illustrations of its power
+and range of expression, showing that line is capable not only of
+recording natural fact and defining character, but also of conveying the
+idea of movement and force, of action and repose; and, further, of
+appealing to our emotions and thoughts by variations and changes in its
+direction, the degree of its emphasis, and other qualities.
+
+                                                                [Dialects]
+
+Yet every designer and draughtsman uses line in a different way, and of
+a different quality, according to his preference, habit, training, or
+personality. The endless variations which result I should--to pursue the
+analogy of speech further--term _dialects_. We might collect abundant
+examples of these from the work of line-designers since the world began,
+or compare the methods of any of the popular illustrators of to-day to
+find constant variations and individual differences occurring even
+among those which might be said, under the influence of a prevailing
+mode, to be variations of one type.
+
+Compare a Greek vase-painter's delicate brush line-drawing with the bold
+pen-line of Albert Dürer (to get a contrast in historic style). Compare
+(to take two masters of different schools, but of the same country) the
+line-treatment of Mantegna with the line-treatment of Raphael; or, to
+take another jump, compare the line-work of Blake and Flaxman; or, to
+take a modern instance, and to come to our own contemporary artists,
+compare a drawing by Burne-Jones and one by Phil May.
+
+We might construct a sort of scale of the degrees and qualities of line.
+
+There is, for instance, outline of every degree of boldness or fineness,
+from the strong black half-inch outline and upwards used in mosaic-work
+and stained-glass leading; the outline of the pattern designer for
+block-printing; the outline of the pen draughtsman for process-work or
+woodcut; and so on, down to the hair-line of the drypoint etcher.
+
+                                                [Scale of Degrees in Line]
+
+There are the _qualities_ of line in different degrees of firmness,
+roughness, raggedness, or smooth and flowing. There are the degrees of
+_direction_ of line, curvilinear or angular. On the angular side all
+variations from the perpendicular and horizontal, or rectangle, within
+which we may find all these degrees, and on the curvilinear side, all
+the variations from spiral to circle: so that we might say that the
+rectangle was the cradle of all angular variations of line, while the
+semicircle was the cradle of all curvilinear variations. (See the
+diagrams on p. 26.[f018])
+
+[Illustration (f017): Scale of Various Degrees of Linear Weight and
+Emphasis.]
+
+Every artist, sooner or later, by means of his selective adaptive sense,
+finds a method in the use of line to suit his own personality--to suit
+his own individual aim in artistic expression--and in course of time it
+becomes a characteristic manner, by which his work is instantly known,
+like a friend's handwriting.
+
+[Illustration (f018): Curvilinear and Rectangular Scales of Direction.]
+
+Now what determines this choice, this personal selection, over and above
+necessities of method and material, it would be difficult to say, unless
+we had more minute knowledge of the natural history of a human being
+than we are likely to possess. We can only say that from practice are
+evolved certain methods or principles, consciously or unconsciously; and
+it is only these general methods or principles that can be explained and
+tested for the benefit of those essaying to follow the arduous and
+difficult path of art.
+
+                                                [Relation of Line to Form]
+
+At the outset we see that we need a means of definition in drawing, just
+as a child needs a word to express a thing it wants. _Line_, at the
+point of the pencil, pen, or brush, places this possibility of
+definition within our reach; but before we can grasp it we need some
+knowledge, however rudimentary, of its inseparable companion, _Form_.
+
+I recall two innocent and entertaining methods from the traditions of
+the nursery, which appeal at once in a curious way to both the oral and
+graphic senses, and unite story and picture in one. These are
+illustrated on p. 28.[f019] By such devices a child learns to associate
+line and form, unconsciously and step by step defining form in the use
+of, or pursuit of, line.
+
+[Illustration (f019): Modern Picture-writing According to Nursery
+Tradition]
+
+It would be very entertaining and agreeable if we could carry the
+principle further, and get a passable study from the antique, for
+instance, by a similar process. In line-drawing we may, however, always
+tell some story or fact, or character, phase, or idea.
+
+                                                     [The Graphic Purpose]
+
+But supposing we have mounted our steed _Form_, and taken our bridle
+_Line_ in hand, and have started riding at large in the vast domain of
+nature, with the primary object of finding and hunting down truth at
+last; we soon perceive that there are so many truths, or rather that
+truth, even of natural fact, has so many sides, that it is difficult to
+make up our mind which one to pursue. Thought, however, will soon
+discover that in this pursuit of truth we strike a road that naturally
+divides itself, or branches out, into two main paths distinct in aim.
+These two paths in art have been called by many names; they occasionally
+cross each other, or overlap, and are sometimes blended, or even
+confused; but it will be useful for our present purpose to keep them
+very distinct. I will term them, for convenience:
+
+    1. The Graphic Purpose. (Accidental form.)
+    2. The Ornamental Purpose. (Typical form.)
+
+Our use of line will largely depend upon which of these two it is our
+object to pursue. Now when we look at anything with intent to draw--say
+a leafy bough as it grows in the sunshine--we see great complexity of
+form and surface-lighting. The leaves, perhaps, take all manner of
+variations of the typical form, and are set at all sorts of angles. In
+making a rapid sketch with the object of getting the appearance of the
+bough, we naturally dwell upon these accidents and superficial facts. At
+the same time, with nothing but line to express them, we are compelled
+to use a kind of convention, though our aim be purely naturalistic, to
+get a faithful portrait of the bough.
+
+We must make our line as _descriptive_ as possible, defining the main
+forms boldly, and blocking in broadly the main masses of form and light
+and shade. We are now aiming at the general look of the thing. We are
+striving to grasp the facts of _Aspect_. We are concerned with the
+purely graphic purpose, to make a picture upon paper.
+
+[Illustration (f020): Olive Branch From Nature]
+
+We cannot, however, even under these simple conditions, altogether
+leave out of account considerations which, strictly speaking, must be
+termed "decorative." For instance, there is the question of placing the
+study well upon the paper, a very important point to start with; and
+then the question of beauty must arise, not only in the selection of our
+point of view, but in the choice of method, in the treatment of line we
+adopt; and it does not follow that the most apparently forcible way of
+getting bold projection by means of black shadows, at the cost of the
+more delicate characteristics of our subject, is the best. On the
+contrary, the finest draughtsmanship is always the most subtle and
+delicate, and one cannot get subtle and delicate draughtsmanship without
+faithful study and careful constant practice--_knowledge of form_, in
+short--and I am afraid there is no short cut to it.
+
+                                                  [The Ornamental Purpose]
+
+[Illustration (f021): Olive Branch Simplified in Decorative Treatment]
+
+Now supposing we make our study of leaves, not as an end in itself, and
+for its simple pictorial values or qualities only, but with an
+ornamental or decorative purpose in view, intending to make use of its
+form and character in some more or less systematic design or
+pattern-work--adapted to special methods and materials--intended to
+decorate a wall-surface or a textile, for instance; we might certainly
+start with a general sketch of its appearance as before, but we should
+find that we should want to understand it in its detail; the law of its
+growth and construction; we should want to dwell upon its typical
+character and form, the controlling lines of its masses, rather than on
+its accidental aspects, because it would really be only with these that
+we could successfully deal in adapting anything in nature to the
+conditions and limitations of a design. To do this requires as much art
+as to make a clever graphic sketch, perhaps more; but it is certainly
+not so easily understood and appreciated, as a rule. Pattern-work is
+taken so much for granted, except by those technically interested,
+whereas a graphic sketch may bring the drama of nature, and of human
+character and incident, before our eyes. It does not require us to stop
+and think out the less obvious meaning, or trace the invention or grace
+of line, to appreciate the rhythmic, silent music which the more
+formalized and abstract decorative design may contain, _quite apart from
+the forms it actually represents_.
+
+[Illustration (f022): Study of Horned Poppy]
+
+[Illustration (f023): Adaptation of the Horned Poppy in Design: Vertical
+Panel For Needlework.]
+
+                                             [Question and Answer in Line]
+
+Here we discover another function of line. For, directly we endeavour to
+construct a decorative design--that is, a design intended to adorn or to
+express an object or surface--we find that we must build it upon some
+sort of a plan, or geometric controlling network or scaffolding, so as
+to give it unity, rhythm, and coherence--especially so in the case of
+repeating designs. Even in an isolated panel or picture the necessity of
+this linear basis will be felt, since one cannot draw a line or define a
+form without demanding an answer--that is, a corresponding, re-echoing
+line or mass.
+
+[Illustration (f024): Curves 1.Q and 2.A]
+
+The curve (1. Q) is a proposition or question. It is answered or
+balanced by the corresponding curve (2. A), and forms the basis for a
+scroll design.
+
+[Illustration (f025): Curves 1 and 2]
+
+The five radiating lines (1) are obviously incomplete by themselves, but
+if we add another four, in reverse order, (2) we get a centred and
+symmetric motive of an anthemion character.
+
+                                                       [Wall-Paper Design]
+
+Take, however, a wall-paper. The problem is to construct a design
+pleasant to the eye in line, form, colour, and suggestion; which will be
+interesting in detail, and yet repeat upon a wall-surface without flaw,
+and without becoming wearisome. Moreover, one which will lend itself to
+being cut upon wood, if for block-printing, and which may be reproduced
+with a due regard to economy of means. The designer may have a square of
+twenty-one inches in which to make his design.
+
+[Illustration (f026): Diagram Showing the Use of a Geometric Basis in
+Designing Repeating Pattern.]
+
+A useful way to begin with is to rule out a sheet of paper into squares,
+say on the scale of 1-1/2 inch to the foot, and upon this jot down your
+first ideas of linear arrangement and colour motive, and get the
+general effect, and test the plan of repeats. When you are satisfied
+with one, enlarge it to full size, correct and amplify it, and improve
+it in form and detail. Changes will probably be found necessary in
+drawing it upon the larger scale, sometimes additions, sometimes
+omissions. Now in sketching out the general plan, one builds, as before
+said, upon some basis or plan, however simple, since one cannot put a
+simple spot, sprig, or spray upon paper intending to repeat, without
+some system of connection to put them into relation.
+
+                                                       [Controlling Forms]
+
+In designing one's sprig, too, the best plan to secure good decorative
+effect is to see that its general form is inclosed or bounded by an
+agreeable linear shape, although itself not actually visible. Simple
+leaf and flower forms are generally the best to use for these
+controlling boundaries. Sprays designed on this principle may be relied
+upon for repeating pleasantly and safely when they are placed upon, and
+connected by, the controlling geometric plan. A good practical test of
+the truth and completeness of your square repeat is, when the design is
+done, or even in progress, to cut it into four equal parts (supposing it
+to be a twenty-one inch square). This will enable you to get the joints
+true, and also, by altering the position of the squares, to give you a
+very good idea of the effect of the repeat full size. (See the diagrams
+on p. 41.[f028])
+
+These things must be considered, of course, merely as practical aids to
+invention: not by any means as substitutes for it. One cannot give any
+recipe for designing, and no rules, principles, or methods can supply
+the place of imagination and fancy. "He who would bring back health from
+the Indies," says an old proverb, "must take it out with him."
+
+At the same time the imagination can be enfeebled by starvation and
+neglect. It can be depressed by dull and sordid surroundings. It is apt
+to grow, like other living things, by what it feeds on, and is stronger
+for exercise and development.
+
+[Illustration (f027): Use of Controlling Boundaries in Designing
+Sprays]
+
+                                                                  [Memory]
+
+Memory, too, is an important and serviceable thing in designing, and
+this, again, can be cultivated to an almost unlimited extent. I mean
+that selective kind of memory which, by constant and close observation,
+extracts and stores up the essential serviceable kind of facts for the
+designer: facts of form, of structure, of movement of figures,
+expressive lines, momentary or transitory effects of colour--all those
+rare and precious visual moments which will not wait, and which happen
+unexpectedly. They should be captured like rare butterflies and
+carefully stored in the mind's museum of suggestions, as well as, as far
+as is possible, pinned down in the hieroglyphics of the note-book.
+
+                                                     [Evolution in Design]
+
+As regards procedure in working out a design, one generally thinks of
+some leading feature, some central mass or form or curve--of a figure or
+a flower, say--and one thinks of its capacity in repeat; and, since one
+form or line should inevitably suggest or necessitate--as by a kind of
+logic--another, one adds other forms until the design is complete. For
+it must never be forgotten that design is a growth which has its own
+stages of evolution in the mind, answering to the evolution of the
+living forms of nature--first the blade, then the ear, after that the
+full corn in the ear.
+
+Experience teaches us that the most harmonious arrangements of form and
+line are those in which the leading lines and forms through all sorts of
+variations, continually recur. We cannot place a number of sharply
+contrasting and contradictory forms together in design satisfactorily--
+at least we cannot do so without recourse to other elements to harmonize
+and to bring them into relation. For instance, we might get a great deal
+of ornamental variety by means of a number of heraldic devices upon
+shields, full in themselves of quaintness and contrasts, but brought
+into harmony by the boundary lines of the shields and the divisions; or,
+still further, by throwing them upon a background of leaves and stems,
+the meandering lines and recurring forms of which would answer as a kind
+of warp upon which to weave the heraldic spots into a connected and
+harmonious pattern.
+
+[Illustration (f028): Method of Testing a Repeating Pattern.]
+
+                                                        [Variety in Unity]
+
+But even in the ornamental treatment of diverse forms, as the mediæval
+heraldic designers were well aware, they can be brought into
+decorative harmony by following a similar principle to the one already
+laid down in regard to the designing of sprigs and sprays: that is to
+say, that in designing an animal or figure for heraldry or introduction
+into a pattern, one should arrange it so that it should fall within the
+boundary of some geometric or foliated form, square, circular,
+elliptical or otherwise, as might be desirable. To this, however, I
+hope to return in a future chapter.
+
+[Illustration (f029): Sketch to Show How a Pattern of Diverse Elements
+May Be Harmonized by Unity of Inclosing and Intermediary Lines.]
+
+                                                          [Counterbalance]
+
+We may here consider another important principle in designing with line
+and mass, that of _counterbalance_.
+
+[Illustration (f030): The Principle of Counterbalance in Different
+Systems of Design.]
+
+Take any defined space as a panel, tile, or border to be filled with
+design: you place your principal mass, and instantly feel that it must
+be balanced by a corresponding mass, or some equivalent. Its place will
+be determined by the principle upon which the design is built. If on a
+symmetrical arrangement, you find your centre (say of a panel), and you
+may either throw the chief weight and mass of the design upon the
+central feature (as a tree), and balance it by smaller forms or wings
+each side, or _vice versâ_; or, adopting a diagonal plan, you place your
+principal mass (say it is a tile) near the top left-hand corner (suppose
+it is a pomegranate), connecting it with a spiral diagonal line (the
+stem); the place of the counterbalancing mass (the second pomegranate)
+is obviously near the bottom right-hand corner of the square. You may
+then feel the necessity for additional smaller forms, and so add to it
+(the leaves), completing the design. (See preceding page.)
+
+                                                            [Linear Logic]
+
+On the same principle one may design upon various other plans. The exact
+choice of the distribution of the counterbalancing masses must always be
+a matter of personal feeling, judgment, and taste, controlled by the
+perception of certain logical necessities: as it seems to me that
+designing is a species of linear reasoning,* and might almost be
+worked in its elementary stages on the principle of the syllogism,
+consisting of two propositions and a conclusion. A spiral curve is a
+harmonious line, says the designer: repeat it, reversed, and you
+prolong the harmony; repeat it again, with variations, and you complete
+the harmony. Or, harmonious effect is produced by recurring form and
+line. Here is a circular form; here is a meandering line: combine and
+repeat them, and you get a logical and harmonious border motive.
+
+  [*] I recall here a saying of Sir E. Burne-Jones, that "a bad
+      line can only be answered by a good line."
+
+[Illustration (f031): Border Units and Border Motive.]
+
+                                                 [Recurring Line and Form]
+
+The everlastingly recurring egg and dart moulding and the volute are
+instances of the harmonious effect of very simple arrangements of
+recurring line and form. We also get illustrated in these another linear
+quality in design--that up-and-down movement which gives a pleasant
+rhythm to the simplest border, and is of especial consequence in all
+repeating border and frieze designs. The borders of early, ancient, and
+classical art might be said to be little besides rhythmical and logical
+arrangements of line. The same rhythmical principle is found in the
+designs of the classical frieze in all its varieties, culminating in the
+rhythmic movement of the great Pan-Athenaic procession in that
+master-frieze of the Parthenon, which, though full of infinite variety
+and delicate sculptured detail, is yet controlled by a strictly
+ornamental motive, and constructed upon the rhythmic recurrence of pure
+line.
+
+[Illustration (f032): Recurring Line and Form in Border Motives.]
+
+                                              [The Principle of Radiation]
+
+Another great linear principle in design is what is known as the
+_radiating_ principle, which gives vitality and vigour alike to both
+arrangements of line and delineations of form. It is emphatically and
+abundantly illustrated in natural forms, from the scallop shell upon the
+sea-shore to the sun himself that radiates his light upon it. The
+palm-leaf in all its graceful varieties demonstrates its beauty, its
+constructive strength combined with extraordinary lightness, which
+becomes domesticated in that fragile sceptre of social influence and
+festivity, the fan, and which again spreads its silken, or gossamer,
+wing as a suggestive field for the designer. We find the principle
+springing to life again in the fountain jet, and symbolical of life as
+it has ever been; by means of the same principle applied to construction
+the Gothic architects raised their beautiful vaults, and emphasized the
+structural principle and the beauty of recurring line by moulding the
+edges of their ribs; while we have but to look at the structure of the
+human frame to find the same principle there also, in the fibres of the
+muscles, for instance, the radiation of the ribs, and of the fingers and
+toes.
+
+[Illustration (f033): Radiating Principle of Line in Natural Form.]
+
+In truth, as I have said, if there can be said to be one principle more
+than another, the perception and expression of which gives to an
+artist's work in design peculiar vitality, it is this principle of
+radiating line. One may follow it through all stages and forms of
+drawing and design, and it is equally important in the design of the
+figure, in the structure of a flower, in the folds of drapery, and alike
+in the controlling lines of pictorial composition and decorative plan,
+whether the lines radiate from seen or from hidden centres, which in all
+kinds of informal design are perhaps the most important.
+
+[Illustration (f034): Radiating Lines of the Pectoral Muscles & Ribs]
+
+                                                   [Range and Use of Line]
+
+We see, therefore, that line possesses a constructive and controlling
+function, in addition to its power of graphic expression and decorative
+definition. It is the beginning and the end of art. By means of its
+help we guide our first tottering steps in the wide world of design;
+and, as we gain facility of hand and travel further afield, we discover
+that we have a key to unlock the wonders of art and nature, a method of
+conjuring up all forms at will: a sensitive language capable of
+recording and revealing impressions and beauties of form and structure
+hidden from the careless eye: a delicate instrument which may catch and
+perpetuate in imperishable notation unheard harmonies: a staff to lean
+upon through the journey of life: a candid friend who never deceives us:
+perchance a divining rod, which may ultimately reveal to us that Beauty
+and Truth are one--as they certainly are, or ought to be, in the world
+of art.
+
+[Illustration (f035): Radiating Line in Architectural Construction:
+Vaulting of Chapter House, Westminster.]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER III
+
+    Of the Choice and Use of Line--Degree and Emphasis--Influence of
+    the Photograph--The Value of Emphasis--The Technical
+    Influence--The Artistic Purpose--Influence of Material and
+    Tools--Brush-work--Charcoal--Pencil--Pen.
+
+
+Recognizing the great range and capacity of line as a means of
+expression, and also the range of choice it presents to the designer and
+draughtsman, the actual exercise of this choice of line, with a view to
+the most expressive and effective use in practice, becomes, of course,
+of the first consequence.
+
+In this matter of choice we are helped by natural bias, by personal
+character and preferences, for which it would, as I have said, be
+difficult fully to account; but beyond this a kind of evolution goes on,
+arising out of actual practice, which controls and is controlled by it.
+Draw simply a succession of strokes with any point upon paper, and we
+find that we are gradually led to repeat a particular kind of stroke, a
+particular degree of line, partly perhaps because it seems to be
+produced with more ease, and partly because it appears to have the
+pleasantest effect.
+
+                                                          [Choice of Line]
+
+By a kind of "natural selection," therefore, influenced no doubt by many
+small secondary causes, such as the relation of the particular angle of
+the hand and pencil-point to the surface--the nature of the point
+itself and the nature of the surface--we finally arrive at a choice of
+line. This choice, again, will be liable to constant variation, owing
+to the nature of the object we are about to draw, or the kind of design
+we want to make.
+
+                                                             [Use of Line]
+
+The kind of line which seems appropriate to representing the delicate
+edges of a piece of low-relief sculpture, for instance, would require
+greater force and firmness if we wanted to draw an antique cast in the
+round, and in strong light and shade. The character of our line should
+be sympathetic with the character of our subject as far as possible, and
+sensitive to its differences of character and surface, since it is in
+this sensitiveness that the expressive power and peculiar virtue of
+line-drawing consists.
+
+[Illustration (f036): Lines of Characterization.]
+
+A feather, a lily, a scallop shell, all show as an essential principle
+of their form and construction the radiating line; but what a different
+quality of line would be necessary to express the differences of each:
+for the soft, yet firm, smooth flowing curves of the feather fibres no
+line would be too delicate; and the lily would demand no less delicacy,
+and even greater precision and firmness of curve, while a slight
+waviness, or quiver, in the lines might express the silken or waxy
+surface of the petals; while a crustier, more rugged, though equally
+firm line would be wanted to follow the rigid furrows and serrated
+surface of the shell. The leaves of trees and plants of all kinds, which
+perhaps afford the best sort of practice in line-drawing at first,
+present in their varieties of structure, character, and surfaces
+continual opportunities for the exercise of artistic judgment in the
+choice and use of line.
+
+The forms and surfaces of fruits, again, are excellent tests of line
+draughtsmanship, and their study is a good preparation for the more
+subtle and delicate contours of the human form--the greatest test of
+all. Here we see firmness of fundamental structure (in the bones) and
+surface curve (of sinew and muscle), with a mobile and constantly
+changing surface (of flesh and sensitive skin). To render such
+characteristics without tending to overdo either the firmness or the
+mobility, and so to become too rigid on the one hand, or too loose and
+indefinite on the other, requires extraordinary skill, knowledge, and
+practice in the use of line. I do not suppose the greatest master ever
+satisfied himself yet in this direction.
+
+[Illustration (f037): Pen Drawing of Fruit.]
+
+                                                     [Degree and Emphasis]
+
+When we have settled upon our quality of line and its _degree_--thick or
+thin, bold or fine--we shall be met with the question of _emphasis_, for
+upon this the ultimate effect and expression of our drawing or design
+must largely depend. In the selection of any subject we should naturally
+be influenced by the attractiveness of particular parts, characters, or
+qualities it might possess, and we should direct our efforts towards
+bringing these out, as the things which impress us most. That is the
+difference between the mind and hand working together harmoniously and
+the sensitized plate in the photographic camera, which, uncontrolled in
+any way by human choice (and even under that control as it always is to
+some extent), mechanically registers the action of the light rays which
+define the impress of natural forms and scenes through the lens focussed
+upon the plate. So that, as we often see in a photograph, some
+unimportant or insignificant detail is reproduced with as much
+distinctness (or more) as are the leading figures or whatever form the
+interesting features or the motive of the subject. The picture suffers
+from want of emphasis, or from emphasis in the wrong place. It is, of
+course, here that the art of the photographer comes in; and, although he
+can by careful selection, arrangement, and the regulation of exposure,
+largely counteract the mechanical tendency, a photograph by its very
+nature can never take the place of a work of art--the first-hand
+expression, more or less abstract, of a human mind, or the creative
+inner vision recorded by a human hand.
+
+                                             [Influence of the Photograph]
+
+Photography does wonders, and for certain qualities of light and shade,
+and form and effect without colour, no painting or drawing can approach
+it; but it has the value and interest of science rather than of art. It
+is invaluable to the student of natural fact, surface effect, and
+momentary action, and is often in its very failures most interesting and
+suggestive to artists--who indeed have not been slow to avail themselves
+of the help of photography in all sorts of ways. Indeed the wonder is,
+considering its services to art in all directions, how the world could
+ever have done without it.
+
+But a photograph cannot do everything. It cannot make original designs,
+and it cannot draw in line. You can design in the solid, and make your
+groups in the studio or the open air; you can select your point of view,
+and the photograph will reproduce. You can make your drawing in line,
+and it will copy it; and we know its sphere of usefulness in this
+direction is enormous, since it can bring before our eyes the whole
+range of ancient art.
+
+In short, photography is an excellent servant and friend, but a
+dangerous master. It may easily beguile us by its seductive
+reproductions of surface relief and lighting to think more of these
+qualities than any other, and to endeavour to put them in the wrong
+places--in places where we want colour planes rather than shadow planes,
+flatness and repose rather than relief, for instance, as mostly in
+surface decoration.
+
+But one way of learning the value of emphasis is to draw from a
+photograph, and it will soon be discovered what a difference in
+expression is produced by dwelling a little more here, or a little less
+there.
+
+                                                   [The Value of Emphasis]
+
+In designing, the use of emphasis is very important; and it may be said
+that drawing or designing without emphasis is like reading without
+stops, while awkward emphasis is like putting your stops in the wrong
+place.
+
+By a difference in emphasis the same design may be given quite a
+different effect and expression.
+
+[Illustration (f038): Effect of Different Emphasis in the Treatment of
+the Same Design.]
+
+Suppose, for instance, we were designing a vertical pattern of stem,
+leaves, and fruit in one colour. By throwing the emphasis upon the
+leaves, as in No. 1, we should gain one kind of effect or decorative
+expression. By throwing the emphasis upon the fruit, and leaving the
+leaves in outline, we should get quite a different effect out of the
+same elements, as in No. 2. While by leaving stem, leaves, and fruit all
+in outline, and throwing the emphasis upon the ground, we should get,
+again, a totally distinct kind of effect and expression.
+
+Similar differences of effect and expression, owing to differences of
+emphasis, might be studied in the drawing and treatment of a head (as in
+A, B, and C). The possibilities of such variations of emphasis in
+drawing are practically unlimited and co-extensive with the variations
+of expression we see in nature herself. The pictorial artist is free to
+translate or represent them in his work, controlled solely by the
+conditions and purpose of his work.
+
+[Illustration (f039): Different Emphasis in the Treatment of a Head
+[examples A, B, C].]
+
+It is these conditions and purposes which really control both choice and
+treatment, and determine the emphasis, and therefore the expression of
+the work.
+
+No kind of art can be said to be unconditioned, and the simplest and
+freest of all, _the art of the point and the surface_, which covers all
+the graphic art and flat designing, is still subject to certain
+technical influences, and it may be said that it is very much in so far
+as these technical influences or conditions are acknowledged and
+utilized that the work gains in artistic character.
+
+                                                  [The Technical Influence]
+
+The draughtsman in line who draws for surface printing, for the book or
+newspaper, should be able to stand the test of the peculiar conditions;
+and, so far from attempting to escape them, and seeking something more
+than they will bear, should welcome them as incentives to a distinct
+artistic treatment with a value and character of its own, which indeed
+all the best work has. It is, for instance, important in all design
+associated with type for surface printing, that there should be a
+certain harmonious relation between lettering or type and printer's
+ornament or picture.
+
+[Illustration (f040): Sketches to Illustrate Effect of Different
+Emphasis in the Treatment of the Same Elements in Landscape.]
+
+[Illustration (f041a): Example of Page Treatment to Show Ornamental
+Relation Between Text and Pictures.]
+
+[Illustration (f041b): I. Textile Motive: Suggestion for a Carpet
+Pattern.]
+
+[Illustration (f041c): II. An Abstract Treatment of the Same on Point
+Paper, as Detail of Brussels Carpet.]
+
+A firm and open quality of line, with bright black and white effects,
+not only has the most attractive decorative effect with type, but lends
+itself to the processes of reproduction for surface printing best,
+whether woodcut or one of the numerous forms of so-called automatic
+photo-engraving, as well as to the conditions of the printing press.
+
+In all design-work which has to be subjected to processes of engraving
+and printing, clearness and definiteness of line is very necessary.
+Designs for textile printing of all kinds, for wall-papers, especially,
+require good firm drawing and definite colour planes. This does not,
+however, mean hardness of effect. A design should be clear and
+intelligible without being hard.
+
+For weaving, again, definiteness in pattern designing is very necessary,
+since the design must be capable of being rendered upon the severe
+conditions of the point paper, by which it is only possible to produce
+curves by small successive angles (which sounds like a contradiction in
+terms). The size of these angles or points, of course, varies very much
+in the different kinds of textile with which pattern is incorporated,
+from the fine silk fabric, in which they are almost inappreciable, to
+carpets of all kinds, where they are emphatic; so that a certain
+squareness of mass becomes a desirable and characteristic feature in
+designs for these purposes, and, indeed, I think it should be more or
+less acknowledged in all textile design, in order to preserve its
+distinctive beauty and character.
+
+                                                    [The Artistic Purpose]
+
+_Beauty and character._--In these lies the gist of all design. While the
+technical conditions, if fully understood, fairly met, and frankly
+acknowledged, are sure to give _character_ to a design, for whatever
+purpose, _beauty_ is not so easy to command. It is so delicate a
+quality, so complex in its elements, a question often of such nice
+balance and judgment--depending perhaps upon a hair's-breadth difference
+in the poise of a mass here, or the sweep of a curve there--that we
+cannot weave technical nets fine enough to catch so sensitive a
+butterfly. She is indeed a Psyche in art, both seeking and sought, to be
+finally won only by devotion and love.
+
+This search for beauty--this Psyche of art--is the purely inspiring
+artistic purpose, as distinct from the technical and useful one, which
+should, perfectly reconciled and united with it, determine the form of
+our work.
+
+In drawing or design we may seek particular qualities in line and form
+either of representation or of ornament. We may desire to dwell upon
+particular beauties either of object or subject. Say, in drawing from a
+cast or from natural form of any kind, we desire to dwell upon beauty of
+line or quality of surface. Well, since it is most difficult, if not
+impossible, to get everything at once, and nothing without some kind of
+sacrifice, we shall find that to give prominence to--to bring out--the
+particular quality in our subject (say beauty of line), it becomes
+necessary to subordinate other qualities to this. A drawing in pure
+outline of a figure may be a perfect thing in itself. The moment we
+begin to superadd shading, or lines expressive of relief of any kind, we
+introduce another element; we are aiming at another kind of truth or
+beauty; and unless we have also a distinctly ideal aim in this, we shall
+mar the simplicity of the outline without gaining any compensating
+advantage, or really adding to the truth or beauty of the drawing.
+
+In designing, too, unless we can so contrive the essential
+characteristics of our pattern that they shall be adaptable to the
+method and material of its production, and make its reproduction quite
+practicable, it is sure to reappear more or less marred and incomplete.
+The thing is to discover what kind of character and beauty the method
+will allow of--whether beauty or quality of line, or surface, or colour,
+or material; and if to be reproduced in a particular method or material,
+the design should be thought out in the method or material for which it
+is destined, rather than as a drawing on paper, and worked out
+accordingly, using every opportunity to secure the particular kind of
+beauty naturally belonging to such work in its completed form.
+
+Thus we should naturally think of _planes of surface_ in modelled work,
+and the delicate play of light and shade, getting our equivalent for
+colour in the design and contrast of varied surfaces. In stained glass
+we should think of a pattern in lead lines inclosing one of translucent
+colour, each being interdependent and united to form a harmonious whole.
+In textile design we should be influenced by the thought of the
+difference of use, plan, and purpose of the finished material; as the
+difference between a rich vertical pattern in silk, velvet, or tapestry,
+to be broken by folds as in curtains or hangings, and a rich carpet
+pattern, to be spread upon the unbroken level surface of a floor. The
+idea of the wall and floor should here influence us as well as the
+actual technical necessities of the loom. It would be part of the
+artistic purpose affecting the imagination and artistic motive, and
+working with the strictly technical conditions.
+
+The mind must project itself, and see with the inner eye the effect of
+the design as it would appear in actual use, as far as possible.
+Invention, knowledge, and experience will do the rest.
+
+                                                              [Brush-Work]
+
+Keeping, however, to strictly pictorial or graphic conditions--to the
+art of the point and the surface--with which, as designers and
+draughtsmen, we are more immediately concerned, we cannot forget certain
+technical considerations strictly belonging to the varieties of point
+and of surface, and their relations one to another. The flexible point
+of the brush, for instance, dipped in ink, or colour, has its own
+peculiar capacity, its own range of treatment, one might say, its own
+forms.
+
+The management admits of immense variation of use and touch, and its
+range of depicting and ornamental power are very great: from the simpler
+leaf forms, which seem to be almost a reflection or shadow of the moist
+pointed brush itself, to the elaborate graphic drawing in line or light
+and shade.
+
+[Illustration (f042): Brush Forms.]
+
+In forming the leaf shape one begins with a light pressure, if at the
+point, and proceeds to increase it for the middle and broader end. On
+the same principle of regulation of pressure any brush forms may be
+built up. It is essential for freedom in working with the brush not to
+starve or stint it in moisture or colour. For ornamental forms a full
+brush should be used: otherwise they are apt to look dragged and meagre.
+For a rich and flowing line also a full brush, however fine, is
+necessary. It is quite possible, however, to use it with a different
+aim, and to produce a sort of crumbling line when half dry, and also in
+colour-work for what is called dragging, by which tone, texture, or
+quality may be given to parts of a drawing. One should never lose
+sight, in using the brush as a drawing tool, of its distinctive quality
+and character, and impart it to all work done by its means.
+
+[Illustration (f043): Direct Brush Expression of Animal Form.]
+
+The direct touch with the full brush--to cultivate this is of enormous
+advantage to all artists, whatever particular line of art they may
+follow, since it may be said to be of no less value in design than it is
+in painting pure and simple. We can all feel the charm of the broad
+brush washes and emphatic brush touches of a master of water-colour
+landscape such as De Wint. This is mastery of brush and colour in one
+direction--tone and effect. A Japanese drawing of a bird or a fish may
+show it equally in another--character and form. A bit of Oriental
+porcelain or Persian tile may show the same dexterous charm and
+full-brush feeling exercised in a strictly decorative direction.
+
+[Illustration (f044): Japanese Drawing of a Bird. From "The Hundred
+Birds of Bari."]
+
+The empire of the brush, if we think of it in all its various forms and
+directions, is very large; and it commands, in skilled hands, both
+_line_ and _form_, in all their varieties, and leaves its impress in all
+the departments of art, from the humble but dexterous craftsman who puts
+the line of gold or colour round the edges of our cups and saucers, to
+the highly skilled and specialized painter of easel pictures--say the
+academician who writes cheques with his paint-brush!
+
+                                                     [Charcoal and Pencil]
+
+Then we have the ordinary varieties of the firm point: charcoal, pencil,
+pen. Charcoal, being halfway between hard and soft--a sort of halfway
+house or bridge for one passing from the flexible brush to the firm and
+hard points of pencil and pen--is first favourite with painters when
+they take to drawing. Its softness and removability adapts it as a tool
+for preliminary and preparatory sketching in for all purposes, and both
+for designer and painter; but it lends itself to both line and tone
+drawing, or to a mixture of both. It is therefore a very good material
+for rapid studies (say from the life) and the seizing of any effect of
+light and shade rapidly, since the masses can be laid in readily, and
+greater richness and depth can be obtained in shorter time, perhaps,
+than by any other kind of pencil.
+
+Charcoal is also very serviceable for large cartoon-work, since it is
+capable of both delicacy and force, and bears working up to any extent.
+A slight rubbing of the finger gives half tones when wanted, and is
+often serviceable in giving greater solidity and finish to the work.
+
+Then there is the lead pencil--the point-of-all-work, as it might be
+called--more generally serviceable than any other, whether for rapid
+sketches and jottings in the note-book, or careful and detailed
+drawings, or sketching in for the smaller kinds of design-work. It is
+also, of course, used for drawings which are afterwards "inked in." I do
+not think, however, that pen-work done in this way is so free or
+characteristic as when done direct, or at any rate quite freely, upon a
+mere scaffolding of preliminary lines, used only to make the plans for
+the chief masses and forms.
+
+Pencil drawing is capable of being carried to a greater pitch of
+delicacy and finish, and has a silvery quality all its own. It has not
+the force or range of charcoal, but in its own technical range it
+possesses many advantages. Its gray and soft line, however charming in
+itself, does not fit it for work where sharpness and precision of line
+and touch are required, as may be said to be the case with all work
+intended to be reproduced by some process of handicraft or manufacture,
+except some sorts of photo-engraving or lithography. We must therefore
+look to another implement to enable us to obtain these qualities,
+namely, the brush, the use and qualities of which I have already touched
+upon.
+
+                                                                 [The Pen]
+
+There remains yet another point of the firm and decisive order, the pen,
+which enables us to get firmness and sharpness of line and precise
+definition, as well as considerable range of treatment and freedom of
+touch.
+
+The pen seems to bear much the same relation to the brush as the lead
+pencil does to charcoal--not capable of such full and rich effects or
+such flowing freedom of line, but yet possessing its own beauty and
+characteristic kinds of expression. Its true province is in
+comparatively small scale work, and its natural association is with its
+sister-pen of literature in the domain of book-design and decoration,
+and black and white drawing for the press. Its varieties are endless,
+and the ingenuity of manufacturers continually places before us fresh
+choice of pen-points to work with; but though one occasionally meets
+with a good steel pen, I have found it too often fails one just when it
+is sufficiently worn to the right degree of flexibility. One returns to
+the quill, which can be cut to suit the particular requirements of one's
+work. For large bold drawing the reed-pen has advantages, and a pleasant
+rich quality of line.
+
+But with whatever point we may work, the great object is to be perfectly
+at ease with it in drawing--to thoroughly master its use and capacities,
+so that in our search for that other command, of line and form, we may
+feel that we have in our hands a tool upon which we can rely, a trusty
+spear to bear down the many difficulties and discouragements that beset,
+like threatening dragons, the path of the art-student.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER IV
+
+    Of the Choice of Form--Elementary Forms--Space-filling--Grouping--
+    Analogies of Form--Typical Forms of Ornament--Ornamental Units--
+    Equivalents in Form--Quantities in Design--Contrast--Value of
+    Variations of Similar or Allied Forms--Use of the Human Figure
+    and Animal Forms in Ornamental Design.
+
+
+We were considering the choice and use of Line in the last chapter: its
+expressive characters and various methods. We now come to the no less
+important question to the designer and draughtsman--_The Choice of
+Form_.
+
+If Line may be said to be the bone and sinew of design, Form is the
+substance and the flesh, and both are obviously essential to its free
+life and development.
+
+                                                        [Elementary Forms]
+
+The _cube_ and the _sphere_ give us the fundamental elements, or primal
+types from which are derived the multifarious, ever varying, and complex
+forms, the products of the forces and conditions of nature, or the
+necessitous inventiveness of art, just as we may take the square and the
+circle to be the parents of linear and geometric design.
+
+[Illustration (f045a): Elementary Forms: Pyramid, Sphere, Cube, Hexagon,
+Cone.]
+
+The cube and the sphere, the ellipse, the cone, and the pyramid, with
+other comparatively simple forms of solid geometry, present themselves
+to the student as elementary tests of draughtsmanship--of the power,
+that is, of representing solid bodies upon a plane surface. Such forms
+being more simple and regular than any natural forms, they are supposed
+to reduce the problem of drawing to its simplest conditions. They
+certainly afford very close tests of correctness of eye, making any
+fault in perspective or projection at once apparent.
+
+[Illustration (f045b): Use of Elementary Forms in Architecture.]
+
+To avoid, however, falling into mechanical ways, and to maintain the
+interest and give vitality to such studies, the relation of such forms
+to forms in nature and art should be borne in mind, and no opportunity
+missed of comparing them, or of seeking out their counterparts,
+corresponding principles, and variations, as well as their practical
+bearing, both functional and constructive; as in the case of the typical
+forms of flowers, buds, and seed-vessels, for instance, where the cone
+and the funnel, and the spherical, cylindrical, and tubular principles
+are constantly met with, as essential parts of the characters and
+organic necessities of the plant: the cone and the funnel mostly in buds
+and flower-petals for protection and inclosure of the pollen and seed
+germs, the tube for conducting the juices; the spherical form to resist
+moisture externally, or to hold it internally, or to avoid friction, and
+facilitate close storage, as in the case of seeds in pods. The
+seed-vessel of the poppy, for instance, has a curious little pent-house
+roof to shield the interstices (like windows in a tower) till the seed
+is ripe and the time comes for it to be shaken out of the shell or pod.
+A further practical reason for the prevalence of spherical form in seeds
+is that they may, when the outer covering or husk perishes, more readily
+roll out and fall into the interstices of the ground; or when, as in the
+case of various fruits, such as the apple and orange, the envelope
+itself is spherical and intended to carry their flat or pointed seeds to
+the ground, where it falls and rolls when ripe.
+
+[Illustration (f046): Poppyheads.]
+
+The cube and the various multiple forms may be found in crystals and
+basaltic rocks, as well as in organic nature, as, for instance, in the
+honeycomb of bees, where choice of form is a constructive necessity: the
+cube is in every sense of the word the corner-stone in architecture, and
+without squaring and plumbing no building could be constructed, while
+the cylindrical and conical principles of form are illustrated in towers
+and roofs, spires and pinnacles. In architectural ornament and carved
+decoration the cube and sphere again form the basis, both forming
+ornaments themselves by mere recurrence and repetition, and also forming
+constructional bases of ornament.
+
+[Illustration (f047): Apple Cut to Show Position of Seeds.]
+
+                                                      [Dog-Tooth Ornament]
+
+[Illustration (f048b): Dog-tooth Formed From Cube.]
+
+A very simple but effective form of carved ornament characteristic of
+early Gothic work is what is known as the dog-tooth. This is formed
+simply by cutting a cube of stone into a pyramid, depressing the sides,
+and cutting them into geometric leaves, leaving the sharp angles of the
+pyramid from the base to the apex standing out in bold relief. In
+ground-plan this is simply composed geometrically of a rectangle divided
+diagonally into four equal parts, and by striking four semicircles from
+the centres of the four sides of the rectangle. Here we get a form of
+ornament in the flat which appears to have been very widely used, and
+reappears in the early art of nearly all races so far as I am aware. We
+find it, for instance, in Assyrian carving and in early Greek
+decoration, in China and Japan, and in European mediæval work of all
+kinds. Its charm perhaps lies in its simplicity of construction yet rich
+ornamental effect, either as carved work or as a flat painted diaper. It
+might also be used as the geometric basis of an elaborate repeating
+wall-pattern over a large surface.
+
+[Illustration (f048a): Cube and Sphere in Architectural Ornament: Brick
+Dental, Ball Flower Moulding, and Dog-tooth Moulding.]
+
+                                                       [Filling of Spaces]
+
+When it comes to the choice of form, when we are face to face with a
+particular problem in design, ornament, or decoration (say, as most
+frequently happens, it is to fill a panel of a given shape and size), we
+are bound to consider form in relation to that particular panel, to the
+subject we propose to treat, and the method by which the design is to be
+produced, or the object and position for which it is intended. This
+generally narrows the range of possible choice. Firstly, there is the
+shape of the panel itself. A well-known exercise for the Teacher's
+Certificate under the Department of Science and Art is to give a drawing
+of a plant adapted to design in a square and a circle. Now in the
+abstract one would be inclined to select for a circular fitting
+different forms from those one might select for a square filling, since
+I always consider that the shape of the space must influence the
+character of the filling in line and form. Still, if the problem is to
+fill a square and a circle by the same forms, or an adaptation of them,
+we must rely more and more upon difference of _treatment_ of these
+forms, and not try to squeeze round forms into rectangular space, or
+rectangular forms into circular space. In a rose, for instance, it would
+be possible to dwell on its angular side for the square, and on its
+curvilinear side for the circle. Anyway, we should seek in the first
+place a good and appropriate motive.
+
+[Illustration (f049a): Filling of Square Space.]
+
+Supposing the design is for wood inlay, we should have to select forms
+that would not cause unnecessary difficulty in cutting, since every form
+in the design would have to be cut out in thin wood and inserted in the
+corresponding hollow cut in the panel or plank to receive it. Complex or
+complicated forms would therefore be ruled out, as being not only
+difficult or impossible to reproduce in the material, but ineffective.
+
+[Illustration (f049b): Filling of Circular Space.]
+
+                                                            [Inlay Design]
+
+A true feeling for the particular effect and decorative charm of inlaid
+work should lead us to limit ourselves to comparatively few and simple
+forms, treating those forms in an emphatic but abstract way, and making
+use of recurring line and form as far as possible. We might make an
+effective panel, say, for a casket, or a clock-case, or a floor, by
+strictly limiting ourselves to very few and simple forms--say, for
+instance, a stem, a leaf, a berry, or disc, and a bird form, or fruit
+and leaf forms. It would be possible to build up a design with such
+elements both pleasant in effect and well adapted to the work. An
+excellent plan would be to cut out all one's forms with knife or
+scissors in stiff paper, as a test of the practicability of an inlay
+design. This is actually done with the working drawing by the inlay
+cutter.
+
+[Illustration (f050): 1. Units of Simple Inlay Pattern; 2. Motive for
+Inlaid Pattern Built of the Same Units; 3. Treatment of Form as Pattern
+Units for Inlaid Work; 4. Pattern Motive for Inlaid Work]
+
+I once designed an inlaid floor for the centre of a picture gallery.
+The scale was rather large, and the work was bold. One kept to large,
+bold, and simple forms--water-lilies and broad leaves, swans, scallop
+shells, and zigzag borders. Forms which can be readily produced by the
+brush would generally answer well for inlay, since they would have
+simple and sweeping boundaries and flat silhouette. And for inlay one is
+practically designing in black, white, or tinted silhouette. This makes
+it very good practice for all designers, both for the invention it tends
+to call out, owing to the limited resources and restriction as to forms,
+and also as giving facility and readiness in blocking in the masses of
+pattern.
+
+The water-colour painter, too, would find that blocking in in flat local
+colour all his forms and the colours of his background was an excellent
+method of preparatory work, and afforded good practice in direct
+painting, since he could add his secondary shades and tints in the same
+manner until the work was brought to completion, while preserving that
+fresh effect of the undisturbed washes which is the great charm of
+water-colour.
+
+                                                [Grouping of Allied Forms]
+
+In seeking forms to group together harmoniously--which is the whole
+object of composition--we shall find that much the same kind of
+principle holds good whether we are arranging a still-life group or
+designing a wall-paper or textile. It is only a difference of degree and
+scale. In the one case we are designing in the solid with the actual
+objects, before drawing or painting them as a harmonious pictorial
+composition; in the other we are arranging forms upon the flat with a
+view to harmonious composition with a strictly decorative purpose in
+view. In the first we are dealing with concrete form in the round; in
+the second, generally speaking, with abstract form in the flat.
+
+[Illustration (f051a): Grouping of Allied Forms: Composition of Curves.]
+
+But in either case we want harmony. We cannot, therefore, throw together
+a number of forms unrelated to each in line, contour, or meaning. We
+seek in composing or designing not contradictions, but correspondences
+of form, with just an element of contrast to give flavour and point. In
+grouping pottery, for instance, we should not place big and little or
+squat and slender forms close together without connecting links of some
+kind. We want a series of good lines that help one another and lead up
+to one another in a kind of friendly co-operation. Broad smooth forms
+and rounded surfaces, again, require relief and a certain amount of
+contrast. We feel the need of crisp leaves or flowers, perhaps, with
+our pottery form. We may safely go far, however, on the principle of
+grouping similar or allied forms, giving our composition as a whole
+either a curvilinear or angular character in its general lines, masses,
+and forms, on the principle of like to like. This will entirely depend
+upon our choice of grouping of form; but the more by our selection we
+make our composition tend distinctly in the one direction or the other,
+the more character it will be likely to possess.
+
+[Illustration (f051b): Grouping of Allied Forms: Composition of Angles.]
+
+                                                                [Grouping]
+
+[Illustration (f052): Still-life Group Illustrative of Wood-Engraving.]
+
+In selecting forms for still-life grouping and painting, I think
+increased interest might be gained by arranging significant objects,
+accessories bearing upon particular pursuits, for instance, in natural
+relationship and surrounding. Groups suggesting certain handicrafts, for
+instance, such as the clear glass globe of the wood-engraver, the
+sand-bag, the block upon it, the tools, gravers lying around, the
+eye-glass, an old book of woodcuts, and so forth. Other groups
+suggestive of various arts and industries could be arranged--such
+motives as metal-work, pottery, literature, painting, music, embroidery,
+spring, summer, autumn, and winter, might all be suggestively
+illustrated by well-selected groups of still life. Even different
+historic periods might be emblematically suggested--I should like to see
+more done in this way.
+
+[Illustration (f053): Japanese Diagonal Pattern.]
+
+To return to design in the flat. If we start with a motive of circular
+masses, we cannot suddenly associate them with sharp angles--I mean in
+our leading forms. Of course we can make a network or trellis or diaper
+of the angles, to form a mat, ground, or a framework on which to place
+our broad masses, as we may see effectively done by the Chinese and
+Japanese.
+
+                                                     [Corresponding Forms]
+
+[Illustration (f054): Treatment of Fruit and Leaf Forms: Corresponding
+Curvature]
+
+If the principal group of forms in our pattern, say, are fruit
+forms--apples, pomegranates, or oranges--we must re-echo or carry out
+the curves in a lesser degree in the connecting stems and leaves. Change
+the form of the fruit, say, to lemons, and a further variation of
+connecting or subsidiary curve in stems and leaves will naturally
+suggest itself, and at the same time in following such principles we
+shall be expressing in an abstract way more of the character of the tree
+or plant itself. In looking at the leaf of a tree one may often see a
+suggestion of the general character and contour of the tree itself, and
+we know the line:
+
+    "Just as the twig is bent the tree's inclined."
+
+In dealing with angular motives the same principle would be followed,
+but corresponding to the difference of motive. Let the form of your
+detail be reflected in the character of your mass.
+
+I have spoken of the necessity in designing of seeking correspondences
+in form, and although, could we place every form in proper sequence and
+supply all the intermediary links to unite them harmoniously, forms of
+extreme diversity might thus be associated, given great extension of
+space (as in wall decoration, for instance), even then we should want
+these forms to correspond and recur. Yet, as a rule, having to deal in
+design with what are really parts rather than wholes, we can only
+endeavour by making the design of these parts simple and harmonious in
+line and form, and true to their special conditions, to render their
+association decoratively possible.
+
+[Illustration (f055a): Correspondence in General Contour Between Leaf
+and Tree.]
+
+[Illustration (f055b): Some Analogies in Form.]
+
+Certain forms seem to lend themselves to design in ornament better than
+others, because they give the designer certain lines and masses which
+can be harmoniously repeated or combined with other allied forms or
+lines. Design from this point of view becomes a search for analogies of
+form.
+
+                                                       [Analogies of Form]
+
+I mentioned certain simple geometric forms common to nature and art.
+Early ornament consists in the repetition of such forms. The next step
+was to connect them by lines: and so form and line, through endless
+vicissitudes and complexities, became united, to live happily in the
+world of decorative motive ever after. But long after the primitive
+unadorned geometric forms themselves have ceased to be the chief forms
+in ornament, their controlling influence is asserted over the boundaries
+of the more complicated masses introduced.
+
+                                               [Typical Forms of Ornament]
+
+The simple rectangle is disguised under the fret, the circle and spiral
+assert their sway over the boundaries of the palmette, or circle and
+semicircle unite to form the oval so frequently used both as a unit in
+Greek ornament and as a controlling boundary. These are typical border
+forms: for extension and repetition in fields of pattern we find the
+same geometric plans at work in combination and subdivision, forming at
+first the ornament itself, and afterwards furnishing the plan and
+controlling boundaries only. Even in later stages in the evolution of
+surface decoration, in what are called naturalistic floral patterns,
+amid apparent carelessness and freedom, by the exigencies of repetition
+the ghost of buried geometric connection reappears, and compels the
+most naturalistic roses on a wall-paper to acknowledge themselves
+artificial after all, as they nod to their counterparts from the masked
+angles of the inevitable diaper repeat.
+
+[Illustration (f056): Tree of Typical Pattern Forms, Units, and
+Systems.]
+
+We find in the historical forms of decorative art constantly recurring
+types of form and line, such as the lotus of the Egyptians, the anthemia
+of the Greeks, the pineapple-like flower and palmette of the Persians,
+the peony of the Chinese. These forms, at first valued solely for their
+symbolical and heraldic significance, and continually demanded, became
+to the designer important elements or _units_ in ornament. They gave him
+fine sweeping curves, radiating lines, and bold masses, without which a
+designer cannot live, any more than a poet without words. They were
+capable, too, of infinite variation in treatment, a variation which has
+been continued ever since, as by importation to different countries (the
+movement going on from east to west) the same forms were treated by
+designers of different races, and became mixed with other native
+elements, or consciously imitated as they are now by Manchester
+designers and manufacturers, to be sold again in textile form to their
+original owners, as it were, in the far East. Truly, a strange turn of
+the wheel.
+
+                                                        [Ornamental Units]
+
+The range of choice in ornamental units is, indeed, embarrassingly large
+for the modern designer, and a careful and tasteful selection becomes of
+more and more importance. It is not the number of forms you can combine,
+or because they are of Persian or Chinese origin, that your work will be
+artistic, but the judicious and inventive use made of the elements of
+your design. Ready-made units, such as the Oriental forms I have
+mentioned, are no doubt easier to combine, to make an effect with,
+because a certain amount of selection has already been done. In fact,
+with such forms as the Persian or Indian palmette, we are dealing with
+the results of centuries of ornamental evolution, and with emblems
+immemorially treasured by ancient races. It behoves us, if we are called
+upon to recombine them, to treat them with sympathy, refinement, and
+respect, and to let them deteriorate as little as possible, for the
+spirit of an important ornamental form is like a gathered flower--it
+soon withers and becomes limp.
+
+[Illustration (f057): Sketches to Show Use of Counterbalance, Quantity,
+and Equivalents in Designing.]
+
+                                                     [Equivalents in Form]
+
+It is the _spirit_, after all, that is the important thing to preserve,
+in decorative design, however widely we may depart from the _letter_
+sometimes. This is a difficult quality to define, but I should say it
+chiefly consists in a nice attention to the character of form, the
+elastic spring of curves, an understanding of the construction and
+proportions, and grasp of the effect. In designing we constantly feel
+the need of repeating certain masses with variations or balancing them
+by equivalents, or the necessity of leading up to certain main forms by
+subsidiary forms, and to carry out their lines in other parts of the
+composition. In designing figures or emblems, for instance, within
+inclosed spaces, such as shields or cartouche shapes, forming leading
+elements in a design, it requires much invention and ornamental feeling
+so to arrange them that, while different in subject or meaning, and
+differently spaced, they shall yet properly counterbalance each other,
+and, though varied in detail, shall yet be equivalent in quantity. The
+same sort of feeling would govern the case of designing two masses of
+fruit and foliage, say, forming two halves of an oblong panel, which,
+though starting on the symmetric plan from the centre, are not intended
+to be alike in detail; or in a frieze composed of a series of formalized
+trees, where it was desired to have each different, say, to express the
+progression of the seasons, it would be the sense of the necessity of
+equivalents which would govern the decorative effect.
+
+[Illustration (f058): Quantities and Counterchange of Border and Field
+in Carpet Motives.]
+
+                                                    [Quantities in Design]
+
+[Illustration (f059): Sketch to Illustrate Value of Different Quantities
+in Persian Rugs.]
+
+Such considerations naturally lead us to the question of the use of
+_quantities_ in design--the ornamental proportions of ornament, or the
+contrasting distribution of form and line. For the mere repetition of
+ornamental forms over surfaces and objects without reference to
+proportion or structure is not decoration. The perception of appropriate
+quantities in design is really the decorative gauge or measure of
+effect.
+
+[Illustration (f060): Sketch to Illustrate Value of Different Quantities
+in Persian Rugs.]
+
+In designing a bordered panel--or say a carpet--we might decide to
+throw the weight of pattern, colour, or emphasis upon either the field
+or border. Supposing the field had a dark ground upon which the
+arabesque or floral design was relieved, in the border it would be most
+effective to transpose this arrangement, making the ground light, and
+bringing out the border design dark upon it. Or, if the motive were
+reversed, giving a light ground to the centre, with the pattern dark,
+the border might be brought out on a dark field. Or, again, for a less
+emphatic treatment the quantities of the pattern itself might be almost
+infinitely varied, massive forms and close fillings contrasting with
+open borders and united with intermediary bands.
+
+[Illustration (f061): Sketch to Illustrate Value of Different Quantities
+in Persian Rugs.]
+
+These intermediary bands or subsidiary borders are very important in
+Eastern rugs and carpets, and their quantities very carefully
+considered. A Persian designer, for instance, would never leave a blank
+unbroken strip of colour to surround his field; his object is not to
+isolate the quantities of his pattern, but to distinguish and unite
+them: so he makes use of the subsidiary borders as additional
+quantities. A usual arrangement which always looks well is to have the
+border proper inclosed in two bands of about the same width and quantity
+in pattern--or they might be a repeat of each other--and to inclose the
+field or centre within another narrow subsidiary border. But the
+variations to be observed in any chance selection of Persian rugs or
+carpets are constant, and the amount of subtle variety and invention in
+these subsidiary borders is endless.
+
+Very excellent examples of the treatment and distribution of quantities
+may also be studied in the older Indian printed cottons, such as maybe
+seen at South Kensington.
+
+                                                                [Contrast]
+
+The consideration of quantities in form and design involves the question
+of _contrast_, which, indeed, can hardly be separated from it. There is
+the contrast of form and line, and the contrast of colour and plane. It
+is with the first kind we are dealing now.
+
+Take the simplest linear border, such as the type common in Greek work.
+We should easily weary of the continual repetition of such a form alone
+and unassisted, but add a vertical with an alternative dark filling, and
+we get a certain richness and solidity which is a relief at once. Add
+another quantity, and we get the rich effect of the egg and tongue or
+egg and dart moulding.
+
+A still simpler instance of the use of contrast, however, is the
+chequer, or the principle of equal alternation of dark and light masses;
+but this touches colour contrast rather than form.
+
+[Illustration (f062): Recurrence and Contrast in Border Motives.]
+
+The love of contrast makes the Chinese porcelain-painter break the blue
+borders of his plates with small cartouche-like forms inclosing the
+light ground, varied with a spray or device of some light kind; or the
+diagonal, closely-filled field of his woven silk by broad discs or
+cartouches of another plane of ornament. But the love of sharp or very
+violent contrasts, more especially of form, may easily lead one astray
+and be destructive of ornamental effect. Like all decorative
+considerations, the artistic use of contrast depends much upon the
+particular case and the conditions of the work, and one cannot lay down
+any unvarying rules. There are agreeable and disagreeable contrasts, and
+their choice and use must depend upon the individual artist.
+
+                                               [Variation of Allied Forms]
+
+The most beautiful kinds of design rather seem to depend upon the
+harmonious variation in association of similar or allied forms than on
+sharp contrasts.
+
+In compositions of figures the association of the delicate curves and
+angles of the human form, and the lines of drapery, with the emphatic
+verticals and horizontals, the semicircles and rectangles of
+architectural form, for instance, are always delightful in competent
+hands; as also compositions of figure and landscape, with its
+possibilities of undulating line corrected by the severe horizon, or
+sea-line, and contrasted with the vertical lines of trees, stems, and
+the rich forms of foliage masses.
+
+For the same reasons both of correspondence and contrast, masses of type
+or lettering of good form are admirable as foils to figure designs, in
+which commemorative monuments of all kinds and book designs afford
+abundant opportunities to the designer.
+
+                                    [Use Of Human Figure and Animal Forms]
+
+In surface or textile decoration of all kinds nothing gives so much
+relief and vitality as the judicious use of animal forms and the human
+figure, although they are not much favoured at present. The forms of
+birds and animals, if designed in relation to the rest of the pattern,
+will give a pleasant variety of form and line, and in their forms and
+lines we find just those elements both of correspondence and contrast,
+in their relation to geometric or to floral design, which are so
+valuable.
+
+[Illustration (f063a): Use of Inclosing Boundaries in Designing Animal
+Forms in Decorative Pattern.]
+
+In order to combine such forms successfully, however, great care in
+designing is necessary; and a good sound principle to follow as a
+general guide is to make the boundaries of the bird or animal touch the
+limits of an imaginary inclosing form of some simple geometric or floral
+or leaf shape (see p. 104[f063a]). This would at once control the form
+and render it available in a pattern as a decorative mass or unit. The
+particular shape of the controlling form must, of course, depend upon
+the general character of the design, whether free and flowing or square
+and restricted, the nature of the repeat, the ultimate position of the
+work, and so on. A study of Gothic heraldry and the early Sicilian silk
+patterns would be very instructive in this connection, since it is
+rather the heraldic ideal than that of the natural history book which is
+decoratively appropriate. At the same time it is quite possible to
+combine ornamental treatment with a great deal of natural truth in
+structure and character.
+
+[Illustration (f063b): Decorative Spacing of Figures Within Geometric
+Boundaries.]
+
+Much the same principles apply to the treatment of the human figure as
+an element in ornament; they should be designed, whether singly or in
+groups, under the control of imaginary boundaries, and care must be
+taken that in line and mass they re-echo (or are re-echoed by) other
+lines which connect them with the rest of the design, if they occur as
+incidents in repeating wall-paper or hanging design, for instance. It
+is, however, quite possible to imagine a decorative effect produced by
+the use of figures alone (see p. 105[f063b]), with something very
+subsidiary in the way of connecting links of linear or floral pattern,
+much as figures were used by the ancient Greek vase-painters,
+beautifully distributed as ornament over the concave or convex surfaces
+of the vases and vessels of the potter, the forms of which, as all good
+decoration should do, they helped to express as well as to adorn.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER V
+
+    Of the Influence of Controlling Lines, Boundaries, Spaces, and
+    Plans in Designing--Origin of Geometric Decorative Spaces and
+    Panels in Architecture--Value of Recurring Line--Tradition--
+    Extension--Adaptability--Geometric Structural Plans--Frieze and
+    Field--Ceiling Decoration--Co-operative Relation.
+
+
+The function of line considered from the point of view of its
+controlling influence as a boundary, or inclosure, of design, upon which
+I touched in the last chapter, is a very important one, and deserves
+most attentive study.
+
+The usual problem a designer in the flat has to solve is to fill
+harmoniously a given space or panel defined by a line--some simple
+geometric form--such as a square or a circle, a parallelogram, a
+diamond, a lunette.
+
+                                    [Influence of Controlling Lines, etc.]
+
+Now it is possible to regard such spaces or panels as more or less
+unrelated, and simply as the boundaries of an individual composition or
+picture of some kind. Yet even so considered a certain sense of
+geometric control would come in in the selection of our lines and
+masses, both in regard to each other and in regard to the shape of the
+inclosing boundary. We seem to feel the need of some answering line or
+re-echo in the character of the composition to the shape of its
+boundary, to give it its distinctive reason for existence in that
+particular form--just as we should expect a shell-fish to conform to the
+shape of its shell. Such a re-echo or acknowledgment might be ever so
+slight, or might be quite emphatic and dominate as the leading motive,
+but for perfectly harmonious effect it must be there.
+
+[Illustration (f064): Relation of Design to Boundary: Simple Linear
+Motives and Pattern Bases.]
+
+A strictly simple and logical linear filling of such spaces might be
+expressed in the most primitive way, as in the illustration on p.
+109[f064].
+
+By these means certain primitive types of ornament are evolved, such as
+the Greek volute and the Greek key or fret, the logical ornament of a
+logical people.
+
+Such arrangements of line form simple linear patterns, and a decorative
+effect of surface is produced simply by their repetition, especially if
+the principle of alternation be observed. This principle may be
+expressed by taking, say, a series of squares or circles, and placing
+them either in a line as for a border arrangement, or for extension
+vertically and laterally over a surface, and filling only the alternate
+square or circle, leaving the alternate ones, or dropping them out
+altogether (see illustration, p. 111[f065]).
+
+[Illustration (f065): Use of Intervals in Repeating the Same Ornamental
+Units.]
+
+When we desire to go beyond such primitive linear ornaments, however,
+and introduce natural form, we should still be guided by the same
+principles, if we desire to produce a strictly decorative effect, while
+varying them in application to any extent.
+
+It matters not what forms we deal with, floral, animal, human; directly
+we come to combine them in a design, to control them by a boundary, to
+inclose them in a space, we shall feel this necessity of controlling
+line, which, however concealed, is yet essential to bring them into that
+harmonious relation which is the essence of all design (see
+illustration, p. 112[f066]).
+
+[Illustration (f066): Designs of Floral, Human, and Animal Forms,
+Governed by Shape of Inclosing Boundary.]
+
+We may take it as a general rule that the more purely ornamental the
+purpose of our design, and the more abstract in form it is, the more
+emphatically we may carry out the principle of correspondence of line
+between that of the inclosing boundary and that of the design itself;
+and, _vice versâ_, as the design becomes more pictorial in its appeal
+and more complex and varied in its elements, the more we may combine the
+leading motive or principle of line with secondary ones, or with
+variations, since every fresh element, every new direction of line,
+every new form introduced, demands some kind of re-echo to bring it into
+relation with the other elements of the design, or parts of the
+composition, whatever may be its nature and purpose.
+
+Now, if we seek further the meaning and origin of this necessity of the
+control of geometric lines and spaces in design, I think we shall find
+it in the constructive necessities of architecture: for it is certainly
+from architecture that we derive those typical spaces and panels the
+designer is so often called upon to fill.
+
+[Illustration (f067): The Parthenon: Sketch to Show Spaces Used for
+Decorative Sculpture in Greek Architecture.]
+
+                                   [Origin of Geometric Decorative Spaces]
+
+Lintel architecture--the Egyptian and the Greek--gave us the frieze,
+both continuous, as in that of the Cella of the Parthenon, or divided by
+triglyphs, which represented the ends of the beams of the primitive
+timber construction; and the interstices left between these determined
+the shape of the sculptured panel or slab inserted, and influenced the
+character of its masses and the lines of its design, which was under the
+necessity of harmonizing with the whole building (see illustration, p.
+114[f067]).
+
+[Illustration (f068): Tower of the Winds Athens BC 50]
+
+The same may be said of the pediments. The angle of the low-pitched roof
+left another interstice for the sculptor at each end of the building;
+and I have elsewhere* pointed out the influence of the inclosing space
+and the angles of the pediment of the Parthenon upon the arrangement of
+the groups within it, and even upon the lines taken by some of the
+figures, especially the reclining figures near the acute angles.
+
+   [*] See "Bases of Design."
+
+Certain lines become inseparably associated with constructive
+expression, and are used to emphasize it, as the vertical flutings of
+the Doric column, by repeating the lines of the column itself, emphasize
+its constructive expression of supporting the weight of the horizontal
+lintels, the lines of which, repeated in the mouldings of the frieze and
+cornice, are associated with level restfulness and secure repose.
+
+As examples of design which, while meeting the structural necessities
+and acknowledging the control of space and general conditions, as the
+form of the slabs upon which they are sculptured, yet expresses
+independent movement, the figures of the octagonal tower of the winds at
+Athens are interesting (see illustration, p. 115[f068]).
+
+Quite a different feeling, corresponding to differences in conception
+and spirit in design, comes in with the Roman round _arch_ its allied
+forms of _spandril_ and _vault_, _lunette_ and _medallion_, presenting
+new spaces for the surface designer, and new suggestions of ornamental
+line (see illustration, p. 117[f069]). It is noticeable how, with the
+round-arched architecture under Roman, Byzantine (see illustration, p.
+118[f070]), and Renaissance forms, the scroll form of ornament
+developed, the reason being, I think, that it gave the necessary element
+of recurring line, whether used in the horizontal frieze in
+association with round arches, or in spandrils of vaults and arcades,
+and on marble mosaic pavements.
+
+[Illustration (f069): Sketch of Part of the Arch of Constantine to Show
+Spaces for Decorative Sculpture in Roman Architecture.]
+
+[Illustration (f070): Byzantine (Mosaic) Treatment of Architectural
+Structural Features: Apse, S. Vitale Ravenna.]
+
+                                             [Value of the Recurring Line]
+
+The development of Gothic architecture, with its new constructive
+features and the greater variety of geometric spaces, forms, and
+interstices which, as a consequence, were available for the designer of
+associated ornament, whether carved work, mosaic, stained glass, or
+painting, naturally led to a corresponding variety in invention and
+decorative adaptation; and we may trace the same principle at work in
+other forms--I mean the principle of corresponding, counterbalancing,
+and recurring line--Gothic ornament being indeed generally an essential
+part of the structure, and architectural features being constantly
+repeated and utilized for their ornamental value, as in the case of
+canopies and tabernacle work.
+
+We see, for instance, in the Decorated period the acute gable moulding
+over the arched recess, niche, doorway, or tomb, lightened and vivified
+by a floriated finial springing into vigorous curves from a vertical
+stem, forming an emphatic ogee outline which re-echoes the ogee line of
+the arch below, and is taken up in variations by the crockets carved
+upon the sides of the gable; and their spiral ascending lines lead the
+eye up to the finial which completes the composition. We may trace the
+same principle in the carved fillings of the subsidiary parts, such as
+the trefoiled panels, the secondary mouldings, and the cusps of the
+arches, which continue the line-motive or decorative harmony to the last
+point (see illustration, p. 120[f071]). The elegance and lightness of
+the pinnacles is increased in the same way, and further emphasized by
+the long vertical lines of the sunk panels upon their sides.
+
+[Illustration (f071): From Canopy of Tomb of Gervaise-Alard 1303. Temp
+ED^wd^ I^st^ Winchelsea]
+
+In church doorways we may see certain voussoirs of the arch allowed to
+project from the hollow of the concave moulding, and their surfaces
+carved into bosses of ornament; while, again, the doorway is emphasized
+by the recurring lines of the mouldings, with their contrasting planes
+of light and shadow, and the point of their spring is marked by a
+carved lion, controlled in the design of its contour by the squareness
+of the block of stone upon which it is carved (see illustration, p.
+121[f072]).
+
+[Illustration (f072): Structural Control of Line in Architectural
+Enrichments West Door Walberswick Ch. Suffolk]
+
+The carvings of miserere seats in our cathedral choirs often afford
+instances of ingenious design and arrangement of elements difficult to
+combine, yet always showing the instinct of following the control of the
+dominating form and peculiar lines of the seat itself. There is an
+instance of one from St. David's Cathedral--apparently a humorous
+satire--a goose-headed woman offering a cake to a man-headed gull (?),
+or perhaps they are both geese! I won't pretend to say, but it evidently
+is intended to suggest cupboard love, and there is a portentously large
+pitcher of ale in reserve on the bench. But note the clever arrangement
+of the masses and lines, and how the lines of the seat and the curves
+of the terminating scroll are re-echoed in the lines of the figures and
+accessories.
+
+[Illustration (f073): C. 1460-1480 Wood Carving Miserere Seat Choir
+Stalls St. David's Cathedral. Controlling Line in Design of Subsidiary
+Architectural Decoration.]
+
+A stone-carving from the end of a tomb in the same cathedral--that of
+Bishop John Morgan, 1504--of a griffin with a shield shows an emphatic
+repetition of the inclosing line of the arched recess in the curves of
+the wings which follow it.
+
+[Illustration (f074): Recessed Panel Carved Stone From the Tomb of
+Bishop John Morgan D. 1504, St. David's Cathedral.]
+
+There is also a charming corbel of a half-figure of an angel, which,
+though somewhat defaced, shows the architectural sense very strongly in
+its design--the vertical droop of the wing-feathers inclosing the figure
+repeating and continuing the vertical lines of the shafts and the
+subsidiary mouldings of the arrangement of the drapery, and its
+termination in crisp foliated forms, which pleasantly counterbalance the
+set of the scale feathers of the wings and break the semicircular
+mouldings of the base of the corbel, repeating those of the shafts
+above.
+
+[Illustration (f075): Constructive Line Reechoed in Architectural
+Ornament. Corbel, Bishop Vaughan's Chapel, St. David's 1509-]
+
+                                                  [Adaptability in Design]
+
+[Illustration (f076): Gothic Tile Pattern S. David's Cath^l.]
+
+Adaptation to spaces upon a flat surface is also illustrated in some
+tile patterns from the same place. They are simple and rude but very
+effective bits of spacing, and show a thorough grasp of the principles
+we have been considering--if, indeed, it is so far conscious work at
+all. But whether or not the outcome of a tradition which seemed to be
+almost instinctive with mediæval workmen--a tradition which yet left the
+individual free, and under which design was a thing of life and growth,
+ever adapting itself to new conditions, and grafting freely new
+inventions to flower in fresh phantasy upon the ancient stock--the
+movement in art in the Middle Ages, exhibiting as it does a gradual
+growth and a constant vitality, always accompanying and adapting itself
+to structural changes, to life and habit, was really more analogous to
+the development of mechanical science in our own day, where each new
+machine is allied to its predecessors, though it supplants them. The one
+law being adaptability, the one aim to apply means to ends, and more and
+more perfectly, inessentials and superfluities are shed, and invention
+triumphs. It is, too, a collective advance, since each engineer, each
+inventor, builds upon the experience of both his forerunners and his
+fellow-workers, and everything is brought to an immediately practical
+test.
+
+We are not yet in the same healthy condition as regards art, and art can
+never be on the same plane as science, though art may learn much from
+science, chiefly perhaps in the direction of the inventive adaptation of
+analogous principles. But in art the question is complicated by human
+feeling and association, and her strongest appeal is to these, and by
+these, and as yet we do not seem to have any terms or equivalents
+precise enough to describe, or any analysis fine enough to discover
+them.
+
+                                                               [Extension]
+
+The next consideration in spacing we may term _extension_. This bears
+upon all surface design, but more especially upon the design of patterns
+intended to repeat over a large surface, and not specially designed for
+particular spaces. It is a great question whether any design can be
+entirely satisfactory unless it has been thought out in relation to some
+particular extent of surface or as adapted to some particular wall or
+room. Modern industrial conditions preclude this possibility as a rule,
+and so the only sure ground, beyond individual taste and preference, is
+technical adaptability to process or material. We should naturally want
+to give a different character to a textile pattern, whether printed or
+woven, and intended to hang in folds, from one for flat extension as a
+wall-paper; and a different character again to such designs intended for
+extension horizontally from those intended for vertical space alone.
+Floor patterns, parquets and carpets, for instance, naturally demand
+different treatment from wall patterns, as those orders of plants in
+nature which cling and spread on the flat ground differ from those which
+grow high and maintain themselves in the air, or climb upon trees. The
+rule of life--_adaptability_--obtains in art as in nature, and, beneath
+individual preference and passing fashion, works the silent but real law
+of relation to conditions. This again bears upon the choice of scale,
+and differentiates the design of dress textiles from furniture textiles,
+and the design of varied surfaces and objects, which, while demanding
+their own particular treatment, are brought into general relation by
+their association with use and the wants of humanity.
+
+[Illustration (f077a): Extension: Surface Pattern Motives Derived from
+Lines of Structure.]
+
+                                        [Geometric Structural Plans, etc.]
+
+The law governing extension of design over surface is again geometric,
+and our primal circle and square are again the factors and progenitors
+of the leading systems which have governed the design of diapers and
+wall patterns and hangings of all kinds. Nay, the first weaver of the
+wattled fence discovered the principle of extension in design, and
+showed its inseparable association with construction; and the builder
+with brick or stone emphasizes it, producing the elements of linear
+surface pattern, from the mechanical necessity of the position of the
+joints of his structure. At a German railway station waiting-room I
+noticed an effective adaptation of this principle as a wall decoration
+in two blues upon a stone colour (see illustration, p. 128[fig077a]). We
+may build upon such emphatic structural lines, either incorporating them
+with the design motive, as in all rectangular wall diapers, or we may
+suppress or conceal the actual constructive lines by placing the
+principal parts or connections of our pattern over them, but one cannot
+construct a satisfactory pattern to repeat and extend without them; for
+these constructive lines or plans give the necessary organic life and
+vigour to such designs, and are as needful to them as the trellis to the
+tendrils of the vine (see illustration, p. 129[f077b]).
+
+[Illustration (f077b): Surface Extension: Repeating Patterns Built Upon
+(1) Square and (2) Circular Basis.]
+
+The same principle is true of designs upon the curvilinear plan. The
+mere repetition of the circle by itself gives us a simple geometric
+pattern, and we are at liberty to emphasize this circular plan as the
+main motive; or, as in the case of the rectangular plans, to treat it
+merely as a basis, and develop free scroll motives upon it; or follow
+it through its principal variations, as in the ogee, formed by dropping
+out two intermediate semicircles; or the various forms of the scale
+arrangement. These simple geometric plans are the most generally useful
+as plans of designs intended for repetition and extension over space,
+and they are always safe and sound systems to build upon, since a
+geometric plan is certain to join comfortably if our measurements are
+right.
+
+[Illustration (f078): Surface Extension: Plan of a Drop Repeat.]
+
+We may, however, often feel that we want something bolder and freer, and
+start with a motive of sweeping-curves, non-geometric, but even then a
+certain geometric relation will be necessary, or an equivalent for it,
+since each curve must be counterbalanced in some way, though not
+necessarily symmetrically, of course; and even where a square of
+pattern--say to a wall-paper repeat of twenty-one inches--has been
+designed, not consciously upon a geometric base, but simply as a
+composition of lines and masses to repeat, the mechanical conditions of
+the work when it comes to be printed will supply a certain geometric
+control, since it necessarily begins in the process of repetition a
+series of squares of pattern in which the curves are bound to recur in
+corresponding places. Without a geometric plan of some sort, however, we
+may easily get into difficulties with awkward leading lines, gaps, or
+masses, that tumble down, and are only perceived when the paper is
+printed and hung.
+
+The designer should not feel at all restricted or cramped by his
+geometric plan, but treat it as an aid and a scaffolding, working in as
+much variety and richness of detail as he likes, bound only by the
+necessity of repeating or counterbalancing his forms and lines. In the
+diagram (p. 131[f078]) the plan of making a repeat less obvious by means
+of what is termed "a drop" is given, and this system also increases the
+apparent width of a pattern.
+
+                                                        [Frieze and Field]
+
+The feeling which demands some kind of contrast or relief to a field of
+repeating pattern, however interesting in itself, seems now almost
+instinctive. It is felt, too, in the case of plain surfaces, where the
+eye seeks a moulding to give a little variety or pattern-equivalent in
+play of light and shadow upon different planes, lines, or concavities
+and convexities. The common plaster cornice placed to unite walls and
+ceiling, in our ordinary houses, is a concession (on the part even of
+the jerriest of builders) to the æsthetic sense. We get the decorated
+frieze in architecture in obedience to the same demand, though
+originally a necessary feature of lintel construction, as we have seen,
+from the days of the festal garland hung around the eaves of the classic
+house, to its perpetuation in stone in so many varieties.* The carved
+garland depending in a series of graceful curves, or contrasted with
+pendants, or their rhythm punctuated, as it were, by ox-heads, as on the
+temple of the Sibyls, Tivoli, formed the needed contrast to the plane
+masonry of the wall below. Sculptured figures, with the added interest
+of story, as on the choragic monument of Lysicrates, fulfilled the same
+decorative function in a more complex and elaborate way.
+
+   [*] "Bases of Design."
+
+To satisfy the same feeling we place a frieze above the patterned field
+of our modern wall-papers. Such a frieze may be considered as a
+contrasting border to the pattern of the field, much as the border of a
+carpet, allowing for difference of material and position; or the frieze
+may assert itself as the dominant decoration of the room. In this case
+it would be greater in depth than the simpler bordering type. The
+interest of the field filling would then be subsidiary, and lead up to
+the frieze. In wall-paper friezes the difficulty in designing is to
+think of a motive which will not tire the eye in the necessarily
+frequent repeats of twenty-one inches. Longer ones have occasionally
+been produced, the limit being sixty inches. It is often a good plan to
+recur in the main lines or forms of the frieze to some variation of the
+lines or forms of the field. If, for instance, the main motive in the
+field was a vertical scroll design, a _horizontal_ scroll design upon a
+large scale used for the frieze would answer, the field being kept flat
+and quiet; or the fan, or radiating shell form, used as a frieze, above
+a pattern on the scale plan, would be quite harmonious. Relation and
+balance of line and mass, and arrangement of quantities in such designs,
+are the chief considerations.
+
+With painting or modelling an artist is freer, as he is at liberty to
+design a continuous frieze of figures, and introduce as much variety as
+he chooses.
+
+A painted frieze of figures above plain oak-panelling has a good effect
+in a large and well-proportioned room, and is perhaps one of the
+pleasantest ways of treating interior walls.
+
+[Illustration (f079): Sketch Designs to Show Relation Between Frieze
+and Field in Wall-paper.]
+
+                                                      [Ceiling Decoration]
+
+Ceiling decoration, again, presents problems of extension in designing,
+and the large flat plaster ceilings of modern rooms are by no means easy
+to deal with satisfactorily. The simplest way is to resort to
+wall-paper, and here, restricted in size of repeat and the usual
+technical requirements of the work, the designer must further consider
+appropriateness of scale, and position in regard to eye, relation to the
+wall, and so forth.
+
+The natural demand is for something simpler in treatment than the
+walls--a re-echo, in some sort, of plans agreeable to the floor, yet
+with a suggestion of something lighter and freer: here we may safely
+come back to rectangular and circular plans again for our leading lines
+and forms.
+
+Painting and modelling, again, offer more elaborate treatment and
+possibilities, and we know that beautiful works have been done in both
+ways; but art of this kind seems more appropriate to lofty vaulted
+chambers and churches, such as one sees in the palaces of Italy, at
+Genoa and Venice, at Florence and Rome.
+
+I remember a very striking and bold treatment of a flat-beamed ceiling
+in the Castle of Nuremberg, where a huge black German eagle was painted
+so as to occupy nearly the whole field of the ceiling, but treated in an
+extremely flat and heraldic way, the long feathers of the wings
+following the lines of the beams and falling parallel upon them and
+between them; and upon the black wings and body of the eagle different
+shields of arms were displayed in gold and colours, the eagle itself
+being painted upon the natural unpainted wood--oak, I think. The work
+belonged to the thirteenth or fourteenth century, I believe. It seemed
+the very antithesis of Italian finesse and fancy, but the fitness of
+such decoration entirely depends upon its relation to its surroundings,
+which in this case were perfectly appropriate.
+
+                                                   [Co-operative Relation]
+
+That is the great point to bear in mind in all design--the sense of
+relation; nothing stands alone in art. Lines and forms must harmonize
+with other forms and lines: the elements of any design must meet in
+friendly co-operation; it is not a blind struggle for existence, a
+fierce competition, or a strife for ascendency between one motive and
+another, one form and another, or a war of conflicting efforts. There
+may be a struggle _outside_ the design, in the mind of the designer. He
+may have tried hard against difficulties to express what he felt, and
+have only reached harmony through discord and strife, but the work
+itself should be serene; we should feel that, however various its
+elements, they are not without their purpose and relation one to
+another, that all is ordered and organized in harmonious lines, that
+everything has its use and place, that, in short, it illustrates that
+excellent motto, whether for art or life: "Each for all, and all for
+each."
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER VI
+
+    Of the Fundamental Essentials of Design: Line, Form,
+    Space--Principles of Structural and Ornamental Line in Organic
+    Forms--Form and Mass in Foliage--Roofs--The Mediæval
+    City--Organic and Accidental Beauty--Composition: Formal and
+    Informal--Power of Linear Expression--Relation of Masses and
+    Lines--Principles of Harmonious Composition.
+
+
+We may take it, then, from the principles and examples I have
+endeavoured to put before you in the previous chapters, that there are
+three fundamental elements or essentials of Design--Line, Form, Space.
+
+                                        [Fundamental Essentials of Design]
+
+Line we need, not only for our ground-plan and framework, but also to
+define or express our forms. Form we need to give substance and mass,
+interest and variety; and it is obvious that Space is required to
+contain all these elements, while Space asserts its influence, as we
+have seen, upon both Line and Form in combination upon it, whether
+object or surface, by the shape of its boundary, the extension of its
+plane, and the angle and position of its plane in regard to the eye, as
+well as from the point of view of material and use.
+
+Questions of the character of line and form, and their combination and
+disposition in or over spaces, are questions of composition. They demand
+the most careful solution, whatever our subject and purpose may be,
+from the simplest linear border up to the most elaborate figure design.
+But although the three essentials to composition must be always present,
+it is always possible to rely more upon the qualities of one of them for
+our main motive and interest, keeping the other two subsidiary. We might
+centralize the chief interest of our composition upon _Line_, for
+instance, and make harmonious relation or combination of lines our
+principal object (as in line-design and ornament), or we might rather
+dwell upon the contours, masses, and contrasts and relationships of
+_Form_: as in pictorial design, figure compositions of all kinds, and
+modelling and sculpture: or, again, we might choose that the peculiar
+character given by the control of certain inclosing spaces should
+determine the interest of our design, as the due filling of particular
+panels and geometric shapes; or seek the interest of aerial perspective
+in the pictorial and atmospheric expression of space.
+
+Taking combinations of Line first, and bearing in mind what has been
+said regarding its capacities for expression, whether of emotion,
+direction of force, movement, rest, as well as of facts of structure and
+surface, let us see if we can trace the principle of harmonious
+composition, of which these things may be considered as parts.
+
+                                                   [Line in Organic Forms]
+
+Look at any of the systems of line in the organic structures of nature:
+the radiating ribs of the scallop shell, or the spiral of many other
+varieties; the set of the feathers upon the expanded wing of a bird; the
+radiation of the sun's rays; the flowing line of the wave movement; the
+lines of structure in flowers and leaves; the scales of a fish; the
+scales of a pine-cone or an artichoke. We feel that any of these
+combinations of lines are harmonious and beautiful, and we know that
+they are essential to the character and structure. They are organic
+lines, in short. They mean life and growth. In principle they are
+radiating and recurring lines; in each form they repeat each other in
+varying degrees of direction and declension of curve. No two lines are
+alike, yet there is no contradiction and no unnecessary line, and
+variety is combined with unity. Each affords a perfect instance of
+harmonious composition of line, and gives us definite principles upon
+which to work (see illustration, p. 140[f080]).
+
+[Illustration (f080): Principles of Structural and Ornamental Line in
+Natural Forms.]
+
+These systems of line in organic nature have been adopted and adapted by
+art, and are found throughout the historical forms of ornament which, as
+we have good reason to believe, were often derived from mechanical
+structures, illustrating the same principles; which, again, the logic of
+geometry enforces in drawing on plane surfaces.
+
+All organic structures teach us the same lesson of relation and
+recurrence of line. The bones of all vertebrate animals, from _fish_ to
+_man_, illustrate the constant repetition in different degrees of the
+same character and direction of line. The vertebral column itself is an
+instance, and the recurring spring of the ribs from it, like the
+branches from the stem of a tree, further expressed in the ramification
+of the jointed bones of the limbs and extremities. The principle may be
+followed out in the structure of the muscles in their radiating fibres,
+which the delicate contours and flowing lines of the surface of the
+body only combine in a greater degree of subtlety (see illustration, p.
+142[f081a]).
+
+[Illustration (f081a): Radiating, Recurring and Counterbalancing Lines
+in the Structure of the Skeleton and the Muscles.]
+
+Look at the anatomy of any tree, as it is disclosed to us in its wintry
+leaflessness, a beautiful composition of line rather than of form (see
+illustration, p. 143[f081b]).
+
+[Illustration (f081b): General Principles of Line and Form in the
+Branching and Foliage Masses of Trees.]
+
+Here we see organic life and structure expressed in the vigorous spring
+of inter-dependent and corresponding curves, from the rigid sinuous
+column of the main stem springing from the ground, presently divided
+into the main forks of the branches, which again subdivide and subdivide
+into smaller forks, so that the tree may sustain and spread its life in
+the air and the sun, both supporting and continuing its existence by
+this wonderful economic system of co-operative, subdivided, and
+graduated helpfulness.
+
+The massive green pavilion of summer, which this delicate vaulting of
+branch-work sustains, gives us another, more sumptuous, but perhaps not
+a greater beauty in the combination or substitution of form and mass for
+line composition.
+
+                                                [Form and Mass in Foliage]
+
+We might express, in an abstract way, the principle of the
+line-structure of the ramifying tree by super-imposing vertically fork
+upon fork in gradually diminishing scale, either curvilinear or
+rectangular; and the principle of the mass-structure in the formation of
+the foliage might be expressed by a series of overlapping curves,
+suggestive of scales or cloud masses: to both of which indeed they
+correspond in principle, illustrating the scale principle in detail and
+the cloud principle in the mass; thus repeating the same general law of
+natural roofing, or covering, in different materials (see
+illustration, p. 145[f082]).
+
+[Illustration (f082): Principles of Structure in Foliage Masses.]
+
+In a mass of foliage each leaf falls partly over the one below it, as by
+the system of their growth and suspension upon the stem they are of
+course bound to do, whether symmetric or alternate in their arrangement,
+the gaps caused by decay or accident being generally filled by new
+shoots. Each shoot, eager to expand its leaves in the light, ever
+spreading, forms mass after mass of the beautiful green panoply--the
+coat armour of the forest, arboreal man's first form of domestic
+architecture.
+
+[Illustration (f083): Albert Dürer: Detail from 'The Prodigal Son.']
+
+The principle of structure here is just the same as the overlapping
+principle of the tiles and slates upon our ordinary house-roofs; but
+each leafy tile is different, being alive, and in the mass infinitely
+varied and beautiful in form and colour, instead of being mechanical and
+uniform, as we try to make our artificial roofs.
+
+                                                            [German Roofs]
+
+Very pretty and varied effects are produced in the old roofs of
+southern Germany by the use of different coloured glazed tiles--red,
+green, and yellow--arranged in simple patterns. One of the old towers at
+Lindau has such a roof, and the colour effect is very rich and striking.
+
+But I must not be led into a disquisition upon roofs further than in so
+far as they illustrate the subject of composition of line and form, and
+from the painter's point of view they frequently do in a very
+delightful and instructive way.
+
+[Illustration (f084): Albert Dürer: St. Anthony.]
+
+What, for instance, can be more varied and charming than the
+compositions we constantly meet with in the rich backgrounds of Albert
+Dürer? Those steep barn roofs, and those quaint German towns inclosed in
+walls with protecting towers--nests of steep tiled gables of every
+imaginable degree--which give so much character and interest to his
+designs, as in the background of his copper-plates "The Prodigal Son"
+and "St. Anthony" here given. Their prototypes still exist here and
+there in Germany, in such towns as Rothenburg, practically unchanged
+since the sixteenth century, and give one an excellent idea of what such
+houses were like. A visit there is like a leap back into the Middle
+Ages. Every street is a varied and interesting composition. No two
+houses are alike. They were built by the citizens to really pass their
+lives in. The town is strongly placed upon the crest of a hill, with a
+river at its foot, and well fortified and protected by massive
+encircling walls and towers and deep gates, which give it so strong and
+picturesque a character, while the timber and tile-roofed gallery for
+the warders still exists along the inside of the walls. Such cities
+arose by the strength of the social bond among men--the necessity for
+mutual help in the maintenance of a higher standard of life, and mutual
+protection against the ravages of sinister powers.
+
+                                                       [The Mediæval City]
+
+Strong externally, internally they were made as home-like and full of
+the varied delight of the eyes, as if the people had reasoned, "Since we
+must live close together in a small place, let us make it as delightful
+and romantic as we can." We know that the idea of Paradise and the New
+Jerusalem to the imagination of the Middle Ages was always the fair
+walled garden and the fenced city. The painters embodied the idea of
+security and protection from the savage and destructive forces of nature
+and man--a sanctuary of peace, a garden of delight.
+
+[Illustration (f085): Roof-lines: Rothenburg.]
+
+We have in modern times turned rather from the city as a complete and
+beautiful thing, to the individual home, and to the interior of that,
+and, in the modern competitive search for the necessary straws and
+sticks to make our individualist-domestic composition of comfort and
+artistic completeness, bowers are too often built upon the ruins of
+others, or are fair by reason of surrounding degradation. The common
+collective comfort and delight of the eyes is too often ignored, so that
+it comes about that, if our modern cities possess any elements of beauty
+or picturesqueness, it is rather owing to accidents and to the
+transfiguring effects of atmosphere than to the beauty or variety of
+architectural form and colour. We have to seek inspiration among the
+fragments of the dead past in monuments and art schools.
+
+                                           [Organic and Accidental Beauty]
+
+The modern development of the municipality and extension of its
+functions may, indeed, do something, as it has done, and is doing,
+something to protect public health and further public education; but we
+have yet to wait for the full results, and everything must finally
+depend upon the public spirit and disinterestedness of the citizens, and
+in matters of art upon a very decided but somewhat rare and peculiar
+sympathy and taste, as well as enthusiasm.
+
+The absence of beauty of line, form, and proportion from the external
+aspects of daily life in towns has probably a greater effect than we are
+apt to realize in deadening the imagination, and it certainly seems to
+produce a certain insensibility to beauty of line and composition, since
+the perception must necessarily be blunted by being inured to the
+commonplace and sordid. The instinct for harmony of line and form
+becomes weakened, and can only be slowly revived by long and careful
+study in art, instead of finding its constant and most vital stimulus in
+every street.
+
+For all that, however, an eye trained to observe and select may, even in
+the dullest and dingiest street, find artistic suggestions, if not in
+the buildings, then in the life. And where there is life, movement,
+humanity, there is sure to be character and interest. Groups of children
+playing will give us plenty of suggestions for figure composition.
+Workpeople going to and from their work, the common works going on in
+the street, the waggons and horses, the shoal of faces, the ceaseless
+stream of life--all these things, whether we are able to reproduce them
+as direct illustrations of the life of our time, or are moved only to
+select from them vivid suggestions to give force to ideal conceptions,
+should all be noted--photographed, as it were, instantaneously upon the
+sensitive plate of the mind's vision. We can only learn the laws of
+movement by observing movement--the swing and poise of the figure, the
+relation of the lines of limbs and drapery to the direction of force and
+centre of gravity, so important in composition. We must constantly
+supplement our school and studio work by these direct impressions of
+vivid life and movement, and neglect no opportunity or despise no source
+or suggestion.
+
+There are still in England to be found such old-world corners as the
+quaint street of Canterbury (p. 153[f086]), which forms an excellent
+study in the composition of angular and vertical lines.
+
+[Illustration (f086): St. Margaret St Canterbury Aug: 27 1894]
+
+                                                      [Formal Composition]
+
+We may perceive that there are at least two kinds of composition, which
+may be distinguished as:
+
+     I. Formal.
+    II. Informal.
+
+I. Under the head of Formal may be classed all those systems of
+structural line with which I started, and which are found either as
+leading motives or fundamental plans and bases throughout ornamental
+design. Yet even these may be used in composition of figures and other
+forms where the object is more or less formal and decorative, as
+governing plans or controlling lines.
+
+The radiating ribs of a fan, for instance, might be utilized as the
+natural boundaries and inclosing lines of a series of vertical figures
+following the radiating lines. A strictly logical design of the kind
+would be a series of figures with uplifted arms, forming radiating lines
+from the shoulders, somewhat in the position of Blake's well-known and
+beautiful composition of the Morning Stars in the Book of Job, already
+illustrated.
+
+Using the overlapping vertical scale plan we should get relative
+positions for a formal composition of three figures, although they need
+not necessarily be formal in detail. A typical design of three
+associated ideas treated emblematically would be the most natural use of
+such an arrangement--as Faith, Hope, and Charity; Liberty, Equality,
+Fraternity; Science, Art, and Industry; or the three goddesses Heré,
+Pallas, and Aphrodite, as choice and purpose might decide. A
+semicircular scale plan would not only repeat in a safe and sound
+manner, but would afford suggestive shapes in which to throw designs of
+figures, and could be effectively utilized either for a wall or ceiling
+repeat.
+
+The inclosure formed by two spiral lines gives a graceful ornamental
+shape for a half-reclining figure; while a series of floating or flying
+figures linking their hands would be appropriately governed by similar
+spiral lines, uniting them with the meandering wave line (see
+illustration, p. 155[f087]).
+
+[Illustration (f087): Formal Composition: Figure Designs Controlled by
+Geometric Boundaries.]
+
+Upon a series of semicircles or ellipses, alternating horizontally,
+might be arranged a little frieze of children with skipping ropes, or
+Amorini with pendent garlands; the up-and-down movement in the former
+case being conveyed by a variation, each alternate semicircle being
+struck upwards. This would restore the emphatic wave or spiral line,
+which always conveys the sense of rhythmic movement in a design.
+
+Such a line, vertically employed, will give again a good plan for a
+series of seated figures, say emblematic of the Hours, where similarity
+of attitude and type would be appropriate, while the emblems and
+accessories might be varied. A severer treatment would be suggested by
+making the controlling line angular (see illustration, p. 156[f088]).
+
+[Illustration (f088): Formal Composition: Figure Designs Controlled by
+Geometric Boundaries.]
+
+Such are a few illustrations of what I have termed formal composition,
+in which the geometric and structural plans of pure ornament or
+ornamental line maybe utilized to combine, control, or even suggest
+figure designs.
+
+                                                    [Informal Composition]
+
+II. While formal compositions, though naturally falling into classes and
+types, may be varied to a very great extent, when we come to informal
+compositions the variations are unlimited, and a vista of extraordinary
+and apparently endless choice, invention, and selection opens out before
+the designer, co-extensive with the variety of nature herself.
+
+In seeking harmonious and expressive composition in the pictorial
+direction the guides are much less definite and secure. Individual
+feeling and instinct, which must have an important influence in all
+kinds of designing, are in this direction paramount. Yet even here, if
+we look beneath the apparent freedom and informality, we find certain
+laws at work which seem to differ only in degree from the more definite
+and constructive control of line which we have been considering. In the
+first place, there are our direct impressions from nature; and,
+secondly, our conscious aims and efforts to express an idea in our
+minds. We have the same restricted and definite forms of language and
+materials in each case--line, form, space, brushes, pencil, colour,
+paper, canvas, or clay. We are taken by some particular scene: the
+composition of line and form at a particular spot attracts us more than
+another. We do not stop as a rule to ask why, since it usually takes all
+our time and our best skill to get into shape what we are seeking--and
+carry away with us an artistic record of the place. We have seen that in
+the case of certain natural structures, shells, leaves, flowers, the
+fundamental structural lines are so beautiful that they not only form
+ornament in themselves, but furnish the basis for whole types and
+families of ornament. When we look at a landscape, putting aside for the
+moment all the surface charms of colour and effect, and concentrating
+our attention upon its lines of structures, we shall find that it owes a
+great part of its beauty to the harmonious relation of its leading
+lines, or to certain pleasant contrasts, or a certain impressiveness of
+form and mass, and at the same time we shall perceive that this linear
+expression is inseparable from the sentiment or emotion suggested by
+that particular scene.
+
+A gentle southern landscape--undulating downs, and wandering
+sheep-walks; the soft rounded masses of the sheep upon smooth cropped
+turf--all these are so many notes or words in the language of line and
+form which go to express the idea of pastoral life. They are
+inextricably bound up with inseparable associations conveyed by such
+lines and forms. The undulating lines of resting or dancing figures
+would only give point, true emphasis, and variety, and a note of
+contrast in the forms would serve to bring out the general sentiment
+more strongly.
+
+Substitute rugged rocks, swollen torrents, wind-tossed trees and stormy
+skies, and all is changed. Such things cannot be expressed without much
+more emphatic lines and masses, and the use of opposing angles and
+energetic curves of movement which would be destructive of the sentiment
+of peace, in other cases. Yet even then to convey the expression of
+energy and rapid movement, concerted groups of lines are none the less
+necessary (see illustration, p. 159[f089]).
+
+[Illustration (f089): Informal Composition: Expression of (1) Storm and
+(2) Calm In Landscape.]
+
+Such comparisons indicate not only that there is a necessary
+association of ideas with certain lines and forms, but also that certain
+relations and associations of line of a similar character are necessary
+to produce a harmonious composition, and one which conveys a definite
+and pervading sentiment or emotion, just as we saw that the controlling
+lines of structural curves, spirals, and angles require to be in
+relation, and to be re-echoed by the character of the design they
+inclose or which is built upon them.
+
+The same law holds true in figure composition. The sense of repose and
+restfulness necessary to sitting or reclining groups depends upon the
+gentle declivities of the curves and their gradual descent to the
+horizontal.
+
+[Illustration (f090): Informal Composition: Expression of Repose and
+Action.]
+
+Draw a figure sitting rigid, tense, and alert, and you destroy the sense
+of repose at once, and you are obliged also to resort to angles, still
+more emphatic where strong action is to be expressed; while to express
+continual or progressive movement, a choice of associated lines of
+action in different stages of progress leading up to the crescendo of
+the final one (as in a group of mowers) would be necessary (see
+illustrations, p. 161[f090]). We cannot, then, in any composition have
+too definite a conception. We must, at any sacrifice of detail, bring
+out the main expression and meaning. Every group of figures must be in
+the strictest relation to each other and to the central interest or
+expression of the design. You cannot, for instance, in a procession of
+figures, make your faces turn all sorts of ways without stopping the
+onward movement which is essential to the idea of a procession. This
+would not preclude variety, but the general tendency must be in one
+direction. Every line in a composition must lead up to the central idea,
+and be subordinated or contributory to it (see illustration, Nos. 1 and
+2, p. 163[f091a]).
+
+[Illustration (f091a): (1) and (2) Movement in a Procession]
+
+The same with masses: you cannot put a number of forms together without
+some sort of relation, either of general character and contour or some
+uniting line. We may learn this principle from nature also. Look at a
+heap of broken stones and débris, which in detail may contain all sorts
+of varieties of form, as we find them tumbled down a steep place, as the
+rocky bed of a mountain stream, a heap of boulders upon a hillside, or
+the débris from a quarry or mine; in each case the law of gravity and
+the persistence of force working together arrange the diverse forms in
+masses controlled by the lines, which express the direction and degree
+of descent, and the pressure of force. The same thing may be seen on any
+hilly ground after heavy rain; the scattered pebbles are arranged in
+related groups, combined and composed by the flow of miniature streams,
+which channel the face of the ground and form hollows for their
+reception (see Nos. 3 and 4, p. 163[f091b]). The force of the tides and
+currents upon the sea-shore illustrates the same principle and affords
+us magnificent lessons in composition, not only in the delicate lines
+taken by the sculptured sand, but in the harmonious grouping of masses
+of shingle and shells, weeds and drift, arranged by the movement of the
+waves.
+
+[Illustration (f091b): (3) Lines Left by a Watercourse, (4) Lines
+Governing Fallen Débris from a Quarry.]
+
+                                    [Principles of Harmonious Composition]
+
+So that we may see that the principles of harmonious composition are not
+the outcome of merely capricious fancy or pedantic rule, but are
+illustrated throughout the visible world by the laws and forces of the
+material universe. It is for the artist to observe and apply them in his
+own work of re-creation.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER VII
+
+    Of the Relief of Form--Three Methods--Contrast--Light and Shade,
+    and Modelling--The Use of Contrast and Planes in Pattern
+    Designing--Decorative Relief--Simple Linear Contrast--Relief by
+    Linear Shading--Different Emphasis in relieving Form by Shading
+    Lines--Relief by means of Light and Shade alone without
+    Outline--Photographic Projection--Relief by different Planes and
+    Contrasts of Concave and Convex Surfaces in Architectural
+    Mouldings--Modelled Relief--Decorative Use of Light and Shade,
+    and different Planes in Modelling and Carving--Egyptian System of
+    Relief Sculpture--Greek and Gothic Architectural Sculpture,
+    influenced by Structural and Ornamental Feeling--Sculptural
+    Tombs, Medals, Coins, Gems--Florentine Fifteenth-century
+    Reliefs--Desideriodi Settignano.
+
+
+We come now to the consideration of the various means and methods of
+expressing relief in line and form.
+
+We may define a form in outline and give it different qualities of
+expression by altering the quality and consistency of our outline, and
+we may obtain very different kinds of decorative effect by the use of
+lines of various degrees of thickness or thinness; but if we want to
+give it force and colour, and to distinguish it from its background more
+emphatically, we must add to our outline.
+
+                                      [Three Methods of Expressing Relief]
+
+There are three principal methods or systems of giving relief by adding
+to our outline.
+
+One is the method of giving relief to form by contrasts of tone, colour,
+or tint.
+
+Another by means of the expression of light and shade: and the third by
+means of modelling in relief.
+
+Now, still keeping to expression by means of line, the three arms I have
+sketched (p. 167[f092]) illustrate: (1) the form in outline alone; (2)
+the contrast method; and (3) the light and shade method. The three pots
+underneath illustrate the same three stages in a simpler manner.
+
+In number one we see the outline defining the form pure and simple: in
+number two the form is relieved by a half-tone formed of diagonal lines,
+forming a plane or background behind it. The arm is still further
+relieved by the dark drapery. Number three shows the relief carried
+further by lines expressive of the modelling of the arm and the rounding
+of the pot, and also by cast shadows from the forms.
+
+[Illustration (f092): The Relief of Form: (1) By Outline, (2) By
+Contrast, (3) By Light and Shade.]
+
+The system of expressing relief I have termed relief by contrast
+includes two kinds of contrast: there are the contrasts of line and
+form, and there are the contrasts of planes of tone or tint and local
+colour. We may consider that the contrast method covers generally all
+forms of pattern and certain kinds of pictorial design. The method of
+expressing relief by means of line covers generally all forms of design
+in black and white, graphic sketching, pen-drawing, and work with the
+point of all kinds.
+
+                                       [Of the Use of Contrast and Planes]
+
+Taking the principle of contrast as applied to pattern design, we can,
+even within the limited range of black and white and half-tint (as
+expressed by lines), get a considerable amount of decorative effect. In
+the first place by bringing out our pattern, previously outlined, upon
+a black ground (as in Nos. 1 and 2, p. 169[f093]), increasing the
+richness of effect, and getting a second plane by treating the lower
+part in an open tint of line.
+
+Simple contrasts of dark upon light or light upon dark are effective,
+and sufficient for many purposes, such as borders (as in Nos. 2 and 3,
+p. 169[f093]).
+
+When a lighter kind of relief and effect is required, the recurring
+forms in a border are often sufficiently emphasized by a tint of open
+lines: movement and variety being given by making them follow the minor
+curves of the successive forms, as in this instance (No 4, p. 169[f093])
+the movement of the water is suggested behind the fish.
+
+The relation of the plain ground-work to the figure of the pattern is
+also an important point; indeed the plain parts of the pattern, or the
+interstices and intervals of the pattern, are as essential to the
+pattern as the figured parts.
+
+In designs intended for various processes of manufacture, such as
+printed or woven textiles, wall-papers, etc., where blocks or rollers
+are used to repeat the pattern, the extent of plain in proportion to
+figured parts must be governed in some measure by the practicable size
+of the repeat: but within certain limits great variety of proportion is
+possible.
+
+A simple but essentially decorative principle is to preserve a certain
+equality between the figured masses and the ground masses. The leaf
+patterns (Nos. 6 and 7, p. 169[f093]) consist simply of the repetition
+and reversal of a single element. An emphatic effect is obtained by
+bringing the leaves out black upon a white ground (as in No. 6), while a
+flatter and softer effect is the result of throwing them upon a plane
+of half-tint expressed by horizontal lines, with a similar effect of
+relief to that which would be given by the warp, if the pattern were
+woven.
+
+For larger surfaces, greater repose and dignity in pattern may be
+obtained by a greater proportion of the repeat being occupied by the
+ground (as in No. 5, p. 169[f093]).
+
+[Illustration (f093): Relief of Form and Line in Pattern Design by Means
+of Contrast and the Use of Planes.]
+
+Indeed we may consider as a general principle that the larger the
+interspaces of the ground, plane, or field of the pattern, the lighter
+in tint they should be, or the necessary flatness is apt to be lost.
+Relief in pattern design may be said to be adding interest and richness
+without losing the flatness and repose of the design as a whole. When
+pattern and ground are fairly equally balanced in quantity the ground
+may be rich and dark, and darkest as the interstices, where the ground
+is shown, become less. The figure of a pattern relieved as light upon a
+dark plane, as a rule, requires to be fuller in form than dark-figuring
+upon a light ground.
+
+                                                       [Decorative Relief]
+
+In decorative work the use of contrast in the relief of parts of a
+design is often useful and effective, as, for instance, the dark shading
+or treatment in black or flat tone of the alternating under side of a
+turn-over leaf border.
+
+The decorative value of this principle is recognized by heraldic
+designers in the treatment of the mantling of the helmet, which in
+earlier times is treated simply as a hanging or flying strip of drapery
+with a lining of a different colour, by which it is relieved as it hangs
+in simple spiral folds. This ornamental element became developed by the
+designers of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries into elaborate
+scroll designs springing from the circlet of the helmet and surrounding
+the shield: but the principle of the turned-up lining remained, often
+variegated and enriched with heraldic patterns (see illustrations, pp.
+172[f094a], 173[f094b]).*
+
+    [*] The increased importance given to the mantling in later times
+    may have been due to the disappearance of the housings of the
+    knight's horse and his surcoat, which originally displayed his
+    arms and colours. The mantling of later times displayed the
+    heraldic colours of the knight, when, being clad in plate armour,
+    there was no other means of displaying them except on the shield.
+    Decoratively, of course, the mantling is of great value to the
+    heraldic designer, enabling him to form much more graceful
+    compositions, to combine diverse and rigid elements with free and
+    flowing lines and masses, and to fill panels with greater
+    richness and effect, whether carved or painted, or both.
+
+[Illustration (f094a): Decorative Relief: Counterchange, Treatment of
+Mantling, Fourteenth and Sixteenth Centuries.]
+
+[Illustration (f094b): Decorative Relief: Treatment of Mantling.]
+
+                                             [Use of Diapered Backgrounds]
+
+The principle, too, of counterchange in heraldry answers to our
+principle of relief by contrast, and though its chief charm lies in its
+ornamental range of form and colour combinations, it can be expressed in
+black and white, and it remains a universal principle throughout
+decorative art. The decorative effect and charm of the relief of large
+and bold forms upon rich and delicate diapers is also an important
+resource of the designer. The monumental art of the Middle Ages affords
+multitudes of examples of this principle in ornamental treatment. The
+miniaturist of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries constantly relieved
+his groups of figures upon a diapered ground. The architectural sculptor
+relieved the broad masses of flowing drapery and the bold projection of
+his effigies and recumbent figures by delicately chiselled diapers upon
+the surface of the wall behind them. This treatment may frequently be
+seen in the recessed tombs of the fourteenth century.
+
+The incisor of memorial brasses, again, more especially in continental
+examples, shows a fondness for the same principle. The long vertical
+lines of drapery of ladies and ecclesiastics, the broad masses of the
+heraldic surcoat, or armour of the knights, the rich and heavy furred
+gowns of the burghers, are often relieved upon beautiful diapered or
+arabesque grounds, generally embodying some heraldic device, motto, or
+emblem of the person or family whose tomb it ornaments. Such decoration
+is strictly linear, yet within its own limits, and perhaps because of
+them, we find in this province of design extremely admirable work, no
+less for delineation of character and decorative treatment than for
+ornamental invention controlled by strict economy of line.
+
+[Illustration (f095): Relief Upon a Diapered Ground: Brass of Martin De
+Visch, Bruges, 1452.]
+
+                                        [Relief of Form by Linear Shading]
+
+This brings us to the consideration of our second method of relief by
+means of line.
+
+Take any simple allied elements to form a repeating pattern, say spiral
+shells, place them at certain rhythmic intervals, and we can unite and
+at the same time give them relief by filling in the ground by a series
+of waved lines to suggest the ribbed sand. Add a few dots to soften and
+vary the effect, and we get a pattern of a certain balance and
+consistency (No. 1, p. 177[f096a]).
+
+[Illustration (f096a): Relief in Pattern Design by Means of Simple
+Linear Contrasts (1)]
+
+With the more varied and complex floral form, but treated in a very
+abstract way, placing the daisies in a line, horizontally, and reversing
+the sprig for the alternate row, we have another motive, which is
+connected and steadied as well as relieved by the suggestion of grass
+blades in groups of three slightly radiated vertical strokes (No. 2,
+p. 177[f096b]). A pattern of two elements, again, may be formed in a
+still more simple way by linear contrast, as in No. 3, where the
+pyramidal trees are formed by a continuous serpentine stroke of the pen
+terminating in a spiral stem. The diagonal arrangement of the trees
+produces a chequer, the intervals of which can be varied by the
+contrasting black masses of the birds.
+
+[Illustration (f096b): Relief in Pattern Design by Means of Simple
+Linear Contrasts (2), (3)]
+
+In graphic drawing, lines to express forms in the relief of light and
+shade are often needed to give additional force even where no great
+degree of realism is desired. A tint formed by horizontal lines is
+sufficient to relieve a face from the background and give it solidity,
+while local colour may be given to the hair, and at the same time serve
+to relieve the leaves of a wreath encircling the head (see illustration,
+p. 178[f097a]).
+
+[Illustration (f097a): Relief by Adding Shading Lines to Outline.]
+
+The rich effect of clustered apples growing among their leaves could
+hardly be suggested without the use of lines expressive of light and
+shade, the interstices of the deepest shade running into solid black (p.
+178[f097a]). In adding lines in this kind of way to give relief or extra
+richness or force, the draughtsman is really designing a system of lines
+upon his outline basis, which may have quite as decorative a quality as
+the outline itself. At the same time nothing is more characteristic of
+the artist than the way in which such lines are used, and of course the
+choice of direction and arrangement of such lines will make all the
+difference in the effect of the drawing.
+
+                                                        [Diagonal Shading]
+
+Where the object is to express the figure in broad masses of light and
+shade, the use of a series of diagonal lines is an effective, and
+probably the most ready and rapid, method when working with the pen (see
+p. 179[f097b]). This system of expressing the broad surfaces of shade
+was much used by the Italian masters of the Renaissance in their rapid
+pen sketches and studies of figures, and a certain breadth and style is
+given to their drawings owing in part to the simplicity of this linear
+treatment.
+
+[Illustration (f097b): Relief of Form by Diagonal Shading.]
+
+                                                                [Emphasis]
+
+No doubt the simpler the system of line adopted in giving relief to
+figures the better, if the particular expression aimed at is
+accomplished, and, as a general rule, we should endeavour to get the
+necessary force and depth without the use of cross-line, or many
+different directions of line in shading a figure: but, given any power
+of draughtsmanship, the individuality of the artist is bound to come in,
+and it is not likely, nor is it to be desired, that any two artists in
+line should give exactly the same account of natural fact, or reproduce
+the images in their minds in the same forms, any more than we should
+expect two writers to express their ideas in the same terms.
+
+The kind and degree of emphasis upon different parts, the selection of
+moment or fact, would all naturally make considerable differences in the
+treatment. The three sketches of the skirt dancer are given as instances
+of the different effects and expression to be obtained in rendering the
+same subject (p. 181[f098]).
+
+[Illustration (f098): Different Method and Different Emphasis in
+Relieving Form by Shading Lines.[A, B, C]]
+
+In A the broad relief of the white dress against the tones of the floor
+and background, and the darker note of the hair, are the facts chiefly
+dwelt upon. In B the form of the figure is brought out in broad light
+and shade and cast shadow, and the dress relieved by radiating folds. In
+C quicker movement is given, the lines of the successive wave-shaped
+folds radiating spirally from the shoulders being the chief means of
+conveying this, while the head and arms are thrown into strong relief
+against a dark background, the cast shadow being of a lighter tone.
+
+The direction of line used in relieving forms, and expressing modelling
+and details, must depend much upon individual taste and feeling as well
+as knowledge of form. The element of beauty of design also comes in, and
+the question between this and force or literalness--the difference
+between a study or direct transcript from nature, and a design with a
+purely ornamental aim, or a composition directed mainly to the
+expression of a particular idea or emotion.
+
+Such considerations will ultimately determine the choice and use of
+line, the degree of relief and emphasis, for these and the direction of
+the line itself are the syllables and the words which will convey the
+purport of the work to the mind of the beholder.
+
+Study of the masters of line--Dürer, Titian, Mantegna, Holbein--will
+inform us as to its capacities and limitations. The limitations, too, of
+method and material will be a powerful factor in the determination of
+style in the use of line and in the economy of its use.
+
+The bold firm line suitable to the facsimile woodcut, the broad and
+simple treatment of line with solid black useful in the plank-cut line
+block to be used with colour blocks, the comparatively free and
+unconditioned pen-drawing for the surface-printed process block--all
+these will finally give a certain character to our work beyond our own
+idiosyncrasies in the use of the pen or the brush.
+
+[Illustration (f099): Albert Dürer's Principle in the Treatment of
+Drapery: From the Woodcut in the "Life of the Virgin" Series.]
+
+Useful things may be learned by the way, such as Albert Dürer's
+principle of giving substance to his figures and details, more
+especially seen in his treatment of drapery, when the lines run into
+solid black and express the deeper folds and give emphasis and solidity
+to the figure (p. 183[f099]). The reproductions here given of sketches
+of drapery by Filippino Lippi and Raphael also show the same principle.
+
+[Illustration (f100): Albert Dürer: Pen-Drawing.]
+
+A figure or object of any kind, seen in full light and shade, is
+relieved at any of its edges either as dark against light, or as light
+against dark, and we recognize it as a solid form in this way; the
+boundaries of natural light and shade defining it, and projecting it
+from the background upon the vision. There may be infinite modulations,
+of course, between the light part, the half-tones, and the darkest
+parts; but this broad principle governs all work representing light and
+shade.
+
+[Illustration (f101): Filippino Lippi: Study of Drapery.]
+
+It is, in fact, _the principle of the relief of form_ represented upon a
+plane surface.
+
+[Illustration (f102): Raphael: Studies of Drapery.]
+
+                                         [Relief by Light and Shade Alone]
+
+If the draughtsman's object be to represent the _appearance_ of a figure
+or any object in full natural light and shade with the pen or other
+point, he could do so without using outline at all, but by simply
+observing this principle and defining the boundaries of light on dark or
+half-tone in their proper masses and relations. The pen sketch of the
+man with the hoe (p. 188[f103a]) is intended to illustrate this method.
+
+[Illustration (f103a): Relief by Means of Light and Shade Alone, in
+Pen-drawing Without Outline.]
+
+There is also the method of representing form in relief by means of
+working with white line only upon a dark ground, the modelling and
+planes of surface being entirely expressed in this way (as in A, p.
+189[f103b]). This may be termed drawing by means of _light_, and may be
+contrasted with the opposite method of working by means of black line
+only on a light ground, or drawing by means of _shade_ (as in B, p.
+189[f103b]).
+
+[Illustration (f103b): Relief of Form: (A) By White Line Only on Dark
+Ground, and (B) By Black Line Only on Light Ground.]
+
+Yet another method, and one in which the effect of relief can be
+obtained more readily and rapidly, perhaps, is by working on a
+half-toned paper, drawing in the form with pencil, chalk, or brush,
+blocking in the darker shadows and heightening the highest lights with
+touches of white. These white touches, however, should be strictly
+limited to the highest lights. This method is represented by the
+half-tone blocks used in this book, those which were taken from drawings
+made on brown paper and touched with white.
+
+                                         [The Principle of the Photograph]
+
+The definition of form by means of light is strictly the principle of
+the photograph, which comprehends and illustrates its complementary of
+relief by means of shade, and I think it is due to the influence of the
+photograph that modern black-and-white artists have so often worked
+on these principles. The drawings of Frederick Walker and Charles Keene
+may be referred to as examples. I shall, however, hope to return to this
+branch of the subject later.
+
+                                       [Relief in Architectural Mouldings]
+
+So far we have been considering the relief of form by means of line. We
+now come to what may be termed the relief of form by actual form and
+plane, or modelling in actual light and shade, as in architecture and
+sculptors' and carvers' work. Then relief is gained by the contrast of
+actually different planes, forms, surfaces, and textures. The simplest
+illustrations of the principles of modelled relief are to be found in
+architectural mouldings, by means of which buildings are relieved and
+enriched, and important structural or functional parts are emphasized,
+as in cornices and ribs of vaults, arches, and openings.
+
+Place a concave moulding side by side with a convex one either
+horizontally or vertically, and a certain pleasant effect of contrasting
+light and shade is the result, reminding one of the recurring concave
+and convex of the rolling waves of the sea (A, p. 191[f104]).
+
+A series of flat planes of different widths and at different levels also
+produces a pleasant kind of relief useful in a picture frame or the jamb
+of a door (B).
+
+All architectural mouldings might be said to be modifications or
+combinations of the principles illustrated by these two.
+
+Very different feeling may be expressed in mouldings, and if we compare
+the two types, the classical and the Gothic, the comparatively broad and
+simple effect of the former (C, D, E, F, G) contrasts with the
+richness and variety and the stronger effect of light and shade,
+produced by deep undercutting, in the latter (H, I, J, K).
+
+[Illustration (f104): Relief in Architectural Mouldings.]
+
+The Romans, however, produced rich and highly ornate effects in the use
+of these types of mouldings, as they reappeared in the Corinthian order,
+the ovolo cut into the egg and dart, with the Astralagus beneath, the
+Cyma recta above the brackets of the cornice casting a bold shadow, and
+both in the cornice and the hollow beneath the dentils enriched with
+carving, as seen in the splendid fragment of the Forum of Nerva.
+
+[Illustration (f105): Roman Treatment of Corinthian Order, Forum of
+Nerva, Rome.]
+
+When we pass to the more complex problems of figure modelling and
+sculpture, it is but carrying on and developing the same principle of
+the contrast of planes, of the relief of plane upon plane, of forms upon
+one plane, to forms upon forms in many planes. From the contrast of bead
+and hollow we come to consider the contrast between the rounded limb and
+the sinuous folds of drapery; from the rhythm of the acanthus scroll we
+turn to the less obvious but none the less existing rhythm of the
+sculptural frieze.
+
+Line, we may say, controls the modeller's and sculptor's composition,
+but form and its treatment in light and shade give him his means of
+ornament. The delicate contours of faces and limbs contrasted with the
+spiral and radiating folds of drapery, or rich clusters of leaves and
+fruits, the forms of animals and the wings of birds--these are his
+decorative resources.
+
+                                                        [Egyptian Reliefs]
+
+The early stages of sculpture in relief may be seen in the monumental
+work of ancient Egypt.
+
+Simple incised work appears to have been the first stage, and the
+forms afterwards slightly modelled or rounded at the edges into the
+hollow of the sunk outline.
+
+Large figures and tables of hieroglyphic inscription were thus cut upon
+vast mural surfaces, and carried across the joints of the masonry,
+without disturbing the flatness and repose of the wall surface (p.
+195[f106]). The Egyptians, indeed, seem to have treated their walls more
+as if they were books for record and statement, symbol and hieroglyphic.
+
+[Illustration (f106): Egyptian System of Sculptured Relief: Thebes.]
+
+Messrs. Perrot and Chipiez, in their "History of Ancient Art in Egypt,"
+speak of three processes in the treatment of Egyptian reliefs (vol. ii.,
+p. 284):
+
+1. That followed by the Greeks, in which the figures are left standing
+out from a smooth bed, sometimes slightly hollowed near the contours
+(see illustration, p. 196[fig106]).
+
+2. Where the figures are modelled in relief in a sunk hollow, from an
+inch to one and a half inch deep.
+
+3. Where the surface of the figures and the bed or field of relief are
+kept on one level (see illustration, p. 196[f107]), the contours
+indicated by hollow lines cut into the stone; very little modelling,
+little more than silhouette, in which the outline is shown by a hollow
+instead of by the stroke of a pencil or brush.
+
+One would be inclined to reverse the order of these three processes, on
+the supposition that No. 3 was the earliest process, and that it arose,
+as I have conjectured, from the practice of representing forms by
+incised lines only.
+
+There is certainly a strong family likeness as to method between the
+Egyptian reliefs and the Assyrian, the Persian, and the archaic Greek;
+and there is a far greater difference in treatment between archaic Greek
+relief sculpture and the work of the Phidian period than between the
+archaic work of the three races named.
+
+The strictly mural and decorative conditions which governed ancient
+sculpture no doubt gave to Greek sculpture in its perfection a certain
+dignity, simplicity, and restraint, and also accounted in a great
+measure for that rhythmic control of invisible structural and ornamental
+line which asserts itself in such works as the Pan-Athenaic frieze. It
+was strictly slab sculpture, and became part of the surface of the wall.
+
+[Illustration (f107): Greek Relief. Eleusis. Egyptian Relief. Denderah.]
+
+                                                        [Gothic Sculpture]
+
+The structural and ornamental feeling also asserts itself strongly in
+Gothic sculpture, owing to its close association with architecture, as,
+when it was not an integral part of the structure, it was always an
+essential part of the expression of the building, and it was this which
+controlled its treatment decoratively, in its scale and its system and
+degree of relief.
+
+In the porches of the Gallo-Roman churches of France of the twelfth
+century, the figures occupying the place of shafts became columnar in
+treatment, the sinuous formalized draperies wrapped around the elongated
+figures, or falling in vertical folds, as in the figures in the western
+door of Chartres Cathedral (p. 199[f108]). The lines of the design of
+the sculptured tympanum were strictly related to the space, and the
+degree and treatment of the relief clearly felt in regard to the
+architectural effect (p. 201[f109]).
+
+[Illustration (f108): Chartres Cathedral: Carving on the West Front.]
+
+[Illustration (f109): Chartres Cathedral: Tympanum of the Central Door
+of the West Front.]
+
+                                                 [Architectural Influence]
+
+In the sculptured tombs of the Middle Ages, with their recumbent figures
+and heraldic enrichments, again, we see this architectonic sense
+influencing the treatment of form and relief, as these monuments were
+strictly architectural decorations, often incorporating its forms and
+details, and often built into the structure of the church or cathedral
+itself, as in the case of the recessed and canopied tombs of the
+thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
+
+As sculptures became detached from the building and wall, and appeared
+in full relief in the round, though still, as it were, carrying a
+reminiscence of their origin with them in the shape of the moulded
+pedestal, architectural control became less and less felt, statues in
+consequence being less and less related to their surroundings. The
+individual feeling of the sculptor or the traditions of his school and
+training alone influenced his treatment, until we get the incidental and
+dramatic or sentimental isolated figure or group of modern days.
+
+                                                        [Medals and Coins]
+
+It is noteworthy, however, that even in the smaller works of the
+modeller, carver, or sculptor of the Middle Ages or the early
+Renaissance, a sense of decorative fitness and structural sense is
+always present. We see it in the carved ornaments of seats and
+furniture, in the design and treatment of coins and seals and gems and
+medals. These latter from the time of the ancient Greeks afford
+beautiful examples of the decorative treatment of relief in strict
+relation to the object and purpose. The skill and taste of the Greeks
+seemed to have been largely inherited by the artists of the earlier
+Italian Renaissance, such as Pisano, whose famous medal of the Malatesta
+of Rimini affords a splendid instance not only of the treatment of the
+portrait and subject on the reverse perfectly adapted to its method and
+purpose, but also of the artistic use of lettering as a decorative
+feature (see p. 203[f110]).
+
+[Illustration (f110): Medals of the Lords of Mantua, Cesena, and
+Ferrara, by Vittore Pisano of Verona (Middle of the Fifteenth Century).]
+
+The treatment and relief of figures and heads upon the plane surfaces of
+metals and coins, the composition controlled by the circular form, have
+always been a fine test of both modelling and decorative skill and
+taste. Breadth is given by a flatness in the treatment of successive
+planes of low relief, which rise to their highest projection from the
+ground, in the case of a head in profile, about its centre. The delicate
+perception of the relation of the planes of surface is important, as
+well as the decorative effect to be obtained by arrangement of the light
+and shade masses and the contrast of textures, such as hair and the
+folds of drapery, to the smooth contours of faces and figures, and the
+rectangular forms of lettering.
+
+In gems we see the use made of the concave ground, which gives an
+effective relief to the figure design in convex upon it. Bolder
+projection of prominent parts are here necessary in contrast to the
+retiring planes, the work being on so small a scale, and also in view of
+its seal-like character; for, of course, it is the method of producing
+form by incision, and modelling by cutting and hollowing out, that gives
+the peculiar character to gems and seals; and it is in forming human
+figures that the building up of the form by a series of ovals, spoken of
+in a previous chapter, becomes really of practical value: the method of
+hollowing the stone or metal in cutting the gem or making a die and
+the character of the tool leading naturally in that direction.
+
+                                                 [Desiderio di Settignano]
+
+Perhaps the most delicate and beautiful kind of sculptured or modelled
+relief is to be found in the work of the Florentine school of the
+fifteenth century, more especially that of Donatello and Desiderio di
+Settignano, who seem indeed to have caught the feeling and spirit of the
+best Greek period, with fresh inspiration and suggestion from nature and
+the life around them, as well as an added charm of grace and sweetness.
+
+It is difficult to imagine that marble carving in low relief can be
+carried to greater perfection than it is in the well-known small relief
+by Desiderio di Settignano of the "Madonna and Child," now in the
+Italian Court of the South Kensington Museum. The delicate yet firmly
+chiselled faces and hands, the smooth surfaces of the flesh, and the
+folds of drapery, emerging from, or sinking into, the varied planes of
+the ground, for refinement of feeling and treatment seem almost akin to
+the art of the painter in the tenderness of their expression.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER VIII
+
+    Of the Expression of Relief in Line-drawing--Graphic Aim and
+    Ornamental Aim--Superficial Appearance and Constructive
+    Reality--Accidents and Essentials--Representation and Suggestion
+    of Natural Form in Design--The Outward Vision and the Inner
+    Vision.
+
+
+I have already said that when we add lines or tints of shadow, local
+colour or surface, to an outline drawing, we are seeking to express form
+in a more complete way than can be done in outline alone. These added
+lines or tints give what we call relief. That is their purpose and
+function, whether by that added relief we wish to produce an ornamental
+effect or simply to approach nearer to the full relief of nature, for of
+course the degrees of relief are many.
+
+                                                  [Relief in Line-Drawing]
+
+What may be called the natural principle of relief--that system of light
+and shade by which a figure or any solid object is perceived as such by
+the eye--consists in each part of the form being thrown into more or
+less contrast by appearing as dark on light upon its background, more
+especially at its edges. A figure wholly dark, say in black drapery,
+appearing against a light ground, might be supposed to be flat if no
+cast shadow was seen; the same with the reverse--a light figure upon a
+dark ground--except that in this latter case, unless the light was very
+level and flat, a certain concentration of light upon the highest parts,
+or indicating a modulation of shadow in interstices, might betray its
+solidity (see p. 206[f111a]).
+
+[Illustration (f111a): The Two Principles of Contrast in Black and
+White.]
+
+But if we place a figure so that the light falls from one side, we
+perceive that it at once stands out in bold relief in broad planes of
+light and shade, further emphasized by cast shadows (p. 207[f111b]).
+
+[Illustration (f111b): Treatment of the Same Figure in Light and Shade.]
+
+It would be possible to represent or to express a figure or object so
+lighted by means of laying in the modulations and planes of shadow only,
+or by means of adding the light only on a toned ground. In sketching in
+black and white, it is a good plan to accustom oneself to complete as
+one goes along, as far as may be, putting in outline and shadow
+together; but this needs a power of direct drawing and a correctness of
+eye only to be gained by continual practice. A slight preliminary basis
+of light lines to indicate the position and proportions, and yet not
+strong enough to need rubbing out, is also a good method for those who
+do not feel certain enough for the absolutely direct method of drawing.
+
+[Illustration (f112): Expression of Form by Light and Shade: (1) Light
+and Shade Without Outline; (2) Light and Shade Enforced by Outline.]
+
+Now in drawing, as I think I have pointed out before, no less than in
+all art, there are two main governing principles of working which may be
+distinguished.
+
+     I. The graphic aim.
+    II. The ornamental or decorative aim.
+
+                                                         [The Graphic Aim]
+
+The graphic aim--the endeavour to represent a form exactly as it
+appears--a power always valuable to acquire whatever may be our ultimate
+purpose, leaves the draughtsman great freedom in the choice and use
+of line, or other means of obtaining relief, local tint, and tone.
+
+In line-work the broad relief of the flat tones of shadow may be
+expressed in lines approaching the straight, diagonally sloping from
+right to left, or from left to right, as seems most natural to the
+action of the hand.
+
+The quality of our lines will depend upon the quality we are seeking to
+express. We shall be led to vary them in seeking to express other
+characteristics, such as textures and surfaces.
+
+In drawing fur or feathers, for instance, we should naturally vary the
+quality and direction of line, using broken lines and dots for the
+former, and flowing smooth fine lines for the latter, while extra force
+and relief would be gained by throwing them up upon solid black grounds.
+Solid black, also, to represent local colour, or material such as
+velvet, is often valuable as a contrast in black and white line-drawing,
+giving a richness of effect not to be obtained in any other way (see No.
+2, p. 213[f114]). Its value was appreciated by the early German and
+Italian book-illustrators, and in our own time has been used almost to
+excess by some of our younger designers, who have been largely
+influenced by Hokusai and other Japanese artists, who are always skilful
+in the use of solid blacks.
+
+[Illustration (f113): Linear Expression of Features, Feathers and Fur:
+Notes from Nature.]
+
+In line-drawing a very useful principle to observe, to give solidity to
+figures and objects, is to let one's lines--say of drapery or
+shadow--run into solid blacks in the deepest interstices of the forms,
+as when folds of drapery are wrapped about a figure, or in the deeper
+folds themselves (No. 1, p. 213[f114]).
+
+[Illustration (f114): Sketches to Illustrate (1) The Graphic and (2) The
+Decorative Treatment of Draped Figures.]
+
+                                                      [The Ornamental Aim]
+
+I have spoken of the graphic and the ornamental aims as distinct, and so
+they may for practical purposes be regarded; although in some cases it
+is possible to combine a considerable amount of graphic force with
+decorative effect, and even in purely graphic art there should always be
+the controlling influence of the sense of composition which must be felt
+throughout all forms of art.
+
+For the simplest ornamental function, however, very little graphic
+drawing is needed, over and above the very essential power of definition
+by pure outline, and feeling for silhouette; but a sense for the relief
+of masses upon a ground or field, and of the proportions and relations
+of lines and masses or distribution of quantities, is essential. Now an
+ornamental effect may be produced by the simple repetition of some form
+defined in outline arranged so as to fall into a rhythmic series of
+lines.
+
+A series of birds upon a plan of this kind, for instance, would form a
+frieze on simple bordering in abstract line alone, and might be quite
+sufficient for some purposes. The same thing would be capable of more
+elaborate treatment and different effect by relieving the birds upon a
+darker ground, by defining the details of their forms more, or by
+alternating them in black or white, or by adopting the simple principle
+of counterchange (see p. 215[f115]).
+
+[Illustration (f115): Decorative Treatment of Birds.]
+
+Flowers or figures would be capable of the same simple and abstract
+treatment; and almost any form in nature, reduced to its simplest
+elements of recurring line and mass, and rhythmically disposed, would
+give us distinct decorative motives.
+
+                                                      [The Ornamental Aim]
+
+It is quite open to the designer to select his lines and forms straight
+from nature, and, bearing in mind the necessity for selection of the
+best ornamental elements, for a certain simplification, and the
+rhythmical treatment before mentioned, it is good to do so, as the work
+is more likely to have a certain freshness than if some of the
+well-known historic forms of ornament are used again. We may, however,
+learn much from the ornamental use of these forms, and use similar forms
+as the boundaries of the shape of our pattern units and masses.
+
+It is good practice to take a typical shape such as the Persian
+radiating flower or pine-apple, and use it as the plan for quite a
+different structure in detail, taking some familiar English flower as
+our motive. The same with the Indian and Persian palmette type. It is
+also desirable, as before pointed out, to draw sprays within formal
+boundaries for ornamental use. By such methods we may not only learn to
+appreciate the ornamental value of such forms, but by such adaptation
+and re-combination produce new varieties of ornament (see p. 217[f116]).
+
+[Illustration (f116): Floral Designs Upon Typical Inclosing Shapes of
+Indian and Persian Ornament.]
+
+We may perceive how distinct are the two aims as between simple graphic
+drawing, or delineation, and what we call design, or conscious
+arrangements of line or form. While planes of relief, varied form and
+surface, values of light and shade, and accidental characteristics are
+rather the object with the graphic draughtsman, typical form and
+structure, and recurring line and mass, are sought for by the
+ornamentist. Both series of facts, or qualities, or characteristics, are
+in nature.
+
+                                                               [Selection]
+
+Judicious selection, however, is the test of artistic treatment;
+selection, that is, with a view to the aim and scope of the work. The
+truth of superficial appearance or accidental aspect is _one_ sort of
+truth: the truth of the actual constructive characteristics--be they of
+figure, flower, or landscape--is _another_. Both belong to the thing we
+see--to the object we are drawing; but we shall dwell upon one truth or
+set of truths rather than the other, in accordance with our particular
+artistic aim, though, whatever this may be, and in whatever direction it
+may lead us, we shall find that selection of some sort will be
+necessary.
+
+In making studies, however pure and simple, the object of which is to
+discover facts and to learn mastery of form, our aim should be to get as
+much truth as we can, truth of structure as well as of aspect. But these
+(as far as we can make them) exhaustive studies should be accompanied or
+followed by analytical studies made from different points of view and
+for different purposes.
+
+Studies, for instance, made with a view to arrangements of _line_
+only--to get the characteristic and beautiful lines of a figure, a
+momentary attitude, the lines of a flower, or a landscape: studies with
+a view, solely, to the understanding of structure and form, or again,
+with the object of seizing the broad relations of light and shade, or
+tone and colour--all are necessary to a complete artistic education of
+the eye.
+
+                                                [Accidents and Essentials]
+
+If we are drawn as students rather towards the picturesque and graphic
+side of art, we shall probably look for accidents of line and form
+more than what I should call the essentials, or _typical_ line and form,
+which are the most valuable to the decorative designer.
+
+In both directions some compact or compromise with nature is necessary
+in any really artistic re-presentation.
+
+The painter and the sculptor often seek as _complete representation_ as
+possible, and what may be called complete representation is within the
+range of their resources. Yet unless some individual choice or feeling
+impresses the work of either kind it is not a _re-presentation_, but
+becomes an _imitation_, and therefore inartistic.
+
+The decorative designer and ornamentist seek to _suggest_ rather than to
+_re-present_, though the decorator's suggestion of natural form, taking
+only enough to suit or express the particular ornamental purpose, must
+be considered also as a re-presentation. How much, or how little, he
+will take of actual nature must depend largely upon his resources, his
+object, and the limitations of his material--the conditions of his work
+in short; but his range may be as wide as from the flat silhouetted
+forms of stencils or simple inlays to the highly-wrought mural painting.
+
+Design motive, individual conception and sentiment, apart from material,
+must, of course, always affect the question of the choice and degree of
+representation of nature. The painter will sometimes feel that he only
+wants to suggest forms, such as figures or buildings, half veiled in
+light and atmosphere, colours and forms in twilight, or half lost in
+luminous depths of shadow.
+
+[Illustration (f117a): Dancing Figure with the Governing Lines of the
+Movement.]
+
+[Illustration (f117b): Lines of Floral Growth and Structure: Lily and
+Rose.]
+
+                                     [The Outward Vision and Inner Vision]
+
+The decorative designer will sometimes want to emphasize forms with the
+utmost force and realism at his command, as in some crisp bit of carving
+or emphatic pattern, to give point and relief in his scheme of
+quantities.
+
+There is no hard-and-fast rule in art, only general principles,
+constantly varied in practice, from which all principles spring, and
+into which, if vital, they ought to be capable of being again resolved.
+
+But a design once started upon some principle--some particular motive of
+line or form--then, in following this out, it will seem to develop
+almost a life or law of growth of its own, which as a matter of logical
+necessity will demand a particular treatment--a certain natural
+consistency or harmony--from its main features down to the smallest
+detail as a necessity of its existence.
+
+We might further differentiate art as, on the one hand, the image of the
+_outward vision_, and, on the other, as the outcome or image of the
+_inner vision_.
+
+The first kind would include all portraiture, by which I mean faithful
+portrayal or transcript whether of animate or inanimate nature; while
+the second would include all imaginative conceptions, decorative
+designs, and pattern inventions.
+
+The outward vision obviously relies upon what the eye perceives in
+nature. Its virtue consists in the faithfulness and truth of its graphic
+record, in the penetrating force of observation of fact, and the
+representative power by which they are reproduced on paper or canvas,
+clay or marble.
+
+[Illustration (f118a): 1 and 2, Mountain and Crag Sculpture: Coast
+Lines, Gulf of Nauplia.]
+
+[Illustration (f118b): Lines of Movement in Water: Shallow Stream Over
+Sand.]
+
+The image of the inner vision is also a record, but of a different order
+of fact. It may be often of unconscious impressions and memories which
+are retained and recur with all or more than the vividness of
+actuality--the tangible forms of external nature calling up answering,
+but not identical, images in the mind, like reflections in a mirror or
+in still water, which are similar but never the same as the objects they
+reflect.
+
+But the inner vision is not bound by the appearances of the particular
+moment. It is the record of the sum of many moments, and retains the
+typical impress of multitudinous and successive impressions--like the
+composite photograph, where faces may be printed one over another until
+the result is a more typical image than any individual one taken
+separately.
+
+The inner vision sees the results of time rather than the impressions of
+the moment. It sees _space_ rather than landscape: race rather than men:
+spirits rather than mortals: types rather than individuals.
+
+The inner vision hangs the mind's house with a mysterious tapestry of
+figurative thoughts, a rich and fantastic imagery, a world where the
+elements are personified, where every tree has its dryad, and where the
+wings of the winds actually brush the cheek.
+
+The inner vision re-creates rather than represents, and its virtue
+consists in the vividness and beauty with which, in the language of
+line, form, and colour, these visions of the mind are recorded and
+presented to the outward eye.
+
+There is often fusion here again between two different tendencies,
+habits of mind, or ways of regarding things. In all art the mind must
+work through the eye, whether its force appears in closeness of
+observation or in vivid imaginings. The very vividness of realization
+even of the most faithful portraiture is a testimony to mental powers.
+
+The difference lies really in the _focus_ of the mental force; and, in
+any case, the language of line and form we use will neither be forcible
+or convincing, neither faithful to natural fact nor true to the
+imagination, without close and constant study of external form and of
+its structure as well as its aspect.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER IX
+
+    Of the Adaptation of Line and Form in Design, in various
+    materials and methods--Mural Decoration--Fresco-work of the
+    Italian Painters--Modern Mural Work--Mural Spacing and pattern
+    Plans--Scale--The Skirting--The Dado--Field of the Wall--The
+    Frieze--Panelling--Tapestry--Textile Design--Persian Carpets--
+    Effect of Texture on Colour--Prints--Wall-paper--Stained Glass.
+
+
+We have been considering hitherto the choice and use of line and form,
+and various methods of their representation in drawing, both from the
+point of view of the graphic draughtsman and that of the ornamental
+designer.
+
+We now come to consider the subject solely from the latter standpoint
+(the point of view of ornamental design); and it will be useful to
+endeavour to trace the principles governing the selection of form and
+use of line as influenced by some of the different methods and
+conditions of craftsmanship, and as adapted to various decorative
+purposes.
+
+                                                        [Mural Decoration]
+
+The most important branch of decorative art may be said to be mural
+decoration, allied as it is with the fundamental constructive art of
+all--architecture, from which it obtains its determining conditions and
+natural limitations.
+
+Its history in the past is one of splendour and dignity, and its record
+includes some of the finest art ever produced. The ancient Asiatic
+nations were well aware of its value not only as decoration but as a
+record.
+
+[Illustration (f119): Giotto: "Chastity" (Lower Church, Assisi).]
+
+The palace and temple and tomb-walls of ancient Egypt, Persia, and
+Assyria vividly illustrate the life and ideas of those peoples, while
+they conform to mural conditions. The painted council halls and churches
+of the Middle Ages fulfil the same purpose in a different spirit; but
+mural decoration in its richest, most imaginative and complete form was
+developed in Italy, from the time of Giotto, whose famous works at the
+Arena Chapel at Padua and Assisi are well known, to the time of Michael
+Angelo, who in the sublime ceiling of the Sistine Chapel seemed to touch
+the extreme limits of mural work, and in fact might be said to have
+almost _defied_ them, painting mouldings in relief and in perspective
+to form the framework of pictures where figures on different scales are
+used. In the Sistine Chapel the series of earlier frescoes on the lower
+wall by Botticelli, Lorenzo di Credi, Ghirlandajo, Pinturicchio, and
+other Florentine painters of the fifteenth century are really more
+strictly mural in feeling, and safer as guides in general treatment,
+than the work of the great master himself. They have much of the repose
+and richness as well as the quiet decorative effect of tapestry.
+
+                                         [Fresco-Work of Italian Painters]
+
+The frescoes in the Palazzo Publico at Siena, Pinturicchio's work in the
+Piccolomini Chapel and the Appartimenti Borgia, the Campo Santo at Pisa
+and the Riccardi Chapel of Benozzo Gozzoli at Florence, may be mentioned
+as among the gems of mural painting.
+
+                                                       [Modern Mural Work]
+
+We have but little important mural painting in this country. Doubtless,
+from various traces discovered under Puritan whitewash, the walls of our
+mediæval churches were painted as frequently as in continental
+countries, but so completely did artistic tradition and religious
+sentiment change after the Reformation that the opportunities have been
+few and the encouragement less for mural painting. An attempt to revive
+fresco-painting was made in our Houses of Parliament, and various scenes
+from our national history have been rendered with varying degrees of
+merit; but they have chiefly demonstrated the need of continuous
+practice in such work on the part of our painters and the absence of a
+true decorative instinct.
+
+[Illustration (f120): Pinturicchio: Mural Painting (Piccolomini Chapel,
+Siena).]
+
+It is to the honour of Manchester that her Town Hall contains one of
+the most important and interesting pieces of mural painting by one of
+the most original of modern English artists--Ford Madox Brown--a work
+conceived in the true spirit of mural work, being a record of local
+history, as well as a decoration, while distinctly modern in sentiment
+and showing strong dramatic feeling, as well as historical knowledge.
+
+The chapel on which Mr. F. J. Shields is engaged in London will probably
+be unique in its way as a complete piece of mural decoration by an
+English artist of singular individuality, sincerity, and power, as well
+as decorative ability.
+
+But unfortunately opportunities for important mural decoration of this
+kind are very rare in England. The art is not popularized: we have no
+school of trained mural designers, and we have no public really
+interested. Our commercial system and system of house tenure are against
+it. Our only chance is in public buildings, which indeed have always
+been its best field. Yet we neglect, I think, a most important
+educational influence. The painted churches and public halls of the
+Middle Ages filled in a great measure the place of public libraries. A
+painted history, a portrait, a dramatic or romantic incident told in the
+vivid language of line, form, and colour, is stamped upon the memory
+never to be forgotten. It would be possible, I think, to impart a
+tolerably exact knowledge of the sequence of history, of the conditions
+of life at different epochs, of great men and their work, from a
+well-imagined series of mural paintings, without the aid of books; and
+in this direction, perhaps, our school walls would present an
+appropriate field.
+
+Modern opportunities of mural decoration are chiefly domestic. The
+country mansion, or the modest home of the suburban citizen, affords the
+principal field in our time for the exercise of the taste or ingenuity
+of the wall-decorator. In this comparatively restricted field, taste is
+perhaps of more consequence than any other quality. A sense of
+appropriateness, a harmonizing faculty, a power of arrangement of simple
+materials--these are invaluable, for, more than any others, they go to
+the making of a livable interior.
+
+                                         [Mural Spacing and Pattern Plans]
+
+On first thought it would almost seem as if the designer was less
+technically restricted in this direction of mural work than any other;
+yet he will soon feel that he cannot produce an artistic and thoughtful
+scheme without taking many things into consideration which really belong
+to the conditions or natural limitations of his work.
+
+There is, firstly, the idea of the wall itself--part of the
+house-structure--a shelter and protection or boundary. It is no part of
+a designer's business to put anything upon the wall in the way of
+decoration which will induce anyone to forget that it is a wall--nothing
+to disturb the flatness and repose.
+
+The four walls of a room inclose a space to dwell in, in comfort and
+security. The windows show us outward real life and nature. The walls
+should not compete with the windows. Nature must be translated into the
+terms of line and form and colour, and invention and fancy may be
+pleasantly suggestive in the harmonious metre and rhythm of pattern.
+
+A wall surface extends horizontally and vertically, but the vertical
+extension seems to assert itself most to the eye.
+
+Any arrangement of lines of the trellis or diaper order logically covers
+a wall surface, and may be appropriately used as a basis for a wall
+pattern, whether merely to mark the positions of a simple spray or
+formal sprig pattern, or as a ground-plan for a completely filled field
+of repeating ornament, whether painted, stencilled, or in the form of
+wall-paper or textile hanging.
+
+In the simple geometric net of squares or diamonds or circles, however,
+there is nothing that emphatically marks adaptability to a vertical
+position. Such plans in themselves are equally appropriate to the floor
+in the form of paving and parquet. The ogee plan, however, and its
+variant, the vertical serpentine or spiral plan, at once suggest
+vertical extension, the former perhaps by its leaf-like points arranging
+themselves scale-wise, and the latter by its suggestion of ascending
+movement.
+
+It is noteworthy that in the course of the historic evolution of mural
+decoration, designs based upon these systems constantly recur. They are
+part of the pattern-designer's vocabulary of line, and among the
+principal, though simplest, terms by which he is able to express
+vertical extension.
+
+The question of _scale_ in designing mural decoration of any sort is
+very important. This demands a certain power of realizing the effect of
+certain lines and masses if carried out, and the relation of one part to
+another as well as to the dimensions of the walls and the room itself.
+Here, as indeed throughout art, a reference to the human figure will
+give us our key, since after all decoration goes to form a background
+for humanity. With natural flowers and leaves it is always right to
+design for mural purposes on the same scale as nature.
+
+[Illustration (f121): Diagram Showing the Principal Fundamental Plans or
+Systems of Line Governing Mural Spacing and Decorative Distribution.]
+
+                                                                   [Scale]
+
+Scale in design should be also considered in relation to the general
+character of a building and its purpose, the use and lighting of a
+living room: its dimensions and proportions, and relation to other
+rooms. There is great range for individual taste and fancy.
+
+The artist would naturally look to the capacity of the space which he
+had to decorate, and what it suggested to his mind. He might want to
+emphasize a long, low room by horizontal lines, or to accentuate a lofty
+one by verticals.
+
+[Illustration (f122): Diagram to Show (1) How the Apparent Depth of a
+Space Is Increased by the Use of Vertical Lines, and (2) How the
+Apparent Width Is Increased by the Use of Horizontal Lines.]
+
+By the judicious use of line and scale in design, the designer holds a
+certain power of transformation in his hands, not to speak of the
+transforming effect of colour of different keys and tones, the apparent
+contraction or expansion of surfaces by patterns of different character
+and scale.
+
+It would obviously not do to regard any wall merely as so much expanse
+of surface available for sketching unrelated groups and figures upon, as
+they might be jotted down in a sketch-book, and to offer it as
+decoration. In an interior thus treated, we should lose all sense of
+repose, dignity, and proportion.
+
+Use and custom, which fix and determine so many things in social life
+without written laws, have also prescribed certain divisions of the
+wall, which, in regard to the exigencies of life and habit and modern
+conditions generally, seem natural enough.
+
+                                                            [The Skirting]
+
+The lower parts of the walls of most modern dwellings being generally
+occupied by furniture placed against them, and liable to be soiled or
+injured, it would be out of place to put important and elaborate
+ornament or figure designs extending to the skirting. The wooden
+skirting, of about nine inches or a foot in depth, which is placed along
+the foot of the wall in our modern rooms, is the armour-plating to
+protect the plaster, which otherwise might be chipped and litter the
+floor. It is perhaps the last relic of the more substantial and
+extensive wood panelling and wainscotting which, up to the latter part
+of the last century, covered the lower walls of the more comfortable
+houses, and has been revived in our own day. The decorator may use
+panelling, or wainscotting, or a simple chair-rail above plain painting,
+wall-paper, dado, or stencilling, or a dado of matting, as methods of
+covering, and at the same time decorating, the lower walls of rooms.
+
+The use of the dado of a darker colour and of wainscot is, no doubt, due
+to considerations of wear and tear, and so, like the origin of much
+ornamental art, may be traced to actual use and constructive necessity.
+When the wood-work of a room--the doors and window frames--is of the
+same colour and character as the dado, a certain agreeable unity is
+preserved, and it forms a useful plain framing to set off the patterned
+parts of the wall. This wainscot or dado framing with the wood-work
+should be as to colour arranged to suit the general scheme adopted.
+Where paint is used, white for the wood-work usually has the best
+effect.
+
+                                                       [Field of the Wall]
+
+The largest space of wall occurs above the chair-rail, or dado, and,
+according to modern habits and usage, portable property in the shape of
+framed pictures, etc., is usually placed here along the eye-line, so
+that any decoration on this--the main field of the wall--is regarded as
+subsidiary to what is placed upon it; but, of course, pictures can be
+used as the central points of a decorative scheme. On the upper part of
+a wall, below the plaster cornice, the mural designer has the chance of
+putting a frieze, and a frieze usually gives the effect of additional
+height to a room, besides enriching the wall.
+
+[Illustration (f123): Decorative Spacing of the Wall: Sketches (to
+1/2-in. Scale) to Show Different Treatment and Proportions.]
+
+An effective treatment of a large room, and one which is more reposeful
+than cutting up the wall into these portions, as in dado, field, and
+frieze, is to carry up wood panelling to the frieze, and let this (the
+frieze) be the important decorative feature.
+
+Supposing the room was twelve feet high, one could afford to have eight
+feet of panelling, and then a frieze of four feet deep. In this case one
+would look for an interesting painted frieze of figures--some legend or
+story to run along the four sides of the room, and in such a case it
+might be marked with considerable pictorial freedom.
+
+More formal figure design or ornamental work in coloured plaster-work,
+stucco, and gesso could also be appropriately used in such a position,
+as also on the ceiling.
+
+Now as regards choice of line and form in their relation to the
+decoration of such mural spaces. Taking the lower wall, dado, or
+panelling, one reason why panelling has so agreeable an effect is, I
+think, that the series of vertical and horizontal lines seem to express
+the proportions, while they emphasize the flatness and repose of the
+wall, and when used beneath a painted frieze they lead the eye upwards,
+forming a quiet framing of rectangular lines below to the ornate and
+varied design of the frieze. Where we are limited to decorating a wall
+by means of plain painting, stencils, or wall-paper, this idea of
+reposeful constructive lines and forms on the lower wall should still
+dominate upon the field. Subject to our repeating plan we may be freer
+both in line and form, using free scrolls, branch-work, fruit, and
+flower masses at pleasure, because the space is more extended, and we
+shall feel the necessity in a repeating pattern of spreading adequately
+over it; but such designs, however fine in detail, should be constructed
+upon a more or less geometric base or plan. We are, as regards the main
+field of the wall, still unavoidably, though not disadvantageously,
+influenced by the tradition of the textile hanging or arras tapestry, no
+doubt; and certainly there is no more rich and comfortable lining for
+living rooms than tapestry, or, at the same time, more reposeful and
+decoratively satisfying. But, of course, where we can afford arras
+tapestry (such as the superb work of William Morris and his weavers), we
+ought not to allow anything to compete with it upon the same wall. It is
+sufficient in itself.
+
+[Illustration (f128): Arras Tapestry: Diagrams to Show the Principle of
+Working and Surface Effect: (1) Vertical Position of Warp as Worked in
+the Loom and Relief Effect of the Wefts; (2) Enlarged Section of Warp as
+Hung (Horizontal); (3) Single Threads of Warp and Weft; (4) Warp and
+Weft as in the Loom (Vertical).]
+
+                                                                [Tapestry]
+
+Of what splendour of colour and wealth of decorative and symbolical
+invention tapestry was capable in the past may be seen in magnificent
+Burgundian specimens of the fifteenth century, now in the South
+Kensington Museum.
+
+Tapestry hangings of a repeating pattern and quiet colour could be used
+appropriately beneath painted upper walls, or a frieze, as no doubt
+frequently was the custom in great houses in the Middle Ages.
+
+                                                     [Appartimenti Borgia]
+
+In the Appartimenti Borgia in the Vatican, for instance, which consists
+of lofty vaulted rooms with frescoes by Pinturicchio upon the upper
+walls between the spans of the vaulting, and upon the vaulting itself,
+we may see, about eleven feet from the floor, along the moulding, the
+hooks left for the tapestry hangings, which completed the decoration of
+the room. The lower walls are now largely occupied by book-shelves; but
+books themselves may form a pleasant background, as one may often
+observe in libraries, especially when the bindings are rich and good in
+tone: and here, too, we get our verticals and horizontals again.
+
+[Illustration (f125): Pinturicchio: Fresco in the Appartimenti Borgia.]
+
+So long as the feeling for the repose and flatness of the wall surface
+is preserved, there are no special limitations in the choice of form. It
+becomes far more a matter of _treatment of form and subject_ in
+perfectly appropriate mural design. There is one principle, however,
+which seems to hold good in the treatment of important figure subjects
+to occupy the main wall surfaces as panels: while pictorial realization
+of a kind may be carried quite far, it is desirable to avoid large
+masses of light sky, or to attempt much in the way of atmospheric
+effect. It is well to keep the horizon high, and, if sky is shown, to
+break it with architecture and trees.
+
+Still more important is it to observe this in tapestry. It is very
+noticeable how tapestry design declined after the fifteenth century or
+early years of the sixteenth, when perspective and pictorial planes were
+introduced, and sky effects to emulate painting, and thus the peculiarly
+mural feeling was lost, with its peculiar beauty, richness, and repose.
+
+[Illustration (f124): Figure of Laura, from the Burgundian Tapestries:
+The Triumphs of Petrarch (South Kensington Museum).]
+
+In the translation into tapestry even of so tapestry-like a picture as
+that of Botticelli's "Primavera," it is noteworthy how Mr. Morris has
+felt the necessity of reducing the different planes, and the chiaroscuro
+of the painting, by more leafy and floral detail; making it, in short,
+more of a pattern than a picture.
+
+                                                              [The Frieze]
+
+A frieze is susceptible of a much more open, lighter, and freer
+treatment than a field. A frieze is one of the mural decorator's
+principal means of giving lightness and relief to his wall. In purely
+floral and ornamental design the field of close pattern, formal diaper,
+or sprigs at regular intervals may be appropriately relieved by bolder
+lines and masses, and a more open treatment in the frieze. The frieze,
+too, affords a means of contrast in line to the line system of the field
+of the wall, its horizontal expression usefully opposing the verticals
+or diagonals of the wall pattern below. The frieze may be regarded as a
+horizontal border, and in border designs the principle of transposition
+of the relation of pattern to ground is a useful one to bear in mind, as
+leading always to an effective result. I mean, supposing our field shows
+a pattern mainly of light upon dark, the frieze might be on the reverse
+plan, a dark pattern on a light ground.
+
+And whereas, as I have said, one would exclude wide light spaces from
+our mural field, in the frieze one might effectively show a light sky
+ground throughout, and arrange a figure or floral design upon that.
+
+The principle governing the treatment of main and lower wall spaces or
+fields, which teaches the designer to preserve the repose of the
+surface, may be said to rule also in all textile design, and textile
+design has, as we have seen in the form of tapestry, and hangings of all
+kinds, a very close association with mural decoration.
+
+                                                          [Textile Design]
+
+Any textile may be considered, from the designer's point of view, as
+presenting so much _surface_ for pattern, whether that surface is hung
+upon a wall, or curtains a door or a window, or is spread in the form of
+carpets or rugs upon floors, or over the cushions of furniture, or
+adapts itself to the variety of curve surface and movement of the human
+form in dress materials and costume. Textile beauty is beauty of
+material and surface, and unless the pattern or design upon it or woven
+with it enhances that beauty of material and surface, and becomes a part
+of the expression of that material and surface, it is better without
+pattern.
+
+[Illustration (f126): Portion of Detail of the Holy Carpet of the Mosque
+of Ardebil: Persian, Sixteenth Century.]
+
+To place informal shaded flowers and leaves upon a carpet, for instance,
+where the warp is very emphatic, and the process of weaving necessitates
+a stepped or rectangularly broken outline, is to mistake appropriate
+decorative effect, capacity of material, and position in regard to the
+eye. We cannot get away, in a carpet, from the idea of a flat field
+starred with more or less formal flowers, and colour arrangements which
+owe their richness and beauty, not to the relief of shading, but to the
+heraldic principle of relieving one tint or colour upon another. The
+rich inlay of colour which a Persian or any Eastern carpet presents is
+owing to its being designed upon this principle; and in Persian work
+that peculiarly rich effect of colour, apart from fine material, is
+owing to the principle of the use of outlines of different colours
+defining and relieving the different forms in the pattern upon different
+grounds. The rectangular influence arising from the technical conditions
+of the work gives a definite textile character to the design which is
+very agreeable; besides, as a question of line and form, in a carpet or
+rug which is rectangular in shape and laid usually upon rectangular
+floors, the squareness of form harmonizes with the conditions and
+surroundings of the work in use. The Persian designer, indeed, appears
+to be so impressed with this feeling, that he uses a succession of
+borders around the central field of his carpet or rug, still further
+emphasizing the rectangularity; while he avoids the too rigid effect of
+a series of straight lines which the crossing of the threads of the weft
+at right angles to the warp might cause, by changing the widths of his
+subsidiary borders and breaking them with a constant variety of small
+patterns, and inserting narrow white lines between the black lines of
+the border.
+
+[Illustration (f127): Sketch to Illustrate Treatment of Borders in a
+Persian Rug.]
+
+                                             [Effect of Texture on Colour]
+
+In tapestry the effect of the emphatic warp worked vertically in the
+loom, but hung horizontally, has a very important influence upon the
+effect. If we took a piece of paper coloured with a flat even tint, and
+folded it in ridges, the quality of the tint would be at once changed,
+and so in tapestry the passing of the wool of the wefts, which form the
+pattern or picture, over the strong lines of the warp--which are broad
+enough to take the outlines of the cartoon upon them--produces that soft
+and varied play of colour--really colour in light and shade--which, over
+and above the actual dyes and artistic selection of tints, gives the
+peculiar charm and effect in tapestry.
+
+This sheen and variety are more or less evident in all textiles, and a
+good textile pattern only adds to the variety and richness of the
+surface. The different thicknesses or planes of surface and the
+difference of their texture caused by the different wefts being brought
+to the surface of the cloth or silk (from the simplest contrast of
+line presented by the simplest arrangements of warp and weft, to the
+complexities of many-coloured silk stuffs and brocade) alone give a
+value to the surface pattern.
+
+In cut velvet the same principle of contrast of surface is emphasized
+still further, the rich deep nap of the less raised parts contrasting
+pleasantly with the mat effect of the ground.
+
+In designs for such material one should aim at boldly blocked-out
+patterns in silhouette--bold leaf and fruit forms say--designed on the
+principle of the stencil.
+
+                                                                  [Prints]
+
+With prints the range is of course freer, the material itself suggesting
+something lighter and more temporary. It seems highly probable that
+printed cotton was originally a substitute for embroidered linen or more
+sumptuous materials. There are certainly instances of very similar
+patterns in Indian and Persian work in silk embroidery, and also in
+printed cotton. In some cases the print is partly embroidered, which
+seems to mark a transitional stage, and recalls the lingering use of
+illumination in the early days of the printing press, in another
+department of art.
+
+Anything that will repeat as a pattern in what can be produced by line,
+dot, and tints of colour, and engraved upon wood-blocks or copper
+rollers, can be printed of course; and, as is generally the case with an
+art which has no very obvious technical limitations, it is liable to be
+caught by the imitative spirit, and cheap and rapid production and
+demand for novelties (so-called) generally end in loss of taste and
+deterioration of quality, especially in design. From the artistic point
+of view we can only correct this by bearing in mind similar
+considerations to those which hold good as general principles and guides
+in designing for textiles generally, having regard to the object,
+purpose, and position--to the ultimate use of the material, and
+differentiating our designs, as in the case of other textile design
+accordingly.
+
+Thus in the matter of plan and direction of line and character of form
+we shall at once find natural distinctions and divisions, as our design
+is for hanging, or spreading horizontally, or wearing; and these
+different functions will also determine scale and choice and treatment
+of form and colour.
+
+There is no doubt that with patterns printed more range may be allowed
+than with patterns to be woven, where line and form are both controlled
+by the necessities of being reproduced by so many points to the inch. At
+the same time the object of all design and pattern work being the
+greatest beauty compatible with the material and conditions, one should
+seek, not such effects as merely test the capacity or ingenuity of the
+machine, but rather such as appear to be most decoratively appropriate
+and effective.
+
+There appears to be no _mechanical_ reason why cotton should not be
+printed all over with landscapes and graphic sketches, and people clothe
+themselves with them as with Christmas numbers, or turn their couches,
+chairs, and curtains into scrap albums, but there is every reason _on
+the score of taste_ why these things should not be done.
+
+[Illustration (f129): (1) Contrasting Surfaces of Warp and Weft in
+Woven Silk Hanging; (2) Stencil Principle.]
+
+With any textile, as I have said, we are as designers dealing with
+surface. It is surface ornament that is wanted also in printed cotton.
+Now good line and form and pure tints have the best effect, because they
+do not break the surface into holes, and give a ragged or tumbled
+appearance, which accidental bunches of darkly-shaded flowers in high
+relief undoubtedly do. If small rich detail and variety are wanted, we
+should seek it in the inventive spirit of the Persian and Indian, and
+break our solid colours with mordants or arabesques in colour of
+delicate subsidiary pattern instead of using coarse planes of light and
+shadow, or showing up ragged and unrelated forms upon violent grounds.
+
+[Illustration (f130): Indian Printed Cotton Cover: South Kensington
+Museum.]
+
+The true idea of a print pattern is of something gay and fanciful:
+bright and fresh in colour, and clear in line and form: a certain
+quaintness is allowable, and in purely floral designs there is room for
+a considerable degree of what might be called naturalism, so far as good
+line-drawing and understanding of flower form goes, emphasis of colour
+being sought by means of _planes of colour_, rather than by planes of
+shadow.
+
+I had intended to touch upon other provinces of design, but I have taken
+up so much space with those I have been discussing already that I can
+only now briefly allude to these.
+
+                                                              [Wall-Paper]
+
+Of wall-paper, which may be regarded in the light of more or less of a
+substitute for mural painting, and also textile wall-hangings, much the
+same general principles and many of the same remarks apply as have been
+already used in regard to mural decoration. The designer has much
+freedom as to motive, and his ingenuity is only bounded by or
+concentrated in a square of twenty-one inches. If he has succeeded in
+making an agreeable pattern which will repeat not too obviously over an
+indefinite space, to form a not obtrusive background, and which can be
+printed and sold to the ordinary citizen, he is supposed to have
+satisfied the conditions.
+
+But he may be induced to go further and attempt the design of a complete
+decoration as far as dado, field, frieze, and ceiling go; and this would
+involve all the thought necessary to the mural painter, narrowed down to
+the exigencies of mechanical repeat.
+
+Allied to the wall is the window, and in glazing and the art of the
+glass-painter we have another very distinct and beautiful sphere of line
+design. In plain leading the same law of covering vertical surface holds
+good as to selection of plan and system of line: almost any simple
+geometric net is appropriate, if not too complex or small in form to
+hold glass or to permit lead to follow its lines. Leaded panels of
+roundels (or "bull's eyes") of plain glass have a good effect in
+casements where a sparkle of light rather than outward view is sought
+for.
+
+                                                           [Stained Glass]
+
+When we come to designing for stained glass we should still bear in mind
+the fundamental net of lead lines which forms the basis of our pattern,
+or glass picture, as it were: and the designer's object should be to
+make it good as an arrangement of line independently of the colour,
+while practical to the glazier.
+
+[Illustration (f131): (1) Stained Glass Treatment: Inclosure of Form and
+Colour by Lead Lines; (2) Sections.]
+
+Although lead is very pliable, too much must not be expected of it in
+the way of small depressions and angles: the boundary lines of the
+figures, which should be the boldest of all, should be kept as simple as
+possible, not only on this account, but because complex outlines cannot
+well be cut in glass. A head, for instance, is inclosed in sweeping
+line, and the profile defined within the lead line by means of painting.
+A hand would be defined on the same principle. Each different colour
+demands a different inclosure of lead, although in the choice of glass
+much variation of tint can be obtained, as in the case of pot metal
+running from thin to thick glass, which intensifies the colour, and many
+kinds of what is called flashed. Yet to the designer, from the point of
+view of line, glass design is a kind of translucent mosaic, in which the
+primal technical necessity of the leading which holds the glory of the
+coloured light together, really enhances its splendour, and in affording
+opportunities for decoration and expressive linear composition imparts
+to the whole work its particular character and beauty.
+
+This after all is the principle to cling to in all designing, to adapt
+our designs to the particular distinctive character and beauty of the
+material for which they are destined, to endeavour to think them out in
+those materials, and not only on paper. Whatever the work may
+be--carving, inlays, modelling, mosaic, textiles--through the whole
+range of surface decoration, we should think out our designs, not only
+in relation to the limitations of their material, but also in their
+relation to each other, to their effect in actual use, and even to their
+possible use in association together, which, of course, is of paramount
+importance in designing a complete room or any comprehensive piece of
+decoration.
+
+And when we leave plane surfaces and seek to invent appropriate, that is
+to say, _expressive_ ornament allied to concave and convex surfaces, to
+the varied forms of pottery for instance, metal-work, and glass vessels,
+furniture, and accessories of all kinds, we shall find the same laws and
+principles hold good which should guide us in all design--to adapt
+design to the characteristics and conditions of the material, to its
+structural capacity, its use and purpose, as well as to use or invention
+in line, both as a controlling plan or base of ornament, as well as a
+means of the association and expression of form.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER X
+
+    Of the Expression and Relief of Line and Form by _Colour_--Effect
+    of same Colour upon different Grounds--Radiation of Colour--White
+    Outline to clear Colours--Quality of Tints relieved upon other
+    Tints--Complementaries--Harmony--The Colour Sense--Colour
+    Proportions--Importance of Pure Tints--Tones and Planes--The Tone
+    of Time--Pattern and Picture--A Pattern not necessarily a Picture,
+    but a Picture in principle a Pattern--Chiaroscuro--Examples of
+    Pattern-work and Picture-work--Picture-patterns and Pattern-pictures.
+
+
+Perhaps the most striking means of the expression of relief of line and
+form, certainly the most attractive, is by colour. By colour we obtain
+the most complete and beautiful means of expression in art.
+
+                                       [Relief of Line and Form by Colour]
+
+Our earliest ideas of form are probably derived through the different
+colours of objects around us, by which they are thrown into relief upon
+the background, or against other objects; and, as I mentioned in the
+first chapter, we reach outline by observing the edges of different
+masses relieved as dark or light upon light or dark grounds, so now, in
+my last, we come again to the consideration of the definition of line
+and form by colour, and their relief and expression upon different
+planes or fields of colour.
+
+There is first the colour of the object itself--the local colour--and
+then the colour of the ground upon which it is relieved, both of which
+in their action and reaction upon each other will greatly affect the
+value of the local colour and the degree of relief of the form upon it.
+
+One of the best and simplest ways to ascertain the real value of a
+colour and its effect upon different grounds or fields is to take a
+flower--say a red poppy, and place it against a white paper ground,
+blocking in the local colour as relieved upon white, as near as may be
+to its full strength, with a brush, and defining the form as we go
+along. Then try the same flower upon grounds of different tints--green,
+blue, yellow--and it will be at once perceived what a different value
+and expression the same form in the same colour has upon different
+tinted grounds. A scarlet poppy would appear clearest and darkest upon
+white; it would show a tendency upon a blue ground to blend or blur at
+its edges, and also on yellow and green to a less extent.
+
+[Illustration (f132): Sketch to Show Effect of the Same Colour and Form
+upon Different Coloured Grounds.]
+
+It is this tendency to lose the edges of forms owing to the radiation of
+colours, and to mingle with the colour of the background, which makes a
+strong outline so constantly a necessity in decorative work. One may use
+a black on a white, a brown, or a gold outline (as in cloisonné), the
+nature of the outline being generally determined by the nature of the
+work. In stained glass the outline must be black, and this black is of
+the greatest value in enhancing by opposition the brilliance of the
+colours of the glass it incloses, stopping out the light around it as it
+does in solid lead when placed in the window.
+
+[Illustration (f133): (1) Principle of the Effect of the Blending or
+Blurring of Colours at Their Edges; (2) Use of Black and White Outline
+to Clear the Edges of Coloured Forms upon Different Coloured Grounds.]
+
+                                                 [Clearing Coloured Forms]
+
+A white outline produced by a resist or a mordant in a printed
+textile, where the colours used are full and rich, often has a good
+effect, lightening the effect while giving point and definition to
+certain leading forms. Instances of the use of white outlines may be
+found in Eastern carpets, where the main colours, being dark blue and
+yellows on rich red, are relieved in parts by a dull white outline. Also
+in Persian carpets of the sixteenth or seventeenth century, the
+scrollwork in red is often relieved by an ivory white outline on blue.
+
+It is always a good practice in blocking in flowers, either from nature
+or as parts of a design, to leave a white outline at the junctions--that
+is to say, where one petal overlaps another, or where there is a joint
+in the stem, or a fold in the leaf--and to show the ribbings, markings,
+and divisions of flower and leaf.
+
+By judiciously changing the quality of our tints it is possible to make
+different colours in a pattern tell clearly. To relieve red upon blue,
+for instance, one would use an orange red upon greenish blue, or scarlet
+upon a gray blue--the general principle being apparently a kind of
+compensating balance between colours, so that in taking from one you
+give to another.
+
+A full red and blue used together, as we have seen, would show a
+tendency to purple, unless separated by outlines; so that if the blue
+was full and rich, the red would have to approach brown or russet; or if
+the red was a full one--a crimson red--the blue would have to approach
+green.
+
+                                                                 [Harmony]
+
+This may be because of the necessary complements in colours, which we
+see in nature, and which prepossess the eye, and make it demand these
+modifications to satisfy the sense of harmony.
+
+When daylight struggles with candle- or lamp-light, one may notice that
+upon the white cloth of a dinner-table the light is blue and the shadows
+yellow or orange--the orange deepening as with the fading daylight the
+blue grows deeper, until the colour of the light and the shadow change
+places. The same principle may be noticed in firelight, but the redder
+the flame the greener will be the shadows.
+
+Harmony in colour may be said to consist--apart from the general
+acknowledgment of the law of complementaries, in giving quality to the
+raw pigments by gradation, by a certain admixture or infusion of other
+colours.
+
+To begin with the negatives--white and black--white may be creamy or
+silvery; black may be of a greenish or a bluish or brownish tone; then
+the primaries--red, blue, yellow, or red, green, violet--red may range
+from crimson to orange and russet; yellow may approach green or gold;
+green may be first cousin to blue; blue may be turquoise on the one
+hand, and touch purple upon the other; and so on through infinite
+variations of half tints and tones.
+
+No doubt it is an easier matter to harmonize half tints than full bright
+colours, which may account for the prevalence of the former in
+decorative work. Nature's pattern-book, too, is full of half tones and
+mixed tints.
+
+                                                        [The Colour Sense]
+
+We may not all see colour precisely in the same way, and the same colour
+may appear to be of a different tint to different eyes; and it seems
+certain that climate and surroundings affect the colour sense: light
+and colour will stimulate the delight in colour; while, where grayness
+and dullness characterize the surroundings of life, the colour sense
+will grow weak, or, if it is manifested at all, it will show a tendency
+to grayness and heaviness of tint.
+
+The art of the different peoples of the world illustrates this, and, as
+we may see by turning from east to west, or from north to south, or even
+from winter to summer, in the main the love of colour follows the sun,
+like the rainbow.
+
+We can all do something to cultivate our sense of colour, however, and
+there is no better way than studying the harmonies and varieties of
+nature. Even the town-dweller is not altogether deprived of the sight of
+the sky, which constantly unfolds the most beautiful compositions both
+of form and colour.
+
+As to the choice of colours in decorative design, so far as that is not
+narrowed by the particular conditions of the work, we must be guided by
+much the same considerations as would serve us in designing generally,
+and must, of course, think of appropriateness to position and purpose.
+Much depends, too, upon proportions of colour, and a beautiful and
+harmonious effect may be produced in a room by keeping the colour in a
+particular key, or even delicately varying the designs and tints of one
+or two colours. The same might be said in arranging a scheme of
+colouring for any particular piece of design--say, a painted panel or a
+textile pattern; although such things must ultimately be governed by
+their relation to other parts in any general scheme--circumstances
+necessitate their being often designed apart. Still, if the colour of a
+pattern has been carefully thought out, or rather harmoniously felt, as
+a real organic thing, it is sure to fit into its place when its time
+comes.
+
+In arranging our design of colour we can have no better guide, as to
+proportions and quality, than nature, and should do well, as a matter of
+practice, to take a flower, or the plumage of a bird, or the colours of
+a landscape, and adapt them to some particular pattern or scheme of
+decoration, following the relative degrees of tint and their quantities
+as nearly as possible. To do this successfully requires some invention
+and taste; but successful, or unsuccessful, one could hardly fail to
+learn something positive and valuable about colour, if the attempt was
+conscientiously made; and fresher motives and sweeter colour would be
+more likely to result from such study.
+
+                                                [Importance of Pure Tints]
+
+I think it is a very important thing in all decorative work to keep
+one's colours pure in quality, and to avoid muddy or heavy tints. Brown
+is an especially difficult colour to use, because of its generally heavy
+effect as a pigment, and the difficulty of harmonizing it with other
+colours except as an outline; and even here it makes all the difference
+whether it is a cool or a hot shade. A hot brown is most destructive of
+harmony in colours. It is safe, as a rule, to make it lean to green, or
+bronze, or gold.
+
+As a general rule it is well to work either in a range of cool tints--a
+cool key of colour, or the reverse--a warm and rich one. Few cool
+harmonies can be better than ultramarine and turquoise on greenish
+white, of which the Persians and Indians are so fond in tile-work. They
+are delightful to the eye, while peculiarly adapted to the work, owing
+their quality to the oxide of copper, which the firing brings out so
+well.
+
+Blues and greens and grays, relieved with white and yellow and orange:
+or, reds and yellows, relieved with white and opposed by blacks,
+generally answer: or a range of reds together, or range of blues, or of
+yellows, with black and white for contrast and accent. Blue and white,
+too, can be modified in quality; black may be greenish in tone, or
+brownish, bluish, or purplish according to the harmony aimed at. White
+may be pure or ivory-toned, cream-coloured or influenced by other
+colours, and should vary in degree according to the strength of the
+harmony. This brings us to the question of tone.
+
+                                                        [Tones and Planes]
+
+Now the ornamentist, the designer of patterns, relies for his effect
+upon the use of certain planes and oppositions of tints to relieve and
+express his design, to emphasize its main motive, to bring out or to
+subdue its lines and forms. He knows that cool flat tints--blues,
+greens, grays--will make forms and surfaces retire, and he makes use of
+them for flat and reposeful effects, such as wall and ceiling surfaces,
+adopting the natural principle of colour in landscape and sky.
+
+He uses richer and more varied colour in textile hangings and carpets,
+furniture, and accessories--reds, yellows, greens, crimson, russets,
+orange, gold--which answer to the brighter flowers and parterres of our
+gardens, as things to be near the eye and touch, and to occur as lesser
+quantities in a scheme of interior colour design.
+
+In the colour design of patterns, harmonious and rich effects can be
+produced by the use of pure colour alone, no doubt, if carefully
+proportioned, and separated by outline; though harmony is more difficult
+to attain in pure colours used in their full strength; and for their due
+effect, and to avoid harshness, such a treatment really requires
+out-door light or special conditions of lighting, or the strong light of
+eastern or southern countries, to soften the effect.
+
+And since we have to adapt our designs to their probable surroundings,
+we usually consciously select certain tones or shades of a colour,
+rather than use it absolutely pure or in its full strength. The
+beautiful tone which time gives to all colour-work is difficult to
+rival, but no conscious imitation of it is tolerable.
+
+But so long as our aim is strictly to make a colour scheme of any kind
+in relation to itself, or in harmony with its conditions, we are on a
+safe and sound path. It is this relativity which is the important thing
+in all decorative art, and which, more distinctly than any other
+quality, distinguishes it from pictorial art; although pictorial art is
+under the necessity of the same law in regard to itself; and in its
+highest forms, as in mural work, is certainly subject to relativity in
+its widest sense.
+
+                                                     [Pattern and Picture]
+
+At first sight it might appear as if there were an essential fundamental
+natural difference between a pattern and a picture, but when we come to
+consider it, it appears to be rather a distinction than a difference.
+
+A pattern may be an arrangement of lines, forms, and a harmony of planes
+and tones of colour.
+
+But these words would describe in general terms a picture also.
+
+Certain recurrences of line and form; certain re-echoing notes of the
+same, or allied colour, are necessary to both pattern and picture. The
+abstract ingredients appear to be the same in both cases.
+
+A picture indeed may be considered as a pattern of another sort, and the
+real difference is that whereas a pattern is not necessarily a picture,
+a picture is bound to be a pattern--a pattern having its quantities, its
+balance of masses, its connecting lines, its various planes, its key of
+colour, its play of contrasts, its harmony of tones.
+
+Technically, a picture may be considered as an _informal_ pattern,
+mainly of tone and values; while a pattern may be considered as a
+_formal_ pattern, mainly of planes of colour.
+
+The ancient art of the East was all frankly pattern-work, whatever the
+subject pictured. Egyptian, Persian, Indian, Chinese, Moorish and
+Arabian art, in all their varieties, show the dominating sense of
+pattern, and the invention of the instinctive decorators in the use of
+colour.
+
+The Japanese, also, are instinctive decorators, though in a less formal
+and more impressionistic way, and with much more naturalistic feeling.
+Their pictures printed from colour blocks, as well as their "kakimonos,"
+painted on silk, are frankly pattern-pictures, the pattern motive being
+quite as strong or stronger than the graphic or representative motive.
+
+Mediæval and early Renaissance painting in Europe was frankly more or
+less formal and of the nature of ornament, and even in its freest and
+fullest development, in the works of the great masters of the sixteenth
+century of Venice and Florence, a certain decorative or architectural
+feeling was never forgotten.
+
+Painting was still in close association with architecture, and was the
+chief adornment of churches and palaces; thus it preserved a peculiar
+distinction and dignity of style. The Dutch school did more perhaps to
+break these old decorative and architectural traditions than any other,
+with their domestic and purely naturalistic motives, their pursuit of
+realism, atmospheric effect, and chiaroscuro--that fascinating goal of
+painting.
+
+                                                             [Chiaroscuro]
+
+Yet there were some of the seventeenth-century masters, and of the best,
+such as De Hooghe and Ver Meer of Delft, who showed themselves very much
+alive to decorative effect, which their power of chiaroscuro--the power
+of painting things in their proper atmosphere, as lost in transparent
+depths of shadow, or found in luminous mystery--only seemed to enhance.
+
+As a wonderful instance of ornamental and dignified design carried into
+every detail with most careful draughtsmanship, and yet beautiful in
+chiaroscuro and grave colour, there is no finer example than J. Van
+Eyck's portrait-picture of "Jan Arnolfini and his Wife" in our National
+Gallery. Such pictures as these would tell as rich and precious gems
+upon the wall, and would form the centres to which the surrounding
+colour patterns and decoration would lead up, as in the picture the
+little mirror reflecting the figures shines upon the wall, a picture
+within a picture.
+
+[Illustration (f134): J. van Eyck: "Portrait of Jan Arnolfini and His
+Wife." (National Gallery.)]
+
+It is instructive from any point of view to study the quantities and
+relations of colour, and their tones and values, in such works.
+
+                                                       [Ver Meer of Delft]
+
+Take Ver Meer's "Lady at a Spinet" in our National Gallery.
+
+[Illustration (f135): Ver Meer of Delft: "Lady at a Spinet." (National
+Gallery.)]
+
+We have a plain white wall, exquisite in tone, upon which the crisp gold
+of the small picture inclosing a brownish landscape with a blue and
+white sky, and the broad black frame of the picture of Cupid tell
+strongly, yet fall into plane behind the figure in white satin--quite a
+different quality of white, and warmer and brighter than the wall. The
+bodice is a steely blue silk, which is repeated in the velvet seat of
+the chair; while the blue and white landscape upon the open lid of the
+spinet repeats the blue and white landscape on the wall, and the blue
+and white motive is subtly re-echoed in a subdued key in the little
+tiles lining the base of the wall. The floor is a chequer of black and
+white (mottled) marble, which gives a fine relief to the dress and
+repeats the emphatic black of the picture frame; the stand of the spinet
+is also black striated marble. Quiet daylight falls through the greenish
+white of the leaded panes. The pink-brown woodwork of the spinet and
+chair prevent the colour scheme from being cold. The flesh is very pale
+and ivory-like in tone, but the dress is enlivened by little crisp
+scarlet and gold touches in the narrow laces which tie the sleeves.
+
+The little picture is a gem of painting and truth of tone, and at the
+same time might well suggest a charming scheme of colour to an
+ornamentist.
+
+                                                                [Van Eyck]
+
+Examine the Van Eyck in the same way, and we shall find a very rich but
+quiet scheme of colour in a lower key, highly decorative, yet presented
+with extraordinary realistic force, united with extreme refinement and
+exquisite chiaroscuro, and truth of tone and value, as a
+portrait-picture, and piece of interior lighting.
+
+It is like taking an actual peep into the inner life of a Flemish
+burgher of the fifteenth century.
+
+One seems to breathe the still air of the quiet room, the gray daylight
+falling through the leaded casements, one of which stands open, and
+shows a narrow strip of luminous sky and suggestion of a garden with
+scarlet blossoms in green leaves.
+
+The man is clad in a long mantle of claret-brown velvet edged with fur,
+over black tunic and hose. He wears a quaint black hat upon his head,
+which almost foreshadows the tall hat of the modern citizen. The pale
+strange face looks paler and stranger beneath it, but is in character
+with the long thin hands. The figure gives one the impression of legal
+precision and dryness, and a touch of clerical formality. The wife is of
+a buxom and characteristic Flemish type, in a grass-green robe edged
+with white fur, over peacock blue; a crisp silvery white head-dress; a
+dark red leather belt with silver stitching. Her figure is relieved upon
+the subdued red of the bed hangings, continued in the cover of the
+settle and the red clogs. The wall of the room, much lost in transparent
+shade, is of a greenish gray tone, and in the centre, between the
+figures, a circular convex mirror sparkles on the wall reflecting the
+backs of the figures. Thin lines delicately repeat the red in the mirror
+frame, which has a black and red inner moulding. A string of amber beads
+hangs on the wall, and repeats the shimmer of the bright brass
+candelabra which hangs aloft, and which is drawn carefully enough for a
+craftsman to reproduce.
+
+                                                        [Pattern-Pictures]
+
+Both designer and painter may find abundant suggestion in this picture,
+which, with Ver Meer's "Lady at the Spinet," I should describe as
+_pattern-pictures_--that is to say, while they are thoroughly painter's
+pictures, and give all the peculiar qualities of oil-painting in the
+rendering of tone and values, they yet show in their colour scheme the
+decorative quality, and might be translated into patterns of the same
+proportions and keys of colours.
+
+As examples of what might be termed picture-patterns we might recur to
+the wall paintings, as I have said, of ancient Egypt and early art
+generally, for their simplest forms; but to take a much later instance,
+and from the art of Florence in the fifteenth century, look at
+Botticelli's charming little picture of "The Nativity," in the National
+Gallery. It has all the intentional, or perhaps instinctive, ornamental
+aim of Italian art, and its colour scheme shows a most dainty and
+delicate invention in the strictest relation to the subject and
+sentiment, and is arranged with the utmost subtlety and the nicest art.
+
+                                                              [Botticelli]
+
+The ring of angels above, for instance, is partly relieved upon a gilded
+ground--to represent the dome of heaven. They bear olive branches, and
+the colour of their robes alternates in the following order: rose, olive
+(shot with gold), and white.
+
+The _rose-coloured_ angels have _olive and white wings_; the _white
+angels, rose and olive wings_; and _the olive angels, white and rose
+wings_.
+
+This part of the picture by itself forms a most beautiful pattern
+motive, while it expresses the idea of peace and goodwill.
+
+Then on the brown and gold thatch of the stable occur three more angels
+in white, rose, and green, respectively. Against a pale sky rise rich
+olive-green trees, forming the background.
+
+[Illustration (f136): Botticelli: "The Nativity" (National Gallery).]
+
+The Virgin strikes the brightest ray of colour in red under-robe and
+sky-blue mantle. There is a gray white ass and a pale brown cow behind
+her.
+
+St. Joseph is in steel gray with a golden orange mantle over.
+
+The brightest white occurs in the drapery upon which the infant Christ
+lies.
+
+An angel with a group of men appears, kneeling on the left relieved
+against white rocks; their colours are--the angel's wings--peacock blue
+and green, and a pale rose robe. The next figure is in scarlet; the next
+yellow; and the third man wears pale rose over rich grass-green.
+
+Of the shepherds on the right the first one is in russet and white, the
+next steely gray, and the angel is in white with rose and pale green
+wings.
+
+The ground is generally warm white and brown, with dark olive-coloured
+grass and foliage, so that the pattern of the picture is mainly a ground
+of olive, gold, and white, relieved by spots of rose, white, blue,
+yellow, and rose-red and scarlet--the colour in the groups of angels
+embracing men in front being the deepest in tone.
+
+The first angel in this group (on the left) wears green shot with gold,
+with shot green and gold wings, the human being in dark olive and rich
+crimson red.
+
+Next is a white angel with pale rose wings; the man in gray with a red
+mantle over.
+
+Last is an angel in rose, with rose and red wings, the man being in
+scarlet with gray mantle over. All the men hold olive branches, and the
+group emphatically illustrates the idea of "on earth peace and goodwill
+towards men," thus ending on the keynote both of colour and idea given
+in the ring of angels above.
+
+Thus it is not only a lovely picture, but an exquisite pattern.
+
+                                                                 [Holbein]
+
+Another instance of a picture-pattern extremely strong and brilliant in
+its realization of the full force and value of bright colour opposed by
+the strongest black and white, may be found in Holbein's splendid
+"Ambassadors," also in our National Collection.
+
+[Illustration (f137): Holbein: "The Ambassadors" (National Gallery).]
+
+                                                              [Botticelli]
+
+The circular picture of the Madonna and Child, with St. John and an
+angel, by Botticelli, is also another beautiful instance of pictorial
+pattern, and of design well adapted and adequately filling its space,
+while full of delicate draughtsmanship, poetic sentiment, and extremely
+ornate in its colour.
+
+[Illustration (f138): Botticelli: "Madonna and Child" (National
+Gallery).]
+
+                                                          [Carlo Crivelli]
+
+Still more strictly ornamental in character and aim is Carlo Crivelli's
+"Annunciation." Amazingly rich in invention, and beautifully designed
+detail, and magnificently decorative in its colour scheme of brick reds
+and whites, and pale pinks and steel grays, and yellows, varied with
+scarlet and black, green, blue and gold, in the costumes and draperies,
+sparkling with jewels, and brightened with rays and patterns of gold.
+
+[Illustration (f139): Carlo Crivelli: "The Annunciation" (National
+Gallery).]
+
+                                                                [Perugino]
+
+Hardly less ornamental in its more conscious grace and Renaissance
+feeling is Perugino's triptych of the Virgin adoring, with St. Michael
+on one wing and St. Raphael and Tobias on the other. It is a splendid
+deep-toned harmony of blues, and warm flesh tones and golden hair,
+varied by opals, rose red, bronze, green, white, and purple and orange.
+
+[Illustration (f140): Perugino: "The Virgin in Adoration, with St.
+Michael and St. Raphael and Tobias" (National Gallery).]
+
+                                                                  [Titian]
+
+Titian's "Bacchus and Ariadne" is, perhaps, more what I have described
+as a pattern-picture, and is of a much later type. The full flush of
+colour and pagan joy of the Renaissance is here paramount, expressed
+with the masterly freedom of drawing and magnificent colour sense of the
+great Venetian master. Yet, looking through the life, the movement, the
+swing and vitality of the figures, and the power and poetry by which the
+story is conveyed, we shall find a fine ornate design, sustaining an
+extremely rich and sumptuous pattern of colour. We have a spread of
+deep-toned blue sky barred with silvery white and gray clouds, great
+masses of brown and green foliage swaying against it, above a band of
+deep blue sea, and a field of rich golden brown earth. Warm flesh tones,
+deep and pale, break upon this with a gorgeous pattern of flying rose,
+blue, scarlet, orange, and white draperies, varied with the spotted
+coats of the leopards, the black of the dog, and the copper vessel and
+warm white of tumbled drapery.
+
+[Illustration (f141): Titian: "Bacchus and Ariadne" (National Gallery).]
+
+Keats might have had this picture in his mind when he wrote the song in
+"Endymion":
+
+    "And as I sat, over the light blue hills
+    There came a noise of revellers: the rills
+    Into the wide stream came of purple hue.
+                  'Twas Bacchus and his crew!
+
+    "The earnest trumpet speaks, and silver thrills
+    From kissing cymbals made a merry din--
+                  'Twas Bacchus and his kin!
+
+    "Like to a moving vintage down they came,
+    Crowned with green leaves, and faces all on flame;
+    All madly dancing through the pleasant valley,
+                  To scare thee, Melancholy!"
+
+The "Sacred and Profane Love" of the same painter, in the Borghese
+Gallery at Rome, is an even more splendid example of colour and tone,
+and is probably the finest of all Titian's works.
+
+                                                           [Paul Veronese]
+
+In Paul Veronese we find a cooler key of colour generally, with a
+fondness for compositions of figures with classical architecture, the
+rich patterned robes and varied heads contrasting pleasantly with the
+severe verticals and smooth surfaces of the marble columns--a sumptuous
+and dignified kind of picture-pattern, and fully adapted to the
+decoration of Venetian churches and palaces of the Renaissance.
+
+                                                          [F. Madox Brown]
+
+Madox Brown's "Christ washing St. Peter's Feet," now in the Tate
+Gallery, is a modern picture-pattern, and an extremely fine one.
+
+These are but a few instances out of many, and the subject of colour and
+pattern, like the expression of line and form, of which it is a part, is
+so large and its sides so multitudinous that to deal with the subject
+fully and illustrate it adequately would need, not ten chapters, but
+ten hundred, and could only be compassed by the history of art itself.
+
+[Illustration (f142): Madox Brown: "Christ Washing St. Peter's Feet"
+(Tate Gallery).]
+
+                                                              [Conclusion]
+
+If anything I have said on the subject, or have been able to show by way
+of illustration, has served in any way to clear away obscurities, or to
+lighten the labours of students, or to suggest fresh ideas to the minds
+of any of my readers in the theory, history, or practice of art, I shall
+feel that my work has not been in vain, and, at all events, I can only
+say that I have endeavoured to give here the results of my own thoughts
+and experience in art.
+
+Some may look upon art as a means of livelihood only, a handmaid of
+commerce, or as a branch of knowledge, to be acquired only so far as to
+enable one to impart it to others; others may regard it as a polite
+amusement; others, again, as an absorbing pursuit and passion, demanding
+the closest devotion: but from whatever point of view we may regard it,
+do not let us forget that the pursuit of beauty in art offers the best
+of educations for the faculties, that its interest continually
+increases, and its pleasures and successes are the most refined and
+satisfying.
+
+
+
+
+                                  INDEX
+
+Adaptability in design, 124-126.
+
+Animal forms, use of in design, 106;
+  governed by inclosing boundaries, 104-106, 110-112.
+
+Architectural mouldings, relief in, 190.
+
+Architecture, spaces for sculpture in, 113-116.
+
+Ardebil, holy carpet of the mosque of, f126.
+
+Athens, the Tower of the Winds, 115-116.
+
+
+Bari, 10;
+  the "Hundred Birds" of, f044.
+
+Birds, Japanese drawing of, 68, f044;
+  decorative treatment of, f115.
+
+Blake's Book of Job, "The Morning Stars," 19, f014, 152.
+
+Border motives, recurrence in, f031, f032, f062.
+
+Book decoration, 58, 59, 62;
+  example of page treatment, f041.
+
+Botticelli, frescoes in the Sistine Chapel, 226;
+  rendering of the "Primavera" in tapestry, 240;
+  his "Nativity," 272-275;
+  "Madonna and Child," 275-276.
+
+Boundaries, definition of, 2, 3;
+  use of in designing sprays, 38, f027;
+  in designing animal forms, f063a;
+  influence of, 108;
+  relation of design to, f064;
+  decorative spacing of figures in geometric, f063b, 152-156.
+
+Brush-work, 65-68.
+
+
+Canterbury, St. Margaret Street, f086.
+
+Ceiling decoration, 136.
+
+Charcoal drawing, 68, 70.
+
+Chartres, carving on the Cathedral, 197, f108, f109.
+
+Chiaroscuro, 267-269.
+
+Chinese porcelain, 101.
+
+Colour, effect of texture on, 244;
+  in stained glass, 252;
+  expression of relief in line and form by, 256, 258;
+  radiation of, 258;
+  complements in, 260;
+  harmony in, 261;
+  colour sense, 261, 262;
+  colour proportions, 262;
+  importance of pure colour, 263.
+
+Composition, formal, 152-156;
+  informal, 157-164.
+
+Constantine, Arch of, sketch of, f069.
+
+Contrast in design, 101;
+  use of, in pattern design, 166, _et seq._;
+  principles of, in black and white, f111a.
+
+Corinthian order, Roman treatment of, 192, f105.
+
+Counterbalance, 43, 44, 95, f057, f058, 130.
+
+Counterchange, in heraldry, 171-174.
+
+Crivelli, "The Annunciation," 276-278.
+
+Cube, the, 73;
+  use of in architecture, f045b, 77, f048a;
+  in nature, 76.
+
+
+Dado, use of the, 234.
+
+De Hooghe, Peter, 267.
+
+Desiderio di Settignano, relief work of, 202;
+  "Madonna and Child," at South Kensington, by, 202.
+
+Design, linear basis of, 35;
+  technical influence on, 58, 59, 62;
+  beauty in, 62, 63;
+  influence of material on, 64;
+  quantities in, 96-101;
+  contrast in, 101;
+  living tradition in, 126;
+  adaptability in, 124-126;
+  extension in, 126-131;
+  geometric structural plans in, 130;
+  essentials of, 138-139.
+
+De Wint, brush-work of, 68.
+
+Diaper, use of in Middle Ages, 171, 174-175.
+
+Donatello, relief work of, 202.
+
+Drapery, treatment of by the old masters, f099-186.
+
+Drawing in line, methods of, 6, 7;
+  calligraphic method, 8;
+  tentative method, 9;
+  Japanese method, 10;
+  oval and rectangular methods, f008, 12.
+
+Dürer, Albert, his "Geometrica," 5;
+  roofs in his engravings, 148;
+  "The Prodigal Son," f083;
+  "St. Anthony," f084;
+  principle in the treatment of drapery, f099, f100.
+
+
+Egyptian sculpture, 192, 194-196.
+
+Emotion, linear expression of, 18-21.
+
+Emphasis, 54;
+  value of, 56;
+  effects of different emphasis, f038, f039, f040;
+  in relief of form, 180.
+
+Equivalents in form, value of, 95, f057.
+
+Extension in design, 126-131.
+
+
+Figure composition, 160;
+  expression of repose and action in, f090.
+
+Figure design, relief in, 204-207;
+  graphic and decorative treatment of, f114.
+
+Figure designs, controlled by geometric boundaries, 152-156.
+
+Flaxman's Homer, designs from, f015.
+
+Flowers,
+  lines of characterization in design of, 12, 13;
+  forms controlled by inclosing boundaries, 110-112.
+
+Foliage, principles of structure in, 143-146.
+
+Form, its relation to line, 27;
+  importance of knowledge of, 31;
+  choice of, 73, 79;
+  elementary forms and their relation to forms in nature and art, 73-77;
+  grouping of, 83-87;
+  analogies of, 89-91;
+  typical forms of ornament, 92-95;
+  equivalents in, 95, f057;
+  variation of allied forms, 103;
+  governed by shape of inclosing boundary, f063b, 106, f066;
+  relief of, 165, _et seq._;
+  expression of, by light and shade, 205, f112.
+
+Frieze, origin of the, 113, 133;
+  and field, 133-135;
+  use of the, 236;
+  treatment of, 240.
+
+Fruit forms, treatment of, f054, 89.
+
+
+Gems, engraved, 200.
+
+Geometric forms, elementary, 73;
+  structural plans in surface design, 128-133.
+
+Ghirlandajo, 226.
+
+Giotto, "Chastity," f119.
+
+Gozzoli, Benozzo, 226.
+
+Graphic aim, the, in drawing, 29-31, 205, 208-211.
+
+Grouping of forms, 83-87.
+
+
+Holbein, "The Ambassadors," f137.
+
+Human figure, use of the,
+  in design, 104-107;
+  decorative spacing of
+  within geometric boundaries, 105-106, 107;
+  governed by inclosing boundaries, 110, f066;
+  principles of line in, f081a.
+
+
+Indian ornament, typical, 212, 216;
+  printed cotton designs, 246, f130.
+
+Inlay work, choice of forms for, 81-83.
+
+
+Japanese method of drawing with the brush, 10, 68;
+  diagonal pattern, f053;
+  colour prints, 266.
+
+
+Keene, Charles, 190.
+
+
+Landscape, expression of storm and calm in, 158, f089.
+
+Lead pencil, 70.
+
+Letters, formation of, 4;
+  Dürer's method, f005a.
+
+Line, methods of drawing in, 6-12;
+  quality of, 12-14;
+  the language of, 23;
+  comparison of style in, 24;
+  scale of degrees and qualities of, 24, 25;
+  its relation to form, 27;
+  question and answer in, 35, f025;
+  recurring, f031, f032;
+  radiating principle of, 46-50;
+  range and use of, 47-49;
+  choice of, 51;
+  degree and emphasis of, 54;
+  influence of technical conditions on, 58-62;
+  controlling influence of, as a boundary of design, 106, 108-113;
+  value of recurring, 119-124;
+  combinations of, 139;
+  principles of structural and ornamental line, 140-145;
+  selection of, f117a, f117b.
+
+Linear expression, of movement, 15, 16, 17;
+  of textures and surfaces, 18, 19;
+  of emotion, 19, 20, f015;
+  scale of, 21;
+  power of, 158, 160;
+  of fur and feathers, 208, f113.
+
+Linear motives and pattern bases, simple, 109-111.
+
+Lippi, Filippino, study of drapery by, f101.
+
+Lorenzo di Credi, 226.
+
+Lysicrates, monument of, 133.
+
+
+Madox Brown, Ford, mural painting at Manchester, 226, 227;
+  "Christ washing Peter's feet," 280, f142.
+
+Mantling, treatment of, 170-173.
+
+Medals, 200, f110.
+
+Memory, importance of, in design, 39.
+
+Michael Angelo, ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, 225.
+
+Modelling, principle of relief in, 192.
+
+Montague, mantling from Garter plate of, f094b.
+
+Morris, William, tapestry of, 236, 240.
+
+Movement, linear expression of, 15-17;
+  lines of, in a procession, f091a;
+  in a dancing figure, f117a;
+  in water, f118b.
+
+Mural decoration, 224, 225;
+  diagram of systems of line governing, f121;
+  scale in, 230;
+  choice of line and form in, 236.
+
+
+Nauplia, Gulf of, coast and mountain lines, f004, f118a.
+
+Nerva, Forum of, 192, f105.
+
+Nuremberg, ceiling in the Castle of, 136, 137.
+
+
+Olive branch, study of from nature, f020;
+  decorative treatment of, f021.
+
+Ornament, typical forms of, 92-94.
+
+Ornamental purpose, the, in drawing, 29, 31-33, 210, _et seq._
+
+Ornamental units, 94;
+  use of intervals in repeating, f065.
+
+Outline, origin and function of, 1.
+
+
+Parthenon, the frieze of the, 46;
+  sketch of, f067.
+
+Pattern and picture, difference between, 265;
+  pattern-pictures, 272.
+
+Pen, the, compared with brush and pencil, 71.
+
+Pencil drawing, 70, 71.
+
+Persian carpets, principle of design in, 242;
+  treatment of borders in, f127;
+  white outline in, 260.
+
+Persian ornament, typical, 212, f116.
+
+Persian rugs, value of different quantities in, 98-101.
+
+Perugino, National Gallery triptych, f140.
+
+Photograph, influence of the, 55, 56;
+  principle of the, 187, 190.
+
+Picture writing, 27, f019.
+
+Pinturicchio, frescoes in the Sistine Chapel, 226;
+  mural painting at Siena, 226, f120;
+  frescoes in the Appartimenti Borgia, 238, f125.
+
+Pisano, Vittore, medals of, 198, f110.
+
+Poppy, horned study of, f022;
+  adaptation of for needlework, f023;
+  sketch of on different coloured grounds, f132, 258.
+
+Prints, principles of design for, 246-251.
+
+Procession, lines of movement in a, 160, 162-163.
+
+Pyramid, the, 73;
+  use of in architecture, f045b, f048a.
+
+
+Radiating principle of line, the, 46-50.
+
+Raphael, study of drapery by, f102.
+
+Ravenna, S. Vitale, sketch of apse, f070.
+
+Recurring line and form, f031, f032;
+  value of in architecture, 119, 124.
+
+Relief, methods of expressing, 165;
+  use of contrast, 166;
+  decorative relief, 171;
+  on diapered ground, 174-175;
+  by simple linear contrasts, 174, 176-178;
+  by linear shading, 176, 178;
+  by diagonal shading, 176, 178-180;
+  value of emphasis in, 180;
+  by light and shade alone, 187-190;
+  principle of in architectural mouldings, 190;
+  modelled, 192;
+  in sculpture, 192-199, f109;
+  Florentine fifteenth-century work, 202;
+  natural principle of, 204, f111b;
+  by colour, 256, 258.
+
+Repeating patterns, 36, f026, f077b, f078;
+  method of testing, 38, f028.
+
+Rhythm of design, the, 32.
+
+Roofs, German, 146-148.
+
+Rothenburg, roof-lines in, f085.
+
+
+St. David's Cathedral, carvings in, 122-124;
+  Gothic tile pattern in, f074, f076.
+
+Scale, importance of in mural decoration, 230, 232.
+
+Sculpture, relief in, 192;
+  Egyptian, 192, 194;
+  Grecian, 194, f107, 197;
+  Gothics, 197;
+  on mediæval tombs, 198.
+
+Selection, the test of artistic treatment, 214.
+
+Shields, F. J., mural decoration, 228.
+
+Silhouette, 2, f010a.
+
+Skirting, the, 234.
+
+Spaces, decorative, in design, 113;
+  apparent depth or width increased by use of vertical or horizontal
+      lines, 232, f122.
+
+Spacing, mural, 230, f121, f123.
+
+Sphere, the, 73;
+  use of in architecture, f045b, f048a;
+  in nature, 76.
+
+Stained glass, principles of design for, 252, 255.
+
+Surfaces, linear expression of, 18.
+
+
+Tapestry, 237;
+  Burgundian, 237, f124;
+  effect of texture on colour in, 244, f128.
+
+Technical influence, the, 58-62.
+
+Textile designing, 62;
+  examples of, f041b;
+  value of different qualities in, 97-101;
+  principles of, 241, 242;
+  colour in, 244.
+
+Textures, linear expression of, 18.
+
+Thebes, sculptured relief at, f106.
+
+Titian, "Bacchus and Ariadne," 278-280;
+  "Sacred and Profane Love," 280.
+
+Tivoli, Temple of the Sibyls at, 133.
+
+Trees, effect of wind upon, f011;
+  general principles of line and form in foliage, etc., 143-145.
+
+Typical treatment, 31;
+  ornament, 92-95.
+
+
+Valence, Aymer de, tomb of, f094a.
+
+Van Eyck, "Jan Arnolfini and his Wife," 267, f134, 270, 271.
+
+Variation of allied forms, 103.
+
+Variety in design, 40.
+
+Ver Meer, "Lady at Spinet," f135, 270, 272.
+
+Veronese, Paul, 280.
+
+Visch, Martin de, brass of, f094b, f095.
+
+
+Walberswick Church, f072.
+
+Walker, Frederick, 190.
+
+Wall, decorative spacing of the, 234, f123.
+
+Wall-paper, principles of design for, 36, f026, 246;
+  relation between frieze and field in, 133, 134.
+
+Water, lines of movement in, f118b.
+
+Watercourse, lines left by a, f091b.
+
+Wave lines, f011, f012.
+
+Westminster, vaulting of chapter house, f035.
+
+Winchelsea, tomb of Gervaise-Alard, f071.
+
+
+
+
+          CHISWICK PRESS: PRINTED BY CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO.
+                  TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Line and Form (1900), by Walter Crane
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Line and Form (1900), by Walter Crane
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Line and Form (1900)
+
+Author: Walter Crane
+
+Release Date: May 2, 2008 [EBook #25290]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LINE AND FORM (1900) ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, David Cortesi, Jonathan
+Ingram and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div id="titlepage">
+
+<img src="images/image001.png" alt="Line &amp; Form by Walter Crane" />
+
+
+<h1>LINE &amp; FORM</h1>
+
+<h2>BY WALTER CRANE</h2>
+
+<h3>LONDON: G. BELL &amp; SONS, LTD.</h3>
+
+<h4>
+                  <i>First published, medium 8vo</i>, 1900.<br />
+
+          <i>Reprinted, crown 8vo</i>, 1902, 1904, 1908, 1912, 1914.<br />
+
+                 <span style="font-size:smaller;">CHISWICK PRESS: CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO.<br />
+
+                     TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON</span>
+</h4>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="major" />
+
+
+<h2>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES</h2>
+
+
+<p>In the original of this work, most pages are headed by a topic phrase,
+so that a topic can be located quickly by riffling the pages of the
+book. In this etext, the same topic phrases appear in right-aligned
+boxes near the text that begins that topic. Thus a topic can be found
+by scrolling the text and scanning the right margin.</p>
+
+<p>The many images of the original are inline here as grayscale graphics in PNG
+format, scaled to 480 or 512 pixels
+width. When an image has a pale-gray border, the reader
+can click on the image to open a higher-resolution version.</p>
+
+<p>In the original, the requirements of book design often caused the
+editors to place images some distance from the text that discussed them.
+In this etext some images are placed closer to the point where they are mentioned
+and thus not at their original page number.
+Each image has a number, for example <a href="#f016">f016</a>. In the
+<a href="#LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">List of Illustrations</a>
+and the <a href="#INDEX">Index</a>,
+references to images by page number have been replaced
+by these figure numbers, which are linked to the images. Within the
+body text, references to a figure by its page number are linked to the image,
+not the specified page.</p>
+
+<p>Two minor typos were corrected: thing to think on page 10 and
+intregal to integral on page 197.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="major" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>As in the case of "The Bases of Design,"
+to which this is intended to form a companion
+volume, the substance of the following
+chapters on Line and Form originally formed
+a series of lectures delivered to the students of
+the Manchester Municipal School of Art.</p>
+
+<p>There is no pretension to an exhaustive
+treatment of a subject it would be difficult enough
+to exhaust, and it is dealt with in a way intended
+to bear rather upon the practical work of an art
+school, and to be suggestive and helpful to those
+face to face with the current problems of drawing
+and design.</p>
+
+<p>These have been approached from a personal
+point of view, as the results of conclusions arrived
+at in the course of a busy working life which
+has left but few intervals for the elaboration of
+theories apart from practice, and such as they
+are, these papers are now offered to the wider
+circle of students and workers in the arts of
+design as from one of themselves.</p>
+
+<p>They were illustrated largely by means of rough
+sketching in line before my student audience, as
+well as by photographs and drawings. The rough
+diagrams have been re-drawn, and the other
+illustrations reproduced, so that both line and tone
+blocks are used, uniformity being sacrificed to
+fidelity.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:right;margin-right:2em;">WALTER CRANE.</p>
+<p style="font-size:smaller;text-indent:0;">
+Kensington, <i>July</i>, 1900.
+</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr class="major" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+<ul class="TOC">
+
+<li>CHAPTER I</li>
+<li class="abstract">
+Origin and Function of Outline&mdash;Silhouette&mdash;Definition of Boundaries
+by&mdash;Power of Characterization by&mdash;Formation of Letters&mdash;Methods of
+Drawing in Line&mdash;The Progressive Method&mdash;The Calligraphic Method&mdash;The
+Tentative Method&mdash;The Japanese Direct Brush Method&mdash;The Oval Method&mdash;The
+Rectangular Method&mdash;Quality of Line&mdash;Linear Expression of
+Movement&mdash;Textures&mdash;Emotion&mdash;Scale of Linear Expression
+<span class="page"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></span>
+</li>
+
+<li>CHAPTER II</li>
+<li class="abstract">
+The Language of Line&mdash;Dialects&mdash;Comparison of the Style of Various
+Artists in Line&mdash;Scale of Degrees in Line&mdash;Picture Writing&mdash;Relation of
+Line to Form&mdash;Two Paths&mdash;The Graphic Purpose&mdash;Aspect&mdash;The Ornamental
+Purpose&mdash;Typical Treatment or Convention&mdash;Rhythm&mdash;Linear Plans in Pattern
+Designing&mdash;Wall-paper Design&mdash;Controlling Forms&mdash;Memory&mdash;Evolution in
+Design&mdash;Variety in Unity&mdash;Counterbalance&mdash;Linear Logic&mdash;Recurring
+Line and Form&mdash;Principle of Radiation&mdash;Range and Use of Line
+<span class="page"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></span>
+</li>
+
+<li>CHAPTER III</li>
+<li class="abstract">
+Of the Choice and Use of Line&mdash;Degree and Emphasis&mdash;Influence of the
+Photograph&mdash;The Value of Emphasis&mdash;The Technical Influence&mdash;The Artistic
+Purpose&mdash;Influence of Material and Tools&mdash;Brushwork&mdash;Charcoal&mdash;
+Pencil&mdash;Pen
+<span class="page"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></span>
+</li>
+
+<li>CHAPTER IV</li>
+<li class="abstract">
+Of the Choice of Form&mdash;Elementary Forms&mdash;Space-filling&mdash;Grouping&mdash;
+Analogies of Form&mdash;Typical Forms of Ornament&mdash;Ornamental Units&mdash;
+Equivalents in Form&mdash;Quantities in Design&mdash;Contrast&mdash;Value of Variations
+of Similar or Allied Forms&mdash;Use of the Human Figure and Animal Forms
+in Ornamental Design
+<span class="page"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></span>
+</li>
+
+<li>CHAPTER V<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></li>
+<li class="abstract">
+Of the Influence of Controlling Lines, Boundaries Spaces, and Plans in
+Designing&mdash;Origin of Geometric Decorative Spaces and Panels in
+Architecture&mdash;Value of Recurring Line&mdash;Tradition&mdash;Extension&mdash;
+Adaptability&mdash;Geometric Structural Plans&mdash;Frieze and Field&mdash;Ceiling
+Decoration&mdash;Co-operative Relation
+<span class="page"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></span>
+</li>
+
+<li>CHAPTER VI</li>
+<li class="abstract">
+Of the Fundamental Essentials of Design: Line, Form, Space&mdash;Principles
+of Structural and Ornamental Line in Organic Forms&mdash;Form and Mass in
+Foliage&mdash;Roofs&mdash;The Medi&aelig;val City&mdash;Organic and Accidental Beauty&mdash;
+Composition: Formal and Informal&mdash;Power of Linear Expression&mdash;Relation
+of Masses and Lines&mdash;Principles of Harmonious Composition
+<span class="page"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></span>
+</li>
+
+<li>CHAPTER VII</li>
+<li class="abstract">
+Of the Relief of Form&mdash;Three Methods&mdash;Contrast&mdash;Light and Shade, and
+Modelling&mdash;The Use of Contrast and Planes in Pattern Designing&mdash;
+Decorative Relief&mdash;Simple Linear Contrast&mdash;Relief by Linear Shading&mdash;
+Different Emphasis in relieving Form by Shading Lines&mdash;Relief by
+means of Light and Shade alone without Outline&mdash;Photographic
+Projection&mdash;Relief by different Planes and Contrasts of Concave
+and Convex Surfaces in Architectural Mouldings&mdash;Modelled Relief&mdash;
+Decorative Use of Light and Shade, and different Planes in Modelling
+and Carving&mdash;Egyptian System of Relief Sculpture&mdash;Greek and Gothic
+Architectural Sculpture, influenced by Structural and Ornamental
+Feeling&mdash;Sculptural Tombs, Medals, Coins, Gems&mdash;Florentine
+Fifteenth-century Reliefs&mdash;Desiderio di Settignano
+<span class="page"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></span>
+</li>
+
+<li>CHAPTER VIII<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></li>
+<li class="abstract">
+Of the Expression of Relief in Line-drawing&mdash;Graphic Aim and
+Ornamental Aim&mdash;Superficial Appearance and Constructive Reality&mdash;
+Accidents and Essentials&mdash;Representation and Suggestion of
+Natural Form in Design&mdash;The Outward Vision and the Inner Vision
+<span class="page"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></span>
+</li>
+
+<li>CHAPTER IX</li>
+<li class="abstract">
+Of the Adaptation of Line and Form in Design, in various materials
+and methods&mdash;Mural Decoration&mdash;Fresco-work of the Italian
+Painters&mdash;Modern Mural Work&mdash;Mural Spacing and Pattern Plans&mdash;
+Scale&mdash;The Skirting&mdash;The Dado&mdash;Field of the Wall&mdash;The Frieze&mdash;
+Panelling&mdash;Tapestry&mdash;Textile Design&mdash;Persian Carpets&mdash;Effect of
+Texture on Colour&mdash;Prints&mdash;Wall-paper&mdash;Stained Glass
+<span class="page"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></span>
+</li>
+
+<li>CHAPTER X</li>
+<li class="abstract">
+Of the Expression and Relief of Line and Form by <i>Colour</i>&mdash;Effect
+of same Colour upon different Grounds&mdash;Radiation of Colour&mdash;White
+Outline to clear Colours&mdash;Quality of Tints relieved upon other
+Tints&mdash;Complementaries&mdash;Harmony&mdash;The Colour Sense&mdash;Colour
+Proportions&mdash;Importance of Pure Tints&mdash;Tones and Planes&mdash;The Tone of
+Time&mdash;Pattern and Picture&mdash;A Pattern not necessarily a Picture, but
+a Picture in principle a Pattern&mdash;Chiaroscuro&mdash;Examples of Pattern-work
+and Picture-work&mdash;Picture-patterns and Pattern-pictures
+<span class="page"><a href="#Page_256">256</a></span>
+</li>
+<li>INDEX<span class="page" style="font-size:90%"><a href="#Page_283">283</a></span>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<hr class="major" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table summary="list of illustrations">
+<tr><td class="l">The Origin of Outline</td><td class="r" style="width:15%;"><a href="#f002">f002</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Silhouettes</td><td class="r"><a href="#f003a">f003</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Coast and Mountain Lines&mdash;Gulf of Nauplia</td><td class="r"><a href="#f004">f004</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Proportions of Roman Capital Letters and of lower-case German text. From D&uuml;rer's "Geometrica</td><td class="r"><a href="#f005a">f005a</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">The Progressive Method of Drawing in Line</td><td class="r"><a href="#f006a">f006a</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">The Calligraphic Method</td><td class="r"><a href="#f007a">f007a</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">The Tentative Method</td><td class="r"><a href="#f007b">f007b</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">The Oval and Rectangular Methods</td><td class="r"><a href="#f008">f008</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Lines of Characterization in the Form and Feature of Flowers: Lily and Poppy</td><td class="r"><a href="#f009">f009</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Silhouette of Beech Leaves and Line Rendering of the same</td><td class="r"><a href="#f010a">f010a</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Lines of Movement</td><td class="r"><a href="#f010b">f010b</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Effect of Wind upon Trees</td><td class="r"><a href="#f011">f011</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Line Arrangement in ribbed Sea-sand</td><td class="r"><a href="#f012">f012</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Lines of different Textures, Structures, and Services</td><td class="r"><a href="#f013">f013</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Lines of Exaltation and Rejoicing in Unison. The Morning Stars, after William Blake</td><td class="r"><a href="#f014">f014</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Lines of Grief and Dejection: Designs from Flaxman's Homer</td><td class="r"><a href="#f015">f015</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Landscape</td><td class="r"><a href="#f016">f016</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Scale of various Degrees of Linear Weight and Emphasis</td><td class="r"><a href="#f017">f017</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Curvilinear Scale of Direction</td><td class="r"><a href="#f018">f018</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Rectangular Scale of Direction</td><td class="r"><a href="#f018">f018</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Picture Writing</td><td class="r"><a href="#f019">f019</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Olive Branch, from Nature</td><td class="r"><a href="#f020">f020</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Olive Branch, simplified in Decorative Treatment</td><td class="r"><a href="#f021">f021</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Study of Horned Poppy</td><td class="r"><a href="#f022">f022</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Adaptation of Horned Poppy in Design: Vertical Panel for Needlework</td><td class="r"><a href="#f023">f023</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Question and Answer in Line</td><td class="r"><a href="#f024">f024</a>, <a href="#f025">f025</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span>Diagram showing the Use of a Geometric Basis in Designing a Repeating Pattern</td><td class="r"><a href="#f026">f026</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Use of Controlling Boundaries in Designing Sprays</td><td class="r"><a href="#f027">f027</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Method of Testing a Repeating Pattern</td><td class="r"><a href="#f028">f028</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Sketch to show how a Pattern of Diverse Elements may be harmonized by Unity of Inclosing and Intermediary Lines</td><td class="r"><a href="#f029">f029</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">The Principle of Counterbalance in different Systems of Design</td><td class="r"><a href="#f030">f030</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Border Units and Border Motive</td><td class="r"><a href="#f031">f031</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Recurring Line and Form in Border Motives</td><td class="r"><a href="#f032">f032</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Radiating Principle of Line in Natural Form</td><td class="r"><a href="#f033">f033</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Radiating Lines of the Pectoral Muscles and Ribs</td><td class="r"><a href="#f034">f034</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Vaulting of Chapter House, Westminster</td><td class="r"><a href="#f035">f035</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Lines of Characterization of Feathers and Shells</td><td class="r"><a href="#f036">f036</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Pen Drawing of Fruit</td><td class="r"><a href="#f037">f037</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Effect of different Emphasis in Treatment of the same Designs</td><td class="r"><a href="#f038">f038</a>, <a href="#f039">f039</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Effect of different Emphasis in the Drawing of Landscape</td><td class="r"><a href="#f040">f040</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Example of Page Treatment to show Ornamental Relation between Text and Pictures</td><td class="r"><a href="#f041a">f041a</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Suggestion for a Carpet Pattern and Abstract Treatment of the same on Point Paper as detail of Brussels Carpet</td><td class="r"><a href="#f041b">f041b</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Brush Forms</td><td class="r"><a href="#f042">f042</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Direct Brush Expression of Animal Form</td><td class="r"><a href="#f043">f043</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Japanese Drawing of a Bird. From "The Hundred Birds of Bari"</td><td class="r"><a href="#f044">f044</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Elementary Geometrical Forms</td><td class="r"><a href="#f045a">f045a</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Use of the same Forms in Architecture</td><td class="r"><a href="#f045b">f045b</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Poppy-heads</td><td class="r"><a href="#f046">f046</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Apple cut to show Position of Seeds</td><td class="r"><a href="#f047">f047</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Cube and Sphere in Architectural Ornament</td><td class="r"><a href="#f048a">f048a</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Filling of Square Space</td><td class="r"><a href="#f049a">f049a</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Filling of Circular Space</td><td class="r"><a href="#f049b">f049b</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Inlay Design: Pattern Units and Motives</td><td class="r"><a href="#f050">f050</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Grouping of Allied Forms: Composition of Curves</td><td class="r"><a href="#f051a">f051a</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Grouping of Allied Forms: Composition of Angles</td><td class="r"><a href="#f051b">f051b</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Still-life Group illustrative of Wood-engraving</td><td class="r"><a href="#f052">f052</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Japanese Diagonal Pattern</td><td class="r"><a href="#f053">f053</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Treatment of Fruit and Leaf Forms: Corresponding Curvature</td><td class="r"><a href="#f054">f054</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span>Correspondence in General Contour between Leaf and Tree</td><td class="r"><a href="#f055a">f055a</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Some Analogies in Form</td><td class="r"><a href="#f055b">f055b</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Tree of Typical Pattern Forms, Units and Systems</td><td class="r"><a href="#f056">f056</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Sketches to show Use of Counterbalance, Quantity, and Equivalents in Designing</td><td class="r"><a href="#f057">f057</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Quantities and Counterchange of Border and Field in Carpet Motives</td><td class="r"><a href="#f058">f058</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Sketches to illustrate Value of different Quantities in Persian Rugs</td><td class="r"><a href="#f058">f058</a>-<a href="#f061">f061</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Recurrence and Contrast in Border Motives</td><td class="r"><a href="#f062">f062</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Use of inclosing Boundaries in Designing Animal Forms in Decorative Pattern</td><td class="r"><a href="#f063a">f063a</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Decorative Spacing of Figures within Geometric Boundaries</td><td class="r"><a href="#f063b">f063b</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Simple Linear Motives and Pattern Bases</td><td class="r"><a href="#f064">f064</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Use of Intervals in Repeating the same Ornamental Units</td><td class="r"><a href="#f065">f065</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Designs of Floral, Human, and Animal Forms, governed by Shape of inclosing Boundary</td><td class="r"><a href="#f066">f066</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">The Parthenon: Sketch to show Spaces used for Decorative Sculpture in Greek Architecture</td><td class="r"><a href="#f067">f067</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">The Tower of the Winds, Athens</td><td class="r"><a href="#f068">f068</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Sketch of part of the Arch of Constantine to show spaces for Decorative Sculpture in Roman Architecture</td><td class="r"><a href="#f069">f069</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Byzantine (Mosaic) Treatment of Architectural Structural Features: Apse, S. Vitale, Ravenna</td><td class="r"><a href="#f070">f070</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Detail of Canopy of Tomb of Gervaise-Alard, Winchelsea</td><td class="r"><a href="#f071">f071</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Walberswick Church: West Door</td><td class="r"><a href="#f072">f072</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Miserere in St. David's Cathedral</td><td class="r"><a href="#f073">f073</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Recessed Panel from the Tomb of Bishop John Morgan, St. David's Cathedral</td><td class="r"><a href="#f074">f074</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Corbel from Bishop Vaughan's Chapel, St. David's Cathedral</td><td class="r"><a href="#f075">f075</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Gothic Tile Pattern, St. David's Cathedral</td><td class="r"><a href="#f076">f076</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Surface Pattern Motives derived from Lines of Structure</td><td class="r"><a href="#f077a">f077a</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Repeating Patterns built upon Square and Circular Bases</td><td class="r"><a href="#f077b">f077b</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Plan of a Drop Repeat</td><td class="r"><a href="#f078">f078</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Sketch Designs to show Relation between Frieze and Field in Wall-paper</td><td class="r"><a href="#f079">f079</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Principles of Structural and Ornamental Line in Natural Forms</td><td class="r"><a href="#f080">f080</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span>Radiating, Recurring and Counterbalancing Lines in the Structure of the Skeleton and the Muscles</td><td class="r"><a href="#f081a">f081a</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">General Principles of Line and Form in the Branching and Foliage Masses of Trees</td><td class="r"><a href="#f081b">f081b</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Principles of Structure in Foliage Masses</td><td class="r"><a href="#f082">f082</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Albert D&uuml;rer: Detail from "The Prodigal Son"</td><td class="r"><a href="#f083">f083</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Albert D&uuml;rer: St. Anthony</td><td class="r"><a href="#f084">f084</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Roof-lines: Rothenburg</td><td class="r"><a href="#f085">f085</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">St. Margaret Street, Canterbury</td><td class="r"><a href="#f086">f086</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Figure Designs controlled by Geometric Boundaries</td><td class="r"><a href="#f087">f087</a>, <a href="#f088">f088</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Expression of Storm and Calm in Landscape</td><td class="r"><a href="#f089">f089</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Expression of Repose and Action</td><td class="r"><a href="#f090">f090</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Controlling Lines of Movement: Movement in a Procession</td><td class="r"><a href="#f091a">f091a</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Lines left by a Watercourse&mdash;Lines governing fallen D&eacute;bris from a Quarry</td><td class="r"><a href="#f091b">f091b</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Relief of Form, (1) by Outline, (2) by Contrast, (3) by Light and Shade</td><td class="r"><a href="#f092">f092</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Relief of Form and Line in Pattern Design by means of Contrast and the Use of Planes</td><td class="r"><a href="#f093">f093</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Treatment of Mantling (14th-16th centuries)</td><td class="r"><a href="#f094a">f094a</a>, <a href="#f094b">f094b</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Brass of Martin de Visch, Bruges, 1452</td><td class="r"><a href="#f095">f095</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Relief in Pattern Design by means of Simple Linear Contrasts</td><td class="r"><a href="#f096a">f096a</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Relief by adding Shading Lines to Outline</td><td class="r"><a href="#f097a">f097a</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Relief by Diagonal Shading</td><td class="r"><a href="#f097b">f097b</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Different Method and different Emphasis in Relieving Form by Shading Lines</td><td class="r"><a href="#f098">f098</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Albert D&uuml;rer's Principle in the Treatment of Drapery: From the Woodcut in the "Life of the Virgin" Series</td><td class="r"><a href="#f099">f099</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Albert D&uuml;rer: Pen-drawing</td><td class="r"><a href="#f100">f100</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Filippino Lippi: Study of Drapery</td><td class="r"><a href="#f101">f101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Raphael: Studies of Drapery</td><td class="r"><a href="#f102">f102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Relief by means of Light and Shade alone, in Pen-drawing without Outline</td><td class="r"><a href="#f103a">f103a</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Relief by means of White Line on a Dark Ground and <i>vice vers&acirc;</i></td><td class="r"><a href="#f103b">f103b</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Relief in Architectural Mouldings</td><td class="r"><a href="#f104">f104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Roman Treatment of Corinthian Order, Forum of Nerva, Rome</td><td class="r"><a href="#f105">f105</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span>Egyptian Relief Sculpture: Thebes</td><td class="r"><a href="#f106">f106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Greek Relief: Eleusis</td><td class="r"><a href="#f107">f107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Egyptian Relief: Denderah</td><td class="r"><a href="#f107">f107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Chartres Cathedral: Carving on West Front</td><td class="r"><a href="#f108">f108</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Chartres Cathedral: Tympanum of Central Door of West Front</td><td class="r"><a href="#f109">f109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Medals of the Lords of Mantua, Cesena, and Ferrara, by Vittore Pisano</td><td class="r"><a href="#f110">f110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Treatment of Draped Figure in Black on White Ground and <i>vice vers&acirc;</i></td><td class="r"><a href="#f111a">f111a</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Treatment of the same Figure in Light and Shade</td><td class="r"><a href="#f111b">f111b</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">The Graphic Principle of the Expression of Form by Light and Shade; with and without Outline</td><td class="r"><a href="#f112">f112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Linear Expression of Features, Feathers and Fur: Notes from Nature</td><td class="r"><a href="#f113">f113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Sketches to illustrate the Graphic and the Decorative Treatment of Draped Figures</td><td class="r"><a href="#f114">f114</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Decorative Treatment of Birds</td><td class="r"><a href="#f115">f115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Floral Designs upon Typical Inclosing Shapes of Indian and Persian Ornament</td><td class="r"><a href="#f116">f116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Dancing Figure with the Governing Lines of the Movement</td><td class="r"><a href="#f117a">f117a</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Lines of Floral Growth and Structure: Lily and Rose</td><td class="r"><a href="#f117b">f117b</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Coast-lines, Gulf of Nauplia</td><td class="r"><a href="#f118a">f118a</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Lines of Movement in Water, Shallow Stream over Sand</td><td class="r"><a href="#f118b">f118b</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Giotto: Chastity (Lower Church, Assisi)</td><td class="r"><a href="#f119">f119</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Pinturicchio: Mural Painting (Piccolomini Chapel, Siena)</td><td class="r"><a href="#f120">f120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Diagram showing the Principal Fundamental Plans or Systems of Line governing Mural Spacing and Decorative Distribution</td><td class="r"><a href="#f121">f121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Diagram to show how the apparent Depth of a Space is increased by the Use of Vertical Lines, and its apparent Width by the Use of Horizontal Lines</td><td class="r"><a href="#f122">f122</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Decorative Spacing of the Wall: Sketches (to half-inch scale) to show different Treatment and Proportions</td><td class="r"><a href="#f123">f123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Figure of Laura, from the Burgundian Tapestries: The Triumphs of Petrarch, in the South Kensington Museum</td><td class="r"><a href="#f124">f124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Pinturicchio: Fresco in the Appartimenti Borgia</td><td class="r"><a href="#f125">f125</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Portion of Detail of the Holy Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil: Persian, sixteenth century</td><td class="r"><a href="#f126">f126</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span>Sketch to illustrate Treatment of Borders in a Persian Rug</td><td class="r"><a href="#f127">f127</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Arras Tapestry: Diagrams to show the Principle of Working and Surface Effect</td><td class="r"><a href="#f128">f128</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Contrasting Surfaces in Warp and Weft in Woven Silk Hanging</td><td class="r"><a href="#f129">f129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Indian printed Cotton Cover: South Kensington Museum</td><td class="r"><a href="#f130">f130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Stained Glass Treatment: Inclosure of Form and Colour by Lead Lines</td><td class="r"><a href="#f131">f131</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Sketch to show Effect of the same Colour and Form upon different Coloured Grounds</td><td class="r"><a href="#f132">f132</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Principle of the Effect of the Blending or Blurring of Colours at their Edges</td><td class="r"><a href="#f133">f133</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Use of Black and White Outline to clear the Edges of Coloured Forms upon different Coloured Ground</td><td class="r"><a href="#f133">f133</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">J. Van Eyck: Portrait of J. Arnolfini and his Wife</td><td class="r"><a href="#f134">f134</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Ver Meer of Delft: Lady at a Spinet</td><td class="r"><a href="#f135">f135</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Botticelli: The Nativity</td><td class="r"><a href="#f136">f136</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Holbein: The Ambassadors</td><td class="r"><a href="#f137">f137</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Botticelli: Madonna and Child</td><td class="r"><a href="#f138">f138</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Crivelli: The Annunciation</td><td class="r"><a href="#f139">f139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Perugino: The Virgin in Adoration with St. Michael and St. Raphael, and Tobias</td><td class="r"><a href="#f140">f140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Titian: Bacchus and Ariadne</td><td class="r"><a href="#f141">f141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="l">Madox Brown: Christ Washing St. Peter's Feet</td><td class="r"><a href="#f142">f142</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr class="major" />
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</a></span>
+<a id="f002" name="f002"></a>
+<a href="images/image002h.png">
+	<img src="images/image002.png"
+		alt="The Origin of Outline."
+		title="The Origin of Outline."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="major" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<h1 style="letter-spacing:4px; font-weight:lighter;">OF LINE AND FORM</h1>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Origin and Function of Outline&mdash;Silhouette&mdash;Definition of
+Boundaries by&mdash;Power of Characterization by&mdash;Formation of
+Letters&mdash;Methods of Drawing in Line&mdash;The Progressive
+Method&mdash;The Calligraphic Method&mdash;The Tentative Method&mdash;The
+Japanese Direct Brush Method&mdash;The Oval Method&mdash;The
+Rectangular Method&mdash;Quality of Line&mdash;Linear Expression
+of Movement&mdash;Textures&mdash;Emotion&mdash;Scale of Linear Expression.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Outline</span>, one might say, is the Alpha and
+Omega of Art. It is the earliest mode of
+expression among primitive peoples, as it is with
+the individual child, and it has been cultivated for
+its power of characterization and expression, and as
+an ultimate test of draughtsmanship, by the most
+accomplished artists of all time.</p>
+
+<p>The old fanciful story of its origin in the work
+of a lover who traced in charcoal the boundary of
+the shadow of the head of his sweetheart as cast
+upon the wall by the sun, and thus obtained the first
+profile portrait, is probably more true in substance
+than in fact, but it certainly illustrates the <i>function</i>
+of outline as the definition of the boundaries of
+form.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Silhouette</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>As children we probably perceive forms in nature
+defined as flat shapes of
+colour relieved upon other
+colours, or flat fields of
+light on dark, as a white
+horse is defined upon the
+green grass of a field, or a
+black figure upon a background
+of snow.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f003a" name="f003a"></a>
+	<img src="images/image003a.png"
+		alt="Silhouette"
+		title="Silhouette"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f003b" name="f003b"></a>
+	<img src="images/image003b.png"
+		alt="Silhouette"
+		title="Silhouette"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Definition of Boundaries</span></p>
+
+<p>To define the boundaries
+of such forms becomes
+the main object in
+early attempts at artistic
+expression. The attention
+is caught by the
+edges&mdash;the shape of the
+silhouette which remains the paramount means
+of distinction of form when details and secondary
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>characteristics are lost; as the outlines of mountains
+remain, or are even more clearly seen, when
+distance subdues the details of their structure,
+and evening mists throw them into flat planes
+one behind the other, and leave nothing but the
+delicate lines of their edges to tell their character.
+We feel the beauty and simplicity of such
+effects in nature. We feel that the mind, through
+the eye resting upon these quiet planes and delicate
+lines, receives a sense of repose and poetic suggestion
+which is lost in the bright noontide, with
+all its wealth of glittering detail, sharp cut in light
+and shade. There is no doubt that this typical
+power of outline and the value of simplicity of mass
+were perceived by the ancients, notably the Ancient
+Egyptians and the Greeks, who both, in their own
+ways, in their art show a wonderful power of characterization
+by means of line and mass, and a delicate
+sense of the ornamental value and quality of line.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f004" name="f004"></a>
+	<img src="images/image004.png"
+		alt="Coast and Mountain Lines, Gulf of Nauplia"
+		title="Coast and Mountain Lines, Gulf of Nauplia"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Formation of Letters</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>Regarding line&mdash;the use of outline from the point
+of view of its value as a means of definition of form
+and fact&mdash;its power is really only limited by the
+power of draughtsmanship at the command of the
+artist. From the archaic potters' primitive figures
+or the rudimentary attempts of children at human
+or animal forms up to the most refined outlines of
+a Greek vase-painter, or say the artist of the Dream
+of Poliphilus, the difference is one of degree. The
+tyro with the pen, learning to write, splotches and
+scratches, and painfully forms trembling, limping
+O's and A's, till with practice and habitude, almost
+unconsciously, the power to form firm letters is
+acquired.</p>
+
+<p>Writing, after all, is but a simpler form of drawing,
+and we know that the letters of our alphabet
+were originally pictures or symbols. The main
+difference is that writing stops short with the acquisition
+of the purely useful power of forming
+letters and words, and is seldom pursued for the
+sake of its beauty or artistic qualities as formerly;
+while drawing continually leads on to new difficulties
+to be conquered, to new subtleties of line,
+and fresh fascinations in the pursuit of distinction
+and style.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<a id="f005a" name="f005a"></a>
+<img src="images/image005a.png"
+	alt="Proportions of Roman Capital Letters
+and Method of Drawing Them (From Albert D&uuml;rer's  &ldquo;;Geometrica&rdquo;;)."
+	title="Proportions of Roman Capital Letters
+and Method of Drawing Them (From Albert D&uuml;rer's  &ldquo;;Geometrica&rdquo;;)."
+/>
+</div>
+
+<p>The practice of forming letters with the pen or
+brush, from good types, Roman and Gothic, however,
+would afford very good preliminary practice
+to a student of line and form. The hand would
+acquire directness of stroke and touch, while the
+eye would grow accustomed to good lines of composition
+and simple constructive forms. The progressive
+nature of writing&mdash;the gradual building
+up of the forms of the letters&mdash;and the necessity of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>dealing with recurring forms and lines, also, would
+bear usefully upon after work in actual design. Albert
+D&uuml;rer in his "Geometrica" gives methods on
+which to draw the Roman capitals, and also the
+black letters, building the former upon the square
+and its proportions, the thickness of the down
+strokes being one-eighth of square, the thin strokes
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>being one-sixteenth, and the serifs being turned by
+circles of one-fourth and one-eighth diameter. The
+capital O, it will be noted, is formed of two circles
+struck diagonally.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f005b" name="f005b"></a>
+	<img src="images/image005b.png"
+		alt="Proportions of Lower-Case German Text
+and Method of Drawing the Letters (From Albert D&uuml;rer's &ldquo;;Geometrica&rdquo;;)."
+		title="Proportions of Lower-Case German Text
+and Method of Drawing the Letters (From Albert D&uuml;rer's &ldquo;;Geometrica&rdquo;;)."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Methods of Drawing in Line</span></p>
+
+<p>Letters may be taken as the simplest form of
+definition by means of line. They have been reduced
+through centuries of use from their primitive
+hieroglyphic forms to their present arbitrary and
+fixed types, though even these fixed types are subject
+to the variation produced by changes of taste
+and fancy.</p>
+
+<p>But when we come to unformulated nature&mdash;to
+the vast world of complex forms, ever changing
+their aspect, full of life and movement, trees, flowers,
+woods and waters, birds, beasts, fishes, the human
+form&mdash;the problem how to represent any of these
+forms, to express and characterize them by means
+of so abstract a method as line-drawing, seems at
+first difficult enough.</p>
+
+<p>But since the growth of perception, like the
+power of graphic representation, is gradual and
+partial, though progressive, the eye and the mind
+are generally first impressed with the salient features
+and leading characteristics of natural forms,
+just as the child's first idea of a human form is that
+of a body with four straight limbs, with a preponderating
+head. That is the first impression, and
+it is unhesitatingly recorded in infantine outline.</p>
+
+<p>The first aim, then, in drawing anything in line
+is to grasp the general truths of form, character,
+and expression.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">The Progressive Method</span></p>
+
+<p>There are various methods of proceeding in getting
+an outline of any object or figure. To begin
+with, the student might begin progressively defining
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>the form by a series of stages in this way. Take
+the profile of a bird, for instance; the form might
+be gradually built up by the combination of a series
+of lines:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f006a" name="f006a"></a>
+	<img src="images/image006a.png" alt="figure"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>or take the simpler form of a flask bottle:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f006b" name="f006b"></a>
+	<img src="images/image006b.png" alt="figure"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>or a jar on the same principle:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f006c" name="f006c"></a>
+	<img src="images/image006c.png" alt="figure"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>or, simpler still, a leaf form, putting in the stem
+first with one stroke (1):</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f006d" name="f006d"></a>
+	<img src="images/image006d.png" alt="figure"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>and building the form around it (2, 3).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">The Calligraphic Method</span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f007a" name="f007a"></a>
+	<img src="images/image007a.png" alt="figure"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>This might be termed the calligraphic method of
+drawing; and in this method facility of hand might
+be further practised by attempting the definition of
+forms by continuous strokes, or building it up by
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>as few strokes as possible. The simpler types of
+ornament consisting of meandering and flowing
+lines can all be produced in this way, i.e., by continuous
+line, as well as natural forms treated in a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>certain abstract or conventional way, which adapts
+them to decoration.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">The Tentative Method</span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f007b" name="f007b"></a>
+	<img src="images/image007b.png" alt="figure"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another method is to sketch in lightly guide
+lines for main masses, building a sort of scaffolding
+of light lines to assist the eye in getting the
+correct outline in its place, using vertical centre
+lines for symmetrical forms to get the poise right.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>This is the method very generally in use, but I
+think it very desirable to practise direct drawing
+as well, to acquire certainty of eye and facility of
+hand; and one must not mind failure at first, as
+this kind of power and facility is so much a matter
+of practice.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f007c" name="f007c"></a>
+	<img src="images/image007c.png" alt="figure"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">The Japanese Direct Brush Method</span></p>
+
+<p>The Japanese, who draw with the brush, have
+accustomed themselves to draw in a direct manner
+without any preliminary sketching, and the charm
+of their work is largely owing to that crisp freshness
+of touch only possible to their direct method.
+The great object is to establish a perfectly intimate
+correspondence between eye and hand, so
+that the latter will record what the former perceives.</p>
+
+<p>Abundant specimens of the freedom and naturalism
+of the modern school of Japanese artists in
+this direct brush method may be found in the
+work of Bari, Hiroshigi, and Hokusai, and in the
+numerous prints and books of designs from their
+hands. To all draughtsmen and designers they
+are most valuable to study for their direct method
+and simple means of expression of form and fact.
+Accidental as they frequently seem in composition,
+the placing of the drawing upon the paper is carefully
+considered before starting, and this, of course,
+is always a very important point.</p>
+
+<p>Yet another method of drawing, more especially
+in relation to the drawing of the human figure and
+animal forms, I may mention as a help to those
+who do not feel strong enough for the direct
+method. At the same time it must be borne in
+mind that we can accustom ourselves to <i>any</i> method;
+and the more dependent we become upon a single
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>method, the less facility we shall have for working
+in any other. But for all that it is desirable to
+master <i>one</i> method&mdash;that is, to be able to draw in
+line <i>freely</i> in one way or another&mdash;and experience
+and practice alone will enable us to find the method
+most satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">The Oval and Rectangular Methods</span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f008" name="f008"></a>
+	<img src="images/image008.png" alt="figure"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">The Rectangular Method</span></p>
+
+<p>This other method is to block in the principal
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>masses of the forms we desire to represent by
+means of a series of ovals, as shown in the illustration,
+and when we have got the masses in their
+proper relations, to proceed to draw in the careful
+outline of the figure, or whatever it may be, upon
+this substructure of guiding lines, correcting as we
+go along. It would be quite possible to work on
+the same principle, but upon a structure of more
+or less rectangular masses. The real use of the
+method is to assist the student to get a grasp of
+the relation of the masses of a figure and a sense
+of structure in drawing; whether square or oval
+blocking in is used may be a matter of choice. It
+may be said for the oval forms that they resemble
+the contours of the structure in human and animal
+forms.</p>
+
+<p>If one had a tendency to round one's forms too
+much, it would be well to try the rectangular
+method to correct this, and <i>vice vers&acirc;</i>.</p>
+
+<p>After a certain facility has been acquired in
+rendering form by means of line, we shall perceive
+further capacities of expression in its use, and
+begin to note how different characteristics of form
+and natural fact may be expressed by varying the
+quality of our outline.</p>
+
+<p>If we are drawing a plant or a flower, for instance,
+we should endeavour to show by the quality
+of our line the difference between the fine springing
+curves in the structure of the lily, the solid seed-centre
+and stiff radiation of the petals of the daisy,
+and the delicate silky folds of the poppy.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Quality of Line</span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f009" name="f009"></a>
+<a href="images/image009h.png">
+	<img src="images/image009.png"
+		alt="Lines of Characterization
+in the Form and Feature of Flowers: Lily and Poppy."
+		title="Lines of Characterization
+in the Form and Feature of Flowers: Lily and Poppy."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>But, as leaves come before flowers, it would be
+best to begin with leaf forms and try to express
+the character of oak and beech, lime and chestnut
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>leaves, for instance, by means of outline. Probably
+at first we shall feel dissatisfied with our outline
+as not being full enough: it may look meagre in
+quality and small in definition of form. This
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>probably arises from not allowing enough space&mdash;from
+setting the outline too much within the
+boundary of the form. To correct this one cannot
+do better than block in the form of the object we
+are drawing (leaf, flower, or figure) with a full
+brush in black silhouette, placing the object against
+the light or white paper, so that its true boundary
+may be seen uninterfered with by surface markings
+or shadows, and, concentrating our attention upon
+the <i>edge</i>, follow it as carefully as possible with the
+solid black. Then, if we compare the result with
+our outline, it will help to show where it has failed;
+and the practice of thus blocking in with the brush
+in solid silhouette will tend to encourage a larger
+style of drawing, since good outline means good
+perception of mass; and as a general principle in
+drawing, it may be recommended to place one's
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>outline <i>outside</i> the silhouette boundary of the form
+rather than within it; that is to say, when the
+figure or object is relieved in light against dark, as
+the line in that case defines the edge against the
+background. When the figure or object appears
+as dark upon a light ground, however, the outline
+should be within the silhouette, obviously, or its
+delicate boundary is lost.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f010a" name="f010a"></a>
+	<img src="images/image010a.png"
+		alt="Silhouette of Beech Leaves
+and Line Rendering of the Same."
+		title="Silhouette of Beech Leaves
+and Line Rendering of the Same."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Linear Expression of Movement</span></p>
+
+<p>Another important attribute of line is its power
+of expressing or suggesting <i>movement</i>. By a law of
+inseparable association, undulating lines approaching
+the horizontal, or leading down to it, are connected
+with the sense of repose; whereas broken
+curves and rectangular lines always suggest action
+and unrest, or the resistance to force of some kind.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f010b" name="f010b"></a>
+	<img src="images/image010b.png"
+		alt="Lines of Movement"
+		title="Lines of Movement"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>The recurrence of a series of lines in the same
+direction in a kind of crescendo or wave-like
+movement suggests continuous pressure of force
+in the same direction, as in this series of instantaneous
+actions of a man bowling, where the line
+drawn through or touching the highest points in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>each figure takes the line of the curve of a wave.
+The wave-line, indeed, may be said not only to
+suggest movement, but also to describe its direction
+and force. It is, in fact, <i>the line of movement</i>.
+The principle may be seen in a simpler way, as
+Hogarth points out in his "Analysis of Beauty,"
+by observing the line described along a wall by
+the head of a man walking along the street. Or,
+as we may see sometimes near the coast, trees
+exposed to the constant pressure of the wind illustrate
+this recurrence of lines in the same direction
+governing their general shape; and as each tree
+is forced to spread in the direction away from the
+wind, the effect is that of their being always struggling
+against its pressure even in the calmest
+weather; and this is entirely due to our association
+of wind-movement with this peculiar linear expression.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f011" name="f011"></a>
+	<img src="images/image011.png"
+		alt="Lines Expressive of Movement: Effect
+of Wind Upon Trees"
+		title="Lines Expressive of Movement: Effect
+of Wind Upon Trees"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>Flowing water, again, is expressed by certain
+recurring wave-lines, which remind us of the ancient
+linear symbols of the zigzag and meander used
+from the earliest times to express water. In the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>streams that channel the sands of the sea-shore
+when the tide recedes we may see beautiful flowing
+lines, sometimes crossing like a network, and
+sometimes running into a series of shell-like waves;
+while the sands themselves are ribbed and channelled
+and modelled by the recurring movement
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>of the waves, which leave upon them the impress
+and the expression of their motion (much as in a
+more delicate medium the air-currents impress the
+fields of cloud, and give them their characteristic
+forms).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f012" name="f012"></a>
+	<img src="images/image012.png"
+		alt="Line Arrangement In Ribbed Sea Sand"
+		title="Line Arrangement In Ribbed Sea Sand"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Linear Expression of Textures</span></p>
+
+<p>Textures and surfaces, too, fall within the range
+of linear expression. One would naturally use
+lines of totally different consistency and character
+to express rough or smooth surfaces: to express
+the difference of value, for instance, between the
+ivory-like smoothness of an egg and the scaly
+surface of a pine-cone, entirely different qualities
+of line are obviously wanted. The firm-set yet
+soft feathers of the plumage of a bird must be
+rendered by a very different touch from the shining
+scales of a fish. The hair and horns of animals,
+delicate human features, flowers, the sinuous lines
+of thin drapery, or the broad massive folds of
+heavy robes, all demand from the designer and
+draughtsman in line different kinds of suggestive
+expression, a translation or rendering of natural
+fact subordinate to the artistic purpose of his work,
+and in relation to the material and purpose for
+which he works.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Linear Expression of Emotion</span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f013" name="f013"></a>
+<a href="images/image013h.png">
+	<img src="images/image013.png"
+		alt="Lines of Different Textures, Structures,
+and Surfaces."
+		title="Lines of Different Textures, Structures,
+and Surfaces."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Then, again, when we come to the expression
+of ideas&mdash;of thought and sentiment&mdash;we find in
+line an abstract but direct medium for their illustration;
+and this again, too, by means of that law of
+inseparable association which connects the idea of
+praise or aspiration and ascension, for instance,
+with long lines inclining towards the severe vertical,
+as when we draw a figure with upraised
+hands; while the feeling might be increased if led up
+to or re-echoed by other groups and objects in the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>composition, forming a kind of vertical crescendo
+on the same principle which we were considering
+in regard to the expression of lateral movement.
+Few things in design are finer or more elevated in
+feeling than William Blake's design of the Morning
+Stars singing together, in the series of the Book
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>of Job, yet it is little more than a vertical arrangement
+of figures with uplifted and intercrossing
+arms. The linear plan gives the main impetus to
+the expressiveness of the design, and is the basis
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>of the beauty, which culminates in the rapture of
+the fresh youthful faces.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f014" name="f014"></a>
+<a href="images/image014h.png">
+	<img src="images/image014.png"
+		alt="Expression Of Emotion:
+Lines Of Exaltation And Rejoicing
+In Unison. The Morning Stars, After William
+Blake. (From The Book Of Job.)"
+		title="Expression Of Emotion:
+Lines Of Exaltation And Rejoicing
+In Unison. The Morning Stars, After William
+Blake. (From The Book Of Job.)"
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Scale of Linear Expression</span></p>
+
+<p>Bowed and bent lines tending downwards, on
+the other hand, convey the opposite ideas of dejection
+and despair. This is illustrated in these
+figures of Flaxman's, who was a great master of
+style in outline.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f015" name="f015"></a>
+	<img src="images/image015.png"
+		alt="Lines Of Grief And Dejection.
+Flaxman: Designs To Homer."
+		title="Lines Of Grief And Dejection.
+Flaxman: Designs To Homer."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Capacity of Line</span></p>
+
+<p>We seem here to discover a kind of scale of
+linear expression&mdash;the two extremes at either
+end: the horizontal and the vertical, with every
+degree and modulation between them; the undulating
+curve giving way to the springing energetic
+spiral, the meandering, flowing line sinking to the
+horizontal: or the sharp opposition and thrust
+of rectangular, the nervous resistance of broken
+curves, the flame-like, triumphant, ascending verticals.
+Truly the designer may find a great range
+of expression within the dominion of pure line.
+Line is, indeed, as I have before termed it, a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>language, a most sensitive and vigorous speech
+of many dialects; which can adapt itself to all
+purposes, and is, indeed, indispensable to all the
+provinces of design in line. Line may be regarded
+simply as a means of record, a method of registering
+the facts of nature, of graphically portraying
+the characteristics of plants and animals, or the
+features of humanity: the smooth features of
+youth, the rugged lines of age. It is capable of
+this, and more also, since it can appeal to our
+emotions and evoke our passionate and poetic
+sympathies with both the life of humanity and
+wild nature, as in the hands of the great masters
+it lifts us to the heavens or bows us down to
+earth: we may stand on the sea-shore and see the
+movement of the falling waves, the fierce energy
+of the storm and its rolling armament of clouds,
+glittering with the sudden zigzag of the lightning;
+or we may sink into the profound calm of a summer
+day, when the mountains, defined only by
+their edges, wrapped in soft planes of mist, seem
+to recline upon the level meadows like Titans and
+dream of the golden age.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f016" name="f016"></a>
+	<img src="images/image016.png"  alt="figure"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Language of Line&mdash;Dialects&mdash;Comparison of the Style
+of various Artists in Line&mdash;Scale of Degrees in Line&mdash;Picture
+Writing&mdash;Relation of Line to Form&mdash;Two Paths&mdash;The Graphic
+Purpose&mdash;Aspect&mdash;The Ornamental Purpose&mdash;Typical Treatment
+or Convention&mdash;Rhythm&mdash;Linear Plans in Pattern Designing&mdash;Wall-paper
+Design&mdash;Controlling Forms&mdash;Memory&mdash;Evolution
+in Design&mdash;Variety in Unity&mdash;Counterbalance&mdash;Linear
+Logic&mdash;Recurring Line and Form&mdash;Principle of Radiation&mdash;Range
+and Use of Line.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>I <span class="smcap">spoke</span> of Line as a Language, and gave some
+illustrations of its power and range of expression,
+showing that line is capable not only of
+recording natural fact and defining character, but
+also of conveying the idea of movement and force,
+of action and repose; and, further, of appealing
+to our emotions and thoughts by variations and
+changes in its direction, the degree of its emphasis,
+and other qualities.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Dialects</span></p>
+
+<p>Yet every designer and draughtsman uses line
+in a different way, and of a different quality, according
+to his preference, habit, training, or personality.
+The endless variations which result I should&mdash;to
+pursue the analogy of speech further&mdash;term
+<i>dialects</i>. We might collect abundant examples
+of these from the work of line-designers since the
+world began, or compare the methods of any of
+the popular illustrators of to-day to find constant
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>variations and individual differences occurring
+even among those which might be said, under the
+influence of a prevailing mode, to be variations of
+one type.</p>
+
+<p>Compare a Greek vase-painter's delicate brush
+line-drawing with the bold pen-line of Albert
+D&uuml;rer (to get a contrast in historic style). Compare
+(to take two masters of different schools, but
+of the same country) the line-treatment of Mantegna
+with the line-treatment of Raphael; or, to
+take another jump, compare the line-work of Blake
+and Flaxman; or, to take a modern instance, and
+to come to our own contemporary artists, compare
+a drawing by Burne-Jones and one by Phil
+May.</p>
+
+<p>We might construct a sort of scale of the degrees
+and qualities of line.</p>
+
+<p>There is, for instance, outline of every degree
+of boldness or fineness, from the strong black half-inch
+outline and upwards used in mosaic-work
+and stained-glass leading; the outline of the
+pattern designer for block-printing; the outline
+of the pen draughtsman for process-work or woodcut;
+and so on, down to the hair-line of the drypoint etcher.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Scale of Degrees in Line</span></p>
+
+<p>There are the <i>qualities</i> of line in different
+degrees of firmness, roughness, raggedness, or
+smooth and flowing. There are the degrees of
+<i>direction</i> of line, curvilinear or angular. On the
+angular side all variations from the perpendicular
+and horizontal, or rectangle, within which we may
+find all these degrees, and on the curvilinear side,
+all the variations from spiral to circle: so that we
+might say that the rectangle was the cradle of all
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>angular variations of line, while the semicircle was
+the cradle of all curvilinear variations. (See the
+diagrams on p. <a href="#f018">26</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f017" name="f017"></a>
+	<img src="images/image017.png"
+		alt="Scale of Various Degrees of
+Linear Weight and Emphasis."
+		title="Scale of Various Degrees of
+Linear Weight and Emphasis."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>Every artist, sooner or later, by means of his
+selective adaptive sense, finds a method in the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>use of line to suit his own personality&mdash;to suit his
+own individual aim in artistic expression&mdash;and in
+course of time it becomes a characteristic manner,
+by which his work is instantly known, like a friend's
+handwriting.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f018" name="f018"></a>
+	<img src="images/image018.png"
+		alt="Curvilinear And Rectangular Scales Of Direction."
+		title="Curvilinear And Rectangular Scales Of Direction."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now what determines this choice, this personal
+selection, over and above necessities of method
+and material, it would be difficult to say, unless
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>we had more minute knowledge of the natural
+history of a human being than we are likely to
+possess. We can only say that from practice are
+evolved certain methods or principles, consciously
+or unconsciously; and it is only these general
+methods or principles that can be explained and
+tested for the benefit of those essaying to follow
+the arduous and difficult path of art.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Relation of Line to Form</span></p>
+
+<p>At the outset we see that we need a means of
+definition in drawing, just as a child needs a word
+to express a thing it wants. <i>Line</i>, at the point of
+the pencil, pen, or brush, places this possibility of
+definition within our reach; but before we can
+grasp it we need some knowledge, however rudimentary,
+of its inseparable companion, <i>Form</i>.</p>
+
+<p>I recall two innocent and entertaining methods
+from the traditions of the nursery, which appeal at
+once in a curious way to both the oral and graphic
+senses, and unite story and picture in one. These
+are illustrated on p. <a href="#f019">28</a>. By such devices a child
+learns to associate line and form, unconsciously
+and step by step defining form in the use of, or
+pursuit of, line.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f019" name="f019"></a>
+<a href="images/image019h.png">
+	<img src="images/image019.png"
+		alt="Modern Picture-writing According To Nursery Tradition"
+		title="Modern Picture-writing According To Nursery Tradition"
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>It would be very entertaining and agreeable if
+we could carry the principle further, and get a
+passable study from the antique, for instance, by
+a similar process. In line-drawing we may, however,
+always tell some story or fact, or character,
+phase, or idea.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">The Graphic Purpose</span></p>
+
+<p>But supposing we have mounted our steed <i>Form</i>,
+and taken our bridle <i>Line</i> in hand, and have
+started riding at large in the vast domain of nature,
+with the primary object of finding and hunting
+down truth at last; we soon perceive that there
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+are so many truths, or rather that truth, even of
+natural fact, has so many sides, that it is difficult to
+make up our mind which one to pursue. Thought,
+however, will soon discover that in this pursuit of
+truth we strike a road that naturally divides itself,
+or branches out, into two main paths distinct in
+aim. These two paths in art have been called by
+many names; they occasionally cross each other,
+or overlap, and are sometimes blended, or even
+confused; but it will be useful for our present purpose
+to keep them very distinct. I will term them,
+for convenience:</p>
+
+
+<ol>
+<li>The Graphic Purpose. (Accidental form.)</li>
+<li>The Ornamental Purpose. (Typical form.)</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>Our use of line will largely depend upon which
+of these two it is our object to pursue. Now when
+we look at anything with intent to draw&mdash;say a
+leafy bough as it grows in the sunshine&mdash;we see
+great complexity of form and surface-lighting.
+The leaves, perhaps, take all manner of variations
+of the typical form, and are set at all sorts
+of angles. In making a rapid sketch with the
+object of getting the appearance of the bough, we
+naturally dwell upon these accidents and superficial
+facts. At the same time, with nothing but
+line to express them, we are compelled to use a
+kind of convention, though our aim be purely
+naturalistic, to get a faithful portrait of the
+bough.</p>
+
+<p>We must make our line as <i>descriptive</i> as possible,
+defining the main forms boldly, and blocking in
+broadly the main masses of form and light and
+shade. We are now aiming at the general look
+of the thing. We are striving to grasp the facts
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>of <i>Aspect</i>. We are concerned with the purely
+graphic purpose, to make a picture upon paper.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f020" name="f020"></a>
+<a href="images/image020h.png">
+	<img src="images/image020.png"
+		alt="Olive Branch From Nature"
+		title="Olive Branch From Nature"
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>We cannot, however, even under these simple
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>conditions, altogether leave out of account considerations
+which, strictly speaking, must be
+termed "decorative." For instance, there is the
+question of placing the study well upon the paper,
+a very important point to start with; and then the
+question of beauty must arise, not only in the
+selection of our point of view, but in the choice of
+method, in the treatment of line we adopt; and it
+does not follow that the most apparently forcible
+way of getting bold projection by means of black
+shadows, at the cost of the more delicate characteristics
+of our subject, is the best. On the
+contrary, the finest draughtsmanship is always
+the most subtle and delicate, and one cannot get
+subtle and delicate draughtsmanship without faithful
+study and careful constant practice&mdash;<i>knowledge
+of form</i>, in short&mdash;and I am afraid there is no
+short cut to it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">The Ornamental Purpose</span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f021" name="f021"></a>
+<a href="images/image021h.png">
+	<img src="images/image021.png"
+		alt="Olive Branch
+Simplified In Decorative
+Treatment"
+		title="Olive Branch
+Simplified In Decorative
+Treatment"
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now supposing we make our study of leaves,
+not as an end in itself, and for its simple pictorial
+values or qualities only, but with an ornamental
+or decorative purpose in view, intending to make
+use of its form and character in some more or less
+systematic design or pattern-work&mdash;adapted to
+special methods and materials&mdash;intended to decorate
+a wall-surface or a textile, for instance; we
+might certainly start with a general sketch of its
+appearance as before, but we should find that we
+should want to understand it in its detail; the law
+of its growth and construction; we should want
+to dwell upon its typical character and form, the
+controlling lines of its masses, rather than on its
+accidental aspects, because it would really be
+only with these that we could successfully deal in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>adapting anything in nature to the conditions and
+limitations of a design. To do this requires as
+much art as to make a clever graphic sketch,
+perhaps more; but it is certainly not so easily
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>understood and appreciated, as a rule. Pattern-work
+is taken so much for granted, except by
+those technically interested, whereas a graphic
+sketch may bring the drama of nature, and of
+human character and incident, before our eyes.
+It does not require us to stop and think out the
+less obvious meaning, or trace the invention or
+grace of line, to appreciate the rhythmic, silent
+music which the more formalized and abstract
+decorative design may contain, <i>quite apart from
+the forms it actually represents</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f022" name="f022"></a>
+<a href="images/image022h.png">
+	<img src="images/image022.png"
+		alt="Study Of Horned Poppy"
+		title="Study Of Horned Poppy"
+	/>
+</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f023" name="f023"></a>
+<a href="images/image023h.png">
+	<img src="images/image023.png"
+		alt="Adaptation Of The Horned Poppy In Design:
+Vertical Panel For Needlework."
+		title="Adaptation Of The Horned Poppy In Design:
+Vertical Panel For Needlework."
+	/>
+</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Question and Answer in Line</span></p>
+
+<p>Here we discover another function of line. For,
+directly we endeavour to construct a decorative
+design&mdash;that is, a design intended to adorn or to
+express an object or surface&mdash;we find that we must
+build it upon some sort of a plan, or geometric
+controlling network or scaffolding, so as to give it
+unity, rhythm, and coherence&mdash;especially so in the
+case of repeating designs. Even in an isolated
+panel or picture the necessity of this linear basis
+will be felt, since one cannot draw a line or define
+a form without demanding an answer&mdash;that is, a
+corresponding, re-echoing line or mass.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f024" name="f024"></a>
+	<img src="images/image024.png"
+		alt="Curves 1.Q and 2.A"
+		title="Curves 1.Q and 2.A"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>The curve (1. Q) is a proposition or question.
+It is answered or balanced by the corresponding
+curve (2. A), and forms the basis for a scroll design.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f025" name="f025"></a>
+	<img src="images/image025.png"
+		alt="Curves 1 and 2"
+		title="Curves 1 and 2"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>The five radiating lines (1) are obviously incomplete
+by themselves, but if we add another
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>four, in reverse order, (2) we get a centred and
+symmetric motive of an anthemion character.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Wall-Paper Design</span></p>
+
+<p>Take, however, a wall-paper. The problem is
+to construct a design pleasant to the eye in line,
+form, colour, and suggestion; which will be interesting
+in detail, and yet repeat upon a wall-surface
+without flaw, and without becoming wearisome.
+Moreover, one which will lend itself to
+being cut upon wood, if for block-printing, and
+which may be reproduced with a due regard to
+economy of means. The designer may have a
+square of twenty-one inches in which to make his
+design.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f026" name="f026"></a>
+	<img src="images/image026.png"
+		alt="Diagram Showing The Use Of A Geometric Basis In
+Designing Repeating Pattern."
+		title="Diagram Showing The Use Of A Geometric Basis In
+Designing Repeating Pattern."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>A useful way to begin with is to rule out a sheet
+of paper into squares, say on the scale of 1-&frac12; inch
+to the foot, and upon this jot down your first ideas
+of linear arrangement and colour motive, and get
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>the general effect, and test the plan of repeats.
+When you are satisfied with one, enlarge it to full
+size, correct and amplify it, and improve it in form
+and detail. Changes will probably be found necessary
+in drawing it upon the larger scale, sometimes
+additions, sometimes omissions. Now in sketching
+out the general plan, one builds, as before said,
+upon some basis or plan, however simple, since
+one cannot put a simple spot, sprig, or spray upon
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>paper intending to repeat, without some system of
+connection to put them into relation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Controlling Forms</span></p>
+
+<p>In designing one's sprig, too, the best plan to
+secure good decorative effect is to see that its
+general form is inclosed or bounded by an agreeable
+linear shape, although itself not actually
+visible. Simple leaf and flower forms are generally
+the best to use for these controlling boundaries.
+Sprays designed on this principle may be relied
+upon for repeating pleasantly and safely when
+they are placed upon, and connected by, the controlling
+geometric plan. A good practical test of
+the truth and completeness of your square repeat
+is, when the design is done, or even in progress,
+to cut it into four equal parts (supposing it to be a
+twenty-one inch square). This will enable you
+to get the joints true, and also, by altering the
+position of the squares, to give you a very good
+idea of the effect of the repeat full size. (See the
+diagrams on p. <a href="#f028">41</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>These things must be considered, of course,
+merely as practical aids to invention: not by any
+means as substitutes for it. One cannot give any
+recipe for designing, and no rules, principles, or
+methods can supply the place of imagination and
+fancy. "He who would bring back health from
+the Indies," says an old proverb, "must take it out
+with him."</p>
+
+<p>At the same time the imagination can be enfeebled
+by starvation and neglect. It can be
+depressed by dull and sordid surroundings. It
+is apt to grow, like other living things, by what
+it feeds on, and is stronger for exercise and development.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span></p>
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f027" name="f027"></a>
+	<img src="images/image027.png"
+		alt="Use Of Controlling Boundaries In Designing Sprays"
+		title="Use Of Controlling Boundaries In Designing Sprays"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Memory</span></p>
+
+<p>Memory, too, is an important and serviceable
+thing in designing, and this, again, can be cultivated
+to an almost unlimited extent. I mean that
+selective kind of memory which, by constant and
+close observation, extracts and stores up the essential
+serviceable kind of facts for the designer:
+facts of form, of structure, of movement of figures,
+expressive lines, momentary or transitory effects
+of colour&mdash;all those rare and precious visual
+moments which will not wait, and which happen
+unexpectedly. They should be captured like rare
+butterflies and carefully stored in the mind's
+museum of suggestions, as well as, as far as is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>possible, pinned down in the hieroglyphics of the
+note-book.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Evolution in Design</span></p>
+
+<p>As regards procedure in working out a design,
+one generally thinks of some leading feature, some
+central mass or form or curve&mdash;of a figure or
+a flower, say&mdash;and one thinks of its capacity in
+repeat; and, since one form or line should inevitably
+suggest or necessitate&mdash;as by a kind of
+logic&mdash;another, one adds other forms until the design
+is complete. For it must never be forgotten
+that design is a growth which has its own stages
+of evolution in the mind, answering to the evolution
+of the living forms of nature&mdash;first the blade,
+then the ear, after that the full corn in the ear.</p>
+
+<p>Experience teaches us that the most harmonious
+arrangements of form and line are those in which
+the leading lines and forms through all sorts of
+variations, continually recur. We cannot place a
+number of sharply contrasting and contradictory
+forms together in design satisfactorily&mdash;at least
+we cannot do so without recourse to other elements
+to harmonize and to bring them into relation. For
+instance, we might get a great deal of ornamental
+variety by means of a number of heraldic devices
+upon shields, full in themselves of quaintness and
+contrasts, but brought into harmony by the boundary
+lines of the shields and the divisions; or, still
+further, by throwing them upon a background of
+leaves and stems, the meandering lines and recurring
+forms of which would answer as a kind of
+warp upon which to weave the heraldic spots into
+a connected and harmonious pattern.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f028" name="f028"></a>
+	<img src="images/image028.png"
+		alt="Method Of Testing A Repeating Pattern."
+		title="Method Of Testing A Repeating Pattern."
+	/>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Variety in Unity</span></p>
+
+<p>But even in the ornamental treatment of diverse
+forms, as the medi&aelig;val heraldic designers were
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+well aware, they can be brought into decorative
+harmony by following a similar principle to the one
+already laid down in regard to the designing of
+sprigs and sprays: that is to say, that in designing
+an animal or figure for heraldry or introduction
+into a pattern, one should arrange it so that it
+should fall within the boundary of some geometric
+or foliated form, square, circular, elliptical or otherwise,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>as might be desirable. To this, however, I
+hope to return in a future chapter.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f029" name="f029"></a>
+	<img src="images/image029.png"
+		alt="Sketch To Show How A Pattern Of Diverse Elements
+May Be Harmonized By Unity Of Inclosing And Intermediary
+Lines."
+		title="Sketch To Show How A Pattern Of Diverse Elements
+May Be Harmonized By Unity Of Inclosing And Intermediary
+Lines."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Counterbalance</span></p>
+
+<p>We may here consider another important principle
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>in designing with line and mass, that of
+<i>counterbalance</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f030" name="f030"></a>
+	<img src="images/image030.png"
+		alt="The Principle Of Counterbalance In
+Different Systems Of Design."
+		title="The Principle Of Counterbalance In
+Different Systems Of Design."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>Take any defined space as a panel, tile, or border
+to be filled with design: you place your principal
+mass, and instantly feel that it must be balanced
+by a corresponding mass, or some equivalent.
+Its place will be determined by the principle upon
+which the design is built. If on a symmetrical
+arrangement, you find your centre (say of a panel),
+and you may either throw the chief weight and
+mass of the design upon the central feature (as a
+tree), and balance it by smaller forms or wings
+each side, or <i>vice vers&acirc;</i>; or, adopting a diagonal
+plan, you place your principal mass (say it is a tile)
+near the top left-hand corner (suppose it is a pomegranate),
+connecting it with a spiral diagonal line
+(the stem); the place of the counterbalancing mass
+(the second pomegranate) is obviously near the
+bottom right-hand corner of the square. You may
+then feel the necessity for additional smaller forms,
+and so add to it (the leaves), completing the design.
+(See preceding page.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Linear Logic</span></p>
+
+<p>On the same principle one may design upon
+various other plans. The exact choice of the distribution
+of the counterbalancing masses must
+always be a matter of personal feeling, judgment,
+and taste, controlled by the perception of certain
+logical necessities: as it seems to me that designing
+is a species of linear reasoning,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> and might
+almost be worked in its elementary stages on the
+principle of the syllogism, consisting of two propositions
+and a conclusion. A spiral curve is a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>harmonious line, says the designer: repeat it,
+reversed, and you prolong the harmony; repeat it
+again, with variations, and you complete the
+harmony. Or, harmonious effect is produced by
+recurring form and line. Here is a circular form;
+here is a meandering line: combine and repeat
+them, and you get a logical and harmonious border
+motive.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">
+<span class="label">[1]</span></a>
+I recall here a saying of Sir E. Burne-Jones, that "a bad
+line can only be answered by a good line."</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f031" name="f031"></a>
+	<img src="images/image031.png"
+		alt="Border Units And Border Motive."
+		title="Border Units And Border Motive."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Recurring Line and Form</span></p>
+
+<p>The everlastingly recurring egg and dart moulding
+and the volute are instances of the harmonious
+effect of very simple arrangements of recurring
+line and form. We also get illustrated in these
+another linear quality in design&mdash;that up-and-down
+movement which gives a pleasant rhythm to the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>simplest border, and is of especial consequence in
+all repeating border and frieze designs. The
+borders of early, ancient, and classical art might
+be said to be little besides rhythmical and logical
+arrangements of line. The same rhythmical principle
+is found in the designs of the classical frieze
+in all its varieties, culminating in the rhythmic
+movement of the great Pan-Athenaic procession
+in that master-frieze of the Parthenon, which,
+though full of infinite variety and delicate sculptured
+detail, is yet controlled by a strictly ornamental
+motive, and constructed upon the rhythmic
+recurrence of pure line.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f032" name="f032"></a>
+	<img src="images/image032.png"
+		alt="Recurring Line And Form In Border Motives."
+		title="Recurring Line And Form In Border Motives."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">The Principle of Radiation</span></p>
+
+<p>Another great linear principle in design is what
+is known as the <i>radiating</i> principle, which gives
+vitality and vigour alike to both arrangements of
+line and delineations of form. It is emphatically
+and abundantly illustrated in natural forms, from
+the scallop shell upon the sea-shore to the sun
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>himself that radiates his light upon it. The palm-leaf
+in all its graceful varieties demonstrates its
+beauty, its constructive strength combined with
+extraordinary lightness, which becomes domesticated
+in that fragile sceptre of social influence and
+festivity, the fan, and which again spreads its
+silken, or gossamer, wing as a suggestive field for
+the designer. We find the principle springing to
+life again in the fountain jet, and symbolical of
+life as it has ever been; by means of the same
+principle applied to construction the Gothic architects
+raised their beautiful vaults, and emphasized
+the structural principle and the beauty of recurring
+line by moulding the edges of their ribs;
+while we have but to look at the structure of the
+human frame to find the same principle there also,
+in the fibres of the muscles, for instance, the radiation
+of the ribs, and of the fingers and toes.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f033" name="f033"></a>
+<a href="images/image033h.png">
+	<img src="images/image033.png"
+		alt="Radiating Principle Of Line In Natural Form."
+		title="Radiating Principle Of Line In Natural Form."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>In truth, as I have said, if there can be said to
+be one principle more than another, the perception
+and expression of which gives to an artist's work
+in design peculiar vitality, it is this principle of
+radiating line. One may follow it through all
+stages and forms of drawing and design, and it
+is equally important in the design of the figure, in
+the structure of a flower, in the folds of drapery,
+and alike in the controlling lines of pictorial composition
+and decorative plan, whether the lines radiate
+from seen or from hidden centres, which in all
+kinds of informal design are perhaps the most
+important.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f034" name="f034"></a>
+<a href="images/image034h.png">
+	<img src="images/image034.png"
+		alt="Radiating Lines Of The Pectoral Muscles &amp; Ribs"
+		title="Radiating Lines Of The Pectoral Muscles &amp; Ribs"
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Range and Use of Line</span></p>
+
+<p>We see, therefore, that line possesses a constructive
+and controlling function, in addition to
+its power of graphic expression and decorative
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>definition. It is the beginning and the end of
+art. By means of its help we guide our first
+tottering steps in the wide world of design; and,
+as we gain facility of hand and travel further afield,
+we discover that we have a key to unlock the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>wonders of art and nature, a method of conjuring
+up all forms at will: a sensitive language capable
+of recording and revealing impressions and beauties
+of form and structure hidden from the careless
+eye: a delicate instrument which may catch and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>perpetuate in imperishable notation unheard harmonies:
+a staff to lean upon through the journey
+of life: a candid friend who never deceives us:
+perchance a divining rod, which may ultimately
+reveal to us that Beauty and Truth are one&mdash;as
+they certainly are, or ought to be, in the world
+of art.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f035" name="f035"></a>
+	<img src="images/image035.png"
+		alt="Radiating Line In Architectural Construction:
+Vaulting of Chapter House, Westminster."
+		title="Radiating Line In Architectural Construction:
+Vaulting of Chapter House, Westminster."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Of the Choice and Use of Line&mdash;Degree and Emphasis&mdash;Influence
+of the Photograph&mdash;The Value of Emphasis&mdash;The
+Technical Influence&mdash;The Artistic Purpose&mdash;Influence of
+Material and Tools&mdash;Brush-work&mdash;Charcoal&mdash;Pencil&mdash;Pen.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Recognizing</span> the great range and capacity
+of line as a means of expression, and also the
+range of choice it presents to the designer and
+draughtsman, the actual exercise of this choice of
+line, with a view to the most expressive and
+effective use in practice, becomes, of course, of
+the first consequence.</p>
+
+<p>In this matter of choice we are helped by natural
+bias, by personal character and preferences, for
+which it would, as I have said, be difficult fully to
+account; but beyond this a kind of evolution goes
+on, arising out of actual practice, which controls
+and is controlled by it. Draw simply a succession
+of strokes with any point upon paper, and we find
+that we are gradually led to repeat a particular
+kind of stroke, a particular degree of line, partly
+perhaps because it seems to be produced with
+more ease, and partly because it appears to have
+the pleasantest effect.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Choice of Line</span></p>
+
+<p>By a kind of "natural selection," therefore, influenced
+no doubt by many small secondary causes,
+such as the relation of the particular angle of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>hand and pencil-point to the surface&mdash;the nature
+of the point itself and the nature of the surface&mdash;we
+finally arrive at a choice of line. This choice,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>again, will be liable to constant variation, owing
+to the nature of the object we are about to draw,
+or the kind of design we want to make.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Use of Line</span></p>
+
+<p>The kind of line which seems appropriate to
+representing the delicate edges of a piece of low-relief
+sculpture, for instance, would require greater
+force and firmness if we wanted to draw an antique
+cast in the round, and in strong light and shade.
+The character of our line should be sympathetic
+with the character of our subject as far as possible,
+and sensitive to its differences of character and
+surface, since it is in this sensitiveness that the
+expressive power and peculiar virtue of line-drawing
+consists.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f036" name="f036"></a>
+<a href="images/image036h.png">
+	<img src="images/image036.png"
+		alt="Lines Of Characterization."
+		title="Lines Of Characterization."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>A feather, a lily, a scallop shell, all show as an
+essential principle of their form and construction
+the radiating line; but what a different quality of
+line would be necessary to express the differences of
+each: for the soft, yet firm, smooth flowing curves
+of the feather fibres no line would be too delicate;
+and the lily would demand no less delicacy, and
+even greater precision and firmness of curve, while
+a slight waviness, or quiver, in the lines might
+express the silken or waxy surface of the petals;
+while a crustier, more rugged, though equally firm
+line would be wanted to follow the rigid furrows
+and serrated surface of the shell. The leaves of
+trees and plants of all kinds, which perhaps afford
+the best sort of practice in line-drawing at first,
+present in their varieties of structure, character,
+and surfaces continual opportunities for the exercise
+of artistic judgment in the choice and use
+of line.</p>
+
+<p>The forms and surfaces of fruits, again, are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>excellent tests of line draughtsmanship, and their
+study is a good preparation for the more subtle
+and delicate contours of the human form&mdash;the
+greatest test of all. Here we see firmness of
+fundamental structure (in the bones) and surface
+curve (of sinew and muscle), with a mobile and
+constantly changing surface (of flesh and sensitive
+skin). To render such characteristics without
+tending to overdo either the firmness or the mobility,
+and so to become too rigid on the one hand,
+or too loose and indefinite on the other, requires
+extraordinary skill, knowledge, and practice in
+the use of line. I do not suppose the greatest
+master ever satisfied himself yet in this direction.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f037" name="f037"></a>
+<a href="images/image037h.png">
+	<img src="images/image037.png"
+		alt="Pen Drawing of Fruit."
+		title="Pen Drawing of Fruit."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Degree and Emphasis</span></p>
+
+<p>When we have settled upon our quality of line
+and its <i>degree</i>&mdash;thick or thin, bold or fine&mdash;we shall
+be met with the question of <i>emphasis</i>, for upon
+this the ultimate effect and expression of our
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>drawing or design must largely depend. In the
+selection of any subject we should naturally be
+influenced by the attractiveness of particular parts,
+characters, or qualities it might possess, and we
+should direct our efforts towards bringing these
+out, as the things which impress us most. That
+is the difference between the mind and hand working
+together harmoniously and the sensitized plate
+in the photographic camera, which, uncontrolled
+in any way by human choice (and even under
+that control as it always is to some extent), mechanically
+registers the action of the light rays
+which define the impress of natural forms and
+scenes through the lens focussed upon the plate.
+So that, as we often see in a photograph, some
+unimportant or insignificant detail is reproduced
+with as much distinctness (or more) as are the
+leading figures or whatever form the interesting
+features or the motive of the subject. The picture
+suffers from want of emphasis, or from emphasis
+in the wrong place. It is, of course, here that the
+art of the photographer comes in; and, although
+he can by careful selection, arrangement, and the
+regulation of exposure, largely counteract the
+mechanical tendency, a photograph by its very
+nature can never take the place of a work of art&mdash;the
+first-hand expression, more or less abstract, of
+a human mind, or the creative inner vision recorded
+by a human hand.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Influence of the Photograph</span></p>
+
+<p>Photography does wonders, and for certain
+qualities of light and shade, and form and effect
+without colour, no painting or drawing can approach
+it; but it has the value and interest of
+science rather than of art. It is invaluable to the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>student of natural fact, surface effect, and momentary
+action, and is often in its very failures most
+interesting and suggestive to artists&mdash;who indeed
+have not been slow to avail themselves of the help
+of photography in all sorts of ways. Indeed the
+wonder is, considering its services to art in all
+directions, how the world could ever have done
+without it.</p>
+
+<p>But a photograph cannot do everything. It
+cannot make original designs, and it cannot draw
+in line. You can design in the solid, and make
+your groups in the studio or the open air; you can
+select your point of view, and the photograph will
+reproduce. You can make your drawing in line,
+and it will copy it; and we know its sphere of
+usefulness in this direction is enormous, since it
+can bring before our eyes the whole range of
+ancient art.</p>
+
+<p>In short, photography is an excellent servant
+and friend, but a dangerous master. It may easily
+beguile us by its seductive reproductions of surface
+relief and lighting to think more of these qualities
+than any other, and to endeavour to put them in
+the wrong places&mdash;in places where we want colour
+planes rather than shadow planes, flatness and
+repose rather than relief, for instance, as mostly
+in surface decoration.</p>
+
+<p>But one way of learning the value of emphasis
+is to draw from a photograph, and it will soon be
+discovered what a difference in expression is produced
+by dwelling a little more here, or a little
+less there.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">The Value of Emphasis</span></p>
+
+<p>In designing, the use of emphasis is very important;
+and it may be said that drawing or designing
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>without emphasis is like reading without
+stops, while awkward emphasis is like putting your
+stops in the wrong place.</p>
+
+<p>By a difference in emphasis the same design
+may be given quite a different effect and expression.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f038" name="f038"></a>
+	<img src="images/image038.png"
+		alt="Effect of Different Emphasis in the
+Treatment of the Same Design."
+		title="Effect of Different Emphasis in the
+Treatment of the Same Design."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>Suppose, for instance, we were designing a vertical
+pattern of stem, leaves, and fruit in one colour.
+By throwing the emphasis upon the leaves, as in
+No. 1, we should gain one kind of effect or decorative
+expression. By throwing the emphasis upon
+the fruit, and leaving the leaves in outline, we
+should get quite a different effect out of the same
+elements, as in No. 2. While by leaving stem,
+leaves, and fruit all in outline, and throwing the
+emphasis upon the ground, we should get, again,
+a totally distinct kind of effect and expression.</p>
+
+<p>Similar differences of effect and expression,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>owing to differences of emphasis, might be studied
+in the drawing and treatment of a head (as in <span class="smcap">a</span>, <span class="smcap">b</span>,
+and <span class="smcap">c</span>). The possibilities of such variations of
+emphasis in drawing are practically unlimited and
+co-extensive with the variations of expression we
+see in nature herself. The pictorial artist is free
+to translate or represent them in his work, controlled
+solely by the conditions and purpose of
+his work.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f039" name="f039"></a>
+	<img src="images/image039.png"
+		alt="Different Emphasis in the Treatment of a Head."
+		title="Different Emphasis in the Treatment of a Head."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is these conditions and purposes which really
+control both choice and treatment, and determine
+the emphasis, and therefore the expression of the
+work.</p>
+
+<p>No kind of art can be said to be unconditioned,
+and the simplest and freest of all, <i>the art of the
+point and the surface</i>, which covers all the graphic
+art and flat designing, is still subject to certain
+technical influences, and it may be said that it is
+very much in so far as these technical influences
+or conditions are acknowledged and utilized that
+the work gains in artistic character.</p>
+
+<p>[SN The Technical Influence]</p>
+
+<p>The draughtsman in line who draws for surface
+printing, for the book or newspaper, should be able
+to stand the test of the peculiar conditions; and, so
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>far from attempting to escape them, and seeking
+something more than they will bear, should welcome
+them as incentives to a distinct artistic treatment
+with a value and character of its own, which indeed
+all the best work has. It is, for instance, important
+in all design associated with type for surface
+printing, that there should be a certain harmonious
+relation between lettering or type and printer's
+ornament or picture.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f040" name="f040"></a>
+	<img src="images/image040.png"
+		alt="Sketches to Illustrate Effect of
+Different Emphasis in the Treatment of the Same Elements in Landscape."
+		title="Sketches to Illustrate Effect of
+Different Emphasis in the Treatment of the Same Elements in Landscape."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p>
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f041a" name="f041a"></a>
+<a href="images/image041ah.png">
+	<img src="images/image041a.png"
+		alt="Example of Page Treatment to Show
+Ornamental Relation Between Text and Pictures."
+		title="Example of Page Treatment to Show
+Ornamental Relation Between Text and Pictures."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p>
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f041b" name="f041b"></a>
+	<img src="images/image041b.png"
+		alt="I. Textile Motive: Suggestion for a Carpet Pattern."
+		title="I. Textile Motive: Suggestion for a Carpet Pattern."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f041c" name="f041c"></a>
+	<img src="images/image041c.png"
+		alt="II. An Abstract Treatment of The Same on
+Point Paper, as Detail of Brussels Carpet."
+		title="II. An Abstract Treatment of The Same on
+Point Paper, as Detail of Brussels Carpet."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>A firm and open quality of line, with bright black
+and white effects, not only has the most attractive
+decorative effect with type, but lends itself to the
+processes of reproduction for surface printing best,
+whether woodcut or one of the numerous forms of
+so-called automatic photo-engraving, as well as to
+the conditions of the printing press.</p>
+
+<p>In all design-work which has to be subjected to
+processes of engraving and printing, clearness and
+definiteness of line is very necessary. Designs for
+textile printing of all kinds, for wall-papers, especially,
+require good firm drawing and definite colour
+planes. This does not, however, mean hardness
+of effect. A design should be clear and intelligible
+without being hard.</p>
+
+<p>For weaving, again, definiteness in pattern designing
+is very necessary, since the design must be
+capable of being rendered upon the severe conditions
+of the point paper, by which it is only possible
+to produce curves by small successive angles (which
+sounds like a contradiction in terms). The size of
+these angles or points, of course, varies very much
+in the different kinds of textile with which pattern
+is incorporated, from the fine silk fabric, in which
+they are almost inappreciable, to carpets of all kinds,
+where they are emphatic; so that a certain squareness
+of mass becomes a desirable and characteristic
+feature in designs for these purposes, and,
+indeed, I think it should be more or less acknowledged
+in all textile design, in order to preserve its
+distinctive beauty and character.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">The Artistic Purpose</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Beauty and character.</i>&mdash;In these lies the gist of
+all design. While the technical conditions, if fully
+understood, fairly met, and frankly acknowledged,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>are sure to give <i>character</i> to a design, for whatever
+purpose, <i>beauty</i> is not so easy to command. It is
+so delicate a quality, so complex in its elements, a
+question often of such nice balance and judgment&mdash;depending
+perhaps upon a hair's-breadth difference
+in the poise of a mass here, or the sweep of a
+curve there&mdash;that we cannot weave technical nets
+fine enough to catch so sensitive a butterfly. She
+is indeed a Psyche in art, both seeking and sought,
+to be finally won only by devotion and love.</p>
+
+<p>This search for beauty&mdash;this Psyche of art&mdash;is
+the purely inspiring artistic purpose, as distinct
+from the technical and useful one, which should,
+perfectly reconciled and united with it, determine
+the form of our work.</p>
+
+<p>In drawing or design we may seek particular
+qualities in line and form either of representation
+or of ornament. We may desire to dwell upon
+particular beauties either of object or subject. Say,
+in drawing from a cast or from natural form of any
+kind, we desire to dwell upon beauty of line or
+quality of surface. Well, since it is most difficult,
+if not impossible, to get everything at once, and
+nothing without some kind of sacrifice, we shall
+find that to give prominence to&mdash;to bring out&mdash;the
+particular quality in our subject (say beauty of line),
+it becomes necessary to subordinate other qualities
+to this. A drawing in pure outline of a figure may
+be a perfect thing in itself. The moment we begin
+to superadd shading, or lines expressive of relief
+of any kind, we introduce another element; we are
+aiming at another kind of truth or beauty; and unless
+we have also a distinctly ideal aim in this, we
+shall mar the simplicity of the outline without gaining
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>any compensating advantage, or really adding
+to the truth or beauty of the drawing.</p>
+
+<p>In designing, too, unless we can so contrive the
+essential characteristics of our pattern that they
+shall be adaptable to the method and material of its
+production, and make its reproduction quite practicable,
+it is sure to reappear more or less marred
+and incomplete. The thing is to discover what
+kind of character and beauty the method will allow
+of&mdash;whether beauty or quality of line, or surface,
+or colour, or material; and if to be reproduced in
+a particular method or material, the design should
+be thought out in the method or material for which
+it is destined, rather than as a drawing on paper,
+and worked out accordingly, using every opportunity
+to secure the particular kind of beauty naturally
+belonging to such work in its completed form.</p>
+
+<p>Thus we should naturally think of <i>planes of surface</i>
+in modelled work, and the delicate play of
+light and shade, getting our equivalent for colour
+in the design and contrast of varied surfaces. In
+stained glass we should think of a pattern in lead
+lines inclosing one of translucent colour, each being
+interdependent and united to form a harmonious
+whole. In textile design we should be influenced
+by the thought of the difference of use, plan, and
+purpose of the finished material; as the difference
+between a rich vertical pattern in silk, velvet, or
+tapestry, to be broken by folds as in curtains or
+hangings, and a rich carpet pattern, to be spread
+upon the unbroken level surface of a floor. The
+idea of the wall and floor should here influence us
+as well as the actual technical necessities of the
+loom. It would be part of the artistic purpose
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>affecting the imagination and artistic motive, and
+working with the strictly technical conditions.</p>
+
+<p>The mind must project itself, and see with the
+inner eye the effect of the design as it would appear
+in actual use, as far as possible. Invention,
+knowledge, and experience will do the rest.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Brush-Work</span></p>
+
+<p>Keeping, however, to strictly pictorial or graphic
+conditions&mdash;to the art of the point and the surface&mdash;with
+which, as designers and draughtsmen, we
+are more immediately concerned, we cannot forget
+certain technical considerations strictly belonging
+to the varieties of point and of surface, and their
+relations one to another. The flexible point of the
+brush, for instance, dipped in ink, or colour, has its
+own peculiar capacity, its own range of treatment,
+one might say, its own forms.</p>
+
+<p>The management admits of immense variation
+of use and touch, and its range of depicting and
+ornamental power are very great: from the simpler
+leaf forms, which seem to be almost a reflection
+or shadow of the moist pointed brush itself, to the
+elaborate graphic drawing in line or light and
+shade.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f042" name="f042"></a>
+	<img src="images/image042.png"
+		alt="Brush Forms."
+		title="Brush Forms."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>In forming the leaf shape one begins with a light
+pressure, if at the point, and proceeds to increase
+it for the middle and broader end. On the same
+principle of regulation of pressure any brush forms
+may be built up. It is essential for freedom in working
+with the brush not to starve or stint it in moisture
+or colour. For ornamental forms a full brush
+should be used: otherwise they are apt to look
+dragged and meagre. For a rich and flowing line
+also a full brush, however fine, is necessary. It is
+quite possible, however, to use it with a different
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>aim, and to produce a sort of crumbling line when
+half dry, and also in colour-work for what is called
+dragging, by which tone, texture, or quality may
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>be given to parts of a drawing. One should never
+lose sight, in using the brush as a drawing tool, of
+its distinctive quality and character, and impart it
+to all work done by its means.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f043" name="f043"></a>
+	<img src="images/image043.png"
+		alt="Direct Brush Expression Of Animal Form."
+		title="Direct Brush Expression Of Animal Form."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>The direct touch with the full brush&mdash;to cultivate
+this is of enormous advantage to all artists,
+whatever particular line of art they may follow,
+since it may be said to be of no less value in design
+than it is in painting pure and simple. We can all
+feel the charm of the broad brush washes and emphatic
+brush touches of a master of water-colour
+landscape such as De Wint. This is mastery of
+brush and colour in one direction&mdash;tone and effect.
+A Japanese drawing of a bird or a fish may show
+it equally in another&mdash;character and form. A bit
+of Oriental porcelain or Persian tile may show the
+same dexterous charm and full-brush feeling exercised
+in a strictly decorative direction.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f044" name="f044"></a>
+<a href="images/image044h.png">
+	<img src="images/image044.png"
+		alt="Japanese Drawing Of A Bird.
+From &ldquo;;The Hundred Birds Of Bari.&rdquo;;"
+		title="Japanese Drawing Of A Bird.
+From &ldquo;;The Hundred Birds Of Bari.&rdquo;;"
+	/>
+</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The empire of the brush, if we think of it in all
+its various forms and directions, is very large; and
+it commands, in skilled hands, both <i>line</i> and <i>form</i>,
+in all their varieties, and leaves its impress in all
+the departments of art, from the humble but dexterous
+craftsman who puts the line of gold or colour
+round the edges of our cups and saucers, to
+the highly skilled and specialized painter of easel
+pictures&mdash;say the academician who writes cheques
+with his paint-brush!</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Charcoal and Pencil</span></p>
+
+<p>Then we have the ordinary varieties of the firm
+point: charcoal, pencil, pen. Charcoal, being halfway
+between hard and soft&mdash;a sort of halfway
+house or bridge for one passing from the flexible
+brush to the firm and hard points of pencil and
+pen&mdash;is first favourite with painters when they
+take to drawing. Its softness and removability
+adapts it as a tool for preliminary and preparatory
+sketching in for all purposes, and both for designer
+and painter; but it lends itself to both line and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+tone drawing, or to a mixture of both. It is therefore
+a very good material for rapid studies (say
+from the life) and the seizing of any effect of light
+and shade rapidly, since the masses can be laid
+in readily, and greater richness and depth can be
+obtained in shorter time, perhaps, than by any
+other kind of pencil.</p>
+
+<p>Charcoal is also very serviceable for large cartoon-work,
+since it is capable of both delicacy and
+force, and bears working up to any extent. A
+slight rubbing of the finger gives half tones when
+wanted, and is often serviceable in giving greater
+solidity and finish to the work.</p>
+
+<p>Then there is the lead pencil&mdash;the point-of-all-work,
+as it might be called&mdash;more generally
+serviceable than any other, whether for rapid
+sketches and jottings in the note-book, or careful
+and detailed drawings, or sketching in for the
+smaller kinds of design-work. It is also, of
+course, used for drawings which are afterwards
+"inked in." I do not think, however, that pen-work
+done in this way is so free or characteristic
+as when done direct, or at any rate quite freely,
+upon a mere scaffolding of preliminary lines, used
+only to make the plans for the chief masses and forms.</p>
+
+<p>Pencil drawing is capable of being carried to a
+greater pitch of delicacy and finish, and has a
+silvery quality all its own. It has not the force
+or range of charcoal, but in its own technical
+range it possesses many advantages. Its gray
+and soft line, however charming in itself, does
+not fit it for work where sharpness and precision
+of line and touch are required, as may be said to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>be the case with all work intended to be reproduced
+by some process of handicraft or manufacture,
+except some sorts of photo-engraving or
+lithography. We must therefore look to another
+implement to enable us to obtain these qualities,
+namely, the brush, the use and qualities of which I
+have already touched upon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">The Pen</span></p>
+
+<p>There remains yet another point of the firm
+and decisive order, the pen, which enables us to
+get firmness and sharpness of line and precise
+definition, as well as considerable range of treatment
+and freedom of touch.</p>
+
+<p>The pen seems to bear much the same relation
+to the brush as the lead pencil does to charcoal&mdash;not
+capable of such full and rich effects or such
+flowing freedom of line, but yet possessing its own
+beauty and characteristic kinds of expression. Its
+true province is in comparatively small scale work,
+and its natural association is with its sister-pen of
+literature in the domain of book-design and decoration,
+and black and white drawing for the press.
+Its varieties are endless, and the ingenuity of
+manufacturers continually places before us fresh
+choice of pen-points to work with; but though
+one occasionally meets with a good steel pen, I
+have found it too often fails one just when it is
+sufficiently worn to the right degree of flexibility.
+One returns to the quill, which can be cut to suit
+the particular requirements of one's work. For
+large bold drawing the reed-pen has advantages,
+and a pleasant rich quality of line.</p>
+
+<p>But with whatever point we may work, the
+great object is to be perfectly at ease with it in
+drawing&mdash;to thoroughly master its use and capacities,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>so that in our search for that other command,
+of line and form, we may feel that we have
+in our hands a tool upon which we can rely, a
+trusty spear to bear down the many difficulties
+and discouragements that beset, like threatening
+dragons, the path of the art-student.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Of the Choice of Form&mdash;Elementary
+Forms&mdash;Space-filling&mdash;Grouping&mdash;Analogies
+of Form&mdash;Typical Forms of Ornament&mdash;Ornamental Units&mdash;Equivalents
+in Form&mdash;Quantities in Design&mdash;Contrast&mdash;Value of Variations of
+Similar or Allied Forms&mdash;Use of the Human Figure and Animal
+Forms in Ornamental Design.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">We</span> were considering the choice and use of
+Line in the last chapter: its expressive
+characters and various methods. We now come
+to the no less important question to the designer
+and draughtsman&mdash;<i>The Choice of Form</i>.</p>
+
+<p>If Line may be said to be the bone and sinew
+of design, Form is the substance and the flesh,
+and both are obviously essential to its free life and
+development.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Elementary Forms</span></p>
+
+<p>The <i>cube</i> and the <i>sphere</i> give us the fundamental
+elements, or primal types from which are
+derived the multifarious, ever varying, and complex
+forms, the products of the forces and conditions
+of nature, or the necessitous inventiveness
+of art, just as we may take the square and the
+circle to be the parents of linear and geometric
+design.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f045a" name="f045a"></a>
+	<img src="images/image045a.png"
+		alt="Elementary Forms: Pyramid,
+Sphere, Cube, Hexagon, Cone."
+		title="Elementary Forms: Pyramid,
+Sphere, Cube, Hexagon, Cone."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>The cube and the sphere, the ellipse, the cone,
+and the pyramid, with other comparatively simple
+forms of solid geometry, present themselves to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>the student as elementary tests of draughtsmanship&mdash;of
+the power, that is, of representing solid
+bodies upon a plane surface. Such forms being
+more simple and regular than any natural forms,
+they are supposed to reduce the problem of drawing
+to its simplest conditions. They certainly
+afford very close tests of correctness of eye,
+making any fault in perspective or projection at
+once apparent.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f045b" name="f045b"></a>
+	<img src="images/image045b.png"
+		alt="Use Of Elementary Forms in Architecture."
+		title="Use Of Elementary Forms in Architecture."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>To avoid, however, falling into mechanical ways,
+and to maintain the interest and give vitality to
+such studies, the relation of such forms to forms
+in nature and art should be borne in mind, and no
+opportunity missed of comparing them, or of
+seeking out their counterparts, corresponding
+principles, and variations, as well as their practical
+bearing, both functional and constructive; as in
+the case of the typical forms of flowers, buds, and
+seed-vessels, for instance, where the cone and
+the funnel, and the spherical, cylindrical, and
+tubular principles are constantly met with, as
+essential parts of the characters and organic
+necessities of the plant: the cone and the funnel
+mostly in buds and flower-petals for protection
+and inclosure of the pollen and seed germs, the
+tube for conducting the juices; the spherical form
+to resist moisture externally, or to hold it internally,
+or to avoid friction, and facilitate close
+storage, as in the case of seeds in pods. The
+seed-vessel of the poppy, for instance, has a
+curious little pent-house roof to shield the interstices
+(like windows in a tower) till the seed is
+ripe and the time comes for it to be shaken out
+of the shell or pod. A further practical reason
+for the prevalence of spherical form in seeds is
+that they may, when the outer covering or husk
+perishes, more readily roll out and fall into the
+interstices of the ground; or when, as in the case
+of various fruits, such as the apple and orange,
+the envelope itself is spherical and intended to
+carry their flat or pointed seeds to the ground,
+where it falls and rolls when ripe.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+<a id="f046" name="f046"></a>
+	<img src="images/image046.png"
+		alt="Poppyheads."
+		title="Poppyheads."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>The cube and the various multiple forms may
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>be found in crystals and basaltic rocks, as well as
+in organic nature, as, for instance, in the honeycomb
+of bees, where choice of form is a constructive
+necessity: the cube is in every sense of the
+word the corner-stone in architecture, and without
+squaring and plumbing no building could be
+constructed, while the cylindrical and conical principles
+of form are illustrated in towers and roofs,
+spires and pinnacles. In architectural ornament
+and carved decoration the cube and sphere again
+form the basis, both forming ornaments themselves
+by mere recurrence and repetition, and
+also forming constructional bases of ornament.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f047" name="f047"></a>
+	<img src="images/image047.png"
+		alt="Apple Cut To Show Position Of Seeds."
+		title="Apple Cut To Show Position Of Seeds."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Dog-Tooth Ornament</span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f048b" name="f048b"></a>
+	<img src="images/image048b.png"
+		alt="Dog-tooth Formed From Cube."
+		title="Dog-tooth Formed From Cube."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>A very simple but effective form of carved
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>ornament characteristic of early Gothic work is
+what is known as the dog-tooth. This is formed
+simply by cutting a cube of stone
+into a pyramid, depressing the
+sides, and cutting them into geometric
+leaves, leaving the sharp
+angles of the pyramid from the
+base to the apex standing out
+in bold relief. In ground-plan
+this is simply composed geometrically
+of a rectangle divided diagonally
+into four equal parts, and by striking four
+semicircles from the centres of the four sides of
+the rectangle. Here we get a form of ornament
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>in the flat which appears to have been very widely
+used, and reappears in the early art of nearly all
+races so far as I am aware. We find it, for
+instance, in Assyrian carving and in early Greek
+decoration, in China and Japan, and in European
+medi&aelig;val work of all kinds. Its charm perhaps
+lies in its simplicity of construction yet rich ornamental
+effect, either as carved work or as a flat
+painted diaper. It might also be used as the geometric
+basis of an elaborate repeating wall-pattern
+over a large surface.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f048a" name="f048a"></a>
+	<img src="images/image048a.png"
+		alt="Cube and Sphere in Architectural Ornament:
+Brick Dental, Ball Flower Moulding, and Dog-tooth Moulding."
+		title="Cube and Sphere in Architectural Ornament:
+Brick Dental, Ball Flower Moulding, and Dog-tooth Moulding."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Filling of Spaces</span></p>
+
+<p>When it comes to the choice of form, when we
+are face to face with a particular problem in design,
+ornament, or decoration (say, as most frequently
+happens, it is to fill a panel of a given shape and
+size), we are bound to consider form in relation
+to that particular panel, to the subject we propose
+to treat, and the method by which the design
+is to be produced, or the object and position
+for which it is intended. This generally narrows
+the range of possible choice. Firstly, there is the
+shape of the panel itself. A well-known exercise
+for the Teacher's Certificate under the Department
+of Science and Art is to give a drawing of
+a plant adapted to design in a square and a circle.
+Now in the abstract one would be inclined to
+select for a circular fitting different forms from
+those one might select for a square filling, since I
+always consider that the shape of the space must
+influence the character of the filling in line and
+form. Still, if the problem is to fill a square and
+a circle by the same forms, or an adaptation of
+them, we must rely more and more upon difference
+of <i>treatment</i> of these forms, and not try to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>squeeze round forms into rectangular space, or
+rectangular forms into circular space. In a rose,
+for instance, it would be possible to dwell on its
+angular side for the square, and on its curvilinear
+side for the circle. Anyway, we should seek in
+the first place a good and appropriate motive.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f049a" name="f049a"></a>
+	<img src="images/image049a.png"
+		alt="Filling of Square Space."
+		title="Filling of Square Space."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>Supposing the design is for wood inlay, we should
+have to select forms that would not cause unnecessary
+difficulty in cutting, since every form in the
+design would have to be cut out in thin wood and
+inserted in the corresponding hollow cut in the
+panel or plank to receive it. Complex or complicated
+forms would therefore be ruled out, as being
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>not only difficult or impossible to reproduce in the
+material, but ineffective.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f049b" name="f049b"></a>
+	<img src="images/image049b.png"
+		alt="Filling of Circular Space."
+		title="Filling of Circular Space."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Inlay Design</span></p>
+
+<p>A true feeling for the particular effect and decorative
+charm of inlaid work should lead us to
+limit ourselves to comparatively few and simple
+forms, treating those forms in an emphatic but abstract
+way, and making use of recurring line and
+form as far as possible. We might make an effective
+panel, say, for a casket, or a clock-case, or a floor, by
+strictly limiting ourselves to very few and simple
+forms&mdash;say, for instance, a stem, a leaf, a berry, or
+disc, and a bird form, or fruit and leaf forms. It
+would be possible to build up a design with such elements
+both pleasant in effect and well adapted to the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>work. An excellent plan would be to cut out all one's
+forms with knife or scissors in stiff paper, as a test
+of the practicability of an inlay design. This is
+actually done with the working drawing by the inlay
+cutter.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f050" name="f050"></a>
+	<img src="images/image050.png"
+		alt="1. Units of Simple Inlay Pattern;
+2. Motive for Inlaid Pattern Built of the Same Units;
+3. Treatment of Form as Pattern Units for Inlaid Work;
+4. Pattern Motive for Inlaid Work"
+		title="1. Units of Simple Inlay Pattern;
+2. Motive for Inlaid Pattern Built of the Same Units;
+3. Treatment of Form as Pattern Units for Inlaid Work;
+4. Pattern Motive for Inlaid Work"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>I once designed an inlaid floor for the centre of
+a picture gallery. The scale was rather large, and
+the work was bold. One kept to large, bold, and
+simple forms&mdash;water-lilies and broad leaves, swans,
+scallop shells, and zigzag borders. Forms which
+can be readily produced by the brush would generally
+answer well for inlay, since they would have
+simple and sweeping boundaries and flat silhouette.
+And for inlay one is practically designing in black,
+white, or tinted silhouette. This makes it very good
+practice for all designers, both for the invention it
+tends to call out, owing to the limited resources and
+restriction as to forms, and also as giving facility
+and readiness in blocking in the masses of pattern.</p>
+
+<p>The water-colour painter, too, would find that
+blocking in in flat local colour all his forms and the
+colours of his background was an excellent method
+of preparatory work, and afforded good practice in
+direct painting, since he could add his secondary
+shades and tints in the same manner until the work
+was brought to completion, while preserving that
+fresh effect of the undisturbed washes which is the
+great charm of water-colour.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Grouping of Allied Forms</span></p>
+
+<p>In seeking forms to group together harmoniously&mdash;which
+is the whole object of composition&mdash;we
+shall find that much the same kind of principle
+holds good whether we are arranging a still-life
+group or designing a wall-paper or textile. It is
+only a difference of degree and scale. In the one
+case we are designing in the solid with the actual
+objects, before drawing or painting them as a harmonious
+pictorial composition; in the other we are
+arranging forms upon the flat with a view to harmonious
+composition with a strictly decorative purpose
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>in view. In the first we are dealing with
+concrete form in the round; in the second, generally
+speaking, with abstract form in the flat.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f051a" name="f051a"></a>
+	<img src="images/image051a.png"
+		alt="Grouping of Allied Forms: Composition of Curves."
+		title="Grouping of Allied Forms: Composition of Curves."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>But in either case we want harmony. We cannot,
+therefore, throw together a number of forms
+unrelated to each in line, contour, or meaning. We
+seek in composing or designing not contradictions,
+but correspondences of form, with just an element
+of contrast to give flavour and point. In grouping
+pottery, for instance, we should not place big and
+little or squat and slender forms close together
+without connecting links of some kind. We want
+a series of good lines that help one another and
+lead up to one another in a kind of friendly co-operation.
+Broad smooth forms and rounded surfaces,
+again, require relief and a certain amount of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>contrast. We feel the need of crisp leaves or flowers,
+perhaps, with our pottery form. We may safely
+go far, however, on the principle of grouping similar
+or allied forms, giving our composition as a
+whole either a curvilinear or angular character in
+its general lines, masses, and forms, on the principle
+of like to like. This will entirely depend
+upon our choice of grouping of form; but the more
+by our selection we make our composition tend
+distinctly in the one direction or the other, the
+more character it will be likely to possess.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f051b" name="f051b"></a>
+	<img src="images/image051b.png"
+		alt="Grouping of Allied Forms: Composition of Angles."
+		title="Grouping of Allied Forms: Composition of Angles."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Grouping</span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f052" name="f052"></a>
+<a href="images/image052h.png">
+	<img src="images/image052.png"
+		alt="Still-life Group Illustrative of Wood-Engraving."
+		title="Still-life Group Illustrative of Wood-Engraving."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>In selecting forms for still-life grouping and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>painting, I think increased interest might be gained
+by arranging significant objects, accessories bearing
+upon particular pursuits, for instance, in natural
+relationship and surrounding. Groups suggesting
+certain handicrafts, for instance, such as the clear
+glass globe of the wood-engraver, the sand-bag,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>the block upon it, the tools, gravers lying around,
+the eye-glass, an old book of woodcuts, and so forth.
+Other groups suggestive of various arts and industries
+could be arranged&mdash;such motives as metal-work,
+pottery, literature, painting, music, embroidery,
+spring, summer, autumn, and winter, might
+all be suggestively illustrated by well-selected
+groups of still life. Even different historic periods
+might be emblematically suggested&mdash;I should like
+to see more done in this way.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f053" name="f053"></a>
+	<img src="images/image053.png"
+		alt="Japanese Diagonal Pattern."
+		title="Japanese Diagonal Pattern."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>To return to design in the flat. If we start with
+a motive of circular masses, we cannot suddenly
+associate them with sharp angles&mdash;I mean in our
+leading forms. Of course we can make a network
+or trellis or diaper of the angles, to form a mat,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+ground, or a framework on which to place our broad
+masses, as we may see effectively done by the
+Chinese and Japanese.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Corresponding Forms</span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+	<a id="f054" name="f054"></a>
+	<img src="images/image054.png"
+		alt="Treatment of Fruit and Leaf
+Forms: Corresponding Curvature"
+		title="Treatment of Fruit and Leaf
+Forms: Corresponding Curvature"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>If the principal group of forms in our pattern,
+say, are fruit forms&mdash;apples, pomegranates, or
+oranges&mdash;we must re-echo or carry out the curves
+in a lesser degree in the connecting stems and
+leaves. Change the form of the fruit, say, to lemons,
+and a further variation of connecting or subsidiary
+curve in stems and leaves will naturally suggest
+itself, and at the same time in following such principles
+we shall be expressing in an abstract way
+more of the character of the tree or plant itself. In
+looking at the leaf of a tree one may often see a
+suggestion of the general character and contour of
+the tree itself, and we know the line:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left:3em;">"Just as the twig is bent the tree's inclined."</p>
+
+<p>In dealing with angular motives the same principle
+would be followed, but corresponding to the
+difference of motive. Let the form of your detail
+be reflected in the character of your mass.</p>
+
+<p>I have spoken of the necessity in designing of
+seeking correspondences in form, and although,
+could we place every form in proper sequence and
+supply all the intermediary links to unite them
+harmoniously, forms of extreme diversity might
+thus be associated, given great extension of space
+(as in wall decoration, for instance), even then we
+should want these forms to correspond and recur.
+Yet, as a rule, having to deal in design with what
+are really parts rather than wholes, we can only
+endeavour by making the design of these parts simple
+and harmonious in line and form, and true to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+their special conditions, to render their association
+decoratively possible.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+	<a id="f055a" name="f055a"></a>
+	<img src="images/image055a.png"
+		alt="Correspondence in General Contour
+Between Leaf and Tree."
+		title="Correspondence in General Contour
+Between Leaf and Tree."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+	<a id="f055b" name="f055b"></a>
+	<img src="images/image055b.png"
+		alt="Some Analogies in Form."
+		title="Some Analogies in Form."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>Certain forms seem to lend themselves to design
+in ornament better than others, because they give
+the designer certain lines and masses which can be
+harmoniously repeated or combined with other allied
+forms or lines. Design from this point of view
+becomes a search for analogies of form.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Analogies of Form</span></p>
+
+<p>I mentioned certain simple geometric forms common
+to nature and art. Early ornament consists
+in the repetition of such forms. The next step was
+to connect them by lines: and so form and line,
+through endless vicissitudes and complexities, became
+united, to live happily in the world of decorative
+motive ever after. But long after the primitive
+unadorned geometric forms themselves have ceased
+to be the chief forms in ornament, their controlling
+influence is asserted over the boundaries of the
+more complicated masses introduced.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Typical Forms of Ornament</span></p>
+
+<p>The simple rectangle is disguised under the fret,
+the circle and spiral assert their sway over the
+boundaries of the palmette, or circle and semicircle
+unite to form the oval so frequently used both as a
+unit in Greek ornament and as a controlling boundary.
+These are typical border forms: for extension
+and repetition in fields of pattern we find the same
+geometric plans at work in combination and subdivision,
+forming at first the ornament itself, and
+afterwards furnishing the plan and controlling
+boundaries only. Even in later stages in the evolution
+of surface decoration, in what are called
+naturalistic floral patterns, amid apparent carelessness
+and freedom, by the exigencies of repetition
+the ghost of buried geometric connection reappears,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+and compels the most naturalistic roses on a wall-paper
+to acknowledge themselves artificial after all,
+as they nod to their counterparts from the masked
+angles of the inevitable diaper repeat.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+	<a id="f056" name="f056"></a>
+	<img src="images/image056.png"
+		alt="Tree Of Typical Pattern Forms, Units, and Systems."
+		title="Tree Of Typical Pattern Forms, Units, and Systems."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>We find in the historical forms of decorative art
+constantly recurring types of form and line, such
+as the lotus of the Egyptians, the anthemia of the
+Greeks, the pineapple-like flower and palmette of
+the Persians, the peony of the Chinese. These
+forms, at first valued solely for their symbolical and
+heraldic significance, and continually demanded,
+became to the designer important elements or <i>units</i>
+in ornament. They gave him fine sweeping curves,
+radiating lines, and bold masses, without which a
+designer cannot live, any more than a poet without
+words. They were capable, too, of infinite variation
+in treatment, a variation which has been continued
+ever since, as by importation to different
+countries (the movement going on from east to
+west) the same forms were treated by designers of
+different races, and became mixed with other native
+elements, or consciously imitated as they are now
+by Manchester designers and manufacturers, to be
+sold again in textile form to their original owners,
+as it were, in the far East. Truly, a strange turn
+of the wheel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Ornamental Units</span></p>
+
+<p>The range of choice in ornamental units is, indeed,
+embarrassingly large for the modern designer,
+and a careful and tasteful selection becomes of more
+and more importance. It is not the number of
+forms you can combine, or because they are of Persian
+or Chinese origin, that your work will be artistic,
+but the judicious and inventive use made of
+the elements of your design. Ready-made units,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>such as the Oriental forms I have mentioned, are
+no doubt easier to combine, to make an effect with,
+because a certain amount of selection has already
+been done. In fact, with such forms as the Persian
+or Indian palmette, we are dealing with the results
+of centuries of ornamental evolution, and with emblems
+immemorially treasured by ancient races. It
+behoves us, if we are called upon to recombine
+them, to treat them with sympathy, refinement, and
+respect, and to let them deteriorate as little as possible,
+for the spirit of an important ornamental form
+is like a gathered flower&mdash;it soon withers and becomes
+limp.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f057" name="f057"></a>
+	<img src="images/image057.png"
+		alt="Sketches to Show Use of Counterbalance,
+Quantity, and Equivalents in Designing."
+		title="Sketches to Show Use of Counterbalance,
+Quantity, and Equivalents in Designing."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Equivalents in Form</span></p>
+
+<p>It is the <i>spirit</i>, after all, that is the important
+thing to preserve, in decorative design, however
+widely we may depart from the <i>letter</i> sometimes.
+This is a difficult quality to define, but I should say
+it chiefly consists in a nice attention to the character
+of form, the elastic spring of curves, an understanding
+of the construction and proportions, and
+grasp of the effect. In designing we constantly feel
+the need of repeating certain masses with variations
+or balancing them by equivalents, or the necessity
+of leading up to certain main forms by subsidiary
+forms, and to carry out their lines in other parts of
+the composition. In designing figures or emblems,
+for instance, within inclosed spaces, such as shields
+or cartouche shapes, forming leading elements in a
+design, it requires much invention and ornamental
+feeling so to arrange them that, while different
+in subject or meaning, and differently spaced,
+they shall yet properly counterbalance each other,
+and, though varied in detail, shall yet be equivalent
+in quantity. The same sort of feeling would
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>govern the case of designing two masses of fruit
+and foliage, say, forming two halves of an oblong
+panel, which, though starting on the symmetric
+plan from the centre, are not intended to be alike
+in detail; or in a frieze composed of a series of
+formalized trees, where it was desired to have each
+different, say, to express the progression of the
+seasons, it would be the sense of the necessity of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+equivalents which would govern the decorative effect.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+	<a id="f058" name="f058"></a>
+	<img src="images/image058.png"
+		alt="Quantities and Counterchange of
+Border and Field in Carpet Motives."
+		title="Quantities and Counterchange of
+Border and Field in Carpet Motives."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Quantities in Design</span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f059" name="f059"></a>
+	<img src="images/image059.png"
+		alt="Sketch to Illustrate Value of
+Different Quantities in Persian Rugs."
+		title="Sketch to Illustrate Value of
+Different Quantities in Persian Rugs."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>Such considerations naturally lead us to the
+question of the use of <i>quantities</i> in design&mdash;the
+ornamental proportions of ornament, or the contrasting
+distribution of form and line. For the
+mere repetition of ornamental forms over surfaces
+and objects without reference to proportion or
+structure is not decoration. The perception of appropriate
+quantities in design is really the decorative
+gauge or measure of effect.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f060" name="f060"></a>
+	<img src="images/image060.png"
+		alt="Sketch to Illustrate Value of
+Different Quantities in Persian Rugs."
+		title="Sketch to Illustrate Value of
+Different Quantities in Persian Rugs."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>In designing a bordered panel&mdash;or say a carpet&mdash;we
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>might decide to throw the weight of pattern,
+colour, or emphasis upon either the field or border.
+Supposing the field had a dark ground upon which
+the arabesque or floral design was relieved, in the
+border it would be most effective to transpose this
+arrangement, making the ground light, and bringing
+out the border design dark upon it. Or, if the
+motive were reversed, giving a light ground to the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>centre, with the pattern dark, the border might be
+brought out on a dark field. Or, again, for a less
+emphatic treatment the quantities of the pattern
+itself might be almost infinitely varied, massive
+forms and close fillings contrasting with open borders
+and united with intermediary bands.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f061" name="f061"></a>
+	<img src="images/image061.png"
+		alt="Sketch to Illustrate Value of
+Different Quantities in Persian Rugs."
+		title="Sketch to Illustrate Value of
+Different Quantities in Persian Rugs."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>These intermediary bands or subsidiary borders
+are very important in Eastern rugs and carpets,
+and their quantities very carefully considered. A
+Persian designer, for instance, would never leave a
+blank unbroken strip of colour to surround his field;
+his object is not to isolate the quantities of his pattern,
+but to distinguish and unite them: so he makes
+use of the subsidiary borders as additional quantities.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>A usual arrangement which always looks
+well is to have the border proper inclosed in two
+bands of about the same width and quantity in pattern&mdash;or
+they might be a repeat of each other&mdash;and
+to inclose the field or centre within another
+narrow subsidiary border. But the variations to be
+observed in any chance selection of Persian rugs
+or carpets are constant, and the amount of subtle
+variety and invention in these subsidiary borders
+is endless.</p>
+
+<p>Very excellent examples of the treatment and
+distribution of quantities may also be studied in the
+older Indian printed cottons, such as maybe seen
+at South Kensington.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Contrast</span></p>
+
+<p>The consideration of quantities in form and design
+involves the question of <i>contrast</i>, which, indeed,
+can hardly be separated from it. There is
+the contrast of form and line, and the contrast of
+colour and plane. It is with the first kind we are
+dealing now.</p>
+
+<p>Take the simplest linear border, such as the type
+common in Greek work. We should easily weary
+of the continual repetition of such a form alone
+and unassisted, but add a vertical with an alternative
+dark filling, and we get a certain richness and
+solidity which is a relief at once. Add another
+quantity, and we get the rich effect of the egg and
+tongue or egg and dart moulding.</p>
+
+<p>A still simpler instance of the use of contrast,
+however, is the chequer, or the principle of equal
+alternation of dark and light masses; but this
+touches colour contrast rather than form.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+	<a id="f062" name="f062"></a>
+	<img src="images/image062.png"
+		alt="Recurrence and Contrast in Border Motives."
+		title="Recurrence and Contrast in Border Motives."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>The love of contrast makes the Chinese porcelain-painter
+break the blue borders of his plates
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>with small cartouche-like forms inclosing the light
+ground, varied with a spray or device of some light
+kind; or the diagonal, closely-filled field of his
+woven silk by broad discs or cartouches of another
+plane of ornament. But the love of sharp or very
+violent contrasts, more especially of form, may
+easily lead one astray and be destructive of ornamental
+effect. Like all decorative considerations,
+the artistic use of contrast depends much upon the
+particular case and the conditions of the work, and
+one cannot lay down any unvarying rules. There
+are agreeable and disagreeable contrasts, and their
+choice and use must depend upon the individual
+artist.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Variation of Allied Forms</span></p>
+
+<p>The most beautiful kinds of design rather seem
+to depend upon the harmonious variation in association
+of similar or allied forms than on sharp
+contrasts.</p>
+
+<p>In compositions of figures the association of the
+delicate curves and angles of the human form, and
+the lines of drapery, with the emphatic verticals
+and horizontals, the semicircles and rectangles of
+architectural form, for instance, are always delightful
+in competent hands; as also compositions of
+figure and landscape, with its possibilities of undulating
+line corrected by the severe horizon, or sea-line,
+and contrasted with the vertical lines of trees,
+stems, and the rich forms of foliage masses.</p>
+
+<p>For the same reasons both of correspondence
+and contrast, masses of type or lettering of good
+form are admirable as foils to figure designs, in
+which commemorative monuments of all kinds and
+book designs afford abundant opportunities to the
+designer.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+<span class="sn">Use Of Human Figure and Animal Forms</span></p>
+
+<p>In surface or textile decoration of all kinds
+nothing gives so much relief and vitality as the
+judicious use of animal forms and the human figure,
+although they are not much favoured at present.
+The forms of birds and animals, if designed in relation
+to the rest of the pattern, will give a pleasant
+variety of form and line, and in their forms and
+lines we find just those elements both of correspondence
+and contrast, in their relation to geometric
+or to floral design, which are so valuable.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+	<a id="f063a" name="f063a"></a>
+	<img src="images/image063a.png"
+		alt="Use of Inclosing Boundaries
+in Designing Animal Forms in Decorative Pattern."
+		title="Use of Inclosing Boundaries
+in Designing Animal Forms in Decorative Pattern."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>In order to combine such forms successfully,
+however, great care in designing is necessary; and
+a good sound principle to follow as a general guide
+is to make the boundaries of the bird or animal
+touch the limits of an imaginary inclosing form
+of some simple geometric or floral or leaf shape
+(see p. <a href="#f063a">104</a>). This would at once control the form
+and render it available in a pattern as a decorative
+mass or unit. The particular shape of the controlling
+form must, of course, depend upon the
+general character of the design, whether free and
+flowing or square and restricted, the nature of the
+repeat, the ultimate position of the work, and so on.
+A study of Gothic heraldry and the early Sicilian silk
+patterns would be very instructive in this connection,
+since it is rather the heraldic ideal than that
+of the natural history book which is decoratively
+appropriate. At the same time it is quite possible
+to combine ornamental treatment with a great deal
+of natural truth in structure and character.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+	<a id="f063b" name="f063b"></a>
+	<img src="images/image063b.png"
+		alt="Decorative Spacing of Figures
+Within Geometric Boundaries."
+		title="Decorative Spacing of Figures
+Within Geometric Boundaries."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>Much the same principles apply to the treatment
+of the human figure as an element in ornament;
+they should be designed, whether singly or in
+groups, under the control of imaginary boundaries,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>and care must be taken that in line and mass
+they re-echo (or are re-echoed by) other lines which
+connect them with the rest of the design, if they
+occur as incidents in repeating wall-paper or hanging
+design, for instance. It is, however, quite possible
+to imagine a decorative effect produced by
+the use of figures alone (see p. <a href="#f063b">105</a>), with something
+very subsidiary in the way of connecting
+links of linear or floral pattern, much as figures
+were used by the ancient Greek vase-painters,
+beautifully distributed as ornament over the concave
+or convex surfaces of the vases and vessels
+of the potter, the forms of which, as all good decoration
+should do, they helped to express as well
+as to adorn.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Of the Influence of Controlling Lines, Boundaries, Spaces, and
+Plans in Designing&mdash;Origin of Geometric Decorative Spaces and
+Panels in Architecture&mdash;Value of Recurring
+Line&mdash;Tradition&mdash;Extension&mdash;Adaptability&mdash;Geometric Structural
+Plans&mdash;Frieze and Field&mdash;Ceiling Decoration&mdash;Co-operative
+Relation.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> function of line considered from the point
+of view of its controlling influence as a
+boundary, or inclosure, of design, upon which I
+touched in the last chapter, is a very important
+one, and deserves most attentive study.</p>
+
+<p>The usual problem a designer in the flat has to
+solve is to fill harmoniously a given space or panel
+defined by a line&mdash;some simple geometric form&mdash;such
+as a square or a circle, a parallelogram, a diamond,
+a lunette.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Influence of Controlling Lines, etc.</span></p>
+
+<p>Now it is possible to regard such spaces or
+panels as more or less unrelated, and simply as the
+boundaries of an individual composition or picture
+of some kind. Yet even so considered a certain sense
+of geometric control would come in in the selection
+of our lines and masses, both in regard to each other
+and in regard to the shape of the inclosing boundary.
+We seem to feel the need of some answering
+line or re-echo in the character of the composition
+to the shape of its boundary, to give it its
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>distinctive reason for existence in that particular
+form&mdash;just as we should expect a shell-fish to conform
+to the shape of its shell. Such a re-echo or
+acknowledgment might be ever so slight, or might
+be quite emphatic and dominate as the leading
+motive, but for perfectly harmonious effect it must
+be there.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+	<a id="f064" name="f064"></a>
+	<img src="images/image064.png"
+		alt="Relation of Design to Boundary: Simple
+Linear Motives and Pattern Bases."
+		title="Relation of Design to Boundary: Simple
+Linear Motives and Pattern Bases."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>A strictly simple and logical linear filling of such
+spaces might be expressed in the most primitive
+way, as in the illustration on p. <a href="#f064">109</a>.</p>
+
+<p>By these means certain primitive types of ornament
+are evolved, such as the Greek volute and
+the Greek key or fret, the logical ornament of a
+logical people.</p>
+
+<p>Such arrangements of line form simple linear
+patterns, and a decorative effect of surface is produced
+simply by their repetition, especially if the
+principle of alternation be observed. This principle
+may be expressed by taking, say, a series of
+squares or circles, and placing them either in a line
+as for a border arrangement, or for extension vertically
+and laterally over a surface, and filling only
+the alternate square or circle, leaving the alternate
+ones, or dropping them out altogether (see illustration,
+p. <a href="#f065">111</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+	<a id="f065" name="f065"></a>
+	<img src="images/image065.png"
+		alt="Use of Intervals in Repeating
+the Same Ornamental Units."
+		title="Use of Intervals in Repeating
+the Same Ornamental Units."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>When we desire to go beyond such primitive
+linear ornaments, however, and introduce natural
+form, we should still be guided by the same principles,
+if we desire to produce a strictly decorative
+effect, while varying them in application to any
+extent.</p>
+
+<p>It matters not what forms we deal with, floral,
+animal, human; directly we come to combine them
+in a design, to control them by a boundary, to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>inclose them in a space, we shall feel this necessity
+of controlling line, which, however concealed, is
+yet essential to bring them into that harmonious
+relation which is the essence of all design (see
+illustration, p. <a href="#f066">112</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+	<a id="f066" name="f066"></a>
+<a href="images/image066h.png">
+	<img src="images/image066.png"
+		alt="Designs of Floral, Human, and Animal Forms,
+Governed by Shape of Inclosing Boundary."
+		title="Designs of Floral, Human, and Animal Forms,
+Governed by Shape of Inclosing Boundary."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>We may take it as a general rule that the more
+purely ornamental the purpose of our design, and
+the more abstract in form it is, the more emphatically
+we may carry out the principle of correspondence
+of line between that of the inclosing
+boundary and that of the design itself; and, <i>vice
+vers&acirc;</i>, as the design becomes more pictorial in its
+appeal and more complex and varied in its elements,
+the more we may combine the leading
+motive or principle of line with secondary ones, or
+with variations, since every fresh element, every
+new direction of line, every new form introduced,
+demands some kind of re-echo to bring it into
+relation with the other elements of the design, or
+parts of the composition, whatever may be its
+nature and purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Now, if we seek further the meaning and origin
+of this necessity of the control of geometric lines
+and spaces in design, I think we shall find it in the
+constructive necessities of architecture: for it is
+certainly from architecture that we derive those
+typical spaces and panels the designer is so often
+called upon to fill.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+	<a id="f067" name="f067"></a>
+	<img src="images/image067.png"
+		alt="The Parthenon: Sketch to Show Spaces Used for
+Decorative Sculpture in Greek Architecture."
+		title="The Parthenon: Sketch to Show Spaces Used for
+Decorative Sculpture in Greek Architecture."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Origin of Geometric Decorative Spaces</span></p>
+
+<p>Lintel architecture&mdash;the Egyptian and the Greek&mdash;gave
+us the frieze, both continuous, as in that of
+the Cella of the Parthenon, or divided by triglyphs,
+which represented the ends of the beams of the
+primitive timber construction; and the interstices
+left between these determined the shape of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+sculptured panel or slab inserted, and influenced
+the character of its masses and the lines of its design,
+which was under the necessity of harmonizing
+with the whole building (see illustration, p. <a href="#f067">114</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f068" name="f068"></a>
+	<img src="images/image068.png"
+		alt="Tower of the Winds Athens BC 50"
+		title="Tower of the Winds Athens BC 50"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>The same may be said of the pediments. The
+angle of the low-pitched roof left another interstice
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>for the sculptor at each end of the building; and I
+have elsewhere<a name="FNanchor_1_2" id="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> pointed out the influence of the
+inclosing space and the angles of the pediment of
+the Parthenon upon the arrangement of the groups
+within it, and even upon the lines taken by some
+of the figures, especially the reclining figures near
+the acute angles.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_2" id="Footnote_1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> See "Bases of Design."</p></div>
+
+<p>Certain lines become inseparably associated with
+constructive expression, and are used to emphasize
+it, as the vertical flutings of the Doric column, by
+repeating the lines of the column itself, emphasize
+its constructive expression of supporting the weight
+of the horizontal lintels, the lines of which, repeated
+in the mouldings of the frieze and cornice, are associated
+with level restfulness and secure repose.</p>
+
+<p>As examples of design which, while meeting the
+structural necessities and acknowledging the control
+of space and general conditions, as the form
+of the slabs upon which they are sculptured, yet
+expresses independent movement, the figures of
+the octagonal tower of the winds at Athens are
+interesting (see illustration, p. <a href="#f068">115</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Quite a different feeling, corresponding to differences
+in conception and spirit in design, comes
+in with the Roman round <i>arch</i> its allied forms
+of <i>spandril</i> and <i>vault</i>, <i>lunette</i> and <i>medallion</i>,
+presenting new spaces for the surface designer, and
+new suggestions of ornamental line (see illustration,
+p. <a href="#f069">117</a>). It is noticeable how, with the round-arched
+architecture under Roman, Byzantine (see
+illustration, p. <a href="#f070">118</a>), and Renaissance forms, the
+scroll form of ornament developed, the reason being,
+I think, that it gave the necessary element of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+recurring line, whether used in the horizontal frieze
+in association with round arches, or in spandrils of
+vaults and arcades, and on marble mosaic pavements.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+	<a id="f069" name="f069"></a>
+	<img src="images/image069.png"
+		alt="Sketch of Part of the Arch of Constantine to
+Show Spaces for Decorative Sculpture in Roman Architecture."
+		title="Sketch of Part of the Arch of Constantine to
+Show Spaces for Decorative Sculpture in Roman Architecture."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+	<a id="f070" name="f070"></a>
+	<img src="images/image070.png"
+		alt="Byzantine (Mosaic) Treatment of
+Architectural Structural Features: Apse, S. Vitale Ravenna."
+		title="Byzantine (Mosaic) Treatment of
+Architectural Structural Features: Apse, S. Vitale Ravenna."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Value of the Recurring Line</span></p>
+
+<p>The development of Gothic architecture, with
+its new constructive features and the greater
+variety of geometric spaces, forms, and interstices
+which, as a consequence, were available for the
+designer of associated ornament, whether carved
+work, mosaic, stained glass, or painting, naturally
+led to a corresponding variety in invention and
+decorative adaptation; and we may trace the same
+principle at work in other forms&mdash;I mean the
+principle of corresponding, counterbalancing, and
+recurring line&mdash;Gothic ornament being indeed
+generally an essential part of the structure, and
+architectural features being constantly repeated
+and utilized for their ornamental value, as in the
+case of canopies and tabernacle work.</p>
+
+<p>We see, for instance, in the Decorated period
+the acute gable moulding over the arched recess,
+niche, doorway, or tomb, lightened and vivified by
+a floriated finial springing into vigorous curves
+from a vertical stem, forming an emphatic ogee
+outline which re-echoes the ogee line of the arch
+below, and is taken up in variations by the crockets
+carved upon the sides of the gable; and their
+spiral ascending lines lead the eye up to the finial
+which completes the composition. We may trace
+the same principle in the carved fillings of the subsidiary
+parts, such as the trefoiled panels, the secondary
+mouldings, and the cusps of the arches,
+which continue the line-motive or decorative harmony
+to the last point (see illustration, p. <a href="#f071">120</a>).
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>The elegance and lightness of the pinnacles is increased
+in the same way, and further emphasized
+by the long vertical lines of the sunk panels upon
+their sides.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f071" name="f071"></a>
+	<img src="images/image071.png"
+		alt="From Canopy of Tomb of
+Gervaise-Alard 1303. Temp ED^wd^ I^st^ Winchelsea"
+		title="From Canopy of Tomb of
+Gervaise-Alard 1303. Temp ED^wd^ I^st^ Winchelsea"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>In church doorways we may see certain voussoirs
+of the arch allowed to project from the hollow of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>the concave moulding, and their surfaces carved
+into bosses of ornament; while, again, the doorway
+is emphasized by the recurring lines of the mouldings,
+with their contrasting planes of light and
+shadow, and the point of their spring is marked
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>by a carved lion, controlled in the design of its
+contour by the squareness of the block of stone
+upon which it is carved (see illustration, p. <a href="#f072">121</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f072" name="f072"></a>
+	<img src="images/image072.png"
+		alt="Structural Control of Line in
+Architectural Enrichments West Door Walberswick Ch. Suffolk"
+		title="Structural Control of Line in
+Architectural Enrichments West Door Walberswick Ch. Suffolk"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>The carvings of miserere seats in our cathedral
+choirs often afford instances of ingenious design
+and arrangement of elements difficult to combine,
+yet always showing the instinct of following the
+control of the dominating form and peculiar lines
+of the seat itself. There is an instance of one
+from St. David's Cathedral&mdash;apparently a humorous
+satire&mdash;a goose-headed woman offering a cake
+to a man-headed gull (?), or perhaps they are both
+geese! I won't pretend to say, but it evidently
+is intended to suggest cupboard love, and there is
+a portentously large pitcher of ale in reserve on
+the bench. But note the clever arrangement of
+the masses and lines, and how the lines of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>seat and the curves of the terminating scroll are
+re-echoed in the lines of the figures and accessories.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f073" name="f073"></a>
+<a href="images/image073h.png">
+	<img src="images/image073.png"
+		alt="C. 1460-1480 Wood Carving Miserere Seat
+Choir Stalls St. David's Cathedral. Controlling Line in Design of
+Subsidiary Architectural Decoration."
+		title="C. 1460-1480 Wood Carving Miserere Seat
+Choir Stalls St. David's Cathedral. Controlling Line in Design of
+Subsidiary Architectural Decoration."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>A stone-carving from the end of a tomb in the
+same cathedral&mdash;that of Bishop John Morgan,
+1504&mdash;of a griffin with a shield shows an emphatic
+repetition of the inclosing line of the
+arched recess in the curves of the wings which
+follow it.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f074" name="f074"></a>
+<a href="images/image074h.png">
+	<img src="images/image074.png"
+		alt="Recessed Panel Carved Stone
+From the Tomb of Bishop John Morgan D. 1504, St. David's Cathedral."
+		title="Recessed Panel Carved Stone
+From the Tomb of Bishop John Morgan D. 1504, St. David's Cathedral."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is also a charming corbel of a half-figure
+of an angel, which, though somewhat defaced,
+shows the architectural sense very strongly in its
+design&mdash;the vertical droop of the wing-feathers
+inclosing the figure repeating and continuing the
+vertical lines of the shafts and the subsidiary
+mouldings of the arrangement of the drapery, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>its termination in crisp foliated forms, which
+pleasantly counterbalance the set of the scale
+feathers of the wings and break the semicircular
+mouldings of the base of the corbel, repeating
+those of the shafts above.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f075" name="f075"></a>
+<a href="images/image075h.png">
+	<img src="images/image075.png"
+		alt="Constructive Line Reechoed
+in Architectural Ornament. Corbel, Bishop Vaughan's
+Chapel, St. David's 1509-"
+		title="Constructive Line Reechoed
+in Architectural Ornament. Corbel, Bishop Vaughan's
+Chapel, St. David's 1509-"
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Adaptability in Design</span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f076" name="f076"></a>
+	<img src="images/image076.png"
+		alt="Gothic Tile Pattern S. David's Cath^l."
+		title="Gothic Tile Pattern S. David's Cath^l."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>Adaptation to spaces upon a flat surface is also
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>illustrated in some tile patterns from the same
+place. They are simple and rude but very effective
+bits of spacing, and show a thorough grasp
+of the principles we have been considering&mdash;if,
+indeed, it is so far conscious work at all. But
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>whether or not the outcome of a tradition which
+seemed to be almost instinctive with medi&aelig;val
+workmen&mdash;a tradition which yet left the individual
+free, and under which design was a thing of life
+and growth, ever adapting itself to new conditions,
+and grafting freely new inventions to flower in
+fresh phantasy upon the ancient stock&mdash;the movement
+in art in the Middle Ages, exhibiting as it
+does a gradual growth and a constant vitality,
+always accompanying and adapting itself to
+structural changes, to life and habit, was really
+more analogous to the development of mechanical
+science in our own day, where each new machine
+is allied to its predecessors, though it supplants
+them. The one law being adaptability, the one
+aim to apply means to ends, and more and more
+perfectly, inessentials and superfluities are shed,
+and invention triumphs. It is, too, a collective
+advance, since each engineer, each inventor, builds
+upon the experience of both his forerunners and
+his fellow-workers, and everything is brought to
+an immediately practical test.</p>
+
+<p>We are not yet in the same healthy condition as
+regards art, and art can never be on the same
+plane as science, though art may learn much
+from science, chiefly perhaps in the direction
+of the inventive adaptation of analogous principles.
+But in art the question is complicated by
+human feeling and association, and her strongest
+appeal is to these, and by these, and as yet we do
+not seem to have any terms or equivalents precise
+enough to describe, or any analysis fine enough to
+discover them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Extension</span></p>
+
+<p>The next consideration in spacing we may term
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span><i>extension</i>. This bears upon all surface design,
+but more especially upon the design of patterns
+intended to repeat over a large surface, and not
+specially designed for particular spaces. It is a
+great question whether any design can be entirely
+satisfactory unless it has been thought out in relation
+to some particular extent of surface or as
+adapted to some particular wall or room. Modern
+industrial conditions preclude this possibility as
+a rule, and so the only sure ground, beyond individual
+taste and preference, is technical adaptability
+to process or material. We should naturally
+want to give a different character to a textile pattern,
+whether printed or woven, and intended to
+hang in folds, from one for flat extension as a wall-paper;
+and a different character again to such
+designs intended for extension horizontally from
+those intended for vertical space alone. Floor
+patterns, parquets and carpets, for instance, naturally
+demand different treatment from wall patterns,
+as those orders of plants in nature which
+cling and spread on the flat ground differ from
+those which grow high and maintain themselves
+in the air, or climb upon trees. The rule of
+life&mdash;<i>adaptability</i>&mdash;obtains in art as in nature, and,
+beneath individual preference and passing fashion,
+works the silent but real law of relation to conditions.
+This again bears upon the choice of scale,
+and differentiates the design of dress textiles from
+furniture textiles, and the design of varied surfaces
+and objects, which, while demanding their
+own particular treatment, are brought into general
+relation by their association with use and the
+wants of humanity.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p>
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f077a" name="f077a"></a>
+	<img src="images/image077a.png"
+		alt="Extension: Surface Pattern Motives Derived from Lines of Structure."
+		title="Extension: Surface Pattern Motives Derived from Lines of Structure."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+<span class="sn">Geometric Structural Plans, etc.</span></p>
+
+<p>The law governing extension of design over
+surface is again geometric, and our primal circle
+and square are again the factors and progenitors
+of the leading systems which have governed the
+design of diapers and wall patterns and hangings
+of all kinds. Nay, the first weaver of the wattled
+fence discovered the principle of extension in
+design, and showed its inseparable association
+with construction; and the builder with brick or
+stone emphasizes it, producing the elements of
+linear surface pattern, from the mechanical necessity
+of the position of the joints of his structure.
+At a German railway station waiting-room I
+noticed an effective adaptation of this principle
+as a wall decoration in two blues upon a stone
+colour (see illustration, p. <a href="#f077a">128</a>). We may build
+upon such emphatic structural lines, either incorporating
+them with the design motive, as in all
+rectangular wall diapers, or we may suppress or
+conceal the actual constructive lines by placing
+the principal parts or connections of our pattern
+over them, but one cannot construct a satisfactory
+pattern to repeat and extend without them; for
+these constructive lines or plans give the necessary
+organic life and vigour to such designs, and
+are as needful to them as the trellis to the tendrils
+of the vine (see illustration, p. <a href="#f077b">129</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+	<a id="f077b" name="f077b"></a>
+	<img src="images/image077b.png"
+		alt="Surface Extension: Repeating Patterns Built Upon
+(1) Square And (2) Circular Basis."
+		title="Surface Extension: Repeating Patterns Built Upon
+(1) Square And (2) Circular Basis."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>The same principle is true of designs upon the
+curvilinear plan. The mere repetition of the
+circle by itself gives us a simple geometric pattern,
+and we are at liberty to emphasize this circular
+plan as the main motive; or, as in the case
+of the rectangular plans, to treat it merely as a
+basis, and develop free scroll motives upon it; or
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+follow it through its principal variations, as in the
+ogee, formed by dropping out two intermediate
+semicircles; or the various forms of the scale
+arrangement. These simple geometric plans are
+the most generally useful as plans of designs intended
+for repetition and extension over space,
+and they are always safe and sound systems to
+build upon, since a geometric plan is certain to
+join comfortably if our measurements are right.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+	<a id="f078" name="f078"></a>
+	<img src="images/image078.png"
+		alt="Surface Extension: Plan of a Drop Repeat."
+		title="Surface Extension: Plan of a Drop Repeat."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>We may, however, often feel that we want
+something bolder and freer, and start with a
+motive of sweeping-curves, non-geometric, but
+even then a certain geometric relation will be
+necessary, or an equivalent for it, since each curve
+must be counterbalanced in some way, though
+not necessarily symmetrically, of course; and
+even where a square of pattern&mdash;say to a wall-paper
+repeat of twenty-one inches&mdash;has been designed,
+not consciously upon a geometric base, but
+simply as a composition of lines and masses to
+repeat, the mechanical conditions of the work
+when it comes to be printed will supply a certain
+geometric control, since it necessarily begins in
+the process of repetition a series of squares of
+pattern in which the curves are bound to recur
+in corresponding places. Without a geometric
+plan of some sort, however, we may easily get
+into difficulties with awkward leading lines, gaps,
+or masses, that tumble down, and are only perceived
+when the paper is printed and hung.</p>
+
+<p>The designer should not feel at all restricted or
+cramped by his geometric plan, but treat it as an
+aid and a scaffolding, working in as much variety
+and richness of detail as he likes, bound only by
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>the necessity of repeating or counterbalancing his
+forms and lines. In the diagram (p. <a href="#f078">131</a>) the
+plan of making a repeat less obvious by means of
+what is termed "a drop" is given, and this
+system also increases the apparent width of a
+pattern.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Frieze and Field</span></p>
+
+<p>The feeling which demands some kind of contrast
+or relief to a field of repeating pattern, however
+interesting in itself, seems now almost instinctive.
+It is felt, too, in the case of plain surfaces,
+where the eye seeks a moulding to give a
+little variety or pattern-equivalent in play of light
+and shadow upon different planes, lines, or concavities
+and convexities. The common plaster
+cornice placed to unite walls and ceiling, in our
+ordinary houses, is a concession (on the part even
+of the jerriest of builders) to the &aelig;sthetic sense.
+We get the decorated frieze in architecture in
+obedience to the same demand, though originally
+a necessary feature of lintel construction, as we
+have seen, from the days of the festal garland
+hung around the eaves of the classic house, to its
+perpetuation in stone in so many varieties.<a name="FNanchor_1_3" id="FNanchor_1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> The
+carved garland depending in a series of graceful
+curves, or contrasted with pendants, or their
+rhythm punctuated, as it were, by ox-heads, as on
+the temple of the Sibyls, Tivoli, formed the
+needed contrast to the plane masonry of the wall
+below. Sculptured figures, with the added interest
+of story, as on the choragic monument of
+Lysicrates, fulfilled the same decorative function
+in a more complex and elaborate way.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_3" id="Footnote_1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> See "Bases of Design."</p></div>
+
+<p>To satisfy the same feeling we place a frieze
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>above the patterned field of our modern wall-papers.
+Such a frieze may be considered as a
+contrasting border to the pattern of the field,
+much as the border of a carpet, allowing for
+difference of material and position; or the frieze
+may assert itself as the dominant decoration of
+the room. In this case it would be greater in
+depth than the simpler bordering type. The
+interest of the field filling would then be subsidiary,
+and lead up to the frieze. In wall-paper
+friezes the difficulty in designing is to think of a
+motive which will not tire the eye in the necessarily
+frequent repeats of twenty-one inches.
+Longer ones have occasionally been produced,
+the limit being sixty inches. It is often a good
+plan to recur in the main lines or forms of the
+frieze to some variation of the lines or forms of
+the field. If, for instance, the main motive in the
+field was a vertical scroll design, a <i>horizontal</i> scroll
+design upon a large scale used for the frieze
+would answer, the field being kept flat and quiet;
+or the fan, or radiating shell form, used as a frieze,
+above a pattern on the scale plan, would be quite
+harmonious. Relation and balance of line and
+mass, and arrangement of quantities in such
+designs, are the chief considerations.</p>
+
+<p>With painting or modelling an artist is freer,
+as he is at liberty to design a continuous frieze
+of figures, and introduce as much variety as he
+chooses.</p>
+
+<p>A painted frieze of figures above plain oak-panelling
+has a good effect in a large and well-proportioned
+room, and is perhaps one of the
+pleasantest ways of treating interior walls.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span></p>
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f079" name="f079"></a>
+	<img src="images/image079.png"
+		alt="Sketch Designs to Show Relation
+Between Frieze And Field in Wall-paper."
+		title="Sketch Designs to Show Relation
+Between Frieze And Field in Wall-paper."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+<span class="sn">Ceiling Decoration</span></p>
+
+<p>Ceiling decoration, again, presents problems of
+extension in designing, and the large flat plaster
+ceilings of modern rooms are by no means easy
+to deal with satisfactorily. The simplest way is
+to resort to wall-paper, and here, restricted in size
+of repeat and the usual technical requirements of
+the work, the designer must further consider appropriateness
+of scale, and position in regard to
+eye, relation to the wall, and so forth.</p>
+
+<p>The natural demand is for something simpler
+in treatment than the walls&mdash;a re-echo, in some
+sort, of plans agreeable to the floor, yet with a
+suggestion of something lighter and freer: here
+we may safely come back to rectangular and circular
+plans again for our leading lines and forms.</p>
+
+<p>Painting and modelling, again, offer more elaborate
+treatment and possibilities, and we know
+that beautiful works have been done in both
+ways; but art of this kind seems more appropriate
+to lofty vaulted chambers and churches, such as
+one sees in the palaces of Italy, at Genoa and
+Venice, at Florence and Rome.</p>
+
+<p>I remember a very striking and bold treatment
+of a flat-beamed ceiling in the Castle of Nuremberg,
+where a huge black German eagle was
+painted so as to occupy nearly the whole field of
+the ceiling, but treated in an extremely flat and
+heraldic way, the long feathers of the wings following
+the lines of the beams and falling parallel
+upon them and between them; and upon the
+black wings and body of the eagle different shields
+of arms were displayed in gold and colours, the
+eagle itself being painted upon the natural unpainted
+wood&mdash;oak, I think. The work belonged
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>to the thirteenth or fourteenth century, I believe.
+It seemed the very antithesis of Italian finesse
+and fancy, but the fitness of such decoration
+entirely depends upon its relation to its surroundings,
+which in this case were perfectly appropriate.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Co-operative Relation</span></p>
+
+<p>That is the great point to bear in mind in all
+design&mdash;the sense of relation; nothing stands
+alone in art. Lines and forms must harmonize
+with other forms and lines: the elements of any
+design must meet in friendly co-operation; it is
+not a blind struggle for existence, a fierce competition,
+or a strife for ascendency between one
+motive and another, one form and another, or a
+war of conflicting efforts. There may be a struggle
+<i>outside</i> the design, in the mind of the designer.
+He may have tried hard against difficulties to
+express what he felt, and have only reached harmony
+through discord and strife, but the work
+itself should be serene; we should feel that, however
+various its elements, they are not without
+their purpose and relation one to another, that all
+is ordered and organized in harmonious lines, that
+everything has its use and place, that, in short, it
+illustrates that excellent motto, whether for art or
+life: "Each for all, and all for each."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Of the Fundamental Essentials of Design: Line, Form,
+Space&mdash;Principles of Structural and Ornamental Line in Organic
+Forms&mdash;Form and Mass in Foliage&mdash;Roofs&mdash;The Medi&aelig;val
+City&mdash;Organic and Accidental Beauty&mdash;Composition:
+Formal and Informal&mdash;Power of Linear Expression&mdash;Relation
+of Masses and Lines&mdash;Principles of Harmonious Composition.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">We</span> may take it, then, from the principles
+and examples I have endeavoured to put
+before you in the previous chapters, that there
+are three fundamental elements or essentials of
+Design&mdash;Line, Form, Space.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Fundamental Essentials of Design</span></p>
+
+<p>Line we need, not only for our ground-plan
+and framework, but also to define or express our
+forms. Form we need to give substance and
+mass, interest and variety; and it is obvious that
+Space is required to contain all these elements,
+while Space asserts its influence, as we have seen,
+upon both Line and Form in combination upon
+it, whether object or surface, by the shape of its
+boundary, the extension of its plane, and the angle
+and position of its plane in regard to the eye, as
+well as from the point of view of material and use.</p>
+
+<p>Questions of the character of line and form,
+and their combination and disposition in or over
+spaces, are questions of composition. They demand
+the most careful solution, whatever our subject
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>and purpose may be, from the simplest linear
+border up to the most elaborate figure design.
+But although the three essentials to composition
+must be always present, it is always possible to
+rely more upon the qualities of one of them for
+our main motive and interest, keeping the other
+two subsidiary. We might centralize the chief
+interest of our composition upon <i>Line</i>, for instance,
+and make harmonious relation or combination
+of lines our principal object (as in line-design
+and ornament), or we might rather dwell
+upon the contours, masses, and contrasts and
+relationships of <i>Form</i>: as in pictorial design,
+figure compositions of all kinds, and modelling
+and sculpture: or, again, we might choose that
+the peculiar character given by the control of
+certain inclosing spaces should determine the
+interest of our design, as the due filling of particular
+panels and geometric shapes; or seek the
+interest of aerial perspective in the pictorial and
+atmospheric expression of space.</p>
+
+<p>Taking combinations of Line first, and bearing
+in mind what has been said regarding its capacities
+for expression, whether of emotion, direction
+of force, movement, rest, as well as of facts of structure
+and surface, let us see if we can trace the principle
+of harmonious composition, of which these
+things may be considered as parts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Line in Organic Forms</span></p>
+
+<p>Look at any of the systems of line in the organic
+structures of nature: the radiating ribs of the scallop
+shell, or the spiral of many other varieties; the
+set of the feathers upon the expanded wing of a
+bird; the radiation of the sun's rays; the flowing
+line of the wave movement; the lines of structure
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+in flowers and leaves; the scales of a fish; the
+scales of a pine-cone or an artichoke. We feel
+that any of these combinations of lines are harmonious
+and beautiful, and we know that they are
+essential to the character and structure. They are
+organic lines, in short. They mean life and growth.
+In principle they are radiating and recurring lines;
+in each form they repeat each other in varying degrees
+of direction and declension of curve. No
+two lines are alike, yet there is no contradiction
+and no unnecessary line, and variety is combined
+with unity. Each affords a perfect instance of
+harmonious composition of line, and gives us definite
+principles upon which to work (see illustration,
+p. <a href="#f080">140</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+	<a id="f080" name="f080"></a>
+	<img src="images/image080.png"
+		alt="Principles Of Structural And Ornamental
+Line In Natural Forms."
+		title="Principles Of Structural And Ornamental
+Line In Natural Forms."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>These systems of line in organic nature have
+been adopted and adapted by art, and are found
+throughout the historical forms of ornament which,
+as we have good reason to believe, were often derived
+from mechanical structures, illustrating the
+same principles; which, again, the logic of geometry
+enforces in drawing on plane surfaces.</p>
+
+<p>All organic structures teach us the same lesson
+of relation and recurrence of line. The bones of
+all vertebrate animals, from <i>fish</i> to <i>man</i>, illustrate
+the constant repetition in different degrees of the
+same character and direction of line. The vertebral
+column itself is an instance, and the recurring
+spring of the ribs from it, like the branches from
+the stem of a tree, further expressed in the ramification
+of the jointed bones of the limbs and extremities.
+The principle may be followed out in the
+structure of the muscles in their radiating fibres,
+which the delicate contours and flowing lines of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+the surface of the body only combine in a greater
+degree of subtlety (see illustration, p. <a href="#f081a">142</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+	<a id="f081a" name="f081a"></a>
+	<img src="images/image081a.png"
+		alt="Radiating, Recurring And Counterbalancing
+Lines In The Structure Of The Skeleton And The Muscles."
+		title="Radiating, Recurring And Counterbalancing
+Lines In The Structure Of The Skeleton And The Muscles."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>Look at the anatomy of any tree, as it is disclosed
+to us in its wintry leaflessness, a beautiful
+composition of line rather than of form (see illustration,
+p. <a href="#f081b">143</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+	<a id="f081b" name="f081b"></a>
+	<img src="images/image081b.png"
+		alt="General Principles Of Line And Form
+In The Branching And Foliage Masses Of Trees."
+		title="General Principles Of Line And Form
+In The Branching And Foliage Masses Of Trees."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>Here we see organic life and structure expressed
+in the vigorous spring of inter-dependent and corresponding
+curves, from the rigid sinuous column
+of the main stem springing from the ground, presently
+divided into the main forks of the branches,
+which again subdivide and subdivide into smaller
+forks, so that the tree may sustain and spread its
+life in the air and the sun, both supporting and
+continuing its existence by this wonderful economic
+system of co-operative, subdivided, and graduated
+helpfulness.</p>
+
+<p>The massive green pavilion of summer, which
+this delicate vaulting of branch-work sustains,
+gives us another, more sumptuous, but perhaps
+not a greater beauty in the combination or
+substitution of form and mass for line composition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Form and Mass in Foliage</span></p>
+
+<p>We might express, in an abstract way, the principle
+of the line-structure of the ramifying tree by
+super-imposing vertically fork upon fork in gradually
+diminishing scale, either curvilinear or rectangular;
+and the principle of the mass-structure
+in the formation of the foliage might be expressed
+by a series of overlapping curves, suggestive of
+scales or cloud masses: to both of which indeed
+they correspond in principle, illustrating the scale
+principle in detail and the cloud principle in the
+mass; thus repeating the same general law of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+natural roofing, or covering, in different materials
+(see illustration, p. <a href="#f082">145</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+	<a id="f082" name="f082"></a>
+	<img src="images/image082.png"
+		alt="Principles Of Structure In Foliage Masses."
+		title="Principles Of Structure In Foliage Masses."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>In a mass of foliage each leaf falls partly over
+the one below it, as by the system of their growth
+and suspension upon the stem they are of course
+bound to do, whether symmetric or alternate in their
+arrangement, the gaps caused by decay or accident
+being generally filled by new shoots. Each shoot,
+eager to expand its leaves in the light, ever spreading,
+forms mass after mass of the beautiful green
+panoply&mdash;the coat armour of the forest, arboreal
+man's first form of domestic architecture.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f083" name="f083"></a>
+<a href="images/image083h.png">
+	<img src="images/image083.png"
+		alt="Albert D&uuml;rer: Detail from 'The Prodigal Son.'"
+		title="Albert D&uuml;rer: Detail from 'The Prodigal Son.'"
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>The principle of structure here is just the same
+as the overlapping principle of the tiles and slates
+upon our ordinary house-roofs; but each leafy tile
+is different, being alive, and in the mass infinitely
+varied and beautiful in form and colour, instead of
+being mechanical and uniform, as we try to make
+our artificial roofs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">German Roofs</span></p>
+
+<p>Very pretty and varied effects are produced in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>the old roofs of southern Germany by the use of
+different coloured glazed tiles&mdash;red, green, and
+yellow&mdash;arranged in simple patterns. One of the
+old towers at Lindau has such a roof, and the colour
+effect is very rich and striking.</p>
+
+<p>But I must not be led into a disquisition upon
+roofs further than in so far as they illustrate the
+subject of composition of line and form, and from
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>the painter's point of view they frequently do in a
+very delightful and instructive way.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f084" name="f084"></a>
+<a href="images/image084h.png">
+	<img src="images/image084.png"
+		alt="Albert D&uuml;rer: St. Anthony."
+		title="Albert D&uuml;rer: St. Anthony."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>What, for instance, can be more varied and
+charming than the compositions we constantly meet
+with in the rich backgrounds of Albert D&uuml;rer?
+Those steep barn roofs, and those quaint German
+towns inclosed in walls with protecting towers&mdash;nests
+of steep tiled gables of every imaginable degree&mdash;which
+give so much character and interest
+to his designs, as in the background of his copper-plates
+"The Prodigal Son" and "St. Anthony" here
+given. Their prototypes still exist here and there
+in Germany, in such towns as Rothenburg, practically
+unchanged since the sixteenth century, and
+give one an excellent idea of what such houses
+were like. A visit there is like a leap back into
+the Middle Ages. Every street is a varied and
+interesting composition. No two houses are alike.
+They were built by the citizens to really pass their
+lives in. The town is strongly placed upon the
+crest of a hill, with a river at its foot, and well fortified
+and protected by massive encircling walls
+and towers and deep gates, which give it so strong
+and picturesque a character, while the timber and
+tile-roofed gallery for the warders still exists along
+the inside of the walls. Such cities arose by the
+strength of the social bond among men&mdash;the necessity
+for mutual help in the maintenance of a higher
+standard of life, and mutual protection against the
+ravages of sinister powers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">The Medi&aelig;val City</span></p>
+
+<p>Strong externally, internally they were made as
+home-like and full of the varied delight of the eyes,
+as if the people had reasoned, "Since we must live
+close together in a small place, let us make it as
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>delightful and romantic as we can." We know
+that the idea of Paradise and the New Jerusalem
+to the imagination of the Middle Ages was always
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>the fair walled garden and the fenced city. The
+painters embodied the idea of security and protection
+from the savage and destructive forces of
+nature and man&mdash;a sanctuary of peace, a garden
+of delight.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f085" name="f085"></a>
+	<img src="images/image085.png"
+		alt="Roof-lines: Rothenburg."
+		title="Roof-lines: Rothenburg."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>We have in modern times turned rather from the
+city as a complete and beautiful thing, to the individual
+home, and to the interior of that, and, in the
+modern competitive search for the necessary straws
+and sticks to make our individualist-domestic
+composition of comfort and artistic completeness,
+bowers are too often built upon the ruins of others, or
+are fair by reason of surrounding degradation. The
+common collective comfort and delight of the eyes
+is too often ignored, so that it comes about that, if
+our modern cities possess any elements of beauty or
+picturesqueness, it is rather owing to accidents and
+to the transfiguring effects of atmosphere than to the
+beauty or variety of architectural form and colour.
+We have to seek inspiration among the fragments
+of the dead past in monuments and art schools.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Organic and Accidental Beauty</span></p>
+
+<p>The modern development of the municipality
+and extension of its functions may, indeed, do
+something, as it has done, and is doing, something
+to protect public health and further public education;
+but we have yet to wait for the full results,
+and everything must finally depend upon the public
+spirit and disinterestedness of the citizens, and in
+matters of art upon a very decided but somewhat
+rare and peculiar sympathy and taste, as well as
+enthusiasm.</p>
+
+<p>The absence of beauty of line, form, and proportion
+from the external aspects of daily life in towns
+has probably a greater effect than we are apt to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>realize in deadening the imagination, and it certainly
+seems to produce a certain insensibility to
+beauty of line and composition, since the perception
+must necessarily be blunted by being inured
+to the commonplace and sordid. The instinct for
+harmony of line and form becomes weakened, and
+can only be slowly revived by long and careful
+study in art, instead of finding its constant and
+most vital stimulus in every street.</p>
+
+<p>For all that, however, an eye trained to observe
+and select may, even in the dullest and dingiest
+street, find artistic suggestions, if not in the buildings,
+then in the life. And where there is life,
+movement, humanity, there is sure to be character
+and interest. Groups of children playing will give
+us plenty of suggestions for figure composition.
+Workpeople going to and from their work, the
+common works going on in the street, the waggons
+and horses, the shoal of faces, the ceaseless stream
+of life&mdash;all these things, whether we are able to reproduce
+them as direct illustrations of the life of our
+time, or are moved only to select from them vivid
+suggestions to give force to ideal conceptions,
+should all be noted&mdash;photographed, as it were, instantaneously
+upon the sensitive plate of the mind's
+vision. We can only learn the laws of movement
+by observing movement&mdash;the swing and poise of
+the figure, the relation of the lines of limbs and
+drapery to the direction of force and centre of
+gravity, so important in composition. We must
+constantly supplement our school and studio work
+by these direct impressions of vivid life and movement,
+and neglect no opportunity or despise no
+source or suggestion.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>There are still in England to be found such old-world
+corners as the quaint street of Canterbury
+(p. <a href="#f086">153</a>), which forms an excellent study in the
+composition of angular and vertical lines.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+	<a id="f086" name="f086"></a>
+	<img src="images/image086.png"
+		alt="St. Margaret St Canterbury Aug: 27 1894"
+		title="St. Margaret St Canterbury Aug: 27 1894"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Formal Composition</span></p>
+
+<p>We may perceive that there are at least two
+kinds of composition, which may be distinguished as:</p>
+
+<ol style="list-style-type:upper-roman">
+<li>Formal.</li>
+<li>Informal.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>I. Under the head of Formal may be classed
+all those systems of structural line with which I
+started, and which are found either as leading
+motives or fundamental plans and bases throughout
+ornamental design. Yet even these may be
+used in composition of figures and other forms
+where the object is more or less formal and decorative,
+as governing plans or controlling lines.</p>
+
+<p>The radiating ribs of a fan, for instance, might
+be utilized as the natural boundaries and inclosing
+lines of a series of vertical figures following the
+radiating lines. A strictly logical design of the
+kind would be a series of figures with uplifted
+arms, forming radiating lines from the shoulders,
+somewhat in the position of Blake's well-known
+and beautiful composition of the Morning Stars in
+the Book of Job, already illustrated.</p>
+
+<p>Using the overlapping vertical scale plan we
+should get relative positions for a formal composition
+of three figures, although they need not necessarily
+be formal in detail. A typical design of
+three associated ideas treated emblematically
+would be the most natural use of such an arrangement&mdash;as
+Faith, Hope, and Charity; Liberty,
+Equality, Fraternity; Science, Art, and Industry;
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+or the three goddesses Her&eacute;, Pallas, and
+Aphrodite, as choice and purpose might decide.
+A semicircular scale plan would not only repeat
+in a safe and sound manner, but would afford
+suggestive shapes in which to throw designs of
+figures, and could be effectively utilized either for
+a wall or ceiling repeat.</p>
+
+<p>The inclosure formed by two spiral lines gives
+a graceful ornamental shape for a half-reclining
+figure; while a series of floating or flying figures
+linking their hands would be appropriately
+governed by similar spiral lines, uniting them with
+the meandering wave line (see illustration, p. <a href="#f087">155</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+	<a id="f087" name="f087"></a>
+	<img src="images/image087.png"
+		alt="Formal Composition: Figure Designs
+Controlled By Geometric Boundaries."
+		title="Formal Composition: Figure Designs
+Controlled By Geometric Boundaries."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>Upon a series of semicircles or ellipses, alternating
+horizontally, might be arranged a little
+frieze of children with skipping ropes, or Amorini
+with pendent garlands; the up-and-down movement
+in the former case being conveyed by a
+variation, each alternate semicircle being struck
+upwards. This would restore the emphatic wave
+or spiral line, which always conveys the sense of
+rhythmic movement in a design.</p>
+
+<p>Such a line, vertically employed, will give again
+a good plan for a series of seated figures, say emblematic
+of the Hours, where similarity of attitude
+and type would be appropriate, while the emblems
+and accessories might be varied. A severer treatment
+would be suggested by making the controlling
+line angular (see illustration, p. <a href="#f088">156</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+	<a id="f088" name="f088"></a>
+	<img src="images/image088.png"
+		alt="Formal Composition: Figure Designs
+Controlled By Geometric Boundaries."
+		title="Formal Composition: Figure Designs
+Controlled By Geometric Boundaries."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>Such are a few illustrations of what I have
+termed formal composition, in which the geometric
+and structural plans of pure ornament or
+ornamental line maybe utilized to combine, control,
+or even suggest figure designs.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+<span class="sn">Informal Composition</span></p>
+
+<p>II. While formal compositions, though naturally
+falling into classes and types, may be varied
+to a very great extent, when we come to informal
+compositions the variations are unlimited, and a
+vista of extraordinary and apparently endless
+choice, invention, and selection opens out before
+the designer, co-extensive with the variety of
+nature herself.</p>
+
+<p>In seeking harmonious and expressive composition
+in the pictorial direction the guides are much
+less definite and secure. Individual feeling and
+instinct, which must have an important influence
+in all kinds of designing, are in this direction
+paramount. Yet even here, if we look beneath the
+apparent freedom and informality, we find certain
+laws at work which seem to differ only in degree
+from the more definite and constructive control of
+line which we have been considering. In the first
+place, there are our direct impressions from nature;
+and, secondly, our conscious aims and efforts to
+express an idea in our minds. We have the same
+restricted and definite forms of language and
+materials in each case&mdash;line, form, space, brushes,
+pencil, colour, paper, canvas, or clay. We are
+taken by some particular scene: the composition
+of line and form at a particular spot attracts us
+more than another. We do not stop as a rule to
+ask why, since it usually takes all our time
+and our best skill to get into shape what we are
+seeking&mdash;and carry away with us an artistic record
+of the place. We have seen that in the case of
+certain natural structures, shells, leaves, flowers,
+the fundamental structural lines are so beautiful
+that they not only form ornament in themselves,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>but furnish the basis for whole types and families
+of ornament. When we look at a landscape,
+putting aside for the moment all the surface
+charms of colour and effect, and concentrating our
+attention upon its lines of structures, we shall find
+that it owes a great part of its beauty to the harmonious
+relation of its leading lines, or to certain
+pleasant contrasts, or a certain impressiveness of
+form and mass, and at the same time we shall
+perceive that this linear expression is inseparable
+from the sentiment or emotion suggested by that
+particular scene.</p>
+
+<p>A gentle southern landscape&mdash;undulating
+downs, and wandering sheep-walks; the soft
+rounded masses of the sheep upon smooth
+cropped turf&mdash;all these are so many notes or
+words in the language of line and form which go
+to express the idea of pastoral life. They are inextricably
+bound up with inseparable associations
+conveyed by such lines and forms. The undulating
+lines of resting or dancing figures would
+only give point, true emphasis, and variety, and a
+note of contrast in the forms would serve to bring
+out the general sentiment more strongly.</p>
+
+<p>Substitute rugged rocks, swollen torrents, wind-tossed
+trees and stormy skies, and all is changed.
+Such things cannot be expressed without much
+more emphatic lines and masses, and the use of
+opposing angles and energetic curves of movement
+which would be destructive of the sentiment
+of peace, in other cases. Yet even then to convey
+the expression of energy and rapid movement,
+concerted groups of lines are none the less necessary
+(see illustration, p. <a href="#f089">159</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span></p>
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f089" name="f089"></a>
+<a href="images/image089h.png">
+	<img src="images/image089.png"
+		alt="Informal Composition:
+Expression Of (1) Storm And (2) Calm In Landscape."
+		title="Informal Composition:
+Expression Of (1) Storm And (2) Calm In Landscape."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>Such comparisons indicate not only that there
+is a necessary association of ideas with certain
+lines and forms, but also that certain relations
+and associations of line of a similar character
+are necessary to produce a harmonious composition,
+and one which conveys a definite and pervading
+sentiment or emotion, just as we saw that
+the controlling lines of structural curves, spirals,
+and angles require to be in relation, and to be re-echoed
+by the character of the design they inclose
+or which is built upon them.</p>
+
+<p>The same law holds true in figure composition.
+The sense of repose and restfulness necessary to
+sitting or reclining groups depends upon the gentle
+declivities of the curves and their gradual descent
+to the horizontal.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+	<a id="f090" name="f090"></a>
+	<img src="images/image090.png"
+		alt="Informal Composition: Expression
+Of Repose And Action."
+		title="Informal Composition: Expression
+Of Repose And Action."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>Draw a figure sitting rigid, tense, and alert,
+and you destroy the sense of repose at once, and
+you are obliged also to resort to angles, still more
+emphatic where strong action is to be expressed;
+while to express continual or progressive movement,
+a choice of associated lines of action in different
+stages of progress leading up to the crescendo
+of the final one (as in a group of mowers)
+would be necessary (see illustrations, p. <a href="#f090">161</a>). We
+cannot, then, in any composition have too definite
+a conception. We must, at any sacrifice of detail,
+bring out the main expression and meaning.
+Every group of figures must be in the strictest
+relation to each other and to the central interest
+or expression of the design. You cannot, for instance,
+in a procession of figures, make your faces
+turn all sorts of ways without stopping the onward
+movement which is essential to the idea of a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+procession. This would not preclude variety, but the
+general tendency must be in one direction. Every
+line in a composition must lead up to the central
+idea, and be subordinated or contributory to it
+(see illustration, Nos. 1 and 2, p. <a href="#f091a">163</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+	<a id="f091a" name="f091a"></a>
+	<img src="images/image091a.png"
+		alt="(1) and (2) Movement in a Procession"
+		title="(1) and (2) Movement in a Procession"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>The same with masses: you cannot put a
+number of forms together without some sort of
+relation, either of general character and contour
+or some uniting line. We may learn this principle
+from nature also. Look at a heap of broken stones
+and d&eacute;bris, which in detail may contain all sorts of
+varieties of form, as we find them tumbled down
+a steep place, as the rocky bed of a mountain
+stream, a heap of boulders upon a hillside, or the
+d&eacute;bris from a quarry or mine; in each case the law
+of gravity and the persistence of force working
+together arrange the diverse forms in masses
+controlled by the lines, which express the direction
+and degree of descent, and the pressure of
+force. The same thing may be seen on any hilly
+ground after heavy rain; the scattered pebbles
+are arranged in related groups, combined and
+composed by the flow of miniature streams, which
+channel the face of the ground and form hollows
+for their reception (see Nos. 3 and 4, p. <a href="#f091b">163</a>). The
+force of the tides and currents upon the sea-shore
+illustrates the same principle and affords us magnificent
+lessons in composition, not only in the
+delicate lines taken by the sculptured sand, but in
+the harmonious grouping of masses of shingle and
+shells, weeds and drift, arranged by the movement
+of the waves.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f091b" name="f091b"></a>
+	<img src="images/image091b.png"
+		alt="(3) Lines Left by a Watercourse,
+(4) Lines Governing Fallen D&eacute;bris from a Quarry."
+		title="(3) Lines Left by a Watercourse,
+(4) Lines Governing Fallen D&eacute;bris from a Quarry."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Principles of Harmonious Composition</span></p>
+
+<p>So that we may see that the principles of harmonious
+composition are not the outcome of merely
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+capricious fancy or pedantic rule, but are illustrated
+throughout the visible world by the laws and
+forces of the material universe. It is for the artist
+to observe and apply them in his own work of
+re-creation.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Of the Relief of Form&mdash;Three Methods&mdash;Contrast&mdash;Light
+and Shade, and Modelling&mdash;The Use of Contrast and Planes in
+Pattern Designing&mdash;Decorative Relief&mdash;Simple Linear Contrast&mdash;Relief
+by Linear Shading&mdash;Different Emphasis in relieving
+Form by Shading Lines&mdash;Relief by means of Light and Shade
+alone without Outline&mdash;Photographic Projection&mdash;Relief by
+different Planes and Contrasts of Concave and Convex Surfaces
+in Architectural Mouldings&mdash;Modelled Relief&mdash;Decorative Use
+of Light and Shade, and different Planes in Modelling and
+Carving&mdash;Egyptian System of Relief Sculpture&mdash;Greek and
+Gothic Architectural Sculpture, influenced by Structural and
+Ornamental Feeling&mdash;Sculptural Tombs, Medals, Coins, Gems&mdash;Florentine
+Fifteenth-century Reliefs&mdash;Desideriodi Settignano.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">We</span> come now to the consideration of the
+various means and methods of expressing
+relief in line and form.</p>
+
+<p>We may define a form in outline and give it
+different qualities of expression by altering the
+quality and consistency of our outline, and we may
+obtain very different kinds of decorative effect by
+the use of lines of various degrees of thickness or
+thinness; but if we want to give it force and colour,
+and to distinguish it from its background more emphatically,
+we must add to our outline.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Three Methods of Expressing Relief</span></p>
+
+<p>There are three principal methods or systems of
+giving relief by adding to our outline.</p>
+
+<p>One is the method of giving relief to form by
+contrasts of tone, colour, or tint.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>Another by means of the expression of light and
+shade: and the third by means of modelling in
+relief.</p>
+
+<p>Now, still keeping to expression by means of line,
+the three arms I have sketched (p. <a href="#f092">167</a>) illustrate:
+(1) the form in outline alone; (2) the contrast
+method; and (3) the light and shade method. The
+three pots underneath illustrate the same three
+stages in a simpler manner.</p>
+
+<p>In number one we see the outline defining the
+form pure and simple: in number two the form is
+relieved by a half-tone formed of diagonal lines,
+forming a plane or background behind it. The arm
+is still further relieved by the dark drapery. Number
+three shows the relief carried further by lines
+expressive of the modelling of the arm and the
+rounding of the pot, and also by cast shadows from
+the forms.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+	<a id="f092" name="f092"></a>
+	<img src="images/image092.png"
+		alt="The Relief of Form:
+(1) By Outline, (2) By Contrast, (3) By Light and Shade."
+		title="The Relief of Form:
+(1) By Outline, (2) By Contrast, (3) By Light and Shade."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>The system of expressing relief I have termed
+relief by contrast includes two kinds of contrast:
+there are the contrasts of line and form, and there
+are the contrasts of planes of tone or tint and local
+colour. We may consider that the contrast method
+covers generally all forms of pattern and certain
+kinds of pictorial design. The method of expressing
+relief by means of line covers generally all
+forms of design in black and white, graphic sketching,
+pen-drawing, and work with the point of all
+kinds.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Of the Use of Contrast and Planes</span></p>
+
+<p>Taking the principle of contrast as applied to
+pattern design, we can, even within the limited
+range of black and white and half-tint (as expressed
+by lines), get a considerable amount of decorative
+effect. In the first place by bringing out our pattern,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+previously outlined, upon a black ground (as
+in Nos. 1 and 2, p. <a href="#f093">169</a>), increasing the richness of
+effect, and getting a second plane by treating the
+lower part in an open tint of line.</p>
+
+<p>Simple contrasts of dark upon light or light upon
+dark are effective, and sufficient for many purposes,
+such as borders (as in Nos. 2 and 3, p. <a href="#f093">169</a>).</p>
+
+<p>When a lighter kind of relief and effect is required,
+the recurring forms in a border are often
+sufficiently emphasized by a tint of open lines:
+movement and variety being given by making them
+follow the minor curves of the successive forms, as
+in this instance (No 4, p. <a href="#f093">169</a>) the movement of
+the water is suggested behind the fish.</p>
+
+<p>The relation of the plain ground-work to the
+figure of the pattern is also an important point;
+indeed the plain parts of the pattern, or the interstices
+and intervals of the pattern, are as essential
+to the pattern as the figured parts.</p>
+
+<p>In designs intended for various processes of
+manufacture, such as printed or woven textiles,
+wall-papers, etc., where blocks or rollers are used
+to repeat the pattern, the extent of plain in proportion
+to figured parts must be governed in some
+measure by the practicable size of the repeat: but
+within certain limits great variety of proportion is
+possible.</p>
+
+<p>A simple but essentially decorative principle is
+to preserve a certain equality between the figured
+masses and the ground masses. The leaf patterns
+(Nos. 6 and 7, p. <a href="#f093">169</a>) consist simply of the repetition
+and reversal of a single element. An emphatic
+effect is obtained by bringing the leaves out black
+upon a white ground (as in No. 6), while a flatter
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+and softer effect is the result of throwing them
+upon a plane of half-tint expressed by horizontal
+lines, with a similar effect of relief to that which
+would be given by the warp, if the pattern were
+woven.</p>
+
+<p>For larger surfaces, greater repose and dignity
+in pattern may be obtained by a greater proportion
+of the repeat being occupied by the ground (as in
+No. 5, p. <a href="#f093">169</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+	<a id="f093" name="f093"></a>
+	<img src="images/image093.png"
+		alt="Relief of Form and Line in Pattern
+Design by Means of Contrast and the Use of Planes."
+		title="Relief of Form and Line in Pattern
+Design by Means of Contrast and the Use of Planes."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>Indeed we may consider as a general principle
+that the larger the interspaces of the ground, plane,
+or field of the pattern, the lighter in tint they should
+be, or the necessary flatness is apt to be lost. Relief
+in pattern design may be said to be adding
+interest and richness without losing the flatness
+and repose of the design as a whole. When pattern
+and ground are fairly equally balanced in quantity
+the ground may be rich and dark, and darkest as
+the interstices, where the ground is shown, become
+less. The figure of a pattern relieved as light upon
+a dark plane, as a rule, requires to be fuller in form
+than dark-figuring upon a light ground.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Decorative Relief</span></p>
+
+<p>In decorative work the use of contrast in the
+relief of parts of a design is often useful and effective,
+as, for instance, the dark shading or treatment
+in black or flat tone of the alternating under side
+of a turn-over leaf border.</p>
+
+<p>The decorative value of this principle is recognized
+by heraldic designers in the treatment of the
+mantling of the helmet, which in earlier times is
+treated simply as a hanging or flying strip of drapery
+with a lining of a different colour, by which it is
+relieved as it hangs in simple spiral folds. This
+ornamental element became developed by the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>designers of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries into
+elaborate scroll designs springing from the circlet
+of the helmet and surrounding the shield: but the
+principle of the turned-up lining remained, often
+variegated and enriched with heraldic patterns
+(see illustrations, pp. <a href="#f094a">172</a>, <a href="#f094b">173</a>).<a name="FNanchor_1_4" id="FNanchor_1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_4" id="Footnote_1_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>
+The increased importance given to the mantling in later
+times may have been due to the disappearance of the housings
+of the knight's horse and his surcoat, which originally displayed
+his arms and colours. The mantling of later times displayed
+the heraldic colours of the knight, when, being clad in plate
+armour, there was no other means of displaying them except
+on the shield. Decoratively, of course, the mantling is of great
+value to the heraldic designer, enabling him to form much more
+graceful compositions, to combine diverse and rigid elements
+with free and flowing lines and masses, and to fill panels with
+greater richness and effect, whether carved or painted, or both.</p></div>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+	<a id="f094a" name="f094a"></a>
+<a href="images/image094ah.png">
+	<img src="images/image094a.png"
+		alt="Decorative Relief: Counterchange,
+Treatment Of Mantling, Fourteenth And Sixteenth Centuries."
+		title="Decorative Relief: Counterchange,
+Treatment Of Mantling, Fourteenth And Sixteenth Centuries."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+	<a id="f094b" name="f094b"></a>
+<a href="images/image094bh.png">
+	<img src="images/image094b.png"
+		alt="Decorative Relief: Treatment Of Mantling."
+		title="Decorative Relief: Treatment Of Mantling."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Use of Diapered Backgrounds</span></p>
+
+<p>The principle, too, of counterchange in heraldry
+answers to our principle of relief by contrast, and
+though its chief charm lies in its ornamental range
+of form and colour combinations, it can be expressed
+in black and white, and it remains a universal
+principle throughout decorative art. The decorative
+effect and charm of the relief of large and
+bold forms upon rich and delicate diapers is also
+an important resource of the designer. The monumental
+art of the Middle Ages affords multitudes
+of examples of this principle in ornamental treatment.
+The miniaturist of the twelfth and thirteenth
+centuries constantly relieved his groups of figures
+upon a diapered ground. The architectural sculptor
+relieved the broad masses of flowing drapery
+and the bold projection of his effigies and recumbent
+figures by delicately chiselled diapers upon
+the surface of the wall behind them. This treatment
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+may frequently be seen in the recessed
+tombs of the fourteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The incisor of memorial brasses, again, more
+especially in continental examples, shows a fondness
+for the same principle. The long vertical
+lines of drapery of ladies and ecclesiastics, the
+broad masses of the heraldic surcoat, or armour of
+the knights, the rich and heavy furred gowns of
+the burghers, are often relieved upon beautiful
+diapered or arabesque grounds, generally embodying
+some heraldic device, motto, or emblem of the
+person or family whose tomb it ornaments. Such
+decoration is strictly linear, yet within its own
+limits, and perhaps because of them, we find in
+this province of design extremely admirable work,
+no less for delineation of character and decorative
+treatment than for ornamental invention controlled
+by strict economy of line.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+	<a id="f095" name="f095"></a>
+	<img src="images/image095.png"
+		alt="Relief Upon A Diapered Ground:
+Brass Of Martin De Visch, Bruges, 1452."
+		title="Relief Upon A Diapered Ground:
+Brass Of Martin De Visch, Bruges, 1452."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Relief of Form by Linear Shading</span></p>
+
+<p>This brings us to the consideration of our second
+method of relief by means of line.</p>
+
+<p>Take any simple allied elements to form a repeating
+pattern, say spiral shells, place them at
+certain rhythmic intervals, and we can unite and
+at the same time give them relief by filling in the
+ground by a series of waved lines to suggest the
+ribbed sand. Add a few dots to soften and vary
+the effect, and we get a pattern of a certain
+balance and consistency (No. 1, p. <a href="#f096a">177</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+	<a id="f096a" name="f096a"></a>
+	<img src="images/image096a.png"
+		alt="Relief in Pattern Design by Means
+of Simple Linear Contrasts (1)"
+		title="Relief in Pattern Design by Means
+of Simple Linear Contrasts (1)"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>With the more varied and complex floral form,
+but treated in a very abstract way, placing the
+daisies in a line, horizontally, and reversing the
+sprig for the alternate row, we have another
+motive, which is connected and steadied as well
+as relieved by the suggestion of grass blades in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+groups of three slightly radiated vertical strokes
+(No. 2, p. <a href="#f096b">177</a>). A pattern of two elements,
+again, may be formed in a still more simple way
+by linear contrast, as in No. 3, where the pyramidal
+trees are formed by a continuous serpentine
+stroke of the pen terminating in a spiral stem.
+The diagonal arrangement of the trees produces a
+chequer, the intervals of which can be varied by
+the contrasting black masses of the birds.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f096b" name="f096b"></a>
+	<img src="images/image096b.png"
+		alt="Relief in Pattern Design by Means
+of Simple Linear Contrasts (2), (3)"
+		title="Relief in Pattern Design by Means
+of Simple Linear Contrasts (2), (3)"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>In graphic drawing, lines to express forms in
+the relief of light and shade are often needed to
+give additional force even where no great degree
+of realism is desired. A tint formed by horizontal
+lines is sufficient to relieve a face from the background
+and give it solidity, while local colour may
+be given to the hair, and at the same time serve
+to relieve the leaves of a wreath encircling the
+head (see illustration, p. <a href="#f097a">178</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f097a" name="f097a"></a>
+	<img src="images/image097a.png"
+		alt="Relief by Adding Shading Lines to Outline."
+		title="Relief by Adding Shading Lines to Outline."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>The rich effect of clustered apples growing
+among their leaves could hardly be suggested
+without the use of lines expressive of light and
+shade, the interstices of the deepest shade running
+into solid black (p. <a href="#f097a">178</a>). In adding lines in
+this kind of way to give relief or extra richness
+or force, the draughtsman is really designing a
+system of lines upon his outline basis, which may
+have quite as decorative a quality as the outline
+itself. At the same time nothing is more characteristic
+of the artist than the way in which such
+lines are used, and of course the choice of direction
+and arrangement of such lines will make all the
+difference in the effect of the drawing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Diagonal Shading</span></p>
+
+<p>Where the object is to express the figure in
+broad masses of light and shade, the use of a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+series of diagonal lines is an effective, and probably
+the most ready and rapid, method when
+working with the pen (see p. <a href="#f097b">179</a>). This system
+of expressing the broad surfaces of shade was
+much used by the Italian masters of the Renaissance
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+in their rapid pen sketches and studies of
+figures, and a certain breadth and style is given
+to their drawings owing in part to the simplicity
+of this linear treatment.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
+	<a id="f097b" name="f097b"></a>
+	<img src="images/image097b.png"
+		alt="Relief of Form by Diagonal Shading."
+		title="Relief of Form by Diagonal Shading."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Emphasis</span></p>
+
+<p>No doubt the simpler the system of line
+adopted in giving relief to figures the better, if
+the particular expression aimed at is accomplished,
+and, as a general rule, we should endeavour to
+get the necessary force and depth without the use
+of cross-line, or many different directions of line
+in shading a figure: but, given any power of
+draughtsmanship, the individuality of the artist is
+bound to come in, and it is not likely, nor is it to
+be desired, that any two artists in line should give
+exactly the same account of natural fact, or reproduce
+the images in their minds in the same forms,
+any more than we should expect two writers to
+express their ideas in the same terms.</p>
+
+<p>The kind and degree of emphasis upon different
+parts, the selection of moment or fact, would all
+naturally make considerable differences in the
+treatment. The three sketches of the skirt
+dancer are given as instances of the different
+effects and expression to be obtained in rendering
+the same subject (p. <a href="#f098">181</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+	<a id="f098" name="f098"></a>
+	<img src="images/image098.png"
+		alt="Different Method And Different Emphasis
+In Relieving Form By Shading Lines. (A, B, C)"
+		title="Different Method And Different Emphasis
+In Relieving Form By Shading Lines. (A, B, C)"
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>In <span class="smcap">a</span> the broad relief of the white dress against
+the tones of the floor and background, and the
+darker note of the hair, are the facts chiefly dwelt
+upon. In <span class="smcap">b</span> the form of the figure is brought out
+in broad light and shade and cast shadow, and the
+dress relieved by radiating folds. In <span class="smcap">c</span> quicker
+movement is given, the lines of the successive
+wave-shaped folds radiating spirally from the
+shoulders being the chief means of conveying this,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
+while the head and arms are thrown into strong
+relief against a dark background, the cast shadow
+being of a lighter tone.</p>
+
+<p>The direction of line used in relieving forms,
+and expressing modelling and details, must depend
+much upon individual taste and feeling as well as
+knowledge of form. The element of beauty of
+design also comes in, and the question between
+this and force or literalness&mdash;the difference between
+a study or direct transcript from nature,
+and a design with a purely ornamental aim, or a
+composition directed mainly to the expression of
+a particular idea or emotion.</p>
+
+<p>Such considerations will ultimately determine
+the choice and use of line, the degree of relief and
+emphasis, for these and the direction of the line
+itself are the syllables and the words which will
+convey the purport of the work to the mind of the
+beholder.</p>
+
+<p>Study of the masters of line&mdash;D&uuml;rer, Titian,
+Mantegna, Holbein&mdash;will inform us as to its
+capacities and limitations. The limitations, too,
+of method and material will be a powerful factor
+in the determination of style in the use of line and
+in the economy of its use.</p>
+
+<p>The bold firm line suitable to the facsimile
+woodcut, the broad and simple treatment of line
+with solid black useful in the plank-cut line block
+to be used with colour blocks, the comparatively
+free and unconditioned pen-drawing for the surface-printed
+process block&mdash;all these will finally
+give a certain character to our work beyond our
+own idiosyncrasies in the use of the pen or the
+brush.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span></p>
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f099" name="f099"></a>
+	<img src="images/image099.png"
+		alt="Albert D&uuml;rer's Principle in the
+Treatment of Drapery: From The Woodcut in the &ldquo;;Life of the Virgin&rdquo;; Series."
+		title="Albert D&uuml;rer's Principle in the
+Treatment of Drapery: From The Woodcut in the &ldquo;;Life of the Virgin&rdquo;; Series."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>Useful things may be learned by the way, such
+as Albert D&uuml;rer's principle of giving substance to
+his figures and details, more especially seen in his
+treatment of drapery, when the lines run into solid
+black and express the deeper folds and give emphasis
+and solidity to the figure (p. <a href="#f099">183</a>). The
+reproductions here given of sketches of drapery
+by Filippino Lippi and Raphael also show the
+same principle.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f100" name="f100"></a>
+<a href="images/image100h.png">
+	<img src="images/image100.png"
+		alt="Albert D&uuml;rer: Pen-Drawing."
+		title="Albert D&uuml;rer: Pen-Drawing."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>A figure or object of any kind, seen in full light
+and shade, is relieved at any of its edges either as
+dark against light, or as light against dark, and we
+recognize it as a solid form in this way; the boundaries
+of natural light and shade defining it, and
+projecting it from the background upon the vision.
+There may be infinite modulations, of course,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+between the light part, the half-tones, and the darkest
+parts; but this broad principle governs all work
+representing light and shade.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+	<a id="f101" name="f101"></a>
+<a href="images/image101h.png">
+	<img src="images/image101.png"
+		alt="Filippino Lippi: Study of Drapery."
+		title="Filippino Lippi: Study of Drapery."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is, in fact, <i>the principle of the relief of form</i>
+represented upon a plane surface.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f102" name="f102"></a>
+	<img src="images/image102.png"
+		alt="Raphael: Studies of Drapery."
+		title="Raphael: Studies of Drapery."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+<span class="sn">Relief by Light and Shade Alone</span></p>
+
+<p>If the draughtsman's object be to represent the
+<i>appearance</i> of a figure or any object in full natural
+light and shade with the pen or other point, he
+could do so without using outline at all, but by
+simply observing this principle and defining the
+boundaries of light on dark or half-tone in their
+proper masses and relations. The pen sketch of
+the man with the hoe (p. <a href="#f103a">188</a>) is intended to illustrate
+this method.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+	<a id="f103a" name="f103a"></a>
+	<img src="images/image103a.png"
+		alt="Relief By Means Of Light And Shade Alone,
+In Pen-drawing Without Outline."
+		title="Relief By Means Of Light And Shade Alone,
+In Pen-drawing Without Outline."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is also the method of representing form
+in relief by means of working with white line only
+upon a dark ground, the modelling and planes of
+surface being entirely expressed in this way (as in
+<span class="smcap">a</span>, p. <a href="#f103b">189</a>). This may be termed drawing by means
+of <i>light</i>, and may be contrasted with the opposite
+method of working by means of black line only
+on a light ground, or drawing by means of <i>shade</i>
+(as in <span class="smcap">b</span>, p. <a href="#f103b">189</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
+	<a id="f103b" name="f103b"></a>
+<a href="images/image103bh.png">
+	<img src="images/image103b.png"
+		alt="Relief of Form: (A) By White
+Line Only on Dark Ground, and (B) By Black Line Only on Light Ground."
+		title="Relief of Form: (A) By White
+Line Only on Dark Ground, and (B) By Black Line Only on Light Ground."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Yet another method, and one in which the effect
+of relief can be obtained more readily and rapidly,
+perhaps, is by working on a half-toned paper, drawing
+in the form with pencil, chalk, or brush, blocking
+in the darker shadows and heightening the
+highest lights with touches of white. These white
+touches, however, should be strictly limited to the
+highest lights. This method is represented by
+the half-tone blocks used in this book, those which
+were taken from drawings made on brown paper
+and touched with white.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">The Principle of the Photograph</span></p>
+
+<p>The definition of form by means of light is strictly
+the principle of the photograph, which comprehends
+and illustrates its complementary of relief by means
+of shade, and I think it is due to the influence of
+the photograph that modern black-and-white artists
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+have so often worked on these principles. The
+drawings of Frederick Walker and Charles Keene
+may be referred to as examples. I shall, however,
+hope to return to this branch of the subject later.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Relief in Architectural Mouldings</span></p>
+
+<p>So far we have been considering the relief of
+form by means of line. We now come to what
+may be termed the relief of form by actual form
+and plane, or modelling in actual light and shade,
+as in architecture and sculptors' and carvers' work.
+Then relief is gained by the contrast of actually
+different planes, forms, surfaces, and textures. The
+simplest illustrations of the principles of modelled
+relief are to be found in architectural mouldings,
+by means of which buildings are relieved and enriched,
+and important structural or functional parts
+are emphasized, as in cornices and ribs of vaults,
+arches, and openings.</p>
+
+<p>Place a concave moulding side by side with a
+convex one either horizontally or vertically, and a
+certain pleasant effect of contrasting light and shade
+is the result, reminding one of the recurring concave
+and convex of the rolling waves of the sea
+(<span class="smcap">a</span>, p. <a href="#f104">191</a>).</p>
+
+<p>A series of flat planes of different widths and at
+different levels also produces a pleasant kind of
+relief useful in a picture frame or the jamb of a
+door (<span class="smcap">b</span>).</p>
+
+<p>All architectural mouldings might be said to be
+modifications or combinations of the principles
+illustrated by these two.</p>
+
+<p>Very different feeling may be expressed in
+mouldings, and if we compare the two types, the
+classical and the Gothic, the comparatively broad
+and simple effect of the former (<span class="smcap">c, d, e, f, g</span>)
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+contrasts with the richness and variety and the stronger
+effect of light and shade, produced by deep undercutting,
+in the latter (<span class="smcap">h, i, j, k</span>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+	<a id="f104" name="f104"></a>
+	<img src="images/image104.png"
+		alt="Relief in Architectural Mouldings."
+		title="Relief in Architectural Mouldings."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Romans, however, produced rich and highly
+ornate effects in the use of these types of mouldings,
+as they reappeared in the Corinthian order, the
+ovolo cut into the egg and dart, with the Astralagus
+beneath, the Cyma recta above the brackets of the
+cornice casting a bold shadow, and both in the
+cornice and the hollow beneath the dentils enriched
+with carving, as seen in the splendid fragment of
+the Forum of Nerva.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
+	<a id="f105" name="f105"></a>
+	<img src="images/image105.png"
+		alt="Roman Treatment of Corinthian Order,
+Forum of Nerva, Rome."
+		title="Roman Treatment of Corinthian Order,
+Forum of Nerva, Rome."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>When we pass to the more complex problems
+of figure modelling and sculpture, it is but carrying
+on and developing the same principle of the contrast
+of planes, of the relief of plane upon plane,
+of forms upon one plane, to forms upon forms in
+many planes. From the contrast of bead and
+hollow we come to consider the contrast between
+the rounded limb and the sinuous folds of drapery;
+from the rhythm of the acanthus scroll we turn to
+the less obvious but none the less existing rhythm
+of the sculptural frieze.</p>
+
+<p>Line, we may say, controls the modeller's and
+sculptor's composition, but form and its treatment
+in light and shade give him his means of ornament.
+The delicate contours of faces and limbs contrasted
+with the spiral and radiating folds of drapery, or
+rich clusters of leaves and fruits, the forms of
+animals and the wings of birds&mdash;these are his decorative
+resources.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Egyptian Reliefs</span></p>
+
+<p>The early stages of sculpture in relief may be
+seen in the monumental work of ancient Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Simple incised work appears to have been the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>first stage, and the forms afterwards slightly
+modelled or rounded at the edges into the hollow
+of the sunk outline.</p>
+
+<p>Large figures and tables of hieroglyphic inscription
+were thus cut upon vast mural surfaces, and
+carried across the joints of the masonry, without
+disturbing the flatness and repose of the wall surface
+(p. <a href="#f106">195</a>). The Egyptians, indeed, seem to
+have treated their walls more as if they were books
+for record and statement, symbol and hieroglyphic.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
+	<a id="f106" name="f106"></a>
+<a href="images/image106h.png">
+	<img src="images/image106.png"
+		alt="Egyptian System of Sculptured Relief: Thebes."
+		title="Egyptian System of Sculptured Relief: Thebes."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Messrs. Perrot and Chipiez, in their "History
+of Ancient Art in Egypt," speak of three processes
+in the treatment of Egyptian reliefs (vol. ii., p.
+284):
+</p>
+<ol>
+<li>That followed by the Greeks, in which the
+figures are left standing out from a smooth bed,
+sometimes slightly hollowed near the contours
+(see illustration, p. <a href="#f106">196</a>).</li>
+
+<li>Where the figures are modelled in relief in
+a sunk hollow, from an inch to one and a half inch deep.</li>
+
+<li>Where the surface of the figures and the bed
+or field of relief are kept on one level (see illustration,
+p. <a href="#f107">196</a>), the contours indicated by hollow lines
+cut into the stone; very little modelling, little more
+than silhouette, in which the outline is shown by
+a hollow instead of by the stroke of a pencil or brush.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>One would be inclined to reverse the order of
+these three processes, on the supposition that No.
+3 was the earliest process, and that it arose, as I
+have conjectured, from the practice of representing
+forms by incised lines only.</p>
+
+<p>There is certainly a strong family likeness as to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+method between the Egyptian reliefs and the Assyrian,
+the Persian, and the archaic Greek; and
+there is a far greater difference in treatment between
+archaic Greek relief sculpture and the work
+of the Phidian period than between the archaic
+work of the three races named.</p>
+
+<p>The strictly mural and decorative conditions
+which governed ancient sculpture no doubt gave to
+Greek sculpture in its perfection a certain dignity,
+simplicity, and restraint, and also accounted in a
+great measure for that rhythmic control of invisible
+structural and ornamental line which asserts itself
+in such works as the Pan-Athenaic frieze. It was
+strictly slab sculpture, and became part of the
+surface of the wall.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
+	<a id="f107" name="f107"></a>
+	<img src="images/image107.png"
+		alt="Greek Relief. Eleusis. Egyptian Relief. Denderah."
+		title="Greek Relief. Eleusis. Egyptian Relief. Denderah."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Gothic Sculpture</span></p>
+
+<p>The structural and ornamental feeling also asserts
+itself strongly in Gothic sculpture, owing to its close
+association with architecture, as, when it was not
+an integral part of the structure, it was always an
+essential part of the expression of the building,
+and it was this which controlled its treatment decoratively,
+in its scale and its system and degree of relief.</p>
+
+<p>In the porches of the Gallo-Roman churches of
+France of the twelfth century, the figures occupying
+the place of shafts became columnar in treatment,
+the sinuous formalized draperies wrapped
+around the elongated figures, or falling in vertical
+folds, as in the figures in the western door of
+Chartres Cathedral (p. <a href="#f108">199</a>). The lines of the design
+of the sculptured tympanum were strictly related
+to the space, and the degree and treatment
+of the relief clearly felt in regard to the architectural
+effect (p. <a href="#f109">201</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
+	<a id="f108" name="f108"></a>
+<a href="images/image108h.png">
+	<img src="images/image108.png"
+		alt="Chartres Cathedral: Carving on the West Front."
+		title="Chartres Cathedral: Carving on the West Front."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+	<a id="f109" name="f109"></a>
+<a href="images/image109h.png">
+	<img src="images/image109.png"
+		alt="Chartres Cathedral:
+Tympanum Of The Central Door Of The West Front."
+		title="Chartres Cathedral:
+Tympanum Of The Central Door Of The West Front."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
+<span class="sn">Architectural Influence</span></p>
+
+<p>In the sculptured tombs of the Middle Ages,
+with their recumbent figures and heraldic enrichments,
+again, we see this architectonic sense influencing
+the treatment of form and relief, as these
+monuments were strictly architectural decorations,
+often incorporating its forms and details, and often
+built into the structure of the church or cathedral
+itself, as in the case of the recessed and canopied
+tombs of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.</p>
+
+<p>As sculptures became detached from the building
+and wall, and appeared in full relief in the round,
+though still, as it were, carrying a reminiscence of
+their origin with them in the shape of the moulded
+pedestal, architectural control became less and less
+felt, statues in consequence being less and less
+related to their surroundings. The individual feeling
+of the sculptor or the traditions of his school
+and training alone influenced his treatment, until
+we get the incidental and dramatic or sentimental
+isolated figure or group of modern days.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Medals and Coins</span></p>
+
+<p>It is noteworthy, however, that even in the
+smaller works of the modeller, carver, or sculptor
+of the Middle Ages or the early Renaissance, a
+sense of decorative fitness and structural sense is
+always present. We see it in the carved ornaments
+of seats and furniture, in the design and treatment
+of coins and seals and gems and medals. These
+latter from the time of the ancient Greeks afford
+beautiful examples of the decorative treatment of
+relief in strict relation to the object and purpose.
+The skill and taste of the Greeks seemed to have
+been largely inherited by the artists of the earlier
+Italian Renaissance, such as Pisano, whose famous
+medal of the Malatesta of Rimini affords a splendid
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+instance not only of the treatment of the portrait
+and subject on the reverse perfectly adapted to its
+method and purpose, but also of the artistic use of
+lettering as a decorative feature (see p. <a href="#f110">203</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+	<a id="f110" name="f110"></a>
+<a href="images/image110h.png">
+	<img src="images/image110.png"
+		alt="Medals Of The Lords Of Mantua,
+Cesena, And Ferrara, By Vittore Pisano Of Verona
+(Middle Of The Fifteenth Century)."
+		title="Medals Of The Lords Of Mantua,
+Cesena, And Ferrara, By Vittore Pisano Of Verona
+(Middle Of The Fifteenth Century)."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>The treatment and relief of figures and heads
+upon the plane surfaces of metals and coins, the
+composition controlled by the circular form, have
+always been a fine test of both modelling and
+decorative skill and taste. Breadth is given by a
+flatness in the treatment of successive planes of
+low relief, which rise to their highest projection
+from the ground, in the case of a head in profile,
+about its centre. The delicate perception of the
+relation of the planes of surface is important, as
+well as the decorative effect to be obtained by
+arrangement of the light and shade masses and
+the contrast of textures, such as hair and the
+folds of drapery, to the smooth contours of
+faces and figures, and the rectangular forms of
+lettering.</p>
+
+<p>In gems we see the use made of the concave
+ground, which gives an effective relief to the
+figure design in convex upon it. Bolder projection
+of prominent parts are here necessary in contrast
+to the retiring planes, the work being on so
+small a scale, and also in view of its seal-like character;
+for, of course, it is the method of producing
+form by incision, and modelling by cutting and
+hollowing out, that gives the peculiar character to
+gems and seals; and it is in forming human figures
+that the building up of the form by a series of
+ovals, spoken of in a previous chapter, becomes
+really of practical value: the method of hollowing
+the stone or metal in cutting the gem or making a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+die and the character of the tool leading naturally
+in that direction.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Desiderio di Settignano</span></p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most delicate and beautiful kind of
+sculptured or modelled relief is to be found in the
+work of the Florentine school of the fifteenth
+century, more especially that of Donatello and
+Desiderio di Settignano, who seem indeed to have
+caught the feeling and spirit of the best Greek
+period, with fresh inspiration and suggestion from
+nature and the life around them, as well as an
+added charm of grace and sweetness.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult to imagine that marble carving in
+low relief can be carried to greater perfection than
+it is in the well-known small relief by Desiderio
+di Settignano of the "Madonna and Child," now
+in the Italian Court of the South Kensington
+Museum. The delicate yet firmly chiselled faces
+and hands, the smooth surfaces of the flesh, and
+the folds of drapery, emerging from, or sinking
+into, the varied planes of the ground, for refinement
+of feeling and treatment seem almost akin
+to the art of the painter in the tenderness of their
+expression.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="major" />
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Of the Expression of Relief in Line-drawing&mdash;Graphic Aim
+and Ornamental Aim&mdash;Superficial Appearance and Constructive
+Reality&mdash;Accidents and Essentials&mdash;Representation and Suggestion
+of Natural Form in Design&mdash;The Outward Vision and
+the Inner Vision.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">I have</span> already said that when we add lines
+or tints of shadow, local colour or surface, to
+an outline drawing, we are seeking to express
+form in a more complete way than can be done in
+outline alone. These added lines or tints give
+what we call relief. That is their purpose and
+function, whether by that added relief we wish to
+produce an ornamental effect or simply to approach
+nearer to the full relief of nature, for of course the
+degrees of relief are many.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Relief in Line-Drawing</span></p>
+
+<p>What may be called the natural principle of
+relief&mdash;that system of light and shade by which a
+figure or any solid object is perceived as such by
+the eye&mdash;consists in each part of the form being
+thrown into more or less contrast by appearing as
+dark on light upon its background, more especially
+at its edges. A figure wholly dark, say in black
+drapery, appearing against a light ground, might
+be supposed to be flat if no cast shadow was
+seen; the same with the reverse&mdash;a light figure
+upon a dark ground&mdash;except that in this latter
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+case, unless the light was very level and flat, a
+certain concentration of light upon the highest
+parts, or indicating a modulation of shadow in
+interstices, might betray its solidity (see p. <a href="#f111a">206</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f111a" name="f111a"></a>
+	<img src="images/image111a.png"
+		alt="The Two Principles of Contrast in Black and White."
+		title="The Two Principles of Contrast in Black and White."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>But if we place a figure so that the light falls
+from one side, we perceive that it at once stands
+out in bold relief in broad planes of light and
+shade, further emphasized by cast shadows (p. <a href="#f111b">207</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f111b" name="f111b"></a>
+	<img src="images/image111b.png"
+		alt="Treatment of the Same Figure in Light And Shade."
+		title="Treatment of the Same Figure in Light And Shade."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>It would be possible to represent or to express
+a figure or object so lighted by means of laying in
+the modulations and planes of shadow only, or by
+means of adding the light only on a toned ground.
+In sketching in black and white, it is a good plan
+to accustom oneself to complete as one goes along,
+as far as may be, putting in outline and shadow
+together; but this needs a power of direct drawing
+and a correctness of eye only to be gained by
+continual practice. A slight preliminary basis of
+light lines to indicate the position and proportions,
+and yet not strong enough to need rubbing out,
+is also a good method for those who do not feel
+certain enough for the absolutely direct method of
+drawing.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f112" name="f112"></a>
+	<img src="images/image112.png"
+		alt="Expression of Form by Light and Shade:
+(1) Light and Shade Without Outline; (2) Light and Shade Enforced
+by Outline."
+		title="Expression of Form by Light and Shade:
+(1) Light and Shade Without Outline; (2) Light and Shade Enforced
+by Outline."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now in drawing, as I think I have pointed out
+before, no less than in all art, there are two main
+governing principles of working which may be
+distinguished.</p>
+
+<ol style="list-style-type:upper-roman">
+<li>The graphic aim.</li>
+<li>The ornamental or decorative aim.</li>
+</ol>
+<p>
+&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
+<br />&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span>
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">The Graphic Aim</span></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
+The graphic aim&mdash;the endeavour to represent a
+form exactly as it appears&mdash;a power always valuable
+to acquire whatever may be our ultimate
+purpose, leaves the draughtsman great freedom
+in the choice and use of line, or other means of
+obtaining relief, local tint, and tone.</p>
+
+<p>In line-work the broad relief of the flat tones of
+shadow may be expressed in lines approaching
+the straight, diagonally sloping from right to left,
+or from left to right, as seems most natural to the
+action of the hand.</p>
+
+<p>The quality of our lines will depend upon the
+quality we are seeking to express. We shall be
+led to vary them in seeking to express other
+characteristics, such as textures and surfaces.</p>
+
+<p>In drawing fur or feathers, for instance, we
+should naturally vary the quality and direction of
+line, using broken lines and dots for the former,
+and flowing smooth fine lines for the latter, while
+extra force and relief would be gained by throwing
+them up upon solid black grounds. Solid black,
+also, to represent local colour, or material such as
+velvet, is often valuable as a contrast in black and
+white line-drawing, giving a richness of effect not to
+be obtained in any other way (see No. 2, p. <a href="#f114">213</a>).
+Its value was appreciated by the early German
+and Italian book-illustrators, and in our own time
+has been used almost to excess by some of our
+younger designers, who have been largely influenced
+by Hokusai and other Japanese artists,
+who are always skilful in the use of solid blacks.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f113" name="f113"></a>
+	<img src="images/image113.png"
+		alt="Linear Expression of Features,
+Feathers and Fur: Notes from Nature."
+		title="Linear Expression of Features,
+Feathers and Fur: Notes from Nature."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>In line-drawing a very useful principle to observe,
+to give solidity to figures and objects, is to
+let one's lines&mdash;say of drapery or shadow&mdash;run
+into solid blacks in the deepest interstices of the
+forms, as when folds of drapery are wrapped
+about a figure, or in the deeper folds themselves
+(No. 1, p. <a href="#f114">213</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f114" name="f114"></a>
+	<img src="images/image114.png"
+		alt="Sketches to Illustrate (1) The Graphic
+And (2) The Decorative Treatment of Draped Figures."
+		title="Sketches to Illustrate (1) The Graphic
+And (2) The Decorative Treatment of Draped Figures."
+	/>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+</p>
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
+<span class="sn">The Ornamental Aim</span></p>
+
+<p>I have spoken of the graphic and the ornamental
+aims as distinct, and so they may for
+practical purposes be regarded; although in some
+cases it is possible to combine a considerable
+amount of graphic force with decorative effect,
+and even in purely graphic art there should
+always be the controlling influence of the sense
+of composition which must be felt throughout all
+forms of art.</p>
+
+<p>For the simplest ornamental function, however,
+very little graphic drawing is needed, over and
+above the very essential power of definition by
+pure outline, and feeling for silhouette; but a
+sense for the relief of masses upon a ground or
+field, and of the proportions and relations of lines
+and masses or distribution of quantities, is essential.
+Now an ornamental effect may be produced by
+the simple repetition of some form defined in
+outline arranged so as to fall into a rhythmic
+series of lines.</p>
+
+<p>A series of birds upon a plan of this kind, for
+instance, would form a frieze on simple bordering
+in abstract line alone, and might be quite sufficient
+for some purposes. The same thing would be
+capable of more elaborate treatment and different
+effect by relieving the birds upon a darker ground,
+by defining the details of their forms more, or by
+alternating them in black or white, or by adopting
+the simple principle of counterchange (see p. <a href="#f115">215</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f115" name="f115"></a>
+	<img src="images/image115.png"
+		alt="Decorative Treatment of Birds."
+		title="Decorative Treatment of Birds."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>Flowers or figures would be capable of the
+same simple and abstract treatment; and almost
+any form in nature, reduced to its simplest elements
+of recurring line and mass, and rhythmically
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span>
+disposed, would give us distinct decorative
+motives.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">The Ornamental Aim</span></p>
+
+<p>It is quite open to the designer to select his
+lines and forms straight from nature, and, bearing
+in mind the necessity for selection of the best
+ornamental elements, for a certain simplification,
+and the rhythmical treatment before mentioned, it
+is good to do so, as the work is more likely to
+have a certain freshness than if some of the well-known
+historic forms of ornament are used again.
+We may, however, learn much from the ornamental
+use of these forms, and use similar forms
+as the boundaries of the shape of our pattern units
+and masses.</p>
+
+<p>It is good practice to take a typical shape such
+as the Persian radiating flower or pine-apple, and
+use it as the plan for quite a different structure in
+detail, taking some familiar English flower as our
+motive. The same with the Indian and Persian
+palmette type. It is also desirable, as before
+pointed out, to draw sprays within formal boundaries
+for ornamental use. By such methods we
+may not only learn to appreciate the ornamental
+value of such forms, but by such adaptation and
+re-combination produce new varieties of ornament
+(see p. <a href="#f116">217</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f116" name="f116"></a>
+	<img src="images/image116.png"
+		alt="Floral Designs Upon Typical
+Inclosing Shapes of Indian and Persian Ornament."
+		title="Floral Designs Upon Typical
+Inclosing Shapes of Indian and Persian Ornament."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>We may perceive how distinct are the two aims
+as between simple graphic drawing, or delineation,
+and what we call design, or conscious arrangements
+of line or form. While planes of relief,
+varied form and surface, values of light and shade,
+and accidental characteristics are rather the object
+with the graphic draughtsman, typical form
+and structure, and recurring line and mass, are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+sought for by the ornamentist. Both series of
+facts, or qualities, or characteristics, are in nature.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Selection</span></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
+Judicious selection, however, is the test of
+artistic treatment; selection, that is, with a view
+to the aim and scope of the work. The truth of
+superficial appearance or accidental aspect is <i>one</i>
+sort of truth: the truth of the actual constructive
+characteristics&mdash;be they of figure, flower, or landscape&mdash;is
+<i>another</i>. Both belong to the thing we
+see&mdash;to the object we are drawing; but we shall
+dwell upon one truth or set of truths rather than
+the other, in accordance with our particular artistic
+aim, though, whatever this may be, and in whatever
+direction it may lead us, we shall find that
+selection of some sort will be necessary.</p>
+
+<p>In making studies, however pure and simple,
+the object of which is to discover facts and to learn
+mastery of form, our aim should be to get as much
+truth as we can, truth of structure as well as of
+aspect. But these (as far as we can make them)
+exhaustive studies should be accompanied or
+followed by analytical studies made from different
+points of view and for different purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Studies, for instance, made with a view to arrangements
+of <i>line</i> only&mdash;to get the characteristic
+and beautiful lines of a figure, a momentary attitude,
+the lines of a flower, or a landscape: studies
+with a view, solely, to the understanding of structure
+and form, or again, with the object of seizing
+the broad relations of light and shade, or tone and
+colour&mdash;all are necessary to a complete artistic
+education of the eye.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+</p>
+<p><span class="sn">Accidents and Essentials</span></p>
+
+<p>If we are drawn as students rather towards the
+picturesque and graphic side of art, we shall probably
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
+look for accidents of line and form more than
+what I should call the essentials, or <i>typical</i> line
+and form, which are the most valuable to the
+decorative designer.</p>
+
+<p>In both directions some compact or compromise
+with nature is necessary in any really artistic
+re-presentation.</p>
+
+<p>The painter and the sculptor often seek as
+<i>complete representation</i> as possible, and what may
+be called complete representation is within the
+range of their resources. Yet unless some individual
+choice or feeling impresses the work of
+either kind it is not a <i>re-presentation</i>, but becomes
+an <i>imitation</i>, and therefore inartistic.</p>
+
+<p>The decorative designer and ornamentist seek
+to <i>suggest</i> rather than to <i>re-present</i>, though the
+decorator's suggestion of natural form, taking
+only enough to suit or express the particular ornamental
+purpose, must be considered also as a
+re-presentation. How much, or how little, he will
+take of actual nature must depend largely upon
+his resources, his object, and the limitations of his
+material&mdash;the conditions of his work in short; but
+his range may be as wide as from the flat silhouetted
+forms of stencils or simple inlays to the
+highly-wrought mural painting.</p>
+
+<p>Design motive, individual conception and sentiment,
+apart from material, must, of course, always
+affect the question of the choice and degree of
+representation of nature. The painter will sometimes
+feel that he only wants to suggest forms,
+such as figures or buildings, half veiled in light
+and atmosphere, colours and forms in twilight, or
+half lost in luminous depths of shadow.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span></p>
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f117a" name="f117a"></a>
+	<img src="images/image117a.png"
+		alt="Dancing Figure with the Governing Lines
+of the Movement."
+		title="Dancing Figure with the Governing Lines
+of the Movement."
+	/>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span></p>
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f117b" name="f117b"></a>
+<a href="images/image117bh.png">
+	<img src="images/image117b.png"
+		alt="Lines of Floral Growth and Structure: Lily and Rose."
+		title="Lines of Floral Growth and Structure: Lily and Rose."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">The Outward Vision and Inner Vision</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>The decorative designer will sometimes want to
+emphasize forms with the utmost force and realism
+at his command, as in some crisp bit of carving or
+emphatic pattern, to give point and relief in his
+scheme of quantities.</p>
+
+<p>There is no hard-and-fast rule in art, only
+general principles, constantly varied in practice,
+from which all principles spring, and into which,
+if vital, they ought to be capable of being again
+resolved.</p>
+
+<p>But a design once started upon some principle&mdash;some
+particular motive of line or form&mdash;then,
+in following this out, it will seem to develop almost
+a life or law of growth of its own, which as a
+matter of logical necessity will demand a particular
+treatment&mdash;a certain natural consistency or harmony&mdash;from
+its main features down to the smallest
+detail as a necessity of its existence.</p>
+
+<p>We might further differentiate art as, on the one
+hand, the image of the <i>outward vision</i>, and, on the
+other, as the outcome or image of the <i>inner vision</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The first kind would include all portraiture, by
+which I mean faithful portrayal or transcript
+whether of animate or inanimate nature; while
+the second would include all imaginative conceptions,
+decorative designs, and pattern inventions.</p>
+
+<p>The outward vision obviously relies upon what
+the eye perceives in nature. Its virtue consists
+in the faithfulness and truth of its graphic record,
+in the penetrating force of observation of fact,
+and the representative power by which they are
+reproduced on paper or canvas, clay or marble.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f118a" name="f118a"></a>
+	<img src="images/image118a.png"
+		alt="1 and 2, Mountain And Crag Sculpture:
+Coast Lines, Gulf Of Nauplia."
+		title="1 and 2, Mountain And Crag Sculpture:
+Coast Lines, Gulf Of Nauplia."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f118b" name="f118b"></a>
+	<img src="images/image118b.png"
+		alt="Lines of Movement in Water:
+Shallow Stream Over Sand."
+		title="Lines of Movement in Water:
+Shallow Stream Over Sand."
+	/>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+</p>
+<p>The image of the inner vision is also a record,
+but of a different order of fact. It may be often
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>
+of unconscious impressions and memories which
+are retained and recur with all or more than the
+vividness of actuality&mdash;the tangible forms of external
+nature calling up answering, but not identical,
+images in the mind, like reflections in a mirror or
+in still water, which are similar but never the
+same as the objects they reflect.</p>
+
+<p>But the inner vision is not bound by the appearances
+of the particular moment. It is the record
+of the sum of many moments, and retains the
+typical impress of multitudinous and successive
+impressions&mdash;like the composite photograph, where
+faces may be printed one over another until the
+result is a more typical image than any individual
+one taken separately.</p>
+
+<p>The inner vision sees the results of time rather
+than the impressions of the moment. It sees
+<i>space</i> rather than landscape: race rather than
+men: spirits rather than mortals: types rather
+than individuals.</p>
+
+<p>The inner vision hangs the mind's house with
+a mysterious tapestry of figurative thoughts, a rich
+and fantastic imagery, a world where the elements
+are personified, where every tree has its dryad,
+and where the wings of the winds actually brush
+the cheek.</p>
+
+<p>The inner vision re-creates rather than represents,
+and its virtue consists in the vividness and
+beauty with which, in the language of line, form,
+and colour, these visions of the mind are recorded
+and presented to the outward eye.</p>
+
+<p>There is often fusion here again between two
+different tendencies, habits of mind, or ways of
+regarding things. In all art the mind must work
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>through the eye, whether its force appears in
+closeness of observation or in vivid imaginings.
+The very vividness of realization even of the most
+faithful portraiture is a testimony to mental powers.</p>
+
+<p>The difference lies really in the <i>focus</i> of the
+mental force; and, in any case, the language of
+line and form we use will neither be forcible or
+convincing, neither faithful to natural fact nor true
+to the imagination, without close and constant
+study of external form and of its structure as well
+as its aspect.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Of the Adaptation of Line and Form in Design, in various
+materials and methods&mdash;Mural Decoration&mdash;Fresco-work of the
+Italian Painters&mdash;Modern Mural Work&mdash;Mural Spacing and
+pattern Plans&mdash;Scale&mdash;The Skirting&mdash;The Dado&mdash;Field of the
+Wall&mdash;The Frieze&mdash;Panelling&mdash;Tapestry&mdash;Textile Design&mdash;Persian
+Carpets&mdash;Effect of Texture on Colour&mdash;Prints&mdash;Wall-paper&mdash;Stained
+Glass.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">We</span> have been considering hitherto the choice
+and use of line and form, and various
+methods of their representation in drawing, both
+from the point of view of the graphic draughtsman
+and that of the ornamental designer.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to consider the subject solely
+from the latter standpoint (the point of view of
+ornamental design); and it will be useful to endeavour
+to trace the principles governing the
+selection of form and use of line as influenced by
+some of the different methods and conditions of
+craftsmanship, and as adapted to various decorative
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Mural Decoration</span></p>
+
+<p>The most important branch of decorative art
+may be said to be mural decoration, allied as it is
+with the fundamental constructive art of all&mdash;architecture,
+from which it obtains its determining
+conditions and natural limitations.</p>
+
+<p>Its history in the past is one of splendour and
+dignity, and its record includes some of the finest
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>art ever produced. The ancient Asiatic nations
+were well aware of its value not only as decoration
+but as a record.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f119" name="f119"></a>
+	<img src="images/image119.png"
+		alt="Giotto: &ldquo;;Chastity&rdquo;; (Lower Church, Assisi)."
+		title="Giotto: &ldquo;;Chastity&rdquo;; (Lower Church, Assisi)."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>The palace and temple and tomb-walls of ancient
+Egypt, Persia, and Assyria vividly illustrate the
+life and ideas of those peoples, while they conform
+to mural conditions. The painted council halls
+and churches of the Middle Ages fulfil the same
+purpose in a different spirit; but mural decoration
+in its richest, most imaginative and complete form
+was developed in Italy, from the time of Giotto,
+whose famous works at the Arena Chapel at Padua
+and Assisi are well known, to the time of Michael
+Angelo, who in the sublime ceiling of the Sistine
+Chapel seemed to touch the extreme limits of
+mural work, and in fact might be said to have
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>almost <i>defied</i> them, painting mouldings in relief
+and in perspective to form the framework of pictures
+where figures on different scales are used.
+In the Sistine Chapel the series of earlier frescoes
+on the lower wall by Botticelli, Lorenzo di Credi,
+Ghirlandajo, Pinturicchio, and other Florentine
+painters of the fifteenth century are really more
+strictly mural in feeling, and safer as guides in
+general treatment, than the work of the great
+master himself. They have much of the repose
+and richness as well as the quiet decorative effect
+of tapestry.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Fresco-Work of Italian Painters</span></p>
+
+<p>The frescoes in the Palazzo Publico at Siena,
+Pinturicchio's work in the Piccolomini Chapel and
+the Appartimenti Borgia, the Campo Santo at
+Pisa and the Riccardi Chapel of Benozzo Gozzoli
+at Florence, may be mentioned as among the gems
+of mural painting.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Modern Mural Work</span></p>
+
+<p>We have but little important mural painting in
+this country. Doubtless, from various traces discovered
+under Puritan whitewash, the walls of our
+medi&aelig;val churches were painted as frequently as
+in continental countries, but so completely did
+artistic tradition and religious sentiment change
+after the Reformation that the opportunities have
+been few and the encouragement less for mural
+painting. An attempt to revive fresco-painting
+was made in our Houses of Parliament, and
+various scenes from our national history have been
+rendered with varying degrees of merit; but they
+have chiefly demonstrated the need of continuous
+practice in such work on the part of our painters
+and the absence of a true decorative instinct.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f120" name="f120"></a>
+<a href="images/image120h.png">
+	<img src="images/image120.png"
+		alt="Pinturicchio: Mural Painting
+(Piccolomini Chapel, Siena)."
+		title="Pinturicchio: Mural Painting
+(Piccolomini Chapel, Siena)."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is to the honour of Manchester that her
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>Town Hall contains one of the most important
+and interesting pieces of mural painting by one
+of the most original of modern English artists&mdash;Ford
+Madox Brown&mdash;a work conceived in the true
+spirit of mural work, being a record of local
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>history, as well as a decoration, while distinctly modern
+in sentiment and showing strong dramatic feeling,
+as well as historical knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>The chapel on which Mr. F. J. Shields is engaged
+in London will probably be unique in its
+way as a complete piece of mural decoration by an
+English artist of singular individuality, sincerity,
+and power, as well as decorative ability.</p>
+
+<p>But unfortunately opportunities for important
+mural decoration of this kind are very rare in
+England. The art is not popularized: we have
+no school of trained mural designers, and we
+have no public really interested. Our commercial
+system and system of house tenure are against it.
+Our only chance is in public buildings, which indeed
+have always been its best field. Yet we
+neglect, I think, a most important educational influence.
+The painted churches and public halls
+of the Middle Ages filled in a great measure the
+place of public libraries. A painted history, a
+portrait, a dramatic or romantic incident told in
+the vivid language of line, form, and colour, is
+stamped upon the memory never to be forgotten.
+It would be possible, I think, to impart a tolerably
+exact knowledge of the sequence of history, of the
+conditions of life at different epochs, of great men
+and their work, from a well-imagined series of
+mural paintings, without the aid of books; and in
+this direction, perhaps, our school walls would
+present an appropriate field.</p>
+
+<p>Modern opportunities of mural decoration are
+chiefly domestic. The country mansion, or the
+modest home of the suburban citizen, affords the
+principal field in our time for the exercise of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>taste or ingenuity of the wall-decorator. In this
+comparatively restricted field, taste is perhaps of
+more consequence than any other quality. A
+sense of appropriateness, a harmonizing faculty, a
+power of arrangement of simple materials&mdash;these
+are invaluable, for, more than any others, they go
+to the making of a livable interior.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Mural Spacing and Pattern Plans</span></p>
+
+<p>On first thought it would almost seem as if
+the designer was less technically restricted in this
+direction of mural work than any other; yet he
+will soon feel that he cannot produce an artistic
+and thoughtful scheme without taking many things
+into consideration which really belong to the conditions
+or natural limitations of his work.</p>
+
+<p>There is, firstly, the idea of the wall itself&mdash;part
+of the house-structure&mdash;a shelter and protection
+or boundary. It is no part of a designer's business
+to put anything upon the wall in the way of decoration
+which will induce anyone to forget that it is
+a wall&mdash;nothing to disturb the flatness and repose.</p>
+
+<p>The four walls of a room inclose a space to
+dwell in, in comfort and security. The windows
+show us outward real life and nature. The walls
+should not compete with the windows. Nature
+must be translated into the terms of line and form
+and colour, and invention and fancy may be pleasantly
+suggestive in the harmonious metre and
+rhythm of pattern.</p>
+
+<p>A wall surface extends horizontally and vertically,
+but the vertical extension seems to assert
+itself most to the eye.</p>
+
+<p>Any arrangement of lines of the trellis or diaper
+order logically covers a wall surface, and may be
+appropriately used as a basis for a wall pattern,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>whether merely to mark the positions of a simple
+spray or formal sprig pattern, or as a ground-plan
+for a completely filled field of repeating ornament,
+whether painted, stencilled, or in the form of wall-paper
+or textile hanging.</p>
+
+<p>In the simple geometric net of squares or
+diamonds or circles, however, there is nothing
+that emphatically marks adaptability to a vertical
+position. Such plans in themselves are equally
+appropriate to the floor in the form of paving and
+parquet. The ogee plan, however, and its variant,
+the vertical serpentine or spiral plan, at once
+suggest vertical extension, the former perhaps
+by its leaf-like points arranging themselves scale-wise,
+and the latter by its suggestion of ascending
+movement.</p>
+
+<p>It is noteworthy that in the course of the historic
+evolution of mural decoration, designs based upon
+these systems constantly recur. They are part
+of the pattern-designer's vocabulary of line, and
+among the principal, though simplest, terms by
+which he is able to express vertical extension.</p>
+
+<p>The question of <i>scale</i> in designing mural decoration
+of any sort is very important. This demands
+a certain power of realizing the effect of certain
+lines and masses if carried out, and the relation of
+one part to another as well as to the dimensions
+of the walls and the room itself. Here, as indeed
+throughout art, a reference to the human figure
+will give us our key, since after all decoration goes
+to form a background for humanity. With natural
+flowers and leaves it is always right to design for
+mural purposes on the same scale as nature.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f121" name="f121"></a>
+	<img src="images/image121.png"
+		alt="Diagram Showing the Principal Fundamental
+Plans or Systems of Line Governing Mural Spacing
+and Decorative Distribution."
+		title="Diagram Showing the Principal Fundamental
+Plans or Systems of Line Governing Mural Spacing
+and Decorative Distribution."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+</p>
+<p><span class="sn">Scale</span></p>
+
+<p>Scale in design should be also considered in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+relation to the general character of a building and
+its purpose, the use and lighting of a living room:
+its dimensions and proportions, and relation to
+other rooms. There is great range for individual
+taste and fancy.</p>
+
+<p>The artist would naturally look to the capacity
+of the space which he had to decorate, and what it
+suggested to his mind. He might want to emphasize
+a long, low room by horizontal lines, or to
+accentuate a lofty one by verticals.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f122" name="f122"></a>
+	<img src="images/image122.png"
+		alt="Diagram to Show
+(1) How the Apparent Depth of a Space
+Is Increased by the Use of Vertical Lines, and (2)
+How the Apparent Width Is Increased by the Use
+of Horizontal Lines."
+		title="Diagram to Show
+(1) How the Apparent Depth of a Space
+Is Increased by the Use of Vertical Lines, and (2)
+How the Apparent Width Is Increased by the Use
+of Horizontal Lines."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>By the judicious use of line and scale in design,
+the designer holds a certain power of transformation
+in his hands, not to speak of the transforming
+effect of colour of different keys and tones, the
+apparent contraction or expansion of surfaces by
+patterns of different character and scale.</p>
+
+<p>It would obviously not do to regard any wall
+merely as so much expanse of surface available for
+sketching unrelated groups and figures upon, as
+they might be jotted down in a sketch-book, and
+to offer it as decoration. In an interior thus
+treated, we should lose all sense of repose, dignity,
+and proportion.</p>
+
+<p>Use and custom, which fix and determine so
+many things in social life without written laws,
+have also prescribed certain divisions of the wall,
+which, in regard to the exigencies of life and habit
+and modern conditions generally, seem natural
+enough.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+</p>
+<p><span class="sn">The Skirting</span></p>
+
+<p>The lower parts of the walls of most modern
+dwellings being generally occupied by furniture
+placed against them, and liable to be soiled or injured,
+it would be out of place to put important
+and elaborate ornament or figure designs extending
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+to the skirting. The wooden skirting, of
+about nine inches or a foot in depth, which is
+placed along the foot of the wall in our modern
+rooms, is the armour-plating to protect the plaster,
+which otherwise might be chipped and litter the
+floor. It is perhaps the last relic of the more
+substantial and extensive wood panelling and
+wainscotting which, up to the latter part of the
+last century, covered the lower walls of the more
+comfortable houses, and has been revived in our
+own day. The decorator may use panelling, or
+wainscotting, or a simple chair-rail above plain
+painting, wall-paper, dado, or stencilling, or a
+dado of matting, as methods of covering, and at
+the same time decorating, the lower walls of
+rooms.</p>
+
+<p>The use of the dado of a darker colour and of
+wainscot is, no doubt, due to considerations of
+wear and tear, and so, like the origin of much
+ornamental art, may be traced to actual use and
+constructive necessity. When the wood-work of
+a room&mdash;the doors and window frames&mdash;is of the
+same colour and character as the dado, a certain
+agreeable unity is preserved, and it forms a useful
+plain framing to set off the patterned parts of the
+wall. This wainscot or dado framing with the
+wood-work should be as to colour arranged to
+suit the general scheme adopted. Where paint
+is used, white for the wood-work usually has the
+best effect.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+</p>
+<p><span class="sn">Field of the Wall</span></p>
+
+<p>The largest space of wall occurs above the
+chair-rail, or dado, and, according to modern
+habits and usage, portable property in the shape
+of framed pictures, etc., is usually placed here
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+along the eye-line, so that any decoration on this&mdash;the
+main field of the wall&mdash;is regarded as subsidiary
+to what is placed upon it; but, of course,
+pictures can be used as the central points of a
+decorative scheme. On the upper part of a wall,
+below the plaster cornice, the mural designer has
+the chance of putting a frieze, and a frieze usually
+gives the effect of additional height to a room,
+besides enriching the wall.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f123" name="f123"></a>
+<a href="images/image123h.png">
+	<img src="images/image123.png"
+		alt="Decorative Spacing of the Wall:
+Sketches (to 1/2-in. Scale) to Show Different Treatment
+and Proportions."
+		title="Decorative Spacing of the Wall:
+Sketches (to 1/2-in. Scale) to Show Different Treatment
+and Proportions."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>An effective treatment of a large room, and one
+which is more reposeful than cutting up the wall
+into these portions, as in dado, field, and frieze, is
+to carry up wood panelling to the frieze, and let
+this (the frieze) be the important decorative feature.</p>
+
+<p>Supposing the room was twelve feet high, one
+could afford to have eight feet of panelling, and
+then a frieze of four feet deep. In this case one
+would look for an interesting painted frieze of
+figures&mdash;some legend or story to run along the
+four sides of the room, and in such a case it might
+be marked with considerable pictorial freedom.</p>
+
+<p>More formal figure design or ornamental work
+in coloured plaster-work, stucco, and gesso could
+also be appropriately used in such a position, as
+also on the ceiling.</p>
+
+<p>Now as regards choice of line and form in their
+relation to the decoration of such mural spaces.
+Taking the lower wall, dado, or panelling, one
+reason why panelling has so agreeable an effect is,
+I think, that the series of vertical and horizontal
+lines seem to express the proportions, while they
+emphasize the flatness and repose of the wall, and
+when used beneath a painted frieze they lead the
+eye upwards, forming a quiet framing of rectangular
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+lines below to the ornate and varied design
+of the frieze. Where we are limited to decorating
+a wall by means of plain painting, stencils, or wall-paper,
+this idea of reposeful constructive lines and
+forms on the lower wall should still dominate upon
+the field. Subject to our repeating plan we may
+be freer both in line and form, using free scrolls,
+branch-work, fruit, and flower masses at pleasure,
+because the space is more extended, and we shall
+feel the necessity in a repeating pattern of spreading
+adequately over it; but such designs, however
+fine in detail, should be constructed upon a more
+or less geometric base or plan. We are, as regards
+the main field of the wall, still unavoidably, though
+not disadvantageously, influenced by the tradition
+of the textile hanging or arras tapestry, no doubt;
+and certainly there is no more rich and comfortable
+lining for living rooms than tapestry, or, at the
+same time, more reposeful and decoratively satisfying.
+But, of course, where we can afford arras
+tapestry (such as the superb work of William
+Morris and his weavers), we ought not to allow
+anything to compete with it upon the same wall.
+It is sufficient in itself.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f128" name="f128"></a>
+	<img src="images/image128.png"
+		alt="Arras Tapestry:
+Diagrams to Show the Principle of
+Working and Surface Effect: (1) Vertical Position
+of Warp as Worked in the Loom and Relief
+Effect of the Wefts; (2) Enlarged Section of
+Warp as Hung (Horizontal); (3) Single Threads of
+Warp and Weft; (4) Warp and Weft as in the Loom (Vertical)."
+		title="Arras Tapestry:
+Diagrams to Show the Principle of
+Working and Surface Effect: (1) Vertical Position
+of Warp as Worked in the Loom and Relief
+Effect of the Wefts; (2) Enlarged Section of
+Warp as Hung (Horizontal); (3) Single Threads of
+Warp and Weft; (4) Warp and Weft as in the Loom (Vertical)."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Tapestry</span></p>
+
+<p>Of what splendour of colour and wealth of decorative
+and symbolical invention tapestry was
+capable in the past may be seen in magnificent
+Burgundian specimens of the fifteenth century,
+now in the South Kensington Museum.</p>
+
+<p>Tapestry hangings of a repeating pattern and
+quiet colour could be used appropriately beneath
+painted upper walls, or a frieze, as no doubt frequently
+was the custom in great houses in the
+Middle Ages.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Appartimenti Borgia</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>In the Appartimenti Borgia in the Vatican, for
+instance, which consists of lofty vaulted rooms with
+frescoes by Pinturicchio upon the upper walls between
+the spans of the vaulting, and upon the
+vaulting itself, we may see, about eleven feet from
+the floor, along the moulding, the hooks left for the
+tapestry hangings, which completed the decoration
+of the room. The lower walls are now largely
+occupied by book-shelves; but books themselves
+may form a pleasant background, as one may often
+observe in libraries, especially when the bindings
+are rich and good in tone: and here, too, we get
+our verticals and horizontals again.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f125" name="f125"></a>
+<a href="images/image125h.png">
+	<img src="images/image125.png"
+		alt="Pinturicchio: Fresco in the Appartimenti Borgia."
+		title="Pinturicchio: Fresco in the Appartimenti Borgia."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>So long as the feeling for the repose and flatness
+of the wall surface is preserved, there are no special
+limitations in the choice of form. It becomes far
+more a matter of <i>treatment of form and subject</i> in
+perfectly appropriate mural design. There is one
+principle, however, which seems to hold good in
+the treatment of important figure subjects to occupy
+the main wall surfaces as panels: while pictorial
+realization of a kind may be carried quite far, it is
+desirable to avoid large masses of light sky, or to
+attempt much in the way of atmospheric effect. It
+is well to keep the horizon high, and, if sky is
+shown, to break it with architecture and trees.</p>
+
+<p>Still more important is it to observe this in
+tapestry. It is very noticeable how tapestry design
+declined after the fifteenth century or early
+years of the sixteenth, when perspective and pictorial
+planes were introduced, and sky effects to
+emulate painting, and thus the peculiarly mural
+feeling was lost, with its peculiar beauty, richness,
+and repose.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span></p>
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f124" name="f124"></a>
+	<img src="images/image124.png"
+		alt="Figure of Laura, from the Burgundian
+Tapestries: The Triumphs of Petrarch (South Kensington Museum)."
+		title="Figure of Laura, from the Burgundian
+Tapestries: The Triumphs of Petrarch (South Kensington Museum)."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>In the translation into tapestry even of so
+tapestry-like a picture as that of Botticelli's "Primavera,"
+it is noteworthy how Mr. Morris has felt
+the necessity of reducing the different planes, and
+the chiaroscuro of the painting, by more leafy and
+floral detail; making it, in short, more of a pattern
+than a picture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">The Frieze</span></p>
+
+<p>A frieze is susceptible of a much more open,
+lighter, and freer treatment than a field. A frieze
+is one of the mural decorator's principal means of
+giving lightness and relief to his wall. In purely
+floral and ornamental design the field of close
+pattern, formal diaper, or sprigs at regular intervals
+may be appropriately relieved by bolder lines
+and masses, and a more open treatment in the
+frieze. The frieze, too, affords a means of contrast
+in line to the line system of the field of the wall,
+its horizontal expression usefully opposing the
+verticals or diagonals of the wall pattern below.
+The frieze may be regarded as a horizontal border,
+and in border designs the principle of transposition
+of the relation of pattern to ground is a useful one
+to bear in mind, as leading always to an effective
+result. I mean, supposing our field shows a pattern
+mainly of light upon dark, the frieze might be on
+the reverse plan, a dark pattern on a light ground.</p>
+
+<p>And whereas, as I have said, one would exclude
+wide light spaces from our mural field, in the frieze
+one might effectively show a light sky ground
+throughout, and arrange a figure or floral design
+upon that.</p>
+
+<p>The principle governing the treatment of main
+and lower wall spaces or fields, which teaches the
+designer to preserve the repose of the surface, may
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>be said to rule also in all textile design, and textile
+design has, as we have seen in the form of tapestry,
+and hangings of all kinds, a very close association
+with mural decoration.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Textile Design</span></p>
+
+<p>Any textile may be considered, from the designer's
+point of view, as presenting so much <i>surface</i>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>for pattern, whether that surface is hung upon
+a wall, or curtains a door or a window, or is spread
+in the form of carpets or rugs upon floors, or over
+the cushions of furniture, or adapts itself to the
+variety of curve surface and movement of the
+human form in dress materials and costume. Textile
+beauty is beauty of material and surface, and
+unless the pattern or design upon it or woven with
+it enhances that beauty of material and surface,
+and becomes a part of the expression of that
+material and surface, it is better without pattern.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f126" name="f126"></a>
+<a href="images/image126h.png">
+	<img src="images/image126.png"
+		alt="Portion of Detail of the Holy Carpet
+of the Mosque of Ardebil: Persian, Sixteenth Century."
+		title="Portion of Detail of the Holy Carpet
+of the Mosque of Ardebil: Persian, Sixteenth Century."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>To place informal shaded flowers and leaves
+upon a carpet, for instance, where the warp is
+very emphatic, and the process of weaving necessitates
+a stepped or rectangularly broken outline,
+is to mistake appropriate decorative effect, capacity
+of material, and position in regard to the eye. We
+cannot get away, in a carpet, from the idea of a flat
+field starred with more or less formal flowers, and
+colour arrangements which owe their richness and
+beauty, not to the relief of shading, but to the
+heraldic principle of relieving one tint or colour
+upon another. The rich inlay of colour which a
+Persian or any Eastern carpet presents is owing
+to its being designed upon this principle; and in
+Persian work that peculiarly rich effect of colour,
+apart from fine material, is owing to the principle
+of the use of outlines of different colours defining
+and relieving the different forms in the pattern
+upon different grounds. The rectangular influence
+arising from the technical conditions of the work
+gives a definite textile character to the design
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
+which is very agreeable; besides, as a question of
+line and form, in a carpet or rug which is rectangular
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
+in shape and laid usually upon rectangular
+floors, the squareness of form harmonizes with the
+conditions and surroundings of the work in use.
+The Persian designer, indeed, appears to be so
+impressed with this feeling, that he uses a succession
+of borders around the central field of his carpet
+or rug, still further emphasizing the rectangularity;
+while he avoids the too rigid effect of a
+series of straight lines which the crossing of the
+threads of the weft at right angles to the warp
+might cause, by changing the widths of his subsidiary
+borders and breaking them with a constant
+variety of small patterns, and inserting narrow
+white lines between the black lines of the border.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f127" name="f127"></a>
+	<img src="images/image127.png"
+		alt="Sketch to Illustrate Treatment of
+Borders in a Persian Rug."
+		title="Sketch to Illustrate Treatment of
+Borders in a Persian Rug."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Effect of Texture on Colour</span></p>
+
+<p>In tapestry the effect of the emphatic warp
+worked vertically in the loom, but hung horizontally,
+has a very important influence upon the
+effect. If we took a piece of paper coloured with
+a flat even tint, and folded it in ridges, the quality
+of the tint would be at once changed, and so in
+tapestry the passing of the wool of the wefts,
+which form the pattern or picture, over the strong
+lines of the warp&mdash;which are broad enough to
+take the outlines of the cartoon upon them&mdash;produces
+that soft and varied play of colour&mdash;really
+colour in light and shade&mdash;which, over and above
+the actual dyes and artistic selection of tints, gives
+the peculiar charm and effect in tapestry.</p>
+
+<p>This sheen and variety are more or less evident
+in all textiles, and a good textile pattern only
+adds to the variety and richness of the surface.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
+The different thicknesses or planes of surface
+and the difference of their texture caused by the
+different wefts being brought to the surface of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
+cloth or silk (from the simplest contrast of line
+presented by the simplest arrangements of warp
+and weft, to the complexities of many-coloured
+silk stuffs and brocade) alone give a value to the
+surface pattern.</p>
+
+<p>In cut velvet the same principle of contrast of
+surface is emphasized still further, the rich deep
+nap of the less raised parts contrasting pleasantly
+with the mat effect of the ground.</p>
+
+<p>In designs for such material one should aim at
+boldly blocked-out patterns in silhouette&mdash;bold
+leaf and fruit forms say&mdash;designed on the principle
+of the stencil.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Prints</span></p>
+
+<p>With prints the range is of course freer, the
+material itself suggesting something lighter and
+more temporary. It seems highly probable that
+printed cotton was originally a substitute for embroidered
+linen or more sumptuous materials.
+There are certainly instances of very similar
+patterns in Indian and Persian work in silk embroidery,
+and also in printed cotton. In some
+cases the print is partly embroidered, which seems
+to mark a transitional stage, and recalls the
+lingering use of illumination in the early days
+of the printing press, in another department of
+art.</p>
+
+<p>Anything that will repeat as a pattern in what
+can be produced by line, dot, and tints of colour,
+and engraved upon wood-blocks or copper rollers,
+can be printed of course; and, as is generally the
+case with an art which has no very obvious technical
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>
+limitations, it is liable to be caught by the
+imitative spirit, and cheap and rapid production
+and demand for novelties (so-called) generally end
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>
+in loss of taste and deterioration of quality, especially
+in design. From the artistic point of view
+we can only correct this by bearing in mind
+similar considerations to those which hold good
+as general principles and guides in designing for
+textiles generally, having regard to the object,
+purpose, and position&mdash;to the ultimate use of the
+material, and differentiating our designs, as in the
+case of other textile design accordingly.</p>
+
+<p>Thus in the matter of plan and direction of line
+and character of form we shall at once find
+natural distinctions and divisions, as our design
+is for hanging, or spreading horizontally, or wearing;
+and these different functions will also determine
+scale and choice and treatment of form and
+colour.</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that with patterns printed
+more range may be allowed than with patterns to
+be woven, where line and form are both controlled
+by the necessities of being reproduced by so many
+points to the inch. At the same time the object
+of all design and pattern work being the greatest
+beauty compatible with the material and conditions,
+one should seek, not such effects as merely
+test the capacity or ingenuity of the machine, but
+rather such as appear to be most decoratively
+appropriate and effective.</p>
+
+<p>There appears to be no <i>mechanical</i> reason why
+cotton should not be printed all over with landscapes
+and graphic sketches, and people clothe
+themselves with them as with Christmas numbers,
+or turn their couches, chairs, and curtains into
+scrap albums, but there is every reason <i>on the
+score of taste</i> why these things should not be done.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span></p>
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f129" name="f129"></a>
+	<img src="images/image129.png"
+		alt="(1) Contrasting Surfaces of Warp
+and Weft in Woven Silk Hanging; (2) Stencil Principle."
+		title="(1) Contrasting Surfaces of Warp
+and Weft in Woven Silk Hanging; (2) Stencil Principle."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>With any textile, as I have said, we are as
+designers dealing with surface. It is surface
+ornament that is wanted also in printed cotton.
+Now good line and form and pure tints have the
+best effect, because they do not break the surface
+into holes, and give a ragged or tumbled appearance,
+which accidental bunches of darkly-shaded
+flowers in high relief undoubtedly do. If small
+rich detail and variety are wanted, we should seek
+it in the inventive spirit of the Persian and Indian,
+and break our solid colours with mordants or
+arabesques in colour of delicate subsidiary pattern
+instead of using coarse planes of light and shadow,
+or showing up ragged and unrelated forms upon
+violent grounds.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
+	<a id="f130" name="f130"></a>
+<a href="images/image130h.png">
+	<img src="images/image130.png"
+		alt="Indian Printed Cotton Cover:
+South Kensington Museum."
+		title="Indian Printed Cotton Cover:
+South Kensington Museum."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>The true idea of a print pattern is of something
+gay and fanciful: bright and fresh in colour, and
+clear in line and form: a certain quaintness is
+allowable, and in purely floral designs there is
+room for a considerable degree of what might be
+called naturalism, so far as good line-drawing and
+understanding of flower form goes, emphasis of
+colour being sought by means of <i>planes of colour</i>,
+rather than by planes of shadow.</p>
+
+<p>I had intended to touch upon other provinces
+of design, but I have taken up so much space
+with those I have been discussing already that I
+can only now briefly allude to these.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Wall-Paper</span></p>
+
+<p>Of wall-paper, which may be regarded in the
+light of more or less of a substitute for mural
+painting, and also textile wall-hangings, much the
+same general principles and many of the same
+remarks apply as have been already used in
+regard to mural decoration. The designer has
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>
+much freedom as to motive, and his ingenuity is
+only bounded by or concentrated in a square of
+twenty-one inches. If he has succeeded in making
+an agreeable pattern which will repeat not too
+obviously over an indefinite space, to form a not
+obtrusive background, and which can be printed
+and sold to the ordinary citizen, he is supposed to
+have satisfied the conditions.</p>
+
+<p>But he may be induced to go further and
+attempt the design of a complete decoration as
+far as dado, field, frieze, and ceiling go; and this
+would involve all the thought necessary to the
+mural painter, narrowed down to the exigencies of
+mechanical repeat.</p>
+
+<p>Allied to the wall is the window, and in glazing
+and the art of the glass-painter we have another
+very distinct and beautiful sphere of line design.
+In plain leading the same law of covering vertical
+surface holds good as to selection of plan and
+system of line: almost any simple geometric net
+is appropriate, if not too complex or small in form
+to hold glass or to permit lead to follow its lines.
+Leaded panels of roundels (or "bull's eyes") of
+plain glass have a good effect in casements where
+a sparkle of light rather than outward view is
+sought for.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Stained Glass</span></p>
+
+<p>When we come to designing for stained glass
+we should still bear in mind the fundamental net
+of lead lines which forms the basis of our pattern,
+or glass picture, as it were: and the designer's
+object should be to make it good as an arrangement
+of line independently of the colour, while
+practical to the glazier.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f131" name="f131"></a>
+	<img src="images/image131.png"
+		alt="(1) Stained Glass Treatment:
+Inclosure of Form and Colour by Lead Lines; (2) Sections."
+		title="(1) Stained Glass Treatment:
+Inclosure of Form and Colour by Lead Lines; (2) Sections."
+	/>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>
+</p>
+<p>Although lead is very pliable, too much must
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+not be expected of it in the way of small depressions
+and angles: the boundary lines of the figures,
+which should be the boldest of all, should be kept
+as simple as possible, not only on this account,
+but because complex outlines cannot well be cut
+in glass. A head, for instance, is inclosed in
+sweeping line, and the profile defined within the
+lead line by means of painting. A hand would be
+defined on the same principle. Each different
+colour demands a different inclosure of lead,
+although in the choice of glass much variation of
+tint can be obtained, as in the case of pot metal
+running from thin to thick glass, which intensifies
+the colour, and many kinds of what is called
+flashed. Yet to the designer, from the point of
+view of line, glass design is a kind of translucent
+mosaic, in which the primal technical necessity of
+the leading which holds the glory of the coloured
+light together, really enhances its splendour, and
+in affording opportunities for decoration and expressive
+linear composition imparts to the whole
+work its particular character and beauty.</p>
+
+<p>This after all is the principle to cling to in all
+designing, to adapt our designs to the particular
+distinctive character and beauty of the material
+for which they are destined, to endeavour to think
+them out in those materials, and not only on
+paper. Whatever the work may be&mdash;carving,
+inlays, modelling, mosaic, textiles&mdash;through the
+whole range of surface decoration, we should
+think out our designs, not only in relation to the
+limitations of their material, but also in their relation
+to each other, to their effect in actual use,
+and even to their possible use in association
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>together, which, of course, is of paramount importance
+in designing a complete room or any comprehensive
+piece of decoration.</p>
+
+<p>And when we leave plane surfaces and seek to
+invent appropriate, that is to say, <i>expressive</i> ornament
+allied to concave and convex surfaces, to the
+varied forms of pottery for instance, metal-work,
+and glass vessels, furniture, and accessories of all
+kinds, we shall find the same laws and principles
+hold good which should guide us in all design&mdash;to
+adapt design to the characteristics and conditions
+of the material, to its structural capacity, its use
+and purpose, as well as to use or invention in line,
+both as a controlling plan or base of ornament, as
+well as a means of the association and expression
+of form.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Of the Expression and Relief of Line and Form by <i>Colour</i>&mdash;Effect
+of same Colour upon different Grounds&mdash;Radiation of
+Colour&mdash;White Outline to clear Colours&mdash;Quality of Tints relieved
+upon other Tints&mdash;Complementaries&mdash;Harmony&mdash;The
+Colour Sense&mdash;Colour Proportions&mdash;Importance of Pure Tints&mdash;Tones
+and Planes&mdash;The Tone of Time&mdash;Pattern and Picture&mdash;A
+Pattern not necessarily a Picture, but a Picture in principle
+a Pattern&mdash;Chiaroscuro&mdash;Examples of Pattern-work and
+Picture-work&mdash;Picture-patterns and Pattern-pictures.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Perhaps</span> the most striking means of the
+expression of relief of line and form, certainly
+the most attractive, is by colour. By colour we
+obtain the most complete and beautiful means of
+expression in art.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Relief of Line and Form by Colour</span></p>
+
+<p>Our earliest ideas of form are probably derived
+through the different colours of objects around us,
+by which they are thrown into relief upon the
+background, or against other objects; and, as I
+mentioned in the first chapter, we reach outline by
+observing the edges of different masses relieved
+as dark or light upon light or dark grounds, so
+now, in my last, we come again to the consideration
+of the definition of line and form by colour,
+and their relief and expression upon different
+planes or fields of colour.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>
+</p>
+<p>There is first the colour of the object itself&mdash;the
+local colour&mdash;and then the colour of the ground
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>
+upon which it is relieved, both of which in their
+action and reaction upon each other will greatly
+affect the value of the local colour and the degree
+of relief of the form upon it.</p>
+
+<p>One of the best and simplest ways to ascertain
+the real value of a colour and its effect upon different
+grounds or fields is to take a flower&mdash;say a
+red poppy, and place it against a white paper
+ground, blocking in the local colour as relieved
+upon white, as near as may be to its full strength,
+with a brush, and defining the form as we go
+along. Then try the same flower upon grounds
+of different tints&mdash;green, blue, yellow&mdash;and it will
+be at once perceived what a different value and
+expression the same form in the same colour has
+upon different tinted grounds. A scarlet poppy
+would appear clearest and darkest upon white; it
+would show a tendency upon a blue ground to
+blend or blur at its edges, and also on yellow and
+green to a less extent.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f132" name="f132"></a>
+	<img src="images/image132.png"
+		alt="Sketch to Show Effect of the Same
+Colour and Form upon Different Coloured Grounds."
+		title="Sketch to Show Effect of the Same
+Colour and Form upon Different Coloured Grounds."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is this tendency to lose the edges of forms
+owing to the radiation of colours, and to mingle
+with the colour of the background, which makes a
+strong outline so constantly a necessity in decorative
+work. One may use a black on a white, a
+brown, or a gold outline (as in cloisonn&eacute;), the
+nature of the outline being generally determined
+by the nature of the work. In stained glass the
+outline must be black, and this black is of the
+greatest value in enhancing by opposition the
+brilliance of the colours of the glass it incloses,
+stopping out the light around it as it does in solid
+lead when placed in the window.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f133" name="f133"></a>
+	<img src="images/image133.png"
+		alt="(1) Principle of the Effect of the Blending or
+Blurring of Colours at Their Edges; (2)
+Use of Black and White Outline to Clear
+the Edges of Coloured Forms upon Different
+Coloured Grounds."
+		title="(1) Principle of the Effect of the Blending or
+Blurring of Colours at Their Edges; (2)
+Use of Black and White Outline to Clear
+the Edges of Coloured Forms upon Different
+Coloured Grounds."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>
+</p>
+<p><span class="sn">Clearing Coloured Forms</span></p>
+
+<p>A white outline produced by a resist or a mordant
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>
+in a printed textile, where the colours used
+are full and rich, often has a good effect, lightening
+the effect while giving point and definition to certain
+leading forms. Instances of the use of white
+outlines may be found in Eastern carpets, where
+the main colours, being dark blue and yellows on
+rich red, are relieved in parts by a dull white outline.
+Also in Persian carpets of the sixteenth or
+seventeenth century, the scrollwork in red is often
+relieved by an ivory white outline on blue.</p>
+
+<p>It is always a good practice in blocking in
+flowers, either from nature or as parts of a design,
+to leave a white outline at the junctions&mdash;that is
+to say, where one petal overlaps another, or where
+there is a joint in the stem, or a fold in the leaf&mdash;and
+to show the ribbings, markings, and divisions
+of flower and leaf.</p>
+
+<p>By judiciously changing the quality of our tints
+it is possible to make different colours in a pattern
+tell clearly. To relieve red upon blue, for instance,
+one would use an orange red upon greenish
+blue, or scarlet upon a gray blue&mdash;the general
+principle being apparently a kind of compensating
+balance between colours, so that in taking from
+one you give to another.</p>
+
+<p>A full red and blue used together, as we have
+seen, would show a tendency to purple, unless
+separated by outlines; so that if the blue was
+full and rich, the red would have to approach
+brown or russet; or if the red was a full one&mdash;a
+crimson red&mdash;the blue would have to approach
+green.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Harmony</span></p>
+
+<p>This may be because of the necessary complements
+in colours, which we see in nature, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>which prepossess the eye, and make it demand
+these modifications to satisfy the sense of harmony.</p>
+
+<p>When daylight struggles with candle- or lamp-light,
+one may notice that upon the white cloth of
+a dinner-table the light is blue and the shadows
+yellow or orange&mdash;the orange deepening as with
+the fading daylight the blue grows deeper, until
+the colour of the light and the shadow change
+places. The same principle may be noticed in
+firelight, but the redder the flame the greener will
+be the shadows.</p>
+
+<p>Harmony in colour may be said to consist&mdash;apart
+from the general acknowledgment of the
+law of complementaries, in giving quality to the
+raw pigments by gradation, by a certain admixture
+or infusion of other colours.</p>
+
+<p>To begin with the negatives&mdash;white and black&mdash;white
+may be creamy or silvery; black may be
+of a greenish or a bluish or brownish tone; then
+the primaries&mdash;red, blue, yellow, or red, green,
+violet&mdash;red may range from crimson to orange
+and russet; yellow may approach green or gold;
+green may be first cousin to blue; blue may be
+turquoise on the one hand, and touch purple upon
+the other; and so on through infinite variations of
+half tints and tones.</p>
+
+<p>No doubt it is an easier matter to harmonize
+half tints than full bright colours, which may
+account for the prevalence of the former in decorative
+work. Nature's pattern-book, too, is full
+of half tones and mixed tints.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">The Colour Sense</span></p>
+
+<p>We may not all see colour precisely in the same
+way, and the same colour may appear to be of a
+different tint to different eyes; and it seems
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>certain that climate and surroundings affect the colour
+sense: light and colour will stimulate the delight
+in colour; while, where grayness and dullness
+characterize the surroundings of life, the colour
+sense will grow weak, or, if it is manifested at all,
+it will show a tendency to grayness and heaviness
+of tint.</p>
+
+<p>The art of the different peoples of the world
+illustrates this, and, as we may see by turning
+from east to west, or from north to south, or even
+from winter to summer, in the main the love of
+colour follows the sun, like the rainbow.</p>
+
+<p>We can all do something to cultivate our sense
+of colour, however, and there is no better way
+than studying the harmonies and varieties of
+nature. Even the town-dweller is not altogether
+deprived of the sight of the sky, which constantly
+unfolds the most beautiful compositions both of
+form and colour.</p>
+
+<p>As to the choice of colours in decorative design,
+so far as that is not narrowed by the particular
+conditions of the work, we must be guided by
+much the same considerations as would serve us
+in designing generally, and must, of course, think
+of appropriateness to position and purpose. Much
+depends, too, upon proportions of colour, and a
+beautiful and harmonious effect may be produced
+in a room by keeping the colour in a particular
+key, or even delicately varying the designs and
+tints of one or two colours. The same might be
+said in arranging a scheme of colouring for any
+particular piece of design&mdash;say, a painted panel
+or a textile pattern; although such things must
+ultimately be governed by their relation to other
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>parts in any general scheme&mdash;circumstances necessitate
+their being often designed apart. Still,
+if the colour of a pattern has been carefully thought
+out, or rather harmoniously felt, as a real organic
+thing, it is sure to fit into its place when its time
+comes.</p>
+
+<p>In arranging our design of colour we can have
+no better guide, as to proportions and quality,
+than nature, and should do well, as a matter of
+practice, to take a flower, or the plumage of a
+bird, or the colours of a landscape, and adapt
+them to some particular pattern or scheme of
+decoration, following the relative degrees of tint
+and their quantities as nearly as possible. To do
+this successfully requires some invention and
+taste; but successful, or unsuccessful, one could
+hardly fail to learn something positive and valuable
+about colour, if the attempt was conscientiously
+made; and fresher motives and sweeter
+colour would be more likely to result from such
+study.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Importance of Pure Tints</span></p>
+
+<p>I think it is a very important thing in all decorative
+work to keep one's colours pure in quality,
+and to avoid muddy or heavy tints. Brown is an
+especially difficult colour to use, because of its
+generally heavy effect as a pigment, and the difficulty
+of harmonizing it with other colours except
+as an outline; and even here it makes all the difference
+whether it is a cool or a hot shade. A
+hot brown is most destructive of harmony in
+colours. It is safe, as a rule, to make it lean to
+green, or bronze, or gold.</p>
+
+<p>As a general rule it is well to work either in a
+range of cool tints&mdash;a cool key of colour, or the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>reverse&mdash;a warm and rich one. Few cool harmonies
+can be better than ultramarine and turquoise
+on greenish white, of which the Persians
+and Indians are so fond in tile-work. They are
+delightful to the eye, while peculiarly adapted to
+the work, owing their quality to the oxide of
+copper, which the firing brings out so well.</p>
+
+<p>Blues and greens and grays, relieved with white
+and yellow and orange: or, reds and yellows, relieved
+with white and opposed by blacks, generally
+answer: or a range of reds together, or range of
+blues, or of yellows, with black and white for contrast
+and accent. Blue and white, too, can be
+modified in quality; black may be greenish in
+tone, or brownish, bluish, or purplish according to
+the harmony aimed at. White may be pure or
+ivory-toned, cream-coloured or influenced by other
+colours, and should vary in degree according to the
+strength of the harmony. This brings us to the
+question of tone.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Tones and Planes</span></p>
+
+<p>Now the ornamentist, the designer of patterns,
+relies for his effect upon the use of certain planes
+and oppositions of tints to relieve and express his
+design, to emphasize its main motive, to bring out
+or to subdue its lines and forms. He knows that
+cool flat tints&mdash;blues, greens, grays&mdash;will make
+forms and surfaces retire, and he makes use of
+them for flat and reposeful effects, such as wall
+and ceiling surfaces, adopting the natural principle
+of colour in landscape and sky.</p>
+
+<p>He uses richer and more varied colour in textile
+hangings and carpets, furniture, and accessories&mdash;reds,
+yellows, greens, crimson, russets, orange,
+gold&mdash;which answer to the brighter flowers and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>parterres of our gardens, as things to be near the
+eye and touch, and to occur as lesser quantities in
+a scheme of interior colour design.</p>
+
+<p>In the colour design of patterns, harmonious
+and rich effects can be produced by the use of
+pure colour alone, no doubt, if carefully proportioned,
+and separated by outline; though harmony
+is more difficult to attain in pure colours used in
+their full strength; and for their due effect, and to
+avoid harshness, such a treatment really requires
+out-door light or special conditions of lighting, or
+the strong light of eastern or southern countries,
+to soften the effect.</p>
+
+<p>And since we have to adapt our designs to
+their probable surroundings, we usually consciously
+select certain tones or shades of a colour, rather
+than use it absolutely pure or in its full strength.
+The beautiful tone which time gives to all colour-work
+is difficult to rival, but no conscious imitation
+of it is tolerable.</p>
+
+<p>But so long as our aim is strictly to make a
+colour scheme of any kind in relation to itself, or
+in harmony with its conditions, we are on a safe
+and sound path. It is this relativity which is the
+important thing in all decorative art, and which,
+more distinctly than any other quality, distinguishes
+it from pictorial art; although pictorial art is
+under the necessity of the same law in regard
+to itself; and in its highest forms, as in mural
+work, is certainly subject to relativity in its widest
+sense.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Pattern and Picture</span></p>
+
+<p>At first sight it might appear as if there were
+an essential fundamental natural difference between
+a pattern and a picture, but when we come
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span>to consider it, it appears to be rather a distinction
+than a difference.</p>
+
+<p>A pattern may be an arrangement of lines,
+forms, and a harmony of planes and tones of
+colour.</p>
+
+<p>But these words would describe in general
+terms a picture also.</p>
+
+<p>Certain recurrences of line and form; certain
+re-echoing notes of the same, or allied colour, are
+necessary to both pattern and picture. The abstract
+ingredients appear to be the same in both
+cases.</p>
+
+<p>A picture indeed may be considered as a pattern
+of another sort, and the real difference is that
+whereas a pattern is not necessarily a picture, a
+picture is bound to be a pattern&mdash;a pattern having
+its quantities, its balance of masses, its connecting
+lines, its various planes, its key of colour, its play
+of contrasts, its harmony of tones.</p>
+
+<p>Technically, a picture may be considered as an
+<i>informal</i> pattern, mainly of tone and values; while
+a pattern may be considered as a <i>formal</i> pattern,
+mainly of planes of colour.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient art of the East was all frankly
+pattern-work, whatever the subject pictured.
+Egyptian, Persian, Indian, Chinese, Moorish and
+Arabian art, in all their varieties, show the dominating
+sense of pattern, and the invention of the
+instinctive decorators in the use of colour.</p>
+
+<p>The Japanese, also, are instinctive decorators,
+though in a less formal and more impressionistic
+way, and with much more naturalistic feeling.
+Their pictures printed from colour blocks, as well
+as their "kakimonos," painted on silk, are frankly
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span>pattern-pictures, the pattern motive being quite
+as strong or stronger than the graphic or representative
+motive.</p>
+
+<p>Medi&aelig;val and early Renaissance painting in
+Europe was frankly more or less formal and of
+the nature of ornament, and even in its freest and
+fullest development, in the works of the great
+masters of the sixteenth century of Venice and
+Florence, a certain decorative or architectural
+feeling was never forgotten.</p>
+
+<p>Painting was still in close association with architecture,
+and was the chief adornment of churches
+and palaces; thus it preserved a peculiar distinction
+and dignity of style. The Dutch school did
+more perhaps to break these old decorative and
+architectural traditions than any other, with their
+domestic and purely naturalistic motives, their
+pursuit of realism, atmospheric effect, and chiaroscuro&mdash;that
+fascinating goal of painting.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Chiaroscuro</span></p>
+
+<p>Yet there were some of the seventeenth-century
+masters, and of the best, such as De Hooghe and
+Ver Meer of Delft, who showed themselves very
+much alive to decorative effect, which their power
+of chiaroscuro&mdash;the power of painting things in
+their proper atmosphere, as lost in transparent
+depths of shadow, or found in luminous mystery&mdash;only
+seemed to enhance.</p>
+
+<p>As a wonderful instance of ornamental and
+dignified design carried into every detail with
+most careful draughtsmanship, and yet beautiful
+in chiaroscuro and grave colour, there is no finer
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span>
+example than J. Van Eyck's portrait-picture of
+"Jan Arnolfini and his Wife" in our National
+Gallery. Such pictures as these would tell as
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span>
+rich and precious gems upon the wall, and would
+form the centres to which the surrounding colour
+patterns and decoration would lead up, as in the
+picture the little mirror reflecting the figures shines
+upon the wall, a picture within a picture.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f134" name="f134"></a>
+<a href="images/image134h.png">
+	<img src="images/image134.png"
+		alt="J. van Eyck:
+&ldquo;;Portrait of Jan Arnolfini and His Wife.&rdquo;; (National Gallery.)"
+		title="J. van Eyck:
+&ldquo;;Portrait of Jan Arnolfini and His Wife.&rdquo;; (National Gallery.)"
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is instructive from any point of view to study
+the quantities and relations of colour, and their
+tones and values, in such works.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Ver Meer of Delft</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>Take Ver Meer's "Lady at a Spinet" in our
+National Gallery.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f135" name="f135"></a>
+<a href="images/image135h.png">
+	<img src="images/image135.png"
+		alt="Ver Meer of Delft:
+&ldquo;;Lady at a Spinet.&rdquo;; (National Gallery.)"
+		title="Ver Meer of Delft:
+&ldquo;;Lady at a Spinet.&rdquo;; (National Gallery.)"
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>We have a plain white wall, exquisite in tone,
+upon which the crisp gold of the small picture inclosing
+a brownish landscape with a blue and
+white sky, and the broad black frame of the picture
+of Cupid tell strongly, yet fall into plane behind
+the figure in white satin&mdash;quite a different quality
+of white, and warmer and brighter than the wall.
+The bodice is a steely blue silk, which is repeated
+in the velvet seat of the chair; while the blue and
+white landscape upon the open lid of the spinet
+repeats the blue and white landscape on the wall,
+and the blue and white motive is subtly re-echoed
+in a subdued key in the little tiles lining the base
+of the wall. The floor is a chequer of black and
+white (mottled) marble, which gives a fine relief
+to the dress and repeats the emphatic black of the
+picture frame; the stand of the spinet is also black
+striated marble. Quiet daylight falls through the
+greenish white of the leaded panes. The pink-brown
+woodwork of the spinet and chair prevent
+the colour scheme from being cold. The flesh is
+very pale and ivory-like in tone, but the dress is
+enlivened by little crisp scarlet and gold touches
+in the narrow laces which tie the sleeves.</p>
+
+<p>The little picture is a gem of painting and truth
+of tone, and at the same time might well suggest
+a charming scheme of colour to an ornamentist.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Van Eyck</span></p>
+
+<p>Examine the Van Eyck in the same way, and
+we shall find a very rich but quiet scheme of colour
+in a lower key, highly decorative, yet presented
+with extraordinary realistic force, united with extreme
+refinement and exquisite chiaroscuro, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>truth of tone and value, as a portrait-picture, and
+piece of interior lighting.</p>
+
+<p>It is like taking an actual peep into the inner
+life of a Flemish burgher of the fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>One seems to breathe the still air of the quiet
+room, the gray daylight falling through the leaded
+casements, one of which stands open, and shows
+a narrow strip of luminous sky and suggestion of
+a garden with scarlet blossoms in green leaves.</p>
+
+<p>The man is clad in a long mantle of claret-brown
+velvet edged with fur, over black tunic and
+hose. He wears a quaint black hat upon his
+head, which almost foreshadows the tall hat of the
+modern citizen. The pale strange face looks paler
+and stranger beneath it, but is in character with
+the long thin hands. The figure gives one the
+impression of legal precision and dryness, and a
+touch of clerical formality. The wife is of a buxom
+and characteristic Flemish type, in a grass-green
+robe edged with white fur, over peacock blue; a
+crisp silvery white head-dress; a dark red leather
+belt with silver stitching. Her figure is relieved
+upon the subdued red of the bed hangings, continued
+in the cover of the settle and the red clogs.
+The wall of the room, much lost in transparent
+shade, is of a greenish gray tone, and in the centre,
+between the figures, a circular convex mirror
+sparkles on the wall reflecting the backs of the
+figures. Thin lines delicately repeat the red in
+the mirror frame, which has a black and red inner
+moulding. A string of amber beads hangs on the
+wall, and repeats the shimmer of the bright brass
+candelabra which hangs aloft, and which is drawn
+carefully enough for a craftsman to reproduce.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Pattern-Pictures</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>Both designer and painter may find abundant
+suggestion in this picture, which, with Ver Meer's
+"Lady at the Spinet," I should describe as
+<i>pattern-pictures</i>&mdash;that
+is to say, while they are thoroughly
+painter's pictures, and give all the peculiar qualities
+of oil-painting in the rendering of tone and values,
+they yet show in their colour scheme the decorative
+quality, and might be translated into patterns of the
+same proportions and keys of colours.</p>
+
+<p>As examples of what might be termed picture-patterns
+we might recur to the wall paintings, as
+I have said, of ancient Egypt and early art generally,
+for their simplest forms; but to take a much
+later instance, and from the art of Florence in the
+fifteenth century, look at Botticelli's charming little
+picture of "The Nativity," in the National Gallery.
+It has all the intentional, or perhaps instinctive,
+ornamental aim of Italian art, and its colour scheme
+shows a most dainty and delicate invention in the
+strictest relation to the subject and sentiment, and
+is arranged with the utmost subtlety and the nicest art.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Botticelli</span></p>
+
+<p>The ring of angels above, for instance, is partly
+relieved upon a gilded ground&mdash;to represent the
+dome of heaven. They bear olive branches, and
+the colour of their robes alternates in the following
+order: rose, olive (shot with gold), and white.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>rose-coloured</i> angels have <i>olive and white
+wings</i>; the <i>white angels, rose and olive wings</i>; and
+<i>the olive angels, white and rose wings</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This part of the picture by itself forms a most
+beautiful pattern motive, while it expresses the
+idea of peace and goodwill.</p>
+
+<p>Then on the brown and gold thatch of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span>stable occur three more angels in white, rose, and
+green, respectively. Against a pale sky rise rich
+olive-green trees, forming the background.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f136" name="f136"></a>
+<a href="images/image136h.png">
+	<img src="images/image136.png"
+		alt="Botticelli: &ldquo;;The Nativity&rdquo;; (National Gallery)."
+		title="Botticelli: &ldquo;;The Nativity&rdquo;; (National Gallery)."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Virgin strikes the brightest ray of colour
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span>in red under-robe and sky-blue mantle. There is
+a gray white ass and a pale brown cow behind
+her.</p>
+
+<p>St. Joseph is in steel gray with a golden orange mantle over.</p>
+
+<p>The brightest white occurs in the drapery upon
+which the infant Christ lies.</p>
+
+<p>An angel with a group of men appears, kneeling
+on the left relieved against white rocks; their
+colours are&mdash;the angel's wings&mdash;peacock blue and
+green, and a pale rose robe. The next figure is
+in scarlet; the next yellow; and the third man
+wears pale rose over rich grass-green.</p>
+
+<p>Of the shepherds on the right the first one is in
+russet and white, the next steely gray, and the
+angel is in white with rose and pale green wings.</p>
+
+<p>The ground is generally warm white and brown,
+with dark olive-coloured grass and foliage, so that
+the pattern of the picture is mainly a ground of
+olive, gold, and white, relieved by spots of rose,
+white, blue, yellow, and rose-red and scarlet&mdash;the
+colour in the groups of angels embracing men in
+front being the deepest in tone.</p>
+
+<p>The first angel in this group (on the left) wears
+green shot with gold, with shot green and gold
+wings, the human being in dark olive and rich
+crimson red.</p>
+
+<p>Next is a white angel with pale rose wings; the
+man in gray with a red mantle over.</p>
+
+<p>Last is an angel in rose, with rose and red
+wings, the man being in scarlet with gray mantle
+over. All the men hold olive branches, and the
+group emphatically illustrates the idea of "on
+earth peace and goodwill towards men," thus
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>ending on the keynote both of colour and idea
+given in the ring of angels above.</p>
+
+<p>Thus it is not only a lovely picture, but an exquisite pattern.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Holbein</span></p>
+
+<p>Another instance of a picture-pattern extremely
+strong and brilliant in its realization of the full
+force and value of bright colour opposed by the
+strongest black and white, may be found in
+Holbein's splendid "Ambassadors," also in our
+National Collection.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f137" name="f137"></a>
+<a href="images/image137h.png">
+	<img src="images/image137.png"
+		alt="Holbein: &ldquo;;The Ambassadors&rdquo;; (National Gallery)."
+		title="Holbein: &ldquo;;The Ambassadors&rdquo;; (National Gallery)."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Botticelli</span></p>
+
+<p>The circular picture of the Madonna and Child,
+with St. John and an angel, by Botticelli, is also
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span>another beautiful instance of pictorial pattern, and
+of design well adapted and adequately filling its
+space, while full of delicate draughtsmanship,
+poetic sentiment, and extremely ornate in its colour.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f138" name="f138"></a>
+<a href="images/image138h.png">
+	<img src="images/image138.png"
+		alt="Botticelli: &ldquo;;Madonna and Child&rdquo;; (National Gallery)."
+		title="Botticelli: &ldquo;;Madonna and Child&rdquo;; (National Gallery)."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Carlo Crivelli</span></p>
+
+<p>Still more strictly ornamental in character and
+aim is Carlo Crivelli's "Annunciation." Amazingly
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span>rich in invention, and beautifully designed
+detail, and magnificently decorative in its colour
+scheme of brick reds and whites, and pale pinks
+and steel grays, and yellows, varied with scarlet
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>and black, green, blue and gold, in the costumes
+and draperies, sparkling with jewels, and brightened
+with rays and patterns of gold.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f139" name="f139"></a>
+<a href="images/image139h.png">
+	<img src="images/image139.png"
+		alt="Carlo Crivelli: &ldquo;;The Annunciation&rdquo;; (National Gallery)."
+		title="Carlo Crivelli: &ldquo;;The Annunciation&rdquo;; (National Gallery)."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Perugino</span></p>
+
+<p>Hardly less ornamental in its more conscious
+grace and Renaissance feeling is Perugino's triptych
+of the Virgin adoring, with St. Michael on
+one wing and St. Raphael and Tobias on the
+other. It is a splendid deep-toned harmony of
+blues, and warm flesh tones and golden hair, varied
+by opals, rose red, bronze, green, white, and purple
+and orange.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f140" name="f140"></a>
+	<img src="images/image140.png"
+		alt="Perugino: &ldquo;;The Virgin in Adoration,
+with St. Michael and St. Raphael and Tobias&rdquo;; (National Gallery)."
+		title="Perugino: &ldquo;;The Virgin in Adoration,
+with St. Michael and St. Raphael and Tobias&rdquo;; (National Gallery)."
+	/>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Titian</span></p>
+
+<p>Titian's "Bacchus and Ariadne" is, perhaps,
+more what I have described as a pattern-picture,
+and is of a much later type. The full flush of
+colour and pagan joy of the Renaissance is here
+paramount, expressed with the masterly freedom of
+drawing and magnificent colour sense of the great
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>Venetian master. Yet, looking through the life,
+the movement, the swing and vitality of the figures,
+and the power and poetry by which the story is
+conveyed, we shall find a fine ornate design, sustaining
+an extremely rich and sumptuous pattern
+of colour. We have a spread of deep-toned blue
+sky barred with silvery white and gray clouds,
+great masses of brown and green foliage swaying
+against it, above a band of deep blue sea, and a
+field of rich golden brown earth. Warm flesh tones,
+deep and pale, break upon this with a
+gorgeous pattern of flying rose, blue, scarlet,
+orange, and white draperies, varied with the
+spotted coats of the leopards, the black of the
+dog, and the copper vessel and warm white of
+tumbled drapery.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f141" name="f141"></a>
+<a href="images/image141h.png">
+	<img src="images/image141.png"
+		alt="Titian: &ldquo;;Bacchus and Ariadne&rdquo;; (National Gallery)."
+		title="Titian: &ldquo;;Bacchus and Ariadne&rdquo;; (National Gallery)."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span>Keats might have had this picture in his mind
+when he wrote the song in "Endymion":</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"And as I sat, over the light blue hills<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">There came a noise of revellers: the rills<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Into the wide stream came of purple hue.<br /></span>
+<span class="i10">'Twas Bacchus and his crew!<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"The earnest trumpet speaks, and silver thrills<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">From kissing cymbals made a merry din&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i10">'Twas Bacchus and his kin!<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Like to a moving vintage down they came,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Crowned with green leaves, and faces all on flame;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">All madly dancing through the pleasant valley,<br /></span>
+<span class="i10">To scare thee, Melancholy!"<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The "Sacred and Profane Love" of the same
+painter, in the Borghese Gallery at Rome, is an
+even more splendid example of colour and tone,
+and is probably the finest of all Titian's works.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Paul Veronese</span></p>
+
+<p>In Paul Veronese we find a cooler key of colour
+generally, with a fondness for compositions of
+figures with classical architecture, the rich patterned
+robes and varied heads contrasting pleasantly
+with the severe verticals and smooth surfaces
+of the marble columns&mdash;a sumptuous and dignified
+kind of picture-pattern, and fully adapted to the
+decoration of Venetian churches and palaces of
+the Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sn">F. Madox Brown</span></p>
+
+<p>Madox Brown's "Christ washing St. Peter's
+Feet," now in the Tate Gallery, is a modern
+picture-pattern, and an extremely fine one.</p>
+
+<p>These are but a few instances out of many, and
+the subject of colour and pattern, like the expression
+of line and form, of which it is a part, is
+so large and its sides so multitudinous that to deal
+with the subject fully and illustrate it adequately
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>would need, not ten chapters, but ten hundred,
+and could only be compassed by the history of art
+itself.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<a id="f142" name="f142"></a>
+<a href="images/image142h.png">
+	<img src="images/image142.png"
+		alt="Madox Brown: &ldquo;;Christ Washing St. Peter's Feet&rdquo;; (Tate Gallery)."
+		title="Madox Brown: &ldquo;;Christ Washing St. Peter's Feet&rdquo;; (Tate Gallery)."
+	/>
+</a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sn">Conclusion</span></p>
+
+<p>If anything I have said on the subject, or have
+been able to show by way of illustration, has served
+in any way to clear away obscurities, or to lighten
+the labours of students, or to suggest fresh ideas
+to the minds of any of my readers in the theory,
+history, or practice of art, I shall feel that my work
+has not been in vain, and, at all events, I can only
+say that I have endeavoured to give here the
+results of my own thoughts and experience in art.
+</p>
+<p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span>
+Some may look upon art as a means of livelihood
+only, a handmaid of commerce, or as a branch of
+knowledge, to be acquired only so far as to enable
+one to impart it to others; others may regard it as
+a polite amusement; others, again, as an absorbing
+pursuit and passion, demanding the closest devotion:
+but from whatever point of view we may
+regard it, do not let us forget that the pursuit of
+beauty in art offers the best of educations for the
+faculties, that its interest continually increases, and
+its pleasures and successes are the most refined
+and satisfying.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="major" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+<div>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<a id="A"></a>Adaptability in design, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>-<a href="#Page_126">126</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Animal forms, use of in design, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>governed by inclosing boundaries, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-<a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>-<a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Architectural mouldings, relief in, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Architecture, spaces for sculpture in, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>-<a href="#Page_116">116</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Ardebil, holy carpet of the mosque of, <a href="#f126">f126</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Athens, the Tower of the Winds, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>-<a href="#Page_116">116</a>.
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<a id="B"></a>Bari, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>the "Hundred Birds" of, <a href="#f044">f044</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Birds, Japanese drawing of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#f044">f044</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>decorative treatment of, <a href="#f115">f115</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Blake's Book of Job, "The Morning Stars," <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#f014">f014</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Border motives, recurrence in, <a href="#f031">f031</a>, <a href="#f032">f032</a>, <a href="#f062">f062</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Book decoration, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>example of page treatment, <a href="#f041a">f041a</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Botticelli, frescoes in the Sistine Chapel, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>rendering of the "Primavera" in tapestry, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li>
+<li>his "Nativity," <a href="#Page_272">272</a>-<a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li>
+<li>"Madonna and Child," <a href="#Page_275">275</a>-<a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Boundaries, definition of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>use of in designing sprays, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#f027">f027</a>;</li>
+<li>in designing animal forms, <a href="#f063a">f063a</a>;</li>
+<li>influence of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li>
+<li>relation of design to, <a href="#f064">f064</a>;</li>
+<li>decorative spacing of figures in geometric, <a href="#f063b">f063b</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Brush-work, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-<a href="#Page_68">68</a>.
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<a id="C"></a>Canterbury, St. Margaret Street, <a href="#f086">f086</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Ceiling decoration, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Charcoal drawing, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Chartres, carving on the Cathedral, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#f108">f108</a>, <a href="#f109">f109</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Chiaroscuro, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>-<a href="#Page_269">269</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Chinese porcelain, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Colour, effect of texture on, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>in stained glass, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li>
+<li>expression of relief in line and form by, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li>
+<li>radiation of, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li>
+<li>complements in, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li>
+<li>harmony in, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li>
+<li>colour sense, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
+<li>colour proportions, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
+<li>importance of pure colour, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Composition, formal, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>informal, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-<a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Constantine, Arch of, sketch of, <a href="#f069">f069</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Contrast in design, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span>
+<ul>
+<li>use of, in pattern design, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li>principles of, in black and white, <a href="#f111a">f111a</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Corinthian order, Roman treatment of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#f105">f105</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Counterbalance, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#f057">f057</a>, <a href="#f058">f058</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Counterchange, in heraldry, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>-<a href="#Page_174">174</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Crivelli, "The Annunciation," <a href="#Page_276">276</a>-<a href="#Page_278">278</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Cube, the, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>use of in architecture, <a href="#f045b">f045b</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#f048a">f048a</a>;</li>
+<li>in nature, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<a id="D"></a>Dado, use of the, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+De Hooghe, Peter, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Desiderio di Settignano, relief work of, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>"Madonna and Child," at South Kensington, by, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Design, linear basis of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>technical influence on, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
+<li>beauty in, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+<li>influence of material on, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li>
+<li>quantities in, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>-<a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li>
+<li>contrast in, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li>
+<li>living tradition in, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
+<li>adaptability in, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>-<a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
+<li>extension in, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>-<a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+<li>geometric structural plans in, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+<li>essentials of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>-<a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+De Wint, brush-work of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Diaper, use of in Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-<a href="#Page_175">175</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Donatello, relief work of, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Drapery, treatment of by the old masters, <a href="#f099">f099</a>-<a href="#Page_186">186</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Drawing in line, methods of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>calligraphic method, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
+<li>tentative method, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
+<li>Japanese method, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
+<li>oval and rectangular methods, <a href="#f008">f008</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+D&uuml;rer, Albert, his "Geometrica," <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>roofs in his engravings, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+<li>"The Prodigal Son," <a href="#f083">f083</a>;</li>
+<li>"St. Anthony," <a href="#f084">f084</a>;</li>
+<li>principle in the treatment of drapery, <a href="#f099">f099</a>, <a href="#f100">f100</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<a id="E"></a>Egyptian sculpture, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>-<a href="#Page_196">196</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Emotion, linear expression of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>-<a href="#Page_21">21</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Emphasis, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>value of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+<li>effects of different emphasis, <a href="#f038">f038</a>, <a href="#f039">f039</a>, <a href="#f040">f040</a>;</li>
+<li>in relief of form, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Equivalents in form, value of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#f057">f057</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Extension in design, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>-<a href="#Page_131">131</a>.
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<a id="F"></a>Figure composition, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>expression of repose and action in, <a href="#f090">f090</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Figure design, relief in, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>-<a href="#Page_207">207</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>graphic and decorative treatment of, <a href="#f114">f114</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Figure designs, controlled by geometric boundaries, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Flaxman's Homer, designs from, <a href="#f015">f015</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Flowers,
+<ul>
+<li>lines of characterization in design of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
+<li>forms controlled by inclosing boundaries, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>-<a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Foliage, principles of structure in, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-<a href="#Page_146">146</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Form, its relation to line, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>importance of knowledge of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li>
+<li>choice of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span>elementary forms and their relation to forms in nature and art, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-<a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+<li>grouping of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>-<a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
+<li>analogies of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>-<a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+<li>typical forms of ornament, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>-<a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+<li>equivalents in, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#f057">f057</a>;</li>
+<li>variation of allied forms, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
+<li>governed by shape of inclosing boundary, <a href="#f063b">f063b</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#f066">f066</a>;</li>
+<li>relief of, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li>expression of, by light and shade, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#f112">f112</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Frieze, origin of the, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>and field, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>-<a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
+<li>use of the, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
+<li>treatment of, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Fruit forms, treatment of, <a href="#f054">f054</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<a id="G"></a>Gems, engraved, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Geometric forms, elementary, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>structural plans in
+surface design, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>-<a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Ghirlandajo, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Giotto, "Chastity," <a href="#f119">f119</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Gozzoli, Benozzo, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Graphic aim, the, in drawing, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>-<a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>-<a href="#Page_211">211</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Grouping of forms, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>-<a href="#Page_87">87</a>.
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<a id="H"></a>Holbein, "The Ambassadors," <a href="#f137">f137</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Human figure, use of the,
+<ul>
+<li>in design, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-<a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
+<li>decorative spacing of</li>
+<li>within geometric boundaries, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>-<a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
+<li>governed by inclosing boundaries, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#f066">f066</a>;</li>
+<li>principles of line in, <a href="#f081a">f081a</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<a id="I"></a>Indian ornament, typical, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>printed cotton designs, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#f130">f130</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Inlay work, choice of forms for, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>-<a href="#Page_83">83</a>.
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<a id="J"></a>Japanese method of drawing with the brush, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>diagonal pattern, <a href="#f053">f053</a>;</li>
+<li>colour prints, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<a id="K"></a>Keene, Charles, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<a id="L"></a>Landscape, expression of storm and calm in, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#f089">f089</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Lead pencil, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Letters, formation of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>D&uuml;rer's method, <a href="#f005a">f005a</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Line, methods of drawing in, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>-<a href="#Page_12">12</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>quality of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>-<a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</li>
+<li>the language of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li>
+<li>comparison of style in, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
+<li>scale of degrees and qualities of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li>
+<li>its relation to form, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
+<li>question and answer in, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#f025">f025</a>;</li>
+<li>recurring, <a href="#f031">f031</a>, <a href="#f032">f032</a>;</li>
+<li>radiating principle of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>-<a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li>
+<li>range and use of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>-<a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li>
+<li>choice of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+<li>degree and emphasis of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+<li>influence of technical conditions on, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-<a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
+<li>controlling influence of, as a boundary of design, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>-<a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
+<li>value of recurring, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>-<a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+<li>combinations of, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
+<li>principles of structural and ornamental line, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
+<li>selection of, <a href="#f117a">f117a</a>, <a href="#f117b">f117b</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Linear expression, of movement, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>of textures and surfaces, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li>
+<li>of emotion, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#f015">f015</a>;</li>
+<li>scale of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li>
+<li>power of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
+<li>of fur and feathers, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#f113">f113</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span>
+Linear motives and pattern bases, simple, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>-<a href="#Page_111">111</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Lippi, Filippino, study of drapery by, <a href="#f101">f101</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Lorenzo di Credi, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Lysicrates, monument of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<a id="M"></a>Madox Brown, Ford, mural painting at Manchester, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>"Christ washing Peter's feet," <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#f142">f142</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Mantling, treatment of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>-<a href="#Page_173">173</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Medals, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#f110">f110</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Memory, importance of, in design, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Michael Angelo, ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Modelling, principle of relief in, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Montague, mantling from Garter plate of, <a href="#f094b">f094b</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Morris, William, tapestry of, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Movement, linear expression of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>-<a href="#Page_17">17</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>lines of, in a procession, <a href="#f091a">f091a</a>;</li>
+<li>in a dancing figure, <a href="#f117a">f117a</a>;</li>
+<li>in water, <a href="#f118b">f118b</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Mural decoration, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>diagram of systems of line governing, <a href="#f121">f121</a>;</li>
+<li>scale in, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li>
+<li>choice of line and form in, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<a id="N"></a>Nauplia, Gulf of, coast and mountain lines, <a href="#f004">f004</a>, <a href="#f118a">f118a</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Nerva, Forum of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#f105">f105</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Nuremberg, ceiling in the Castle of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<a id="O"></a>Olive branch, study of from nature, <a href="#f020">f020</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>decorative treatment of, <a href="#f021">f021</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Ornament, typical forms of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>-<a href="#Page_94">94</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Ornamental purpose, the, in drawing, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>-<a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <i>et seq.</i>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Ornamental units, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>use of intervals in repeating, <a href="#f065">f065</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Outline, origin and function of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<a id="P"></a>Parthenon, the frieze of the, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>sketch of, <a href="#f067">f067</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Pattern and picture, difference between, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>pattern-pictures, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Pen, the, compared with brush and pencil, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Pencil drawing, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Persian carpets, principle of design in, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>treatment of borders in, <a href="#f127">f127</a>;</li>
+<li>white outline in, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Persian ornament, typical, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#f116">f116</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Persian rugs, value of different quantities in, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>-<a href="#Page_101">101</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Perugino, National Gallery triptych, <a href="#f140">f140</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Photograph, influence of the, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>principle of the, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Picture writing, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#f019">f019</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Pinturicchio, frescoes in the Sistine Chapel, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>mural painting at Siena, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#f120">f120</a>;</li>
+<li>frescoes in the Appartimenti Borgia, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#f125">f125</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Pisano, Vittore, medals of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#f110">f110</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span>
+Poppy, horned study of, <a href="#f022">f022</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>adaptation of for needlework, <a href="#f023">f023</a>;</li>
+<li>sketch of on different
+coloured grounds, <a href="#f132">f132</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Prints, principles of design for, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>-<a href="#Page_251">251</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Procession, lines of movement in a, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>-<a href="#Page_163">163</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Pyramid, the, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>use of in architecture, <a href="#f045b">f045b</a>, <a href="#f048a">f048a</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<a id="R"></a>Radiating principle of line, the, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>-<a href="#Page_50">50</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Raphael, study of drapery by, <a href="#f102">f102</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Ravenna, S. Vitale, sketch of apse, <a href="#f070">f070</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Recurring line and form, <a href="#f031">f031</a>, <a href="#f032">f032</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>value of in architecture, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Relief, methods of expressing, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>use of contrast, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
+<li>decorative relief, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
+<li>on diapered ground, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-<a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+<li>by simple linear contrasts, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>-<a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+<li>by linear shading, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+<li>by diagonal shading, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
+<li>value of emphasis in, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
+<li>by light and shade alone, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>-<a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+<li>principle of in architectural mouldings, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+<li>modelled, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+<li>in sculpture, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>-<a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#f109">f109</a>;</li>
+<li>Florentine fifteenth-century work, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li>
+<li>natural principle of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#f111b">f111b</a>;</li>
+<li>by colour, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Repeating patterns, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#f026">f026</a>, <a href="#f077b">f077b</a>, <a href="#f078">f078</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>method of testing, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#f028">f028</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Rhythm of design, the, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Roofs, German, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Rothenburg, roof-lines in, <a href="#f085">f085</a>.
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<a id="S"></a>St. David's Cathedral, carvings in, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>-<a href="#Page_124">124</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>Gothic tile pattern in, <a href="#f074">f074</a>, <a href="#f076">f076</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Scale, importance of in mural decoration, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Sculpture, relief in, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>Egyptian, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
+<li>Grecian, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#f107">f107</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
+<li>Gothics, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
+<li>on medi&aelig;val tombs, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Selection, the test of artistic treatment, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Shields, F. J., mural decoration, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Silhouette, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#f010a">f010a</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Skirting, the, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Spaces, decorative, in design, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>apparent depth or width increased by use of vertical or horizontal lines, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#f122">f122</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Spacing, mural, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#f121">f121</a>, <a href="#f123">f123</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Sphere, the, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>use of in architecture, <a href="#f045b">f045b</a>, <a href="#f048a">f048a</a>;</li>
+<li>in nature, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Stained glass, principles of design for, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Surfaces, linear expression of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<a id="T"></a>Tapestry, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>Burgundian, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#f124">f124</a>;</li>
+<li>effect of texture on colour in, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#f128">f128</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Technical influence, the, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-<a href="#Page_62">62</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Textile designing, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>examples of, <a href="#f041b">f041b</a>;</li>
+<li>value of different qualities in, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>-<a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li>
+<li>principles of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
+<li>colour in, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span>
+Textures, linear expression of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Thebes, sculptured relief at, <a href="#f106">f106</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Titian, "Bacchus and Ariadne," <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-<a href="#Page_280">280</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>"Sacred and Profane Love," <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Tivoli, Temple of the Sibyls at, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Trees, effect of wind upon, <a href="#f011">f011</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>general principles of line and form in foliage, etc., <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Typical treatment, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>ornament, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>-<a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<a id="V"></a>Valence, Aymer de, tomb of, <a href="#f094a">f094a</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Van Eyck, "Jan Arnolfini and his Wife," <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#f134">f134</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Variation of allied forms, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Variety in design, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Ver Meer, "Lady at Spinet," <a href="#f135">f135</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Veronese, Paul, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Visch, Martin de, brass of, <a href="#f094b">f094b</a>, <a href="#f095">f095</a>.
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<a id="W"></a>Walberswick Church, <a href="#f072">f072</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Walker, Frederick, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Wall, decorative spacing of the, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#f123">f123</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Wall-paper, principles of design for, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#f026">f026</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>relation between frieze and field in, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Water, lines of movement in, <a href="#f118b">f118b</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Watercourse, lines left by a, <a href="#f091b">f091b</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Wave lines, <a href="#f011">f011</a>, <a href="#f012">f012</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Westminster, vaulting of chapter house, <a href="#f035">f035</a>.
+</li>
+
+<li>
+Winchelsea, tomb of Gervaise-Alard, <a href="#f071">f071</a>.
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="major" />
+<div class="center" style="font-size:smaller;margin-top:50px;">
+CHISWICK PRESS: PRINTED BY CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO.<br />
+        TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON.
+</div>
+
+<hr class="major" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Line and Form (1900), by Walter Crane
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Line and Form (1900), by Walter Crane
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Line and Form (1900)
+
+Author: Walter Crane
+
+Release Date: May 2, 2008 [EBook #25290]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LINE AND FORM (1900) ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, David Cortesi, Jonathan
+Ingram and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                                LINE & FORM
+
+                              BY WALTER CRANE
+
+                               [Illustration]
+
+                       LONDON: G. BELL & SONS, LTD.
+
+                    _First published, medium 8vo_, 1900.
+
+            _Reprinted, crown 8vo_, 1902, 1904, 1908, 1912, 1914.
+
+                 CHISWICK PRESS: CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO.
+
+                     TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON
+
+
+
+
+                           TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+
+
+In the original of this work, most pages are headed by a topic phrase so
+that a topic can be located quickly by riffling the pages of the book.
+In this etext, the same topic phrases can be found right-aligned above
+the paragraph that begins that topic. Thus a topic can be found by
+scrolling the text and scanning the right margin.
+
+The original of this work is copiously illustrated. Although this etext
+cannot include the figures, it does include their caption as lines like
+the following:
+
+[Illustration (f002): The Origin of Outline]
+
+Here f002 is a numeric label for the figure. Because an etext of this
+type does not have page numbers, in references to a figure in the List
+of Illustrations and in the Index these figure labels are used
+instead of page number. In the body text, references to figures by page
+number have been supplemented with the figure labels.
+
+The illustrations f006, f007, f008 and f016 do not have captions in the
+original and descriptive captions have been added.
+
+The caret is used to indicate superscripts, for example ED^wd^ indicates
+ED followed by a small superscript "wd".
+
+Two minor typographical errors were corrected: "thing" to "think" on
+page 10 and "intregal" to "integral" on page 197.
+
+
+
+
+                                 PREFACE
+
+
+As in the case of "The Bases of Design," to which this is intended to
+form a companion volume, the substance of the following chapters on Line
+and Form originally formed a series of lectures delivered to the
+students of the Manchester Municipal School of Art.
+
+There is no pretension to an exhaustive treatment of a subject it would
+be difficult enough to exhaust, and it is dealt with in a way intended
+to bear rather upon the practical work of an art school, and to be
+suggestive and helpful to those face to face with the current problems
+of drawing and design.
+
+These have been approached from a personal point of view, as the results
+of conclusions arrived at in the course of a busy working life which has
+left but few intervals for the elaboration of theories apart from
+practice, and such as they are, these papers are now offered to the
+wider circle of students and workers in the arts of design as from one
+of themselves.
+
+They were illustrated largely by means of rough sketching in line before
+my student audience, as well as by photographs and drawings. The rough
+diagrams have been re-drawn, and the other illustrations reproduced, so
+that both line and tone blocks are used, uniformity being sacrificed to
+fidelity.
+
+                                    WALTER CRANE.
+     Kensington, July, 1900.
+
+
+
+
+                                 CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+  Origin and Function of Outline--Silhouette--Definition of Boundaries
+  by--Power of Characterization by--Formation of Letters--Methods of
+  Drawing in Line--The Progressive Method--The Calligraphic Method--The
+  Tentative Method--The Japanese Direct Brush Method--The Oval Method--
+  The Rectangular Method--Quality of Line--Linear Expression of
+  Movement--Textures--Emotion--Scale of Linear Expression                 1
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+  The Language of Line--Dialects--Comparison of the Style of Various
+  Artists in Line--Scale of Degrees in Line--Picture Writing--Relation
+  of Line to Form--Two Paths--The Graphic Purpose--Aspect--The
+  Ornamental Purpose--Typical Treatment or Convention--Rhythm--Linear
+  Plans in Pattern Designing--Wall-paper Design--Controlling
+  Forms--Memory--Evolution in Design--Variety in Unity--
+  Counterbalance--Linear Logic--Recurring Line and Form--Principle
+  of Radiation--Range and Use of Line                                    23
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+  Of the Choice and Use of Line--Degree and Emphasis--Influence of the
+  Photograph--The Value of Emphasis--The Technical Influence--The
+  Artistic Purpose--Influence of Material and Tools--Brushwork--
+  Charcoal--Pencil--Pen                                                  51
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+  Of the Choice of Form--Elementary Forms--Space-filling--Grouping--
+  Analogies of Form--Typical Forms of Ornament--Ornamental Units--
+  Equivalents in Form--Quantities in Design--Contrast--Value of
+  Variations of Similar or Allied Forms--Use of the Human Figure
+  and Animal Forms in Ornamental Design                                  73
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+  Of the Influence of Controlling Lines, Boundaries Spaces, and Plans in
+  Designing--Origin of Geometric Decorative Spaces and Panels in
+  Architecture--Value of Recurring Line--Tradition--Extension--
+  Adaptability--Geometric Structural Plans--Frieze and Field--
+  Ceiling Decoration--Co-operative Relation                             108
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+  Of the Fundamental Essentials of Design: Line, Form, Space--Principles
+  of Structural and Ornamental Line in Organic Forms--Form and Mass in
+  Foliage--Roofs--The Mediaeval City--Organic and Accidental
+  Beauty--Composition: Formal and Informal--Power of Linear
+  Expression--Relation of Masses and Lines--Principles of Harmonious
+  Composition                                                           138
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+  Of the Relief of Form--Three Methods--Contrast--Light and Shade, and
+  Modelling--The Use of Contrast and Planes in Pattern
+  Designing--Decorative Relief--Simple Linear Contrast--Relief by Linear
+  Shading--Different Emphasis in relieving Form by Shading Lines--Relief
+  by means of Light and Shade alone without Outline--Photographic
+  Projection--Relief by different Planes and Contrasts of Concave and
+  Convex Surfaces in Architectural Mouldings--Modelled Relief--
+  Decorative Use of Light and Shade, and different Planes in Modelling
+  and Carving--Egyptian System of Relief Sculpture--Greek and Gothic
+  Architectural Sculpture, influenced by Structural and Ornamental
+  Feeling--Sculptural Tombs, Medals, Coins, Gems--Florentine
+  Fifteenth-century Reliefs--Desiderio di Settignano                    165
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+  Of the Expression of Relief in Line-drawing--Graphic Aim and
+  Ornamental Aim--Superficial Appearance and Constructive
+  Reality--Accidents and Essentials--Representation and Suggestion of
+  Natural Form in Design--The Outward Vision and the Inner Vision       204
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+  Of the Adaptation of Line and Form in Design, in various materials and
+  methods--Mural Decoration--Fresco-work of the Italian Painters--
+  Modern Mural Work--Mural Spacing and Pattern Plans--Scale--The
+  Skirting--The Dado--Field of the Wall--The Frieze--Panelling--
+  Tapestry--Textile Design--Persian Carpets--Effect of Texture on
+  Colour--Prints--Wall-paper--Stained Glass                             224
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+  Of the Expression and Relief of Line and Form by _Colour_--Effect of
+  same Colour upon different Grounds--Radiation of Colour--White Outline
+  to clear Colours--Quality of Tints relieved upon other Tints--
+  Complementaries--Harmony--The Colour Sense--Colour Proportions--
+  Importance of Pure Tints--Tones and Planes--The Tone of Time--
+  Pattern and Picture--A Pattern not necessarily a Picture, but a
+  Picture in principle a Pattern--Chiaroscuro--Examples of Pattern-work
+  and Picture-work--Picture-patterns and Pattern-pictures               256
+
+INDEX                                                                   283
+
+
+
+
+                          LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+ The Origin of Outline                                                 f002
+
+ Silhouettes                                                           f003
+
+ Coast and Mountain Lines--Gulf of Nauplia                             f004
+
+ Proportions of Roman Capital Letters and of lower-case               f005a
+ German text. From Durer's "Geometrica"
+
+ The Progressive Method of Drawing in Line                            f006a
+
+ The Calligraphic Method                                              f007a
+
+ The Tentative Method                                                 f007b
+
+ The Oval and Rectangular Methods                                      f008
+
+ Lines of Characterization in the Form and Feature of                  f009
+ Flowers: Lily and Poppy
+
+ Silhouette of Beech Leaves and Line Rendering of the same            f010a
+
+ Lines of Movement                                                    f010b
+
+ Effect of Wind upon Trees                                             f011
+
+ Line Arrangement in ribbed Sea-sand                                   f012
+
+ Lines of different Textures, Structures, and Services                 f013
+
+ Lines of Exaltation and Rejoicing in Unison. The Morning              f014
+ Stars, after William Blake
+
+ Lines of Grief and Dejection: Designs from Flaxman's Homer            f015
+
+ Landscape                                                             f016
+
+ Scale of various Degrees of Linear Weight and Emphasis                f017
+
+ Curvilinear Scale of Direction                                        f018
+
+ Rectangular Scale of Direction                                        f018
+
+ Picture Writing                                                       f019
+
+ Olive Branch, from Nature                                             f020
+
+ Olive Branch, simplified in Decorative Treatment                      f021
+
+ Study of Horned Poppy                                                 f022
+
+ Adaptation of Horned Poppy in Design: Vertical Panel for              f023
+ Needlework
+
+ Question and Answer in Line                                     f024, f025
+
+ Diagram showing the Use of a Geometric Basis in Designing a           f026
+ Repeating Pattern
+
+ Use of Controlling Boundaries in Designing Sprays                     f027
+
+ Method of Testing a Repeating Pattern                                 f028
+
+ Sketch to show how a Pattern of Diverse Elements may be               f029
+ harmonized by Unity of Inclosing and Intermediary Lines
+
+ The Principle of Counterbalance in different Systems of               f030
+ Design
+
+ Border Units and Border Motive                                        f031
+
+ Recurring Line and Form in Border Motives                             f032
+
+ Radiating Principle of Line in Natural Form                           f033
+
+ Radiating Lines of the Pectoral Muscles and Ribs                      f034
+
+ Vaulting of Chapter House, Westminster                                f035
+
+ Lines of Characterization of Feathers and Shells                      f036
+
+ Pen Drawing of Fruit                                                  f037
+
+ Effect of different Emphasis in Treatment of the same           f038, f039
+ Designs
+
+ Effect of different Emphasis in the Drawing of Landscape              f040
+
+ Example of Page Treatment to show Ornamental Relation                f041a
+ between Text and Pictures
+
+ Suggestion for a Carpet Pattern and Abstract Treatment of            f041b
+ the same on Point Paper as detail of Brussels Carpet
+
+ Brush Forms                                                           f042
+
+ Direct Brush Expression of Animal Form                                f043
+
+ Japanese Drawing of a Bird. From "The Hundred Birds of Bari"          f044
+
+ Elementary Geometrical Forms                                         f045a
+
+ Use of the same Forms in Architecture                                f045b
+
+ Poppy-heads                                                           f046
+
+ Apple cut to show Position of Seeds                                   f047
+
+ Cube and Sphere in Architectural Ornament                            f048a
+
+ Filling of Square Space                                              f049a
+
+ Filling of Circular Space                                            f049b
+
+ Inlay Design: Pattern Units and Motives                               f050
+
+ Grouping of Allied Forms: Composition of Curves                      f051a
+
+ Grouping of Allied Forms: Composition of Angles                      f051b
+
+ Still-life Group illustrative of Wood-engraving                       f052
+
+ Japanese Diagonal Pattern                                             f053
+
+ Treatment of Fruit and Leaf Forms: Corresponding Curvature            f054
+
+ Correspondence in General Contour between Leaf and Tree              f055a
+
+ Some Analogies in Form                                               f055b
+
+ Tree of Typical Pattern Forms, Units and Systems                      f056
+
+ Sketches to show Use of Counterbalance, Quantity, and                 f057
+ Equivalents in Designing
+
+ Quantities and Counterchange of Border and Field in Carpet            f058
+ Motives
+
+ Sketches to illustrate Value of different Quantities in          f058-f061
+ Persian Rugs
+
+ Recurrence and Contrast in Border Motives                             f062
+
+ Use of inclosing Boundaries in Designing Animal Forms in             f063a
+ Decorative Pattern
+
+ Decorative Spacing of Figures within Geometric Boundaries            f063b
+
+ Simple Linear Motives and Pattern Bases                               f064
+
+ Use of Intervals in Repeating the same Ornamental Units               f065
+
+ Designs of Floral, Human, and Animal Forms, governed by               f066
+ Shape of inclosing Boundary
+
+ The Parthenon: Sketch to show Spaces used for Decorative              f067
+ Sculpture in Greek Architecture
+
+ The Tower of the Winds, Athens                                        f068
+
+ Sketch of part of the Arch of Constantine to show spaces for          f069
+ Decorative Sculpture in Roman Architecture
+
+ Byzantine (Mosaic) Treatment of Architectural Structural              f070
+ Features: Apse, S. Vitale, Ravenna
+
+ Detail of Canopy of Tomb of Gervaise-Alard, Winchelsea                f071
+
+ Walberswick Church: West Door                                         f072
+
+ Miserere in St. David's Cathedral                                     f073
+
+ Recessed Panel from the Tomb of Bishop John Morgan, St.               f074
+ David's Cathedral
+
+ Corbel from Bishop Vaughan's Chapel, St. David's Cathedral            f075
+
+ Gothic Tile Pattern, St. David's Cathedral                            f076
+
+ Surface Pattern Motives derived from Lines of Structure              f077a
+
+ Repeating Patterns built upon Square and Circular Bases              f077b
+
+ Plan of a Drop Repeat                                                 f078
+
+ Sketch Designs to show Relation between Frieze and Field in           f079
+ Wall-paper
+
+ Principles of Structural and Ornamental Line in Natural               f080
+ Forms
+
+ Radiating, Recurring and Counterbalancing Lines in the               f081a
+ Structure of the Skeleton and the Muscles
+
+ General Principles of Line and Form in the Branching and             f081b
+ Foliage Masses of Trees
+
+ Principles of Structure in Foliage Masses                             f082
+
+ Albert Durer: Detail from "The Prodigal Son"                          f083
+
+ Albert Durer: St. Anthony                                             f084
+
+ Roof-lines: Rothenburg                                                f085
+
+ St. Margaret Street, Canterbury                                       f086
+
+ Figure Designs controlled by Geometric Boundaries               f087, f088
+
+ Expression of Storm and Calm in Landscape                             f089
+
+ Expression of Repose and Action                                       f090
+
+ Controlling Lines of Movement: Movement in a Procession              f091a
+
+ Lines left by a Watercourse--Lines governing fallen Debris           f091b
+ from a Quarry
+
+ Relief of Form, (1) by Outline, (2) by Contrast, (3) by               f092
+ Light and Shade
+
+ Relief of Form and Line in Pattern Design by means of                 f093
+ Contrast and the Use of Planes
+
+ Treatment of Mantling (14th-16th centuries)                   f094a, f094b
+
+ Brass of Martin de Visch, Bruges, 1452                                f095
+
+ Relief in Pattern Design by means of Simple Linear Contrasts         f096a
+
+ Relief by adding Shading Lines to Outline                            f097a
+
+ Relief by Diagonal Shading                                           f097b
+
+ Different Method and different Emphasis in Relieving Form by          f098
+ Shading Lines
+
+ Albert Durer's Principle in the Treatment of Drapery: From            f099
+ the Woodcut in the "Life of the Virgin" Series
+
+ Albert Durer: Pen-drawing                                             f100
+
+ Filippino Lippi: Study of Drapery                                     f101
+
+ Raphael: Studies of Drapery                                           f102
+
+ Relief by means of Light and Shade alone, in Pen-drawing             f103a
+ without Outline
+
+ Relief by means of White Line on a Dark Ground and _vice             f103b
+ versa_
+
+ Relief in Architectural Mouldings                                     f104
+
+ Roman Treatment of Corinthian Order, Forum of Nerva, Rome             f105
+
+ Egyptian Relief Sculpture: Thebes                                     f106
+
+ Greek Relief: Eleusis                                                 f107
+
+ Egyptian Relief: Denderah                                             f107
+
+ Chartres Cathedral: Carving on West Front                             f108
+
+ Chartres Cathedral: Tympanum of Central Door of West Front
+                                                                       f109
+
+ Medals of the Lords of Mantua, Cesena, and Ferrara, by                f110
+ Vittore Pisano
+
+ Treatment of Draped Figure in Black on White Ground and              f111a
+ _vice versa_
+
+ Treatment of the same Figure in Light and Shade                      f111b
+
+ The Graphic Principle of the Expression of Form by Light and          f112
+ Shade; with and without Outline
+
+ Linear Expression of Features, Feathers and Fur: Notes from           f113
+ Nature
+
+ Sketches to illustrate the Graphic and the Decorative                 f114
+ Treatment of Draped Figures
+
+ Decorative Treatment of Birds                                         f115
+
+ Floral Designs upon Typical Inclosing Shapes of Indian and            f116
+ Persian Ornament
+
+ Dancing Figure with the Governing Lines of the Movement              f117a
+
+ Lines of Floral Growth and Structure: Lily and Rose                  f117b
+
+ Coast-lines, Gulf of Nauplia                                         f118a
+
+ Lines of Movement in Water, Shallow Stream over Sand                 f118b
+
+ Giotto: Chastity (Lower Church, Assisi)                               f119
+
+ Pinturicchio: Mural Painting (Piccolomini Chapel, Siena)              f120
+
+ Diagram showing the Principal Fundamental Plans or Systems            f121
+ of Line governing Mural Spacing and Decorative Distribution
+
+ Diagram to show how the apparent Depth of a Space is                  f122
+ increased by the Use of Vertical Lines, and its apparent
+ Width by the Use of Horizontal Lines
+
+ Decorative Spacing of the Wall: Sketches (to half-inch                f123
+ scale) to show different Treatment and Proportions
+
+ Figure of Laura, from the Burgundian Tapestries: The                  f124
+ Triumphs of Petrarch, in the South Kensington Museum
+
+ Pinturicchio: Fresco in the Appartimenti Borgia                       f125
+
+ Portion of Detail of the Holy Carpet of the Mosque of                 f126
+ Ardebil: Persian, sixteenth century
+
+ Sketch to illustrate Treatment of Borders in a Persian Rug            f127
+
+ Arras Tapestry: Diagrams to show the Principle of Working             f128
+ and Surface Effect
+
+ Contrasting Surfaces in Warp and Weft in Woven Silk Hanging           f129
+
+ Indian printed Cotton Cover: South Kensington Museum                  f130
+
+ Stained Glass Treatment: Inclosure of Form and Colour by              f131
+ Lead Lines
+
+ Sketch to show Effect of the same Colour and Form upon                f132
+ different Coloured Grounds
+
+ Principle of the Effect of the Blending or Blurring of                f133
+ Colours at their Edges
+
+ Use of Black and White Outline to clear the Edges of                  f133
+ Coloured Forms upon different Coloured Grounds
+
+ J. Van Eyck: Portrait of J. Arnolfini and his Wife                    f134
+
+ Ver Meer of Delft: Lady at a Spinet                                   f135
+
+ Botticelli: The Nativity                                              f136
+
+ Holbein: The Ambassadors                                              f137
+
+ Botticelli: Madonna and Child                                         f138
+
+ Crivelli: The Annunciation                                            f139
+
+ Perugino: The Virgin in Adoration with St. Michael and St.            f140
+ Raphael, and Tobias
+
+ Titian: Bacchus and Ariadne                                           f141
+
+ Madox Brown: Christ Washing St. Peter's Feet                          f142
+
+[Illustration (f002): The Origin of Outline.]
+
+
+
+
+                             OF LINE AND FORM
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER I
+
+
+    Origin and Function of Outline--Silhouette--Definition of
+    Boundaries by--Power of Characterization by--Formation of
+    Letters--Methods of Drawing in Line--The Progressive Method--The
+    Calligraphic Method--The Tentative Method--The Japanese Direct
+    Brush Method--The Oval Method--The Rectangular Method--Quality of
+    Line--Linear Expression of Movement--Textures--Emotion--Scale of
+    Linear Expression.
+
+Outline, one might say, is the Alpha and Omega of Art. It is the
+earliest mode of expression among primitive peoples, as it is with the
+individual child, and it has been cultivated for its power of
+characterization and expression, and as an ultimate test of
+draughtsmanship, by the most accomplished artists of all time.
+
+The old fanciful story of its origin in the work of a lover who traced
+in charcoal the boundary of the shadow of the head of his sweetheart as
+cast upon the wall by the sun, and thus obtained the first profile
+portrait, is probably more true in substance than in fact, but it
+certainly illustrates the _function_ of outline as the definition of the
+boundaries of form.
+
+                                                              [Silhouette]
+
+As children we probably perceive forms in nature defined as flat shapes
+of colour relieved upon other colours, or flat fields of light on dark,
+as a white horse is defined upon the green grass of a field, or a black
+figure upon a background of snow.
+
+[Illustration (f003a): Silhouette]
+
+[Illustration (f003b): Silhouette]
+
+                                                [Definition of Boundaries]
+
+To define the boundaries of such forms becomes the main object in early
+attempts at artistic expression. The attention is caught by the
+edges--the shape of the silhouette which remains the paramount means of
+distinction of form when details and secondary characteristics are
+lost; as the outlines of mountains remain, or are even more clearly
+seen, when distance subdues the details of their structure, and evening
+mists throw them into flat planes one behind the other, and leave
+nothing but the delicate lines of their edges to tell their character.
+We feel the beauty and simplicity of such effects in nature. We feel
+that the mind, through the eye resting upon these quiet planes and
+delicate lines, receives a sense of repose and poetic suggestion which
+is lost in the bright noontide, with all its wealth of glittering
+detail, sharp cut in light and shade. There is no doubt that this
+typical power of outline and the value of simplicity of mass were
+perceived by the ancients, notably the Ancient Egyptians and the Greeks,
+who both, in their own ways, in their art show a wonderful power of
+characterization by means of line and mass, and a delicate sense of the
+ornamental value and quality of line.
+
+[Illustration (f004): Coast and Mountain Lines--Gulf of Nauplia]
+
+                                                    [Formation of Letters]
+
+Regarding line--the use of outline from the point of view of its value
+as a means of definition of form and fact--its power is really only
+limited by the power of draughtsmanship at the command of the artist.
+From the archaic potters' primitive figures or the rudimentary attempts
+of children at human or animal forms up to the most refined outlines of
+a Greek vase-painter, or say the artist of the Dream of Poliphilus, the
+difference is one of degree. The tyro with the pen, learning to write,
+splotches and scratches, and painfully forms trembling, limping O's and
+A's, till with practice and habitude, almost unconsciously, the power to
+form firm letters is acquired.
+
+Writing, after all, is but a simpler form of drawing, and we know that
+the letters of our alphabet were originally pictures or symbols. The
+main difference is that writing stops short with the acquisition of the
+purely useful power of forming letters and words, and is seldom pursued
+for the sake of its beauty or artistic qualities as formerly; while
+drawing continually leads on to new difficulties to be conquered, to new
+subtleties of line, and fresh fascinations in the pursuit of distinction
+and style.
+
+[Illustration (f005a): Proportions of Roman Capital Letters and Method
+of Drawing Them (From Albert Durer's "Geometrica").]
+
+[Illustration (f005b): Proportions of Lower-Case German Text and Method
+of Drawing the Letters (From Albert Durer's "Geometrica").]
+
+The practice of forming letters with the pen or brush, from good types,
+Roman and Gothic, however, would afford very good preliminary practice
+to a student of line and form. The hand would acquire directness of
+stroke and touch, while the eye would grow accustomed to good lines of
+composition and simple constructive forms. The progressive nature of
+writing--the gradual building up of the forms of the letters--and the
+necessity of dealing with recurring forms and lines, also, would bear
+usefully upon after work in actual design. Albert Durer in his
+"Geometrica" gives methods on which to draw the Roman capitals, and also
+the black letters, building the former upon the square and its
+proportions, the thickness of the down strokes being one-eighth of
+square, the thin strokes being one-sixteenth, and the serifs being
+turned by circles of one-fourth and one-eighth diameter. The capital O,
+it will be noted, is formed of two circles struck diagonally.
+
+                                              [Methods of Drawing in Line]
+
+Letters may be taken as the simplest form of definition by means of
+line. They have been reduced through centuries of use from their
+primitive hieroglyphic forms to their present arbitrary and fixed types,
+though even these fixed types are subject to the variation produced by
+changes of taste and fancy.
+
+But when we come to unformulated nature--to the vast world of complex
+forms, ever changing their aspect, full of life and movement, trees,
+flowers, woods and waters, birds, beasts, fishes, the human form--the
+problem how to represent any of these forms, to express and characterize
+them by means of so abstract a method as line-drawing, seems at first
+difficult enough.
+
+But since the growth of perception, like the power of graphic
+representation, is gradual and partial, though progressive, the eye and
+the mind are generally first impressed with the salient features and
+leading characteristics of natural forms, just as the child's first idea
+of a human form is that of a body with four straight limbs, with a
+preponderating head. That is the first impression, and it is
+unhesitatingly recorded in infantine outline.
+
+The first aim, then, in drawing anything in line is to grasp the general
+truths of form, character, and expression.
+
+                                                  [The Progressive Method]
+
+There are various methods of proceeding in getting an outline of any
+object or figure. To begin with, the student might begin progressively
+defining the form by a series of stages in this way. Take the profile
+of a bird, for instance; the form might be gradually built up by the
+combination of a series of lines:
+
+[Illustration (f006a): (bird forms)]
+
+or take the simpler form of a flask bottle:
+
+[Illustration (f006b): (bottle forms)]
+
+or a jar on the same principle:
+
+[Illustration (f006c): (jar forms)]
+
+or, simpler still, a leaf form, putting in the stem first with one
+stroke (1):
+
+[Illustration (f006d): (leaf forms)]
+
+and building the form around it (2, 3).
+
+                                                 [The Calligraphic Method]
+
+[Illustration (f007a): (calligraphic forms)]
+
+This might be termed the calligraphic method of drawing; and in this
+method facility of hand might be further practised by attempting the
+definition of forms by continuous strokes, or building it up by as few
+strokes as possible. The simpler types of ornament consisting of
+meandering and flowing lines can all be produced in this way, i.e., by
+continuous line, as well as natural forms treated in a certain abstract
+or conventional way, which adapts them to decoration.
+
+                                                   [The Tentative Method]
+
+[Illustration (f007b): (jar forms)]
+
+Another method is to sketch in lightly guide lines for main masses,
+building a sort of scaffolding of light lines to assist the eye in
+getting the correct outline in its place, using vertical centre lines
+for symmetrical forms to get the poise right. This is the method very
+generally in use, but I think it very desirable to practise direct
+drawing as well, to acquire certainty of eye and facility of hand; and
+one must not mind failure at first, as this kind of power and facility
+is so much a matter of practice.
+
+[Illustration (f007c): (birdbath sketch)]
+
+                                        [The Japanese Direct Brush Method]
+
+The Japanese, who draw with the brush, have accustomed themselves to
+draw in a direct manner without any preliminary sketching, and the charm
+of their work is largely owing to that crisp freshness of touch only
+possible to their direct method. The great object is to establish a
+perfectly intimate correspondence between eye and hand, so that the
+latter will record what the former perceives.
+
+Abundant specimens of the freedom and naturalism of the modern school of
+Japanese artists in this direct brush method may be found in the work of
+Bari, Hiroshigi, and Hokusai, and in the numerous prints and books of
+designs from their hands. To all draughtsmen and designers they are most
+valuable to study for their direct method and simple means of expression
+of form and fact. Accidental as they frequently seem in composition, the
+placing of the drawing upon the paper is carefully considered before
+starting, and this, of course, is always a very important point.
+
+Yet another method of drawing, more especially in relation to the
+drawing of the human figure and animal forms, I may mention as a help to
+those who do not feel strong enough for the direct method. At the same
+time it must be borne in mind that we can accustom ourselves to _any_
+method; and the more dependent we become upon a single method, the less
+facility we shall have for working in any other. But for all that it is
+desirable to master _one_ method--that is, to be able to draw in line
+_freely_ in one way or another--and experience and practice alone will
+enable us to find the method most satisfactory.
+
+                                        [The Oval and Rectangular Methods]
+
+[Illustration (f008): (human and horse forms)]
+
+                                                  [The Rectangular Method]
+
+This other method is to block in the principal masses of the forms we
+desire to represent by means of a series of ovals, as shown in the
+illustration, and when we have got the masses in their proper relations,
+to proceed to draw in the careful outline of the figure, or whatever it
+may be, upon this substructure of guiding lines, correcting as we go
+along. It would be quite possible to work on the same principle, but
+upon a structure of more or less rectangular masses. The real use of the
+method is to assist the student to get a grasp of the relation of the
+masses of a figure and a sense of structure in drawing; whether square
+or oval blocking in is used may be a matter of choice. It may be said
+for the oval forms that they resemble the contours of the structure in
+human and animal forms.
+
+If one had a tendency to round one's forms too much, it would be well to
+try the rectangular method to correct this, and _vice versa_.
+
+After a certain facility has been acquired in rendering form by means of
+line, we shall perceive further capacities of expression in its use, and
+begin to note how different characteristics of form and natural fact may
+be expressed by varying the quality of our outline.
+
+If we are drawing a plant or a flower, for instance, we should endeavour
+to show by the quality of our line the difference between the fine
+springing curves in the structure of the lily, the solid seed-centre and
+stiff radiation of the petals of the daisy, and the delicate silky folds
+of the poppy.
+
+                                                         [Quality of Line]
+
+[Illustration (f009): Lines of Characterization in the Form and Feature
+of Flowers: Lily and Poppy.]
+
+But, as leaves come before flowers, it would be best to begin with leaf
+forms and try to express the character of oak and beech, lime and
+chestnut leaves, for instance, by means of outline. Probably at first
+we shall feel dissatisfied with our outline as not being full enough: it
+may look meagre in quality and small in definition of form. This
+probably arises from not allowing enough space--from setting the
+outline too much within the boundary of the form. To correct this one
+cannot do better than block in the form of the object we are drawing
+(leaf, flower, or figure) with a full brush in black silhouette, placing
+the object against the light or white paper, so that its true boundary
+may be seen uninterfered with by surface markings or shadows, and,
+concentrating our attention upon the _edge_, follow it as carefully as
+possible with the solid black. Then, if we compare the result with our
+outline, it will help to show where it has failed; and the practice of
+thus blocking in with the brush in solid silhouette will tend to
+encourage a larger style of drawing, since good outline means good
+perception of mass; and as a general principle in drawing, it may be
+recommended to place one's outline _outside_ the silhouette boundary of
+the form rather than within it; that is to say, when the figure or
+object is relieved in light against dark, as the line in that case
+defines the edge against the background. When the figure or object
+appears as dark upon a light ground, however, the outline should be
+within the silhouette, obviously, or its delicate boundary is lost.
+
+[Illustration (f010a): Silhouette of Beech Leaves and Line Rendering of
+the Same.]
+
+                                           [Linear Expression of Movement]
+
+Another important attribute of line is its power of expressing or
+suggesting _movement_. By a law of inseparable association, undulating
+lines approaching the horizontal, or leading down to it, are connected
+with the sense of repose; whereas broken curves and rectangular lines
+always suggest action and unrest, or the resistance to force of some
+kind.
+
+[Illustration (f010b): Lines of Movement]
+
+The recurrence of a series of lines in the same direction in a kind of
+crescendo or wave-like movement suggests continuous pressure of force in
+the same direction, as in this series of instantaneous actions of a man
+bowling, where the line drawn through or touching the highest points in
+each figure takes the line of the curve of a wave. The wave-line,
+indeed, may be said not only to suggest movement, but also to describe
+its direction and force. It is, in fact, _the line of movement_. The
+principle may be seen in a simpler way, as Hogarth points out in his
+"Analysis of Beauty," by observing the line described along a wall by
+the head of a man walking along the street. Or, as we may see sometimes
+near the coast, trees exposed to the constant pressure of the wind
+illustrate this recurrence of lines in the same direction governing
+their general shape; and as each tree is forced to spread in the
+direction away from the wind, the effect is that of their being always
+struggling against its pressure even in the calmest weather; and this is
+entirely due to our association of wind-movement with this peculiar
+linear expression.
+
+[Illustration (f011): Lines Expressive of Movement: Effect of Wind Upon
+Trees]
+
+Flowing water, again, is expressed by certain recurring wave-lines,
+which remind us of the ancient linear symbols of the zigzag and meander
+used from the earliest times to express water. In the streams that
+channel the sands of the sea-shore when the tide recedes we may see
+beautiful flowing lines, sometimes crossing like a network, and
+sometimes running into a series of shell-like waves; while the sands
+themselves are ribbed and channelled and modelled by the recurring
+movement of the waves, which leave upon them the impress and the
+expression of their motion (much as in a more delicate medium the
+air-currents impress the fields of cloud, and give them their
+characteristic forms).
+
+[Illustration (f012): Line Arrangement in Ribbed Sea Sand]
+
+                                           [Linear Expression of Textures]
+
+Textures and surfaces, too, fall within the range of linear expression.
+One would naturally use lines of totally different consistency and
+character to express rough or smooth surfaces: to express the difference
+of value, for instance, between the ivory-like smoothness of an egg and
+the scaly surface of a pine-cone, entirely different qualities of line
+are obviously wanted. The firm-set yet soft feathers of the plumage of a
+bird must be rendered by a very different touch from the shining scales
+of a fish. The hair and horns of animals, delicate human features,
+flowers, the sinuous lines of thin drapery, or the broad massive folds
+of heavy robes, all demand from the designer and draughtsman in line
+different kinds of suggestive expression, a translation or rendering of
+natural fact subordinate to the artistic purpose of his work, and in
+relation to the material and purpose for which he works.
+
+                                            [Linear Expression of Emotion]
+
+[Illustration (f013): Lines of Different Textures, Structures, and
+Surfaces.]
+
+Then, again, when we come to the expression of ideas--of thought and
+sentiment--we find in line an abstract but direct medium for their
+illustration; and this again, too, by means of that law of inseparable
+association which connects the idea of praise or aspiration and
+ascension, for instance, with long lines inclining towards the severe
+vertical, as when we draw a figure with upraised hands; while the
+feeling might be increased if led up to or re-echoed by other groups and
+objects in the composition, forming a kind of vertical crescendo on the
+same principle which we were considering in regard to the expression of
+lateral movement. Few things in design are finer or more elevated in
+feeling than William Blake's design of the Morning Stars singing
+together, in the series of the Book of Job, yet it is little more than
+a vertical arrangement of figures with uplifted and intercrossing arms.
+The linear plan gives the main impetus to the expressiveness of the
+design, and is the basis of the beauty, which culminates in the rapture
+of the fresh youthful faces.
+
+[Illustration (f014): Expression of Emotion: Lines of Exaltation and
+Rejoicing in Unison. The Morning Stars, After William Blake. (From the
+Book of Job.)]
+
+                                              [Scale of Linear Expression]
+
+Bowed and bent lines tending downwards, on the other hand, convey the
+opposite ideas of dejection and despair. This is illustrated in these
+figures of Flaxman's, who was a great master of style in outline.
+
+[Illustration (f015): Lines of Grief and Dejection. Flaxman: Designs to
+Homer.]
+
+                                                        [Capacity of Line]
+
+We seem here to discover a kind of scale of linear expression--the two
+extremes at either end: the horizontal and the vertical, with every
+degree and modulation between them; the undulating curve giving way to
+the springing energetic spiral, the meandering, flowing line sinking to
+the horizontal: or the sharp opposition and thrust of rectangular, the
+nervous resistance of broken curves, the flame-like, triumphant,
+ascending verticals. Truly the designer may find a great range of
+expression within the dominion of pure line. Line is, indeed, as I have
+before termed it, a language, a most sensitive and vigorous speech of
+many dialects; which can adapt itself to all purposes, and is, indeed,
+indispensable to all the provinces of design in line. Line may be
+regarded simply as a means of record, a method of registering the facts
+of nature, of graphically portraying the characteristics of plants and
+animals, or the features of humanity: the smooth features of youth, the
+rugged lines of age. It is capable of this, and more also, since it can
+appeal to our emotions and evoke our passionate and poetic sympathies
+with both the life of humanity and wild nature, as in the hands of the
+great masters it lifts us to the heavens or bows us down to earth: we
+may stand on the sea-shore and see the movement of the falling waves,
+the fierce energy of the storm and its rolling armament of clouds,
+glittering with the sudden zigzag of the lightning; or we may sink into
+the profound calm of a summer day, when the mountains, defined only by
+their edges, wrapped in soft planes of mist, seem to recline upon the
+level meadows like Titans and dream of the golden age.
+
+[Illustration (f016): (landscape)]
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER II
+
+    The Language of Line--Dialects--Comparison of the Style of
+    various Artists in Line--Scale of Degrees in Line--Picture
+    Writing--Relation of Line to Form--Two Paths--The Graphic
+    Purpose--Aspect--The Ornamental Purpose--Typical Treatment or
+    Convention--Rhythm--Linear Plans in Pattern Designing--Wall-paper
+    Design--Controlling Forms--Memory--Evolution in Design--Variety
+    in Unity--Counterbalance--Linear Logic--Recurring Line and
+    Form--Principle of Radiation--Range and Use of Line.
+
+
+I spoke of Line as a Language, and gave some illustrations of its power
+and range of expression, showing that line is capable not only of
+recording natural fact and defining character, but also of conveying the
+idea of movement and force, of action and repose; and, further, of
+appealing to our emotions and thoughts by variations and changes in its
+direction, the degree of its emphasis, and other qualities.
+
+                                                                [Dialects]
+
+Yet every designer and draughtsman uses line in a different way, and of
+a different quality, according to his preference, habit, training, or
+personality. The endless variations which result I should--to pursue the
+analogy of speech further--term _dialects_. We might collect abundant
+examples of these from the work of line-designers since the world began,
+or compare the methods of any of the popular illustrators of to-day to
+find constant variations and individual differences occurring even
+among those which might be said, under the influence of a prevailing
+mode, to be variations of one type.
+
+Compare a Greek vase-painter's delicate brush line-drawing with the bold
+pen-line of Albert Durer (to get a contrast in historic style). Compare
+(to take two masters of different schools, but of the same country) the
+line-treatment of Mantegna with the line-treatment of Raphael; or, to
+take another jump, compare the line-work of Blake and Flaxman; or, to
+take a modern instance, and to come to our own contemporary artists,
+compare a drawing by Burne-Jones and one by Phil May.
+
+We might construct a sort of scale of the degrees and qualities of line.
+
+There is, for instance, outline of every degree of boldness or fineness,
+from the strong black half-inch outline and upwards used in mosaic-work
+and stained-glass leading; the outline of the pattern designer for
+block-printing; the outline of the pen draughtsman for process-work or
+woodcut; and so on, down to the hair-line of the drypoint etcher.
+
+                                                [Scale of Degrees in Line]
+
+There are the _qualities_ of line in different degrees of firmness,
+roughness, raggedness, or smooth and flowing. There are the degrees of
+_direction_ of line, curvilinear or angular. On the angular side all
+variations from the perpendicular and horizontal, or rectangle, within
+which we may find all these degrees, and on the curvilinear side, all
+the variations from spiral to circle: so that we might say that the
+rectangle was the cradle of all angular variations of line, while the
+semicircle was the cradle of all curvilinear variations. (See the
+diagrams on p. 26.[f018])
+
+[Illustration (f017): Scale of Various Degrees of Linear Weight and
+Emphasis.]
+
+Every artist, sooner or later, by means of his selective adaptive sense,
+finds a method in the use of line to suit his own personality--to suit
+his own individual aim in artistic expression--and in course of time it
+becomes a characteristic manner, by which his work is instantly known,
+like a friend's handwriting.
+
+[Illustration (f018): Curvilinear and Rectangular Scales of Direction.]
+
+Now what determines this choice, this personal selection, over and above
+necessities of method and material, it would be difficult to say, unless
+we had more minute knowledge of the natural history of a human being
+than we are likely to possess. We can only say that from practice are
+evolved certain methods or principles, consciously or unconsciously; and
+it is only these general methods or principles that can be explained and
+tested for the benefit of those essaying to follow the arduous and
+difficult path of art.
+
+                                                [Relation of Line to Form]
+
+At the outset we see that we need a means of definition in drawing, just
+as a child needs a word to express a thing it wants. _Line_, at the
+point of the pencil, pen, or brush, places this possibility of
+definition within our reach; but before we can grasp it we need some
+knowledge, however rudimentary, of its inseparable companion, _Form_.
+
+I recall two innocent and entertaining methods from the traditions of
+the nursery, which appeal at once in a curious way to both the oral and
+graphic senses, and unite story and picture in one. These are
+illustrated on p. 28.[f019] By such devices a child learns to associate
+line and form, unconsciously and step by step defining form in the use
+of, or pursuit of, line.
+
+[Illustration (f019): Modern Picture-writing According to Nursery
+Tradition]
+
+It would be very entertaining and agreeable if we could carry the
+principle further, and get a passable study from the antique, for
+instance, by a similar process. In line-drawing we may, however, always
+tell some story or fact, or character, phase, or idea.
+
+                                                     [The Graphic Purpose]
+
+But supposing we have mounted our steed _Form_, and taken our bridle
+_Line_ in hand, and have started riding at large in the vast domain of
+nature, with the primary object of finding and hunting down truth at
+last; we soon perceive that there are so many truths, or rather that
+truth, even of natural fact, has so many sides, that it is difficult to
+make up our mind which one to pursue. Thought, however, will soon
+discover that in this pursuit of truth we strike a road that naturally
+divides itself, or branches out, into two main paths distinct in aim.
+These two paths in art have been called by many names; they occasionally
+cross each other, or overlap, and are sometimes blended, or even
+confused; but it will be useful for our present purpose to keep them
+very distinct. I will term them, for convenience:
+
+    1. The Graphic Purpose. (Accidental form.)
+    2. The Ornamental Purpose. (Typical form.)
+
+Our use of line will largely depend upon which of these two it is our
+object to pursue. Now when we look at anything with intent to draw--say
+a leafy bough as it grows in the sunshine--we see great complexity of
+form and surface-lighting. The leaves, perhaps, take all manner of
+variations of the typical form, and are set at all sorts of angles. In
+making a rapid sketch with the object of getting the appearance of the
+bough, we naturally dwell upon these accidents and superficial facts. At
+the same time, with nothing but line to express them, we are compelled
+to use a kind of convention, though our aim be purely naturalistic, to
+get a faithful portrait of the bough.
+
+We must make our line as _descriptive_ as possible, defining the main
+forms boldly, and blocking in broadly the main masses of form and light
+and shade. We are now aiming at the general look of the thing. We are
+striving to grasp the facts of _Aspect_. We are concerned with the
+purely graphic purpose, to make a picture upon paper.
+
+[Illustration (f020): Olive Branch From Nature]
+
+We cannot, however, even under these simple conditions, altogether
+leave out of account considerations which, strictly speaking, must be
+termed "decorative." For instance, there is the question of placing the
+study well upon the paper, a very important point to start with; and
+then the question of beauty must arise, not only in the selection of our
+point of view, but in the choice of method, in the treatment of line we
+adopt; and it does not follow that the most apparently forcible way of
+getting bold projection by means of black shadows, at the cost of the
+more delicate characteristics of our subject, is the best. On the
+contrary, the finest draughtsmanship is always the most subtle and
+delicate, and one cannot get subtle and delicate draughtsmanship without
+faithful study and careful constant practice--_knowledge of form_, in
+short--and I am afraid there is no short cut to it.
+
+                                                  [The Ornamental Purpose]
+
+[Illustration (f021): Olive Branch Simplified in Decorative Treatment]
+
+Now supposing we make our study of leaves, not as an end in itself, and
+for its simple pictorial values or qualities only, but with an
+ornamental or decorative purpose in view, intending to make use of its
+form and character in some more or less systematic design or
+pattern-work--adapted to special methods and materials--intended to
+decorate a wall-surface or a textile, for instance; we might certainly
+start with a general sketch of its appearance as before, but we should
+find that we should want to understand it in its detail; the law of its
+growth and construction; we should want to dwell upon its typical
+character and form, the controlling lines of its masses, rather than on
+its accidental aspects, because it would really be only with these that
+we could successfully deal in adapting anything in nature to the
+conditions and limitations of a design. To do this requires as much art
+as to make a clever graphic sketch, perhaps more; but it is certainly
+not so easily understood and appreciated, as a rule. Pattern-work is
+taken so much for granted, except by those technically interested,
+whereas a graphic sketch may bring the drama of nature, and of human
+character and incident, before our eyes. It does not require us to stop
+and think out the less obvious meaning, or trace the invention or grace
+of line, to appreciate the rhythmic, silent music which the more
+formalized and abstract decorative design may contain, _quite apart from
+the forms it actually represents_.
+
+[Illustration (f022): Study of Horned Poppy]
+
+[Illustration (f023): Adaptation of the Horned Poppy in Design: Vertical
+Panel For Needlework.]
+
+                                             [Question and Answer in Line]
+
+Here we discover another function of line. For, directly we endeavour to
+construct a decorative design--that is, a design intended to adorn or to
+express an object or surface--we find that we must build it upon some
+sort of a plan, or geometric controlling network or scaffolding, so as
+to give it unity, rhythm, and coherence--especially so in the case of
+repeating designs. Even in an isolated panel or picture the necessity of
+this linear basis will be felt, since one cannot draw a line or define a
+form without demanding an answer--that is, a corresponding, re-echoing
+line or mass.
+
+[Illustration (f024): Curves 1.Q and 2.A]
+
+The curve (1. Q) is a proposition or question. It is answered or
+balanced by the corresponding curve (2. A), and forms the basis for a
+scroll design.
+
+[Illustration (f025): Curves 1 and 2]
+
+The five radiating lines (1) are obviously incomplete by themselves, but
+if we add another four, in reverse order, (2) we get a centred and
+symmetric motive of an anthemion character.
+
+                                                       [Wall-Paper Design]
+
+Take, however, a wall-paper. The problem is to construct a design
+pleasant to the eye in line, form, colour, and suggestion; which will be
+interesting in detail, and yet repeat upon a wall-surface without flaw,
+and without becoming wearisome. Moreover, one which will lend itself to
+being cut upon wood, if for block-printing, and which may be reproduced
+with a due regard to economy of means. The designer may have a square of
+twenty-one inches in which to make his design.
+
+[Illustration (f026): Diagram Showing the Use of a Geometric Basis in
+Designing Repeating Pattern.]
+
+A useful way to begin with is to rule out a sheet of paper into squares,
+say on the scale of 1-1/2 inch to the foot, and upon this jot down your
+first ideas of linear arrangement and colour motive, and get the
+general effect, and test the plan of repeats. When you are satisfied
+with one, enlarge it to full size, correct and amplify it, and improve
+it in form and detail. Changes will probably be found necessary in
+drawing it upon the larger scale, sometimes additions, sometimes
+omissions. Now in sketching out the general plan, one builds, as before
+said, upon some basis or plan, however simple, since one cannot put a
+simple spot, sprig, or spray upon paper intending to repeat, without
+some system of connection to put them into relation.
+
+                                                       [Controlling Forms]
+
+In designing one's sprig, too, the best plan to secure good decorative
+effect is to see that its general form is inclosed or bounded by an
+agreeable linear shape, although itself not actually visible. Simple
+leaf and flower forms are generally the best to use for these
+controlling boundaries. Sprays designed on this principle may be relied
+upon for repeating pleasantly and safely when they are placed upon, and
+connected by, the controlling geometric plan. A good practical test of
+the truth and completeness of your square repeat is, when the design is
+done, or even in progress, to cut it into four equal parts (supposing it
+to be a twenty-one inch square). This will enable you to get the joints
+true, and also, by altering the position of the squares, to give you a
+very good idea of the effect of the repeat full size. (See the diagrams
+on p. 41.[f028])
+
+These things must be considered, of course, merely as practical aids to
+invention: not by any means as substitutes for it. One cannot give any
+recipe for designing, and no rules, principles, or methods can supply
+the place of imagination and fancy. "He who would bring back health from
+the Indies," says an old proverb, "must take it out with him."
+
+At the same time the imagination can be enfeebled by starvation and
+neglect. It can be depressed by dull and sordid surroundings. It is apt
+to grow, like other living things, by what it feeds on, and is stronger
+for exercise and development.
+
+[Illustration (f027): Use of Controlling Boundaries in Designing
+Sprays]
+
+                                                                  [Memory]
+
+Memory, too, is an important and serviceable thing in designing, and
+this, again, can be cultivated to an almost unlimited extent. I mean
+that selective kind of memory which, by constant and close observation,
+extracts and stores up the essential serviceable kind of facts for the
+designer: facts of form, of structure, of movement of figures,
+expressive lines, momentary or transitory effects of colour--all those
+rare and precious visual moments which will not wait, and which happen
+unexpectedly. They should be captured like rare butterflies and
+carefully stored in the mind's museum of suggestions, as well as, as far
+as is possible, pinned down in the hieroglyphics of the note-book.
+
+                                                     [Evolution in Design]
+
+As regards procedure in working out a design, one generally thinks of
+some leading feature, some central mass or form or curve--of a figure or
+a flower, say--and one thinks of its capacity in repeat; and, since one
+form or line should inevitably suggest or necessitate--as by a kind of
+logic--another, one adds other forms until the design is complete. For
+it must never be forgotten that design is a growth which has its own
+stages of evolution in the mind, answering to the evolution of the
+living forms of nature--first the blade, then the ear, after that the
+full corn in the ear.
+
+Experience teaches us that the most harmonious arrangements of form and
+line are those in which the leading lines and forms through all sorts of
+variations, continually recur. We cannot place a number of sharply
+contrasting and contradictory forms together in design satisfactorily--
+at least we cannot do so without recourse to other elements to harmonize
+and to bring them into relation. For instance, we might get a great deal
+of ornamental variety by means of a number of heraldic devices upon
+shields, full in themselves of quaintness and contrasts, but brought
+into harmony by the boundary lines of the shields and the divisions; or,
+still further, by throwing them upon a background of leaves and stems,
+the meandering lines and recurring forms of which would answer as a kind
+of warp upon which to weave the heraldic spots into a connected and
+harmonious pattern.
+
+[Illustration (f028): Method of Testing a Repeating Pattern.]
+
+                                                        [Variety in Unity]
+
+But even in the ornamental treatment of diverse forms, as the mediaeval
+heraldic designers were well aware, they can be brought into
+decorative harmony by following a similar principle to the one already
+laid down in regard to the designing of sprigs and sprays: that is to
+say, that in designing an animal or figure for heraldry or introduction
+into a pattern, one should arrange it so that it should fall within the
+boundary of some geometric or foliated form, square, circular,
+elliptical or otherwise, as might be desirable. To this, however, I
+hope to return in a future chapter.
+
+[Illustration (f029): Sketch to Show How a Pattern of Diverse Elements
+May Be Harmonized by Unity of Inclosing and Intermediary Lines.]
+
+                                                          [Counterbalance]
+
+We may here consider another important principle in designing with line
+and mass, that of _counterbalance_.
+
+[Illustration (f030): The Principle of Counterbalance in Different
+Systems of Design.]
+
+Take any defined space as a panel, tile, or border to be filled with
+design: you place your principal mass, and instantly feel that it must
+be balanced by a corresponding mass, or some equivalent. Its place will
+be determined by the principle upon which the design is built. If on a
+symmetrical arrangement, you find your centre (say of a panel), and you
+may either throw the chief weight and mass of the design upon the
+central feature (as a tree), and balance it by smaller forms or wings
+each side, or _vice versa_; or, adopting a diagonal plan, you place your
+principal mass (say it is a tile) near the top left-hand corner (suppose
+it is a pomegranate), connecting it with a spiral diagonal line (the
+stem); the place of the counterbalancing mass (the second pomegranate)
+is obviously near the bottom right-hand corner of the square. You may
+then feel the necessity for additional smaller forms, and so add to it
+(the leaves), completing the design. (See preceding page.)
+
+                                                            [Linear Logic]
+
+On the same principle one may design upon various other plans. The exact
+choice of the distribution of the counterbalancing masses must always be
+a matter of personal feeling, judgment, and taste, controlled by the
+perception of certain logical necessities: as it seems to me that
+designing is a species of linear reasoning,* and might almost be
+worked in its elementary stages on the principle of the syllogism,
+consisting of two propositions and a conclusion. A spiral curve is a
+harmonious line, says the designer: repeat it, reversed, and you
+prolong the harmony; repeat it again, with variations, and you complete
+the harmony. Or, harmonious effect is produced by recurring form and
+line. Here is a circular form; here is a meandering line: combine and
+repeat them, and you get a logical and harmonious border motive.
+
+  [*] I recall here a saying of Sir E. Burne-Jones, that "a bad
+      line can only be answered by a good line."
+
+[Illustration (f031): Border Units and Border Motive.]
+
+                                                 [Recurring Line and Form]
+
+The everlastingly recurring egg and dart moulding and the volute are
+instances of the harmonious effect of very simple arrangements of
+recurring line and form. We also get illustrated in these another linear
+quality in design--that up-and-down movement which gives a pleasant
+rhythm to the simplest border, and is of especial consequence in all
+repeating border and frieze designs. The borders of early, ancient, and
+classical art might be said to be little besides rhythmical and logical
+arrangements of line. The same rhythmical principle is found in the
+designs of the classical frieze in all its varieties, culminating in the
+rhythmic movement of the great Pan-Athenaic procession in that
+master-frieze of the Parthenon, which, though full of infinite variety
+and delicate sculptured detail, is yet controlled by a strictly
+ornamental motive, and constructed upon the rhythmic recurrence of pure
+line.
+
+[Illustration (f032): Recurring Line and Form in Border Motives.]
+
+                                              [The Principle of Radiation]
+
+Another great linear principle in design is what is known as the
+_radiating_ principle, which gives vitality and vigour alike to both
+arrangements of line and delineations of form. It is emphatically and
+abundantly illustrated in natural forms, from the scallop shell upon the
+sea-shore to the sun himself that radiates his light upon it. The
+palm-leaf in all its graceful varieties demonstrates its beauty, its
+constructive strength combined with extraordinary lightness, which
+becomes domesticated in that fragile sceptre of social influence and
+festivity, the fan, and which again spreads its silken, or gossamer,
+wing as a suggestive field for the designer. We find the principle
+springing to life again in the fountain jet, and symbolical of life as
+it has ever been; by means of the same principle applied to construction
+the Gothic architects raised their beautiful vaults, and emphasized the
+structural principle and the beauty of recurring line by moulding the
+edges of their ribs; while we have but to look at the structure of the
+human frame to find the same principle there also, in the fibres of the
+muscles, for instance, the radiation of the ribs, and of the fingers and
+toes.
+
+[Illustration (f033): Radiating Principle of Line in Natural Form.]
+
+In truth, as I have said, if there can be said to be one principle more
+than another, the perception and expression of which gives to an
+artist's work in design peculiar vitality, it is this principle of
+radiating line. One may follow it through all stages and forms of
+drawing and design, and it is equally important in the design of the
+figure, in the structure of a flower, in the folds of drapery, and alike
+in the controlling lines of pictorial composition and decorative plan,
+whether the lines radiate from seen or from hidden centres, which in all
+kinds of informal design are perhaps the most important.
+
+[Illustration (f034): Radiating Lines of the Pectoral Muscles & Ribs]
+
+                                                   [Range and Use of Line]
+
+We see, therefore, that line possesses a constructive and controlling
+function, in addition to its power of graphic expression and decorative
+definition. It is the beginning and the end of art. By means of its
+help we guide our first tottering steps in the wide world of design;
+and, as we gain facility of hand and travel further afield, we discover
+that we have a key to unlock the wonders of art and nature, a method of
+conjuring up all forms at will: a sensitive language capable of
+recording and revealing impressions and beauties of form and structure
+hidden from the careless eye: a delicate instrument which may catch and
+perpetuate in imperishable notation unheard harmonies: a staff to lean
+upon through the journey of life: a candid friend who never deceives us:
+perchance a divining rod, which may ultimately reveal to us that Beauty
+and Truth are one--as they certainly are, or ought to be, in the world
+of art.
+
+[Illustration (f035): Radiating Line in Architectural Construction:
+Vaulting of Chapter House, Westminster.]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER III
+
+    Of the Choice and Use of Line--Degree and Emphasis--Influence of
+    the Photograph--The Value of Emphasis--The Technical
+    Influence--The Artistic Purpose--Influence of Material and
+    Tools--Brush-work--Charcoal--Pencil--Pen.
+
+
+Recognizing the great range and capacity of line as a means of
+expression, and also the range of choice it presents to the designer and
+draughtsman, the actual exercise of this choice of line, with a view to
+the most expressive and effective use in practice, becomes, of course,
+of the first consequence.
+
+In this matter of choice we are helped by natural bias, by personal
+character and preferences, for which it would, as I have said, be
+difficult fully to account; but beyond this a kind of evolution goes on,
+arising out of actual practice, which controls and is controlled by it.
+Draw simply a succession of strokes with any point upon paper, and we
+find that we are gradually led to repeat a particular kind of stroke, a
+particular degree of line, partly perhaps because it seems to be
+produced with more ease, and partly because it appears to have the
+pleasantest effect.
+
+                                                          [Choice of Line]
+
+By a kind of "natural selection," therefore, influenced no doubt by many
+small secondary causes, such as the relation of the particular angle of
+the hand and pencil-point to the surface--the nature of the point
+itself and the nature of the surface--we finally arrive at a choice of
+line. This choice, again, will be liable to constant variation, owing
+to the nature of the object we are about to draw, or the kind of design
+we want to make.
+
+                                                             [Use of Line]
+
+The kind of line which seems appropriate to representing the delicate
+edges of a piece of low-relief sculpture, for instance, would require
+greater force and firmness if we wanted to draw an antique cast in the
+round, and in strong light and shade. The character of our line should
+be sympathetic with the character of our subject as far as possible, and
+sensitive to its differences of character and surface, since it is in
+this sensitiveness that the expressive power and peculiar virtue of
+line-drawing consists.
+
+[Illustration (f036): Lines of Characterization.]
+
+A feather, a lily, a scallop shell, all show as an essential principle
+of their form and construction the radiating line; but what a different
+quality of line would be necessary to express the differences of each:
+for the soft, yet firm, smooth flowing curves of the feather fibres no
+line would be too delicate; and the lily would demand no less delicacy,
+and even greater precision and firmness of curve, while a slight
+waviness, or quiver, in the lines might express the silken or waxy
+surface of the petals; while a crustier, more rugged, though equally
+firm line would be wanted to follow the rigid furrows and serrated
+surface of the shell. The leaves of trees and plants of all kinds, which
+perhaps afford the best sort of practice in line-drawing at first,
+present in their varieties of structure, character, and surfaces
+continual opportunities for the exercise of artistic judgment in the
+choice and use of line.
+
+The forms and surfaces of fruits, again, are excellent tests of line
+draughtsmanship, and their study is a good preparation for the more
+subtle and delicate contours of the human form--the greatest test of
+all. Here we see firmness of fundamental structure (in the bones) and
+surface curve (of sinew and muscle), with a mobile and constantly
+changing surface (of flesh and sensitive skin). To render such
+characteristics without tending to overdo either the firmness or the
+mobility, and so to become too rigid on the one hand, or too loose and
+indefinite on the other, requires extraordinary skill, knowledge, and
+practice in the use of line. I do not suppose the greatest master ever
+satisfied himself yet in this direction.
+
+[Illustration (f037): Pen Drawing of Fruit.]
+
+                                                     [Degree and Emphasis]
+
+When we have settled upon our quality of line and its _degree_--thick or
+thin, bold or fine--we shall be met with the question of _emphasis_, for
+upon this the ultimate effect and expression of our drawing or design
+must largely depend. In the selection of any subject we should naturally
+be influenced by the attractiveness of particular parts, characters, or
+qualities it might possess, and we should direct our efforts towards
+bringing these out, as the things which impress us most. That is the
+difference between the mind and hand working together harmoniously and
+the sensitized plate in the photographic camera, which, uncontrolled in
+any way by human choice (and even under that control as it always is to
+some extent), mechanically registers the action of the light rays which
+define the impress of natural forms and scenes through the lens focussed
+upon the plate. So that, as we often see in a photograph, some
+unimportant or insignificant detail is reproduced with as much
+distinctness (or more) as are the leading figures or whatever form the
+interesting features or the motive of the subject. The picture suffers
+from want of emphasis, or from emphasis in the wrong place. It is, of
+course, here that the art of the photographer comes in; and, although he
+can by careful selection, arrangement, and the regulation of exposure,
+largely counteract the mechanical tendency, a photograph by its very
+nature can never take the place of a work of art--the first-hand
+expression, more or less abstract, of a human mind, or the creative
+inner vision recorded by a human hand.
+
+                                             [Influence of the Photograph]
+
+Photography does wonders, and for certain qualities of light and shade,
+and form and effect without colour, no painting or drawing can approach
+it; but it has the value and interest of science rather than of art. It
+is invaluable to the student of natural fact, surface effect, and
+momentary action, and is often in its very failures most interesting and
+suggestive to artists--who indeed have not been slow to avail themselves
+of the help of photography in all sorts of ways. Indeed the wonder is,
+considering its services to art in all directions, how the world could
+ever have done without it.
+
+But a photograph cannot do everything. It cannot make original designs,
+and it cannot draw in line. You can design in the solid, and make your
+groups in the studio or the open air; you can select your point of view,
+and the photograph will reproduce. You can make your drawing in line,
+and it will copy it; and we know its sphere of usefulness in this
+direction is enormous, since it can bring before our eyes the whole
+range of ancient art.
+
+In short, photography is an excellent servant and friend, but a
+dangerous master. It may easily beguile us by its seductive
+reproductions of surface relief and lighting to think more of these
+qualities than any other, and to endeavour to put them in the wrong
+places--in places where we want colour planes rather than shadow planes,
+flatness and repose rather than relief, for instance, as mostly in
+surface decoration.
+
+But one way of learning the value of emphasis is to draw from a
+photograph, and it will soon be discovered what a difference in
+expression is produced by dwelling a little more here, or a little less
+there.
+
+                                                   [The Value of Emphasis]
+
+In designing, the use of emphasis is very important; and it may be said
+that drawing or designing without emphasis is like reading without
+stops, while awkward emphasis is like putting your stops in the wrong
+place.
+
+By a difference in emphasis the same design may be given quite a
+different effect and expression.
+
+[Illustration (f038): Effect of Different Emphasis in the Treatment of
+the Same Design.]
+
+Suppose, for instance, we were designing a vertical pattern of stem,
+leaves, and fruit in one colour. By throwing the emphasis upon the
+leaves, as in No. 1, we should gain one kind of effect or decorative
+expression. By throwing the emphasis upon the fruit, and leaving the
+leaves in outline, we should get quite a different effect out of the
+same elements, as in No. 2. While by leaving stem, leaves, and fruit all
+in outline, and throwing the emphasis upon the ground, we should get,
+again, a totally distinct kind of effect and expression.
+
+Similar differences of effect and expression, owing to differences of
+emphasis, might be studied in the drawing and treatment of a head (as in
+A, B, and C). The possibilities of such variations of emphasis in
+drawing are practically unlimited and co-extensive with the variations
+of expression we see in nature herself. The pictorial artist is free to
+translate or represent them in his work, controlled solely by the
+conditions and purpose of his work.
+
+[Illustration (f039): Different Emphasis in the Treatment of a Head
+[examples A, B, C].]
+
+It is these conditions and purposes which really control both choice and
+treatment, and determine the emphasis, and therefore the expression of
+the work.
+
+No kind of art can be said to be unconditioned, and the simplest and
+freest of all, _the art of the point and the surface_, which covers all
+the graphic art and flat designing, is still subject to certain
+technical influences, and it may be said that it is very much in so far
+as these technical influences or conditions are acknowledged and
+utilized that the work gains in artistic character.
+
+                                                  [The Technical Influence]
+
+The draughtsman in line who draws for surface printing, for the book or
+newspaper, should be able to stand the test of the peculiar conditions;
+and, so far from attempting to escape them, and seeking something more
+than they will bear, should welcome them as incentives to a distinct
+artistic treatment with a value and character of its own, which indeed
+all the best work has. It is, for instance, important in all design
+associated with type for surface printing, that there should be a
+certain harmonious relation between lettering or type and printer's
+ornament or picture.
+
+[Illustration (f040): Sketches to Illustrate Effect of Different
+Emphasis in the Treatment of the Same Elements in Landscape.]
+
+[Illustration (f041a): Example of Page Treatment to Show Ornamental
+Relation Between Text and Pictures.]
+
+[Illustration (f041b): I. Textile Motive: Suggestion for a Carpet
+Pattern.]
+
+[Illustration (f041c): II. An Abstract Treatment of the Same on Point
+Paper, as Detail of Brussels Carpet.]
+
+A firm and open quality of line, with bright black and white effects,
+not only has the most attractive decorative effect with type, but lends
+itself to the processes of reproduction for surface printing best,
+whether woodcut or one of the numerous forms of so-called automatic
+photo-engraving, as well as to the conditions of the printing press.
+
+In all design-work which has to be subjected to processes of engraving
+and printing, clearness and definiteness of line is very necessary.
+Designs for textile printing of all kinds, for wall-papers, especially,
+require good firm drawing and definite colour planes. This does not,
+however, mean hardness of effect. A design should be clear and
+intelligible without being hard.
+
+For weaving, again, definiteness in pattern designing is very necessary,
+since the design must be capable of being rendered upon the severe
+conditions of the point paper, by which it is only possible to produce
+curves by small successive angles (which sounds like a contradiction in
+terms). The size of these angles or points, of course, varies very much
+in the different kinds of textile with which pattern is incorporated,
+from the fine silk fabric, in which they are almost inappreciable, to
+carpets of all kinds, where they are emphatic; so that a certain
+squareness of mass becomes a desirable and characteristic feature in
+designs for these purposes, and, indeed, I think it should be more or
+less acknowledged in all textile design, in order to preserve its
+distinctive beauty and character.
+
+                                                    [The Artistic Purpose]
+
+_Beauty and character._--In these lies the gist of all design. While the
+technical conditions, if fully understood, fairly met, and frankly
+acknowledged, are sure to give _character_ to a design, for whatever
+purpose, _beauty_ is not so easy to command. It is so delicate a
+quality, so complex in its elements, a question often of such nice
+balance and judgment--depending perhaps upon a hair's-breadth difference
+in the poise of a mass here, or the sweep of a curve there--that we
+cannot weave technical nets fine enough to catch so sensitive a
+butterfly. She is indeed a Psyche in art, both seeking and sought, to be
+finally won only by devotion and love.
+
+This search for beauty--this Psyche of art--is the purely inspiring
+artistic purpose, as distinct from the technical and useful one, which
+should, perfectly reconciled and united with it, determine the form of
+our work.
+
+In drawing or design we may seek particular qualities in line and form
+either of representation or of ornament. We may desire to dwell upon
+particular beauties either of object or subject. Say, in drawing from a
+cast or from natural form of any kind, we desire to dwell upon beauty of
+line or quality of surface. Well, since it is most difficult, if not
+impossible, to get everything at once, and nothing without some kind of
+sacrifice, we shall find that to give prominence to--to bring out--the
+particular quality in our subject (say beauty of line), it becomes
+necessary to subordinate other qualities to this. A drawing in pure
+outline of a figure may be a perfect thing in itself. The moment we
+begin to superadd shading, or lines expressive of relief of any kind, we
+introduce another element; we are aiming at another kind of truth or
+beauty; and unless we have also a distinctly ideal aim in this, we shall
+mar the simplicity of the outline without gaining any compensating
+advantage, or really adding to the truth or beauty of the drawing.
+
+In designing, too, unless we can so contrive the essential
+characteristics of our pattern that they shall be adaptable to the
+method and material of its production, and make its reproduction quite
+practicable, it is sure to reappear more or less marred and incomplete.
+The thing is to discover what kind of character and beauty the method
+will allow of--whether beauty or quality of line, or surface, or colour,
+or material; and if to be reproduced in a particular method or material,
+the design should be thought out in the method or material for which it
+is destined, rather than as a drawing on paper, and worked out
+accordingly, using every opportunity to secure the particular kind of
+beauty naturally belonging to such work in its completed form.
+
+Thus we should naturally think of _planes of surface_ in modelled work,
+and the delicate play of light and shade, getting our equivalent for
+colour in the design and contrast of varied surfaces. In stained glass
+we should think of a pattern in lead lines inclosing one of translucent
+colour, each being interdependent and united to form a harmonious whole.
+In textile design we should be influenced by the thought of the
+difference of use, plan, and purpose of the finished material; as the
+difference between a rich vertical pattern in silk, velvet, or tapestry,
+to be broken by folds as in curtains or hangings, and a rich carpet
+pattern, to be spread upon the unbroken level surface of a floor. The
+idea of the wall and floor should here influence us as well as the
+actual technical necessities of the loom. It would be part of the
+artistic purpose affecting the imagination and artistic motive, and
+working with the strictly technical conditions.
+
+The mind must project itself, and see with the inner eye the effect of
+the design as it would appear in actual use, as far as possible.
+Invention, knowledge, and experience will do the rest.
+
+                                                              [Brush-Work]
+
+Keeping, however, to strictly pictorial or graphic conditions--to the
+art of the point and the surface--with which, as designers and
+draughtsmen, we are more immediately concerned, we cannot forget certain
+technical considerations strictly belonging to the varieties of point
+and of surface, and their relations one to another. The flexible point
+of the brush, for instance, dipped in ink, or colour, has its own
+peculiar capacity, its own range of treatment, one might say, its own
+forms.
+
+The management admits of immense variation of use and touch, and its
+range of depicting and ornamental power are very great: from the simpler
+leaf forms, which seem to be almost a reflection or shadow of the moist
+pointed brush itself, to the elaborate graphic drawing in line or light
+and shade.
+
+[Illustration (f042): Brush Forms.]
+
+In forming the leaf shape one begins with a light pressure, if at the
+point, and proceeds to increase it for the middle and broader end. On
+the same principle of regulation of pressure any brush forms may be
+built up. It is essential for freedom in working with the brush not to
+starve or stint it in moisture or colour. For ornamental forms a full
+brush should be used: otherwise they are apt to look dragged and meagre.
+For a rich and flowing line also a full brush, however fine, is
+necessary. It is quite possible, however, to use it with a different
+aim, and to produce a sort of crumbling line when half dry, and also in
+colour-work for what is called dragging, by which tone, texture, or
+quality may be given to parts of a drawing. One should never lose
+sight, in using the brush as a drawing tool, of its distinctive quality
+and character, and impart it to all work done by its means.
+
+[Illustration (f043): Direct Brush Expression of Animal Form.]
+
+The direct touch with the full brush--to cultivate this is of enormous
+advantage to all artists, whatever particular line of art they may
+follow, since it may be said to be of no less value in design than it is
+in painting pure and simple. We can all feel the charm of the broad
+brush washes and emphatic brush touches of a master of water-colour
+landscape such as De Wint. This is mastery of brush and colour in one
+direction--tone and effect. A Japanese drawing of a bird or a fish may
+show it equally in another--character and form. A bit of Oriental
+porcelain or Persian tile may show the same dexterous charm and
+full-brush feeling exercised in a strictly decorative direction.
+
+[Illustration (f044): Japanese Drawing of a Bird. From "The Hundred
+Birds of Bari."]
+
+The empire of the brush, if we think of it in all its various forms and
+directions, is very large; and it commands, in skilled hands, both
+_line_ and _form_, in all their varieties, and leaves its impress in all
+the departments of art, from the humble but dexterous craftsman who puts
+the line of gold or colour round the edges of our cups and saucers, to
+the highly skilled and specialized painter of easel pictures--say the
+academician who writes cheques with his paint-brush!
+
+                                                     [Charcoal and Pencil]
+
+Then we have the ordinary varieties of the firm point: charcoal, pencil,
+pen. Charcoal, being halfway between hard and soft--a sort of halfway
+house or bridge for one passing from the flexible brush to the firm and
+hard points of pencil and pen--is first favourite with painters when
+they take to drawing. Its softness and removability adapts it as a tool
+for preliminary and preparatory sketching in for all purposes, and both
+for designer and painter; but it lends itself to both line and tone
+drawing, or to a mixture of both. It is therefore a very good material
+for rapid studies (say from the life) and the seizing of any effect of
+light and shade rapidly, since the masses can be laid in readily, and
+greater richness and depth can be obtained in shorter time, perhaps,
+than by any other kind of pencil.
+
+Charcoal is also very serviceable for large cartoon-work, since it is
+capable of both delicacy and force, and bears working up to any extent.
+A slight rubbing of the finger gives half tones when wanted, and is
+often serviceable in giving greater solidity and finish to the work.
+
+Then there is the lead pencil--the point-of-all-work, as it might be
+called--more generally serviceable than any other, whether for rapid
+sketches and jottings in the note-book, or careful and detailed
+drawings, or sketching in for the smaller kinds of design-work. It is
+also, of course, used for drawings which are afterwards "inked in." I do
+not think, however, that pen-work done in this way is so free or
+characteristic as when done direct, or at any rate quite freely, upon a
+mere scaffolding of preliminary lines, used only to make the plans for
+the chief masses and forms.
+
+Pencil drawing is capable of being carried to a greater pitch of
+delicacy and finish, and has a silvery quality all its own. It has not
+the force or range of charcoal, but in its own technical range it
+possesses many advantages. Its gray and soft line, however charming in
+itself, does not fit it for work where sharpness and precision of line
+and touch are required, as may be said to be the case with all work
+intended to be reproduced by some process of handicraft or manufacture,
+except some sorts of photo-engraving or lithography. We must therefore
+look to another implement to enable us to obtain these qualities,
+namely, the brush, the use and qualities of which I have already touched
+upon.
+
+                                                                 [The Pen]
+
+There remains yet another point of the firm and decisive order, the pen,
+which enables us to get firmness and sharpness of line and precise
+definition, as well as considerable range of treatment and freedom of
+touch.
+
+The pen seems to bear much the same relation to the brush as the lead
+pencil does to charcoal--not capable of such full and rich effects or
+such flowing freedom of line, but yet possessing its own beauty and
+characteristic kinds of expression. Its true province is in
+comparatively small scale work, and its natural association is with its
+sister-pen of literature in the domain of book-design and decoration,
+and black and white drawing for the press. Its varieties are endless,
+and the ingenuity of manufacturers continually places before us fresh
+choice of pen-points to work with; but though one occasionally meets
+with a good steel pen, I have found it too often fails one just when it
+is sufficiently worn to the right degree of flexibility. One returns to
+the quill, which can be cut to suit the particular requirements of one's
+work. For large bold drawing the reed-pen has advantages, and a pleasant
+rich quality of line.
+
+But with whatever point we may work, the great object is to be perfectly
+at ease with it in drawing--to thoroughly master its use and capacities,
+so that in our search for that other command, of line and form, we may
+feel that we have in our hands a tool upon which we can rely, a trusty
+spear to bear down the many difficulties and discouragements that beset,
+like threatening dragons, the path of the art-student.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER IV
+
+    Of the Choice of Form--Elementary Forms--Space-filling--Grouping--
+    Analogies of Form--Typical Forms of Ornament--Ornamental Units--
+    Equivalents in Form--Quantities in Design--Contrast--Value of
+    Variations of Similar or Allied Forms--Use of the Human Figure
+    and Animal Forms in Ornamental Design.
+
+
+We were considering the choice and use of Line in the last chapter: its
+expressive characters and various methods. We now come to the no less
+important question to the designer and draughtsman--_The Choice of
+Form_.
+
+If Line may be said to be the bone and sinew of design, Form is the
+substance and the flesh, and both are obviously essential to its free
+life and development.
+
+                                                        [Elementary Forms]
+
+The _cube_ and the _sphere_ give us the fundamental elements, or primal
+types from which are derived the multifarious, ever varying, and complex
+forms, the products of the forces and conditions of nature, or the
+necessitous inventiveness of art, just as we may take the square and the
+circle to be the parents of linear and geometric design.
+
+[Illustration (f045a): Elementary Forms: Pyramid, Sphere, Cube, Hexagon,
+Cone.]
+
+The cube and the sphere, the ellipse, the cone, and the pyramid, with
+other comparatively simple forms of solid geometry, present themselves
+to the student as elementary tests of draughtsmanship--of the power,
+that is, of representing solid bodies upon a plane surface. Such forms
+being more simple and regular than any natural forms, they are supposed
+to reduce the problem of drawing to its simplest conditions. They
+certainly afford very close tests of correctness of eye, making any
+fault in perspective or projection at once apparent.
+
+[Illustration (f045b): Use of Elementary Forms in Architecture.]
+
+To avoid, however, falling into mechanical ways, and to maintain the
+interest and give vitality to such studies, the relation of such forms
+to forms in nature and art should be borne in mind, and no opportunity
+missed of comparing them, or of seeking out their counterparts,
+corresponding principles, and variations, as well as their practical
+bearing, both functional and constructive; as in the case of the typical
+forms of flowers, buds, and seed-vessels, for instance, where the cone
+and the funnel, and the spherical, cylindrical, and tubular principles
+are constantly met with, as essential parts of the characters and
+organic necessities of the plant: the cone and the funnel mostly in buds
+and flower-petals for protection and inclosure of the pollen and seed
+germs, the tube for conducting the juices; the spherical form to resist
+moisture externally, or to hold it internally, or to avoid friction, and
+facilitate close storage, as in the case of seeds in pods. The
+seed-vessel of the poppy, for instance, has a curious little pent-house
+roof to shield the interstices (like windows in a tower) till the seed
+is ripe and the time comes for it to be shaken out of the shell or pod.
+A further practical reason for the prevalence of spherical form in seeds
+is that they may, when the outer covering or husk perishes, more readily
+roll out and fall into the interstices of the ground; or when, as in the
+case of various fruits, such as the apple and orange, the envelope
+itself is spherical and intended to carry their flat or pointed seeds to
+the ground, where it falls and rolls when ripe.
+
+[Illustration (f046): Poppyheads.]
+
+The cube and the various multiple forms may be found in crystals and
+basaltic rocks, as well as in organic nature, as, for instance, in the
+honeycomb of bees, where choice of form is a constructive necessity: the
+cube is in every sense of the word the corner-stone in architecture, and
+without squaring and plumbing no building could be constructed, while
+the cylindrical and conical principles of form are illustrated in towers
+and roofs, spires and pinnacles. In architectural ornament and carved
+decoration the cube and sphere again form the basis, both forming
+ornaments themselves by mere recurrence and repetition, and also forming
+constructional bases of ornament.
+
+[Illustration (f047): Apple Cut to Show Position of Seeds.]
+
+                                                      [Dog-Tooth Ornament]
+
+[Illustration (f048b): Dog-tooth Formed From Cube.]
+
+A very simple but effective form of carved ornament characteristic of
+early Gothic work is what is known as the dog-tooth. This is formed
+simply by cutting a cube of stone into a pyramid, depressing the sides,
+and cutting them into geometric leaves, leaving the sharp angles of the
+pyramid from the base to the apex standing out in bold relief. In
+ground-plan this is simply composed geometrically of a rectangle divided
+diagonally into four equal parts, and by striking four semicircles from
+the centres of the four sides of the rectangle. Here we get a form of
+ornament in the flat which appears to have been very widely used, and
+reappears in the early art of nearly all races so far as I am aware. We
+find it, for instance, in Assyrian carving and in early Greek
+decoration, in China and Japan, and in European mediaeval work of all
+kinds. Its charm perhaps lies in its simplicity of construction yet rich
+ornamental effect, either as carved work or as a flat painted diaper. It
+might also be used as the geometric basis of an elaborate repeating
+wall-pattern over a large surface.
+
+[Illustration (f048a): Cube and Sphere in Architectural Ornament: Brick
+Dental, Ball Flower Moulding, and Dog-tooth Moulding.]
+
+                                                       [Filling of Spaces]
+
+When it comes to the choice of form, when we are face to face with a
+particular problem in design, ornament, or decoration (say, as most
+frequently happens, it is to fill a panel of a given shape and size), we
+are bound to consider form in relation to that particular panel, to the
+subject we propose to treat, and the method by which the design is to be
+produced, or the object and position for which it is intended. This
+generally narrows the range of possible choice. Firstly, there is the
+shape of the panel itself. A well-known exercise for the Teacher's
+Certificate under the Department of Science and Art is to give a drawing
+of a plant adapted to design in a square and a circle. Now in the
+abstract one would be inclined to select for a circular fitting
+different forms from those one might select for a square filling, since
+I always consider that the shape of the space must influence the
+character of the filling in line and form. Still, if the problem is to
+fill a square and a circle by the same forms, or an adaptation of them,
+we must rely more and more upon difference of _treatment_ of these
+forms, and not try to squeeze round forms into rectangular space, or
+rectangular forms into circular space. In a rose, for instance, it would
+be possible to dwell on its angular side for the square, and on its
+curvilinear side for the circle. Anyway, we should seek in the first
+place a good and appropriate motive.
+
+[Illustration (f049a): Filling of Square Space.]
+
+Supposing the design is for wood inlay, we should have to select forms
+that would not cause unnecessary difficulty in cutting, since every form
+in the design would have to be cut out in thin wood and inserted in the
+corresponding hollow cut in the panel or plank to receive it. Complex or
+complicated forms would therefore be ruled out, as being not only
+difficult or impossible to reproduce in the material, but ineffective.
+
+[Illustration (f049b): Filling of Circular Space.]
+
+                                                            [Inlay Design]
+
+A true feeling for the particular effect and decorative charm of inlaid
+work should lead us to limit ourselves to comparatively few and simple
+forms, treating those forms in an emphatic but abstract way, and making
+use of recurring line and form as far as possible. We might make an
+effective panel, say, for a casket, or a clock-case, or a floor, by
+strictly limiting ourselves to very few and simple forms--say, for
+instance, a stem, a leaf, a berry, or disc, and a bird form, or fruit
+and leaf forms. It would be possible to build up a design with such
+elements both pleasant in effect and well adapted to the work. An
+excellent plan would be to cut out all one's forms with knife or
+scissors in stiff paper, as a test of the practicability of an inlay
+design. This is actually done with the working drawing by the inlay
+cutter.
+
+[Illustration (f050): 1. Units of Simple Inlay Pattern; 2. Motive for
+Inlaid Pattern Built of the Same Units; 3. Treatment of Form as Pattern
+Units for Inlaid Work; 4. Pattern Motive for Inlaid Work]
+
+I once designed an inlaid floor for the centre of a picture gallery.
+The scale was rather large, and the work was bold. One kept to large,
+bold, and simple forms--water-lilies and broad leaves, swans, scallop
+shells, and zigzag borders. Forms which can be readily produced by the
+brush would generally answer well for inlay, since they would have
+simple and sweeping boundaries and flat silhouette. And for inlay one is
+practically designing in black, white, or tinted silhouette. This makes
+it very good practice for all designers, both for the invention it tends
+to call out, owing to the limited resources and restriction as to forms,
+and also as giving facility and readiness in blocking in the masses of
+pattern.
+
+The water-colour painter, too, would find that blocking in in flat local
+colour all his forms and the colours of his background was an excellent
+method of preparatory work, and afforded good practice in direct
+painting, since he could add his secondary shades and tints in the same
+manner until the work was brought to completion, while preserving that
+fresh effect of the undisturbed washes which is the great charm of
+water-colour.
+
+                                                [Grouping of Allied Forms]
+
+In seeking forms to group together harmoniously--which is the whole
+object of composition--we shall find that much the same kind of
+principle holds good whether we are arranging a still-life group or
+designing a wall-paper or textile. It is only a difference of degree and
+scale. In the one case we are designing in the solid with the actual
+objects, before drawing or painting them as a harmonious pictorial
+composition; in the other we are arranging forms upon the flat with a
+view to harmonious composition with a strictly decorative purpose in
+view. In the first we are dealing with concrete form in the round; in
+the second, generally speaking, with abstract form in the flat.
+
+[Illustration (f051a): Grouping of Allied Forms: Composition of Curves.]
+
+But in either case we want harmony. We cannot, therefore, throw together
+a number of forms unrelated to each in line, contour, or meaning. We
+seek in composing or designing not contradictions, but correspondences
+of form, with just an element of contrast to give flavour and point. In
+grouping pottery, for instance, we should not place big and little or
+squat and slender forms close together without connecting links of some
+kind. We want a series of good lines that help one another and lead up
+to one another in a kind of friendly co-operation. Broad smooth forms
+and rounded surfaces, again, require relief and a certain amount of
+contrast. We feel the need of crisp leaves or flowers, perhaps, with
+our pottery form. We may safely go far, however, on the principle of
+grouping similar or allied forms, giving our composition as a whole
+either a curvilinear or angular character in its general lines, masses,
+and forms, on the principle of like to like. This will entirely depend
+upon our choice of grouping of form; but the more by our selection we
+make our composition tend distinctly in the one direction or the other,
+the more character it will be likely to possess.
+
+[Illustration (f051b): Grouping of Allied Forms: Composition of Angles.]
+
+                                                                [Grouping]
+
+[Illustration (f052): Still-life Group Illustrative of Wood-Engraving.]
+
+In selecting forms for still-life grouping and painting, I think
+increased interest might be gained by arranging significant objects,
+accessories bearing upon particular pursuits, for instance, in natural
+relationship and surrounding. Groups suggesting certain handicrafts, for
+instance, such as the clear glass globe of the wood-engraver, the
+sand-bag, the block upon it, the tools, gravers lying around, the
+eye-glass, an old book of woodcuts, and so forth. Other groups
+suggestive of various arts and industries could be arranged--such
+motives as metal-work, pottery, literature, painting, music, embroidery,
+spring, summer, autumn, and winter, might all be suggestively
+illustrated by well-selected groups of still life. Even different
+historic periods might be emblematically suggested--I should like to see
+more done in this way.
+
+[Illustration (f053): Japanese Diagonal Pattern.]
+
+To return to design in the flat. If we start with a motive of circular
+masses, we cannot suddenly associate them with sharp angles--I mean in
+our leading forms. Of course we can make a network or trellis or diaper
+of the angles, to form a mat, ground, or a framework on which to place
+our broad masses, as we may see effectively done by the Chinese and
+Japanese.
+
+                                                     [Corresponding Forms]
+
+[Illustration (f054): Treatment of Fruit and Leaf Forms: Corresponding
+Curvature]
+
+If the principal group of forms in our pattern, say, are fruit
+forms--apples, pomegranates, or oranges--we must re-echo or carry out
+the curves in a lesser degree in the connecting stems and leaves. Change
+the form of the fruit, say, to lemons, and a further variation of
+connecting or subsidiary curve in stems and leaves will naturally
+suggest itself, and at the same time in following such principles we
+shall be expressing in an abstract way more of the character of the tree
+or plant itself. In looking at the leaf of a tree one may often see a
+suggestion of the general character and contour of the tree itself, and
+we know the line:
+
+    "Just as the twig is bent the tree's inclined."
+
+In dealing with angular motives the same principle would be followed,
+but corresponding to the difference of motive. Let the form of your
+detail be reflected in the character of your mass.
+
+I have spoken of the necessity in designing of seeking correspondences
+in form, and although, could we place every form in proper sequence and
+supply all the intermediary links to unite them harmoniously, forms of
+extreme diversity might thus be associated, given great extension of
+space (as in wall decoration, for instance), even then we should want
+these forms to correspond and recur. Yet, as a rule, having to deal in
+design with what are really parts rather than wholes, we can only
+endeavour by making the design of these parts simple and harmonious in
+line and form, and true to their special conditions, to render their
+association decoratively possible.
+
+[Illustration (f055a): Correspondence in General Contour Between Leaf
+and Tree.]
+
+[Illustration (f055b): Some Analogies in Form.]
+
+Certain forms seem to lend themselves to design in ornament better than
+others, because they give the designer certain lines and masses which
+can be harmoniously repeated or combined with other allied forms or
+lines. Design from this point of view becomes a search for analogies of
+form.
+
+                                                       [Analogies of Form]
+
+I mentioned certain simple geometric forms common to nature and art.
+Early ornament consists in the repetition of such forms. The next step
+was to connect them by lines: and so form and line, through endless
+vicissitudes and complexities, became united, to live happily in the
+world of decorative motive ever after. But long after the primitive
+unadorned geometric forms themselves have ceased to be the chief forms
+in ornament, their controlling influence is asserted over the boundaries
+of the more complicated masses introduced.
+
+                                               [Typical Forms of Ornament]
+
+The simple rectangle is disguised under the fret, the circle and spiral
+assert their sway over the boundaries of the palmette, or circle and
+semicircle unite to form the oval so frequently used both as a unit in
+Greek ornament and as a controlling boundary. These are typical border
+forms: for extension and repetition in fields of pattern we find the
+same geometric plans at work in combination and subdivision, forming at
+first the ornament itself, and afterwards furnishing the plan and
+controlling boundaries only. Even in later stages in the evolution of
+surface decoration, in what are called naturalistic floral patterns,
+amid apparent carelessness and freedom, by the exigencies of repetition
+the ghost of buried geometric connection reappears, and compels the
+most naturalistic roses on a wall-paper to acknowledge themselves
+artificial after all, as they nod to their counterparts from the masked
+angles of the inevitable diaper repeat.
+
+[Illustration (f056): Tree of Typical Pattern Forms, Units, and
+Systems.]
+
+We find in the historical forms of decorative art constantly recurring
+types of form and line, such as the lotus of the Egyptians, the anthemia
+of the Greeks, the pineapple-like flower and palmette of the Persians,
+the peony of the Chinese. These forms, at first valued solely for their
+symbolical and heraldic significance, and continually demanded, became
+to the designer important elements or _units_ in ornament. They gave him
+fine sweeping curves, radiating lines, and bold masses, without which a
+designer cannot live, any more than a poet without words. They were
+capable, too, of infinite variation in treatment, a variation which has
+been continued ever since, as by importation to different countries (the
+movement going on from east to west) the same forms were treated by
+designers of different races, and became mixed with other native
+elements, or consciously imitated as they are now by Manchester
+designers and manufacturers, to be sold again in textile form to their
+original owners, as it were, in the far East. Truly, a strange turn of
+the wheel.
+
+                                                        [Ornamental Units]
+
+The range of choice in ornamental units is, indeed, embarrassingly large
+for the modern designer, and a careful and tasteful selection becomes of
+more and more importance. It is not the number of forms you can combine,
+or because they are of Persian or Chinese origin, that your work will be
+artistic, but the judicious and inventive use made of the elements of
+your design. Ready-made units, such as the Oriental forms I have
+mentioned, are no doubt easier to combine, to make an effect with,
+because a certain amount of selection has already been done. In fact,
+with such forms as the Persian or Indian palmette, we are dealing with
+the results of centuries of ornamental evolution, and with emblems
+immemorially treasured by ancient races. It behoves us, if we are called
+upon to recombine them, to treat them with sympathy, refinement, and
+respect, and to let them deteriorate as little as possible, for the
+spirit of an important ornamental form is like a gathered flower--it
+soon withers and becomes limp.
+
+[Illustration (f057): Sketches to Show Use of Counterbalance, Quantity,
+and Equivalents in Designing.]
+
+                                                     [Equivalents in Form]
+
+It is the _spirit_, after all, that is the important thing to preserve,
+in decorative design, however widely we may depart from the _letter_
+sometimes. This is a difficult quality to define, but I should say it
+chiefly consists in a nice attention to the character of form, the
+elastic spring of curves, an understanding of the construction and
+proportions, and grasp of the effect. In designing we constantly feel
+the need of repeating certain masses with variations or balancing them
+by equivalents, or the necessity of leading up to certain main forms by
+subsidiary forms, and to carry out their lines in other parts of the
+composition. In designing figures or emblems, for instance, within
+inclosed spaces, such as shields or cartouche shapes, forming leading
+elements in a design, it requires much invention and ornamental feeling
+so to arrange them that, while different in subject or meaning, and
+differently spaced, they shall yet properly counterbalance each other,
+and, though varied in detail, shall yet be equivalent in quantity. The
+same sort of feeling would govern the case of designing two masses of
+fruit and foliage, say, forming two halves of an oblong panel, which,
+though starting on the symmetric plan from the centre, are not intended
+to be alike in detail; or in a frieze composed of a series of formalized
+trees, where it was desired to have each different, say, to express the
+progression of the seasons, it would be the sense of the necessity of
+equivalents which would govern the decorative effect.
+
+[Illustration (f058): Quantities and Counterchange of Border and Field
+in Carpet Motives.]
+
+                                                    [Quantities in Design]
+
+[Illustration (f059): Sketch to Illustrate Value of Different Quantities
+in Persian Rugs.]
+
+Such considerations naturally lead us to the question of the use of
+_quantities_ in design--the ornamental proportions of ornament, or the
+contrasting distribution of form and line. For the mere repetition of
+ornamental forms over surfaces and objects without reference to
+proportion or structure is not decoration. The perception of appropriate
+quantities in design is really the decorative gauge or measure of
+effect.
+
+[Illustration (f060): Sketch to Illustrate Value of Different Quantities
+in Persian Rugs.]
+
+In designing a bordered panel--or say a carpet--we might decide to
+throw the weight of pattern, colour, or emphasis upon either the field
+or border. Supposing the field had a dark ground upon which the
+arabesque or floral design was relieved, in the border it would be most
+effective to transpose this arrangement, making the ground light, and
+bringing out the border design dark upon it. Or, if the motive were
+reversed, giving a light ground to the centre, with the pattern dark,
+the border might be brought out on a dark field. Or, again, for a less
+emphatic treatment the quantities of the pattern itself might be almost
+infinitely varied, massive forms and close fillings contrasting with
+open borders and united with intermediary bands.
+
+[Illustration (f061): Sketch to Illustrate Value of Different Quantities
+in Persian Rugs.]
+
+These intermediary bands or subsidiary borders are very important in
+Eastern rugs and carpets, and their quantities very carefully
+considered. A Persian designer, for instance, would never leave a blank
+unbroken strip of colour to surround his field; his object is not to
+isolate the quantities of his pattern, but to distinguish and unite
+them: so he makes use of the subsidiary borders as additional
+quantities. A usual arrangement which always looks well is to have the
+border proper inclosed in two bands of about the same width and quantity
+in pattern--or they might be a repeat of each other--and to inclose the
+field or centre within another narrow subsidiary border. But the
+variations to be observed in any chance selection of Persian rugs or
+carpets are constant, and the amount of subtle variety and invention in
+these subsidiary borders is endless.
+
+Very excellent examples of the treatment and distribution of quantities
+may also be studied in the older Indian printed cottons, such as maybe
+seen at South Kensington.
+
+                                                                [Contrast]
+
+The consideration of quantities in form and design involves the question
+of _contrast_, which, indeed, can hardly be separated from it. There is
+the contrast of form and line, and the contrast of colour and plane. It
+is with the first kind we are dealing now.
+
+Take the simplest linear border, such as the type common in Greek work.
+We should easily weary of the continual repetition of such a form alone
+and unassisted, but add a vertical with an alternative dark filling, and
+we get a certain richness and solidity which is a relief at once. Add
+another quantity, and we get the rich effect of the egg and tongue or
+egg and dart moulding.
+
+A still simpler instance of the use of contrast, however, is the
+chequer, or the principle of equal alternation of dark and light masses;
+but this touches colour contrast rather than form.
+
+[Illustration (f062): Recurrence and Contrast in Border Motives.]
+
+The love of contrast makes the Chinese porcelain-painter break the blue
+borders of his plates with small cartouche-like forms inclosing the
+light ground, varied with a spray or device of some light kind; or the
+diagonal, closely-filled field of his woven silk by broad discs or
+cartouches of another plane of ornament. But the love of sharp or very
+violent contrasts, more especially of form, may easily lead one astray
+and be destructive of ornamental effect. Like all decorative
+considerations, the artistic use of contrast depends much upon the
+particular case and the conditions of the work, and one cannot lay down
+any unvarying rules. There are agreeable and disagreeable contrasts, and
+their choice and use must depend upon the individual artist.
+
+                                               [Variation of Allied Forms]
+
+The most beautiful kinds of design rather seem to depend upon the
+harmonious variation in association of similar or allied forms than on
+sharp contrasts.
+
+In compositions of figures the association of the delicate curves and
+angles of the human form, and the lines of drapery, with the emphatic
+verticals and horizontals, the semicircles and rectangles of
+architectural form, for instance, are always delightful in competent
+hands; as also compositions of figure and landscape, with its
+possibilities of undulating line corrected by the severe horizon, or
+sea-line, and contrasted with the vertical lines of trees, stems, and
+the rich forms of foliage masses.
+
+For the same reasons both of correspondence and contrast, masses of type
+or lettering of good form are admirable as foils to figure designs, in
+which commemorative monuments of all kinds and book designs afford
+abundant opportunities to the designer.
+
+                                    [Use Of Human Figure and Animal Forms]
+
+In surface or textile decoration of all kinds nothing gives so much
+relief and vitality as the judicious use of animal forms and the human
+figure, although they are not much favoured at present. The forms of
+birds and animals, if designed in relation to the rest of the pattern,
+will give a pleasant variety of form and line, and in their forms and
+lines we find just those elements both of correspondence and contrast,
+in their relation to geometric or to floral design, which are so
+valuable.
+
+[Illustration (f063a): Use of Inclosing Boundaries in Designing Animal
+Forms in Decorative Pattern.]
+
+In order to combine such forms successfully, however, great care in
+designing is necessary; and a good sound principle to follow as a
+general guide is to make the boundaries of the bird or animal touch the
+limits of an imaginary inclosing form of some simple geometric or floral
+or leaf shape (see p. 104[f063a]). This would at once control the form
+and render it available in a pattern as a decorative mass or unit. The
+particular shape of the controlling form must, of course, depend upon
+the general character of the design, whether free and flowing or square
+and restricted, the nature of the repeat, the ultimate position of the
+work, and so on. A study of Gothic heraldry and the early Sicilian silk
+patterns would be very instructive in this connection, since it is
+rather the heraldic ideal than that of the natural history book which is
+decoratively appropriate. At the same time it is quite possible to
+combine ornamental treatment with a great deal of natural truth in
+structure and character.
+
+[Illustration (f063b): Decorative Spacing of Figures Within Geometric
+Boundaries.]
+
+Much the same principles apply to the treatment of the human figure as
+an element in ornament; they should be designed, whether singly or in
+groups, under the control of imaginary boundaries, and care must be
+taken that in line and mass they re-echo (or are re-echoed by) other
+lines which connect them with the rest of the design, if they occur as
+incidents in repeating wall-paper or hanging design, for instance. It
+is, however, quite possible to imagine a decorative effect produced by
+the use of figures alone (see p. 105[f063b]), with something very
+subsidiary in the way of connecting links of linear or floral pattern,
+much as figures were used by the ancient Greek vase-painters,
+beautifully distributed as ornament over the concave or convex surfaces
+of the vases and vessels of the potter, the forms of which, as all good
+decoration should do, they helped to express as well as to adorn.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER V
+
+    Of the Influence of Controlling Lines, Boundaries, Spaces, and
+    Plans in Designing--Origin of Geometric Decorative Spaces and
+    Panels in Architecture--Value of Recurring Line--Tradition--
+    Extension--Adaptability--Geometric Structural Plans--Frieze and
+    Field--Ceiling Decoration--Co-operative Relation.
+
+
+The function of line considered from the point of view of its
+controlling influence as a boundary, or inclosure, of design, upon which
+I touched in the last chapter, is a very important one, and deserves
+most attentive study.
+
+The usual problem a designer in the flat has to solve is to fill
+harmoniously a given space or panel defined by a line--some simple
+geometric form--such as a square or a circle, a parallelogram, a
+diamond, a lunette.
+
+                                    [Influence of Controlling Lines, etc.]
+
+Now it is possible to regard such spaces or panels as more or less
+unrelated, and simply as the boundaries of an individual composition or
+picture of some kind. Yet even so considered a certain sense of
+geometric control would come in in the selection of our lines and
+masses, both in regard to each other and in regard to the shape of the
+inclosing boundary. We seem to feel the need of some answering line or
+re-echo in the character of the composition to the shape of its
+boundary, to give it its distinctive reason for existence in that
+particular form--just as we should expect a shell-fish to conform to the
+shape of its shell. Such a re-echo or acknowledgment might be ever so
+slight, or might be quite emphatic and dominate as the leading motive,
+but for perfectly harmonious effect it must be there.
+
+[Illustration (f064): Relation of Design to Boundary: Simple Linear
+Motives and Pattern Bases.]
+
+A strictly simple and logical linear filling of such spaces might be
+expressed in the most primitive way, as in the illustration on p.
+109[f064].
+
+By these means certain primitive types of ornament are evolved, such as
+the Greek volute and the Greek key or fret, the logical ornament of a
+logical people.
+
+Such arrangements of line form simple linear patterns, and a decorative
+effect of surface is produced simply by their repetition, especially if
+the principle of alternation be observed. This principle may be
+expressed by taking, say, a series of squares or circles, and placing
+them either in a line as for a border arrangement, or for extension
+vertically and laterally over a surface, and filling only the alternate
+square or circle, leaving the alternate ones, or dropping them out
+altogether (see illustration, p. 111[f065]).
+
+[Illustration (f065): Use of Intervals in Repeating the Same Ornamental
+Units.]
+
+When we desire to go beyond such primitive linear ornaments, however,
+and introduce natural form, we should still be guided by the same
+principles, if we desire to produce a strictly decorative effect, while
+varying them in application to any extent.
+
+It matters not what forms we deal with, floral, animal, human; directly
+we come to combine them in a design, to control them by a boundary, to
+inclose them in a space, we shall feel this necessity of controlling
+line, which, however concealed, is yet essential to bring them into that
+harmonious relation which is the essence of all design (see
+illustration, p. 112[f066]).
+
+[Illustration (f066): Designs of Floral, Human, and Animal Forms,
+Governed by Shape of Inclosing Boundary.]
+
+We may take it as a general rule that the more purely ornamental the
+purpose of our design, and the more abstract in form it is, the more
+emphatically we may carry out the principle of correspondence of line
+between that of the inclosing boundary and that of the design itself;
+and, _vice versa_, as the design becomes more pictorial in its appeal
+and more complex and varied in its elements, the more we may combine the
+leading motive or principle of line with secondary ones, or with
+variations, since every fresh element, every new direction of line,
+every new form introduced, demands some kind of re-echo to bring it into
+relation with the other elements of the design, or parts of the
+composition, whatever may be its nature and purpose.
+
+Now, if we seek further the meaning and origin of this necessity of the
+control of geometric lines and spaces in design, I think we shall find
+it in the constructive necessities of architecture: for it is certainly
+from architecture that we derive those typical spaces and panels the
+designer is so often called upon to fill.
+
+[Illustration (f067): The Parthenon: Sketch to Show Spaces Used for
+Decorative Sculpture in Greek Architecture.]
+
+                                   [Origin of Geometric Decorative Spaces]
+
+Lintel architecture--the Egyptian and the Greek--gave us the frieze,
+both continuous, as in that of the Cella of the Parthenon, or divided by
+triglyphs, which represented the ends of the beams of the primitive
+timber construction; and the interstices left between these determined
+the shape of the sculptured panel or slab inserted, and influenced the
+character of its masses and the lines of its design, which was under the
+necessity of harmonizing with the whole building (see illustration, p.
+114[f067]).
+
+[Illustration (f068): Tower of the Winds Athens BC 50]
+
+The same may be said of the pediments. The angle of the low-pitched roof
+left another interstice for the sculptor at each end of the building;
+and I have elsewhere* pointed out the influence of the inclosing space
+and the angles of the pediment of the Parthenon upon the arrangement of
+the groups within it, and even upon the lines taken by some of the
+figures, especially the reclining figures near the acute angles.
+
+   [*] See "Bases of Design."
+
+Certain lines become inseparably associated with constructive
+expression, and are used to emphasize it, as the vertical flutings of
+the Doric column, by repeating the lines of the column itself, emphasize
+its constructive expression of supporting the weight of the horizontal
+lintels, the lines of which, repeated in the mouldings of the frieze and
+cornice, are associated with level restfulness and secure repose.
+
+As examples of design which, while meeting the structural necessities
+and acknowledging the control of space and general conditions, as the
+form of the slabs upon which they are sculptured, yet expresses
+independent movement, the figures of the octagonal tower of the winds at
+Athens are interesting (see illustration, p. 115[f068]).
+
+Quite a different feeling, corresponding to differences in conception
+and spirit in design, comes in with the Roman round _arch_ its allied
+forms of _spandril_ and _vault_, _lunette_ and _medallion_, presenting
+new spaces for the surface designer, and new suggestions of ornamental
+line (see illustration, p. 117[f069]). It is noticeable how, with the
+round-arched architecture under Roman, Byzantine (see illustration, p.
+118[f070]), and Renaissance forms, the scroll form of ornament
+developed, the reason being, I think, that it gave the necessary element
+of recurring line, whether used in the horizontal frieze in
+association with round arches, or in spandrils of vaults and arcades,
+and on marble mosaic pavements.
+
+[Illustration (f069): Sketch of Part of the Arch of Constantine to Show
+Spaces for Decorative Sculpture in Roman Architecture.]
+
+[Illustration (f070): Byzantine (Mosaic) Treatment of Architectural
+Structural Features: Apse, S. Vitale Ravenna.]
+
+                                             [Value of the Recurring Line]
+
+The development of Gothic architecture, with its new constructive
+features and the greater variety of geometric spaces, forms, and
+interstices which, as a consequence, were available for the designer of
+associated ornament, whether carved work, mosaic, stained glass, or
+painting, naturally led to a corresponding variety in invention and
+decorative adaptation; and we may trace the same principle at work in
+other forms--I mean the principle of corresponding, counterbalancing,
+and recurring line--Gothic ornament being indeed generally an essential
+part of the structure, and architectural features being constantly
+repeated and utilized for their ornamental value, as in the case of
+canopies and tabernacle work.
+
+We see, for instance, in the Decorated period the acute gable moulding
+over the arched recess, niche, doorway, or tomb, lightened and vivified
+by a floriated finial springing into vigorous curves from a vertical
+stem, forming an emphatic ogee outline which re-echoes the ogee line of
+the arch below, and is taken up in variations by the crockets carved
+upon the sides of the gable; and their spiral ascending lines lead the
+eye up to the finial which completes the composition. We may trace the
+same principle in the carved fillings of the subsidiary parts, such as
+the trefoiled panels, the secondary mouldings, and the cusps of the
+arches, which continue the line-motive or decorative harmony to the last
+point (see illustration, p. 120[f071]). The elegance and lightness of
+the pinnacles is increased in the same way, and further emphasized by
+the long vertical lines of the sunk panels upon their sides.
+
+[Illustration (f071): From Canopy of Tomb of Gervaise-Alard 1303. Temp
+ED^wd^ I^st^ Winchelsea]
+
+In church doorways we may see certain voussoirs of the arch allowed to
+project from the hollow of the concave moulding, and their surfaces
+carved into bosses of ornament; while, again, the doorway is emphasized
+by the recurring lines of the mouldings, with their contrasting planes
+of light and shadow, and the point of their spring is marked by a
+carved lion, controlled in the design of its contour by the squareness
+of the block of stone upon which it is carved (see illustration, p.
+121[f072]).
+
+[Illustration (f072): Structural Control of Line in Architectural
+Enrichments West Door Walberswick Ch. Suffolk]
+
+The carvings of miserere seats in our cathedral choirs often afford
+instances of ingenious design and arrangement of elements difficult to
+combine, yet always showing the instinct of following the control of the
+dominating form and peculiar lines of the seat itself. There is an
+instance of one from St. David's Cathedral--apparently a humorous
+satire--a goose-headed woman offering a cake to a man-headed gull (?),
+or perhaps they are both geese! I won't pretend to say, but it evidently
+is intended to suggest cupboard love, and there is a portentously large
+pitcher of ale in reserve on the bench. But note the clever arrangement
+of the masses and lines, and how the lines of the seat and the curves
+of the terminating scroll are re-echoed in the lines of the figures and
+accessories.
+
+[Illustration (f073): C. 1460-1480 Wood Carving Miserere Seat Choir
+Stalls St. David's Cathedral. Controlling Line in Design of Subsidiary
+Architectural Decoration.]
+
+A stone-carving from the end of a tomb in the same cathedral--that of
+Bishop John Morgan, 1504--of a griffin with a shield shows an emphatic
+repetition of the inclosing line of the arched recess in the curves of
+the wings which follow it.
+
+[Illustration (f074): Recessed Panel Carved Stone From the Tomb of
+Bishop John Morgan D. 1504, St. David's Cathedral.]
+
+There is also a charming corbel of a half-figure of an angel, which,
+though somewhat defaced, shows the architectural sense very strongly in
+its design--the vertical droop of the wing-feathers inclosing the figure
+repeating and continuing the vertical lines of the shafts and the
+subsidiary mouldings of the arrangement of the drapery, and its
+termination in crisp foliated forms, which pleasantly counterbalance the
+set of the scale feathers of the wings and break the semicircular
+mouldings of the base of the corbel, repeating those of the shafts
+above.
+
+[Illustration (f075): Constructive Line Reechoed in Architectural
+Ornament. Corbel, Bishop Vaughan's Chapel, St. David's 1509-]
+
+                                                  [Adaptability in Design]
+
+[Illustration (f076): Gothic Tile Pattern S. David's Cath^l.]
+
+Adaptation to spaces upon a flat surface is also illustrated in some
+tile patterns from the same place. They are simple and rude but very
+effective bits of spacing, and show a thorough grasp of the principles
+we have been considering--if, indeed, it is so far conscious work at
+all. But whether or not the outcome of a tradition which seemed to be
+almost instinctive with mediaeval workmen--a tradition which yet left the
+individual free, and under which design was a thing of life and growth,
+ever adapting itself to new conditions, and grafting freely new
+inventions to flower in fresh phantasy upon the ancient stock--the
+movement in art in the Middle Ages, exhibiting as it does a gradual
+growth and a constant vitality, always accompanying and adapting itself
+to structural changes, to life and habit, was really more analogous to
+the development of mechanical science in our own day, where each new
+machine is allied to its predecessors, though it supplants them. The one
+law being adaptability, the one aim to apply means to ends, and more and
+more perfectly, inessentials and superfluities are shed, and invention
+triumphs. It is, too, a collective advance, since each engineer, each
+inventor, builds upon the experience of both his forerunners and his
+fellow-workers, and everything is brought to an immediately practical
+test.
+
+We are not yet in the same healthy condition as regards art, and art can
+never be on the same plane as science, though art may learn much from
+science, chiefly perhaps in the direction of the inventive adaptation of
+analogous principles. But in art the question is complicated by human
+feeling and association, and her strongest appeal is to these, and by
+these, and as yet we do not seem to have any terms or equivalents
+precise enough to describe, or any analysis fine enough to discover
+them.
+
+                                                               [Extension]
+
+The next consideration in spacing we may term _extension_. This bears
+upon all surface design, but more especially upon the design of patterns
+intended to repeat over a large surface, and not specially designed for
+particular spaces. It is a great question whether any design can be
+entirely satisfactory unless it has been thought out in relation to some
+particular extent of surface or as adapted to some particular wall or
+room. Modern industrial conditions preclude this possibility as a rule,
+and so the only sure ground, beyond individual taste and preference, is
+technical adaptability to process or material. We should naturally want
+to give a different character to a textile pattern, whether printed or
+woven, and intended to hang in folds, from one for flat extension as a
+wall-paper; and a different character again to such designs intended for
+extension horizontally from those intended for vertical space alone.
+Floor patterns, parquets and carpets, for instance, naturally demand
+different treatment from wall patterns, as those orders of plants in
+nature which cling and spread on the flat ground differ from those which
+grow high and maintain themselves in the air, or climb upon trees. The
+rule of life--_adaptability_--obtains in art as in nature, and, beneath
+individual preference and passing fashion, works the silent but real law
+of relation to conditions. This again bears upon the choice of scale,
+and differentiates the design of dress textiles from furniture textiles,
+and the design of varied surfaces and objects, which, while demanding
+their own particular treatment, are brought into general relation by
+their association with use and the wants of humanity.
+
+[Illustration (f077a): Extension: Surface Pattern Motives Derived from
+Lines of Structure.]
+
+                                        [Geometric Structural Plans, etc.]
+
+The law governing extension of design over surface is again geometric,
+and our primal circle and square are again the factors and progenitors
+of the leading systems which have governed the design of diapers and
+wall patterns and hangings of all kinds. Nay, the first weaver of the
+wattled fence discovered the principle of extension in design, and
+showed its inseparable association with construction; and the builder
+with brick or stone emphasizes it, producing the elements of linear
+surface pattern, from the mechanical necessity of the position of the
+joints of his structure. At a German railway station waiting-room I
+noticed an effective adaptation of this principle as a wall decoration
+in two blues upon a stone colour (see illustration, p. 128[fig077a]). We
+may build upon such emphatic structural lines, either incorporating them
+with the design motive, as in all rectangular wall diapers, or we may
+suppress or conceal the actual constructive lines by placing the
+principal parts or connections of our pattern over them, but one cannot
+construct a satisfactory pattern to repeat and extend without them; for
+these constructive lines or plans give the necessary organic life and
+vigour to such designs, and are as needful to them as the trellis to the
+tendrils of the vine (see illustration, p. 129[f077b]).
+
+[Illustration (f077b): Surface Extension: Repeating Patterns Built Upon
+(1) Square and (2) Circular Basis.]
+
+The same principle is true of designs upon the curvilinear plan. The
+mere repetition of the circle by itself gives us a simple geometric
+pattern, and we are at liberty to emphasize this circular plan as the
+main motive; or, as in the case of the rectangular plans, to treat it
+merely as a basis, and develop free scroll motives upon it; or follow
+it through its principal variations, as in the ogee, formed by dropping
+out two intermediate semicircles; or the various forms of the scale
+arrangement. These simple geometric plans are the most generally useful
+as plans of designs intended for repetition and extension over space,
+and they are always safe and sound systems to build upon, since a
+geometric plan is certain to join comfortably if our measurements are
+right.
+
+[Illustration (f078): Surface Extension: Plan of a Drop Repeat.]
+
+We may, however, often feel that we want something bolder and freer, and
+start with a motive of sweeping-curves, non-geometric, but even then a
+certain geometric relation will be necessary, or an equivalent for it,
+since each curve must be counterbalanced in some way, though not
+necessarily symmetrically, of course; and even where a square of
+pattern--say to a wall-paper repeat of twenty-one inches--has been
+designed, not consciously upon a geometric base, but simply as a
+composition of lines and masses to repeat, the mechanical conditions of
+the work when it comes to be printed will supply a certain geometric
+control, since it necessarily begins in the process of repetition a
+series of squares of pattern in which the curves are bound to recur in
+corresponding places. Without a geometric plan of some sort, however, we
+may easily get into difficulties with awkward leading lines, gaps, or
+masses, that tumble down, and are only perceived when the paper is
+printed and hung.
+
+The designer should not feel at all restricted or cramped by his
+geometric plan, but treat it as an aid and a scaffolding, working in as
+much variety and richness of detail as he likes, bound only by the
+necessity of repeating or counterbalancing his forms and lines. In the
+diagram (p. 131[f078]) the plan of making a repeat less obvious by means
+of what is termed "a drop" is given, and this system also increases the
+apparent width of a pattern.
+
+                                                        [Frieze and Field]
+
+The feeling which demands some kind of contrast or relief to a field of
+repeating pattern, however interesting in itself, seems now almost
+instinctive. It is felt, too, in the case of plain surfaces, where the
+eye seeks a moulding to give a little variety or pattern-equivalent in
+play of light and shadow upon different planes, lines, or concavities
+and convexities. The common plaster cornice placed to unite walls and
+ceiling, in our ordinary houses, is a concession (on the part even of
+the jerriest of builders) to the aesthetic sense. We get the decorated
+frieze in architecture in obedience to the same demand, though
+originally a necessary feature of lintel construction, as we have seen,
+from the days of the festal garland hung around the eaves of the classic
+house, to its perpetuation in stone in so many varieties.* The carved
+garland depending in a series of graceful curves, or contrasted with
+pendants, or their rhythm punctuated, as it were, by ox-heads, as on the
+temple of the Sibyls, Tivoli, formed the needed contrast to the plane
+masonry of the wall below. Sculptured figures, with the added interest
+of story, as on the choragic monument of Lysicrates, fulfilled the same
+decorative function in a more complex and elaborate way.
+
+   [*] "Bases of Design."
+
+To satisfy the same feeling we place a frieze above the patterned field
+of our modern wall-papers. Such a frieze may be considered as a
+contrasting border to the pattern of the field, much as the border of a
+carpet, allowing for difference of material and position; or the frieze
+may assert itself as the dominant decoration of the room. In this case
+it would be greater in depth than the simpler bordering type. The
+interest of the field filling would then be subsidiary, and lead up to
+the frieze. In wall-paper friezes the difficulty in designing is to
+think of a motive which will not tire the eye in the necessarily
+frequent repeats of twenty-one inches. Longer ones have occasionally
+been produced, the limit being sixty inches. It is often a good plan to
+recur in the main lines or forms of the frieze to some variation of the
+lines or forms of the field. If, for instance, the main motive in the
+field was a vertical scroll design, a _horizontal_ scroll design upon a
+large scale used for the frieze would answer, the field being kept flat
+and quiet; or the fan, or radiating shell form, used as a frieze, above
+a pattern on the scale plan, would be quite harmonious. Relation and
+balance of line and mass, and arrangement of quantities in such designs,
+are the chief considerations.
+
+With painting or modelling an artist is freer, as he is at liberty to
+design a continuous frieze of figures, and introduce as much variety as
+he chooses.
+
+A painted frieze of figures above plain oak-panelling has a good effect
+in a large and well-proportioned room, and is perhaps one of the
+pleasantest ways of treating interior walls.
+
+[Illustration (f079): Sketch Designs to Show Relation Between Frieze
+and Field in Wall-paper.]
+
+                                                      [Ceiling Decoration]
+
+Ceiling decoration, again, presents problems of extension in designing,
+and the large flat plaster ceilings of modern rooms are by no means easy
+to deal with satisfactorily. The simplest way is to resort to
+wall-paper, and here, restricted in size of repeat and the usual
+technical requirements of the work, the designer must further consider
+appropriateness of scale, and position in regard to eye, relation to the
+wall, and so forth.
+
+The natural demand is for something simpler in treatment than the
+walls--a re-echo, in some sort, of plans agreeable to the floor, yet
+with a suggestion of something lighter and freer: here we may safely
+come back to rectangular and circular plans again for our leading lines
+and forms.
+
+Painting and modelling, again, offer more elaborate treatment and
+possibilities, and we know that beautiful works have been done in both
+ways; but art of this kind seems more appropriate to lofty vaulted
+chambers and churches, such as one sees in the palaces of Italy, at
+Genoa and Venice, at Florence and Rome.
+
+I remember a very striking and bold treatment of a flat-beamed ceiling
+in the Castle of Nuremberg, where a huge black German eagle was painted
+so as to occupy nearly the whole field of the ceiling, but treated in an
+extremely flat and heraldic way, the long feathers of the wings
+following the lines of the beams and falling parallel upon them and
+between them; and upon the black wings and body of the eagle different
+shields of arms were displayed in gold and colours, the eagle itself
+being painted upon the natural unpainted wood--oak, I think. The work
+belonged to the thirteenth or fourteenth century, I believe. It seemed
+the very antithesis of Italian finesse and fancy, but the fitness of
+such decoration entirely depends upon its relation to its surroundings,
+which in this case were perfectly appropriate.
+
+                                                   [Co-operative Relation]
+
+That is the great point to bear in mind in all design--the sense of
+relation; nothing stands alone in art. Lines and forms must harmonize
+with other forms and lines: the elements of any design must meet in
+friendly co-operation; it is not a blind struggle for existence, a
+fierce competition, or a strife for ascendency between one motive and
+another, one form and another, or a war of conflicting efforts. There
+may be a struggle _outside_ the design, in the mind of the designer. He
+may have tried hard against difficulties to express what he felt, and
+have only reached harmony through discord and strife, but the work
+itself should be serene; we should feel that, however various its
+elements, they are not without their purpose and relation one to
+another, that all is ordered and organized in harmonious lines, that
+everything has its use and place, that, in short, it illustrates that
+excellent motto, whether for art or life: "Each for all, and all for
+each."
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER VI
+
+    Of the Fundamental Essentials of Design: Line, Form,
+    Space--Principles of Structural and Ornamental Line in Organic
+    Forms--Form and Mass in Foliage--Roofs--The Mediaeval
+    City--Organic and Accidental Beauty--Composition: Formal and
+    Informal--Power of Linear Expression--Relation of Masses and
+    Lines--Principles of Harmonious Composition.
+
+
+We may take it, then, from the principles and examples I have
+endeavoured to put before you in the previous chapters, that there are
+three fundamental elements or essentials of Design--Line, Form, Space.
+
+                                        [Fundamental Essentials of Design]
+
+Line we need, not only for our ground-plan and framework, but also to
+define or express our forms. Form we need to give substance and mass,
+interest and variety; and it is obvious that Space is required to
+contain all these elements, while Space asserts its influence, as we
+have seen, upon both Line and Form in combination upon it, whether
+object or surface, by the shape of its boundary, the extension of its
+plane, and the angle and position of its plane in regard to the eye, as
+well as from the point of view of material and use.
+
+Questions of the character of line and form, and their combination and
+disposition in or over spaces, are questions of composition. They demand
+the most careful solution, whatever our subject and purpose may be,
+from the simplest linear border up to the most elaborate figure design.
+But although the three essentials to composition must be always present,
+it is always possible to rely more upon the qualities of one of them for
+our main motive and interest, keeping the other two subsidiary. We might
+centralize the chief interest of our composition upon _Line_, for
+instance, and make harmonious relation or combination of lines our
+principal object (as in line-design and ornament), or we might rather
+dwell upon the contours, masses, and contrasts and relationships of
+_Form_: as in pictorial design, figure compositions of all kinds, and
+modelling and sculpture: or, again, we might choose that the peculiar
+character given by the control of certain inclosing spaces should
+determine the interest of our design, as the due filling of particular
+panels and geometric shapes; or seek the interest of aerial perspective
+in the pictorial and atmospheric expression of space.
+
+Taking combinations of Line first, and bearing in mind what has been
+said regarding its capacities for expression, whether of emotion,
+direction of force, movement, rest, as well as of facts of structure and
+surface, let us see if we can trace the principle of harmonious
+composition, of which these things may be considered as parts.
+
+                                                   [Line in Organic Forms]
+
+Look at any of the systems of line in the organic structures of nature:
+the radiating ribs of the scallop shell, or the spiral of many other
+varieties; the set of the feathers upon the expanded wing of a bird; the
+radiation of the sun's rays; the flowing line of the wave movement; the
+lines of structure in flowers and leaves; the scales of a fish; the
+scales of a pine-cone or an artichoke. We feel that any of these
+combinations of lines are harmonious and beautiful, and we know that
+they are essential to the character and structure. They are organic
+lines, in short. They mean life and growth. In principle they are
+radiating and recurring lines; in each form they repeat each other in
+varying degrees of direction and declension of curve. No two lines are
+alike, yet there is no contradiction and no unnecessary line, and
+variety is combined with unity. Each affords a perfect instance of
+harmonious composition of line, and gives us definite principles upon
+which to work (see illustration, p. 140[f080]).
+
+[Illustration (f080): Principles of Structural and Ornamental Line in
+Natural Forms.]
+
+These systems of line in organic nature have been adopted and adapted by
+art, and are found throughout the historical forms of ornament which, as
+we have good reason to believe, were often derived from mechanical
+structures, illustrating the same principles; which, again, the logic of
+geometry enforces in drawing on plane surfaces.
+
+All organic structures teach us the same lesson of relation and
+recurrence of line. The bones of all vertebrate animals, from _fish_ to
+_man_, illustrate the constant repetition in different degrees of the
+same character and direction of line. The vertebral column itself is an
+instance, and the recurring spring of the ribs from it, like the
+branches from the stem of a tree, further expressed in the ramification
+of the jointed bones of the limbs and extremities. The principle may be
+followed out in the structure of the muscles in their radiating fibres,
+which the delicate contours and flowing lines of the surface of the
+body only combine in a greater degree of subtlety (see illustration, p.
+142[f081a]).
+
+[Illustration (f081a): Radiating, Recurring and Counterbalancing Lines
+in the Structure of the Skeleton and the Muscles.]
+
+Look at the anatomy of any tree, as it is disclosed to us in its wintry
+leaflessness, a beautiful composition of line rather than of form (see
+illustration, p. 143[f081b]).
+
+[Illustration (f081b): General Principles of Line and Form in the
+Branching and Foliage Masses of Trees.]
+
+Here we see organic life and structure expressed in the vigorous spring
+of inter-dependent and corresponding curves, from the rigid sinuous
+column of the main stem springing from the ground, presently divided
+into the main forks of the branches, which again subdivide and subdivide
+into smaller forks, so that the tree may sustain and spread its life in
+the air and the sun, both supporting and continuing its existence by
+this wonderful economic system of co-operative, subdivided, and
+graduated helpfulness.
+
+The massive green pavilion of summer, which this delicate vaulting of
+branch-work sustains, gives us another, more sumptuous, but perhaps not
+a greater beauty in the combination or substitution of form and mass for
+line composition.
+
+                                                [Form and Mass in Foliage]
+
+We might express, in an abstract way, the principle of the
+line-structure of the ramifying tree by super-imposing vertically fork
+upon fork in gradually diminishing scale, either curvilinear or
+rectangular; and the principle of the mass-structure in the formation of
+the foliage might be expressed by a series of overlapping curves,
+suggestive of scales or cloud masses: to both of which indeed they
+correspond in principle, illustrating the scale principle in detail and
+the cloud principle in the mass; thus repeating the same general law of
+natural roofing, or covering, in different materials (see
+illustration, p. 145[f082]).
+
+[Illustration (f082): Principles of Structure in Foliage Masses.]
+
+In a mass of foliage each leaf falls partly over the one below it, as by
+the system of their growth and suspension upon the stem they are of
+course bound to do, whether symmetric or alternate in their arrangement,
+the gaps caused by decay or accident being generally filled by new
+shoots. Each shoot, eager to expand its leaves in the light, ever
+spreading, forms mass after mass of the beautiful green panoply--the
+coat armour of the forest, arboreal man's first form of domestic
+architecture.
+
+[Illustration (f083): Albert Durer: Detail from 'The Prodigal Son.']
+
+The principle of structure here is just the same as the overlapping
+principle of the tiles and slates upon our ordinary house-roofs; but
+each leafy tile is different, being alive, and in the mass infinitely
+varied and beautiful in form and colour, instead of being mechanical and
+uniform, as we try to make our artificial roofs.
+
+                                                            [German Roofs]
+
+Very pretty and varied effects are produced in the old roofs of
+southern Germany by the use of different coloured glazed tiles--red,
+green, and yellow--arranged in simple patterns. One of the old towers at
+Lindau has such a roof, and the colour effect is very rich and striking.
+
+But I must not be led into a disquisition upon roofs further than in so
+far as they illustrate the subject of composition of line and form, and
+from the painter's point of view they frequently do in a very
+delightful and instructive way.
+
+[Illustration (f084): Albert Durer: St. Anthony.]
+
+What, for instance, can be more varied and charming than the
+compositions we constantly meet with in the rich backgrounds of Albert
+Durer? Those steep barn roofs, and those quaint German towns inclosed in
+walls with protecting towers--nests of steep tiled gables of every
+imaginable degree--which give so much character and interest to his
+designs, as in the background of his copper-plates "The Prodigal Son"
+and "St. Anthony" here given. Their prototypes still exist here and
+there in Germany, in such towns as Rothenburg, practically unchanged
+since the sixteenth century, and give one an excellent idea of what such
+houses were like. A visit there is like a leap back into the Middle
+Ages. Every street is a varied and interesting composition. No two
+houses are alike. They were built by the citizens to really pass their
+lives in. The town is strongly placed upon the crest of a hill, with a
+river at its foot, and well fortified and protected by massive
+encircling walls and towers and deep gates, which give it so strong and
+picturesque a character, while the timber and tile-roofed gallery for
+the warders still exists along the inside of the walls. Such cities
+arose by the strength of the social bond among men--the necessity for
+mutual help in the maintenance of a higher standard of life, and mutual
+protection against the ravages of sinister powers.
+
+                                                       [The Mediaeval City]
+
+Strong externally, internally they were made as home-like and full of
+the varied delight of the eyes, as if the people had reasoned, "Since we
+must live close together in a small place, let us make it as delightful
+and romantic as we can." We know that the idea of Paradise and the New
+Jerusalem to the imagination of the Middle Ages was always the fair
+walled garden and the fenced city. The painters embodied the idea of
+security and protection from the savage and destructive forces of nature
+and man--a sanctuary of peace, a garden of delight.
+
+[Illustration (f085): Roof-lines: Rothenburg.]
+
+We have in modern times turned rather from the city as a complete and
+beautiful thing, to the individual home, and to the interior of that,
+and, in the modern competitive search for the necessary straws and
+sticks to make our individualist-domestic composition of comfort and
+artistic completeness, bowers are too often built upon the ruins of
+others, or are fair by reason of surrounding degradation. The common
+collective comfort and delight of the eyes is too often ignored, so that
+it comes about that, if our modern cities possess any elements of beauty
+or picturesqueness, it is rather owing to accidents and to the
+transfiguring effects of atmosphere than to the beauty or variety of
+architectural form and colour. We have to seek inspiration among the
+fragments of the dead past in monuments and art schools.
+
+                                           [Organic and Accidental Beauty]
+
+The modern development of the municipality and extension of its
+functions may, indeed, do something, as it has done, and is doing,
+something to protect public health and further public education; but we
+have yet to wait for the full results, and everything must finally
+depend upon the public spirit and disinterestedness of the citizens, and
+in matters of art upon a very decided but somewhat rare and peculiar
+sympathy and taste, as well as enthusiasm.
+
+The absence of beauty of line, form, and proportion from the external
+aspects of daily life in towns has probably a greater effect than we are
+apt to realize in deadening the imagination, and it certainly seems to
+produce a certain insensibility to beauty of line and composition, since
+the perception must necessarily be blunted by being inured to the
+commonplace and sordid. The instinct for harmony of line and form
+becomes weakened, and can only be slowly revived by long and careful
+study in art, instead of finding its constant and most vital stimulus in
+every street.
+
+For all that, however, an eye trained to observe and select may, even in
+the dullest and dingiest street, find artistic suggestions, if not in
+the buildings, then in the life. And where there is life, movement,
+humanity, there is sure to be character and interest. Groups of children
+playing will give us plenty of suggestions for figure composition.
+Workpeople going to and from their work, the common works going on in
+the street, the waggons and horses, the shoal of faces, the ceaseless
+stream of life--all these things, whether we are able to reproduce them
+as direct illustrations of the life of our time, or are moved only to
+select from them vivid suggestions to give force to ideal conceptions,
+should all be noted--photographed, as it were, instantaneously upon the
+sensitive plate of the mind's vision. We can only learn the laws of
+movement by observing movement--the swing and poise of the figure, the
+relation of the lines of limbs and drapery to the direction of force and
+centre of gravity, so important in composition. We must constantly
+supplement our school and studio work by these direct impressions of
+vivid life and movement, and neglect no opportunity or despise no source
+or suggestion.
+
+There are still in England to be found such old-world corners as the
+quaint street of Canterbury (p. 153[f086]), which forms an excellent
+study in the composition of angular and vertical lines.
+
+[Illustration (f086): St. Margaret St Canterbury Aug: 27 1894]
+
+                                                      [Formal Composition]
+
+We may perceive that there are at least two kinds of composition, which
+may be distinguished as:
+
+     I. Formal.
+    II. Informal.
+
+I. Under the head of Formal may be classed all those systems of
+structural line with which I started, and which are found either as
+leading motives or fundamental plans and bases throughout ornamental
+design. Yet even these may be used in composition of figures and other
+forms where the object is more or less formal and decorative, as
+governing plans or controlling lines.
+
+The radiating ribs of a fan, for instance, might be utilized as the
+natural boundaries and inclosing lines of a series of vertical figures
+following the radiating lines. A strictly logical design of the kind
+would be a series of figures with uplifted arms, forming radiating lines
+from the shoulders, somewhat in the position of Blake's well-known and
+beautiful composition of the Morning Stars in the Book of Job, already
+illustrated.
+
+Using the overlapping vertical scale plan we should get relative
+positions for a formal composition of three figures, although they need
+not necessarily be formal in detail. A typical design of three
+associated ideas treated emblematically would be the most natural use of
+such an arrangement--as Faith, Hope, and Charity; Liberty, Equality,
+Fraternity; Science, Art, and Industry; or the three goddesses Here,
+Pallas, and Aphrodite, as choice and purpose might decide. A
+semicircular scale plan would not only repeat in a safe and sound
+manner, but would afford suggestive shapes in which to throw designs of
+figures, and could be effectively utilized either for a wall or ceiling
+repeat.
+
+The inclosure formed by two spiral lines gives a graceful ornamental
+shape for a half-reclining figure; while a series of floating or flying
+figures linking their hands would be appropriately governed by similar
+spiral lines, uniting them with the meandering wave line (see
+illustration, p. 155[f087]).
+
+[Illustration (f087): Formal Composition: Figure Designs Controlled by
+Geometric Boundaries.]
+
+Upon a series of semicircles or ellipses, alternating horizontally,
+might be arranged a little frieze of children with skipping ropes, or
+Amorini with pendent garlands; the up-and-down movement in the former
+case being conveyed by a variation, each alternate semicircle being
+struck upwards. This would restore the emphatic wave or spiral line,
+which always conveys the sense of rhythmic movement in a design.
+
+Such a line, vertically employed, will give again a good plan for a
+series of seated figures, say emblematic of the Hours, where similarity
+of attitude and type would be appropriate, while the emblems and
+accessories might be varied. A severer treatment would be suggested by
+making the controlling line angular (see illustration, p. 156[f088]).
+
+[Illustration (f088): Formal Composition: Figure Designs Controlled by
+Geometric Boundaries.]
+
+Such are a few illustrations of what I have termed formal composition,
+in which the geometric and structural plans of pure ornament or
+ornamental line maybe utilized to combine, control, or even suggest
+figure designs.
+
+                                                    [Informal Composition]
+
+II. While formal compositions, though naturally falling into classes and
+types, may be varied to a very great extent, when we come to informal
+compositions the variations are unlimited, and a vista of extraordinary
+and apparently endless choice, invention, and selection opens out before
+the designer, co-extensive with the variety of nature herself.
+
+In seeking harmonious and expressive composition in the pictorial
+direction the guides are much less definite and secure. Individual
+feeling and instinct, which must have an important influence in all
+kinds of designing, are in this direction paramount. Yet even here, if
+we look beneath the apparent freedom and informality, we find certain
+laws at work which seem to differ only in degree from the more definite
+and constructive control of line which we have been considering. In the
+first place, there are our direct impressions from nature; and,
+secondly, our conscious aims and efforts to express an idea in our
+minds. We have the same restricted and definite forms of language and
+materials in each case--line, form, space, brushes, pencil, colour,
+paper, canvas, or clay. We are taken by some particular scene: the
+composition of line and form at a particular spot attracts us more than
+another. We do not stop as a rule to ask why, since it usually takes all
+our time and our best skill to get into shape what we are seeking--and
+carry away with us an artistic record of the place. We have seen that in
+the case of certain natural structures, shells, leaves, flowers, the
+fundamental structural lines are so beautiful that they not only form
+ornament in themselves, but furnish the basis for whole types and
+families of ornament. When we look at a landscape, putting aside for the
+moment all the surface charms of colour and effect, and concentrating
+our attention upon its lines of structures, we shall find that it owes a
+great part of its beauty to the harmonious relation of its leading
+lines, or to certain pleasant contrasts, or a certain impressiveness of
+form and mass, and at the same time we shall perceive that this linear
+expression is inseparable from the sentiment or emotion suggested by
+that particular scene.
+
+A gentle southern landscape--undulating downs, and wandering
+sheep-walks; the soft rounded masses of the sheep upon smooth cropped
+turf--all these are so many notes or words in the language of line and
+form which go to express the idea of pastoral life. They are
+inextricably bound up with inseparable associations conveyed by such
+lines and forms. The undulating lines of resting or dancing figures
+would only give point, true emphasis, and variety, and a note of
+contrast in the forms would serve to bring out the general sentiment
+more strongly.
+
+Substitute rugged rocks, swollen torrents, wind-tossed trees and stormy
+skies, and all is changed. Such things cannot be expressed without much
+more emphatic lines and masses, and the use of opposing angles and
+energetic curves of movement which would be destructive of the sentiment
+of peace, in other cases. Yet even then to convey the expression of
+energy and rapid movement, concerted groups of lines are none the less
+necessary (see illustration, p. 159[f089]).
+
+[Illustration (f089): Informal Composition: Expression of (1) Storm and
+(2) Calm In Landscape.]
+
+Such comparisons indicate not only that there is a necessary
+association of ideas with certain lines and forms, but also that certain
+relations and associations of line of a similar character are necessary
+to produce a harmonious composition, and one which conveys a definite
+and pervading sentiment or emotion, just as we saw that the controlling
+lines of structural curves, spirals, and angles require to be in
+relation, and to be re-echoed by the character of the design they
+inclose or which is built upon them.
+
+The same law holds true in figure composition. The sense of repose and
+restfulness necessary to sitting or reclining groups depends upon the
+gentle declivities of the curves and their gradual descent to the
+horizontal.
+
+[Illustration (f090): Informal Composition: Expression of Repose and
+Action.]
+
+Draw a figure sitting rigid, tense, and alert, and you destroy the sense
+of repose at once, and you are obliged also to resort to angles, still
+more emphatic where strong action is to be expressed; while to express
+continual or progressive movement, a choice of associated lines of
+action in different stages of progress leading up to the crescendo of
+the final one (as in a group of mowers) would be necessary (see
+illustrations, p. 161[f090]). We cannot, then, in any composition have
+too definite a conception. We must, at any sacrifice of detail, bring
+out the main expression and meaning. Every group of figures must be in
+the strictest relation to each other and to the central interest or
+expression of the design. You cannot, for instance, in a procession of
+figures, make your faces turn all sorts of ways without stopping the
+onward movement which is essential to the idea of a procession. This
+would not preclude variety, but the general tendency must be in one
+direction. Every line in a composition must lead up to the central idea,
+and be subordinated or contributory to it (see illustration, Nos. 1 and
+2, p. 163[f091a]).
+
+[Illustration (f091a): (1) and (2) Movement in a Procession]
+
+The same with masses: you cannot put a number of forms together without
+some sort of relation, either of general character and contour or some
+uniting line. We may learn this principle from nature also. Look at a
+heap of broken stones and debris, which in detail may contain all sorts
+of varieties of form, as we find them tumbled down a steep place, as the
+rocky bed of a mountain stream, a heap of boulders upon a hillside, or
+the debris from a quarry or mine; in each case the law of gravity and
+the persistence of force working together arrange the diverse forms in
+masses controlled by the lines, which express the direction and degree
+of descent, and the pressure of force. The same thing may be seen on any
+hilly ground after heavy rain; the scattered pebbles are arranged in
+related groups, combined and composed by the flow of miniature streams,
+which channel the face of the ground and form hollows for their
+reception (see Nos. 3 and 4, p. 163[f091b]). The force of the tides and
+currents upon the sea-shore illustrates the same principle and affords
+us magnificent lessons in composition, not only in the delicate lines
+taken by the sculptured sand, but in the harmonious grouping of masses
+of shingle and shells, weeds and drift, arranged by the movement of the
+waves.
+
+[Illustration (f091b): (3) Lines Left by a Watercourse, (4) Lines
+Governing Fallen Debris from a Quarry.]
+
+                                    [Principles of Harmonious Composition]
+
+So that we may see that the principles of harmonious composition are not
+the outcome of merely capricious fancy or pedantic rule, but are
+illustrated throughout the visible world by the laws and forces of the
+material universe. It is for the artist to observe and apply them in his
+own work of re-creation.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER VII
+
+    Of the Relief of Form--Three Methods--Contrast--Light and Shade,
+    and Modelling--The Use of Contrast and Planes in Pattern
+    Designing--Decorative Relief--Simple Linear Contrast--Relief by
+    Linear Shading--Different Emphasis in relieving Form by Shading
+    Lines--Relief by means of Light and Shade alone without
+    Outline--Photographic Projection--Relief by different Planes and
+    Contrasts of Concave and Convex Surfaces in Architectural
+    Mouldings--Modelled Relief--Decorative Use of Light and Shade,
+    and different Planes in Modelling and Carving--Egyptian System of
+    Relief Sculpture--Greek and Gothic Architectural Sculpture,
+    influenced by Structural and Ornamental Feeling--Sculptural
+    Tombs, Medals, Coins, Gems--Florentine Fifteenth-century
+    Reliefs--Desideriodi Settignano.
+
+
+We come now to the consideration of the various means and methods of
+expressing relief in line and form.
+
+We may define a form in outline and give it different qualities of
+expression by altering the quality and consistency of our outline, and
+we may obtain very different kinds of decorative effect by the use of
+lines of various degrees of thickness or thinness; but if we want to
+give it force and colour, and to distinguish it from its background more
+emphatically, we must add to our outline.
+
+                                      [Three Methods of Expressing Relief]
+
+There are three principal methods or systems of giving relief by adding
+to our outline.
+
+One is the method of giving relief to form by contrasts of tone, colour,
+or tint.
+
+Another by means of the expression of light and shade: and the third by
+means of modelling in relief.
+
+Now, still keeping to expression by means of line, the three arms I have
+sketched (p. 167[f092]) illustrate: (1) the form in outline alone; (2)
+the contrast method; and (3) the light and shade method. The three pots
+underneath illustrate the same three stages in a simpler manner.
+
+In number one we see the outline defining the form pure and simple: in
+number two the form is relieved by a half-tone formed of diagonal lines,
+forming a plane or background behind it. The arm is still further
+relieved by the dark drapery. Number three shows the relief carried
+further by lines expressive of the modelling of the arm and the rounding
+of the pot, and also by cast shadows from the forms.
+
+[Illustration (f092): The Relief of Form: (1) By Outline, (2) By
+Contrast, (3) By Light and Shade.]
+
+The system of expressing relief I have termed relief by contrast
+includes two kinds of contrast: there are the contrasts of line and
+form, and there are the contrasts of planes of tone or tint and local
+colour. We may consider that the contrast method covers generally all
+forms of pattern and certain kinds of pictorial design. The method of
+expressing relief by means of line covers generally all forms of design
+in black and white, graphic sketching, pen-drawing, and work with the
+point of all kinds.
+
+                                       [Of the Use of Contrast and Planes]
+
+Taking the principle of contrast as applied to pattern design, we can,
+even within the limited range of black and white and half-tint (as
+expressed by lines), get a considerable amount of decorative effect. In
+the first place by bringing out our pattern, previously outlined, upon
+a black ground (as in Nos. 1 and 2, p. 169[f093]), increasing the
+richness of effect, and getting a second plane by treating the lower
+part in an open tint of line.
+
+Simple contrasts of dark upon light or light upon dark are effective,
+and sufficient for many purposes, such as borders (as in Nos. 2 and 3,
+p. 169[f093]).
+
+When a lighter kind of relief and effect is required, the recurring
+forms in a border are often sufficiently emphasized by a tint of open
+lines: movement and variety being given by making them follow the minor
+curves of the successive forms, as in this instance (No 4, p. 169[f093])
+the movement of the water is suggested behind the fish.
+
+The relation of the plain ground-work to the figure of the pattern is
+also an important point; indeed the plain parts of the pattern, or the
+interstices and intervals of the pattern, are as essential to the
+pattern as the figured parts.
+
+In designs intended for various processes of manufacture, such as
+printed or woven textiles, wall-papers, etc., where blocks or rollers
+are used to repeat the pattern, the extent of plain in proportion to
+figured parts must be governed in some measure by the practicable size
+of the repeat: but within certain limits great variety of proportion is
+possible.
+
+A simple but essentially decorative principle is to preserve a certain
+equality between the figured masses and the ground masses. The leaf
+patterns (Nos. 6 and 7, p. 169[f093]) consist simply of the repetition
+and reversal of a single element. An emphatic effect is obtained by
+bringing the leaves out black upon a white ground (as in No. 6), while a
+flatter and softer effect is the result of throwing them upon a plane
+of half-tint expressed by horizontal lines, with a similar effect of
+relief to that which would be given by the warp, if the pattern were
+woven.
+
+For larger surfaces, greater repose and dignity in pattern may be
+obtained by a greater proportion of the repeat being occupied by the
+ground (as in No. 5, p. 169[f093]).
+
+[Illustration (f093): Relief of Form and Line in Pattern Design by Means
+of Contrast and the Use of Planes.]
+
+Indeed we may consider as a general principle that the larger the
+interspaces of the ground, plane, or field of the pattern, the lighter
+in tint they should be, or the necessary flatness is apt to be lost.
+Relief in pattern design may be said to be adding interest and richness
+without losing the flatness and repose of the design as a whole. When
+pattern and ground are fairly equally balanced in quantity the ground
+may be rich and dark, and darkest as the interstices, where the ground
+is shown, become less. The figure of a pattern relieved as light upon a
+dark plane, as a rule, requires to be fuller in form than dark-figuring
+upon a light ground.
+
+                                                       [Decorative Relief]
+
+In decorative work the use of contrast in the relief of parts of a
+design is often useful and effective, as, for instance, the dark shading
+or treatment in black or flat tone of the alternating under side of a
+turn-over leaf border.
+
+The decorative value of this principle is recognized by heraldic
+designers in the treatment of the mantling of the helmet, which in
+earlier times is treated simply as a hanging or flying strip of drapery
+with a lining of a different colour, by which it is relieved as it hangs
+in simple spiral folds. This ornamental element became developed by the
+designers of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries into elaborate
+scroll designs springing from the circlet of the helmet and surrounding
+the shield: but the principle of the turned-up lining remained, often
+variegated and enriched with heraldic patterns (see illustrations, pp.
+172[f094a], 173[f094b]).*
+
+    [*] The increased importance given to the mantling in later times
+    may have been due to the disappearance of the housings of the
+    knight's horse and his surcoat, which originally displayed his
+    arms and colours. The mantling of later times displayed the
+    heraldic colours of the knight, when, being clad in plate armour,
+    there was no other means of displaying them except on the shield.
+    Decoratively, of course, the mantling is of great value to the
+    heraldic designer, enabling him to form much more graceful
+    compositions, to combine diverse and rigid elements with free and
+    flowing lines and masses, and to fill panels with greater
+    richness and effect, whether carved or painted, or both.
+
+[Illustration (f094a): Decorative Relief: Counterchange, Treatment of
+Mantling, Fourteenth and Sixteenth Centuries.]
+
+[Illustration (f094b): Decorative Relief: Treatment of Mantling.]
+
+                                             [Use of Diapered Backgrounds]
+
+The principle, too, of counterchange in heraldry answers to our
+principle of relief by contrast, and though its chief charm lies in its
+ornamental range of form and colour combinations, it can be expressed in
+black and white, and it remains a universal principle throughout
+decorative art. The decorative effect and charm of the relief of large
+and bold forms upon rich and delicate diapers is also an important
+resource of the designer. The monumental art of the Middle Ages affords
+multitudes of examples of this principle in ornamental treatment. The
+miniaturist of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries constantly relieved
+his groups of figures upon a diapered ground. The architectural sculptor
+relieved the broad masses of flowing drapery and the bold projection of
+his effigies and recumbent figures by delicately chiselled diapers upon
+the surface of the wall behind them. This treatment may frequently be
+seen in the recessed tombs of the fourteenth century.
+
+The incisor of memorial brasses, again, more especially in continental
+examples, shows a fondness for the same principle. The long vertical
+lines of drapery of ladies and ecclesiastics, the broad masses of the
+heraldic surcoat, or armour of the knights, the rich and heavy furred
+gowns of the burghers, are often relieved upon beautiful diapered or
+arabesque grounds, generally embodying some heraldic device, motto, or
+emblem of the person or family whose tomb it ornaments. Such decoration
+is strictly linear, yet within its own limits, and perhaps because of
+them, we find in this province of design extremely admirable work, no
+less for delineation of character and decorative treatment than for
+ornamental invention controlled by strict economy of line.
+
+[Illustration (f095): Relief Upon a Diapered Ground: Brass of Martin De
+Visch, Bruges, 1452.]
+
+                                        [Relief of Form by Linear Shading]
+
+This brings us to the consideration of our second method of relief by
+means of line.
+
+Take any simple allied elements to form a repeating pattern, say spiral
+shells, place them at certain rhythmic intervals, and we can unite and
+at the same time give them relief by filling in the ground by a series
+of waved lines to suggest the ribbed sand. Add a few dots to soften and
+vary the effect, and we get a pattern of a certain balance and
+consistency (No. 1, p. 177[f096a]).
+
+[Illustration (f096a): Relief in Pattern Design by Means of Simple
+Linear Contrasts (1)]
+
+With the more varied and complex floral form, but treated in a very
+abstract way, placing the daisies in a line, horizontally, and reversing
+the sprig for the alternate row, we have another motive, which is
+connected and steadied as well as relieved by the suggestion of grass
+blades in groups of three slightly radiated vertical strokes (No. 2,
+p. 177[f096b]). A pattern of two elements, again, may be formed in a
+still more simple way by linear contrast, as in No. 3, where the
+pyramidal trees are formed by a continuous serpentine stroke of the pen
+terminating in a spiral stem. The diagonal arrangement of the trees
+produces a chequer, the intervals of which can be varied by the
+contrasting black masses of the birds.
+
+[Illustration (f096b): Relief in Pattern Design by Means of Simple
+Linear Contrasts (2), (3)]
+
+In graphic drawing, lines to express forms in the relief of light and
+shade are often needed to give additional force even where no great
+degree of realism is desired. A tint formed by horizontal lines is
+sufficient to relieve a face from the background and give it solidity,
+while local colour may be given to the hair, and at the same time serve
+to relieve the leaves of a wreath encircling the head (see illustration,
+p. 178[f097a]).
+
+[Illustration (f097a): Relief by Adding Shading Lines to Outline.]
+
+The rich effect of clustered apples growing among their leaves could
+hardly be suggested without the use of lines expressive of light and
+shade, the interstices of the deepest shade running into solid black (p.
+178[f097a]). In adding lines in this kind of way to give relief or extra
+richness or force, the draughtsman is really designing a system of lines
+upon his outline basis, which may have quite as decorative a quality as
+the outline itself. At the same time nothing is more characteristic of
+the artist than the way in which such lines are used, and of course the
+choice of direction and arrangement of such lines will make all the
+difference in the effect of the drawing.
+
+                                                        [Diagonal Shading]
+
+Where the object is to express the figure in broad masses of light and
+shade, the use of a series of diagonal lines is an effective, and
+probably the most ready and rapid, method when working with the pen (see
+p. 179[f097b]). This system of expressing the broad surfaces of shade
+was much used by the Italian masters of the Renaissance in their rapid
+pen sketches and studies of figures, and a certain breadth and style is
+given to their drawings owing in part to the simplicity of this linear
+treatment.
+
+[Illustration (f097b): Relief of Form by Diagonal Shading.]
+
+                                                                [Emphasis]
+
+No doubt the simpler the system of line adopted in giving relief to
+figures the better, if the particular expression aimed at is
+accomplished, and, as a general rule, we should endeavour to get the
+necessary force and depth without the use of cross-line, or many
+different directions of line in shading a figure: but, given any power
+of draughtsmanship, the individuality of the artist is bound to come in,
+and it is not likely, nor is it to be desired, that any two artists in
+line should give exactly the same account of natural fact, or reproduce
+the images in their minds in the same forms, any more than we should
+expect two writers to express their ideas in the same terms.
+
+The kind and degree of emphasis upon different parts, the selection of
+moment or fact, would all naturally make considerable differences in the
+treatment. The three sketches of the skirt dancer are given as instances
+of the different effects and expression to be obtained in rendering the
+same subject (p. 181[f098]).
+
+[Illustration (f098): Different Method and Different Emphasis in
+Relieving Form by Shading Lines.[A, B, C]]
+
+In A the broad relief of the white dress against the tones of the floor
+and background, and the darker note of the hair, are the facts chiefly
+dwelt upon. In B the form of the figure is brought out in broad light
+and shade and cast shadow, and the dress relieved by radiating folds. In
+C quicker movement is given, the lines of the successive wave-shaped
+folds radiating spirally from the shoulders being the chief means of
+conveying this, while the head and arms are thrown into strong relief
+against a dark background, the cast shadow being of a lighter tone.
+
+The direction of line used in relieving forms, and expressing modelling
+and details, must depend much upon individual taste and feeling as well
+as knowledge of form. The element of beauty of design also comes in, and
+the question between this and force or literalness--the difference
+between a study or direct transcript from nature, and a design with a
+purely ornamental aim, or a composition directed mainly to the
+expression of a particular idea or emotion.
+
+Such considerations will ultimately determine the choice and use of
+line, the degree of relief and emphasis, for these and the direction of
+the line itself are the syllables and the words which will convey the
+purport of the work to the mind of the beholder.
+
+Study of the masters of line--Durer, Titian, Mantegna, Holbein--will
+inform us as to its capacities and limitations. The limitations, too, of
+method and material will be a powerful factor in the determination of
+style in the use of line and in the economy of its use.
+
+The bold firm line suitable to the facsimile woodcut, the broad and
+simple treatment of line with solid black useful in the plank-cut line
+block to be used with colour blocks, the comparatively free and
+unconditioned pen-drawing for the surface-printed process block--all
+these will finally give a certain character to our work beyond our own
+idiosyncrasies in the use of the pen or the brush.
+
+[Illustration (f099): Albert Durer's Principle in the Treatment of
+Drapery: From the Woodcut in the "Life of the Virgin" Series.]
+
+Useful things may be learned by the way, such as Albert Durer's
+principle of giving substance to his figures and details, more
+especially seen in his treatment of drapery, when the lines run into
+solid black and express the deeper folds and give emphasis and solidity
+to the figure (p. 183[f099]). The reproductions here given of sketches
+of drapery by Filippino Lippi and Raphael also show the same principle.
+
+[Illustration (f100): Albert Durer: Pen-Drawing.]
+
+A figure or object of any kind, seen in full light and shade, is
+relieved at any of its edges either as dark against light, or as light
+against dark, and we recognize it as a solid form in this way; the
+boundaries of natural light and shade defining it, and projecting it
+from the background upon the vision. There may be infinite modulations,
+of course, between the light part, the half-tones, and the darkest
+parts; but this broad principle governs all work representing light and
+shade.
+
+[Illustration (f101): Filippino Lippi: Study of Drapery.]
+
+It is, in fact, _the principle of the relief of form_ represented upon a
+plane surface.
+
+[Illustration (f102): Raphael: Studies of Drapery.]
+
+                                         [Relief by Light and Shade Alone]
+
+If the draughtsman's object be to represent the _appearance_ of a figure
+or any object in full natural light and shade with the pen or other
+point, he could do so without using outline at all, but by simply
+observing this principle and defining the boundaries of light on dark or
+half-tone in their proper masses and relations. The pen sketch of the
+man with the hoe (p. 188[f103a]) is intended to illustrate this method.
+
+[Illustration (f103a): Relief by Means of Light and Shade Alone, in
+Pen-drawing Without Outline.]
+
+There is also the method of representing form in relief by means of
+working with white line only upon a dark ground, the modelling and
+planes of surface being entirely expressed in this way (as in A, p.
+189[f103b]). This may be termed drawing by means of _light_, and may be
+contrasted with the opposite method of working by means of black line
+only on a light ground, or drawing by means of _shade_ (as in B, p.
+189[f103b]).
+
+[Illustration (f103b): Relief of Form: (A) By White Line Only on Dark
+Ground, and (B) By Black Line Only on Light Ground.]
+
+Yet another method, and one in which the effect of relief can be
+obtained more readily and rapidly, perhaps, is by working on a
+half-toned paper, drawing in the form with pencil, chalk, or brush,
+blocking in the darker shadows and heightening the highest lights with
+touches of white. These white touches, however, should be strictly
+limited to the highest lights. This method is represented by the
+half-tone blocks used in this book, those which were taken from drawings
+made on brown paper and touched with white.
+
+                                         [The Principle of the Photograph]
+
+The definition of form by means of light is strictly the principle of
+the photograph, which comprehends and illustrates its complementary of
+relief by means of shade, and I think it is due to the influence of the
+photograph that modern black-and-white artists have so often worked
+on these principles. The drawings of Frederick Walker and Charles Keene
+may be referred to as examples. I shall, however, hope to return to this
+branch of the subject later.
+
+                                       [Relief in Architectural Mouldings]
+
+So far we have been considering the relief of form by means of line. We
+now come to what may be termed the relief of form by actual form and
+plane, or modelling in actual light and shade, as in architecture and
+sculptors' and carvers' work. Then relief is gained by the contrast of
+actually different planes, forms, surfaces, and textures. The simplest
+illustrations of the principles of modelled relief are to be found in
+architectural mouldings, by means of which buildings are relieved and
+enriched, and important structural or functional parts are emphasized,
+as in cornices and ribs of vaults, arches, and openings.
+
+Place a concave moulding side by side with a convex one either
+horizontally or vertically, and a certain pleasant effect of contrasting
+light and shade is the result, reminding one of the recurring concave
+and convex of the rolling waves of the sea (A, p. 191[f104]).
+
+A series of flat planes of different widths and at different levels also
+produces a pleasant kind of relief useful in a picture frame or the jamb
+of a door (B).
+
+All architectural mouldings might be said to be modifications or
+combinations of the principles illustrated by these two.
+
+Very different feeling may be expressed in mouldings, and if we compare
+the two types, the classical and the Gothic, the comparatively broad and
+simple effect of the former (C, D, E, F, G) contrasts with the
+richness and variety and the stronger effect of light and shade,
+produced by deep undercutting, in the latter (H, I, J, K).
+
+[Illustration (f104): Relief in Architectural Mouldings.]
+
+The Romans, however, produced rich and highly ornate effects in the use
+of these types of mouldings, as they reappeared in the Corinthian order,
+the ovolo cut into the egg and dart, with the Astralagus beneath, the
+Cyma recta above the brackets of the cornice casting a bold shadow, and
+both in the cornice and the hollow beneath the dentils enriched with
+carving, as seen in the splendid fragment of the Forum of Nerva.
+
+[Illustration (f105): Roman Treatment of Corinthian Order, Forum of
+Nerva, Rome.]
+
+When we pass to the more complex problems of figure modelling and
+sculpture, it is but carrying on and developing the same principle of
+the contrast of planes, of the relief of plane upon plane, of forms upon
+one plane, to forms upon forms in many planes. From the contrast of bead
+and hollow we come to consider the contrast between the rounded limb and
+the sinuous folds of drapery; from the rhythm of the acanthus scroll we
+turn to the less obvious but none the less existing rhythm of the
+sculptural frieze.
+
+Line, we may say, controls the modeller's and sculptor's composition,
+but form and its treatment in light and shade give him his means of
+ornament. The delicate contours of faces and limbs contrasted with the
+spiral and radiating folds of drapery, or rich clusters of leaves and
+fruits, the forms of animals and the wings of birds--these are his
+decorative resources.
+
+                                                        [Egyptian Reliefs]
+
+The early stages of sculpture in relief may be seen in the monumental
+work of ancient Egypt.
+
+Simple incised work appears to have been the first stage, and the
+forms afterwards slightly modelled or rounded at the edges into the
+hollow of the sunk outline.
+
+Large figures and tables of hieroglyphic inscription were thus cut upon
+vast mural surfaces, and carried across the joints of the masonry,
+without disturbing the flatness and repose of the wall surface (p.
+195[f106]). The Egyptians, indeed, seem to have treated their walls more
+as if they were books for record and statement, symbol and hieroglyphic.
+
+[Illustration (f106): Egyptian System of Sculptured Relief: Thebes.]
+
+Messrs. Perrot and Chipiez, in their "History of Ancient Art in Egypt,"
+speak of three processes in the treatment of Egyptian reliefs (vol. ii.,
+p. 284):
+
+1. That followed by the Greeks, in which the figures are left standing
+out from a smooth bed, sometimes slightly hollowed near the contours
+(see illustration, p. 196[fig106]).
+
+2. Where the figures are modelled in relief in a sunk hollow, from an
+inch to one and a half inch deep.
+
+3. Where the surface of the figures and the bed or field of relief are
+kept on one level (see illustration, p. 196[f107]), the contours
+indicated by hollow lines cut into the stone; very little modelling,
+little more than silhouette, in which the outline is shown by a hollow
+instead of by the stroke of a pencil or brush.
+
+One would be inclined to reverse the order of these three processes, on
+the supposition that No. 3 was the earliest process, and that it arose,
+as I have conjectured, from the practice of representing forms by
+incised lines only.
+
+There is certainly a strong family likeness as to method between the
+Egyptian reliefs and the Assyrian, the Persian, and the archaic Greek;
+and there is a far greater difference in treatment between archaic Greek
+relief sculpture and the work of the Phidian period than between the
+archaic work of the three races named.
+
+The strictly mural and decorative conditions which governed ancient
+sculpture no doubt gave to Greek sculpture in its perfection a certain
+dignity, simplicity, and restraint, and also accounted in a great
+measure for that rhythmic control of invisible structural and ornamental
+line which asserts itself in such works as the Pan-Athenaic frieze. It
+was strictly slab sculpture, and became part of the surface of the wall.
+
+[Illustration (f107): Greek Relief. Eleusis. Egyptian Relief. Denderah.]
+
+                                                        [Gothic Sculpture]
+
+The structural and ornamental feeling also asserts itself strongly in
+Gothic sculpture, owing to its close association with architecture, as,
+when it was not an integral part of the structure, it was always an
+essential part of the expression of the building, and it was this which
+controlled its treatment decoratively, in its scale and its system and
+degree of relief.
+
+In the porches of the Gallo-Roman churches of France of the twelfth
+century, the figures occupying the place of shafts became columnar in
+treatment, the sinuous formalized draperies wrapped around the elongated
+figures, or falling in vertical folds, as in the figures in the western
+door of Chartres Cathedral (p. 199[f108]). The lines of the design of
+the sculptured tympanum were strictly related to the space, and the
+degree and treatment of the relief clearly felt in regard to the
+architectural effect (p. 201[f109]).
+
+[Illustration (f108): Chartres Cathedral: Carving on the West Front.]
+
+[Illustration (f109): Chartres Cathedral: Tympanum of the Central Door
+of the West Front.]
+
+                                                 [Architectural Influence]
+
+In the sculptured tombs of the Middle Ages, with their recumbent figures
+and heraldic enrichments, again, we see this architectonic sense
+influencing the treatment of form and relief, as these monuments were
+strictly architectural decorations, often incorporating its forms and
+details, and often built into the structure of the church or cathedral
+itself, as in the case of the recessed and canopied tombs of the
+thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
+
+As sculptures became detached from the building and wall, and appeared
+in full relief in the round, though still, as it were, carrying a
+reminiscence of their origin with them in the shape of the moulded
+pedestal, architectural control became less and less felt, statues in
+consequence being less and less related to their surroundings. The
+individual feeling of the sculptor or the traditions of his school and
+training alone influenced his treatment, until we get the incidental and
+dramatic or sentimental isolated figure or group of modern days.
+
+                                                        [Medals and Coins]
+
+It is noteworthy, however, that even in the smaller works of the
+modeller, carver, or sculptor of the Middle Ages or the early
+Renaissance, a sense of decorative fitness and structural sense is
+always present. We see it in the carved ornaments of seats and
+furniture, in the design and treatment of coins and seals and gems and
+medals. These latter from the time of the ancient Greeks afford
+beautiful examples of the decorative treatment of relief in strict
+relation to the object and purpose. The skill and taste of the Greeks
+seemed to have been largely inherited by the artists of the earlier
+Italian Renaissance, such as Pisano, whose famous medal of the Malatesta
+of Rimini affords a splendid instance not only of the treatment of the
+portrait and subject on the reverse perfectly adapted to its method and
+purpose, but also of the artistic use of lettering as a decorative
+feature (see p. 203[f110]).
+
+[Illustration (f110): Medals of the Lords of Mantua, Cesena, and
+Ferrara, by Vittore Pisano of Verona (Middle of the Fifteenth Century).]
+
+The treatment and relief of figures and heads upon the plane surfaces of
+metals and coins, the composition controlled by the circular form, have
+always been a fine test of both modelling and decorative skill and
+taste. Breadth is given by a flatness in the treatment of successive
+planes of low relief, which rise to their highest projection from the
+ground, in the case of a head in profile, about its centre. The delicate
+perception of the relation of the planes of surface is important, as
+well as the decorative effect to be obtained by arrangement of the light
+and shade masses and the contrast of textures, such as hair and the
+folds of drapery, to the smooth contours of faces and figures, and the
+rectangular forms of lettering.
+
+In gems we see the use made of the concave ground, which gives an
+effective relief to the figure design in convex upon it. Bolder
+projection of prominent parts are here necessary in contrast to the
+retiring planes, the work being on so small a scale, and also in view of
+its seal-like character; for, of course, it is the method of producing
+form by incision, and modelling by cutting and hollowing out, that gives
+the peculiar character to gems and seals; and it is in forming human
+figures that the building up of the form by a series of ovals, spoken of
+in a previous chapter, becomes really of practical value: the method of
+hollowing the stone or metal in cutting the gem or making a die and
+the character of the tool leading naturally in that direction.
+
+                                                 [Desiderio di Settignano]
+
+Perhaps the most delicate and beautiful kind of sculptured or modelled
+relief is to be found in the work of the Florentine school of the
+fifteenth century, more especially that of Donatello and Desiderio di
+Settignano, who seem indeed to have caught the feeling and spirit of the
+best Greek period, with fresh inspiration and suggestion from nature and
+the life around them, as well as an added charm of grace and sweetness.
+
+It is difficult to imagine that marble carving in low relief can be
+carried to greater perfection than it is in the well-known small relief
+by Desiderio di Settignano of the "Madonna and Child," now in the
+Italian Court of the South Kensington Museum. The delicate yet firmly
+chiselled faces and hands, the smooth surfaces of the flesh, and the
+folds of drapery, emerging from, or sinking into, the varied planes of
+the ground, for refinement of feeling and treatment seem almost akin to
+the art of the painter in the tenderness of their expression.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER VIII
+
+    Of the Expression of Relief in Line-drawing--Graphic Aim and
+    Ornamental Aim--Superficial Appearance and Constructive
+    Reality--Accidents and Essentials--Representation and Suggestion
+    of Natural Form in Design--The Outward Vision and the Inner
+    Vision.
+
+
+I have already said that when we add lines or tints of shadow, local
+colour or surface, to an outline drawing, we are seeking to express form
+in a more complete way than can be done in outline alone. These added
+lines or tints give what we call relief. That is their purpose and
+function, whether by that added relief we wish to produce an ornamental
+effect or simply to approach nearer to the full relief of nature, for of
+course the degrees of relief are many.
+
+                                                  [Relief in Line-Drawing]
+
+What may be called the natural principle of relief--that system of light
+and shade by which a figure or any solid object is perceived as such by
+the eye--consists in each part of the form being thrown into more or
+less contrast by appearing as dark on light upon its background, more
+especially at its edges. A figure wholly dark, say in black drapery,
+appearing against a light ground, might be supposed to be flat if no
+cast shadow was seen; the same with the reverse--a light figure upon a
+dark ground--except that in this latter case, unless the light was very
+level and flat, a certain concentration of light upon the highest parts,
+or indicating a modulation of shadow in interstices, might betray its
+solidity (see p. 206[f111a]).
+
+[Illustration (f111a): The Two Principles of Contrast in Black and
+White.]
+
+But if we place a figure so that the light falls from one side, we
+perceive that it at once stands out in bold relief in broad planes of
+light and shade, further emphasized by cast shadows (p. 207[f111b]).
+
+[Illustration (f111b): Treatment of the Same Figure in Light and Shade.]
+
+It would be possible to represent or to express a figure or object so
+lighted by means of laying in the modulations and planes of shadow only,
+or by means of adding the light only on a toned ground. In sketching in
+black and white, it is a good plan to accustom oneself to complete as
+one goes along, as far as may be, putting in outline and shadow
+together; but this needs a power of direct drawing and a correctness of
+eye only to be gained by continual practice. A slight preliminary basis
+of light lines to indicate the position and proportions, and yet not
+strong enough to need rubbing out, is also a good method for those who
+do not feel certain enough for the absolutely direct method of drawing.
+
+[Illustration (f112): Expression of Form by Light and Shade: (1) Light
+and Shade Without Outline; (2) Light and Shade Enforced by Outline.]
+
+Now in drawing, as I think I have pointed out before, no less than in
+all art, there are two main governing principles of working which may be
+distinguished.
+
+     I. The graphic aim.
+    II. The ornamental or decorative aim.
+
+                                                         [The Graphic Aim]
+
+The graphic aim--the endeavour to represent a form exactly as it
+appears--a power always valuable to acquire whatever may be our ultimate
+purpose, leaves the draughtsman great freedom in the choice and use
+of line, or other means of obtaining relief, local tint, and tone.
+
+In line-work the broad relief of the flat tones of shadow may be
+expressed in lines approaching the straight, diagonally sloping from
+right to left, or from left to right, as seems most natural to the
+action of the hand.
+
+The quality of our lines will depend upon the quality we are seeking to
+express. We shall be led to vary them in seeking to express other
+characteristics, such as textures and surfaces.
+
+In drawing fur or feathers, for instance, we should naturally vary the
+quality and direction of line, using broken lines and dots for the
+former, and flowing smooth fine lines for the latter, while extra force
+and relief would be gained by throwing them up upon solid black grounds.
+Solid black, also, to represent local colour, or material such as
+velvet, is often valuable as a contrast in black and white line-drawing,
+giving a richness of effect not to be obtained in any other way (see No.
+2, p. 213[f114]). Its value was appreciated by the early German and
+Italian book-illustrators, and in our own time has been used almost to
+excess by some of our younger designers, who have been largely
+influenced by Hokusai and other Japanese artists, who are always skilful
+in the use of solid blacks.
+
+[Illustration (f113): Linear Expression of Features, Feathers and Fur:
+Notes from Nature.]
+
+In line-drawing a very useful principle to observe, to give solidity to
+figures and objects, is to let one's lines--say of drapery or
+shadow--run into solid blacks in the deepest interstices of the forms,
+as when folds of drapery are wrapped about a figure, or in the deeper
+folds themselves (No. 1, p. 213[f114]).
+
+[Illustration (f114): Sketches to Illustrate (1) The Graphic and (2) The
+Decorative Treatment of Draped Figures.]
+
+                                                      [The Ornamental Aim]
+
+I have spoken of the graphic and the ornamental aims as distinct, and so
+they may for practical purposes be regarded; although in some cases it
+is possible to combine a considerable amount of graphic force with
+decorative effect, and even in purely graphic art there should always be
+the controlling influence of the sense of composition which must be felt
+throughout all forms of art.
+
+For the simplest ornamental function, however, very little graphic
+drawing is needed, over and above the very essential power of definition
+by pure outline, and feeling for silhouette; but a sense for the relief
+of masses upon a ground or field, and of the proportions and relations
+of lines and masses or distribution of quantities, is essential. Now an
+ornamental effect may be produced by the simple repetition of some form
+defined in outline arranged so as to fall into a rhythmic series of
+lines.
+
+A series of birds upon a plan of this kind, for instance, would form a
+frieze on simple bordering in abstract line alone, and might be quite
+sufficient for some purposes. The same thing would be capable of more
+elaborate treatment and different effect by relieving the birds upon a
+darker ground, by defining the details of their forms more, or by
+alternating them in black or white, or by adopting the simple principle
+of counterchange (see p. 215[f115]).
+
+[Illustration (f115): Decorative Treatment of Birds.]
+
+Flowers or figures would be capable of the same simple and abstract
+treatment; and almost any form in nature, reduced to its simplest
+elements of recurring line and mass, and rhythmically disposed, would
+give us distinct decorative motives.
+
+                                                      [The Ornamental Aim]
+
+It is quite open to the designer to select his lines and forms straight
+from nature, and, bearing in mind the necessity for selection of the
+best ornamental elements, for a certain simplification, and the
+rhythmical treatment before mentioned, it is good to do so, as the work
+is more likely to have a certain freshness than if some of the
+well-known historic forms of ornament are used again. We may, however,
+learn much from the ornamental use of these forms, and use similar forms
+as the boundaries of the shape of our pattern units and masses.
+
+It is good practice to take a typical shape such as the Persian
+radiating flower or pine-apple, and use it as the plan for quite a
+different structure in detail, taking some familiar English flower as
+our motive. The same with the Indian and Persian palmette type. It is
+also desirable, as before pointed out, to draw sprays within formal
+boundaries for ornamental use. By such methods we may not only learn to
+appreciate the ornamental value of such forms, but by such adaptation
+and re-combination produce new varieties of ornament (see p. 217[f116]).
+
+[Illustration (f116): Floral Designs Upon Typical Inclosing Shapes of
+Indian and Persian Ornament.]
+
+We may perceive how distinct are the two aims as between simple graphic
+drawing, or delineation, and what we call design, or conscious
+arrangements of line or form. While planes of relief, varied form and
+surface, values of light and shade, and accidental characteristics are
+rather the object with the graphic draughtsman, typical form and
+structure, and recurring line and mass, are sought for by the
+ornamentist. Both series of facts, or qualities, or characteristics, are
+in nature.
+
+                                                               [Selection]
+
+Judicious selection, however, is the test of artistic treatment;
+selection, that is, with a view to the aim and scope of the work. The
+truth of superficial appearance or accidental aspect is _one_ sort of
+truth: the truth of the actual constructive characteristics--be they of
+figure, flower, or landscape--is _another_. Both belong to the thing we
+see--to the object we are drawing; but we shall dwell upon one truth or
+set of truths rather than the other, in accordance with our particular
+artistic aim, though, whatever this may be, and in whatever direction it
+may lead us, we shall find that selection of some sort will be
+necessary.
+
+In making studies, however pure and simple, the object of which is to
+discover facts and to learn mastery of form, our aim should be to get as
+much truth as we can, truth of structure as well as of aspect. But these
+(as far as we can make them) exhaustive studies should be accompanied or
+followed by analytical studies made from different points of view and
+for different purposes.
+
+Studies, for instance, made with a view to arrangements of _line_
+only--to get the characteristic and beautiful lines of a figure, a
+momentary attitude, the lines of a flower, or a landscape: studies with
+a view, solely, to the understanding of structure and form, or again,
+with the object of seizing the broad relations of light and shade, or
+tone and colour--all are necessary to a complete artistic education of
+the eye.
+
+                                                [Accidents and Essentials]
+
+If we are drawn as students rather towards the picturesque and graphic
+side of art, we shall probably look for accidents of line and form
+more than what I should call the essentials, or _typical_ line and form,
+which are the most valuable to the decorative designer.
+
+In both directions some compact or compromise with nature is necessary
+in any really artistic re-presentation.
+
+The painter and the sculptor often seek as _complete representation_ as
+possible, and what may be called complete representation is within the
+range of their resources. Yet unless some individual choice or feeling
+impresses the work of either kind it is not a _re-presentation_, but
+becomes an _imitation_, and therefore inartistic.
+
+The decorative designer and ornamentist seek to _suggest_ rather than to
+_re-present_, though the decorator's suggestion of natural form, taking
+only enough to suit or express the particular ornamental purpose, must
+be considered also as a re-presentation. How much, or how little, he
+will take of actual nature must depend largely upon his resources, his
+object, and the limitations of his material--the conditions of his work
+in short; but his range may be as wide as from the flat silhouetted
+forms of stencils or simple inlays to the highly-wrought mural painting.
+
+Design motive, individual conception and sentiment, apart from material,
+must, of course, always affect the question of the choice and degree of
+representation of nature. The painter will sometimes feel that he only
+wants to suggest forms, such as figures or buildings, half veiled in
+light and atmosphere, colours and forms in twilight, or half lost in
+luminous depths of shadow.
+
+[Illustration (f117a): Dancing Figure with the Governing Lines of the
+Movement.]
+
+[Illustration (f117b): Lines of Floral Growth and Structure: Lily and
+Rose.]
+
+                                     [The Outward Vision and Inner Vision]
+
+The decorative designer will sometimes want to emphasize forms with the
+utmost force and realism at his command, as in some crisp bit of carving
+or emphatic pattern, to give point and relief in his scheme of
+quantities.
+
+There is no hard-and-fast rule in art, only general principles,
+constantly varied in practice, from which all principles spring, and
+into which, if vital, they ought to be capable of being again resolved.
+
+But a design once started upon some principle--some particular motive of
+line or form--then, in following this out, it will seem to develop
+almost a life or law of growth of its own, which as a matter of logical
+necessity will demand a particular treatment--a certain natural
+consistency or harmony--from its main features down to the smallest
+detail as a necessity of its existence.
+
+We might further differentiate art as, on the one hand, the image of the
+_outward vision_, and, on the other, as the outcome or image of the
+_inner vision_.
+
+The first kind would include all portraiture, by which I mean faithful
+portrayal or transcript whether of animate or inanimate nature; while
+the second would include all imaginative conceptions, decorative
+designs, and pattern inventions.
+
+The outward vision obviously relies upon what the eye perceives in
+nature. Its virtue consists in the faithfulness and truth of its graphic
+record, in the penetrating force of observation of fact, and the
+representative power by which they are reproduced on paper or canvas,
+clay or marble.
+
+[Illustration (f118a): 1 and 2, Mountain and Crag Sculpture: Coast
+Lines, Gulf of Nauplia.]
+
+[Illustration (f118b): Lines of Movement in Water: Shallow Stream Over
+Sand.]
+
+The image of the inner vision is also a record, but of a different order
+of fact. It may be often of unconscious impressions and memories which
+are retained and recur with all or more than the vividness of
+actuality--the tangible forms of external nature calling up answering,
+but not identical, images in the mind, like reflections in a mirror or
+in still water, which are similar but never the same as the objects they
+reflect.
+
+But the inner vision is not bound by the appearances of the particular
+moment. It is the record of the sum of many moments, and retains the
+typical impress of multitudinous and successive impressions--like the
+composite photograph, where faces may be printed one over another until
+the result is a more typical image than any individual one taken
+separately.
+
+The inner vision sees the results of time rather than the impressions of
+the moment. It sees _space_ rather than landscape: race rather than men:
+spirits rather than mortals: types rather than individuals.
+
+The inner vision hangs the mind's house with a mysterious tapestry of
+figurative thoughts, a rich and fantastic imagery, a world where the
+elements are personified, where every tree has its dryad, and where the
+wings of the winds actually brush the cheek.
+
+The inner vision re-creates rather than represents, and its virtue
+consists in the vividness and beauty with which, in the language of
+line, form, and colour, these visions of the mind are recorded and
+presented to the outward eye.
+
+There is often fusion here again between two different tendencies,
+habits of mind, or ways of regarding things. In all art the mind must
+work through the eye, whether its force appears in closeness of
+observation or in vivid imaginings. The very vividness of realization
+even of the most faithful portraiture is a testimony to mental powers.
+
+The difference lies really in the _focus_ of the mental force; and, in
+any case, the language of line and form we use will neither be forcible
+or convincing, neither faithful to natural fact nor true to the
+imagination, without close and constant study of external form and of
+its structure as well as its aspect.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER IX
+
+    Of the Adaptation of Line and Form in Design, in various
+    materials and methods--Mural Decoration--Fresco-work of the
+    Italian Painters--Modern Mural Work--Mural Spacing and pattern
+    Plans--Scale--The Skirting--The Dado--Field of the Wall--The
+    Frieze--Panelling--Tapestry--Textile Design--Persian Carpets--
+    Effect of Texture on Colour--Prints--Wall-paper--Stained Glass.
+
+
+We have been considering hitherto the choice and use of line and form,
+and various methods of their representation in drawing, both from the
+point of view of the graphic draughtsman and that of the ornamental
+designer.
+
+We now come to consider the subject solely from the latter standpoint
+(the point of view of ornamental design); and it will be useful to
+endeavour to trace the principles governing the selection of form and
+use of line as influenced by some of the different methods and
+conditions of craftsmanship, and as adapted to various decorative
+purposes.
+
+                                                        [Mural Decoration]
+
+The most important branch of decorative art may be said to be mural
+decoration, allied as it is with the fundamental constructive art of
+all--architecture, from which it obtains its determining conditions and
+natural limitations.
+
+Its history in the past is one of splendour and dignity, and its record
+includes some of the finest art ever produced. The ancient Asiatic
+nations were well aware of its value not only as decoration but as a
+record.
+
+[Illustration (f119): Giotto: "Chastity" (Lower Church, Assisi).]
+
+The palace and temple and tomb-walls of ancient Egypt, Persia, and
+Assyria vividly illustrate the life and ideas of those peoples, while
+they conform to mural conditions. The painted council halls and churches
+of the Middle Ages fulfil the same purpose in a different spirit; but
+mural decoration in its richest, most imaginative and complete form was
+developed in Italy, from the time of Giotto, whose famous works at the
+Arena Chapel at Padua and Assisi are well known, to the time of Michael
+Angelo, who in the sublime ceiling of the Sistine Chapel seemed to touch
+the extreme limits of mural work, and in fact might be said to have
+almost _defied_ them, painting mouldings in relief and in perspective
+to form the framework of pictures where figures on different scales are
+used. In the Sistine Chapel the series of earlier frescoes on the lower
+wall by Botticelli, Lorenzo di Credi, Ghirlandajo, Pinturicchio, and
+other Florentine painters of the fifteenth century are really more
+strictly mural in feeling, and safer as guides in general treatment,
+than the work of the great master himself. They have much of the repose
+and richness as well as the quiet decorative effect of tapestry.
+
+                                         [Fresco-Work of Italian Painters]
+
+The frescoes in the Palazzo Publico at Siena, Pinturicchio's work in the
+Piccolomini Chapel and the Appartimenti Borgia, the Campo Santo at Pisa
+and the Riccardi Chapel of Benozzo Gozzoli at Florence, may be mentioned
+as among the gems of mural painting.
+
+                                                       [Modern Mural Work]
+
+We have but little important mural painting in this country. Doubtless,
+from various traces discovered under Puritan whitewash, the walls of our
+mediaeval churches were painted as frequently as in continental
+countries, but so completely did artistic tradition and religious
+sentiment change after the Reformation that the opportunities have been
+few and the encouragement less for mural painting. An attempt to revive
+fresco-painting was made in our Houses of Parliament, and various scenes
+from our national history have been rendered with varying degrees of
+merit; but they have chiefly demonstrated the need of continuous
+practice in such work on the part of our painters and the absence of a
+true decorative instinct.
+
+[Illustration (f120): Pinturicchio: Mural Painting (Piccolomini Chapel,
+Siena).]
+
+It is to the honour of Manchester that her Town Hall contains one of
+the most important and interesting pieces of mural painting by one of
+the most original of modern English artists--Ford Madox Brown--a work
+conceived in the true spirit of mural work, being a record of local
+history, as well as a decoration, while distinctly modern in sentiment
+and showing strong dramatic feeling, as well as historical knowledge.
+
+The chapel on which Mr. F. J. Shields is engaged in London will probably
+be unique in its way as a complete piece of mural decoration by an
+English artist of singular individuality, sincerity, and power, as well
+as decorative ability.
+
+But unfortunately opportunities for important mural decoration of this
+kind are very rare in England. The art is not popularized: we have no
+school of trained mural designers, and we have no public really
+interested. Our commercial system and system of house tenure are against
+it. Our only chance is in public buildings, which indeed have always
+been its best field. Yet we neglect, I think, a most important
+educational influence. The painted churches and public halls of the
+Middle Ages filled in a great measure the place of public libraries. A
+painted history, a portrait, a dramatic or romantic incident told in the
+vivid language of line, form, and colour, is stamped upon the memory
+never to be forgotten. It would be possible, I think, to impart a
+tolerably exact knowledge of the sequence of history, of the conditions
+of life at different epochs, of great men and their work, from a
+well-imagined series of mural paintings, without the aid of books; and
+in this direction, perhaps, our school walls would present an
+appropriate field.
+
+Modern opportunities of mural decoration are chiefly domestic. The
+country mansion, or the modest home of the suburban citizen, affords the
+principal field in our time for the exercise of the taste or ingenuity
+of the wall-decorator. In this comparatively restricted field, taste is
+perhaps of more consequence than any other quality. A sense of
+appropriateness, a harmonizing faculty, a power of arrangement of simple
+materials--these are invaluable, for, more than any others, they go to
+the making of a livable interior.
+
+                                         [Mural Spacing and Pattern Plans]
+
+On first thought it would almost seem as if the designer was less
+technically restricted in this direction of mural work than any other;
+yet he will soon feel that he cannot produce an artistic and thoughtful
+scheme without taking many things into consideration which really belong
+to the conditions or natural limitations of his work.
+
+There is, firstly, the idea of the wall itself--part of the
+house-structure--a shelter and protection or boundary. It is no part of
+a designer's business to put anything upon the wall in the way of
+decoration which will induce anyone to forget that it is a wall--nothing
+to disturb the flatness and repose.
+
+The four walls of a room inclose a space to dwell in, in comfort and
+security. The windows show us outward real life and nature. The walls
+should not compete with the windows. Nature must be translated into the
+terms of line and form and colour, and invention and fancy may be
+pleasantly suggestive in the harmonious metre and rhythm of pattern.
+
+A wall surface extends horizontally and vertically, but the vertical
+extension seems to assert itself most to the eye.
+
+Any arrangement of lines of the trellis or diaper order logically covers
+a wall surface, and may be appropriately used as a basis for a wall
+pattern, whether merely to mark the positions of a simple spray or
+formal sprig pattern, or as a ground-plan for a completely filled field
+of repeating ornament, whether painted, stencilled, or in the form of
+wall-paper or textile hanging.
+
+In the simple geometric net of squares or diamonds or circles, however,
+there is nothing that emphatically marks adaptability to a vertical
+position. Such plans in themselves are equally appropriate to the floor
+in the form of paving and parquet. The ogee plan, however, and its
+variant, the vertical serpentine or spiral plan, at once suggest
+vertical extension, the former perhaps by its leaf-like points arranging
+themselves scale-wise, and the latter by its suggestion of ascending
+movement.
+
+It is noteworthy that in the course of the historic evolution of mural
+decoration, designs based upon these systems constantly recur. They are
+part of the pattern-designer's vocabulary of line, and among the
+principal, though simplest, terms by which he is able to express
+vertical extension.
+
+The question of _scale_ in designing mural decoration of any sort is
+very important. This demands a certain power of realizing the effect of
+certain lines and masses if carried out, and the relation of one part to
+another as well as to the dimensions of the walls and the room itself.
+Here, as indeed throughout art, a reference to the human figure will
+give us our key, since after all decoration goes to form a background
+for humanity. With natural flowers and leaves it is always right to
+design for mural purposes on the same scale as nature.
+
+[Illustration (f121): Diagram Showing the Principal Fundamental Plans or
+Systems of Line Governing Mural Spacing and Decorative Distribution.]
+
+                                                                   [Scale]
+
+Scale in design should be also considered in relation to the general
+character of a building and its purpose, the use and lighting of a
+living room: its dimensions and proportions, and relation to other
+rooms. There is great range for individual taste and fancy.
+
+The artist would naturally look to the capacity of the space which he
+had to decorate, and what it suggested to his mind. He might want to
+emphasize a long, low room by horizontal lines, or to accentuate a lofty
+one by verticals.
+
+[Illustration (f122): Diagram to Show (1) How the Apparent Depth of a
+Space Is Increased by the Use of Vertical Lines, and (2) How the
+Apparent Width Is Increased by the Use of Horizontal Lines.]
+
+By the judicious use of line and scale in design, the designer holds a
+certain power of transformation in his hands, not to speak of the
+transforming effect of colour of different keys and tones, the apparent
+contraction or expansion of surfaces by patterns of different character
+and scale.
+
+It would obviously not do to regard any wall merely as so much expanse
+of surface available for sketching unrelated groups and figures upon, as
+they might be jotted down in a sketch-book, and to offer it as
+decoration. In an interior thus treated, we should lose all sense of
+repose, dignity, and proportion.
+
+Use and custom, which fix and determine so many things in social life
+without written laws, have also prescribed certain divisions of the
+wall, which, in regard to the exigencies of life and habit and modern
+conditions generally, seem natural enough.
+
+                                                            [The Skirting]
+
+The lower parts of the walls of most modern dwellings being generally
+occupied by furniture placed against them, and liable to be soiled or
+injured, it would be out of place to put important and elaborate
+ornament or figure designs extending to the skirting. The wooden
+skirting, of about nine inches or a foot in depth, which is placed along
+the foot of the wall in our modern rooms, is the armour-plating to
+protect the plaster, which otherwise might be chipped and litter the
+floor. It is perhaps the last relic of the more substantial and
+extensive wood panelling and wainscotting which, up to the latter part
+of the last century, covered the lower walls of the more comfortable
+houses, and has been revived in our own day. The decorator may use
+panelling, or wainscotting, or a simple chair-rail above plain painting,
+wall-paper, dado, or stencilling, or a dado of matting, as methods of
+covering, and at the same time decorating, the lower walls of rooms.
+
+The use of the dado of a darker colour and of wainscot is, no doubt, due
+to considerations of wear and tear, and so, like the origin of much
+ornamental art, may be traced to actual use and constructive necessity.
+When the wood-work of a room--the doors and window frames--is of the
+same colour and character as the dado, a certain agreeable unity is
+preserved, and it forms a useful plain framing to set off the patterned
+parts of the wall. This wainscot or dado framing with the wood-work
+should be as to colour arranged to suit the general scheme adopted.
+Where paint is used, white for the wood-work usually has the best
+effect.
+
+                                                       [Field of the Wall]
+
+The largest space of wall occurs above the chair-rail, or dado, and,
+according to modern habits and usage, portable property in the shape of
+framed pictures, etc., is usually placed here along the eye-line, so
+that any decoration on this--the main field of the wall--is regarded as
+subsidiary to what is placed upon it; but, of course, pictures can be
+used as the central points of a decorative scheme. On the upper part of
+a wall, below the plaster cornice, the mural designer has the chance of
+putting a frieze, and a frieze usually gives the effect of additional
+height to a room, besides enriching the wall.
+
+[Illustration (f123): Decorative Spacing of the Wall: Sketches (to
+1/2-in. Scale) to Show Different Treatment and Proportions.]
+
+An effective treatment of a large room, and one which is more reposeful
+than cutting up the wall into these portions, as in dado, field, and
+frieze, is to carry up wood panelling to the frieze, and let this (the
+frieze) be the important decorative feature.
+
+Supposing the room was twelve feet high, one could afford to have eight
+feet of panelling, and then a frieze of four feet deep. In this case one
+would look for an interesting painted frieze of figures--some legend or
+story to run along the four sides of the room, and in such a case it
+might be marked with considerable pictorial freedom.
+
+More formal figure design or ornamental work in coloured plaster-work,
+stucco, and gesso could also be appropriately used in such a position,
+as also on the ceiling.
+
+Now as regards choice of line and form in their relation to the
+decoration of such mural spaces. Taking the lower wall, dado, or
+panelling, one reason why panelling has so agreeable an effect is, I
+think, that the series of vertical and horizontal lines seem to express
+the proportions, while they emphasize the flatness and repose of the
+wall, and when used beneath a painted frieze they lead the eye upwards,
+forming a quiet framing of rectangular lines below to the ornate and
+varied design of the frieze. Where we are limited to decorating a wall
+by means of plain painting, stencils, or wall-paper, this idea of
+reposeful constructive lines and forms on the lower wall should still
+dominate upon the field. Subject to our repeating plan we may be freer
+both in line and form, using free scrolls, branch-work, fruit, and
+flower masses at pleasure, because the space is more extended, and we
+shall feel the necessity in a repeating pattern of spreading adequately
+over it; but such designs, however fine in detail, should be constructed
+upon a more or less geometric base or plan. We are, as regards the main
+field of the wall, still unavoidably, though not disadvantageously,
+influenced by the tradition of the textile hanging or arras tapestry, no
+doubt; and certainly there is no more rich and comfortable lining for
+living rooms than tapestry, or, at the same time, more reposeful and
+decoratively satisfying. But, of course, where we can afford arras
+tapestry (such as the superb work of William Morris and his weavers), we
+ought not to allow anything to compete with it upon the same wall. It is
+sufficient in itself.
+
+[Illustration (f128): Arras Tapestry: Diagrams to Show the Principle of
+Working and Surface Effect: (1) Vertical Position of Warp as Worked in
+the Loom and Relief Effect of the Wefts; (2) Enlarged Section of Warp as
+Hung (Horizontal); (3) Single Threads of Warp and Weft; (4) Warp and
+Weft as in the Loom (Vertical).]
+
+                                                                [Tapestry]
+
+Of what splendour of colour and wealth of decorative and symbolical
+invention tapestry was capable in the past may be seen in magnificent
+Burgundian specimens of the fifteenth century, now in the South
+Kensington Museum.
+
+Tapestry hangings of a repeating pattern and quiet colour could be used
+appropriately beneath painted upper walls, or a frieze, as no doubt
+frequently was the custom in great houses in the Middle Ages.
+
+                                                     [Appartimenti Borgia]
+
+In the Appartimenti Borgia in the Vatican, for instance, which consists
+of lofty vaulted rooms with frescoes by Pinturicchio upon the upper
+walls between the spans of the vaulting, and upon the vaulting itself,
+we may see, about eleven feet from the floor, along the moulding, the
+hooks left for the tapestry hangings, which completed the decoration of
+the room. The lower walls are now largely occupied by book-shelves; but
+books themselves may form a pleasant background, as one may often
+observe in libraries, especially when the bindings are rich and good in
+tone: and here, too, we get our verticals and horizontals again.
+
+[Illustration (f125): Pinturicchio: Fresco in the Appartimenti Borgia.]
+
+So long as the feeling for the repose and flatness of the wall surface
+is preserved, there are no special limitations in the choice of form. It
+becomes far more a matter of _treatment of form and subject_ in
+perfectly appropriate mural design. There is one principle, however,
+which seems to hold good in the treatment of important figure subjects
+to occupy the main wall surfaces as panels: while pictorial realization
+of a kind may be carried quite far, it is desirable to avoid large
+masses of light sky, or to attempt much in the way of atmospheric
+effect. It is well to keep the horizon high, and, if sky is shown, to
+break it with architecture and trees.
+
+Still more important is it to observe this in tapestry. It is very
+noticeable how tapestry design declined after the fifteenth century or
+early years of the sixteenth, when perspective and pictorial planes were
+introduced, and sky effects to emulate painting, and thus the peculiarly
+mural feeling was lost, with its peculiar beauty, richness, and repose.
+
+[Illustration (f124): Figure of Laura, from the Burgundian Tapestries:
+The Triumphs of Petrarch (South Kensington Museum).]
+
+In the translation into tapestry even of so tapestry-like a picture as
+that of Botticelli's "Primavera," it is noteworthy how Mr. Morris has
+felt the necessity of reducing the different planes, and the chiaroscuro
+of the painting, by more leafy and floral detail; making it, in short,
+more of a pattern than a picture.
+
+                                                              [The Frieze]
+
+A frieze is susceptible of a much more open, lighter, and freer
+treatment than a field. A frieze is one of the mural decorator's
+principal means of giving lightness and relief to his wall. In purely
+floral and ornamental design the field of close pattern, formal diaper,
+or sprigs at regular intervals may be appropriately relieved by bolder
+lines and masses, and a more open treatment in the frieze. The frieze,
+too, affords a means of contrast in line to the line system of the field
+of the wall, its horizontal expression usefully opposing the verticals
+or diagonals of the wall pattern below. The frieze may be regarded as a
+horizontal border, and in border designs the principle of transposition
+of the relation of pattern to ground is a useful one to bear in mind, as
+leading always to an effective result. I mean, supposing our field shows
+a pattern mainly of light upon dark, the frieze might be on the reverse
+plan, a dark pattern on a light ground.
+
+And whereas, as I have said, one would exclude wide light spaces from
+our mural field, in the frieze one might effectively show a light sky
+ground throughout, and arrange a figure or floral design upon that.
+
+The principle governing the treatment of main and lower wall spaces or
+fields, which teaches the designer to preserve the repose of the
+surface, may be said to rule also in all textile design, and textile
+design has, as we have seen in the form of tapestry, and hangings of all
+kinds, a very close association with mural decoration.
+
+                                                          [Textile Design]
+
+Any textile may be considered, from the designer's point of view, as
+presenting so much _surface_ for pattern, whether that surface is hung
+upon a wall, or curtains a door or a window, or is spread in the form of
+carpets or rugs upon floors, or over the cushions of furniture, or
+adapts itself to the variety of curve surface and movement of the human
+form in dress materials and costume. Textile beauty is beauty of
+material and surface, and unless the pattern or design upon it or woven
+with it enhances that beauty of material and surface, and becomes a part
+of the expression of that material and surface, it is better without
+pattern.
+
+[Illustration (f126): Portion of Detail of the Holy Carpet of the Mosque
+of Ardebil: Persian, Sixteenth Century.]
+
+To place informal shaded flowers and leaves upon a carpet, for instance,
+where the warp is very emphatic, and the process of weaving necessitates
+a stepped or rectangularly broken outline, is to mistake appropriate
+decorative effect, capacity of material, and position in regard to the
+eye. We cannot get away, in a carpet, from the idea of a flat field
+starred with more or less formal flowers, and colour arrangements which
+owe their richness and beauty, not to the relief of shading, but to the
+heraldic principle of relieving one tint or colour upon another. The
+rich inlay of colour which a Persian or any Eastern carpet presents is
+owing to its being designed upon this principle; and in Persian work
+that peculiarly rich effect of colour, apart from fine material, is
+owing to the principle of the use of outlines of different colours
+defining and relieving the different forms in the pattern upon different
+grounds. The rectangular influence arising from the technical conditions
+of the work gives a definite textile character to the design which is
+very agreeable; besides, as a question of line and form, in a carpet or
+rug which is rectangular in shape and laid usually upon rectangular
+floors, the squareness of form harmonizes with the conditions and
+surroundings of the work in use. The Persian designer, indeed, appears
+to be so impressed with this feeling, that he uses a succession of
+borders around the central field of his carpet or rug, still further
+emphasizing the rectangularity; while he avoids the too rigid effect of
+a series of straight lines which the crossing of the threads of the weft
+at right angles to the warp might cause, by changing the widths of his
+subsidiary borders and breaking them with a constant variety of small
+patterns, and inserting narrow white lines between the black lines of
+the border.
+
+[Illustration (f127): Sketch to Illustrate Treatment of Borders in a
+Persian Rug.]
+
+                                             [Effect of Texture on Colour]
+
+In tapestry the effect of the emphatic warp worked vertically in the
+loom, but hung horizontally, has a very important influence upon the
+effect. If we took a piece of paper coloured with a flat even tint, and
+folded it in ridges, the quality of the tint would be at once changed,
+and so in tapestry the passing of the wool of the wefts, which form the
+pattern or picture, over the strong lines of the warp--which are broad
+enough to take the outlines of the cartoon upon them--produces that soft
+and varied play of colour--really colour in light and shade--which, over
+and above the actual dyes and artistic selection of tints, gives the
+peculiar charm and effect in tapestry.
+
+This sheen and variety are more or less evident in all textiles, and a
+good textile pattern only adds to the variety and richness of the
+surface. The different thicknesses or planes of surface and the
+difference of their texture caused by the different wefts being brought
+to the surface of the cloth or silk (from the simplest contrast of
+line presented by the simplest arrangements of warp and weft, to the
+complexities of many-coloured silk stuffs and brocade) alone give a
+value to the surface pattern.
+
+In cut velvet the same principle of contrast of surface is emphasized
+still further, the rich deep nap of the less raised parts contrasting
+pleasantly with the mat effect of the ground.
+
+In designs for such material one should aim at boldly blocked-out
+patterns in silhouette--bold leaf and fruit forms say--designed on the
+principle of the stencil.
+
+                                                                  [Prints]
+
+With prints the range is of course freer, the material itself suggesting
+something lighter and more temporary. It seems highly probable that
+printed cotton was originally a substitute for embroidered linen or more
+sumptuous materials. There are certainly instances of very similar
+patterns in Indian and Persian work in silk embroidery, and also in
+printed cotton. In some cases the print is partly embroidered, which
+seems to mark a transitional stage, and recalls the lingering use of
+illumination in the early days of the printing press, in another
+department of art.
+
+Anything that will repeat as a pattern in what can be produced by line,
+dot, and tints of colour, and engraved upon wood-blocks or copper
+rollers, can be printed of course; and, as is generally the case with an
+art which has no very obvious technical limitations, it is liable to be
+caught by the imitative spirit, and cheap and rapid production and
+demand for novelties (so-called) generally end in loss of taste and
+deterioration of quality, especially in design. From the artistic point
+of view we can only correct this by bearing in mind similar
+considerations to those which hold good as general principles and guides
+in designing for textiles generally, having regard to the object,
+purpose, and position--to the ultimate use of the material, and
+differentiating our designs, as in the case of other textile design
+accordingly.
+
+Thus in the matter of plan and direction of line and character of form
+we shall at once find natural distinctions and divisions, as our design
+is for hanging, or spreading horizontally, or wearing; and these
+different functions will also determine scale and choice and treatment
+of form and colour.
+
+There is no doubt that with patterns printed more range may be allowed
+than with patterns to be woven, where line and form are both controlled
+by the necessities of being reproduced by so many points to the inch. At
+the same time the object of all design and pattern work being the
+greatest beauty compatible with the material and conditions, one should
+seek, not such effects as merely test the capacity or ingenuity of the
+machine, but rather such as appear to be most decoratively appropriate
+and effective.
+
+There appears to be no _mechanical_ reason why cotton should not be
+printed all over with landscapes and graphic sketches, and people clothe
+themselves with them as with Christmas numbers, or turn their couches,
+chairs, and curtains into scrap albums, but there is every reason _on
+the score of taste_ why these things should not be done.
+
+[Illustration (f129): (1) Contrasting Surfaces of Warp and Weft in
+Woven Silk Hanging; (2) Stencil Principle.]
+
+With any textile, as I have said, we are as designers dealing with
+surface. It is surface ornament that is wanted also in printed cotton.
+Now good line and form and pure tints have the best effect, because they
+do not break the surface into holes, and give a ragged or tumbled
+appearance, which accidental bunches of darkly-shaded flowers in high
+relief undoubtedly do. If small rich detail and variety are wanted, we
+should seek it in the inventive spirit of the Persian and Indian, and
+break our solid colours with mordants or arabesques in colour of
+delicate subsidiary pattern instead of using coarse planes of light and
+shadow, or showing up ragged and unrelated forms upon violent grounds.
+
+[Illustration (f130): Indian Printed Cotton Cover: South Kensington
+Museum.]
+
+The true idea of a print pattern is of something gay and fanciful:
+bright and fresh in colour, and clear in line and form: a certain
+quaintness is allowable, and in purely floral designs there is room for
+a considerable degree of what might be called naturalism, so far as good
+line-drawing and understanding of flower form goes, emphasis of colour
+being sought by means of _planes of colour_, rather than by planes of
+shadow.
+
+I had intended to touch upon other provinces of design, but I have taken
+up so much space with those I have been discussing already that I can
+only now briefly allude to these.
+
+                                                              [Wall-Paper]
+
+Of wall-paper, which may be regarded in the light of more or less of a
+substitute for mural painting, and also textile wall-hangings, much the
+same general principles and many of the same remarks apply as have been
+already used in regard to mural decoration. The designer has much
+freedom as to motive, and his ingenuity is only bounded by or
+concentrated in a square of twenty-one inches. If he has succeeded in
+making an agreeable pattern which will repeat not too obviously over an
+indefinite space, to form a not obtrusive background, and which can be
+printed and sold to the ordinary citizen, he is supposed to have
+satisfied the conditions.
+
+But he may be induced to go further and attempt the design of a complete
+decoration as far as dado, field, frieze, and ceiling go; and this would
+involve all the thought necessary to the mural painter, narrowed down to
+the exigencies of mechanical repeat.
+
+Allied to the wall is the window, and in glazing and the art of the
+glass-painter we have another very distinct and beautiful sphere of line
+design. In plain leading the same law of covering vertical surface holds
+good as to selection of plan and system of line: almost any simple
+geometric net is appropriate, if not too complex or small in form to
+hold glass or to permit lead to follow its lines. Leaded panels of
+roundels (or "bull's eyes") of plain glass have a good effect in
+casements where a sparkle of light rather than outward view is sought
+for.
+
+                                                           [Stained Glass]
+
+When we come to designing for stained glass we should still bear in mind
+the fundamental net of lead lines which forms the basis of our pattern,
+or glass picture, as it were: and the designer's object should be to
+make it good as an arrangement of line independently of the colour,
+while practical to the glazier.
+
+[Illustration (f131): (1) Stained Glass Treatment: Inclosure of Form and
+Colour by Lead Lines; (2) Sections.]
+
+Although lead is very pliable, too much must not be expected of it in
+the way of small depressions and angles: the boundary lines of the
+figures, which should be the boldest of all, should be kept as simple as
+possible, not only on this account, but because complex outlines cannot
+well be cut in glass. A head, for instance, is inclosed in sweeping
+line, and the profile defined within the lead line by means of painting.
+A hand would be defined on the same principle. Each different colour
+demands a different inclosure of lead, although in the choice of glass
+much variation of tint can be obtained, as in the case of pot metal
+running from thin to thick glass, which intensifies the colour, and many
+kinds of what is called flashed. Yet to the designer, from the point of
+view of line, glass design is a kind of translucent mosaic, in which the
+primal technical necessity of the leading which holds the glory of the
+coloured light together, really enhances its splendour, and in affording
+opportunities for decoration and expressive linear composition imparts
+to the whole work its particular character and beauty.
+
+This after all is the principle to cling to in all designing, to adapt
+our designs to the particular distinctive character and beauty of the
+material for which they are destined, to endeavour to think them out in
+those materials, and not only on paper. Whatever the work may
+be--carving, inlays, modelling, mosaic, textiles--through the whole
+range of surface decoration, we should think out our designs, not only
+in relation to the limitations of their material, but also in their
+relation to each other, to their effect in actual use, and even to their
+possible use in association together, which, of course, is of paramount
+importance in designing a complete room or any comprehensive piece of
+decoration.
+
+And when we leave plane surfaces and seek to invent appropriate, that is
+to say, _expressive_ ornament allied to concave and convex surfaces, to
+the varied forms of pottery for instance, metal-work, and glass vessels,
+furniture, and accessories of all kinds, we shall find the same laws and
+principles hold good which should guide us in all design--to adapt
+design to the characteristics and conditions of the material, to its
+structural capacity, its use and purpose, as well as to use or invention
+in line, both as a controlling plan or base of ornament, as well as a
+means of the association and expression of form.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER X
+
+    Of the Expression and Relief of Line and Form by _Colour_--Effect
+    of same Colour upon different Grounds--Radiation of Colour--White
+    Outline to clear Colours--Quality of Tints relieved upon other
+    Tints--Complementaries--Harmony--The Colour Sense--Colour
+    Proportions--Importance of Pure Tints--Tones and Planes--The Tone
+    of Time--Pattern and Picture--A Pattern not necessarily a Picture,
+    but a Picture in principle a Pattern--Chiaroscuro--Examples of
+    Pattern-work and Picture-work--Picture-patterns and Pattern-pictures.
+
+
+Perhaps the most striking means of the expression of relief of line and
+form, certainly the most attractive, is by colour. By colour we obtain
+the most complete and beautiful means of expression in art.
+
+                                       [Relief of Line and Form by Colour]
+
+Our earliest ideas of form are probably derived through the different
+colours of objects around us, by which they are thrown into relief upon
+the background, or against other objects; and, as I mentioned in the
+first chapter, we reach outline by observing the edges of different
+masses relieved as dark or light upon light or dark grounds, so now, in
+my last, we come again to the consideration of the definition of line
+and form by colour, and their relief and expression upon different
+planes or fields of colour.
+
+There is first the colour of the object itself--the local colour--and
+then the colour of the ground upon which it is relieved, both of which
+in their action and reaction upon each other will greatly affect the
+value of the local colour and the degree of relief of the form upon it.
+
+One of the best and simplest ways to ascertain the real value of a
+colour and its effect upon different grounds or fields is to take a
+flower--say a red poppy, and place it against a white paper ground,
+blocking in the local colour as relieved upon white, as near as may be
+to its full strength, with a brush, and defining the form as we go
+along. Then try the same flower upon grounds of different tints--green,
+blue, yellow--and it will be at once perceived what a different value
+and expression the same form in the same colour has upon different
+tinted grounds. A scarlet poppy would appear clearest and darkest upon
+white; it would show a tendency upon a blue ground to blend or blur at
+its edges, and also on yellow and green to a less extent.
+
+[Illustration (f132): Sketch to Show Effect of the Same Colour and Form
+upon Different Coloured Grounds.]
+
+It is this tendency to lose the edges of forms owing to the radiation of
+colours, and to mingle with the colour of the background, which makes a
+strong outline so constantly a necessity in decorative work. One may use
+a black on a white, a brown, or a gold outline (as in cloisonne), the
+nature of the outline being generally determined by the nature of the
+work. In stained glass the outline must be black, and this black is of
+the greatest value in enhancing by opposition the brilliance of the
+colours of the glass it incloses, stopping out the light around it as it
+does in solid lead when placed in the window.
+
+[Illustration (f133): (1) Principle of the Effect of the Blending or
+Blurring of Colours at Their Edges; (2) Use of Black and White Outline
+to Clear the Edges of Coloured Forms upon Different Coloured Grounds.]
+
+                                                 [Clearing Coloured Forms]
+
+A white outline produced by a resist or a mordant in a printed
+textile, where the colours used are full and rich, often has a good
+effect, lightening the effect while giving point and definition to
+certain leading forms. Instances of the use of white outlines may be
+found in Eastern carpets, where the main colours, being dark blue and
+yellows on rich red, are relieved in parts by a dull white outline. Also
+in Persian carpets of the sixteenth or seventeenth century, the
+scrollwork in red is often relieved by an ivory white outline on blue.
+
+It is always a good practice in blocking in flowers, either from nature
+or as parts of a design, to leave a white outline at the junctions--that
+is to say, where one petal overlaps another, or where there is a joint
+in the stem, or a fold in the leaf--and to show the ribbings, markings,
+and divisions of flower and leaf.
+
+By judiciously changing the quality of our tints it is possible to make
+different colours in a pattern tell clearly. To relieve red upon blue,
+for instance, one would use an orange red upon greenish blue, or scarlet
+upon a gray blue--the general principle being apparently a kind of
+compensating balance between colours, so that in taking from one you
+give to another.
+
+A full red and blue used together, as we have seen, would show a
+tendency to purple, unless separated by outlines; so that if the blue
+was full and rich, the red would have to approach brown or russet; or if
+the red was a full one--a crimson red--the blue would have to approach
+green.
+
+                                                                 [Harmony]
+
+This may be because of the necessary complements in colours, which we
+see in nature, and which prepossess the eye, and make it demand these
+modifications to satisfy the sense of harmony.
+
+When daylight struggles with candle- or lamp-light, one may notice that
+upon the white cloth of a dinner-table the light is blue and the shadows
+yellow or orange--the orange deepening as with the fading daylight the
+blue grows deeper, until the colour of the light and the shadow change
+places. The same principle may be noticed in firelight, but the redder
+the flame the greener will be the shadows.
+
+Harmony in colour may be said to consist--apart from the general
+acknowledgment of the law of complementaries, in giving quality to the
+raw pigments by gradation, by a certain admixture or infusion of other
+colours.
+
+To begin with the negatives--white and black--white may be creamy or
+silvery; black may be of a greenish or a bluish or brownish tone; then
+the primaries--red, blue, yellow, or red, green, violet--red may range
+from crimson to orange and russet; yellow may approach green or gold;
+green may be first cousin to blue; blue may be turquoise on the one
+hand, and touch purple upon the other; and so on through infinite
+variations of half tints and tones.
+
+No doubt it is an easier matter to harmonize half tints than full bright
+colours, which may account for the prevalence of the former in
+decorative work. Nature's pattern-book, too, is full of half tones and
+mixed tints.
+
+                                                        [The Colour Sense]
+
+We may not all see colour precisely in the same way, and the same colour
+may appear to be of a different tint to different eyes; and it seems
+certain that climate and surroundings affect the colour sense: light
+and colour will stimulate the delight in colour; while, where grayness
+and dullness characterize the surroundings of life, the colour sense
+will grow weak, or, if it is manifested at all, it will show a tendency
+to grayness and heaviness of tint.
+
+The art of the different peoples of the world illustrates this, and, as
+we may see by turning from east to west, or from north to south, or even
+from winter to summer, in the main the love of colour follows the sun,
+like the rainbow.
+
+We can all do something to cultivate our sense of colour, however, and
+there is no better way than studying the harmonies and varieties of
+nature. Even the town-dweller is not altogether deprived of the sight of
+the sky, which constantly unfolds the most beautiful compositions both
+of form and colour.
+
+As to the choice of colours in decorative design, so far as that is not
+narrowed by the particular conditions of the work, we must be guided by
+much the same considerations as would serve us in designing generally,
+and must, of course, think of appropriateness to position and purpose.
+Much depends, too, upon proportions of colour, and a beautiful and
+harmonious effect may be produced in a room by keeping the colour in a
+particular key, or even delicately varying the designs and tints of one
+or two colours. The same might be said in arranging a scheme of
+colouring for any particular piece of design--say, a painted panel or a
+textile pattern; although such things must ultimately be governed by
+their relation to other parts in any general scheme--circumstances
+necessitate their being often designed apart. Still, if the colour of a
+pattern has been carefully thought out, or rather harmoniously felt, as
+a real organic thing, it is sure to fit into its place when its time
+comes.
+
+In arranging our design of colour we can have no better guide, as to
+proportions and quality, than nature, and should do well, as a matter of
+practice, to take a flower, or the plumage of a bird, or the colours of
+a landscape, and adapt them to some particular pattern or scheme of
+decoration, following the relative degrees of tint and their quantities
+as nearly as possible. To do this successfully requires some invention
+and taste; but successful, or unsuccessful, one could hardly fail to
+learn something positive and valuable about colour, if the attempt was
+conscientiously made; and fresher motives and sweeter colour would be
+more likely to result from such study.
+
+                                                [Importance of Pure Tints]
+
+I think it is a very important thing in all decorative work to keep
+one's colours pure in quality, and to avoid muddy or heavy tints. Brown
+is an especially difficult colour to use, because of its generally heavy
+effect as a pigment, and the difficulty of harmonizing it with other
+colours except as an outline; and even here it makes all the difference
+whether it is a cool or a hot shade. A hot brown is most destructive of
+harmony in colours. It is safe, as a rule, to make it lean to green, or
+bronze, or gold.
+
+As a general rule it is well to work either in a range of cool tints--a
+cool key of colour, or the reverse--a warm and rich one. Few cool
+harmonies can be better than ultramarine and turquoise on greenish
+white, of which the Persians and Indians are so fond in tile-work. They
+are delightful to the eye, while peculiarly adapted to the work, owing
+their quality to the oxide of copper, which the firing brings out so
+well.
+
+Blues and greens and grays, relieved with white and yellow and orange:
+or, reds and yellows, relieved with white and opposed by blacks,
+generally answer: or a range of reds together, or range of blues, or of
+yellows, with black and white for contrast and accent. Blue and white,
+too, can be modified in quality; black may be greenish in tone, or
+brownish, bluish, or purplish according to the harmony aimed at. White
+may be pure or ivory-toned, cream-coloured or influenced by other
+colours, and should vary in degree according to the strength of the
+harmony. This brings us to the question of tone.
+
+                                                        [Tones and Planes]
+
+Now the ornamentist, the designer of patterns, relies for his effect
+upon the use of certain planes and oppositions of tints to relieve and
+express his design, to emphasize its main motive, to bring out or to
+subdue its lines and forms. He knows that cool flat tints--blues,
+greens, grays--will make forms and surfaces retire, and he makes use of
+them for flat and reposeful effects, such as wall and ceiling surfaces,
+adopting the natural principle of colour in landscape and sky.
+
+He uses richer and more varied colour in textile hangings and carpets,
+furniture, and accessories--reds, yellows, greens, crimson, russets,
+orange, gold--which answer to the brighter flowers and parterres of our
+gardens, as things to be near the eye and touch, and to occur as lesser
+quantities in a scheme of interior colour design.
+
+In the colour design of patterns, harmonious and rich effects can be
+produced by the use of pure colour alone, no doubt, if carefully
+proportioned, and separated by outline; though harmony is more difficult
+to attain in pure colours used in their full strength; and for their due
+effect, and to avoid harshness, such a treatment really requires
+out-door light or special conditions of lighting, or the strong light of
+eastern or southern countries, to soften the effect.
+
+And since we have to adapt our designs to their probable surroundings,
+we usually consciously select certain tones or shades of a colour,
+rather than use it absolutely pure or in its full strength. The
+beautiful tone which time gives to all colour-work is difficult to
+rival, but no conscious imitation of it is tolerable.
+
+But so long as our aim is strictly to make a colour scheme of any kind
+in relation to itself, or in harmony with its conditions, we are on a
+safe and sound path. It is this relativity which is the important thing
+in all decorative art, and which, more distinctly than any other
+quality, distinguishes it from pictorial art; although pictorial art is
+under the necessity of the same law in regard to itself; and in its
+highest forms, as in mural work, is certainly subject to relativity in
+its widest sense.
+
+                                                     [Pattern and Picture]
+
+At first sight it might appear as if there were an essential fundamental
+natural difference between a pattern and a picture, but when we come to
+consider it, it appears to be rather a distinction than a difference.
+
+A pattern may be an arrangement of lines, forms, and a harmony of planes
+and tones of colour.
+
+But these words would describe in general terms a picture also.
+
+Certain recurrences of line and form; certain re-echoing notes of the
+same, or allied colour, are necessary to both pattern and picture. The
+abstract ingredients appear to be the same in both cases.
+
+A picture indeed may be considered as a pattern of another sort, and the
+real difference is that whereas a pattern is not necessarily a picture,
+a picture is bound to be a pattern--a pattern having its quantities, its
+balance of masses, its connecting lines, its various planes, its key of
+colour, its play of contrasts, its harmony of tones.
+
+Technically, a picture may be considered as an _informal_ pattern,
+mainly of tone and values; while a pattern may be considered as a
+_formal_ pattern, mainly of planes of colour.
+
+The ancient art of the East was all frankly pattern-work, whatever the
+subject pictured. Egyptian, Persian, Indian, Chinese, Moorish and
+Arabian art, in all their varieties, show the dominating sense of
+pattern, and the invention of the instinctive decorators in the use of
+colour.
+
+The Japanese, also, are instinctive decorators, though in a less formal
+and more impressionistic way, and with much more naturalistic feeling.
+Their pictures printed from colour blocks, as well as their "kakimonos,"
+painted on silk, are frankly pattern-pictures, the pattern motive being
+quite as strong or stronger than the graphic or representative motive.
+
+Mediaeval and early Renaissance painting in Europe was frankly more or
+less formal and of the nature of ornament, and even in its freest and
+fullest development, in the works of the great masters of the sixteenth
+century of Venice and Florence, a certain decorative or architectural
+feeling was never forgotten.
+
+Painting was still in close association with architecture, and was the
+chief adornment of churches and palaces; thus it preserved a peculiar
+distinction and dignity of style. The Dutch school did more perhaps to
+break these old decorative and architectural traditions than any other,
+with their domestic and purely naturalistic motives, their pursuit of
+realism, atmospheric effect, and chiaroscuro--that fascinating goal of
+painting.
+
+                                                             [Chiaroscuro]
+
+Yet there were some of the seventeenth-century masters, and of the best,
+such as De Hooghe and Ver Meer of Delft, who showed themselves very much
+alive to decorative effect, which their power of chiaroscuro--the power
+of painting things in their proper atmosphere, as lost in transparent
+depths of shadow, or found in luminous mystery--only seemed to enhance.
+
+As a wonderful instance of ornamental and dignified design carried into
+every detail with most careful draughtsmanship, and yet beautiful in
+chiaroscuro and grave colour, there is no finer example than J. Van
+Eyck's portrait-picture of "Jan Arnolfini and his Wife" in our National
+Gallery. Such pictures as these would tell as rich and precious gems
+upon the wall, and would form the centres to which the surrounding
+colour patterns and decoration would lead up, as in the picture the
+little mirror reflecting the figures shines upon the wall, a picture
+within a picture.
+
+[Illustration (f134): J. van Eyck: "Portrait of Jan Arnolfini and His
+Wife." (National Gallery.)]
+
+It is instructive from any point of view to study the quantities and
+relations of colour, and their tones and values, in such works.
+
+                                                       [Ver Meer of Delft]
+
+Take Ver Meer's "Lady at a Spinet" in our National Gallery.
+
+[Illustration (f135): Ver Meer of Delft: "Lady at a Spinet." (National
+Gallery.)]
+
+We have a plain white wall, exquisite in tone, upon which the crisp gold
+of the small picture inclosing a brownish landscape with a blue and
+white sky, and the broad black frame of the picture of Cupid tell
+strongly, yet fall into plane behind the figure in white satin--quite a
+different quality of white, and warmer and brighter than the wall. The
+bodice is a steely blue silk, which is repeated in the velvet seat of
+the chair; while the blue and white landscape upon the open lid of the
+spinet repeats the blue and white landscape on the wall, and the blue
+and white motive is subtly re-echoed in a subdued key in the little
+tiles lining the base of the wall. The floor is a chequer of black and
+white (mottled) marble, which gives a fine relief to the dress and
+repeats the emphatic black of the picture frame; the stand of the spinet
+is also black striated marble. Quiet daylight falls through the greenish
+white of the leaded panes. The pink-brown woodwork of the spinet and
+chair prevent the colour scheme from being cold. The flesh is very pale
+and ivory-like in tone, but the dress is enlivened by little crisp
+scarlet and gold touches in the narrow laces which tie the sleeves.
+
+The little picture is a gem of painting and truth of tone, and at the
+same time might well suggest a charming scheme of colour to an
+ornamentist.
+
+                                                                [Van Eyck]
+
+Examine the Van Eyck in the same way, and we shall find a very rich but
+quiet scheme of colour in a lower key, highly decorative, yet presented
+with extraordinary realistic force, united with extreme refinement and
+exquisite chiaroscuro, and truth of tone and value, as a
+portrait-picture, and piece of interior lighting.
+
+It is like taking an actual peep into the inner life of a Flemish
+burgher of the fifteenth century.
+
+One seems to breathe the still air of the quiet room, the gray daylight
+falling through the leaded casements, one of which stands open, and
+shows a narrow strip of luminous sky and suggestion of a garden with
+scarlet blossoms in green leaves.
+
+The man is clad in a long mantle of claret-brown velvet edged with fur,
+over black tunic and hose. He wears a quaint black hat upon his head,
+which almost foreshadows the tall hat of the modern citizen. The pale
+strange face looks paler and stranger beneath it, but is in character
+with the long thin hands. The figure gives one the impression of legal
+precision and dryness, and a touch of clerical formality. The wife is of
+a buxom and characteristic Flemish type, in a grass-green robe edged
+with white fur, over peacock blue; a crisp silvery white head-dress; a
+dark red leather belt with silver stitching. Her figure is relieved upon
+the subdued red of the bed hangings, continued in the cover of the
+settle and the red clogs. The wall of the room, much lost in transparent
+shade, is of a greenish gray tone, and in the centre, between the
+figures, a circular convex mirror sparkles on the wall reflecting the
+backs of the figures. Thin lines delicately repeat the red in the mirror
+frame, which has a black and red inner moulding. A string of amber beads
+hangs on the wall, and repeats the shimmer of the bright brass
+candelabra which hangs aloft, and which is drawn carefully enough for a
+craftsman to reproduce.
+
+                                                        [Pattern-Pictures]
+
+Both designer and painter may find abundant suggestion in this picture,
+which, with Ver Meer's "Lady at the Spinet," I should describe as
+_pattern-pictures_--that is to say, while they are thoroughly painter's
+pictures, and give all the peculiar qualities of oil-painting in the
+rendering of tone and values, they yet show in their colour scheme the
+decorative quality, and might be translated into patterns of the same
+proportions and keys of colours.
+
+As examples of what might be termed picture-patterns we might recur to
+the wall paintings, as I have said, of ancient Egypt and early art
+generally, for their simplest forms; but to take a much later instance,
+and from the art of Florence in the fifteenth century, look at
+Botticelli's charming little picture of "The Nativity," in the National
+Gallery. It has all the intentional, or perhaps instinctive, ornamental
+aim of Italian art, and its colour scheme shows a most dainty and
+delicate invention in the strictest relation to the subject and
+sentiment, and is arranged with the utmost subtlety and the nicest art.
+
+                                                              [Botticelli]
+
+The ring of angels above, for instance, is partly relieved upon a gilded
+ground--to represent the dome of heaven. They bear olive branches, and
+the colour of their robes alternates in the following order: rose, olive
+(shot with gold), and white.
+
+The _rose-coloured_ angels have _olive and white wings_; the _white
+angels, rose and olive wings_; and _the olive angels, white and rose
+wings_.
+
+This part of the picture by itself forms a most beautiful pattern
+motive, while it expresses the idea of peace and goodwill.
+
+Then on the brown and gold thatch of the stable occur three more angels
+in white, rose, and green, respectively. Against a pale sky rise rich
+olive-green trees, forming the background.
+
+[Illustration (f136): Botticelli: "The Nativity" (National Gallery).]
+
+The Virgin strikes the brightest ray of colour in red under-robe and
+sky-blue mantle. There is a gray white ass and a pale brown cow behind
+her.
+
+St. Joseph is in steel gray with a golden orange mantle over.
+
+The brightest white occurs in the drapery upon which the infant Christ
+lies.
+
+An angel with a group of men appears, kneeling on the left relieved
+against white rocks; their colours are--the angel's wings--peacock blue
+and green, and a pale rose robe. The next figure is in scarlet; the next
+yellow; and the third man wears pale rose over rich grass-green.
+
+Of the shepherds on the right the first one is in russet and white, the
+next steely gray, and the angel is in white with rose and pale green
+wings.
+
+The ground is generally warm white and brown, with dark olive-coloured
+grass and foliage, so that the pattern of the picture is mainly a ground
+of olive, gold, and white, relieved by spots of rose, white, blue,
+yellow, and rose-red and scarlet--the colour in the groups of angels
+embracing men in front being the deepest in tone.
+
+The first angel in this group (on the left) wears green shot with gold,
+with shot green and gold wings, the human being in dark olive and rich
+crimson red.
+
+Next is a white angel with pale rose wings; the man in gray with a red
+mantle over.
+
+Last is an angel in rose, with rose and red wings, the man being in
+scarlet with gray mantle over. All the men hold olive branches, and the
+group emphatically illustrates the idea of "on earth peace and goodwill
+towards men," thus ending on the keynote both of colour and idea given
+in the ring of angels above.
+
+Thus it is not only a lovely picture, but an exquisite pattern.
+
+                                                                 [Holbein]
+
+Another instance of a picture-pattern extremely strong and brilliant in
+its realization of the full force and value of bright colour opposed by
+the strongest black and white, may be found in Holbein's splendid
+"Ambassadors," also in our National Collection.
+
+[Illustration (f137): Holbein: "The Ambassadors" (National Gallery).]
+
+                                                              [Botticelli]
+
+The circular picture of the Madonna and Child, with St. John and an
+angel, by Botticelli, is also another beautiful instance of pictorial
+pattern, and of design well adapted and adequately filling its space,
+while full of delicate draughtsmanship, poetic sentiment, and extremely
+ornate in its colour.
+
+[Illustration (f138): Botticelli: "Madonna and Child" (National
+Gallery).]
+
+                                                          [Carlo Crivelli]
+
+Still more strictly ornamental in character and aim is Carlo Crivelli's
+"Annunciation." Amazingly rich in invention, and beautifully designed
+detail, and magnificently decorative in its colour scheme of brick reds
+and whites, and pale pinks and steel grays, and yellows, varied with
+scarlet and black, green, blue and gold, in the costumes and draperies,
+sparkling with jewels, and brightened with rays and patterns of gold.
+
+[Illustration (f139): Carlo Crivelli: "The Annunciation" (National
+Gallery).]
+
+                                                                [Perugino]
+
+Hardly less ornamental in its more conscious grace and Renaissance
+feeling is Perugino's triptych of the Virgin adoring, with St. Michael
+on one wing and St. Raphael and Tobias on the other. It is a splendid
+deep-toned harmony of blues, and warm flesh tones and golden hair,
+varied by opals, rose red, bronze, green, white, and purple and orange.
+
+[Illustration (f140): Perugino: "The Virgin in Adoration, with St.
+Michael and St. Raphael and Tobias" (National Gallery).]
+
+                                                                  [Titian]
+
+Titian's "Bacchus and Ariadne" is, perhaps, more what I have described
+as a pattern-picture, and is of a much later type. The full flush of
+colour and pagan joy of the Renaissance is here paramount, expressed
+with the masterly freedom of drawing and magnificent colour sense of the
+great Venetian master. Yet, looking through the life, the movement, the
+swing and vitality of the figures, and the power and poetry by which the
+story is conveyed, we shall find a fine ornate design, sustaining an
+extremely rich and sumptuous pattern of colour. We have a spread of
+deep-toned blue sky barred with silvery white and gray clouds, great
+masses of brown and green foliage swaying against it, above a band of
+deep blue sea, and a field of rich golden brown earth. Warm flesh tones,
+deep and pale, break upon this with a gorgeous pattern of flying rose,
+blue, scarlet, orange, and white draperies, varied with the spotted
+coats of the leopards, the black of the dog, and the copper vessel and
+warm white of tumbled drapery.
+
+[Illustration (f141): Titian: "Bacchus and Ariadne" (National Gallery).]
+
+Keats might have had this picture in his mind when he wrote the song in
+"Endymion":
+
+    "And as I sat, over the light blue hills
+    There came a noise of revellers: the rills
+    Into the wide stream came of purple hue.
+                  'Twas Bacchus and his crew!
+
+    "The earnest trumpet speaks, and silver thrills
+    From kissing cymbals made a merry din--
+                  'Twas Bacchus and his kin!
+
+    "Like to a moving vintage down they came,
+    Crowned with green leaves, and faces all on flame;
+    All madly dancing through the pleasant valley,
+                  To scare thee, Melancholy!"
+
+The "Sacred and Profane Love" of the same painter, in the Borghese
+Gallery at Rome, is an even more splendid example of colour and tone,
+and is probably the finest of all Titian's works.
+
+                                                           [Paul Veronese]
+
+In Paul Veronese we find a cooler key of colour generally, with a
+fondness for compositions of figures with classical architecture, the
+rich patterned robes and varied heads contrasting pleasantly with the
+severe verticals and smooth surfaces of the marble columns--a sumptuous
+and dignified kind of picture-pattern, and fully adapted to the
+decoration of Venetian churches and palaces of the Renaissance.
+
+                                                          [F. Madox Brown]
+
+Madox Brown's "Christ washing St. Peter's Feet," now in the Tate
+Gallery, is a modern picture-pattern, and an extremely fine one.
+
+These are but a few instances out of many, and the subject of colour and
+pattern, like the expression of line and form, of which it is a part, is
+so large and its sides so multitudinous that to deal with the subject
+fully and illustrate it adequately would need, not ten chapters, but
+ten hundred, and could only be compassed by the history of art itself.
+
+[Illustration (f142): Madox Brown: "Christ Washing St. Peter's Feet"
+(Tate Gallery).]
+
+                                                              [Conclusion]
+
+If anything I have said on the subject, or have been able to show by way
+of illustration, has served in any way to clear away obscurities, or to
+lighten the labours of students, or to suggest fresh ideas to the minds
+of any of my readers in the theory, history, or practice of art, I shall
+feel that my work has not been in vain, and, at all events, I can only
+say that I have endeavoured to give here the results of my own thoughts
+and experience in art.
+
+Some may look upon art as a means of livelihood only, a handmaid of
+commerce, or as a branch of knowledge, to be acquired only so far as to
+enable one to impart it to others; others may regard it as a polite
+amusement; others, again, as an absorbing pursuit and passion, demanding
+the closest devotion: but from whatever point of view we may regard it,
+do not let us forget that the pursuit of beauty in art offers the best
+of educations for the faculties, that its interest continually
+increases, and its pleasures and successes are the most refined and
+satisfying.
+
+
+
+
+                                  INDEX
+
+Adaptability in design, 124-126.
+
+Animal forms, use of in design, 106;
+  governed by inclosing boundaries, 104-106, 110-112.
+
+Architectural mouldings, relief in, 190.
+
+Architecture, spaces for sculpture in, 113-116.
+
+Ardebil, holy carpet of the mosque of, f126.
+
+Athens, the Tower of the Winds, 115-116.
+
+
+Bari, 10;
+  the "Hundred Birds" of, f044.
+
+Birds, Japanese drawing of, 68, f044;
+  decorative treatment of, f115.
+
+Blake's Book of Job, "The Morning Stars," 19, f014, 152.
+
+Border motives, recurrence in, f031, f032, f062.
+
+Book decoration, 58, 59, 62;
+  example of page treatment, f041.
+
+Botticelli, frescoes in the Sistine Chapel, 226;
+  rendering of the "Primavera" in tapestry, 240;
+  his "Nativity," 272-275;
+  "Madonna and Child," 275-276.
+
+Boundaries, definition of, 2, 3;
+  use of in designing sprays, 38, f027;
+  in designing animal forms, f063a;
+  influence of, 108;
+  relation of design to, f064;
+  decorative spacing of figures in geometric, f063b, 152-156.
+
+Brush-work, 65-68.
+
+
+Canterbury, St. Margaret Street, f086.
+
+Ceiling decoration, 136.
+
+Charcoal drawing, 68, 70.
+
+Chartres, carving on the Cathedral, 197, f108, f109.
+
+Chiaroscuro, 267-269.
+
+Chinese porcelain, 101.
+
+Colour, effect of texture on, 244;
+  in stained glass, 252;
+  expression of relief in line and form by, 256, 258;
+  radiation of, 258;
+  complements in, 260;
+  harmony in, 261;
+  colour sense, 261, 262;
+  colour proportions, 262;
+  importance of pure colour, 263.
+
+Composition, formal, 152-156;
+  informal, 157-164.
+
+Constantine, Arch of, sketch of, f069.
+
+Contrast in design, 101;
+  use of, in pattern design, 166, _et seq._;
+  principles of, in black and white, f111a.
+
+Corinthian order, Roman treatment of, 192, f105.
+
+Counterbalance, 43, 44, 95, f057, f058, 130.
+
+Counterchange, in heraldry, 171-174.
+
+Crivelli, "The Annunciation," 276-278.
+
+Cube, the, 73;
+  use of in architecture, f045b, 77, f048a;
+  in nature, 76.
+
+
+Dado, use of the, 234.
+
+De Hooghe, Peter, 267.
+
+Desiderio di Settignano, relief work of, 202;
+  "Madonna and Child," at South Kensington, by, 202.
+
+Design, linear basis of, 35;
+  technical influence on, 58, 59, 62;
+  beauty in, 62, 63;
+  influence of material on, 64;
+  quantities in, 96-101;
+  contrast in, 101;
+  living tradition in, 126;
+  adaptability in, 124-126;
+  extension in, 126-131;
+  geometric structural plans in, 130;
+  essentials of, 138-139.
+
+De Wint, brush-work of, 68.
+
+Diaper, use of in Middle Ages, 171, 174-175.
+
+Donatello, relief work of, 202.
+
+Drapery, treatment of by the old masters, f099-186.
+
+Drawing in line, methods of, 6, 7;
+  calligraphic method, 8;
+  tentative method, 9;
+  Japanese method, 10;
+  oval and rectangular methods, f008, 12.
+
+Durer, Albert, his "Geometrica," 5;
+  roofs in his engravings, 148;
+  "The Prodigal Son," f083;
+  "St. Anthony," f084;
+  principle in the treatment of drapery, f099, f100.
+
+
+Egyptian sculpture, 192, 194-196.
+
+Emotion, linear expression of, 18-21.
+
+Emphasis, 54;
+  value of, 56;
+  effects of different emphasis, f038, f039, f040;
+  in relief of form, 180.
+
+Equivalents in form, value of, 95, f057.
+
+Extension in design, 126-131.
+
+
+Figure composition, 160;
+  expression of repose and action in, f090.
+
+Figure design, relief in, 204-207;
+  graphic and decorative treatment of, f114.
+
+Figure designs, controlled by geometric boundaries, 152-156.
+
+Flaxman's Homer, designs from, f015.
+
+Flowers,
+  lines of characterization in design of, 12, 13;
+  forms controlled by inclosing boundaries, 110-112.
+
+Foliage, principles of structure in, 143-146.
+
+Form, its relation to line, 27;
+  importance of knowledge of, 31;
+  choice of, 73, 79;
+  elementary forms and their relation to forms in nature and art, 73-77;
+  grouping of, 83-87;
+  analogies of, 89-91;
+  typical forms of ornament, 92-95;
+  equivalents in, 95, f057;
+  variation of allied forms, 103;
+  governed by shape of inclosing boundary, f063b, 106, f066;
+  relief of, 165, _et seq._;
+  expression of, by light and shade, 205, f112.
+
+Frieze, origin of the, 113, 133;
+  and field, 133-135;
+  use of the, 236;
+  treatment of, 240.
+
+Fruit forms, treatment of, f054, 89.
+
+
+Gems, engraved, 200.
+
+Geometric forms, elementary, 73;
+  structural plans in surface design, 128-133.
+
+Ghirlandajo, 226.
+
+Giotto, "Chastity," f119.
+
+Gozzoli, Benozzo, 226.
+
+Graphic aim, the, in drawing, 29-31, 205, 208-211.
+
+Grouping of forms, 83-87.
+
+
+Holbein, "The Ambassadors," f137.
+
+Human figure, use of the,
+  in design, 104-107;
+  decorative spacing of
+  within geometric boundaries, 105-106, 107;
+  governed by inclosing boundaries, 110, f066;
+  principles of line in, f081a.
+
+
+Indian ornament, typical, 212, 216;
+  printed cotton designs, 246, f130.
+
+Inlay work, choice of forms for, 81-83.
+
+
+Japanese method of drawing with the brush, 10, 68;
+  diagonal pattern, f053;
+  colour prints, 266.
+
+
+Keene, Charles, 190.
+
+
+Landscape, expression of storm and calm in, 158, f089.
+
+Lead pencil, 70.
+
+Letters, formation of, 4;
+  Durer's method, f005a.
+
+Line, methods of drawing in, 6-12;
+  quality of, 12-14;
+  the language of, 23;
+  comparison of style in, 24;
+  scale of degrees and qualities of, 24, 25;
+  its relation to form, 27;
+  question and answer in, 35, f025;
+  recurring, f031, f032;
+  radiating principle of, 46-50;
+  range and use of, 47-49;
+  choice of, 51;
+  degree and emphasis of, 54;
+  influence of technical conditions on, 58-62;
+  controlling influence of, as a boundary of design, 106, 108-113;
+  value of recurring, 119-124;
+  combinations of, 139;
+  principles of structural and ornamental line, 140-145;
+  selection of, f117a, f117b.
+
+Linear expression, of movement, 15, 16, 17;
+  of textures and surfaces, 18, 19;
+  of emotion, 19, 20, f015;
+  scale of, 21;
+  power of, 158, 160;
+  of fur and feathers, 208, f113.
+
+Linear motives and pattern bases, simple, 109-111.
+
+Lippi, Filippino, study of drapery by, f101.
+
+Lorenzo di Credi, 226.
+
+Lysicrates, monument of, 133.
+
+
+Madox Brown, Ford, mural painting at Manchester, 226, 227;
+  "Christ washing Peter's feet," 280, f142.
+
+Mantling, treatment of, 170-173.
+
+Medals, 200, f110.
+
+Memory, importance of, in design, 39.
+
+Michael Angelo, ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, 225.
+
+Modelling, principle of relief in, 192.
+
+Montague, mantling from Garter plate of, f094b.
+
+Morris, William, tapestry of, 236, 240.
+
+Movement, linear expression of, 15-17;
+  lines of, in a procession, f091a;
+  in a dancing figure, f117a;
+  in water, f118b.
+
+Mural decoration, 224, 225;
+  diagram of systems of line governing, f121;
+  scale in, 230;
+  choice of line and form in, 236.
+
+
+Nauplia, Gulf of, coast and mountain lines, f004, f118a.
+
+Nerva, Forum of, 192, f105.
+
+Nuremberg, ceiling in the Castle of, 136, 137.
+
+
+Olive branch, study of from nature, f020;
+  decorative treatment of, f021.
+
+Ornament, typical forms of, 92-94.
+
+Ornamental purpose, the, in drawing, 29, 31-33, 210, _et seq._
+
+Ornamental units, 94;
+  use of intervals in repeating, f065.
+
+Outline, origin and function of, 1.
+
+
+Parthenon, the frieze of the, 46;
+  sketch of, f067.
+
+Pattern and picture, difference between, 265;
+  pattern-pictures, 272.
+
+Pen, the, compared with brush and pencil, 71.
+
+Pencil drawing, 70, 71.
+
+Persian carpets, principle of design in, 242;
+  treatment of borders in, f127;
+  white outline in, 260.
+
+Persian ornament, typical, 212, f116.
+
+Persian rugs, value of different quantities in, 98-101.
+
+Perugino, National Gallery triptych, f140.
+
+Photograph, influence of the, 55, 56;
+  principle of the, 187, 190.
+
+Picture writing, 27, f019.
+
+Pinturicchio, frescoes in the Sistine Chapel, 226;
+  mural painting at Siena, 226, f120;
+  frescoes in the Appartimenti Borgia, 238, f125.
+
+Pisano, Vittore, medals of, 198, f110.
+
+Poppy, horned study of, f022;
+  adaptation of for needlework, f023;
+  sketch of on different coloured grounds, f132, 258.
+
+Prints, principles of design for, 246-251.
+
+Procession, lines of movement in a, 160, 162-163.
+
+Pyramid, the, 73;
+  use of in architecture, f045b, f048a.
+
+
+Radiating principle of line, the, 46-50.
+
+Raphael, study of drapery by, f102.
+
+Ravenna, S. Vitale, sketch of apse, f070.
+
+Recurring line and form, f031, f032;
+  value of in architecture, 119, 124.
+
+Relief, methods of expressing, 165;
+  use of contrast, 166;
+  decorative relief, 171;
+  on diapered ground, 174-175;
+  by simple linear contrasts, 174, 176-178;
+  by linear shading, 176, 178;
+  by diagonal shading, 176, 178-180;
+  value of emphasis in, 180;
+  by light and shade alone, 187-190;
+  principle of in architectural mouldings, 190;
+  modelled, 192;
+  in sculpture, 192-199, f109;
+  Florentine fifteenth-century work, 202;
+  natural principle of, 204, f111b;
+  by colour, 256, 258.
+
+Repeating patterns, 36, f026, f077b, f078;
+  method of testing, 38, f028.
+
+Rhythm of design, the, 32.
+
+Roofs, German, 146-148.
+
+Rothenburg, roof-lines in, f085.
+
+
+St. David's Cathedral, carvings in, 122-124;
+  Gothic tile pattern in, f074, f076.
+
+Scale, importance of in mural decoration, 230, 232.
+
+Sculpture, relief in, 192;
+  Egyptian, 192, 194;
+  Grecian, 194, f107, 197;
+  Gothics, 197;
+  on mediaeval tombs, 198.
+
+Selection, the test of artistic treatment, 214.
+
+Shields, F. J., mural decoration, 228.
+
+Silhouette, 2, f010a.
+
+Skirting, the, 234.
+
+Spaces, decorative, in design, 113;
+  apparent depth or width increased by use of vertical or horizontal
+      lines, 232, f122.
+
+Spacing, mural, 230, f121, f123.
+
+Sphere, the, 73;
+  use of in architecture, f045b, f048a;
+  in nature, 76.
+
+Stained glass, principles of design for, 252, 255.
+
+Surfaces, linear expression of, 18.
+
+
+Tapestry, 237;
+  Burgundian, 237, f124;
+  effect of texture on colour in, 244, f128.
+
+Technical influence, the, 58-62.
+
+Textile designing, 62;
+  examples of, f041b;
+  value of different qualities in, 97-101;
+  principles of, 241, 242;
+  colour in, 244.
+
+Textures, linear expression of, 18.
+
+Thebes, sculptured relief at, f106.
+
+Titian, "Bacchus and Ariadne," 278-280;
+  "Sacred and Profane Love," 280.
+
+Tivoli, Temple of the Sibyls at, 133.
+
+Trees, effect of wind upon, f011;
+  general principles of line and form in foliage, etc., 143-145.
+
+Typical treatment, 31;
+  ornament, 92-95.
+
+
+Valence, Aymer de, tomb of, f094a.
+
+Van Eyck, "Jan Arnolfini and his Wife," 267, f134, 270, 271.
+
+Variation of allied forms, 103.
+
+Variety in design, 40.
+
+Ver Meer, "Lady at Spinet," f135, 270, 272.
+
+Veronese, Paul, 280.
+
+Visch, Martin de, brass of, f094b, f095.
+
+
+Walberswick Church, f072.
+
+Walker, Frederick, 190.
+
+Wall, decorative spacing of the, 234, f123.
+
+Wall-paper, principles of design for, 36, f026, 246;
+  relation between frieze and field in, 133, 134.
+
+Water, lines of movement in, f118b.
+
+Watercourse, lines left by a, f091b.
+
+Wave lines, f011, f012.
+
+Westminster, vaulting of chapter house, f035.
+
+Winchelsea, tomb of Gervaise-Alard, f071.
+
+
+
+
+          CHISWICK PRESS: PRINTED BY CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO.
+                  TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Line and Form (1900), by Walter Crane
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