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diff --git a/25290.txt b/25290.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ac52e1c --- /dev/null +++ b/25290.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6261 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Line and Form (1900), by Walter Crane + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Line and Form (1900) + +Author: Walter Crane + +Release Date: May 2, 2008 [EBook #25290] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LINE AND FORM (1900) *** + + + + +Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, David Cortesi, Jonathan +Ingram and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + LINE & FORM + + BY WALTER CRANE + + [Illustration] + + LONDON: G. BELL & SONS, LTD. + + _First published, medium 8vo_, 1900. + + _Reprinted, crown 8vo_, 1902, 1904, 1908, 1912, 1914. + + CHISWICK PRESS: CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO. + + TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON + + + + + TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES + + +In the original of this work, most pages are headed by a topic phrase so +that a topic can be located quickly by riffling the pages of the book. +In this etext, the same topic phrases can be found right-aligned above +the paragraph that begins that topic. Thus a topic can be found by +scrolling the text and scanning the right margin. + +The original of this work is copiously illustrated. Although this etext +cannot include the figures, it does include their caption as lines like +the following: + +[Illustration (f002): The Origin of Outline] + +Here f002 is a numeric label for the figure. Because an etext of this +type does not have page numbers, in references to a figure in the List +of Illustrations and in the Index these figure labels are used +instead of page number. In the body text, references to figures by page +number have been supplemented with the figure labels. + +The illustrations f006, f007, f008 and f016 do not have captions in the +original and descriptive captions have been added. + +The caret is used to indicate superscripts, for example ED^wd^ indicates +ED followed by a small superscript "wd". + +Two minor typographical errors were corrected: "thing" to "think" on +page 10 and "intregal" to "integral" on page 197. + + + + + PREFACE + + +As in the case of "The Bases of Design," to which this is intended to +form a companion volume, the substance of the following chapters on Line +and Form originally formed a series of lectures delivered to the +students of the Manchester Municipal School of Art. + +There is no pretension to an exhaustive treatment of a subject it would +be difficult enough to exhaust, and it is dealt with in a way intended +to bear rather upon the practical work of an art school, and to be +suggestive and helpful to those face to face with the current problems +of drawing and design. + +These have been approached from a personal point of view, as the results +of conclusions arrived at in the course of a busy working life which has +left but few intervals for the elaboration of theories apart from +practice, and such as they are, these papers are now offered to the +wider circle of students and workers in the arts of design as from one +of themselves. + +They were illustrated largely by means of rough sketching in line before +my student audience, as well as by photographs and drawings. The rough +diagrams have been re-drawn, and the other illustrations reproduced, so +that both line and tone blocks are used, uniformity being sacrificed to +fidelity. + + WALTER CRANE. + Kensington, July, 1900. + + + + + CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER I + + Origin and Function of Outline--Silhouette--Definition of Boundaries + by--Power of Characterization by--Formation of Letters--Methods of + Drawing in Line--The Progressive Method--The Calligraphic Method--The + Tentative Method--The Japanese Direct Brush Method--The Oval Method-- + The Rectangular Method--Quality of Line--Linear Expression of + Movement--Textures--Emotion--Scale of Linear Expression 1 + +CHAPTER II + + The Language of Line--Dialects--Comparison of the Style of Various + Artists in Line--Scale of Degrees in Line--Picture Writing--Relation + of Line to Form--Two Paths--The Graphic Purpose--Aspect--The + Ornamental Purpose--Typical Treatment or Convention--Rhythm--Linear + Plans in Pattern Designing--Wall-paper Design--Controlling + Forms--Memory--Evolution in Design--Variety in Unity-- + Counterbalance--Linear Logic--Recurring Line and Form--Principle + of Radiation--Range and Use of Line 23 + +CHAPTER III + + Of the Choice and Use of Line--Degree and Emphasis--Influence of the + Photograph--The Value of Emphasis--The Technical Influence--The + Artistic Purpose--Influence of Material and Tools--Brushwork-- + Charcoal--Pencil--Pen 51 + +CHAPTER IV + + Of the Choice of Form--Elementary Forms--Space-filling--Grouping-- + Analogies of Form--Typical Forms of Ornament--Ornamental Units-- + Equivalents in Form--Quantities in Design--Contrast--Value of + Variations of Similar or Allied Forms--Use of the Human Figure + and Animal Forms in Ornamental Design 73 + +CHAPTER V + + Of the Influence of Controlling Lines, Boundaries Spaces, and Plans in + Designing--Origin of Geometric Decorative Spaces and Panels in + Architecture--Value of Recurring Line--Tradition--Extension-- + Adaptability--Geometric Structural Plans--Frieze and Field-- + Ceiling Decoration--Co-operative Relation 108 + +CHAPTER VI + + Of the Fundamental Essentials of Design: Line, Form, Space--Principles + of Structural and Ornamental Line in Organic Forms--Form and Mass in + Foliage--Roofs--The Mediaeval City--Organic and Accidental + Beauty--Composition: Formal and Informal--Power of Linear + Expression--Relation of Masses and Lines--Principles of Harmonious + Composition 138 + +CHAPTER VII + + Of the Relief of Form--Three Methods--Contrast--Light and Shade, and + Modelling--The Use of Contrast and Planes in Pattern + Designing--Decorative Relief--Simple Linear Contrast--Relief by Linear + Shading--Different Emphasis in relieving Form by Shading Lines--Relief + by means of Light and Shade alone without Outline--Photographic + Projection--Relief by different Planes and Contrasts of Concave and + Convex Surfaces in Architectural Mouldings--Modelled Relief-- + Decorative Use of Light and Shade, and different Planes in Modelling + and Carving--Egyptian System of Relief Sculpture--Greek and Gothic + Architectural Sculpture, influenced by Structural and Ornamental + Feeling--Sculptural Tombs, Medals, Coins, Gems--Florentine + Fifteenth-century Reliefs--Desiderio di Settignano 165 + +CHAPTER VIII + + Of the Expression of Relief in Line-drawing--Graphic Aim and + Ornamental Aim--Superficial Appearance and Constructive + Reality--Accidents and Essentials--Representation and Suggestion of + Natural Form in Design--The Outward Vision and the Inner Vision 204 + +CHAPTER IX + + Of the Adaptation of Line and Form in Design, in various materials and + methods--Mural Decoration--Fresco-work of the Italian Painters-- + Modern Mural Work--Mural Spacing and Pattern Plans--Scale--The + Skirting--The Dado--Field of the Wall--The Frieze--Panelling-- + Tapestry--Textile Design--Persian Carpets--Effect of Texture on + Colour--Prints--Wall-paper--Stained Glass 224 + +CHAPTER X + + Of the Expression and Relief of Line and Form by _Colour_--Effect of + same Colour upon different Grounds--Radiation of Colour--White Outline + to clear Colours--Quality of Tints relieved upon other Tints-- + Complementaries--Harmony--The Colour Sense--Colour Proportions-- + Importance of Pure Tints--Tones and Planes--The Tone of Time-- + Pattern and Picture--A Pattern not necessarily a Picture, but a + Picture in principle a Pattern--Chiaroscuro--Examples of Pattern-work + and Picture-work--Picture-patterns and Pattern-pictures 256 + +INDEX 283 + + + + + LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + The Origin of Outline f002 + + Silhouettes f003 + + Coast and Mountain Lines--Gulf of Nauplia f004 + + Proportions of Roman Capital Letters and of lower-case f005a + German text. From Durer's "Geometrica" + + The Progressive Method of Drawing in Line f006a + + The Calligraphic Method f007a + + The Tentative Method f007b + + The Oval and Rectangular Methods f008 + + Lines of Characterization in the Form and Feature of f009 + Flowers: Lily and Poppy + + Silhouette of Beech Leaves and Line Rendering of the same f010a + + Lines of Movement f010b + + Effect of Wind upon Trees f011 + + Line Arrangement in ribbed Sea-sand f012 + + Lines of different Textures, Structures, and Services f013 + + Lines of Exaltation and Rejoicing in Unison. The Morning f014 + Stars, after William Blake + + Lines of Grief and Dejection: Designs from Flaxman's Homer f015 + + Landscape f016 + + Scale of various Degrees of Linear Weight and Emphasis f017 + + Curvilinear Scale of Direction f018 + + Rectangular Scale of Direction f018 + + Picture Writing f019 + + Olive Branch, from Nature f020 + + Olive Branch, simplified in Decorative Treatment f021 + + Study of Horned Poppy f022 + + Adaptation of Horned Poppy in Design: Vertical Panel for f023 + Needlework + + Question and Answer in Line f024, f025 + + Diagram showing the Use of a Geometric Basis in Designing a f026 + Repeating Pattern + + Use of Controlling Boundaries in Designing Sprays f027 + + Method of Testing a Repeating Pattern f028 + + Sketch to show how a Pattern of Diverse Elements may be f029 + harmonized by Unity of Inclosing and Intermediary Lines + + The Principle of Counterbalance in different Systems of f030 + Design + + Border Units and Border Motive f031 + + Recurring Line and Form in Border Motives f032 + + Radiating Principle of Line in Natural Form f033 + + Radiating Lines of the Pectoral Muscles and Ribs f034 + + Vaulting of Chapter House, Westminster f035 + + Lines of Characterization of Feathers and Shells f036 + + Pen Drawing of Fruit f037 + + Effect of different Emphasis in Treatment of the same f038, f039 + Designs + + Effect of different Emphasis in the Drawing of Landscape f040 + + Example of Page Treatment to show Ornamental Relation f041a + between Text and Pictures + + Suggestion for a Carpet Pattern and Abstract Treatment of f041b + the same on Point Paper as detail of Brussels Carpet + + Brush Forms f042 + + Direct Brush Expression of Animal Form f043 + + Japanese Drawing of a Bird. From "The Hundred Birds of Bari" f044 + + Elementary Geometrical Forms f045a + + Use of the same Forms in Architecture f045b + + Poppy-heads f046 + + Apple cut to show Position of Seeds f047 + + Cube and Sphere in Architectural Ornament f048a + + Filling of Square Space f049a + + Filling of Circular Space f049b + + Inlay Design: Pattern Units and Motives f050 + + Grouping of Allied Forms: Composition of Curves f051a + + Grouping of Allied Forms: Composition of Angles f051b + + Still-life Group illustrative of Wood-engraving f052 + + Japanese Diagonal Pattern f053 + + Treatment of Fruit and Leaf Forms: Corresponding Curvature f054 + + Correspondence in General Contour between Leaf and Tree f055a + + Some Analogies in Form f055b + + Tree of Typical Pattern Forms, Units and Systems f056 + + Sketches to show Use of Counterbalance, Quantity, and f057 + Equivalents in Designing + + Quantities and Counterchange of Border and Field in Carpet f058 + Motives + + Sketches to illustrate Value of different Quantities in f058-f061 + Persian Rugs + + Recurrence and Contrast in Border Motives f062 + + Use of inclosing Boundaries in Designing Animal Forms in f063a + Decorative Pattern + + Decorative Spacing of Figures within Geometric Boundaries f063b + + Simple Linear Motives and Pattern Bases f064 + + Use of Intervals in Repeating the same Ornamental Units f065 + + Designs of Floral, Human, and Animal Forms, governed by f066 + Shape of inclosing Boundary + + The Parthenon: Sketch to show Spaces used for Decorative f067 + Sculpture in Greek Architecture + + The Tower of the Winds, Athens f068 + + Sketch of part of the Arch of Constantine to show spaces for f069 + Decorative Sculpture in Roman Architecture + + Byzantine (Mosaic) Treatment of Architectural Structural f070 + Features: Apse, S. Vitale, Ravenna + + Detail of Canopy of Tomb of Gervaise-Alard, Winchelsea f071 + + Walberswick Church: West Door f072 + + Miserere in St. David's Cathedral f073 + + Recessed Panel from the Tomb of Bishop John Morgan, St. f074 + David's Cathedral + + Corbel from Bishop Vaughan's Chapel, St. David's Cathedral f075 + + Gothic Tile Pattern, St. David's Cathedral f076 + + Surface Pattern Motives derived from Lines of Structure f077a + + Repeating Patterns built upon Square and Circular Bases f077b + + Plan of a Drop Repeat f078 + + Sketch Designs to show Relation between Frieze and Field in f079 + Wall-paper + + Principles of Structural and Ornamental Line in Natural f080 + Forms + + Radiating, Recurring and Counterbalancing Lines in the f081a + Structure of the Skeleton and the Muscles + + General Principles of Line and Form in the Branching and f081b + Foliage Masses of Trees + + Principles of Structure in Foliage Masses f082 + + Albert Durer: Detail from "The Prodigal Son" f083 + + Albert Durer: St. Anthony f084 + + Roof-lines: Rothenburg f085 + + St. Margaret Street, Canterbury f086 + + Figure Designs controlled by Geometric Boundaries f087, f088 + + Expression of Storm and Calm in Landscape f089 + + Expression of Repose and Action f090 + + Controlling Lines of Movement: Movement in a Procession f091a + + Lines left by a Watercourse--Lines governing fallen Debris f091b + from a Quarry + + Relief of Form, (1) by Outline, (2) by Contrast, (3) by f092 + Light and Shade + + Relief of Form and Line in Pattern Design by means of f093 + Contrast and the Use of Planes + + Treatment of Mantling (14th-16th centuries) f094a, f094b + + Brass of Martin de Visch, Bruges, 1452 f095 + + Relief in Pattern Design by means of Simple Linear Contrasts f096a + + Relief by adding Shading Lines to Outline f097a + + Relief by Diagonal Shading f097b + + Different Method and different Emphasis in Relieving Form by f098 + Shading Lines + + Albert Durer's Principle in the Treatment of Drapery: From f099 + the Woodcut in the "Life of the Virgin" Series + + Albert Durer: Pen-drawing f100 + + Filippino Lippi: Study of Drapery f101 + + Raphael: Studies of Drapery f102 + + Relief by means of Light and Shade alone, in Pen-drawing f103a + without Outline + + Relief by means of White Line on a Dark Ground and _vice f103b + versa_ + + Relief in Architectural Mouldings f104 + + Roman Treatment of Corinthian Order, Forum of Nerva, Rome f105 + + Egyptian Relief Sculpture: Thebes f106 + + Greek Relief: Eleusis f107 + + Egyptian Relief: Denderah f107 + + Chartres Cathedral: Carving on West Front f108 + + Chartres Cathedral: Tympanum of Central Door of West Front + f109 + + Medals of the Lords of Mantua, Cesena, and Ferrara, by f110 + Vittore Pisano + + Treatment of Draped Figure in Black on White Ground and f111a + _vice versa_ + + Treatment of the same Figure in Light and Shade f111b + + The Graphic Principle of the Expression of Form by Light and f112 + Shade; with and without Outline + + Linear Expression of Features, Feathers and Fur: Notes from f113 + Nature + + Sketches to illustrate the Graphic and the Decorative f114 + Treatment of Draped Figures + + Decorative Treatment of Birds f115 + + Floral Designs upon Typical Inclosing Shapes of Indian and f116 + Persian Ornament + + Dancing Figure with the Governing Lines of the Movement f117a + + Lines of Floral Growth and Structure: Lily and Rose f117b + + Coast-lines, Gulf of Nauplia f118a + + Lines of Movement in Water, Shallow Stream over Sand f118b + + Giotto: Chastity (Lower Church, Assisi) f119 + + Pinturicchio: Mural Painting (Piccolomini Chapel, Siena) f120 + + Diagram showing the Principal Fundamental Plans or Systems f121 + of Line governing Mural Spacing and Decorative Distribution + + Diagram to show how the apparent Depth of a Space is f122 + increased by the Use of Vertical Lines, and its apparent + Width by the Use of Horizontal Lines + + Decorative Spacing of the Wall: Sketches (to half-inch f123 + scale) to show different Treatment and Proportions + + Figure of Laura, from the Burgundian Tapestries: The f124 + Triumphs of Petrarch, in the South Kensington Museum + + Pinturicchio: Fresco in the Appartimenti Borgia f125 + + Portion of Detail of the Holy Carpet of the Mosque of f126 + Ardebil: Persian, sixteenth century + + Sketch to illustrate Treatment of Borders in a Persian Rug f127 + + Arras Tapestry: Diagrams to show the Principle of Working f128 + and Surface Effect + + Contrasting Surfaces in Warp and Weft in Woven Silk Hanging f129 + + Indian printed Cotton Cover: South Kensington Museum f130 + + Stained Glass Treatment: Inclosure of Form and Colour by f131 + Lead Lines + + Sketch to show Effect of the same Colour and Form upon f132 + different Coloured Grounds + + Principle of the Effect of the Blending or Blurring of f133 + Colours at their Edges + + Use of Black and White Outline to clear the Edges of f133 + Coloured Forms upon different Coloured Grounds + + J. Van Eyck: Portrait of J. Arnolfini and his Wife f134 + + Ver Meer of Delft: Lady at a Spinet f135 + + Botticelli: The Nativity f136 + + Holbein: The Ambassadors f137 + + Botticelli: Madonna and Child f138 + + Crivelli: The Annunciation f139 + + Perugino: The Virgin in Adoration with St. Michael and St. f140 + Raphael, and Tobias + + Titian: Bacchus and Ariadne f141 + + Madox Brown: Christ Washing St. Peter's Feet f142 + +[Illustration (f002): The Origin of Outline.] + + + + + OF LINE AND FORM + + + + + CHAPTER I + + + Origin and Function of Outline--Silhouette--Definition of + Boundaries by--Power of Characterization by--Formation of + Letters--Methods of Drawing in Line--The Progressive Method--The + Calligraphic Method--The Tentative Method--The Japanese Direct + Brush Method--The Oval Method--The Rectangular Method--Quality of + Line--Linear Expression of Movement--Textures--Emotion--Scale of + Linear Expression. + +Outline, one might say, is the Alpha and Omega of Art. It is the +earliest mode of expression among primitive peoples, as it is with the +individual child, and it has been cultivated for its power of +characterization and expression, and as an ultimate test of +draughtsmanship, by the most accomplished artists of all time. + +The old fanciful story of its origin in the work of a lover who traced +in charcoal the boundary of the shadow of the head of his sweetheart as +cast upon the wall by the sun, and thus obtained the first profile +portrait, is probably more true in substance than in fact, but it +certainly illustrates the _function_ of outline as the definition of the +boundaries of form. + + [Silhouette] + +As children we probably perceive forms in nature defined as flat shapes +of colour relieved upon other colours, or flat fields of light on dark, +as a white horse is defined upon the green grass of a field, or a black +figure upon a background of snow. + +[Illustration (f003a): Silhouette] + +[Illustration (f003b): Silhouette] + + [Definition of Boundaries] + +To define the boundaries of such forms becomes the main object in early +attempts at artistic expression. The attention is caught by the +edges--the shape of the silhouette which remains the paramount means of +distinction of form when details and secondary characteristics are +lost; as the outlines of mountains remain, or are even more clearly +seen, when distance subdues the details of their structure, and evening +mists throw them into flat planes one behind the other, and leave +nothing but the delicate lines of their edges to tell their character. +We feel the beauty and simplicity of such effects in nature. We feel +that the mind, through the eye resting upon these quiet planes and +delicate lines, receives a sense of repose and poetic suggestion which +is lost in the bright noontide, with all its wealth of glittering +detail, sharp cut in light and shade. There is no doubt that this +typical power of outline and the value of simplicity of mass were +perceived by the ancients, notably the Ancient Egyptians and the Greeks, +who both, in their own ways, in their art show a wonderful power of +characterization by means of line and mass, and a delicate sense of the +ornamental value and quality of line. + +[Illustration (f004): Coast and Mountain Lines--Gulf of Nauplia] + + [Formation of Letters] + +Regarding line--the use of outline from the point of view of its value +as a means of definition of form and fact--its power is really only +limited by the power of draughtsmanship at the command of the artist. +From the archaic potters' primitive figures or the rudimentary attempts +of children at human or animal forms up to the most refined outlines of +a Greek vase-painter, or say the artist of the Dream of Poliphilus, the +difference is one of degree. The tyro with the pen, learning to write, +splotches and scratches, and painfully forms trembling, limping O's and +A's, till with practice and habitude, almost unconsciously, the power to +form firm letters is acquired. + +Writing, after all, is but a simpler form of drawing, and we know that +the letters of our alphabet were originally pictures or symbols. The +main difference is that writing stops short with the acquisition of the +purely useful power of forming letters and words, and is seldom pursued +for the sake of its beauty or artistic qualities as formerly; while +drawing continually leads on to new difficulties to be conquered, to new +subtleties of line, and fresh fascinations in the pursuit of distinction +and style. + +[Illustration (f005a): Proportions of Roman Capital Letters and Method +of Drawing Them (From Albert Durer's "Geometrica").] + +[Illustration (f005b): Proportions of Lower-Case German Text and Method +of Drawing the Letters (From Albert Durer's "Geometrica").] + +The practice of forming letters with the pen or brush, from good types, +Roman and Gothic, however, would afford very good preliminary practice +to a student of line and form. The hand would acquire directness of +stroke and touch, while the eye would grow accustomed to good lines of +composition and simple constructive forms. The progressive nature of +writing--the gradual building up of the forms of the letters--and the +necessity of dealing with recurring forms and lines, also, would bear +usefully upon after work in actual design. Albert Durer in his +"Geometrica" gives methods on which to draw the Roman capitals, and also +the black letters, building the former upon the square and its +proportions, the thickness of the down strokes being one-eighth of +square, the thin strokes being one-sixteenth, and the serifs being +turned by circles of one-fourth and one-eighth diameter. The capital O, +it will be noted, is formed of two circles struck diagonally. + + [Methods of Drawing in Line] + +Letters may be taken as the simplest form of definition by means of +line. They have been reduced through centuries of use from their +primitive hieroglyphic forms to their present arbitrary and fixed types, +though even these fixed types are subject to the variation produced by +changes of taste and fancy. + +But when we come to unformulated nature--to the vast world of complex +forms, ever changing their aspect, full of life and movement, trees, +flowers, woods and waters, birds, beasts, fishes, the human form--the +problem how to represent any of these forms, to express and characterize +them by means of so abstract a method as line-drawing, seems at first +difficult enough. + +But since the growth of perception, like the power of graphic +representation, is gradual and partial, though progressive, the eye and +the mind are generally first impressed with the salient features and +leading characteristics of natural forms, just as the child's first idea +of a human form is that of a body with four straight limbs, with a +preponderating head. That is the first impression, and it is +unhesitatingly recorded in infantine outline. + +The first aim, then, in drawing anything in line is to grasp the general +truths of form, character, and expression. + + [The Progressive Method] + +There are various methods of proceeding in getting an outline of any +object or figure. To begin with, the student might begin progressively +defining the form by a series of stages in this way. Take the profile +of a bird, for instance; the form might be gradually built up by the +combination of a series of lines: + +[Illustration (f006a): (bird forms)] + +or take the simpler form of a flask bottle: + +[Illustration (f006b): (bottle forms)] + +or a jar on the same principle: + +[Illustration (f006c): (jar forms)] + +or, simpler still, a leaf form, putting in the stem first with one +stroke (1): + +[Illustration (f006d): (leaf forms)] + +and building the form around it (2, 3). + + [The Calligraphic Method] + +[Illustration (f007a): (calligraphic forms)] + +This might be termed the calligraphic method of drawing; and in this +method facility of hand might be further practised by attempting the +definition of forms by continuous strokes, or building it up by as few +strokes as possible. The simpler types of ornament consisting of +meandering and flowing lines can all be produced in this way, i.e., by +continuous line, as well as natural forms treated in a certain abstract +or conventional way, which adapts them to decoration. + + [The Tentative Method] + +[Illustration (f007b): (jar forms)] + +Another method is to sketch in lightly guide lines for main masses, +building a sort of scaffolding of light lines to assist the eye in +getting the correct outline in its place, using vertical centre lines +for symmetrical forms to get the poise right. This is the method very +generally in use, but I think it very desirable to practise direct +drawing as well, to acquire certainty of eye and facility of hand; and +one must not mind failure at first, as this kind of power and facility +is so much a matter of practice. + +[Illustration (f007c): (birdbath sketch)] + + [The Japanese Direct Brush Method] + +The Japanese, who draw with the brush, have accustomed themselves to +draw in a direct manner without any preliminary sketching, and the charm +of their work is largely owing to that crisp freshness of touch only +possible to their direct method. The great object is to establish a +perfectly intimate correspondence between eye and hand, so that the +latter will record what the former perceives. + +Abundant specimens of the freedom and naturalism of the modern school of +Japanese artists in this direct brush method may be found in the work of +Bari, Hiroshigi, and Hokusai, and in the numerous prints and books of +designs from their hands. To all draughtsmen and designers they are most +valuable to study for their direct method and simple means of expression +of form and fact. Accidental as they frequently seem in composition, the +placing of the drawing upon the paper is carefully considered before +starting, and this, of course, is always a very important point. + +Yet another method of drawing, more especially in relation to the +drawing of the human figure and animal forms, I may mention as a help to +those who do not feel strong enough for the direct method. At the same +time it must be borne in mind that we can accustom ourselves to _any_ +method; and the more dependent we become upon a single method, the less +facility we shall have for working in any other. But for all that it is +desirable to master _one_ method--that is, to be able to draw in line +_freely_ in one way or another--and experience and practice alone will +enable us to find the method most satisfactory. + + [The Oval and Rectangular Methods] + +[Illustration (f008): (human and horse forms)] + + [The Rectangular Method] + +This other method is to block in the principal masses of the forms we +desire to represent by means of a series of ovals, as shown in the +illustration, and when we have got the masses in their proper relations, +to proceed to draw in the careful outline of the figure, or whatever it +may be, upon this substructure of guiding lines, correcting as we go +along. It would be quite possible to work on the same principle, but +upon a structure of more or less rectangular masses. The real use of the +method is to assist the student to get a grasp of the relation of the +masses of a figure and a sense of structure in drawing; whether square +or oval blocking in is used may be a matter of choice. It may be said +for the oval forms that they resemble the contours of the structure in +human and animal forms. + +If one had a tendency to round one's forms too much, it would be well to +try the rectangular method to correct this, and _vice versa_. + +After a certain facility has been acquired in rendering form by means of +line, we shall perceive further capacities of expression in its use, and +begin to note how different characteristics of form and natural fact may +be expressed by varying the quality of our outline. + +If we are drawing a plant or a flower, for instance, we should endeavour +to show by the quality of our line the difference between the fine +springing curves in the structure of the lily, the solid seed-centre and +stiff radiation of the petals of the daisy, and the delicate silky folds +of the poppy. + + [Quality of Line] + +[Illustration (f009): Lines of Characterization in the Form and Feature +of Flowers: Lily and Poppy.] + +But, as leaves come before flowers, it would be best to begin with leaf +forms and try to express the character of oak and beech, lime and +chestnut leaves, for instance, by means of outline. Probably at first +we shall feel dissatisfied with our outline as not being full enough: it +may look meagre in quality and small in definition of form. This +probably arises from not allowing enough space--from setting the +outline too much within the boundary of the form. To correct this one +cannot do better than block in the form of the object we are drawing +(leaf, flower, or figure) with a full brush in black silhouette, placing +the object against the light or white paper, so that its true boundary +may be seen uninterfered with by surface markings or shadows, and, +concentrating our attention upon the _edge_, follow it as carefully as +possible with the solid black. Then, if we compare the result with our +outline, it will help to show where it has failed; and the practice of +thus blocking in with the brush in solid silhouette will tend to +encourage a larger style of drawing, since good outline means good +perception of mass; and as a general principle in drawing, it may be +recommended to place one's outline _outside_ the silhouette boundary of +the form rather than within it; that is to say, when the figure or +object is relieved in light against dark, as the line in that case +defines the edge against the background. When the figure or object +appears as dark upon a light ground, however, the outline should be +within the silhouette, obviously, or its delicate boundary is lost. + +[Illustration (f010a): Silhouette of Beech Leaves and Line Rendering of +the Same.] + + [Linear Expression of Movement] + +Another important attribute of line is its power of expressing or +suggesting _movement_. By a law of inseparable association, undulating +lines approaching the horizontal, or leading down to it, are connected +with the sense of repose; whereas broken curves and rectangular lines +always suggest action and unrest, or the resistance to force of some +kind. + +[Illustration (f010b): Lines of Movement] + +The recurrence of a series of lines in the same direction in a kind of +crescendo or wave-like movement suggests continuous pressure of force in +the same direction, as in this series of instantaneous actions of a man +bowling, where the line drawn through or touching the highest points in +each figure takes the line of the curve of a wave. The wave-line, +indeed, may be said not only to suggest movement, but also to describe +its direction and force. It is, in fact, _the line of movement_. The +principle may be seen in a simpler way, as Hogarth points out in his +"Analysis of Beauty," by observing the line described along a wall by +the head of a man walking along the street. Or, as we may see sometimes +near the coast, trees exposed to the constant pressure of the wind +illustrate this recurrence of lines in the same direction governing +their general shape; and as each tree is forced to spread in the +direction away from the wind, the effect is that of their being always +struggling against its pressure even in the calmest weather; and this is +entirely due to our association of wind-movement with this peculiar +linear expression. + +[Illustration (f011): Lines Expressive of Movement: Effect of Wind Upon +Trees] + +Flowing water, again, is expressed by certain recurring wave-lines, +which remind us of the ancient linear symbols of the zigzag and meander +used from the earliest times to express water. In the streams that +channel the sands of the sea-shore when the tide recedes we may see +beautiful flowing lines, sometimes crossing like a network, and +sometimes running into a series of shell-like waves; while the sands +themselves are ribbed and channelled and modelled by the recurring +movement of the waves, which leave upon them the impress and the +expression of their motion (much as in a more delicate medium the +air-currents impress the fields of cloud, and give them their +characteristic forms). + +[Illustration (f012): Line Arrangement in Ribbed Sea Sand] + + [Linear Expression of Textures] + +Textures and surfaces, too, fall within the range of linear expression. +One would naturally use lines of totally different consistency and +character to express rough or smooth surfaces: to express the difference +of value, for instance, between the ivory-like smoothness of an egg and +the scaly surface of a pine-cone, entirely different qualities of line +are obviously wanted. The firm-set yet soft feathers of the plumage of a +bird must be rendered by a very different touch from the shining scales +of a fish. The hair and horns of animals, delicate human features, +flowers, the sinuous lines of thin drapery, or the broad massive folds +of heavy robes, all demand from the designer and draughtsman in line +different kinds of suggestive expression, a translation or rendering of +natural fact subordinate to the artistic purpose of his work, and in +relation to the material and purpose for which he works. + + [Linear Expression of Emotion] + +[Illustration (f013): Lines of Different Textures, Structures, and +Surfaces.] + +Then, again, when we come to the expression of ideas--of thought and +sentiment--we find in line an abstract but direct medium for their +illustration; and this again, too, by means of that law of inseparable +association which connects the idea of praise or aspiration and +ascension, for instance, with long lines inclining towards the severe +vertical, as when we draw a figure with upraised hands; while the +feeling might be increased if led up to or re-echoed by other groups and +objects in the composition, forming a kind of vertical crescendo on the +same principle which we were considering in regard to the expression of +lateral movement. Few things in design are finer or more elevated in +feeling than William Blake's design of the Morning Stars singing +together, in the series of the Book of Job, yet it is little more than +a vertical arrangement of figures with uplifted and intercrossing arms. +The linear plan gives the main impetus to the expressiveness of the +design, and is the basis of the beauty, which culminates in the rapture +of the fresh youthful faces. + +[Illustration (f014): Expression of Emotion: Lines of Exaltation and +Rejoicing in Unison. The Morning Stars, After William Blake. (From the +Book of Job.)] + + [Scale of Linear Expression] + +Bowed and bent lines tending downwards, on the other hand, convey the +opposite ideas of dejection and despair. This is illustrated in these +figures of Flaxman's, who was a great master of style in outline. + +[Illustration (f015): Lines of Grief and Dejection. Flaxman: Designs to +Homer.] + + [Capacity of Line] + +We seem here to discover a kind of scale of linear expression--the two +extremes at either end: the horizontal and the vertical, with every +degree and modulation between them; the undulating curve giving way to +the springing energetic spiral, the meandering, flowing line sinking to +the horizontal: or the sharp opposition and thrust of rectangular, the +nervous resistance of broken curves, the flame-like, triumphant, +ascending verticals. Truly the designer may find a great range of +expression within the dominion of pure line. Line is, indeed, as I have +before termed it, a language, a most sensitive and vigorous speech of +many dialects; which can adapt itself to all purposes, and is, indeed, +indispensable to all the provinces of design in line. Line may be +regarded simply as a means of record, a method of registering the facts +of nature, of graphically portraying the characteristics of plants and +animals, or the features of humanity: the smooth features of youth, the +rugged lines of age. It is capable of this, and more also, since it can +appeal to our emotions and evoke our passionate and poetic sympathies +with both the life of humanity and wild nature, as in the hands of the +great masters it lifts us to the heavens or bows us down to earth: we +may stand on the sea-shore and see the movement of the falling waves, +the fierce energy of the storm and its rolling armament of clouds, +glittering with the sudden zigzag of the lightning; or we may sink into +the profound calm of a summer day, when the mountains, defined only by +their edges, wrapped in soft planes of mist, seem to recline upon the +level meadows like Titans and dream of the golden age. + +[Illustration (f016): (landscape)] + + + + + CHAPTER II + + The Language of Line--Dialects--Comparison of the Style of + various Artists in Line--Scale of Degrees in Line--Picture + Writing--Relation of Line to Form--Two Paths--The Graphic + Purpose--Aspect--The Ornamental Purpose--Typical Treatment or + Convention--Rhythm--Linear Plans in Pattern Designing--Wall-paper + Design--Controlling Forms--Memory--Evolution in Design--Variety + in Unity--Counterbalance--Linear Logic--Recurring Line and + Form--Principle of Radiation--Range and Use of Line. + + +I spoke of Line as a Language, and gave some illustrations of its power +and range of expression, showing that line is capable not only of +recording natural fact and defining character, but also of conveying the +idea of movement and force, of action and repose; and, further, of +appealing to our emotions and thoughts by variations and changes in its +direction, the degree of its emphasis, and other qualities. + + [Dialects] + +Yet every designer and draughtsman uses line in a different way, and of +a different quality, according to his preference, habit, training, or +personality. The endless variations which result I should--to pursue the +analogy of speech further--term _dialects_. We might collect abundant +examples of these from the work of line-designers since the world began, +or compare the methods of any of the popular illustrators of to-day to +find constant variations and individual differences occurring even +among those which might be said, under the influence of a prevailing +mode, to be variations of one type. + +Compare a Greek vase-painter's delicate brush line-drawing with the bold +pen-line of Albert Durer (to get a contrast in historic style). Compare +(to take two masters of different schools, but of the same country) the +line-treatment of Mantegna with the line-treatment of Raphael; or, to +take another jump, compare the line-work of Blake and Flaxman; or, to +take a modern instance, and to come to our own contemporary artists, +compare a drawing by Burne-Jones and one by Phil May. + +We might construct a sort of scale of the degrees and qualities of line. + +There is, for instance, outline of every degree of boldness or fineness, +from the strong black half-inch outline and upwards used in mosaic-work +and stained-glass leading; the outline of the pattern designer for +block-printing; the outline of the pen draughtsman for process-work or +woodcut; and so on, down to the hair-line of the drypoint etcher. + + [Scale of Degrees in Line] + +There are the _qualities_ of line in different degrees of firmness, +roughness, raggedness, or smooth and flowing. There are the degrees of +_direction_ of line, curvilinear or angular. On the angular side all +variations from the perpendicular and horizontal, or rectangle, within +which we may find all these degrees, and on the curvilinear side, all +the variations from spiral to circle: so that we might say that the +rectangle was the cradle of all angular variations of line, while the +semicircle was the cradle of all curvilinear variations. (See the +diagrams on p. 26.[f018]) + +[Illustration (f017): Scale of Various Degrees of Linear Weight and +Emphasis.] + +Every artist, sooner or later, by means of his selective adaptive sense, +finds a method in the use of line to suit his own personality--to suit +his own individual aim in artistic expression--and in course of time it +becomes a characteristic manner, by which his work is instantly known, +like a friend's handwriting. + +[Illustration (f018): Curvilinear and Rectangular Scales of Direction.] + +Now what determines this choice, this personal selection, over and above +necessities of method and material, it would be difficult to say, unless +we had more minute knowledge of the natural history of a human being +than we are likely to possess. We can only say that from practice are +evolved certain methods or principles, consciously or unconsciously; and +it is only these general methods or principles that can be explained and +tested for the benefit of those essaying to follow the arduous and +difficult path of art. + + [Relation of Line to Form] + +At the outset we see that we need a means of definition in drawing, just +as a child needs a word to express a thing it wants. _Line_, at the +point of the pencil, pen, or brush, places this possibility of +definition within our reach; but before we can grasp it we need some +knowledge, however rudimentary, of its inseparable companion, _Form_. + +I recall two innocent and entertaining methods from the traditions of +the nursery, which appeal at once in a curious way to both the oral and +graphic senses, and unite story and picture in one. These are +illustrated on p. 28.[f019] By such devices a child learns to associate +line and form, unconsciously and step by step defining form in the use +of, or pursuit of, line. + +[Illustration (f019): Modern Picture-writing According to Nursery +Tradition] + +It would be very entertaining and agreeable if we could carry the +principle further, and get a passable study from the antique, for +instance, by a similar process. In line-drawing we may, however, always +tell some story or fact, or character, phase, or idea. + + [The Graphic Purpose] + +But supposing we have mounted our steed _Form_, and taken our bridle +_Line_ in hand, and have started riding at large in the vast domain of +nature, with the primary object of finding and hunting down truth at +last; we soon perceive that there are so many truths, or rather that +truth, even of natural fact, has so many sides, that it is difficult to +make up our mind which one to pursue. Thought, however, will soon +discover that in this pursuit of truth we strike a road that naturally +divides itself, or branches out, into two main paths distinct in aim. +These two paths in art have been called by many names; they occasionally +cross each other, or overlap, and are sometimes blended, or even +confused; but it will be useful for our present purpose to keep them +very distinct. I will term them, for convenience: + + 1. The Graphic Purpose. (Accidental form.) + 2. The Ornamental Purpose. (Typical form.) + +Our use of line will largely depend upon which of these two it is our +object to pursue. Now when we look at anything with intent to draw--say +a leafy bough as it grows in the sunshine--we see great complexity of +form and surface-lighting. The leaves, perhaps, take all manner of +variations of the typical form, and are set at all sorts of angles. In +making a rapid sketch with the object of getting the appearance of the +bough, we naturally dwell upon these accidents and superficial facts. At +the same time, with nothing but line to express them, we are compelled +to use a kind of convention, though our aim be purely naturalistic, to +get a faithful portrait of the bough. + +We must make our line as _descriptive_ as possible, defining the main +forms boldly, and blocking in broadly the main masses of form and light +and shade. We are now aiming at the general look of the thing. We are +striving to grasp the facts of _Aspect_. We are concerned with the +purely graphic purpose, to make a picture upon paper. + +[Illustration (f020): Olive Branch From Nature] + +We cannot, however, even under these simple conditions, altogether +leave out of account considerations which, strictly speaking, must be +termed "decorative." For instance, there is the question of placing the +study well upon the paper, a very important point to start with; and +then the question of beauty must arise, not only in the selection of our +point of view, but in the choice of method, in the treatment of line we +adopt; and it does not follow that the most apparently forcible way of +getting bold projection by means of black shadows, at the cost of the +more delicate characteristics of our subject, is the best. On the +contrary, the finest draughtsmanship is always the most subtle and +delicate, and one cannot get subtle and delicate draughtsmanship without +faithful study and careful constant practice--_knowledge of form_, in +short--and I am afraid there is no short cut to it. + + [The Ornamental Purpose] + +[Illustration (f021): Olive Branch Simplified in Decorative Treatment] + +Now supposing we make our study of leaves, not as an end in itself, and +for its simple pictorial values or qualities only, but with an +ornamental or decorative purpose in view, intending to make use of its +form and character in some more or less systematic design or +pattern-work--adapted to special methods and materials--intended to +decorate a wall-surface or a textile, for instance; we might certainly +start with a general sketch of its appearance as before, but we should +find that we should want to understand it in its detail; the law of its +growth and construction; we should want to dwell upon its typical +character and form, the controlling lines of its masses, rather than on +its accidental aspects, because it would really be only with these that +we could successfully deal in adapting anything in nature to the +conditions and limitations of a design. To do this requires as much art +as to make a clever graphic sketch, perhaps more; but it is certainly +not so easily understood and appreciated, as a rule. Pattern-work is +taken so much for granted, except by those technically interested, +whereas a graphic sketch may bring the drama of nature, and of human +character and incident, before our eyes. It does not require us to stop +and think out the less obvious meaning, or trace the invention or grace +of line, to appreciate the rhythmic, silent music which the more +formalized and abstract decorative design may contain, _quite apart from +the forms it actually represents_. + +[Illustration (f022): Study of Horned Poppy] + +[Illustration (f023): Adaptation of the Horned Poppy in Design: Vertical +Panel For Needlework.] + + [Question and Answer in Line] + +Here we discover another function of line. For, directly we endeavour to +construct a decorative design--that is, a design intended to adorn or to +express an object or surface--we find that we must build it upon some +sort of a plan, or geometric controlling network or scaffolding, so as +to give it unity, rhythm, and coherence--especially so in the case of +repeating designs. Even in an isolated panel or picture the necessity of +this linear basis will be felt, since one cannot draw a line or define a +form without demanding an answer--that is, a corresponding, re-echoing +line or mass. + +[Illustration (f024): Curves 1.Q and 2.A] + +The curve (1. Q) is a proposition or question. It is answered or +balanced by the corresponding curve (2. A), and forms the basis for a +scroll design. + +[Illustration (f025): Curves 1 and 2] + +The five radiating lines (1) are obviously incomplete by themselves, but +if we add another four, in reverse order, (2) we get a centred and +symmetric motive of an anthemion character. + + [Wall-Paper Design] + +Take, however, a wall-paper. The problem is to construct a design +pleasant to the eye in line, form, colour, and suggestion; which will be +interesting in detail, and yet repeat upon a wall-surface without flaw, +and without becoming wearisome. Moreover, one which will lend itself to +being cut upon wood, if for block-printing, and which may be reproduced +with a due regard to economy of means. The designer may have a square of +twenty-one inches in which to make his design. + +[Illustration (f026): Diagram Showing the Use of a Geometric Basis in +Designing Repeating Pattern.] + +A useful way to begin with is to rule out a sheet of paper into squares, +say on the scale of 1-1/2 inch to the foot, and upon this jot down your +first ideas of linear arrangement and colour motive, and get the +general effect, and test the plan of repeats. When you are satisfied +with one, enlarge it to full size, correct and amplify it, and improve +it in form and detail. Changes will probably be found necessary in +drawing it upon the larger scale, sometimes additions, sometimes +omissions. Now in sketching out the general plan, one builds, as before +said, upon some basis or plan, however simple, since one cannot put a +simple spot, sprig, or spray upon paper intending to repeat, without +some system of connection to put them into relation. + + [Controlling Forms] + +In designing one's sprig, too, the best plan to secure good decorative +effect is to see that its general form is inclosed or bounded by an +agreeable linear shape, although itself not actually visible. Simple +leaf and flower forms are generally the best to use for these +controlling boundaries. Sprays designed on this principle may be relied +upon for repeating pleasantly and safely when they are placed upon, and +connected by, the controlling geometric plan. A good practical test of +the truth and completeness of your square repeat is, when the design is +done, or even in progress, to cut it into four equal parts (supposing it +to be a twenty-one inch square). This will enable you to get the joints +true, and also, by altering the position of the squares, to give you a +very good idea of the effect of the repeat full size. (See the diagrams +on p. 41.[f028]) + +These things must be considered, of course, merely as practical aids to +invention: not by any means as substitutes for it. One cannot give any +recipe for designing, and no rules, principles, or methods can supply +the place of imagination and fancy. "He who would bring back health from +the Indies," says an old proverb, "must take it out with him." + +At the same time the imagination can be enfeebled by starvation and +neglect. It can be depressed by dull and sordid surroundings. It is apt +to grow, like other living things, by what it feeds on, and is stronger +for exercise and development. + +[Illustration (f027): Use of Controlling Boundaries in Designing +Sprays] + + [Memory] + +Memory, too, is an important and serviceable thing in designing, and +this, again, can be cultivated to an almost unlimited extent. I mean +that selective kind of memory which, by constant and close observation, +extracts and stores up the essential serviceable kind of facts for the +designer: facts of form, of structure, of movement of figures, +expressive lines, momentary or transitory effects of colour--all those +rare and precious visual moments which will not wait, and which happen +unexpectedly. They should be captured like rare butterflies and +carefully stored in the mind's museum of suggestions, as well as, as far +as is possible, pinned down in the hieroglyphics of the note-book. + + [Evolution in Design] + +As regards procedure in working out a design, one generally thinks of +some leading feature, some central mass or form or curve--of a figure or +a flower, say--and one thinks of its capacity in repeat; and, since one +form or line should inevitably suggest or necessitate--as by a kind of +logic--another, one adds other forms until the design is complete. For +it must never be forgotten that design is a growth which has its own +stages of evolution in the mind, answering to the evolution of the +living forms of nature--first the blade, then the ear, after that the +full corn in the ear. + +Experience teaches us that the most harmonious arrangements of form and +line are those in which the leading lines and forms through all sorts of +variations, continually recur. We cannot place a number of sharply +contrasting and contradictory forms together in design satisfactorily-- +at least we cannot do so without recourse to other elements to harmonize +and to bring them into relation. For instance, we might get a great deal +of ornamental variety by means of a number of heraldic devices upon +shields, full in themselves of quaintness and contrasts, but brought +into harmony by the boundary lines of the shields and the divisions; or, +still further, by throwing them upon a background of leaves and stems, +the meandering lines and recurring forms of which would answer as a kind +of warp upon which to weave the heraldic spots into a connected and +harmonious pattern. + +[Illustration (f028): Method of Testing a Repeating Pattern.] + + [Variety in Unity] + +But even in the ornamental treatment of diverse forms, as the mediaeval +heraldic designers were well aware, they can be brought into +decorative harmony by following a similar principle to the one already +laid down in regard to the designing of sprigs and sprays: that is to +say, that in designing an animal or figure for heraldry or introduction +into a pattern, one should arrange it so that it should fall within the +boundary of some geometric or foliated form, square, circular, +elliptical or otherwise, as might be desirable. To this, however, I +hope to return in a future chapter. + +[Illustration (f029): Sketch to Show How a Pattern of Diverse Elements +May Be Harmonized by Unity of Inclosing and Intermediary Lines.] + + [Counterbalance] + +We may here consider another important principle in designing with line +and mass, that of _counterbalance_. + +[Illustration (f030): The Principle of Counterbalance in Different +Systems of Design.] + +Take any defined space as a panel, tile, or border to be filled with +design: you place your principal mass, and instantly feel that it must +be balanced by a corresponding mass, or some equivalent. Its place will +be determined by the principle upon which the design is built. If on a +symmetrical arrangement, you find your centre (say of a panel), and you +may either throw the chief weight and mass of the design upon the +central feature (as a tree), and balance it by smaller forms or wings +each side, or _vice versa_; or, adopting a diagonal plan, you place your +principal mass (say it is a tile) near the top left-hand corner (suppose +it is a pomegranate), connecting it with a spiral diagonal line (the +stem); the place of the counterbalancing mass (the second pomegranate) +is obviously near the bottom right-hand corner of the square. You may +then feel the necessity for additional smaller forms, and so add to it +(the leaves), completing the design. (See preceding page.) + + [Linear Logic] + +On the same principle one may design upon various other plans. The exact +choice of the distribution of the counterbalancing masses must always be +a matter of personal feeling, judgment, and taste, controlled by the +perception of certain logical necessities: as it seems to me that +designing is a species of linear reasoning,* and might almost be +worked in its elementary stages on the principle of the syllogism, +consisting of two propositions and a conclusion. A spiral curve is a +harmonious line, says the designer: repeat it, reversed, and you +prolong the harmony; repeat it again, with variations, and you complete +the harmony. Or, harmonious effect is produced by recurring form and +line. Here is a circular form; here is a meandering line: combine and +repeat them, and you get a logical and harmonious border motive. + + [*] I recall here a saying of Sir E. Burne-Jones, that "a bad + line can only be answered by a good line." + +[Illustration (f031): Border Units and Border Motive.] + + [Recurring Line and Form] + +The everlastingly recurring egg and dart moulding and the volute are +instances of the harmonious effect of very simple arrangements of +recurring line and form. We also get illustrated in these another linear +quality in design--that up-and-down movement which gives a pleasant +rhythm to the simplest border, and is of especial consequence in all +repeating border and frieze designs. The borders of early, ancient, and +classical art might be said to be little besides rhythmical and logical +arrangements of line. The same rhythmical principle is found in the +designs of the classical frieze in all its varieties, culminating in the +rhythmic movement of the great Pan-Athenaic procession in that +master-frieze of the Parthenon, which, though full of infinite variety +and delicate sculptured detail, is yet controlled by a strictly +ornamental motive, and constructed upon the rhythmic recurrence of pure +line. + +[Illustration (f032): Recurring Line and Form in Border Motives.] + + [The Principle of Radiation] + +Another great linear principle in design is what is known as the +_radiating_ principle, which gives vitality and vigour alike to both +arrangements of line and delineations of form. It is emphatically and +abundantly illustrated in natural forms, from the scallop shell upon the +sea-shore to the sun himself that radiates his light upon it. The +palm-leaf in all its graceful varieties demonstrates its beauty, its +constructive strength combined with extraordinary lightness, which +becomes domesticated in that fragile sceptre of social influence and +festivity, the fan, and which again spreads its silken, or gossamer, +wing as a suggestive field for the designer. We find the principle +springing to life again in the fountain jet, and symbolical of life as +it has ever been; by means of the same principle applied to construction +the Gothic architects raised their beautiful vaults, and emphasized the +structural principle and the beauty of recurring line by moulding the +edges of their ribs; while we have but to look at the structure of the +human frame to find the same principle there also, in the fibres of the +muscles, for instance, the radiation of the ribs, and of the fingers and +toes. + +[Illustration (f033): Radiating Principle of Line in Natural Form.] + +In truth, as I have said, if there can be said to be one principle more +than another, the perception and expression of which gives to an +artist's work in design peculiar vitality, it is this principle of +radiating line. One may follow it through all stages and forms of +drawing and design, and it is equally important in the design of the +figure, in the structure of a flower, in the folds of drapery, and alike +in the controlling lines of pictorial composition and decorative plan, +whether the lines radiate from seen or from hidden centres, which in all +kinds of informal design are perhaps the most important. + +[Illustration (f034): Radiating Lines of the Pectoral Muscles & Ribs] + + [Range and Use of Line] + +We see, therefore, that line possesses a constructive and controlling +function, in addition to its power of graphic expression and decorative +definition. It is the beginning and the end of art. By means of its +help we guide our first tottering steps in the wide world of design; +and, as we gain facility of hand and travel further afield, we discover +that we have a key to unlock the wonders of art and nature, a method of +conjuring up all forms at will: a sensitive language capable of +recording and revealing impressions and beauties of form and structure +hidden from the careless eye: a delicate instrument which may catch and +perpetuate in imperishable notation unheard harmonies: a staff to lean +upon through the journey of life: a candid friend who never deceives us: +perchance a divining rod, which may ultimately reveal to us that Beauty +and Truth are one--as they certainly are, or ought to be, in the world +of art. + +[Illustration (f035): Radiating Line in Architectural Construction: +Vaulting of Chapter House, Westminster.] + + + + + CHAPTER III + + Of the Choice and Use of Line--Degree and Emphasis--Influence of + the Photograph--The Value of Emphasis--The Technical + Influence--The Artistic Purpose--Influence of Material and + Tools--Brush-work--Charcoal--Pencil--Pen. + + +Recognizing the great range and capacity of line as a means of +expression, and also the range of choice it presents to the designer and +draughtsman, the actual exercise of this choice of line, with a view to +the most expressive and effective use in practice, becomes, of course, +of the first consequence. + +In this matter of choice we are helped by natural bias, by personal +character and preferences, for which it would, as I have said, be +difficult fully to account; but beyond this a kind of evolution goes on, +arising out of actual practice, which controls and is controlled by it. +Draw simply a succession of strokes with any point upon paper, and we +find that we are gradually led to repeat a particular kind of stroke, a +particular degree of line, partly perhaps because it seems to be +produced with more ease, and partly because it appears to have the +pleasantest effect. + + [Choice of Line] + +By a kind of "natural selection," therefore, influenced no doubt by many +small secondary causes, such as the relation of the particular angle of +the hand and pencil-point to the surface--the nature of the point +itself and the nature of the surface--we finally arrive at a choice of +line. This choice, again, will be liable to constant variation, owing +to the nature of the object we are about to draw, or the kind of design +we want to make. + + [Use of Line] + +The kind of line which seems appropriate to representing the delicate +edges of a piece of low-relief sculpture, for instance, would require +greater force and firmness if we wanted to draw an antique cast in the +round, and in strong light and shade. The character of our line should +be sympathetic with the character of our subject as far as possible, and +sensitive to its differences of character and surface, since it is in +this sensitiveness that the expressive power and peculiar virtue of +line-drawing consists. + +[Illustration (f036): Lines of Characterization.] + +A feather, a lily, a scallop shell, all show as an essential principle +of their form and construction the radiating line; but what a different +quality of line would be necessary to express the differences of each: +for the soft, yet firm, smooth flowing curves of the feather fibres no +line would be too delicate; and the lily would demand no less delicacy, +and even greater precision and firmness of curve, while a slight +waviness, or quiver, in the lines might express the silken or waxy +surface of the petals; while a crustier, more rugged, though equally +firm line would be wanted to follow the rigid furrows and serrated +surface of the shell. The leaves of trees and plants of all kinds, which +perhaps afford the best sort of practice in line-drawing at first, +present in their varieties of structure, character, and surfaces +continual opportunities for the exercise of artistic judgment in the +choice and use of line. + +The forms and surfaces of fruits, again, are excellent tests of line +draughtsmanship, and their study is a good preparation for the more +subtle and delicate contours of the human form--the greatest test of +all. Here we see firmness of fundamental structure (in the bones) and +surface curve (of sinew and muscle), with a mobile and constantly +changing surface (of flesh and sensitive skin). To render such +characteristics without tending to overdo either the firmness or the +mobility, and so to become too rigid on the one hand, or too loose and +indefinite on the other, requires extraordinary skill, knowledge, and +practice in the use of line. I do not suppose the greatest master ever +satisfied himself yet in this direction. + +[Illustration (f037): Pen Drawing of Fruit.] + + [Degree and Emphasis] + +When we have settled upon our quality of line and its _degree_--thick or +thin, bold or fine--we shall be met with the question of _emphasis_, for +upon this the ultimate effect and expression of our drawing or design +must largely depend. In the selection of any subject we should naturally +be influenced by the attractiveness of particular parts, characters, or +qualities it might possess, and we should direct our efforts towards +bringing these out, as the things which impress us most. That is the +difference between the mind and hand working together harmoniously and +the sensitized plate in the photographic camera, which, uncontrolled in +any way by human choice (and even under that control as it always is to +some extent), mechanically registers the action of the light rays which +define the impress of natural forms and scenes through the lens focussed +upon the plate. So that, as we often see in a photograph, some +unimportant or insignificant detail is reproduced with as much +distinctness (or more) as are the leading figures or whatever form the +interesting features or the motive of the subject. The picture suffers +from want of emphasis, or from emphasis in the wrong place. It is, of +course, here that the art of the photographer comes in; and, although he +can by careful selection, arrangement, and the regulation of exposure, +largely counteract the mechanical tendency, a photograph by its very +nature can never take the place of a work of art--the first-hand +expression, more or less abstract, of a human mind, or the creative +inner vision recorded by a human hand. + + [Influence of the Photograph] + +Photography does wonders, and for certain qualities of light and shade, +and form and effect without colour, no painting or drawing can approach +it; but it has the value and interest of science rather than of art. It +is invaluable to the student of natural fact, surface effect, and +momentary action, and is often in its very failures most interesting and +suggestive to artists--who indeed have not been slow to avail themselves +of the help of photography in all sorts of ways. Indeed the wonder is, +considering its services to art in all directions, how the world could +ever have done without it. + +But a photograph cannot do everything. It cannot make original designs, +and it cannot draw in line. You can design in the solid, and make your +groups in the studio or the open air; you can select your point of view, +and the photograph will reproduce. You can make your drawing in line, +and it will copy it; and we know its sphere of usefulness in this +direction is enormous, since it can bring before our eyes the whole +range of ancient art. + +In short, photography is an excellent servant and friend, but a +dangerous master. It may easily beguile us by its seductive +reproductions of surface relief and lighting to think more of these +qualities than any other, and to endeavour to put them in the wrong +places--in places where we want colour planes rather than shadow planes, +flatness and repose rather than relief, for instance, as mostly in +surface decoration. + +But one way of learning the value of emphasis is to draw from a +photograph, and it will soon be discovered what a difference in +expression is produced by dwelling a little more here, or a little less +there. + + [The Value of Emphasis] + +In designing, the use of emphasis is very important; and it may be said +that drawing or designing without emphasis is like reading without +stops, while awkward emphasis is like putting your stops in the wrong +place. + +By a difference in emphasis the same design may be given quite a +different effect and expression. + +[Illustration (f038): Effect of Different Emphasis in the Treatment of +the Same Design.] + +Suppose, for instance, we were designing a vertical pattern of stem, +leaves, and fruit in one colour. By throwing the emphasis upon the +leaves, as in No. 1, we should gain one kind of effect or decorative +expression. By throwing the emphasis upon the fruit, and leaving the +leaves in outline, we should get quite a different effect out of the +same elements, as in No. 2. While by leaving stem, leaves, and fruit all +in outline, and throwing the emphasis upon the ground, we should get, +again, a totally distinct kind of effect and expression. + +Similar differences of effect and expression, owing to differences of +emphasis, might be studied in the drawing and treatment of a head (as in +A, B, and C). The possibilities of such variations of emphasis in +drawing are practically unlimited and co-extensive with the variations +of expression we see in nature herself. The pictorial artist is free to +translate or represent them in his work, controlled solely by the +conditions and purpose of his work. + +[Illustration (f039): Different Emphasis in the Treatment of a Head +[examples A, B, C].] + +It is these conditions and purposes which really control both choice and +treatment, and determine the emphasis, and therefore the expression of +the work. + +No kind of art can be said to be unconditioned, and the simplest and +freest of all, _the art of the point and the surface_, which covers all +the graphic art and flat designing, is still subject to certain +technical influences, and it may be said that it is very much in so far +as these technical influences or conditions are acknowledged and +utilized that the work gains in artistic character. + + [The Technical Influence] + +The draughtsman in line who draws for surface printing, for the book or +newspaper, should be able to stand the test of the peculiar conditions; +and, so far from attempting to escape them, and seeking something more +than they will bear, should welcome them as incentives to a distinct +artistic treatment with a value and character of its own, which indeed +all the best work has. It is, for instance, important in all design +associated with type for surface printing, that there should be a +certain harmonious relation between lettering or type and printer's +ornament or picture. + +[Illustration (f040): Sketches to Illustrate Effect of Different +Emphasis in the Treatment of the Same Elements in Landscape.] + +[Illustration (f041a): Example of Page Treatment to Show Ornamental +Relation Between Text and Pictures.] + +[Illustration (f041b): I. Textile Motive: Suggestion for a Carpet +Pattern.] + +[Illustration (f041c): II. An Abstract Treatment of the Same on Point +Paper, as Detail of Brussels Carpet.] + +A firm and open quality of line, with bright black and white effects, +not only has the most attractive decorative effect with type, but lends +itself to the processes of reproduction for surface printing best, +whether woodcut or one of the numerous forms of so-called automatic +photo-engraving, as well as to the conditions of the printing press. + +In all design-work which has to be subjected to processes of engraving +and printing, clearness and definiteness of line is very necessary. +Designs for textile printing of all kinds, for wall-papers, especially, +require good firm drawing and definite colour planes. This does not, +however, mean hardness of effect. A design should be clear and +intelligible without being hard. + +For weaving, again, definiteness in pattern designing is very necessary, +since the design must be capable of being rendered upon the severe +conditions of the point paper, by which it is only possible to produce +curves by small successive angles (which sounds like a contradiction in +terms). The size of these angles or points, of course, varies very much +in the different kinds of textile with which pattern is incorporated, +from the fine silk fabric, in which they are almost inappreciable, to +carpets of all kinds, where they are emphatic; so that a certain +squareness of mass becomes a desirable and characteristic feature in +designs for these purposes, and, indeed, I think it should be more or +less acknowledged in all textile design, in order to preserve its +distinctive beauty and character. + + [The Artistic Purpose] + +_Beauty and character._--In these lies the gist of all design. While the +technical conditions, if fully understood, fairly met, and frankly +acknowledged, are sure to give _character_ to a design, for whatever +purpose, _beauty_ is not so easy to command. It is so delicate a +quality, so complex in its elements, a question often of such nice +balance and judgment--depending perhaps upon a hair's-breadth difference +in the poise of a mass here, or the sweep of a curve there--that we +cannot weave technical nets fine enough to catch so sensitive a +butterfly. She is indeed a Psyche in art, both seeking and sought, to be +finally won only by devotion and love. + +This search for beauty--this Psyche of art--is the purely inspiring +artistic purpose, as distinct from the technical and useful one, which +should, perfectly reconciled and united with it, determine the form of +our work. + +In drawing or design we may seek particular qualities in line and form +either of representation or of ornament. We may desire to dwell upon +particular beauties either of object or subject. Say, in drawing from a +cast or from natural form of any kind, we desire to dwell upon beauty of +line or quality of surface. Well, since it is most difficult, if not +impossible, to get everything at once, and nothing without some kind of +sacrifice, we shall find that to give prominence to--to bring out--the +particular quality in our subject (say beauty of line), it becomes +necessary to subordinate other qualities to this. A drawing in pure +outline of a figure may be a perfect thing in itself. The moment we +begin to superadd shading, or lines expressive of relief of any kind, we +introduce another element; we are aiming at another kind of truth or +beauty; and unless we have also a distinctly ideal aim in this, we shall +mar the simplicity of the outline without gaining any compensating +advantage, or really adding to the truth or beauty of the drawing. + +In designing, too, unless we can so contrive the essential +characteristics of our pattern that they shall be adaptable to the +method and material of its production, and make its reproduction quite +practicable, it is sure to reappear more or less marred and incomplete. +The thing is to discover what kind of character and beauty the method +will allow of--whether beauty or quality of line, or surface, or colour, +or material; and if to be reproduced in a particular method or material, +the design should be thought out in the method or material for which it +is destined, rather than as a drawing on paper, and worked out +accordingly, using every opportunity to secure the particular kind of +beauty naturally belonging to such work in its completed form. + +Thus we should naturally think of _planes of surface_ in modelled work, +and the delicate play of light and shade, getting our equivalent for +colour in the design and contrast of varied surfaces. In stained glass +we should think of a pattern in lead lines inclosing one of translucent +colour, each being interdependent and united to form a harmonious whole. +In textile design we should be influenced by the thought of the +difference of use, plan, and purpose of the finished material; as the +difference between a rich vertical pattern in silk, velvet, or tapestry, +to be broken by folds as in curtains or hangings, and a rich carpet +pattern, to be spread upon the unbroken level surface of a floor. The +idea of the wall and floor should here influence us as well as the +actual technical necessities of the loom. It would be part of the +artistic purpose affecting the imagination and artistic motive, and +working with the strictly technical conditions. + +The mind must project itself, and see with the inner eye the effect of +the design as it would appear in actual use, as far as possible. +Invention, knowledge, and experience will do the rest. + + [Brush-Work] + +Keeping, however, to strictly pictorial or graphic conditions--to the +art of the point and the surface--with which, as designers and +draughtsmen, we are more immediately concerned, we cannot forget certain +technical considerations strictly belonging to the varieties of point +and of surface, and their relations one to another. The flexible point +of the brush, for instance, dipped in ink, or colour, has its own +peculiar capacity, its own range of treatment, one might say, its own +forms. + +The management admits of immense variation of use and touch, and its +range of depicting and ornamental power are very great: from the simpler +leaf forms, which seem to be almost a reflection or shadow of the moist +pointed brush itself, to the elaborate graphic drawing in line or light +and shade. + +[Illustration (f042): Brush Forms.] + +In forming the leaf shape one begins with a light pressure, if at the +point, and proceeds to increase it for the middle and broader end. On +the same principle of regulation of pressure any brush forms may be +built up. It is essential for freedom in working with the brush not to +starve or stint it in moisture or colour. For ornamental forms a full +brush should be used: otherwise they are apt to look dragged and meagre. +For a rich and flowing line also a full brush, however fine, is +necessary. It is quite possible, however, to use it with a different +aim, and to produce a sort of crumbling line when half dry, and also in +colour-work for what is called dragging, by which tone, texture, or +quality may be given to parts of a drawing. One should never lose +sight, in using the brush as a drawing tool, of its distinctive quality +and character, and impart it to all work done by its means. + +[Illustration (f043): Direct Brush Expression of Animal Form.] + +The direct touch with the full brush--to cultivate this is of enormous +advantage to all artists, whatever particular line of art they may +follow, since it may be said to be of no less value in design than it is +in painting pure and simple. We can all feel the charm of the broad +brush washes and emphatic brush touches of a master of water-colour +landscape such as De Wint. This is mastery of brush and colour in one +direction--tone and effect. A Japanese drawing of a bird or a fish may +show it equally in another--character and form. A bit of Oriental +porcelain or Persian tile may show the same dexterous charm and +full-brush feeling exercised in a strictly decorative direction. + +[Illustration (f044): Japanese Drawing of a Bird. From "The Hundred +Birds of Bari."] + +The empire of the brush, if we think of it in all its various forms and +directions, is very large; and it commands, in skilled hands, both +_line_ and _form_, in all their varieties, and leaves its impress in all +the departments of art, from the humble but dexterous craftsman who puts +the line of gold or colour round the edges of our cups and saucers, to +the highly skilled and specialized painter of easel pictures--say the +academician who writes cheques with his paint-brush! + + [Charcoal and Pencil] + +Then we have the ordinary varieties of the firm point: charcoal, pencil, +pen. Charcoal, being halfway between hard and soft--a sort of halfway +house or bridge for one passing from the flexible brush to the firm and +hard points of pencil and pen--is first favourite with painters when +they take to drawing. Its softness and removability adapts it as a tool +for preliminary and preparatory sketching in for all purposes, and both +for designer and painter; but it lends itself to both line and tone +drawing, or to a mixture of both. It is therefore a very good material +for rapid studies (say from the life) and the seizing of any effect of +light and shade rapidly, since the masses can be laid in readily, and +greater richness and depth can be obtained in shorter time, perhaps, +than by any other kind of pencil. + +Charcoal is also very serviceable for large cartoon-work, since it is +capable of both delicacy and force, and bears working up to any extent. +A slight rubbing of the finger gives half tones when wanted, and is +often serviceable in giving greater solidity and finish to the work. + +Then there is the lead pencil--the point-of-all-work, as it might be +called--more generally serviceable than any other, whether for rapid +sketches and jottings in the note-book, or careful and detailed +drawings, or sketching in for the smaller kinds of design-work. It is +also, of course, used for drawings which are afterwards "inked in." I do +not think, however, that pen-work done in this way is so free or +characteristic as when done direct, or at any rate quite freely, upon a +mere scaffolding of preliminary lines, used only to make the plans for +the chief masses and forms. + +Pencil drawing is capable of being carried to a greater pitch of +delicacy and finish, and has a silvery quality all its own. It has not +the force or range of charcoal, but in its own technical range it +possesses many advantages. Its gray and soft line, however charming in +itself, does not fit it for work where sharpness and precision of line +and touch are required, as may be said to be the case with all work +intended to be reproduced by some process of handicraft or manufacture, +except some sorts of photo-engraving or lithography. We must therefore +look to another implement to enable us to obtain these qualities, +namely, the brush, the use and qualities of which I have already touched +upon. + + [The Pen] + +There remains yet another point of the firm and decisive order, the pen, +which enables us to get firmness and sharpness of line and precise +definition, as well as considerable range of treatment and freedom of +touch. + +The pen seems to bear much the same relation to the brush as the lead +pencil does to charcoal--not capable of such full and rich effects or +such flowing freedom of line, but yet possessing its own beauty and +characteristic kinds of expression. Its true province is in +comparatively small scale work, and its natural association is with its +sister-pen of literature in the domain of book-design and decoration, +and black and white drawing for the press. Its varieties are endless, +and the ingenuity of manufacturers continually places before us fresh +choice of pen-points to work with; but though one occasionally meets +with a good steel pen, I have found it too often fails one just when it +is sufficiently worn to the right degree of flexibility. One returns to +the quill, which can be cut to suit the particular requirements of one's +work. For large bold drawing the reed-pen has advantages, and a pleasant +rich quality of line. + +But with whatever point we may work, the great object is to be perfectly +at ease with it in drawing--to thoroughly master its use and capacities, +so that in our search for that other command, of line and form, we may +feel that we have in our hands a tool upon which we can rely, a trusty +spear to bear down the many difficulties and discouragements that beset, +like threatening dragons, the path of the art-student. + + + + + CHAPTER IV + + Of the Choice of Form--Elementary Forms--Space-filling--Grouping-- + Analogies of Form--Typical Forms of Ornament--Ornamental Units-- + Equivalents in Form--Quantities in Design--Contrast--Value of + Variations of Similar or Allied Forms--Use of the Human Figure + and Animal Forms in Ornamental Design. + + +We were considering the choice and use of Line in the last chapter: its +expressive characters and various methods. We now come to the no less +important question to the designer and draughtsman--_The Choice of +Form_. + +If Line may be said to be the bone and sinew of design, Form is the +substance and the flesh, and both are obviously essential to its free +life and development. + + [Elementary Forms] + +The _cube_ and the _sphere_ give us the fundamental elements, or primal +types from which are derived the multifarious, ever varying, and complex +forms, the products of the forces and conditions of nature, or the +necessitous inventiveness of art, just as we may take the square and the +circle to be the parents of linear and geometric design. + +[Illustration (f045a): Elementary Forms: Pyramid, Sphere, Cube, Hexagon, +Cone.] + +The cube and the sphere, the ellipse, the cone, and the pyramid, with +other comparatively simple forms of solid geometry, present themselves +to the student as elementary tests of draughtsmanship--of the power, +that is, of representing solid bodies upon a plane surface. Such forms +being more simple and regular than any natural forms, they are supposed +to reduce the problem of drawing to its simplest conditions. They +certainly afford very close tests of correctness of eye, making any +fault in perspective or projection at once apparent. + +[Illustration (f045b): Use of Elementary Forms in Architecture.] + +To avoid, however, falling into mechanical ways, and to maintain the +interest and give vitality to such studies, the relation of such forms +to forms in nature and art should be borne in mind, and no opportunity +missed of comparing them, or of seeking out their counterparts, +corresponding principles, and variations, as well as their practical +bearing, both functional and constructive; as in the case of the typical +forms of flowers, buds, and seed-vessels, for instance, where the cone +and the funnel, and the spherical, cylindrical, and tubular principles +are constantly met with, as essential parts of the characters and +organic necessities of the plant: the cone and the funnel mostly in buds +and flower-petals for protection and inclosure of the pollen and seed +germs, the tube for conducting the juices; the spherical form to resist +moisture externally, or to hold it internally, or to avoid friction, and +facilitate close storage, as in the case of seeds in pods. The +seed-vessel of the poppy, for instance, has a curious little pent-house +roof to shield the interstices (like windows in a tower) till the seed +is ripe and the time comes for it to be shaken out of the shell or pod. +A further practical reason for the prevalence of spherical form in seeds +is that they may, when the outer covering or husk perishes, more readily +roll out and fall into the interstices of the ground; or when, as in the +case of various fruits, such as the apple and orange, the envelope +itself is spherical and intended to carry their flat or pointed seeds to +the ground, where it falls and rolls when ripe. + +[Illustration (f046): Poppyheads.] + +The cube and the various multiple forms may be found in crystals and +basaltic rocks, as well as in organic nature, as, for instance, in the +honeycomb of bees, where choice of form is a constructive necessity: the +cube is in every sense of the word the corner-stone in architecture, and +without squaring and plumbing no building could be constructed, while +the cylindrical and conical principles of form are illustrated in towers +and roofs, spires and pinnacles. In architectural ornament and carved +decoration the cube and sphere again form the basis, both forming +ornaments themselves by mere recurrence and repetition, and also forming +constructional bases of ornament. + +[Illustration (f047): Apple Cut to Show Position of Seeds.] + + [Dog-Tooth Ornament] + +[Illustration (f048b): Dog-tooth Formed From Cube.] + +A very simple but effective form of carved ornament characteristic of +early Gothic work is what is known as the dog-tooth. This is formed +simply by cutting a cube of stone into a pyramid, depressing the sides, +and cutting them into geometric leaves, leaving the sharp angles of the +pyramid from the base to the apex standing out in bold relief. In +ground-plan this is simply composed geometrically of a rectangle divided +diagonally into four equal parts, and by striking four semicircles from +the centres of the four sides of the rectangle. Here we get a form of +ornament in the flat which appears to have been very widely used, and +reappears in the early art of nearly all races so far as I am aware. We +find it, for instance, in Assyrian carving and in early Greek +decoration, in China and Japan, and in European mediaeval work of all +kinds. Its charm perhaps lies in its simplicity of construction yet rich +ornamental effect, either as carved work or as a flat painted diaper. It +might also be used as the geometric basis of an elaborate repeating +wall-pattern over a large surface. + +[Illustration (f048a): Cube and Sphere in Architectural Ornament: Brick +Dental, Ball Flower Moulding, and Dog-tooth Moulding.] + + [Filling of Spaces] + +When it comes to the choice of form, when we are face to face with a +particular problem in design, ornament, or decoration (say, as most +frequently happens, it is to fill a panel of a given shape and size), we +are bound to consider form in relation to that particular panel, to the +subject we propose to treat, and the method by which the design is to be +produced, or the object and position for which it is intended. This +generally narrows the range of possible choice. Firstly, there is the +shape of the panel itself. A well-known exercise for the Teacher's +Certificate under the Department of Science and Art is to give a drawing +of a plant adapted to design in a square and a circle. Now in the +abstract one would be inclined to select for a circular fitting +different forms from those one might select for a square filling, since +I always consider that the shape of the space must influence the +character of the filling in line and form. Still, if the problem is to +fill a square and a circle by the same forms, or an adaptation of them, +we must rely more and more upon difference of _treatment_ of these +forms, and not try to squeeze round forms into rectangular space, or +rectangular forms into circular space. In a rose, for instance, it would +be possible to dwell on its angular side for the square, and on its +curvilinear side for the circle. Anyway, we should seek in the first +place a good and appropriate motive. + +[Illustration (f049a): Filling of Square Space.] + +Supposing the design is for wood inlay, we should have to select forms +that would not cause unnecessary difficulty in cutting, since every form +in the design would have to be cut out in thin wood and inserted in the +corresponding hollow cut in the panel or plank to receive it. Complex or +complicated forms would therefore be ruled out, as being not only +difficult or impossible to reproduce in the material, but ineffective. + +[Illustration (f049b): Filling of Circular Space.] + + [Inlay Design] + +A true feeling for the particular effect and decorative charm of inlaid +work should lead us to limit ourselves to comparatively few and simple +forms, treating those forms in an emphatic but abstract way, and making +use of recurring line and form as far as possible. We might make an +effective panel, say, for a casket, or a clock-case, or a floor, by +strictly limiting ourselves to very few and simple forms--say, for +instance, a stem, a leaf, a berry, or disc, and a bird form, or fruit +and leaf forms. It would be possible to build up a design with such +elements both pleasant in effect and well adapted to the work. An +excellent plan would be to cut out all one's forms with knife or +scissors in stiff paper, as a test of the practicability of an inlay +design. This is actually done with the working drawing by the inlay +cutter. + +[Illustration (f050): 1. Units of Simple Inlay Pattern; 2. Motive for +Inlaid Pattern Built of the Same Units; 3. Treatment of Form as Pattern +Units for Inlaid Work; 4. Pattern Motive for Inlaid Work] + +I once designed an inlaid floor for the centre of a picture gallery. +The scale was rather large, and the work was bold. One kept to large, +bold, and simple forms--water-lilies and broad leaves, swans, scallop +shells, and zigzag borders. Forms which can be readily produced by the +brush would generally answer well for inlay, since they would have +simple and sweeping boundaries and flat silhouette. And for inlay one is +practically designing in black, white, or tinted silhouette. This makes +it very good practice for all designers, both for the invention it tends +to call out, owing to the limited resources and restriction as to forms, +and also as giving facility and readiness in blocking in the masses of +pattern. + +The water-colour painter, too, would find that blocking in in flat local +colour all his forms and the colours of his background was an excellent +method of preparatory work, and afforded good practice in direct +painting, since he could add his secondary shades and tints in the same +manner until the work was brought to completion, while preserving that +fresh effect of the undisturbed washes which is the great charm of +water-colour. + + [Grouping of Allied Forms] + +In seeking forms to group together harmoniously--which is the whole +object of composition--we shall find that much the same kind of +principle holds good whether we are arranging a still-life group or +designing a wall-paper or textile. It is only a difference of degree and +scale. In the one case we are designing in the solid with the actual +objects, before drawing or painting them as a harmonious pictorial +composition; in the other we are arranging forms upon the flat with a +view to harmonious composition with a strictly decorative purpose in +view. In the first we are dealing with concrete form in the round; in +the second, generally speaking, with abstract form in the flat. + +[Illustration (f051a): Grouping of Allied Forms: Composition of Curves.] + +But in either case we want harmony. We cannot, therefore, throw together +a number of forms unrelated to each in line, contour, or meaning. We +seek in composing or designing not contradictions, but correspondences +of form, with just an element of contrast to give flavour and point. In +grouping pottery, for instance, we should not place big and little or +squat and slender forms close together without connecting links of some +kind. We want a series of good lines that help one another and lead up +to one another in a kind of friendly co-operation. Broad smooth forms +and rounded surfaces, again, require relief and a certain amount of +contrast. We feel the need of crisp leaves or flowers, perhaps, with +our pottery form. We may safely go far, however, on the principle of +grouping similar or allied forms, giving our composition as a whole +either a curvilinear or angular character in its general lines, masses, +and forms, on the principle of like to like. This will entirely depend +upon our choice of grouping of form; but the more by our selection we +make our composition tend distinctly in the one direction or the other, +the more character it will be likely to possess. + +[Illustration (f051b): Grouping of Allied Forms: Composition of Angles.] + + [Grouping] + +[Illustration (f052): Still-life Group Illustrative of Wood-Engraving.] + +In selecting forms for still-life grouping and painting, I think +increased interest might be gained by arranging significant objects, +accessories bearing upon particular pursuits, for instance, in natural +relationship and surrounding. Groups suggesting certain handicrafts, for +instance, such as the clear glass globe of the wood-engraver, the +sand-bag, the block upon it, the tools, gravers lying around, the +eye-glass, an old book of woodcuts, and so forth. Other groups +suggestive of various arts and industries could be arranged--such +motives as metal-work, pottery, literature, painting, music, embroidery, +spring, summer, autumn, and winter, might all be suggestively +illustrated by well-selected groups of still life. Even different +historic periods might be emblematically suggested--I should like to see +more done in this way. + +[Illustration (f053): Japanese Diagonal Pattern.] + +To return to design in the flat. If we start with a motive of circular +masses, we cannot suddenly associate them with sharp angles--I mean in +our leading forms. Of course we can make a network or trellis or diaper +of the angles, to form a mat, ground, or a framework on which to place +our broad masses, as we may see effectively done by the Chinese and +Japanese. + + [Corresponding Forms] + +[Illustration (f054): Treatment of Fruit and Leaf Forms: Corresponding +Curvature] + +If the principal group of forms in our pattern, say, are fruit +forms--apples, pomegranates, or oranges--we must re-echo or carry out +the curves in a lesser degree in the connecting stems and leaves. Change +the form of the fruit, say, to lemons, and a further variation of +connecting or subsidiary curve in stems and leaves will naturally +suggest itself, and at the same time in following such principles we +shall be expressing in an abstract way more of the character of the tree +or plant itself. In looking at the leaf of a tree one may often see a +suggestion of the general character and contour of the tree itself, and +we know the line: + + "Just as the twig is bent the tree's inclined." + +In dealing with angular motives the same principle would be followed, +but corresponding to the difference of motive. Let the form of your +detail be reflected in the character of your mass. + +I have spoken of the necessity in designing of seeking correspondences +in form, and although, could we place every form in proper sequence and +supply all the intermediary links to unite them harmoniously, forms of +extreme diversity might thus be associated, given great extension of +space (as in wall decoration, for instance), even then we should want +these forms to correspond and recur. Yet, as a rule, having to deal in +design with what are really parts rather than wholes, we can only +endeavour by making the design of these parts simple and harmonious in +line and form, and true to their special conditions, to render their +association decoratively possible. + +[Illustration (f055a): Correspondence in General Contour Between Leaf +and Tree.] + +[Illustration (f055b): Some Analogies in Form.] + +Certain forms seem to lend themselves to design in ornament better than +others, because they give the designer certain lines and masses which +can be harmoniously repeated or combined with other allied forms or +lines. Design from this point of view becomes a search for analogies of +form. + + [Analogies of Form] + +I mentioned certain simple geometric forms common to nature and art. +Early ornament consists in the repetition of such forms. The next step +was to connect them by lines: and so form and line, through endless +vicissitudes and complexities, became united, to live happily in the +world of decorative motive ever after. But long after the primitive +unadorned geometric forms themselves have ceased to be the chief forms +in ornament, their controlling influence is asserted over the boundaries +of the more complicated masses introduced. + + [Typical Forms of Ornament] + +The simple rectangle is disguised under the fret, the circle and spiral +assert their sway over the boundaries of the palmette, or circle and +semicircle unite to form the oval so frequently used both as a unit in +Greek ornament and as a controlling boundary. These are typical border +forms: for extension and repetition in fields of pattern we find the +same geometric plans at work in combination and subdivision, forming at +first the ornament itself, and afterwards furnishing the plan and +controlling boundaries only. Even in later stages in the evolution of +surface decoration, in what are called naturalistic floral patterns, +amid apparent carelessness and freedom, by the exigencies of repetition +the ghost of buried geometric connection reappears, and compels the +most naturalistic roses on a wall-paper to acknowledge themselves +artificial after all, as they nod to their counterparts from the masked +angles of the inevitable diaper repeat. + +[Illustration (f056): Tree of Typical Pattern Forms, Units, and +Systems.] + +We find in the historical forms of decorative art constantly recurring +types of form and line, such as the lotus of the Egyptians, the anthemia +of the Greeks, the pineapple-like flower and palmette of the Persians, +the peony of the Chinese. These forms, at first valued solely for their +symbolical and heraldic significance, and continually demanded, became +to the designer important elements or _units_ in ornament. They gave him +fine sweeping curves, radiating lines, and bold masses, without which a +designer cannot live, any more than a poet without words. They were +capable, too, of infinite variation in treatment, a variation which has +been continued ever since, as by importation to different countries (the +movement going on from east to west) the same forms were treated by +designers of different races, and became mixed with other native +elements, or consciously imitated as they are now by Manchester +designers and manufacturers, to be sold again in textile form to their +original owners, as it were, in the far East. Truly, a strange turn of +the wheel. + + [Ornamental Units] + +The range of choice in ornamental units is, indeed, embarrassingly large +for the modern designer, and a careful and tasteful selection becomes of +more and more importance. It is not the number of forms you can combine, +or because they are of Persian or Chinese origin, that your work will be +artistic, but the judicious and inventive use made of the elements of +your design. Ready-made units, such as the Oriental forms I have +mentioned, are no doubt easier to combine, to make an effect with, +because a certain amount of selection has already been done. In fact, +with such forms as the Persian or Indian palmette, we are dealing with +the results of centuries of ornamental evolution, and with emblems +immemorially treasured by ancient races. It behoves us, if we are called +upon to recombine them, to treat them with sympathy, refinement, and +respect, and to let them deteriorate as little as possible, for the +spirit of an important ornamental form is like a gathered flower--it +soon withers and becomes limp. + +[Illustration (f057): Sketches to Show Use of Counterbalance, Quantity, +and Equivalents in Designing.] + + [Equivalents in Form] + +It is the _spirit_, after all, that is the important thing to preserve, +in decorative design, however widely we may depart from the _letter_ +sometimes. This is a difficult quality to define, but I should say it +chiefly consists in a nice attention to the character of form, the +elastic spring of curves, an understanding of the construction and +proportions, and grasp of the effect. In designing we constantly feel +the need of repeating certain masses with variations or balancing them +by equivalents, or the necessity of leading up to certain main forms by +subsidiary forms, and to carry out their lines in other parts of the +composition. In designing figures or emblems, for instance, within +inclosed spaces, such as shields or cartouche shapes, forming leading +elements in a design, it requires much invention and ornamental feeling +so to arrange them that, while different in subject or meaning, and +differently spaced, they shall yet properly counterbalance each other, +and, though varied in detail, shall yet be equivalent in quantity. The +same sort of feeling would govern the case of designing two masses of +fruit and foliage, say, forming two halves of an oblong panel, which, +though starting on the symmetric plan from the centre, are not intended +to be alike in detail; or in a frieze composed of a series of formalized +trees, where it was desired to have each different, say, to express the +progression of the seasons, it would be the sense of the necessity of +equivalents which would govern the decorative effect. + +[Illustration (f058): Quantities and Counterchange of Border and Field +in Carpet Motives.] + + [Quantities in Design] + +[Illustration (f059): Sketch to Illustrate Value of Different Quantities +in Persian Rugs.] + +Such considerations naturally lead us to the question of the use of +_quantities_ in design--the ornamental proportions of ornament, or the +contrasting distribution of form and line. For the mere repetition of +ornamental forms over surfaces and objects without reference to +proportion or structure is not decoration. The perception of appropriate +quantities in design is really the decorative gauge or measure of +effect. + +[Illustration (f060): Sketch to Illustrate Value of Different Quantities +in Persian Rugs.] + +In designing a bordered panel--or say a carpet--we might decide to +throw the weight of pattern, colour, or emphasis upon either the field +or border. Supposing the field had a dark ground upon which the +arabesque or floral design was relieved, in the border it would be most +effective to transpose this arrangement, making the ground light, and +bringing out the border design dark upon it. Or, if the motive were +reversed, giving a light ground to the centre, with the pattern dark, +the border might be brought out on a dark field. Or, again, for a less +emphatic treatment the quantities of the pattern itself might be almost +infinitely varied, massive forms and close fillings contrasting with +open borders and united with intermediary bands. + +[Illustration (f061): Sketch to Illustrate Value of Different Quantities +in Persian Rugs.] + +These intermediary bands or subsidiary borders are very important in +Eastern rugs and carpets, and their quantities very carefully +considered. A Persian designer, for instance, would never leave a blank +unbroken strip of colour to surround his field; his object is not to +isolate the quantities of his pattern, but to distinguish and unite +them: so he makes use of the subsidiary borders as additional +quantities. A usual arrangement which always looks well is to have the +border proper inclosed in two bands of about the same width and quantity +in pattern--or they might be a repeat of each other--and to inclose the +field or centre within another narrow subsidiary border. But the +variations to be observed in any chance selection of Persian rugs or +carpets are constant, and the amount of subtle variety and invention in +these subsidiary borders is endless. + +Very excellent examples of the treatment and distribution of quantities +may also be studied in the older Indian printed cottons, such as maybe +seen at South Kensington. + + [Contrast] + +The consideration of quantities in form and design involves the question +of _contrast_, which, indeed, can hardly be separated from it. There is +the contrast of form and line, and the contrast of colour and plane. It +is with the first kind we are dealing now. + +Take the simplest linear border, such as the type common in Greek work. +We should easily weary of the continual repetition of such a form alone +and unassisted, but add a vertical with an alternative dark filling, and +we get a certain richness and solidity which is a relief at once. Add +another quantity, and we get the rich effect of the egg and tongue or +egg and dart moulding. + +A still simpler instance of the use of contrast, however, is the +chequer, or the principle of equal alternation of dark and light masses; +but this touches colour contrast rather than form. + +[Illustration (f062): Recurrence and Contrast in Border Motives.] + +The love of contrast makes the Chinese porcelain-painter break the blue +borders of his plates with small cartouche-like forms inclosing the +light ground, varied with a spray or device of some light kind; or the +diagonal, closely-filled field of his woven silk by broad discs or +cartouches of another plane of ornament. But the love of sharp or very +violent contrasts, more especially of form, may easily lead one astray +and be destructive of ornamental effect. Like all decorative +considerations, the artistic use of contrast depends much upon the +particular case and the conditions of the work, and one cannot lay down +any unvarying rules. There are agreeable and disagreeable contrasts, and +their choice and use must depend upon the individual artist. + + [Variation of Allied Forms] + +The most beautiful kinds of design rather seem to depend upon the +harmonious variation in association of similar or allied forms than on +sharp contrasts. + +In compositions of figures the association of the delicate curves and +angles of the human form, and the lines of drapery, with the emphatic +verticals and horizontals, the semicircles and rectangles of +architectural form, for instance, are always delightful in competent +hands; as also compositions of figure and landscape, with its +possibilities of undulating line corrected by the severe horizon, or +sea-line, and contrasted with the vertical lines of trees, stems, and +the rich forms of foliage masses. + +For the same reasons both of correspondence and contrast, masses of type +or lettering of good form are admirable as foils to figure designs, in +which commemorative monuments of all kinds and book designs afford +abundant opportunities to the designer. + + [Use Of Human Figure and Animal Forms] + +In surface or textile decoration of all kinds nothing gives so much +relief and vitality as the judicious use of animal forms and the human +figure, although they are not much favoured at present. The forms of +birds and animals, if designed in relation to the rest of the pattern, +will give a pleasant variety of form and line, and in their forms and +lines we find just those elements both of correspondence and contrast, +in their relation to geometric or to floral design, which are so +valuable. + +[Illustration (f063a): Use of Inclosing Boundaries in Designing Animal +Forms in Decorative Pattern.] + +In order to combine such forms successfully, however, great care in +designing is necessary; and a good sound principle to follow as a +general guide is to make the boundaries of the bird or animal touch the +limits of an imaginary inclosing form of some simple geometric or floral +or leaf shape (see p. 104[f063a]). This would at once control the form +and render it available in a pattern as a decorative mass or unit. The +particular shape of the controlling form must, of course, depend upon +the general character of the design, whether free and flowing or square +and restricted, the nature of the repeat, the ultimate position of the +work, and so on. A study of Gothic heraldry and the early Sicilian silk +patterns would be very instructive in this connection, since it is +rather the heraldic ideal than that of the natural history book which is +decoratively appropriate. At the same time it is quite possible to +combine ornamental treatment with a great deal of natural truth in +structure and character. + +[Illustration (f063b): Decorative Spacing of Figures Within Geometric +Boundaries.] + +Much the same principles apply to the treatment of the human figure as +an element in ornament; they should be designed, whether singly or in +groups, under the control of imaginary boundaries, and care must be +taken that in line and mass they re-echo (or are re-echoed by) other +lines which connect them with the rest of the design, if they occur as +incidents in repeating wall-paper or hanging design, for instance. It +is, however, quite possible to imagine a decorative effect produced by +the use of figures alone (see p. 105[f063b]), with something very +subsidiary in the way of connecting links of linear or floral pattern, +much as figures were used by the ancient Greek vase-painters, +beautifully distributed as ornament over the concave or convex surfaces +of the vases and vessels of the potter, the forms of which, as all good +decoration should do, they helped to express as well as to adorn. + + + + + CHAPTER V + + Of the Influence of Controlling Lines, Boundaries, Spaces, and + Plans in Designing--Origin of Geometric Decorative Spaces and + Panels in Architecture--Value of Recurring Line--Tradition-- + Extension--Adaptability--Geometric Structural Plans--Frieze and + Field--Ceiling Decoration--Co-operative Relation. + + +The function of line considered from the point of view of its +controlling influence as a boundary, or inclosure, of design, upon which +I touched in the last chapter, is a very important one, and deserves +most attentive study. + +The usual problem a designer in the flat has to solve is to fill +harmoniously a given space or panel defined by a line--some simple +geometric form--such as a square or a circle, a parallelogram, a +diamond, a lunette. + + [Influence of Controlling Lines, etc.] + +Now it is possible to regard such spaces or panels as more or less +unrelated, and simply as the boundaries of an individual composition or +picture of some kind. Yet even so considered a certain sense of +geometric control would come in in the selection of our lines and +masses, both in regard to each other and in regard to the shape of the +inclosing boundary. We seem to feel the need of some answering line or +re-echo in the character of the composition to the shape of its +boundary, to give it its distinctive reason for existence in that +particular form--just as we should expect a shell-fish to conform to the +shape of its shell. Such a re-echo or acknowledgment might be ever so +slight, or might be quite emphatic and dominate as the leading motive, +but for perfectly harmonious effect it must be there. + +[Illustration (f064): Relation of Design to Boundary: Simple Linear +Motives and Pattern Bases.] + +A strictly simple and logical linear filling of such spaces might be +expressed in the most primitive way, as in the illustration on p. +109[f064]. + +By these means certain primitive types of ornament are evolved, such as +the Greek volute and the Greek key or fret, the logical ornament of a +logical people. + +Such arrangements of line form simple linear patterns, and a decorative +effect of surface is produced simply by their repetition, especially if +the principle of alternation be observed. This principle may be +expressed by taking, say, a series of squares or circles, and placing +them either in a line as for a border arrangement, or for extension +vertically and laterally over a surface, and filling only the alternate +square or circle, leaving the alternate ones, or dropping them out +altogether (see illustration, p. 111[f065]). + +[Illustration (f065): Use of Intervals in Repeating the Same Ornamental +Units.] + +When we desire to go beyond such primitive linear ornaments, however, +and introduce natural form, we should still be guided by the same +principles, if we desire to produce a strictly decorative effect, while +varying them in application to any extent. + +It matters not what forms we deal with, floral, animal, human; directly +we come to combine them in a design, to control them by a boundary, to +inclose them in a space, we shall feel this necessity of controlling +line, which, however concealed, is yet essential to bring them into that +harmonious relation which is the essence of all design (see +illustration, p. 112[f066]). + +[Illustration (f066): Designs of Floral, Human, and Animal Forms, +Governed by Shape of Inclosing Boundary.] + +We may take it as a general rule that the more purely ornamental the +purpose of our design, and the more abstract in form it is, the more +emphatically we may carry out the principle of correspondence of line +between that of the inclosing boundary and that of the design itself; +and, _vice versa_, as the design becomes more pictorial in its appeal +and more complex and varied in its elements, the more we may combine the +leading motive or principle of line with secondary ones, or with +variations, since every fresh element, every new direction of line, +every new form introduced, demands some kind of re-echo to bring it into +relation with the other elements of the design, or parts of the +composition, whatever may be its nature and purpose. + +Now, if we seek further the meaning and origin of this necessity of the +control of geometric lines and spaces in design, I think we shall find +it in the constructive necessities of architecture: for it is certainly +from architecture that we derive those typical spaces and panels the +designer is so often called upon to fill. + +[Illustration (f067): The Parthenon: Sketch to Show Spaces Used for +Decorative Sculpture in Greek Architecture.] + + [Origin of Geometric Decorative Spaces] + +Lintel architecture--the Egyptian and the Greek--gave us the frieze, +both continuous, as in that of the Cella of the Parthenon, or divided by +triglyphs, which represented the ends of the beams of the primitive +timber construction; and the interstices left between these determined +the shape of the sculptured panel or slab inserted, and influenced the +character of its masses and the lines of its design, which was under the +necessity of harmonizing with the whole building (see illustration, p. +114[f067]). + +[Illustration (f068): Tower of the Winds Athens BC 50] + +The same may be said of the pediments. The angle of the low-pitched roof +left another interstice for the sculptor at each end of the building; +and I have elsewhere* pointed out the influence of the inclosing space +and the angles of the pediment of the Parthenon upon the arrangement of +the groups within it, and even upon the lines taken by some of the +figures, especially the reclining figures near the acute angles. + + [*] See "Bases of Design." + +Certain lines become inseparably associated with constructive +expression, and are used to emphasize it, as the vertical flutings of +the Doric column, by repeating the lines of the column itself, emphasize +its constructive expression of supporting the weight of the horizontal +lintels, the lines of which, repeated in the mouldings of the frieze and +cornice, are associated with level restfulness and secure repose. + +As examples of design which, while meeting the structural necessities +and acknowledging the control of space and general conditions, as the +form of the slabs upon which they are sculptured, yet expresses +independent movement, the figures of the octagonal tower of the winds at +Athens are interesting (see illustration, p. 115[f068]). + +Quite a different feeling, corresponding to differences in conception +and spirit in design, comes in with the Roman round _arch_ its allied +forms of _spandril_ and _vault_, _lunette_ and _medallion_, presenting +new spaces for the surface designer, and new suggestions of ornamental +line (see illustration, p. 117[f069]). It is noticeable how, with the +round-arched architecture under Roman, Byzantine (see illustration, p. +118[f070]), and Renaissance forms, the scroll form of ornament +developed, the reason being, I think, that it gave the necessary element +of recurring line, whether used in the horizontal frieze in +association with round arches, or in spandrils of vaults and arcades, +and on marble mosaic pavements. + +[Illustration (f069): Sketch of Part of the Arch of Constantine to Show +Spaces for Decorative Sculpture in Roman Architecture.] + +[Illustration (f070): Byzantine (Mosaic) Treatment of Architectural +Structural Features: Apse, S. Vitale Ravenna.] + + [Value of the Recurring Line] + +The development of Gothic architecture, with its new constructive +features and the greater variety of geometric spaces, forms, and +interstices which, as a consequence, were available for the designer of +associated ornament, whether carved work, mosaic, stained glass, or +painting, naturally led to a corresponding variety in invention and +decorative adaptation; and we may trace the same principle at work in +other forms--I mean the principle of corresponding, counterbalancing, +and recurring line--Gothic ornament being indeed generally an essential +part of the structure, and architectural features being constantly +repeated and utilized for their ornamental value, as in the case of +canopies and tabernacle work. + +We see, for instance, in the Decorated period the acute gable moulding +over the arched recess, niche, doorway, or tomb, lightened and vivified +by a floriated finial springing into vigorous curves from a vertical +stem, forming an emphatic ogee outline which re-echoes the ogee line of +the arch below, and is taken up in variations by the crockets carved +upon the sides of the gable; and their spiral ascending lines lead the +eye up to the finial which completes the composition. We may trace the +same principle in the carved fillings of the subsidiary parts, such as +the trefoiled panels, the secondary mouldings, and the cusps of the +arches, which continue the line-motive or decorative harmony to the last +point (see illustration, p. 120[f071]). The elegance and lightness of +the pinnacles is increased in the same way, and further emphasized by +the long vertical lines of the sunk panels upon their sides. + +[Illustration (f071): From Canopy of Tomb of Gervaise-Alard 1303. Temp +ED^wd^ I^st^ Winchelsea] + +In church doorways we may see certain voussoirs of the arch allowed to +project from the hollow of the concave moulding, and their surfaces +carved into bosses of ornament; while, again, the doorway is emphasized +by the recurring lines of the mouldings, with their contrasting planes +of light and shadow, and the point of their spring is marked by a +carved lion, controlled in the design of its contour by the squareness +of the block of stone upon which it is carved (see illustration, p. +121[f072]). + +[Illustration (f072): Structural Control of Line in Architectural +Enrichments West Door Walberswick Ch. Suffolk] + +The carvings of miserere seats in our cathedral choirs often afford +instances of ingenious design and arrangement of elements difficult to +combine, yet always showing the instinct of following the control of the +dominating form and peculiar lines of the seat itself. There is an +instance of one from St. David's Cathedral--apparently a humorous +satire--a goose-headed woman offering a cake to a man-headed gull (?), +or perhaps they are both geese! I won't pretend to say, but it evidently +is intended to suggest cupboard love, and there is a portentously large +pitcher of ale in reserve on the bench. But note the clever arrangement +of the masses and lines, and how the lines of the seat and the curves +of the terminating scroll are re-echoed in the lines of the figures and +accessories. + +[Illustration (f073): C. 1460-1480 Wood Carving Miserere Seat Choir +Stalls St. David's Cathedral. Controlling Line in Design of Subsidiary +Architectural Decoration.] + +A stone-carving from the end of a tomb in the same cathedral--that of +Bishop John Morgan, 1504--of a griffin with a shield shows an emphatic +repetition of the inclosing line of the arched recess in the curves of +the wings which follow it. + +[Illustration (f074): Recessed Panel Carved Stone From the Tomb of +Bishop John Morgan D. 1504, St. David's Cathedral.] + +There is also a charming corbel of a half-figure of an angel, which, +though somewhat defaced, shows the architectural sense very strongly in +its design--the vertical droop of the wing-feathers inclosing the figure +repeating and continuing the vertical lines of the shafts and the +subsidiary mouldings of the arrangement of the drapery, and its +termination in crisp foliated forms, which pleasantly counterbalance the +set of the scale feathers of the wings and break the semicircular +mouldings of the base of the corbel, repeating those of the shafts +above. + +[Illustration (f075): Constructive Line Reechoed in Architectural +Ornament. Corbel, Bishop Vaughan's Chapel, St. David's 1509-] + + [Adaptability in Design] + +[Illustration (f076): Gothic Tile Pattern S. David's Cath^l.] + +Adaptation to spaces upon a flat surface is also illustrated in some +tile patterns from the same place. They are simple and rude but very +effective bits of spacing, and show a thorough grasp of the principles +we have been considering--if, indeed, it is so far conscious work at +all. But whether or not the outcome of a tradition which seemed to be +almost instinctive with mediaeval workmen--a tradition which yet left the +individual free, and under which design was a thing of life and growth, +ever adapting itself to new conditions, and grafting freely new +inventions to flower in fresh phantasy upon the ancient stock--the +movement in art in the Middle Ages, exhibiting as it does a gradual +growth and a constant vitality, always accompanying and adapting itself +to structural changes, to life and habit, was really more analogous to +the development of mechanical science in our own day, where each new +machine is allied to its predecessors, though it supplants them. The one +law being adaptability, the one aim to apply means to ends, and more and +more perfectly, inessentials and superfluities are shed, and invention +triumphs. It is, too, a collective advance, since each engineer, each +inventor, builds upon the experience of both his forerunners and his +fellow-workers, and everything is brought to an immediately practical +test. + +We are not yet in the same healthy condition as regards art, and art can +never be on the same plane as science, though art may learn much from +science, chiefly perhaps in the direction of the inventive adaptation of +analogous principles. But in art the question is complicated by human +feeling and association, and her strongest appeal is to these, and by +these, and as yet we do not seem to have any terms or equivalents +precise enough to describe, or any analysis fine enough to discover +them. + + [Extension] + +The next consideration in spacing we may term _extension_. This bears +upon all surface design, but more especially upon the design of patterns +intended to repeat over a large surface, and not specially designed for +particular spaces. It is a great question whether any design can be +entirely satisfactory unless it has been thought out in relation to some +particular extent of surface or as adapted to some particular wall or +room. Modern industrial conditions preclude this possibility as a rule, +and so the only sure ground, beyond individual taste and preference, is +technical adaptability to process or material. We should naturally want +to give a different character to a textile pattern, whether printed or +woven, and intended to hang in folds, from one for flat extension as a +wall-paper; and a different character again to such designs intended for +extension horizontally from those intended for vertical space alone. +Floor patterns, parquets and carpets, for instance, naturally demand +different treatment from wall patterns, as those orders of plants in +nature which cling and spread on the flat ground differ from those which +grow high and maintain themselves in the air, or climb upon trees. The +rule of life--_adaptability_--obtains in art as in nature, and, beneath +individual preference and passing fashion, works the silent but real law +of relation to conditions. This again bears upon the choice of scale, +and differentiates the design of dress textiles from furniture textiles, +and the design of varied surfaces and objects, which, while demanding +their own particular treatment, are brought into general relation by +their association with use and the wants of humanity. + +[Illustration (f077a): Extension: Surface Pattern Motives Derived from +Lines of Structure.] + + [Geometric Structural Plans, etc.] + +The law governing extension of design over surface is again geometric, +and our primal circle and square are again the factors and progenitors +of the leading systems which have governed the design of diapers and +wall patterns and hangings of all kinds. Nay, the first weaver of the +wattled fence discovered the principle of extension in design, and +showed its inseparable association with construction; and the builder +with brick or stone emphasizes it, producing the elements of linear +surface pattern, from the mechanical necessity of the position of the +joints of his structure. At a German railway station waiting-room I +noticed an effective adaptation of this principle as a wall decoration +in two blues upon a stone colour (see illustration, p. 128[fig077a]). We +may build upon such emphatic structural lines, either incorporating them +with the design motive, as in all rectangular wall diapers, or we may +suppress or conceal the actual constructive lines by placing the +principal parts or connections of our pattern over them, but one cannot +construct a satisfactory pattern to repeat and extend without them; for +these constructive lines or plans give the necessary organic life and +vigour to such designs, and are as needful to them as the trellis to the +tendrils of the vine (see illustration, p. 129[f077b]). + +[Illustration (f077b): Surface Extension: Repeating Patterns Built Upon +(1) Square and (2) Circular Basis.] + +The same principle is true of designs upon the curvilinear plan. The +mere repetition of the circle by itself gives us a simple geometric +pattern, and we are at liberty to emphasize this circular plan as the +main motive; or, as in the case of the rectangular plans, to treat it +merely as a basis, and develop free scroll motives upon it; or follow +it through its principal variations, as in the ogee, formed by dropping +out two intermediate semicircles; or the various forms of the scale +arrangement. These simple geometric plans are the most generally useful +as plans of designs intended for repetition and extension over space, +and they are always safe and sound systems to build upon, since a +geometric plan is certain to join comfortably if our measurements are +right. + +[Illustration (f078): Surface Extension: Plan of a Drop Repeat.] + +We may, however, often feel that we want something bolder and freer, and +start with a motive of sweeping-curves, non-geometric, but even then a +certain geometric relation will be necessary, or an equivalent for it, +since each curve must be counterbalanced in some way, though not +necessarily symmetrically, of course; and even where a square of +pattern--say to a wall-paper repeat of twenty-one inches--has been +designed, not consciously upon a geometric base, but simply as a +composition of lines and masses to repeat, the mechanical conditions of +the work when it comes to be printed will supply a certain geometric +control, since it necessarily begins in the process of repetition a +series of squares of pattern in which the curves are bound to recur in +corresponding places. Without a geometric plan of some sort, however, we +may easily get into difficulties with awkward leading lines, gaps, or +masses, that tumble down, and are only perceived when the paper is +printed and hung. + +The designer should not feel at all restricted or cramped by his +geometric plan, but treat it as an aid and a scaffolding, working in as +much variety and richness of detail as he likes, bound only by the +necessity of repeating or counterbalancing his forms and lines. In the +diagram (p. 131[f078]) the plan of making a repeat less obvious by means +of what is termed "a drop" is given, and this system also increases the +apparent width of a pattern. + + [Frieze and Field] + +The feeling which demands some kind of contrast or relief to a field of +repeating pattern, however interesting in itself, seems now almost +instinctive. It is felt, too, in the case of plain surfaces, where the +eye seeks a moulding to give a little variety or pattern-equivalent in +play of light and shadow upon different planes, lines, or concavities +and convexities. The common plaster cornice placed to unite walls and +ceiling, in our ordinary houses, is a concession (on the part even of +the jerriest of builders) to the aesthetic sense. We get the decorated +frieze in architecture in obedience to the same demand, though +originally a necessary feature of lintel construction, as we have seen, +from the days of the festal garland hung around the eaves of the classic +house, to its perpetuation in stone in so many varieties.* The carved +garland depending in a series of graceful curves, or contrasted with +pendants, or their rhythm punctuated, as it were, by ox-heads, as on the +temple of the Sibyls, Tivoli, formed the needed contrast to the plane +masonry of the wall below. Sculptured figures, with the added interest +of story, as on the choragic monument of Lysicrates, fulfilled the same +decorative function in a more complex and elaborate way. + + [*] "Bases of Design." + +To satisfy the same feeling we place a frieze above the patterned field +of our modern wall-papers. Such a frieze may be considered as a +contrasting border to the pattern of the field, much as the border of a +carpet, allowing for difference of material and position; or the frieze +may assert itself as the dominant decoration of the room. In this case +it would be greater in depth than the simpler bordering type. The +interest of the field filling would then be subsidiary, and lead up to +the frieze. In wall-paper friezes the difficulty in designing is to +think of a motive which will not tire the eye in the necessarily +frequent repeats of twenty-one inches. Longer ones have occasionally +been produced, the limit being sixty inches. It is often a good plan to +recur in the main lines or forms of the frieze to some variation of the +lines or forms of the field. If, for instance, the main motive in the +field was a vertical scroll design, a _horizontal_ scroll design upon a +large scale used for the frieze would answer, the field being kept flat +and quiet; or the fan, or radiating shell form, used as a frieze, above +a pattern on the scale plan, would be quite harmonious. Relation and +balance of line and mass, and arrangement of quantities in such designs, +are the chief considerations. + +With painting or modelling an artist is freer, as he is at liberty to +design a continuous frieze of figures, and introduce as much variety as +he chooses. + +A painted frieze of figures above plain oak-panelling has a good effect +in a large and well-proportioned room, and is perhaps one of the +pleasantest ways of treating interior walls. + +[Illustration (f079): Sketch Designs to Show Relation Between Frieze +and Field in Wall-paper.] + + [Ceiling Decoration] + +Ceiling decoration, again, presents problems of extension in designing, +and the large flat plaster ceilings of modern rooms are by no means easy +to deal with satisfactorily. The simplest way is to resort to +wall-paper, and here, restricted in size of repeat and the usual +technical requirements of the work, the designer must further consider +appropriateness of scale, and position in regard to eye, relation to the +wall, and so forth. + +The natural demand is for something simpler in treatment than the +walls--a re-echo, in some sort, of plans agreeable to the floor, yet +with a suggestion of something lighter and freer: here we may safely +come back to rectangular and circular plans again for our leading lines +and forms. + +Painting and modelling, again, offer more elaborate treatment and +possibilities, and we know that beautiful works have been done in both +ways; but art of this kind seems more appropriate to lofty vaulted +chambers and churches, such as one sees in the palaces of Italy, at +Genoa and Venice, at Florence and Rome. + +I remember a very striking and bold treatment of a flat-beamed ceiling +in the Castle of Nuremberg, where a huge black German eagle was painted +so as to occupy nearly the whole field of the ceiling, but treated in an +extremely flat and heraldic way, the long feathers of the wings +following the lines of the beams and falling parallel upon them and +between them; and upon the black wings and body of the eagle different +shields of arms were displayed in gold and colours, the eagle itself +being painted upon the natural unpainted wood--oak, I think. The work +belonged to the thirteenth or fourteenth century, I believe. It seemed +the very antithesis of Italian finesse and fancy, but the fitness of +such decoration entirely depends upon its relation to its surroundings, +which in this case were perfectly appropriate. + + [Co-operative Relation] + +That is the great point to bear in mind in all design--the sense of +relation; nothing stands alone in art. Lines and forms must harmonize +with other forms and lines: the elements of any design must meet in +friendly co-operation; it is not a blind struggle for existence, a +fierce competition, or a strife for ascendency between one motive and +another, one form and another, or a war of conflicting efforts. There +may be a struggle _outside_ the design, in the mind of the designer. He +may have tried hard against difficulties to express what he felt, and +have only reached harmony through discord and strife, but the work +itself should be serene; we should feel that, however various its +elements, they are not without their purpose and relation one to +another, that all is ordered and organized in harmonious lines, that +everything has its use and place, that, in short, it illustrates that +excellent motto, whether for art or life: "Each for all, and all for +each." + + + + + CHAPTER VI + + Of the Fundamental Essentials of Design: Line, Form, + Space--Principles of Structural and Ornamental Line in Organic + Forms--Form and Mass in Foliage--Roofs--The Mediaeval + City--Organic and Accidental Beauty--Composition: Formal and + Informal--Power of Linear Expression--Relation of Masses and + Lines--Principles of Harmonious Composition. + + +We may take it, then, from the principles and examples I have +endeavoured to put before you in the previous chapters, that there are +three fundamental elements or essentials of Design--Line, Form, Space. + + [Fundamental Essentials of Design] + +Line we need, not only for our ground-plan and framework, but also to +define or express our forms. Form we need to give substance and mass, +interest and variety; and it is obvious that Space is required to +contain all these elements, while Space asserts its influence, as we +have seen, upon both Line and Form in combination upon it, whether +object or surface, by the shape of its boundary, the extension of its +plane, and the angle and position of its plane in regard to the eye, as +well as from the point of view of material and use. + +Questions of the character of line and form, and their combination and +disposition in or over spaces, are questions of composition. They demand +the most careful solution, whatever our subject and purpose may be, +from the simplest linear border up to the most elaborate figure design. +But although the three essentials to composition must be always present, +it is always possible to rely more upon the qualities of one of them for +our main motive and interest, keeping the other two subsidiary. We might +centralize the chief interest of our composition upon _Line_, for +instance, and make harmonious relation or combination of lines our +principal object (as in line-design and ornament), or we might rather +dwell upon the contours, masses, and contrasts and relationships of +_Form_: as in pictorial design, figure compositions of all kinds, and +modelling and sculpture: or, again, we might choose that the peculiar +character given by the control of certain inclosing spaces should +determine the interest of our design, as the due filling of particular +panels and geometric shapes; or seek the interest of aerial perspective +in the pictorial and atmospheric expression of space. + +Taking combinations of Line first, and bearing in mind what has been +said regarding its capacities for expression, whether of emotion, +direction of force, movement, rest, as well as of facts of structure and +surface, let us see if we can trace the principle of harmonious +composition, of which these things may be considered as parts. + + [Line in Organic Forms] + +Look at any of the systems of line in the organic structures of nature: +the radiating ribs of the scallop shell, or the spiral of many other +varieties; the set of the feathers upon the expanded wing of a bird; the +radiation of the sun's rays; the flowing line of the wave movement; the +lines of structure in flowers and leaves; the scales of a fish; the +scales of a pine-cone or an artichoke. We feel that any of these +combinations of lines are harmonious and beautiful, and we know that +they are essential to the character and structure. They are organic +lines, in short. They mean life and growth. In principle they are +radiating and recurring lines; in each form they repeat each other in +varying degrees of direction and declension of curve. No two lines are +alike, yet there is no contradiction and no unnecessary line, and +variety is combined with unity. Each affords a perfect instance of +harmonious composition of line, and gives us definite principles upon +which to work (see illustration, p. 140[f080]). + +[Illustration (f080): Principles of Structural and Ornamental Line in +Natural Forms.] + +These systems of line in organic nature have been adopted and adapted by +art, and are found throughout the historical forms of ornament which, as +we have good reason to believe, were often derived from mechanical +structures, illustrating the same principles; which, again, the logic of +geometry enforces in drawing on plane surfaces. + +All organic structures teach us the same lesson of relation and +recurrence of line. The bones of all vertebrate animals, from _fish_ to +_man_, illustrate the constant repetition in different degrees of the +same character and direction of line. The vertebral column itself is an +instance, and the recurring spring of the ribs from it, like the +branches from the stem of a tree, further expressed in the ramification +of the jointed bones of the limbs and extremities. The principle may be +followed out in the structure of the muscles in their radiating fibres, +which the delicate contours and flowing lines of the surface of the +body only combine in a greater degree of subtlety (see illustration, p. +142[f081a]). + +[Illustration (f081a): Radiating, Recurring and Counterbalancing Lines +in the Structure of the Skeleton and the Muscles.] + +Look at the anatomy of any tree, as it is disclosed to us in its wintry +leaflessness, a beautiful composition of line rather than of form (see +illustration, p. 143[f081b]). + +[Illustration (f081b): General Principles of Line and Form in the +Branching and Foliage Masses of Trees.] + +Here we see organic life and structure expressed in the vigorous spring +of inter-dependent and corresponding curves, from the rigid sinuous +column of the main stem springing from the ground, presently divided +into the main forks of the branches, which again subdivide and subdivide +into smaller forks, so that the tree may sustain and spread its life in +the air and the sun, both supporting and continuing its existence by +this wonderful economic system of co-operative, subdivided, and +graduated helpfulness. + +The massive green pavilion of summer, which this delicate vaulting of +branch-work sustains, gives us another, more sumptuous, but perhaps not +a greater beauty in the combination or substitution of form and mass for +line composition. + + [Form and Mass in Foliage] + +We might express, in an abstract way, the principle of the +line-structure of the ramifying tree by super-imposing vertically fork +upon fork in gradually diminishing scale, either curvilinear or +rectangular; and the principle of the mass-structure in the formation of +the foliage might be expressed by a series of overlapping curves, +suggestive of scales or cloud masses: to both of which indeed they +correspond in principle, illustrating the scale principle in detail and +the cloud principle in the mass; thus repeating the same general law of +natural roofing, or covering, in different materials (see +illustration, p. 145[f082]). + +[Illustration (f082): Principles of Structure in Foliage Masses.] + +In a mass of foliage each leaf falls partly over the one below it, as by +the system of their growth and suspension upon the stem they are of +course bound to do, whether symmetric or alternate in their arrangement, +the gaps caused by decay or accident being generally filled by new +shoots. Each shoot, eager to expand its leaves in the light, ever +spreading, forms mass after mass of the beautiful green panoply--the +coat armour of the forest, arboreal man's first form of domestic +architecture. + +[Illustration (f083): Albert Durer: Detail from 'The Prodigal Son.'] + +The principle of structure here is just the same as the overlapping +principle of the tiles and slates upon our ordinary house-roofs; but +each leafy tile is different, being alive, and in the mass infinitely +varied and beautiful in form and colour, instead of being mechanical and +uniform, as we try to make our artificial roofs. + + [German Roofs] + +Very pretty and varied effects are produced in the old roofs of +southern Germany by the use of different coloured glazed tiles--red, +green, and yellow--arranged in simple patterns. One of the old towers at +Lindau has such a roof, and the colour effect is very rich and striking. + +But I must not be led into a disquisition upon roofs further than in so +far as they illustrate the subject of composition of line and form, and +from the painter's point of view they frequently do in a very +delightful and instructive way. + +[Illustration (f084): Albert Durer: St. Anthony.] + +What, for instance, can be more varied and charming than the +compositions we constantly meet with in the rich backgrounds of Albert +Durer? Those steep barn roofs, and those quaint German towns inclosed in +walls with protecting towers--nests of steep tiled gables of every +imaginable degree--which give so much character and interest to his +designs, as in the background of his copper-plates "The Prodigal Son" +and "St. Anthony" here given. Their prototypes still exist here and +there in Germany, in such towns as Rothenburg, practically unchanged +since the sixteenth century, and give one an excellent idea of what such +houses were like. A visit there is like a leap back into the Middle +Ages. Every street is a varied and interesting composition. No two +houses are alike. They were built by the citizens to really pass their +lives in. The town is strongly placed upon the crest of a hill, with a +river at its foot, and well fortified and protected by massive +encircling walls and towers and deep gates, which give it so strong and +picturesque a character, while the timber and tile-roofed gallery for +the warders still exists along the inside of the walls. Such cities +arose by the strength of the social bond among men--the necessity for +mutual help in the maintenance of a higher standard of life, and mutual +protection against the ravages of sinister powers. + + [The Mediaeval City] + +Strong externally, internally they were made as home-like and full of +the varied delight of the eyes, as if the people had reasoned, "Since we +must live close together in a small place, let us make it as delightful +and romantic as we can." We know that the idea of Paradise and the New +Jerusalem to the imagination of the Middle Ages was always the fair +walled garden and the fenced city. The painters embodied the idea of +security and protection from the savage and destructive forces of nature +and man--a sanctuary of peace, a garden of delight. + +[Illustration (f085): Roof-lines: Rothenburg.] + +We have in modern times turned rather from the city as a complete and +beautiful thing, to the individual home, and to the interior of that, +and, in the modern competitive search for the necessary straws and +sticks to make our individualist-domestic composition of comfort and +artistic completeness, bowers are too often built upon the ruins of +others, or are fair by reason of surrounding degradation. The common +collective comfort and delight of the eyes is too often ignored, so that +it comes about that, if our modern cities possess any elements of beauty +or picturesqueness, it is rather owing to accidents and to the +transfiguring effects of atmosphere than to the beauty or variety of +architectural form and colour. We have to seek inspiration among the +fragments of the dead past in monuments and art schools. + + [Organic and Accidental Beauty] + +The modern development of the municipality and extension of its +functions may, indeed, do something, as it has done, and is doing, +something to protect public health and further public education; but we +have yet to wait for the full results, and everything must finally +depend upon the public spirit and disinterestedness of the citizens, and +in matters of art upon a very decided but somewhat rare and peculiar +sympathy and taste, as well as enthusiasm. + +The absence of beauty of line, form, and proportion from the external +aspects of daily life in towns has probably a greater effect than we are +apt to realize in deadening the imagination, and it certainly seems to +produce a certain insensibility to beauty of line and composition, since +the perception must necessarily be blunted by being inured to the +commonplace and sordid. The instinct for harmony of line and form +becomes weakened, and can only be slowly revived by long and careful +study in art, instead of finding its constant and most vital stimulus in +every street. + +For all that, however, an eye trained to observe and select may, even in +the dullest and dingiest street, find artistic suggestions, if not in +the buildings, then in the life. And where there is life, movement, +humanity, there is sure to be character and interest. Groups of children +playing will give us plenty of suggestions for figure composition. +Workpeople going to and from their work, the common works going on in +the street, the waggons and horses, the shoal of faces, the ceaseless +stream of life--all these things, whether we are able to reproduce them +as direct illustrations of the life of our time, or are moved only to +select from them vivid suggestions to give force to ideal conceptions, +should all be noted--photographed, as it were, instantaneously upon the +sensitive plate of the mind's vision. We can only learn the laws of +movement by observing movement--the swing and poise of the figure, the +relation of the lines of limbs and drapery to the direction of force and +centre of gravity, so important in composition. We must constantly +supplement our school and studio work by these direct impressions of +vivid life and movement, and neglect no opportunity or despise no source +or suggestion. + +There are still in England to be found such old-world corners as the +quaint street of Canterbury (p. 153[f086]), which forms an excellent +study in the composition of angular and vertical lines. + +[Illustration (f086): St. Margaret St Canterbury Aug: 27 1894] + + [Formal Composition] + +We may perceive that there are at least two kinds of composition, which +may be distinguished as: + + I. Formal. + II. Informal. + +I. Under the head of Formal may be classed all those systems of +structural line with which I started, and which are found either as +leading motives or fundamental plans and bases throughout ornamental +design. Yet even these may be used in composition of figures and other +forms where the object is more or less formal and decorative, as +governing plans or controlling lines. + +The radiating ribs of a fan, for instance, might be utilized as the +natural boundaries and inclosing lines of a series of vertical figures +following the radiating lines. A strictly logical design of the kind +would be a series of figures with uplifted arms, forming radiating lines +from the shoulders, somewhat in the position of Blake's well-known and +beautiful composition of the Morning Stars in the Book of Job, already +illustrated. + +Using the overlapping vertical scale plan we should get relative +positions for a formal composition of three figures, although they need +not necessarily be formal in detail. A typical design of three +associated ideas treated emblematically would be the most natural use of +such an arrangement--as Faith, Hope, and Charity; Liberty, Equality, +Fraternity; Science, Art, and Industry; or the three goddesses Here, +Pallas, and Aphrodite, as choice and purpose might decide. A +semicircular scale plan would not only repeat in a safe and sound +manner, but would afford suggestive shapes in which to throw designs of +figures, and could be effectively utilized either for a wall or ceiling +repeat. + +The inclosure formed by two spiral lines gives a graceful ornamental +shape for a half-reclining figure; while a series of floating or flying +figures linking their hands would be appropriately governed by similar +spiral lines, uniting them with the meandering wave line (see +illustration, p. 155[f087]). + +[Illustration (f087): Formal Composition: Figure Designs Controlled by +Geometric Boundaries.] + +Upon a series of semicircles or ellipses, alternating horizontally, +might be arranged a little frieze of children with skipping ropes, or +Amorini with pendent garlands; the up-and-down movement in the former +case being conveyed by a variation, each alternate semicircle being +struck upwards. This would restore the emphatic wave or spiral line, +which always conveys the sense of rhythmic movement in a design. + +Such a line, vertically employed, will give again a good plan for a +series of seated figures, say emblematic of the Hours, where similarity +of attitude and type would be appropriate, while the emblems and +accessories might be varied. A severer treatment would be suggested by +making the controlling line angular (see illustration, p. 156[f088]). + +[Illustration (f088): Formal Composition: Figure Designs Controlled by +Geometric Boundaries.] + +Such are a few illustrations of what I have termed formal composition, +in which the geometric and structural plans of pure ornament or +ornamental line maybe utilized to combine, control, or even suggest +figure designs. + + [Informal Composition] + +II. While formal compositions, though naturally falling into classes and +types, may be varied to a very great extent, when we come to informal +compositions the variations are unlimited, and a vista of extraordinary +and apparently endless choice, invention, and selection opens out before +the designer, co-extensive with the variety of nature herself. + +In seeking harmonious and expressive composition in the pictorial +direction the guides are much less definite and secure. Individual +feeling and instinct, which must have an important influence in all +kinds of designing, are in this direction paramount. Yet even here, if +we look beneath the apparent freedom and informality, we find certain +laws at work which seem to differ only in degree from the more definite +and constructive control of line which we have been considering. In the +first place, there are our direct impressions from nature; and, +secondly, our conscious aims and efforts to express an idea in our +minds. We have the same restricted and definite forms of language and +materials in each case--line, form, space, brushes, pencil, colour, +paper, canvas, or clay. We are taken by some particular scene: the +composition of line and form at a particular spot attracts us more than +another. We do not stop as a rule to ask why, since it usually takes all +our time and our best skill to get into shape what we are seeking--and +carry away with us an artistic record of the place. We have seen that in +the case of certain natural structures, shells, leaves, flowers, the +fundamental structural lines are so beautiful that they not only form +ornament in themselves, but furnish the basis for whole types and +families of ornament. When we look at a landscape, putting aside for the +moment all the surface charms of colour and effect, and concentrating +our attention upon its lines of structures, we shall find that it owes a +great part of its beauty to the harmonious relation of its leading +lines, or to certain pleasant contrasts, or a certain impressiveness of +form and mass, and at the same time we shall perceive that this linear +expression is inseparable from the sentiment or emotion suggested by +that particular scene. + +A gentle southern landscape--undulating downs, and wandering +sheep-walks; the soft rounded masses of the sheep upon smooth cropped +turf--all these are so many notes or words in the language of line and +form which go to express the idea of pastoral life. They are +inextricably bound up with inseparable associations conveyed by such +lines and forms. The undulating lines of resting or dancing figures +would only give point, true emphasis, and variety, and a note of +contrast in the forms would serve to bring out the general sentiment +more strongly. + +Substitute rugged rocks, swollen torrents, wind-tossed trees and stormy +skies, and all is changed. Such things cannot be expressed without much +more emphatic lines and masses, and the use of opposing angles and +energetic curves of movement which would be destructive of the sentiment +of peace, in other cases. Yet even then to convey the expression of +energy and rapid movement, concerted groups of lines are none the less +necessary (see illustration, p. 159[f089]). + +[Illustration (f089): Informal Composition: Expression of (1) Storm and +(2) Calm In Landscape.] + +Such comparisons indicate not only that there is a necessary +association of ideas with certain lines and forms, but also that certain +relations and associations of line of a similar character are necessary +to produce a harmonious composition, and one which conveys a definite +and pervading sentiment or emotion, just as we saw that the controlling +lines of structural curves, spirals, and angles require to be in +relation, and to be re-echoed by the character of the design they +inclose or which is built upon them. + +The same law holds true in figure composition. The sense of repose and +restfulness necessary to sitting or reclining groups depends upon the +gentle declivities of the curves and their gradual descent to the +horizontal. + +[Illustration (f090): Informal Composition: Expression of Repose and +Action.] + +Draw a figure sitting rigid, tense, and alert, and you destroy the sense +of repose at once, and you are obliged also to resort to angles, still +more emphatic where strong action is to be expressed; while to express +continual or progressive movement, a choice of associated lines of +action in different stages of progress leading up to the crescendo of +the final one (as in a group of mowers) would be necessary (see +illustrations, p. 161[f090]). We cannot, then, in any composition have +too definite a conception. We must, at any sacrifice of detail, bring +out the main expression and meaning. Every group of figures must be in +the strictest relation to each other and to the central interest or +expression of the design. You cannot, for instance, in a procession of +figures, make your faces turn all sorts of ways without stopping the +onward movement which is essential to the idea of a procession. This +would not preclude variety, but the general tendency must be in one +direction. Every line in a composition must lead up to the central idea, +and be subordinated or contributory to it (see illustration, Nos. 1 and +2, p. 163[f091a]). + +[Illustration (f091a): (1) and (2) Movement in a Procession] + +The same with masses: you cannot put a number of forms together without +some sort of relation, either of general character and contour or some +uniting line. We may learn this principle from nature also. Look at a +heap of broken stones and debris, which in detail may contain all sorts +of varieties of form, as we find them tumbled down a steep place, as the +rocky bed of a mountain stream, a heap of boulders upon a hillside, or +the debris from a quarry or mine; in each case the law of gravity and +the persistence of force working together arrange the diverse forms in +masses controlled by the lines, which express the direction and degree +of descent, and the pressure of force. The same thing may be seen on any +hilly ground after heavy rain; the scattered pebbles are arranged in +related groups, combined and composed by the flow of miniature streams, +which channel the face of the ground and form hollows for their +reception (see Nos. 3 and 4, p. 163[f091b]). The force of the tides and +currents upon the sea-shore illustrates the same principle and affords +us magnificent lessons in composition, not only in the delicate lines +taken by the sculptured sand, but in the harmonious grouping of masses +of shingle and shells, weeds and drift, arranged by the movement of the +waves. + +[Illustration (f091b): (3) Lines Left by a Watercourse, (4) Lines +Governing Fallen Debris from a Quarry.] + + [Principles of Harmonious Composition] + +So that we may see that the principles of harmonious composition are not +the outcome of merely capricious fancy or pedantic rule, but are +illustrated throughout the visible world by the laws and forces of the +material universe. It is for the artist to observe and apply them in his +own work of re-creation. + + + + + CHAPTER VII + + Of the Relief of Form--Three Methods--Contrast--Light and Shade, + and Modelling--The Use of Contrast and Planes in Pattern + Designing--Decorative Relief--Simple Linear Contrast--Relief by + Linear Shading--Different Emphasis in relieving Form by Shading + Lines--Relief by means of Light and Shade alone without + Outline--Photographic Projection--Relief by different Planes and + Contrasts of Concave and Convex Surfaces in Architectural + Mouldings--Modelled Relief--Decorative Use of Light and Shade, + and different Planes in Modelling and Carving--Egyptian System of + Relief Sculpture--Greek and Gothic Architectural Sculpture, + influenced by Structural and Ornamental Feeling--Sculptural + Tombs, Medals, Coins, Gems--Florentine Fifteenth-century + Reliefs--Desideriodi Settignano. + + +We come now to the consideration of the various means and methods of +expressing relief in line and form. + +We may define a form in outline and give it different qualities of +expression by altering the quality and consistency of our outline, and +we may obtain very different kinds of decorative effect by the use of +lines of various degrees of thickness or thinness; but if we want to +give it force and colour, and to distinguish it from its background more +emphatically, we must add to our outline. + + [Three Methods of Expressing Relief] + +There are three principal methods or systems of giving relief by adding +to our outline. + +One is the method of giving relief to form by contrasts of tone, colour, +or tint. + +Another by means of the expression of light and shade: and the third by +means of modelling in relief. + +Now, still keeping to expression by means of line, the three arms I have +sketched (p. 167[f092]) illustrate: (1) the form in outline alone; (2) +the contrast method; and (3) the light and shade method. The three pots +underneath illustrate the same three stages in a simpler manner. + +In number one we see the outline defining the form pure and simple: in +number two the form is relieved by a half-tone formed of diagonal lines, +forming a plane or background behind it. The arm is still further +relieved by the dark drapery. Number three shows the relief carried +further by lines expressive of the modelling of the arm and the rounding +of the pot, and also by cast shadows from the forms. + +[Illustration (f092): The Relief of Form: (1) By Outline, (2) By +Contrast, (3) By Light and Shade.] + +The system of expressing relief I have termed relief by contrast +includes two kinds of contrast: there are the contrasts of line and +form, and there are the contrasts of planes of tone or tint and local +colour. We may consider that the contrast method covers generally all +forms of pattern and certain kinds of pictorial design. The method of +expressing relief by means of line covers generally all forms of design +in black and white, graphic sketching, pen-drawing, and work with the +point of all kinds. + + [Of the Use of Contrast and Planes] + +Taking the principle of contrast as applied to pattern design, we can, +even within the limited range of black and white and half-tint (as +expressed by lines), get a considerable amount of decorative effect. In +the first place by bringing out our pattern, previously outlined, upon +a black ground (as in Nos. 1 and 2, p. 169[f093]), increasing the +richness of effect, and getting a second plane by treating the lower +part in an open tint of line. + +Simple contrasts of dark upon light or light upon dark are effective, +and sufficient for many purposes, such as borders (as in Nos. 2 and 3, +p. 169[f093]). + +When a lighter kind of relief and effect is required, the recurring +forms in a border are often sufficiently emphasized by a tint of open +lines: movement and variety being given by making them follow the minor +curves of the successive forms, as in this instance (No 4, p. 169[f093]) +the movement of the water is suggested behind the fish. + +The relation of the plain ground-work to the figure of the pattern is +also an important point; indeed the plain parts of the pattern, or the +interstices and intervals of the pattern, are as essential to the +pattern as the figured parts. + +In designs intended for various processes of manufacture, such as +printed or woven textiles, wall-papers, etc., where blocks or rollers +are used to repeat the pattern, the extent of plain in proportion to +figured parts must be governed in some measure by the practicable size +of the repeat: but within certain limits great variety of proportion is +possible. + +A simple but essentially decorative principle is to preserve a certain +equality between the figured masses and the ground masses. The leaf +patterns (Nos. 6 and 7, p. 169[f093]) consist simply of the repetition +and reversal of a single element. An emphatic effect is obtained by +bringing the leaves out black upon a white ground (as in No. 6), while a +flatter and softer effect is the result of throwing them upon a plane +of half-tint expressed by horizontal lines, with a similar effect of +relief to that which would be given by the warp, if the pattern were +woven. + +For larger surfaces, greater repose and dignity in pattern may be +obtained by a greater proportion of the repeat being occupied by the +ground (as in No. 5, p. 169[f093]). + +[Illustration (f093): Relief of Form and Line in Pattern Design by Means +of Contrast and the Use of Planes.] + +Indeed we may consider as a general principle that the larger the +interspaces of the ground, plane, or field of the pattern, the lighter +in tint they should be, or the necessary flatness is apt to be lost. +Relief in pattern design may be said to be adding interest and richness +without losing the flatness and repose of the design as a whole. When +pattern and ground are fairly equally balanced in quantity the ground +may be rich and dark, and darkest as the interstices, where the ground +is shown, become less. The figure of a pattern relieved as light upon a +dark plane, as a rule, requires to be fuller in form than dark-figuring +upon a light ground. + + [Decorative Relief] + +In decorative work the use of contrast in the relief of parts of a +design is often useful and effective, as, for instance, the dark shading +or treatment in black or flat tone of the alternating under side of a +turn-over leaf border. + +The decorative value of this principle is recognized by heraldic +designers in the treatment of the mantling of the helmet, which in +earlier times is treated simply as a hanging or flying strip of drapery +with a lining of a different colour, by which it is relieved as it hangs +in simple spiral folds. This ornamental element became developed by the +designers of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries into elaborate +scroll designs springing from the circlet of the helmet and surrounding +the shield: but the principle of the turned-up lining remained, often +variegated and enriched with heraldic patterns (see illustrations, pp. +172[f094a], 173[f094b]).* + + [*] The increased importance given to the mantling in later times + may have been due to the disappearance of the housings of the + knight's horse and his surcoat, which originally displayed his + arms and colours. The mantling of later times displayed the + heraldic colours of the knight, when, being clad in plate armour, + there was no other means of displaying them except on the shield. + Decoratively, of course, the mantling is of great value to the + heraldic designer, enabling him to form much more graceful + compositions, to combine diverse and rigid elements with free and + flowing lines and masses, and to fill panels with greater + richness and effect, whether carved or painted, or both. + +[Illustration (f094a): Decorative Relief: Counterchange, Treatment of +Mantling, Fourteenth and Sixteenth Centuries.] + +[Illustration (f094b): Decorative Relief: Treatment of Mantling.] + + [Use of Diapered Backgrounds] + +The principle, too, of counterchange in heraldry answers to our +principle of relief by contrast, and though its chief charm lies in its +ornamental range of form and colour combinations, it can be expressed in +black and white, and it remains a universal principle throughout +decorative art. The decorative effect and charm of the relief of large +and bold forms upon rich and delicate diapers is also an important +resource of the designer. The monumental art of the Middle Ages affords +multitudes of examples of this principle in ornamental treatment. The +miniaturist of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries constantly relieved +his groups of figures upon a diapered ground. The architectural sculptor +relieved the broad masses of flowing drapery and the bold projection of +his effigies and recumbent figures by delicately chiselled diapers upon +the surface of the wall behind them. This treatment may frequently be +seen in the recessed tombs of the fourteenth century. + +The incisor of memorial brasses, again, more especially in continental +examples, shows a fondness for the same principle. The long vertical +lines of drapery of ladies and ecclesiastics, the broad masses of the +heraldic surcoat, or armour of the knights, the rich and heavy furred +gowns of the burghers, are often relieved upon beautiful diapered or +arabesque grounds, generally embodying some heraldic device, motto, or +emblem of the person or family whose tomb it ornaments. Such decoration +is strictly linear, yet within its own limits, and perhaps because of +them, we find in this province of design extremely admirable work, no +less for delineation of character and decorative treatment than for +ornamental invention controlled by strict economy of line. + +[Illustration (f095): Relief Upon a Diapered Ground: Brass of Martin De +Visch, Bruges, 1452.] + + [Relief of Form by Linear Shading] + +This brings us to the consideration of our second method of relief by +means of line. + +Take any simple allied elements to form a repeating pattern, say spiral +shells, place them at certain rhythmic intervals, and we can unite and +at the same time give them relief by filling in the ground by a series +of waved lines to suggest the ribbed sand. Add a few dots to soften and +vary the effect, and we get a pattern of a certain balance and +consistency (No. 1, p. 177[f096a]). + +[Illustration (f096a): Relief in Pattern Design by Means of Simple +Linear Contrasts (1)] + +With the more varied and complex floral form, but treated in a very +abstract way, placing the daisies in a line, horizontally, and reversing +the sprig for the alternate row, we have another motive, which is +connected and steadied as well as relieved by the suggestion of grass +blades in groups of three slightly radiated vertical strokes (No. 2, +p. 177[f096b]). A pattern of two elements, again, may be formed in a +still more simple way by linear contrast, as in No. 3, where the +pyramidal trees are formed by a continuous serpentine stroke of the pen +terminating in a spiral stem. The diagonal arrangement of the trees +produces a chequer, the intervals of which can be varied by the +contrasting black masses of the birds. + +[Illustration (f096b): Relief in Pattern Design by Means of Simple +Linear Contrasts (2), (3)] + +In graphic drawing, lines to express forms in the relief of light and +shade are often needed to give additional force even where no great +degree of realism is desired. A tint formed by horizontal lines is +sufficient to relieve a face from the background and give it solidity, +while local colour may be given to the hair, and at the same time serve +to relieve the leaves of a wreath encircling the head (see illustration, +p. 178[f097a]). + +[Illustration (f097a): Relief by Adding Shading Lines to Outline.] + +The rich effect of clustered apples growing among their leaves could +hardly be suggested without the use of lines expressive of light and +shade, the interstices of the deepest shade running into solid black (p. +178[f097a]). In adding lines in this kind of way to give relief or extra +richness or force, the draughtsman is really designing a system of lines +upon his outline basis, which may have quite as decorative a quality as +the outline itself. At the same time nothing is more characteristic of +the artist than the way in which such lines are used, and of course the +choice of direction and arrangement of such lines will make all the +difference in the effect of the drawing. + + [Diagonal Shading] + +Where the object is to express the figure in broad masses of light and +shade, the use of a series of diagonal lines is an effective, and +probably the most ready and rapid, method when working with the pen (see +p. 179[f097b]). This system of expressing the broad surfaces of shade +was much used by the Italian masters of the Renaissance in their rapid +pen sketches and studies of figures, and a certain breadth and style is +given to their drawings owing in part to the simplicity of this linear +treatment. + +[Illustration (f097b): Relief of Form by Diagonal Shading.] + + [Emphasis] + +No doubt the simpler the system of line adopted in giving relief to +figures the better, if the particular expression aimed at is +accomplished, and, as a general rule, we should endeavour to get the +necessary force and depth without the use of cross-line, or many +different directions of line in shading a figure: but, given any power +of draughtsmanship, the individuality of the artist is bound to come in, +and it is not likely, nor is it to be desired, that any two artists in +line should give exactly the same account of natural fact, or reproduce +the images in their minds in the same forms, any more than we should +expect two writers to express their ideas in the same terms. + +The kind and degree of emphasis upon different parts, the selection of +moment or fact, would all naturally make considerable differences in the +treatment. The three sketches of the skirt dancer are given as instances +of the different effects and expression to be obtained in rendering the +same subject (p. 181[f098]). + +[Illustration (f098): Different Method and Different Emphasis in +Relieving Form by Shading Lines.[A, B, C]] + +In A the broad relief of the white dress against the tones of the floor +and background, and the darker note of the hair, are the facts chiefly +dwelt upon. In B the form of the figure is brought out in broad light +and shade and cast shadow, and the dress relieved by radiating folds. In +C quicker movement is given, the lines of the successive wave-shaped +folds radiating spirally from the shoulders being the chief means of +conveying this, while the head and arms are thrown into strong relief +against a dark background, the cast shadow being of a lighter tone. + +The direction of line used in relieving forms, and expressing modelling +and details, must depend much upon individual taste and feeling as well +as knowledge of form. The element of beauty of design also comes in, and +the question between this and force or literalness--the difference +between a study or direct transcript from nature, and a design with a +purely ornamental aim, or a composition directed mainly to the +expression of a particular idea or emotion. + +Such considerations will ultimately determine the choice and use of +line, the degree of relief and emphasis, for these and the direction of +the line itself are the syllables and the words which will convey the +purport of the work to the mind of the beholder. + +Study of the masters of line--Durer, Titian, Mantegna, Holbein--will +inform us as to its capacities and limitations. The limitations, too, of +method and material will be a powerful factor in the determination of +style in the use of line and in the economy of its use. + +The bold firm line suitable to the facsimile woodcut, the broad and +simple treatment of line with solid black useful in the plank-cut line +block to be used with colour blocks, the comparatively free and +unconditioned pen-drawing for the surface-printed process block--all +these will finally give a certain character to our work beyond our own +idiosyncrasies in the use of the pen or the brush. + +[Illustration (f099): Albert Durer's Principle in the Treatment of +Drapery: From the Woodcut in the "Life of the Virgin" Series.] + +Useful things may be learned by the way, such as Albert Durer's +principle of giving substance to his figures and details, more +especially seen in his treatment of drapery, when the lines run into +solid black and express the deeper folds and give emphasis and solidity +to the figure (p. 183[f099]). The reproductions here given of sketches +of drapery by Filippino Lippi and Raphael also show the same principle. + +[Illustration (f100): Albert Durer: Pen-Drawing.] + +A figure or object of any kind, seen in full light and shade, is +relieved at any of its edges either as dark against light, or as light +against dark, and we recognize it as a solid form in this way; the +boundaries of natural light and shade defining it, and projecting it +from the background upon the vision. There may be infinite modulations, +of course, between the light part, the half-tones, and the darkest +parts; but this broad principle governs all work representing light and +shade. + +[Illustration (f101): Filippino Lippi: Study of Drapery.] + +It is, in fact, _the principle of the relief of form_ represented upon a +plane surface. + +[Illustration (f102): Raphael: Studies of Drapery.] + + [Relief by Light and Shade Alone] + +If the draughtsman's object be to represent the _appearance_ of a figure +or any object in full natural light and shade with the pen or other +point, he could do so without using outline at all, but by simply +observing this principle and defining the boundaries of light on dark or +half-tone in their proper masses and relations. The pen sketch of the +man with the hoe (p. 188[f103a]) is intended to illustrate this method. + +[Illustration (f103a): Relief by Means of Light and Shade Alone, in +Pen-drawing Without Outline.] + +There is also the method of representing form in relief by means of +working with white line only upon a dark ground, the modelling and +planes of surface being entirely expressed in this way (as in A, p. +189[f103b]). This may be termed drawing by means of _light_, and may be +contrasted with the opposite method of working by means of black line +only on a light ground, or drawing by means of _shade_ (as in B, p. +189[f103b]). + +[Illustration (f103b): Relief of Form: (A) By White Line Only on Dark +Ground, and (B) By Black Line Only on Light Ground.] + +Yet another method, and one in which the effect of relief can be +obtained more readily and rapidly, perhaps, is by working on a +half-toned paper, drawing in the form with pencil, chalk, or brush, +blocking in the darker shadows and heightening the highest lights with +touches of white. These white touches, however, should be strictly +limited to the highest lights. This method is represented by the +half-tone blocks used in this book, those which were taken from drawings +made on brown paper and touched with white. + + [The Principle of the Photograph] + +The definition of form by means of light is strictly the principle of +the photograph, which comprehends and illustrates its complementary of +relief by means of shade, and I think it is due to the influence of the +photograph that modern black-and-white artists have so often worked +on these principles. The drawings of Frederick Walker and Charles Keene +may be referred to as examples. I shall, however, hope to return to this +branch of the subject later. + + [Relief in Architectural Mouldings] + +So far we have been considering the relief of form by means of line. We +now come to what may be termed the relief of form by actual form and +plane, or modelling in actual light and shade, as in architecture and +sculptors' and carvers' work. Then relief is gained by the contrast of +actually different planes, forms, surfaces, and textures. The simplest +illustrations of the principles of modelled relief are to be found in +architectural mouldings, by means of which buildings are relieved and +enriched, and important structural or functional parts are emphasized, +as in cornices and ribs of vaults, arches, and openings. + +Place a concave moulding side by side with a convex one either +horizontally or vertically, and a certain pleasant effect of contrasting +light and shade is the result, reminding one of the recurring concave +and convex of the rolling waves of the sea (A, p. 191[f104]). + +A series of flat planes of different widths and at different levels also +produces a pleasant kind of relief useful in a picture frame or the jamb +of a door (B). + +All architectural mouldings might be said to be modifications or +combinations of the principles illustrated by these two. + +Very different feeling may be expressed in mouldings, and if we compare +the two types, the classical and the Gothic, the comparatively broad and +simple effect of the former (C, D, E, F, G) contrasts with the +richness and variety and the stronger effect of light and shade, +produced by deep undercutting, in the latter (H, I, J, K). + +[Illustration (f104): Relief in Architectural Mouldings.] + +The Romans, however, produced rich and highly ornate effects in the use +of these types of mouldings, as they reappeared in the Corinthian order, +the ovolo cut into the egg and dart, with the Astralagus beneath, the +Cyma recta above the brackets of the cornice casting a bold shadow, and +both in the cornice and the hollow beneath the dentils enriched with +carving, as seen in the splendid fragment of the Forum of Nerva. + +[Illustration (f105): Roman Treatment of Corinthian Order, Forum of +Nerva, Rome.] + +When we pass to the more complex problems of figure modelling and +sculpture, it is but carrying on and developing the same principle of +the contrast of planes, of the relief of plane upon plane, of forms upon +one plane, to forms upon forms in many planes. From the contrast of bead +and hollow we come to consider the contrast between the rounded limb and +the sinuous folds of drapery; from the rhythm of the acanthus scroll we +turn to the less obvious but none the less existing rhythm of the +sculptural frieze. + +Line, we may say, controls the modeller's and sculptor's composition, +but form and its treatment in light and shade give him his means of +ornament. The delicate contours of faces and limbs contrasted with the +spiral and radiating folds of drapery, or rich clusters of leaves and +fruits, the forms of animals and the wings of birds--these are his +decorative resources. + + [Egyptian Reliefs] + +The early stages of sculpture in relief may be seen in the monumental +work of ancient Egypt. + +Simple incised work appears to have been the first stage, and the +forms afterwards slightly modelled or rounded at the edges into the +hollow of the sunk outline. + +Large figures and tables of hieroglyphic inscription were thus cut upon +vast mural surfaces, and carried across the joints of the masonry, +without disturbing the flatness and repose of the wall surface (p. +195[f106]). The Egyptians, indeed, seem to have treated their walls more +as if they were books for record and statement, symbol and hieroglyphic. + +[Illustration (f106): Egyptian System of Sculptured Relief: Thebes.] + +Messrs. Perrot and Chipiez, in their "History of Ancient Art in Egypt," +speak of three processes in the treatment of Egyptian reliefs (vol. ii., +p. 284): + +1. That followed by the Greeks, in which the figures are left standing +out from a smooth bed, sometimes slightly hollowed near the contours +(see illustration, p. 196[fig106]). + +2. Where the figures are modelled in relief in a sunk hollow, from an +inch to one and a half inch deep. + +3. Where the surface of the figures and the bed or field of relief are +kept on one level (see illustration, p. 196[f107]), the contours +indicated by hollow lines cut into the stone; very little modelling, +little more than silhouette, in which the outline is shown by a hollow +instead of by the stroke of a pencil or brush. + +One would be inclined to reverse the order of these three processes, on +the supposition that No. 3 was the earliest process, and that it arose, +as I have conjectured, from the practice of representing forms by +incised lines only. + +There is certainly a strong family likeness as to method between the +Egyptian reliefs and the Assyrian, the Persian, and the archaic Greek; +and there is a far greater difference in treatment between archaic Greek +relief sculpture and the work of the Phidian period than between the +archaic work of the three races named. + +The strictly mural and decorative conditions which governed ancient +sculpture no doubt gave to Greek sculpture in its perfection a certain +dignity, simplicity, and restraint, and also accounted in a great +measure for that rhythmic control of invisible structural and ornamental +line which asserts itself in such works as the Pan-Athenaic frieze. It +was strictly slab sculpture, and became part of the surface of the wall. + +[Illustration (f107): Greek Relief. Eleusis. Egyptian Relief. Denderah.] + + [Gothic Sculpture] + +The structural and ornamental feeling also asserts itself strongly in +Gothic sculpture, owing to its close association with architecture, as, +when it was not an integral part of the structure, it was always an +essential part of the expression of the building, and it was this which +controlled its treatment decoratively, in its scale and its system and +degree of relief. + +In the porches of the Gallo-Roman churches of France of the twelfth +century, the figures occupying the place of shafts became columnar in +treatment, the sinuous formalized draperies wrapped around the elongated +figures, or falling in vertical folds, as in the figures in the western +door of Chartres Cathedral (p. 199[f108]). The lines of the design of +the sculptured tympanum were strictly related to the space, and the +degree and treatment of the relief clearly felt in regard to the +architectural effect (p. 201[f109]). + +[Illustration (f108): Chartres Cathedral: Carving on the West Front.] + +[Illustration (f109): Chartres Cathedral: Tympanum of the Central Door +of the West Front.] + + [Architectural Influence] + +In the sculptured tombs of the Middle Ages, with their recumbent figures +and heraldic enrichments, again, we see this architectonic sense +influencing the treatment of form and relief, as these monuments were +strictly architectural decorations, often incorporating its forms and +details, and often built into the structure of the church or cathedral +itself, as in the case of the recessed and canopied tombs of the +thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. + +As sculptures became detached from the building and wall, and appeared +in full relief in the round, though still, as it were, carrying a +reminiscence of their origin with them in the shape of the moulded +pedestal, architectural control became less and less felt, statues in +consequence being less and less related to their surroundings. The +individual feeling of the sculptor or the traditions of his school and +training alone influenced his treatment, until we get the incidental and +dramatic or sentimental isolated figure or group of modern days. + + [Medals and Coins] + +It is noteworthy, however, that even in the smaller works of the +modeller, carver, or sculptor of the Middle Ages or the early +Renaissance, a sense of decorative fitness and structural sense is +always present. We see it in the carved ornaments of seats and +furniture, in the design and treatment of coins and seals and gems and +medals. These latter from the time of the ancient Greeks afford +beautiful examples of the decorative treatment of relief in strict +relation to the object and purpose. The skill and taste of the Greeks +seemed to have been largely inherited by the artists of the earlier +Italian Renaissance, such as Pisano, whose famous medal of the Malatesta +of Rimini affords a splendid instance not only of the treatment of the +portrait and subject on the reverse perfectly adapted to its method and +purpose, but also of the artistic use of lettering as a decorative +feature (see p. 203[f110]). + +[Illustration (f110): Medals of the Lords of Mantua, Cesena, and +Ferrara, by Vittore Pisano of Verona (Middle of the Fifteenth Century).] + +The treatment and relief of figures and heads upon the plane surfaces of +metals and coins, the composition controlled by the circular form, have +always been a fine test of both modelling and decorative skill and +taste. Breadth is given by a flatness in the treatment of successive +planes of low relief, which rise to their highest projection from the +ground, in the case of a head in profile, about its centre. The delicate +perception of the relation of the planes of surface is important, as +well as the decorative effect to be obtained by arrangement of the light +and shade masses and the contrast of textures, such as hair and the +folds of drapery, to the smooth contours of faces and figures, and the +rectangular forms of lettering. + +In gems we see the use made of the concave ground, which gives an +effective relief to the figure design in convex upon it. Bolder +projection of prominent parts are here necessary in contrast to the +retiring planes, the work being on so small a scale, and also in view of +its seal-like character; for, of course, it is the method of producing +form by incision, and modelling by cutting and hollowing out, that gives +the peculiar character to gems and seals; and it is in forming human +figures that the building up of the form by a series of ovals, spoken of +in a previous chapter, becomes really of practical value: the method of +hollowing the stone or metal in cutting the gem or making a die and +the character of the tool leading naturally in that direction. + + [Desiderio di Settignano] + +Perhaps the most delicate and beautiful kind of sculptured or modelled +relief is to be found in the work of the Florentine school of the +fifteenth century, more especially that of Donatello and Desiderio di +Settignano, who seem indeed to have caught the feeling and spirit of the +best Greek period, with fresh inspiration and suggestion from nature and +the life around them, as well as an added charm of grace and sweetness. + +It is difficult to imagine that marble carving in low relief can be +carried to greater perfection than it is in the well-known small relief +by Desiderio di Settignano of the "Madonna and Child," now in the +Italian Court of the South Kensington Museum. The delicate yet firmly +chiselled faces and hands, the smooth surfaces of the flesh, and the +folds of drapery, emerging from, or sinking into, the varied planes of +the ground, for refinement of feeling and treatment seem almost akin to +the art of the painter in the tenderness of their expression. + + + + + CHAPTER VIII + + Of the Expression of Relief in Line-drawing--Graphic Aim and + Ornamental Aim--Superficial Appearance and Constructive + Reality--Accidents and Essentials--Representation and Suggestion + of Natural Form in Design--The Outward Vision and the Inner + Vision. + + +I have already said that when we add lines or tints of shadow, local +colour or surface, to an outline drawing, we are seeking to express form +in a more complete way than can be done in outline alone. These added +lines or tints give what we call relief. That is their purpose and +function, whether by that added relief we wish to produce an ornamental +effect or simply to approach nearer to the full relief of nature, for of +course the degrees of relief are many. + + [Relief in Line-Drawing] + +What may be called the natural principle of relief--that system of light +and shade by which a figure or any solid object is perceived as such by +the eye--consists in each part of the form being thrown into more or +less contrast by appearing as dark on light upon its background, more +especially at its edges. A figure wholly dark, say in black drapery, +appearing against a light ground, might be supposed to be flat if no +cast shadow was seen; the same with the reverse--a light figure upon a +dark ground--except that in this latter case, unless the light was very +level and flat, a certain concentration of light upon the highest parts, +or indicating a modulation of shadow in interstices, might betray its +solidity (see p. 206[f111a]). + +[Illustration (f111a): The Two Principles of Contrast in Black and +White.] + +But if we place a figure so that the light falls from one side, we +perceive that it at once stands out in bold relief in broad planes of +light and shade, further emphasized by cast shadows (p. 207[f111b]). + +[Illustration (f111b): Treatment of the Same Figure in Light and Shade.] + +It would be possible to represent or to express a figure or object so +lighted by means of laying in the modulations and planes of shadow only, +or by means of adding the light only on a toned ground. In sketching in +black and white, it is a good plan to accustom oneself to complete as +one goes along, as far as may be, putting in outline and shadow +together; but this needs a power of direct drawing and a correctness of +eye only to be gained by continual practice. A slight preliminary basis +of light lines to indicate the position and proportions, and yet not +strong enough to need rubbing out, is also a good method for those who +do not feel certain enough for the absolutely direct method of drawing. + +[Illustration (f112): Expression of Form by Light and Shade: (1) Light +and Shade Without Outline; (2) Light and Shade Enforced by Outline.] + +Now in drawing, as I think I have pointed out before, no less than in +all art, there are two main governing principles of working which may be +distinguished. + + I. The graphic aim. + II. The ornamental or decorative aim. + + [The Graphic Aim] + +The graphic aim--the endeavour to represent a form exactly as it +appears--a power always valuable to acquire whatever may be our ultimate +purpose, leaves the draughtsman great freedom in the choice and use +of line, or other means of obtaining relief, local tint, and tone. + +In line-work the broad relief of the flat tones of shadow may be +expressed in lines approaching the straight, diagonally sloping from +right to left, or from left to right, as seems most natural to the +action of the hand. + +The quality of our lines will depend upon the quality we are seeking to +express. We shall be led to vary them in seeking to express other +characteristics, such as textures and surfaces. + +In drawing fur or feathers, for instance, we should naturally vary the +quality and direction of line, using broken lines and dots for the +former, and flowing smooth fine lines for the latter, while extra force +and relief would be gained by throwing them up upon solid black grounds. +Solid black, also, to represent local colour, or material such as +velvet, is often valuable as a contrast in black and white line-drawing, +giving a richness of effect not to be obtained in any other way (see No. +2, p. 213[f114]). Its value was appreciated by the early German and +Italian book-illustrators, and in our own time has been used almost to +excess by some of our younger designers, who have been largely +influenced by Hokusai and other Japanese artists, who are always skilful +in the use of solid blacks. + +[Illustration (f113): Linear Expression of Features, Feathers and Fur: +Notes from Nature.] + +In line-drawing a very useful principle to observe, to give solidity to +figures and objects, is to let one's lines--say of drapery or +shadow--run into solid blacks in the deepest interstices of the forms, +as when folds of drapery are wrapped about a figure, or in the deeper +folds themselves (No. 1, p. 213[f114]). + +[Illustration (f114): Sketches to Illustrate (1) The Graphic and (2) The +Decorative Treatment of Draped Figures.] + + [The Ornamental Aim] + +I have spoken of the graphic and the ornamental aims as distinct, and so +they may for practical purposes be regarded; although in some cases it +is possible to combine a considerable amount of graphic force with +decorative effect, and even in purely graphic art there should always be +the controlling influence of the sense of composition which must be felt +throughout all forms of art. + +For the simplest ornamental function, however, very little graphic +drawing is needed, over and above the very essential power of definition +by pure outline, and feeling for silhouette; but a sense for the relief +of masses upon a ground or field, and of the proportions and relations +of lines and masses or distribution of quantities, is essential. Now an +ornamental effect may be produced by the simple repetition of some form +defined in outline arranged so as to fall into a rhythmic series of +lines. + +A series of birds upon a plan of this kind, for instance, would form a +frieze on simple bordering in abstract line alone, and might be quite +sufficient for some purposes. The same thing would be capable of more +elaborate treatment and different effect by relieving the birds upon a +darker ground, by defining the details of their forms more, or by +alternating them in black or white, or by adopting the simple principle +of counterchange (see p. 215[f115]). + +[Illustration (f115): Decorative Treatment of Birds.] + +Flowers or figures would be capable of the same simple and abstract +treatment; and almost any form in nature, reduced to its simplest +elements of recurring line and mass, and rhythmically disposed, would +give us distinct decorative motives. + + [The Ornamental Aim] + +It is quite open to the designer to select his lines and forms straight +from nature, and, bearing in mind the necessity for selection of the +best ornamental elements, for a certain simplification, and the +rhythmical treatment before mentioned, it is good to do so, as the work +is more likely to have a certain freshness than if some of the +well-known historic forms of ornament are used again. We may, however, +learn much from the ornamental use of these forms, and use similar forms +as the boundaries of the shape of our pattern units and masses. + +It is good practice to take a typical shape such as the Persian +radiating flower or pine-apple, and use it as the plan for quite a +different structure in detail, taking some familiar English flower as +our motive. The same with the Indian and Persian palmette type. It is +also desirable, as before pointed out, to draw sprays within formal +boundaries for ornamental use. By such methods we may not only learn to +appreciate the ornamental value of such forms, but by such adaptation +and re-combination produce new varieties of ornament (see p. 217[f116]). + +[Illustration (f116): Floral Designs Upon Typical Inclosing Shapes of +Indian and Persian Ornament.] + +We may perceive how distinct are the two aims as between simple graphic +drawing, or delineation, and what we call design, or conscious +arrangements of line or form. While planes of relief, varied form and +surface, values of light and shade, and accidental characteristics are +rather the object with the graphic draughtsman, typical form and +structure, and recurring line and mass, are sought for by the +ornamentist. Both series of facts, or qualities, or characteristics, are +in nature. + + [Selection] + +Judicious selection, however, is the test of artistic treatment; +selection, that is, with a view to the aim and scope of the work. The +truth of superficial appearance or accidental aspect is _one_ sort of +truth: the truth of the actual constructive characteristics--be they of +figure, flower, or landscape--is _another_. Both belong to the thing we +see--to the object we are drawing; but we shall dwell upon one truth or +set of truths rather than the other, in accordance with our particular +artistic aim, though, whatever this may be, and in whatever direction it +may lead us, we shall find that selection of some sort will be +necessary. + +In making studies, however pure and simple, the object of which is to +discover facts and to learn mastery of form, our aim should be to get as +much truth as we can, truth of structure as well as of aspect. But these +(as far as we can make them) exhaustive studies should be accompanied or +followed by analytical studies made from different points of view and +for different purposes. + +Studies, for instance, made with a view to arrangements of _line_ +only--to get the characteristic and beautiful lines of a figure, a +momentary attitude, the lines of a flower, or a landscape: studies with +a view, solely, to the understanding of structure and form, or again, +with the object of seizing the broad relations of light and shade, or +tone and colour--all are necessary to a complete artistic education of +the eye. + + [Accidents and Essentials] + +If we are drawn as students rather towards the picturesque and graphic +side of art, we shall probably look for accidents of line and form +more than what I should call the essentials, or _typical_ line and form, +which are the most valuable to the decorative designer. + +In both directions some compact or compromise with nature is necessary +in any really artistic re-presentation. + +The painter and the sculptor often seek as _complete representation_ as +possible, and what may be called complete representation is within the +range of their resources. Yet unless some individual choice or feeling +impresses the work of either kind it is not a _re-presentation_, but +becomes an _imitation_, and therefore inartistic. + +The decorative designer and ornamentist seek to _suggest_ rather than to +_re-present_, though the decorator's suggestion of natural form, taking +only enough to suit or express the particular ornamental purpose, must +be considered also as a re-presentation. How much, or how little, he +will take of actual nature must depend largely upon his resources, his +object, and the limitations of his material--the conditions of his work +in short; but his range may be as wide as from the flat silhouetted +forms of stencils or simple inlays to the highly-wrought mural painting. + +Design motive, individual conception and sentiment, apart from material, +must, of course, always affect the question of the choice and degree of +representation of nature. The painter will sometimes feel that he only +wants to suggest forms, such as figures or buildings, half veiled in +light and atmosphere, colours and forms in twilight, or half lost in +luminous depths of shadow. + +[Illustration (f117a): Dancing Figure with the Governing Lines of the +Movement.] + +[Illustration (f117b): Lines of Floral Growth and Structure: Lily and +Rose.] + + [The Outward Vision and Inner Vision] + +The decorative designer will sometimes want to emphasize forms with the +utmost force and realism at his command, as in some crisp bit of carving +or emphatic pattern, to give point and relief in his scheme of +quantities. + +There is no hard-and-fast rule in art, only general principles, +constantly varied in practice, from which all principles spring, and +into which, if vital, they ought to be capable of being again resolved. + +But a design once started upon some principle--some particular motive of +line or form--then, in following this out, it will seem to develop +almost a life or law of growth of its own, which as a matter of logical +necessity will demand a particular treatment--a certain natural +consistency or harmony--from its main features down to the smallest +detail as a necessity of its existence. + +We might further differentiate art as, on the one hand, the image of the +_outward vision_, and, on the other, as the outcome or image of the +_inner vision_. + +The first kind would include all portraiture, by which I mean faithful +portrayal or transcript whether of animate or inanimate nature; while +the second would include all imaginative conceptions, decorative +designs, and pattern inventions. + +The outward vision obviously relies upon what the eye perceives in +nature. Its virtue consists in the faithfulness and truth of its graphic +record, in the penetrating force of observation of fact, and the +representative power by which they are reproduced on paper or canvas, +clay or marble. + +[Illustration (f118a): 1 and 2, Mountain and Crag Sculpture: Coast +Lines, Gulf of Nauplia.] + +[Illustration (f118b): Lines of Movement in Water: Shallow Stream Over +Sand.] + +The image of the inner vision is also a record, but of a different order +of fact. It may be often of unconscious impressions and memories which +are retained and recur with all or more than the vividness of +actuality--the tangible forms of external nature calling up answering, +but not identical, images in the mind, like reflections in a mirror or +in still water, which are similar but never the same as the objects they +reflect. + +But the inner vision is not bound by the appearances of the particular +moment. It is the record of the sum of many moments, and retains the +typical impress of multitudinous and successive impressions--like the +composite photograph, where faces may be printed one over another until +the result is a more typical image than any individual one taken +separately. + +The inner vision sees the results of time rather than the impressions of +the moment. It sees _space_ rather than landscape: race rather than men: +spirits rather than mortals: types rather than individuals. + +The inner vision hangs the mind's house with a mysterious tapestry of +figurative thoughts, a rich and fantastic imagery, a world where the +elements are personified, where every tree has its dryad, and where the +wings of the winds actually brush the cheek. + +The inner vision re-creates rather than represents, and its virtue +consists in the vividness and beauty with which, in the language of +line, form, and colour, these visions of the mind are recorded and +presented to the outward eye. + +There is often fusion here again between two different tendencies, +habits of mind, or ways of regarding things. In all art the mind must +work through the eye, whether its force appears in closeness of +observation or in vivid imaginings. The very vividness of realization +even of the most faithful portraiture is a testimony to mental powers. + +The difference lies really in the _focus_ of the mental force; and, in +any case, the language of line and form we use will neither be forcible +or convincing, neither faithful to natural fact nor true to the +imagination, without close and constant study of external form and of +its structure as well as its aspect. + + + + + CHAPTER IX + + Of the Adaptation of Line and Form in Design, in various + materials and methods--Mural Decoration--Fresco-work of the + Italian Painters--Modern Mural Work--Mural Spacing and pattern + Plans--Scale--The Skirting--The Dado--Field of the Wall--The + Frieze--Panelling--Tapestry--Textile Design--Persian Carpets-- + Effect of Texture on Colour--Prints--Wall-paper--Stained Glass. + + +We have been considering hitherto the choice and use of line and form, +and various methods of their representation in drawing, both from the +point of view of the graphic draughtsman and that of the ornamental +designer. + +We now come to consider the subject solely from the latter standpoint +(the point of view of ornamental design); and it will be useful to +endeavour to trace the principles governing the selection of form and +use of line as influenced by some of the different methods and +conditions of craftsmanship, and as adapted to various decorative +purposes. + + [Mural Decoration] + +The most important branch of decorative art may be said to be mural +decoration, allied as it is with the fundamental constructive art of +all--architecture, from which it obtains its determining conditions and +natural limitations. + +Its history in the past is one of splendour and dignity, and its record +includes some of the finest art ever produced. The ancient Asiatic +nations were well aware of its value not only as decoration but as a +record. + +[Illustration (f119): Giotto: "Chastity" (Lower Church, Assisi).] + +The palace and temple and tomb-walls of ancient Egypt, Persia, and +Assyria vividly illustrate the life and ideas of those peoples, while +they conform to mural conditions. The painted council halls and churches +of the Middle Ages fulfil the same purpose in a different spirit; but +mural decoration in its richest, most imaginative and complete form was +developed in Italy, from the time of Giotto, whose famous works at the +Arena Chapel at Padua and Assisi are well known, to the time of Michael +Angelo, who in the sublime ceiling of the Sistine Chapel seemed to touch +the extreme limits of mural work, and in fact might be said to have +almost _defied_ them, painting mouldings in relief and in perspective +to form the framework of pictures where figures on different scales are +used. In the Sistine Chapel the series of earlier frescoes on the lower +wall by Botticelli, Lorenzo di Credi, Ghirlandajo, Pinturicchio, and +other Florentine painters of the fifteenth century are really more +strictly mural in feeling, and safer as guides in general treatment, +than the work of the great master himself. They have much of the repose +and richness as well as the quiet decorative effect of tapestry. + + [Fresco-Work of Italian Painters] + +The frescoes in the Palazzo Publico at Siena, Pinturicchio's work in the +Piccolomini Chapel and the Appartimenti Borgia, the Campo Santo at Pisa +and the Riccardi Chapel of Benozzo Gozzoli at Florence, may be mentioned +as among the gems of mural painting. + + [Modern Mural Work] + +We have but little important mural painting in this country. Doubtless, +from various traces discovered under Puritan whitewash, the walls of our +mediaeval churches were painted as frequently as in continental +countries, but so completely did artistic tradition and religious +sentiment change after the Reformation that the opportunities have been +few and the encouragement less for mural painting. An attempt to revive +fresco-painting was made in our Houses of Parliament, and various scenes +from our national history have been rendered with varying degrees of +merit; but they have chiefly demonstrated the need of continuous +practice in such work on the part of our painters and the absence of a +true decorative instinct. + +[Illustration (f120): Pinturicchio: Mural Painting (Piccolomini Chapel, +Siena).] + +It is to the honour of Manchester that her Town Hall contains one of +the most important and interesting pieces of mural painting by one of +the most original of modern English artists--Ford Madox Brown--a work +conceived in the true spirit of mural work, being a record of local +history, as well as a decoration, while distinctly modern in sentiment +and showing strong dramatic feeling, as well as historical knowledge. + +The chapel on which Mr. F. J. Shields is engaged in London will probably +be unique in its way as a complete piece of mural decoration by an +English artist of singular individuality, sincerity, and power, as well +as decorative ability. + +But unfortunately opportunities for important mural decoration of this +kind are very rare in England. The art is not popularized: we have no +school of trained mural designers, and we have no public really +interested. Our commercial system and system of house tenure are against +it. Our only chance is in public buildings, which indeed have always +been its best field. Yet we neglect, I think, a most important +educational influence. The painted churches and public halls of the +Middle Ages filled in a great measure the place of public libraries. A +painted history, a portrait, a dramatic or romantic incident told in the +vivid language of line, form, and colour, is stamped upon the memory +never to be forgotten. It would be possible, I think, to impart a +tolerably exact knowledge of the sequence of history, of the conditions +of life at different epochs, of great men and their work, from a +well-imagined series of mural paintings, without the aid of books; and +in this direction, perhaps, our school walls would present an +appropriate field. + +Modern opportunities of mural decoration are chiefly domestic. The +country mansion, or the modest home of the suburban citizen, affords the +principal field in our time for the exercise of the taste or ingenuity +of the wall-decorator. In this comparatively restricted field, taste is +perhaps of more consequence than any other quality. A sense of +appropriateness, a harmonizing faculty, a power of arrangement of simple +materials--these are invaluable, for, more than any others, they go to +the making of a livable interior. + + [Mural Spacing and Pattern Plans] + +On first thought it would almost seem as if the designer was less +technically restricted in this direction of mural work than any other; +yet he will soon feel that he cannot produce an artistic and thoughtful +scheme without taking many things into consideration which really belong +to the conditions or natural limitations of his work. + +There is, firstly, the idea of the wall itself--part of the +house-structure--a shelter and protection or boundary. It is no part of +a designer's business to put anything upon the wall in the way of +decoration which will induce anyone to forget that it is a wall--nothing +to disturb the flatness and repose. + +The four walls of a room inclose a space to dwell in, in comfort and +security. The windows show us outward real life and nature. The walls +should not compete with the windows. Nature must be translated into the +terms of line and form and colour, and invention and fancy may be +pleasantly suggestive in the harmonious metre and rhythm of pattern. + +A wall surface extends horizontally and vertically, but the vertical +extension seems to assert itself most to the eye. + +Any arrangement of lines of the trellis or diaper order logically covers +a wall surface, and may be appropriately used as a basis for a wall +pattern, whether merely to mark the positions of a simple spray or +formal sprig pattern, or as a ground-plan for a completely filled field +of repeating ornament, whether painted, stencilled, or in the form of +wall-paper or textile hanging. + +In the simple geometric net of squares or diamonds or circles, however, +there is nothing that emphatically marks adaptability to a vertical +position. Such plans in themselves are equally appropriate to the floor +in the form of paving and parquet. The ogee plan, however, and its +variant, the vertical serpentine or spiral plan, at once suggest +vertical extension, the former perhaps by its leaf-like points arranging +themselves scale-wise, and the latter by its suggestion of ascending +movement. + +It is noteworthy that in the course of the historic evolution of mural +decoration, designs based upon these systems constantly recur. They are +part of the pattern-designer's vocabulary of line, and among the +principal, though simplest, terms by which he is able to express +vertical extension. + +The question of _scale_ in designing mural decoration of any sort is +very important. This demands a certain power of realizing the effect of +certain lines and masses if carried out, and the relation of one part to +another as well as to the dimensions of the walls and the room itself. +Here, as indeed throughout art, a reference to the human figure will +give us our key, since after all decoration goes to form a background +for humanity. With natural flowers and leaves it is always right to +design for mural purposes on the same scale as nature. + +[Illustration (f121): Diagram Showing the Principal Fundamental Plans or +Systems of Line Governing Mural Spacing and Decorative Distribution.] + + [Scale] + +Scale in design should be also considered in relation to the general +character of a building and its purpose, the use and lighting of a +living room: its dimensions and proportions, and relation to other +rooms. There is great range for individual taste and fancy. + +The artist would naturally look to the capacity of the space which he +had to decorate, and what it suggested to his mind. He might want to +emphasize a long, low room by horizontal lines, or to accentuate a lofty +one by verticals. + +[Illustration (f122): Diagram to Show (1) How the Apparent Depth of a +Space Is Increased by the Use of Vertical Lines, and (2) How the +Apparent Width Is Increased by the Use of Horizontal Lines.] + +By the judicious use of line and scale in design, the designer holds a +certain power of transformation in his hands, not to speak of the +transforming effect of colour of different keys and tones, the apparent +contraction or expansion of surfaces by patterns of different character +and scale. + +It would obviously not do to regard any wall merely as so much expanse +of surface available for sketching unrelated groups and figures upon, as +they might be jotted down in a sketch-book, and to offer it as +decoration. In an interior thus treated, we should lose all sense of +repose, dignity, and proportion. + +Use and custom, which fix and determine so many things in social life +without written laws, have also prescribed certain divisions of the +wall, which, in regard to the exigencies of life and habit and modern +conditions generally, seem natural enough. + + [The Skirting] + +The lower parts of the walls of most modern dwellings being generally +occupied by furniture placed against them, and liable to be soiled or +injured, it would be out of place to put important and elaborate +ornament or figure designs extending to the skirting. The wooden +skirting, of about nine inches or a foot in depth, which is placed along +the foot of the wall in our modern rooms, is the armour-plating to +protect the plaster, which otherwise might be chipped and litter the +floor. It is perhaps the last relic of the more substantial and +extensive wood panelling and wainscotting which, up to the latter part +of the last century, covered the lower walls of the more comfortable +houses, and has been revived in our own day. The decorator may use +panelling, or wainscotting, or a simple chair-rail above plain painting, +wall-paper, dado, or stencilling, or a dado of matting, as methods of +covering, and at the same time decorating, the lower walls of rooms. + +The use of the dado of a darker colour and of wainscot is, no doubt, due +to considerations of wear and tear, and so, like the origin of much +ornamental art, may be traced to actual use and constructive necessity. +When the wood-work of a room--the doors and window frames--is of the +same colour and character as the dado, a certain agreeable unity is +preserved, and it forms a useful plain framing to set off the patterned +parts of the wall. This wainscot or dado framing with the wood-work +should be as to colour arranged to suit the general scheme adopted. +Where paint is used, white for the wood-work usually has the best +effect. + + [Field of the Wall] + +The largest space of wall occurs above the chair-rail, or dado, and, +according to modern habits and usage, portable property in the shape of +framed pictures, etc., is usually placed here along the eye-line, so +that any decoration on this--the main field of the wall--is regarded as +subsidiary to what is placed upon it; but, of course, pictures can be +used as the central points of a decorative scheme. On the upper part of +a wall, below the plaster cornice, the mural designer has the chance of +putting a frieze, and a frieze usually gives the effect of additional +height to a room, besides enriching the wall. + +[Illustration (f123): Decorative Spacing of the Wall: Sketches (to +1/2-in. Scale) to Show Different Treatment and Proportions.] + +An effective treatment of a large room, and one which is more reposeful +than cutting up the wall into these portions, as in dado, field, and +frieze, is to carry up wood panelling to the frieze, and let this (the +frieze) be the important decorative feature. + +Supposing the room was twelve feet high, one could afford to have eight +feet of panelling, and then a frieze of four feet deep. In this case one +would look for an interesting painted frieze of figures--some legend or +story to run along the four sides of the room, and in such a case it +might be marked with considerable pictorial freedom. + +More formal figure design or ornamental work in coloured plaster-work, +stucco, and gesso could also be appropriately used in such a position, +as also on the ceiling. + +Now as regards choice of line and form in their relation to the +decoration of such mural spaces. Taking the lower wall, dado, or +panelling, one reason why panelling has so agreeable an effect is, I +think, that the series of vertical and horizontal lines seem to express +the proportions, while they emphasize the flatness and repose of the +wall, and when used beneath a painted frieze they lead the eye upwards, +forming a quiet framing of rectangular lines below to the ornate and +varied design of the frieze. Where we are limited to decorating a wall +by means of plain painting, stencils, or wall-paper, this idea of +reposeful constructive lines and forms on the lower wall should still +dominate upon the field. Subject to our repeating plan we may be freer +both in line and form, using free scrolls, branch-work, fruit, and +flower masses at pleasure, because the space is more extended, and we +shall feel the necessity in a repeating pattern of spreading adequately +over it; but such designs, however fine in detail, should be constructed +upon a more or less geometric base or plan. We are, as regards the main +field of the wall, still unavoidably, though not disadvantageously, +influenced by the tradition of the textile hanging or arras tapestry, no +doubt; and certainly there is no more rich and comfortable lining for +living rooms than tapestry, or, at the same time, more reposeful and +decoratively satisfying. But, of course, where we can afford arras +tapestry (such as the superb work of William Morris and his weavers), we +ought not to allow anything to compete with it upon the same wall. It is +sufficient in itself. + +[Illustration (f128): Arras Tapestry: Diagrams to Show the Principle of +Working and Surface Effect: (1) Vertical Position of Warp as Worked in +the Loom and Relief Effect of the Wefts; (2) Enlarged Section of Warp as +Hung (Horizontal); (3) Single Threads of Warp and Weft; (4) Warp and +Weft as in the Loom (Vertical).] + + [Tapestry] + +Of what splendour of colour and wealth of decorative and symbolical +invention tapestry was capable in the past may be seen in magnificent +Burgundian specimens of the fifteenth century, now in the South +Kensington Museum. + +Tapestry hangings of a repeating pattern and quiet colour could be used +appropriately beneath painted upper walls, or a frieze, as no doubt +frequently was the custom in great houses in the Middle Ages. + + [Appartimenti Borgia] + +In the Appartimenti Borgia in the Vatican, for instance, which consists +of lofty vaulted rooms with frescoes by Pinturicchio upon the upper +walls between the spans of the vaulting, and upon the vaulting itself, +we may see, about eleven feet from the floor, along the moulding, the +hooks left for the tapestry hangings, which completed the decoration of +the room. The lower walls are now largely occupied by book-shelves; but +books themselves may form a pleasant background, as one may often +observe in libraries, especially when the bindings are rich and good in +tone: and here, too, we get our verticals and horizontals again. + +[Illustration (f125): Pinturicchio: Fresco in the Appartimenti Borgia.] + +So long as the feeling for the repose and flatness of the wall surface +is preserved, there are no special limitations in the choice of form. It +becomes far more a matter of _treatment of form and subject_ in +perfectly appropriate mural design. There is one principle, however, +which seems to hold good in the treatment of important figure subjects +to occupy the main wall surfaces as panels: while pictorial realization +of a kind may be carried quite far, it is desirable to avoid large +masses of light sky, or to attempt much in the way of atmospheric +effect. It is well to keep the horizon high, and, if sky is shown, to +break it with architecture and trees. + +Still more important is it to observe this in tapestry. It is very +noticeable how tapestry design declined after the fifteenth century or +early years of the sixteenth, when perspective and pictorial planes were +introduced, and sky effects to emulate painting, and thus the peculiarly +mural feeling was lost, with its peculiar beauty, richness, and repose. + +[Illustration (f124): Figure of Laura, from the Burgundian Tapestries: +The Triumphs of Petrarch (South Kensington Museum).] + +In the translation into tapestry even of so tapestry-like a picture as +that of Botticelli's "Primavera," it is noteworthy how Mr. Morris has +felt the necessity of reducing the different planes, and the chiaroscuro +of the painting, by more leafy and floral detail; making it, in short, +more of a pattern than a picture. + + [The Frieze] + +A frieze is susceptible of a much more open, lighter, and freer +treatment than a field. A frieze is one of the mural decorator's +principal means of giving lightness and relief to his wall. In purely +floral and ornamental design the field of close pattern, formal diaper, +or sprigs at regular intervals may be appropriately relieved by bolder +lines and masses, and a more open treatment in the frieze. The frieze, +too, affords a means of contrast in line to the line system of the field +of the wall, its horizontal expression usefully opposing the verticals +or diagonals of the wall pattern below. The frieze may be regarded as a +horizontal border, and in border designs the principle of transposition +of the relation of pattern to ground is a useful one to bear in mind, as +leading always to an effective result. I mean, supposing our field shows +a pattern mainly of light upon dark, the frieze might be on the reverse +plan, a dark pattern on a light ground. + +And whereas, as I have said, one would exclude wide light spaces from +our mural field, in the frieze one might effectively show a light sky +ground throughout, and arrange a figure or floral design upon that. + +The principle governing the treatment of main and lower wall spaces or +fields, which teaches the designer to preserve the repose of the +surface, may be said to rule also in all textile design, and textile +design has, as we have seen in the form of tapestry, and hangings of all +kinds, a very close association with mural decoration. + + [Textile Design] + +Any textile may be considered, from the designer's point of view, as +presenting so much _surface_ for pattern, whether that surface is hung +upon a wall, or curtains a door or a window, or is spread in the form of +carpets or rugs upon floors, or over the cushions of furniture, or +adapts itself to the variety of curve surface and movement of the human +form in dress materials and costume. Textile beauty is beauty of +material and surface, and unless the pattern or design upon it or woven +with it enhances that beauty of material and surface, and becomes a part +of the expression of that material and surface, it is better without +pattern. + +[Illustration (f126): Portion of Detail of the Holy Carpet of the Mosque +of Ardebil: Persian, Sixteenth Century.] + +To place informal shaded flowers and leaves upon a carpet, for instance, +where the warp is very emphatic, and the process of weaving necessitates +a stepped or rectangularly broken outline, is to mistake appropriate +decorative effect, capacity of material, and position in regard to the +eye. We cannot get away, in a carpet, from the idea of a flat field +starred with more or less formal flowers, and colour arrangements which +owe their richness and beauty, not to the relief of shading, but to the +heraldic principle of relieving one tint or colour upon another. The +rich inlay of colour which a Persian or any Eastern carpet presents is +owing to its being designed upon this principle; and in Persian work +that peculiarly rich effect of colour, apart from fine material, is +owing to the principle of the use of outlines of different colours +defining and relieving the different forms in the pattern upon different +grounds. The rectangular influence arising from the technical conditions +of the work gives a definite textile character to the design which is +very agreeable; besides, as a question of line and form, in a carpet or +rug which is rectangular in shape and laid usually upon rectangular +floors, the squareness of form harmonizes with the conditions and +surroundings of the work in use. The Persian designer, indeed, appears +to be so impressed with this feeling, that he uses a succession of +borders around the central field of his carpet or rug, still further +emphasizing the rectangularity; while he avoids the too rigid effect of +a series of straight lines which the crossing of the threads of the weft +at right angles to the warp might cause, by changing the widths of his +subsidiary borders and breaking them with a constant variety of small +patterns, and inserting narrow white lines between the black lines of +the border. + +[Illustration (f127): Sketch to Illustrate Treatment of Borders in a +Persian Rug.] + + [Effect of Texture on Colour] + +In tapestry the effect of the emphatic warp worked vertically in the +loom, but hung horizontally, has a very important influence upon the +effect. If we took a piece of paper coloured with a flat even tint, and +folded it in ridges, the quality of the tint would be at once changed, +and so in tapestry the passing of the wool of the wefts, which form the +pattern or picture, over the strong lines of the warp--which are broad +enough to take the outlines of the cartoon upon them--produces that soft +and varied play of colour--really colour in light and shade--which, over +and above the actual dyes and artistic selection of tints, gives the +peculiar charm and effect in tapestry. + +This sheen and variety are more or less evident in all textiles, and a +good textile pattern only adds to the variety and richness of the +surface. The different thicknesses or planes of surface and the +difference of their texture caused by the different wefts being brought +to the surface of the cloth or silk (from the simplest contrast of +line presented by the simplest arrangements of warp and weft, to the +complexities of many-coloured silk stuffs and brocade) alone give a +value to the surface pattern. + +In cut velvet the same principle of contrast of surface is emphasized +still further, the rich deep nap of the less raised parts contrasting +pleasantly with the mat effect of the ground. + +In designs for such material one should aim at boldly blocked-out +patterns in silhouette--bold leaf and fruit forms say--designed on the +principle of the stencil. + + [Prints] + +With prints the range is of course freer, the material itself suggesting +something lighter and more temporary. It seems highly probable that +printed cotton was originally a substitute for embroidered linen or more +sumptuous materials. There are certainly instances of very similar +patterns in Indian and Persian work in silk embroidery, and also in +printed cotton. In some cases the print is partly embroidered, which +seems to mark a transitional stage, and recalls the lingering use of +illumination in the early days of the printing press, in another +department of art. + +Anything that will repeat as a pattern in what can be produced by line, +dot, and tints of colour, and engraved upon wood-blocks or copper +rollers, can be printed of course; and, as is generally the case with an +art which has no very obvious technical limitations, it is liable to be +caught by the imitative spirit, and cheap and rapid production and +demand for novelties (so-called) generally end in loss of taste and +deterioration of quality, especially in design. From the artistic point +of view we can only correct this by bearing in mind similar +considerations to those which hold good as general principles and guides +in designing for textiles generally, having regard to the object, +purpose, and position--to the ultimate use of the material, and +differentiating our designs, as in the case of other textile design +accordingly. + +Thus in the matter of plan and direction of line and character of form +we shall at once find natural distinctions and divisions, as our design +is for hanging, or spreading horizontally, or wearing; and these +different functions will also determine scale and choice and treatment +of form and colour. + +There is no doubt that with patterns printed more range may be allowed +than with patterns to be woven, where line and form are both controlled +by the necessities of being reproduced by so many points to the inch. At +the same time the object of all design and pattern work being the +greatest beauty compatible with the material and conditions, one should +seek, not such effects as merely test the capacity or ingenuity of the +machine, but rather such as appear to be most decoratively appropriate +and effective. + +There appears to be no _mechanical_ reason why cotton should not be +printed all over with landscapes and graphic sketches, and people clothe +themselves with them as with Christmas numbers, or turn their couches, +chairs, and curtains into scrap albums, but there is every reason _on +the score of taste_ why these things should not be done. + +[Illustration (f129): (1) Contrasting Surfaces of Warp and Weft in +Woven Silk Hanging; (2) Stencil Principle.] + +With any textile, as I have said, we are as designers dealing with +surface. It is surface ornament that is wanted also in printed cotton. +Now good line and form and pure tints have the best effect, because they +do not break the surface into holes, and give a ragged or tumbled +appearance, which accidental bunches of darkly-shaded flowers in high +relief undoubtedly do. If small rich detail and variety are wanted, we +should seek it in the inventive spirit of the Persian and Indian, and +break our solid colours with mordants or arabesques in colour of +delicate subsidiary pattern instead of using coarse planes of light and +shadow, or showing up ragged and unrelated forms upon violent grounds. + +[Illustration (f130): Indian Printed Cotton Cover: South Kensington +Museum.] + +The true idea of a print pattern is of something gay and fanciful: +bright and fresh in colour, and clear in line and form: a certain +quaintness is allowable, and in purely floral designs there is room for +a considerable degree of what might be called naturalism, so far as good +line-drawing and understanding of flower form goes, emphasis of colour +being sought by means of _planes of colour_, rather than by planes of +shadow. + +I had intended to touch upon other provinces of design, but I have taken +up so much space with those I have been discussing already that I can +only now briefly allude to these. + + [Wall-Paper] + +Of wall-paper, which may be regarded in the light of more or less of a +substitute for mural painting, and also textile wall-hangings, much the +same general principles and many of the same remarks apply as have been +already used in regard to mural decoration. The designer has much +freedom as to motive, and his ingenuity is only bounded by or +concentrated in a square of twenty-one inches. If he has succeeded in +making an agreeable pattern which will repeat not too obviously over an +indefinite space, to form a not obtrusive background, and which can be +printed and sold to the ordinary citizen, he is supposed to have +satisfied the conditions. + +But he may be induced to go further and attempt the design of a complete +decoration as far as dado, field, frieze, and ceiling go; and this would +involve all the thought necessary to the mural painter, narrowed down to +the exigencies of mechanical repeat. + +Allied to the wall is the window, and in glazing and the art of the +glass-painter we have another very distinct and beautiful sphere of line +design. In plain leading the same law of covering vertical surface holds +good as to selection of plan and system of line: almost any simple +geometric net is appropriate, if not too complex or small in form to +hold glass or to permit lead to follow its lines. Leaded panels of +roundels (or "bull's eyes") of plain glass have a good effect in +casements where a sparkle of light rather than outward view is sought +for. + + [Stained Glass] + +When we come to designing for stained glass we should still bear in mind +the fundamental net of lead lines which forms the basis of our pattern, +or glass picture, as it were: and the designer's object should be to +make it good as an arrangement of line independently of the colour, +while practical to the glazier. + +[Illustration (f131): (1) Stained Glass Treatment: Inclosure of Form and +Colour by Lead Lines; (2) Sections.] + +Although lead is very pliable, too much must not be expected of it in +the way of small depressions and angles: the boundary lines of the +figures, which should be the boldest of all, should be kept as simple as +possible, not only on this account, but because complex outlines cannot +well be cut in glass. A head, for instance, is inclosed in sweeping +line, and the profile defined within the lead line by means of painting. +A hand would be defined on the same principle. Each different colour +demands a different inclosure of lead, although in the choice of glass +much variation of tint can be obtained, as in the case of pot metal +running from thin to thick glass, which intensifies the colour, and many +kinds of what is called flashed. Yet to the designer, from the point of +view of line, glass design is a kind of translucent mosaic, in which the +primal technical necessity of the leading which holds the glory of the +coloured light together, really enhances its splendour, and in affording +opportunities for decoration and expressive linear composition imparts +to the whole work its particular character and beauty. + +This after all is the principle to cling to in all designing, to adapt +our designs to the particular distinctive character and beauty of the +material for which they are destined, to endeavour to think them out in +those materials, and not only on paper. Whatever the work may +be--carving, inlays, modelling, mosaic, textiles--through the whole +range of surface decoration, we should think out our designs, not only +in relation to the limitations of their material, but also in their +relation to each other, to their effect in actual use, and even to their +possible use in association together, which, of course, is of paramount +importance in designing a complete room or any comprehensive piece of +decoration. + +And when we leave plane surfaces and seek to invent appropriate, that is +to say, _expressive_ ornament allied to concave and convex surfaces, to +the varied forms of pottery for instance, metal-work, and glass vessels, +furniture, and accessories of all kinds, we shall find the same laws and +principles hold good which should guide us in all design--to adapt +design to the characteristics and conditions of the material, to its +structural capacity, its use and purpose, as well as to use or invention +in line, both as a controlling plan or base of ornament, as well as a +means of the association and expression of form. + + + + + CHAPTER X + + Of the Expression and Relief of Line and Form by _Colour_--Effect + of same Colour upon different Grounds--Radiation of Colour--White + Outline to clear Colours--Quality of Tints relieved upon other + Tints--Complementaries--Harmony--The Colour Sense--Colour + Proportions--Importance of Pure Tints--Tones and Planes--The Tone + of Time--Pattern and Picture--A Pattern not necessarily a Picture, + but a Picture in principle a Pattern--Chiaroscuro--Examples of + Pattern-work and Picture-work--Picture-patterns and Pattern-pictures. + + +Perhaps the most striking means of the expression of relief of line and +form, certainly the most attractive, is by colour. By colour we obtain +the most complete and beautiful means of expression in art. + + [Relief of Line and Form by Colour] + +Our earliest ideas of form are probably derived through the different +colours of objects around us, by which they are thrown into relief upon +the background, or against other objects; and, as I mentioned in the +first chapter, we reach outline by observing the edges of different +masses relieved as dark or light upon light or dark grounds, so now, in +my last, we come again to the consideration of the definition of line +and form by colour, and their relief and expression upon different +planes or fields of colour. + +There is first the colour of the object itself--the local colour--and +then the colour of the ground upon which it is relieved, both of which +in their action and reaction upon each other will greatly affect the +value of the local colour and the degree of relief of the form upon it. + +One of the best and simplest ways to ascertain the real value of a +colour and its effect upon different grounds or fields is to take a +flower--say a red poppy, and place it against a white paper ground, +blocking in the local colour as relieved upon white, as near as may be +to its full strength, with a brush, and defining the form as we go +along. Then try the same flower upon grounds of different tints--green, +blue, yellow--and it will be at once perceived what a different value +and expression the same form in the same colour has upon different +tinted grounds. A scarlet poppy would appear clearest and darkest upon +white; it would show a tendency upon a blue ground to blend or blur at +its edges, and also on yellow and green to a less extent. + +[Illustration (f132): Sketch to Show Effect of the Same Colour and Form +upon Different Coloured Grounds.] + +It is this tendency to lose the edges of forms owing to the radiation of +colours, and to mingle with the colour of the background, which makes a +strong outline so constantly a necessity in decorative work. One may use +a black on a white, a brown, or a gold outline (as in cloisonne), the +nature of the outline being generally determined by the nature of the +work. In stained glass the outline must be black, and this black is of +the greatest value in enhancing by opposition the brilliance of the +colours of the glass it incloses, stopping out the light around it as it +does in solid lead when placed in the window. + +[Illustration (f133): (1) Principle of the Effect of the Blending or +Blurring of Colours at Their Edges; (2) Use of Black and White Outline +to Clear the Edges of Coloured Forms upon Different Coloured Grounds.] + + [Clearing Coloured Forms] + +A white outline produced by a resist or a mordant in a printed +textile, where the colours used are full and rich, often has a good +effect, lightening the effect while giving point and definition to +certain leading forms. Instances of the use of white outlines may be +found in Eastern carpets, where the main colours, being dark blue and +yellows on rich red, are relieved in parts by a dull white outline. Also +in Persian carpets of the sixteenth or seventeenth century, the +scrollwork in red is often relieved by an ivory white outline on blue. + +It is always a good practice in blocking in flowers, either from nature +or as parts of a design, to leave a white outline at the junctions--that +is to say, where one petal overlaps another, or where there is a joint +in the stem, or a fold in the leaf--and to show the ribbings, markings, +and divisions of flower and leaf. + +By judiciously changing the quality of our tints it is possible to make +different colours in a pattern tell clearly. To relieve red upon blue, +for instance, one would use an orange red upon greenish blue, or scarlet +upon a gray blue--the general principle being apparently a kind of +compensating balance between colours, so that in taking from one you +give to another. + +A full red and blue used together, as we have seen, would show a +tendency to purple, unless separated by outlines; so that if the blue +was full and rich, the red would have to approach brown or russet; or if +the red was a full one--a crimson red--the blue would have to approach +green. + + [Harmony] + +This may be because of the necessary complements in colours, which we +see in nature, and which prepossess the eye, and make it demand these +modifications to satisfy the sense of harmony. + +When daylight struggles with candle- or lamp-light, one may notice that +upon the white cloth of a dinner-table the light is blue and the shadows +yellow or orange--the orange deepening as with the fading daylight the +blue grows deeper, until the colour of the light and the shadow change +places. The same principle may be noticed in firelight, but the redder +the flame the greener will be the shadows. + +Harmony in colour may be said to consist--apart from the general +acknowledgment of the law of complementaries, in giving quality to the +raw pigments by gradation, by a certain admixture or infusion of other +colours. + +To begin with the negatives--white and black--white may be creamy or +silvery; black may be of a greenish or a bluish or brownish tone; then +the primaries--red, blue, yellow, or red, green, violet--red may range +from crimson to orange and russet; yellow may approach green or gold; +green may be first cousin to blue; blue may be turquoise on the one +hand, and touch purple upon the other; and so on through infinite +variations of half tints and tones. + +No doubt it is an easier matter to harmonize half tints than full bright +colours, which may account for the prevalence of the former in +decorative work. Nature's pattern-book, too, is full of half tones and +mixed tints. + + [The Colour Sense] + +We may not all see colour precisely in the same way, and the same colour +may appear to be of a different tint to different eyes; and it seems +certain that climate and surroundings affect the colour sense: light +and colour will stimulate the delight in colour; while, where grayness +and dullness characterize the surroundings of life, the colour sense +will grow weak, or, if it is manifested at all, it will show a tendency +to grayness and heaviness of tint. + +The art of the different peoples of the world illustrates this, and, as +we may see by turning from east to west, or from north to south, or even +from winter to summer, in the main the love of colour follows the sun, +like the rainbow. + +We can all do something to cultivate our sense of colour, however, and +there is no better way than studying the harmonies and varieties of +nature. Even the town-dweller is not altogether deprived of the sight of +the sky, which constantly unfolds the most beautiful compositions both +of form and colour. + +As to the choice of colours in decorative design, so far as that is not +narrowed by the particular conditions of the work, we must be guided by +much the same considerations as would serve us in designing generally, +and must, of course, think of appropriateness to position and purpose. +Much depends, too, upon proportions of colour, and a beautiful and +harmonious effect may be produced in a room by keeping the colour in a +particular key, or even delicately varying the designs and tints of one +or two colours. The same might be said in arranging a scheme of +colouring for any particular piece of design--say, a painted panel or a +textile pattern; although such things must ultimately be governed by +their relation to other parts in any general scheme--circumstances +necessitate their being often designed apart. Still, if the colour of a +pattern has been carefully thought out, or rather harmoniously felt, as +a real organic thing, it is sure to fit into its place when its time +comes. + +In arranging our design of colour we can have no better guide, as to +proportions and quality, than nature, and should do well, as a matter of +practice, to take a flower, or the plumage of a bird, or the colours of +a landscape, and adapt them to some particular pattern or scheme of +decoration, following the relative degrees of tint and their quantities +as nearly as possible. To do this successfully requires some invention +and taste; but successful, or unsuccessful, one could hardly fail to +learn something positive and valuable about colour, if the attempt was +conscientiously made; and fresher motives and sweeter colour would be +more likely to result from such study. + + [Importance of Pure Tints] + +I think it is a very important thing in all decorative work to keep +one's colours pure in quality, and to avoid muddy or heavy tints. Brown +is an especially difficult colour to use, because of its generally heavy +effect as a pigment, and the difficulty of harmonizing it with other +colours except as an outline; and even here it makes all the difference +whether it is a cool or a hot shade. A hot brown is most destructive of +harmony in colours. It is safe, as a rule, to make it lean to green, or +bronze, or gold. + +As a general rule it is well to work either in a range of cool tints--a +cool key of colour, or the reverse--a warm and rich one. Few cool +harmonies can be better than ultramarine and turquoise on greenish +white, of which the Persians and Indians are so fond in tile-work. They +are delightful to the eye, while peculiarly adapted to the work, owing +their quality to the oxide of copper, which the firing brings out so +well. + +Blues and greens and grays, relieved with white and yellow and orange: +or, reds and yellows, relieved with white and opposed by blacks, +generally answer: or a range of reds together, or range of blues, or of +yellows, with black and white for contrast and accent. Blue and white, +too, can be modified in quality; black may be greenish in tone, or +brownish, bluish, or purplish according to the harmony aimed at. White +may be pure or ivory-toned, cream-coloured or influenced by other +colours, and should vary in degree according to the strength of the +harmony. This brings us to the question of tone. + + [Tones and Planes] + +Now the ornamentist, the designer of patterns, relies for his effect +upon the use of certain planes and oppositions of tints to relieve and +express his design, to emphasize its main motive, to bring out or to +subdue its lines and forms. He knows that cool flat tints--blues, +greens, grays--will make forms and surfaces retire, and he makes use of +them for flat and reposeful effects, such as wall and ceiling surfaces, +adopting the natural principle of colour in landscape and sky. + +He uses richer and more varied colour in textile hangings and carpets, +furniture, and accessories--reds, yellows, greens, crimson, russets, +orange, gold--which answer to the brighter flowers and parterres of our +gardens, as things to be near the eye and touch, and to occur as lesser +quantities in a scheme of interior colour design. + +In the colour design of patterns, harmonious and rich effects can be +produced by the use of pure colour alone, no doubt, if carefully +proportioned, and separated by outline; though harmony is more difficult +to attain in pure colours used in their full strength; and for their due +effect, and to avoid harshness, such a treatment really requires +out-door light or special conditions of lighting, or the strong light of +eastern or southern countries, to soften the effect. + +And since we have to adapt our designs to their probable surroundings, +we usually consciously select certain tones or shades of a colour, +rather than use it absolutely pure or in its full strength. The +beautiful tone which time gives to all colour-work is difficult to +rival, but no conscious imitation of it is tolerable. + +But so long as our aim is strictly to make a colour scheme of any kind +in relation to itself, or in harmony with its conditions, we are on a +safe and sound path. It is this relativity which is the important thing +in all decorative art, and which, more distinctly than any other +quality, distinguishes it from pictorial art; although pictorial art is +under the necessity of the same law in regard to itself; and in its +highest forms, as in mural work, is certainly subject to relativity in +its widest sense. + + [Pattern and Picture] + +At first sight it might appear as if there were an essential fundamental +natural difference between a pattern and a picture, but when we come to +consider it, it appears to be rather a distinction than a difference. + +A pattern may be an arrangement of lines, forms, and a harmony of planes +and tones of colour. + +But these words would describe in general terms a picture also. + +Certain recurrences of line and form; certain re-echoing notes of the +same, or allied colour, are necessary to both pattern and picture. The +abstract ingredients appear to be the same in both cases. + +A picture indeed may be considered as a pattern of another sort, and the +real difference is that whereas a pattern is not necessarily a picture, +a picture is bound to be a pattern--a pattern having its quantities, its +balance of masses, its connecting lines, its various planes, its key of +colour, its play of contrasts, its harmony of tones. + +Technically, a picture may be considered as an _informal_ pattern, +mainly of tone and values; while a pattern may be considered as a +_formal_ pattern, mainly of planes of colour. + +The ancient art of the East was all frankly pattern-work, whatever the +subject pictured. Egyptian, Persian, Indian, Chinese, Moorish and +Arabian art, in all their varieties, show the dominating sense of +pattern, and the invention of the instinctive decorators in the use of +colour. + +The Japanese, also, are instinctive decorators, though in a less formal +and more impressionistic way, and with much more naturalistic feeling. +Their pictures printed from colour blocks, as well as their "kakimonos," +painted on silk, are frankly pattern-pictures, the pattern motive being +quite as strong or stronger than the graphic or representative motive. + +Mediaeval and early Renaissance painting in Europe was frankly more or +less formal and of the nature of ornament, and even in its freest and +fullest development, in the works of the great masters of the sixteenth +century of Venice and Florence, a certain decorative or architectural +feeling was never forgotten. + +Painting was still in close association with architecture, and was the +chief adornment of churches and palaces; thus it preserved a peculiar +distinction and dignity of style. The Dutch school did more perhaps to +break these old decorative and architectural traditions than any other, +with their domestic and purely naturalistic motives, their pursuit of +realism, atmospheric effect, and chiaroscuro--that fascinating goal of +painting. + + [Chiaroscuro] + +Yet there were some of the seventeenth-century masters, and of the best, +such as De Hooghe and Ver Meer of Delft, who showed themselves very much +alive to decorative effect, which their power of chiaroscuro--the power +of painting things in their proper atmosphere, as lost in transparent +depths of shadow, or found in luminous mystery--only seemed to enhance. + +As a wonderful instance of ornamental and dignified design carried into +every detail with most careful draughtsmanship, and yet beautiful in +chiaroscuro and grave colour, there is no finer example than J. Van +Eyck's portrait-picture of "Jan Arnolfini and his Wife" in our National +Gallery. Such pictures as these would tell as rich and precious gems +upon the wall, and would form the centres to which the surrounding +colour patterns and decoration would lead up, as in the picture the +little mirror reflecting the figures shines upon the wall, a picture +within a picture. + +[Illustration (f134): J. van Eyck: "Portrait of Jan Arnolfini and His +Wife." (National Gallery.)] + +It is instructive from any point of view to study the quantities and +relations of colour, and their tones and values, in such works. + + [Ver Meer of Delft] + +Take Ver Meer's "Lady at a Spinet" in our National Gallery. + +[Illustration (f135): Ver Meer of Delft: "Lady at a Spinet." (National +Gallery.)] + +We have a plain white wall, exquisite in tone, upon which the crisp gold +of the small picture inclosing a brownish landscape with a blue and +white sky, and the broad black frame of the picture of Cupid tell +strongly, yet fall into plane behind the figure in white satin--quite a +different quality of white, and warmer and brighter than the wall. The +bodice is a steely blue silk, which is repeated in the velvet seat of +the chair; while the blue and white landscape upon the open lid of the +spinet repeats the blue and white landscape on the wall, and the blue +and white motive is subtly re-echoed in a subdued key in the little +tiles lining the base of the wall. The floor is a chequer of black and +white (mottled) marble, which gives a fine relief to the dress and +repeats the emphatic black of the picture frame; the stand of the spinet +is also black striated marble. Quiet daylight falls through the greenish +white of the leaded panes. The pink-brown woodwork of the spinet and +chair prevent the colour scheme from being cold. The flesh is very pale +and ivory-like in tone, but the dress is enlivened by little crisp +scarlet and gold touches in the narrow laces which tie the sleeves. + +The little picture is a gem of painting and truth of tone, and at the +same time might well suggest a charming scheme of colour to an +ornamentist. + + [Van Eyck] + +Examine the Van Eyck in the same way, and we shall find a very rich but +quiet scheme of colour in a lower key, highly decorative, yet presented +with extraordinary realistic force, united with extreme refinement and +exquisite chiaroscuro, and truth of tone and value, as a +portrait-picture, and piece of interior lighting. + +It is like taking an actual peep into the inner life of a Flemish +burgher of the fifteenth century. + +One seems to breathe the still air of the quiet room, the gray daylight +falling through the leaded casements, one of which stands open, and +shows a narrow strip of luminous sky and suggestion of a garden with +scarlet blossoms in green leaves. + +The man is clad in a long mantle of claret-brown velvet edged with fur, +over black tunic and hose. He wears a quaint black hat upon his head, +which almost foreshadows the tall hat of the modern citizen. The pale +strange face looks paler and stranger beneath it, but is in character +with the long thin hands. The figure gives one the impression of legal +precision and dryness, and a touch of clerical formality. The wife is of +a buxom and characteristic Flemish type, in a grass-green robe edged +with white fur, over peacock blue; a crisp silvery white head-dress; a +dark red leather belt with silver stitching. Her figure is relieved upon +the subdued red of the bed hangings, continued in the cover of the +settle and the red clogs. The wall of the room, much lost in transparent +shade, is of a greenish gray tone, and in the centre, between the +figures, a circular convex mirror sparkles on the wall reflecting the +backs of the figures. Thin lines delicately repeat the red in the mirror +frame, which has a black and red inner moulding. A string of amber beads +hangs on the wall, and repeats the shimmer of the bright brass +candelabra which hangs aloft, and which is drawn carefully enough for a +craftsman to reproduce. + + [Pattern-Pictures] + +Both designer and painter may find abundant suggestion in this picture, +which, with Ver Meer's "Lady at the Spinet," I should describe as +_pattern-pictures_--that is to say, while they are thoroughly painter's +pictures, and give all the peculiar qualities of oil-painting in the +rendering of tone and values, they yet show in their colour scheme the +decorative quality, and might be translated into patterns of the same +proportions and keys of colours. + +As examples of what might be termed picture-patterns we might recur to +the wall paintings, as I have said, of ancient Egypt and early art +generally, for their simplest forms; but to take a much later instance, +and from the art of Florence in the fifteenth century, look at +Botticelli's charming little picture of "The Nativity," in the National +Gallery. It has all the intentional, or perhaps instinctive, ornamental +aim of Italian art, and its colour scheme shows a most dainty and +delicate invention in the strictest relation to the subject and +sentiment, and is arranged with the utmost subtlety and the nicest art. + + [Botticelli] + +The ring of angels above, for instance, is partly relieved upon a gilded +ground--to represent the dome of heaven. They bear olive branches, and +the colour of their robes alternates in the following order: rose, olive +(shot with gold), and white. + +The _rose-coloured_ angels have _olive and white wings_; the _white +angels, rose and olive wings_; and _the olive angels, white and rose +wings_. + +This part of the picture by itself forms a most beautiful pattern +motive, while it expresses the idea of peace and goodwill. + +Then on the brown and gold thatch of the stable occur three more angels +in white, rose, and green, respectively. Against a pale sky rise rich +olive-green trees, forming the background. + +[Illustration (f136): Botticelli: "The Nativity" (National Gallery).] + +The Virgin strikes the brightest ray of colour in red under-robe and +sky-blue mantle. There is a gray white ass and a pale brown cow behind +her. + +St. Joseph is in steel gray with a golden orange mantle over. + +The brightest white occurs in the drapery upon which the infant Christ +lies. + +An angel with a group of men appears, kneeling on the left relieved +against white rocks; their colours are--the angel's wings--peacock blue +and green, and a pale rose robe. The next figure is in scarlet; the next +yellow; and the third man wears pale rose over rich grass-green. + +Of the shepherds on the right the first one is in russet and white, the +next steely gray, and the angel is in white with rose and pale green +wings. + +The ground is generally warm white and brown, with dark olive-coloured +grass and foliage, so that the pattern of the picture is mainly a ground +of olive, gold, and white, relieved by spots of rose, white, blue, +yellow, and rose-red and scarlet--the colour in the groups of angels +embracing men in front being the deepest in tone. + +The first angel in this group (on the left) wears green shot with gold, +with shot green and gold wings, the human being in dark olive and rich +crimson red. + +Next is a white angel with pale rose wings; the man in gray with a red +mantle over. + +Last is an angel in rose, with rose and red wings, the man being in +scarlet with gray mantle over. All the men hold olive branches, and the +group emphatically illustrates the idea of "on earth peace and goodwill +towards men," thus ending on the keynote both of colour and idea given +in the ring of angels above. + +Thus it is not only a lovely picture, but an exquisite pattern. + + [Holbein] + +Another instance of a picture-pattern extremely strong and brilliant in +its realization of the full force and value of bright colour opposed by +the strongest black and white, may be found in Holbein's splendid +"Ambassadors," also in our National Collection. + +[Illustration (f137): Holbein: "The Ambassadors" (National Gallery).] + + [Botticelli] + +The circular picture of the Madonna and Child, with St. John and an +angel, by Botticelli, is also another beautiful instance of pictorial +pattern, and of design well adapted and adequately filling its space, +while full of delicate draughtsmanship, poetic sentiment, and extremely +ornate in its colour. + +[Illustration (f138): Botticelli: "Madonna and Child" (National +Gallery).] + + [Carlo Crivelli] + +Still more strictly ornamental in character and aim is Carlo Crivelli's +"Annunciation." Amazingly rich in invention, and beautifully designed +detail, and magnificently decorative in its colour scheme of brick reds +and whites, and pale pinks and steel grays, and yellows, varied with +scarlet and black, green, blue and gold, in the costumes and draperies, +sparkling with jewels, and brightened with rays and patterns of gold. + +[Illustration (f139): Carlo Crivelli: "The Annunciation" (National +Gallery).] + + [Perugino] + +Hardly less ornamental in its more conscious grace and Renaissance +feeling is Perugino's triptych of the Virgin adoring, with St. Michael +on one wing and St. Raphael and Tobias on the other. It is a splendid +deep-toned harmony of blues, and warm flesh tones and golden hair, +varied by opals, rose red, bronze, green, white, and purple and orange. + +[Illustration (f140): Perugino: "The Virgin in Adoration, with St. +Michael and St. Raphael and Tobias" (National Gallery).] + + [Titian] + +Titian's "Bacchus and Ariadne" is, perhaps, more what I have described +as a pattern-picture, and is of a much later type. The full flush of +colour and pagan joy of the Renaissance is here paramount, expressed +with the masterly freedom of drawing and magnificent colour sense of the +great Venetian master. Yet, looking through the life, the movement, the +swing and vitality of the figures, and the power and poetry by which the +story is conveyed, we shall find a fine ornate design, sustaining an +extremely rich and sumptuous pattern of colour. We have a spread of +deep-toned blue sky barred with silvery white and gray clouds, great +masses of brown and green foliage swaying against it, above a band of +deep blue sea, and a field of rich golden brown earth. Warm flesh tones, +deep and pale, break upon this with a gorgeous pattern of flying rose, +blue, scarlet, orange, and white draperies, varied with the spotted +coats of the leopards, the black of the dog, and the copper vessel and +warm white of tumbled drapery. + +[Illustration (f141): Titian: "Bacchus and Ariadne" (National Gallery).] + +Keats might have had this picture in his mind when he wrote the song in +"Endymion": + + "And as I sat, over the light blue hills + There came a noise of revellers: the rills + Into the wide stream came of purple hue. + 'Twas Bacchus and his crew! + + "The earnest trumpet speaks, and silver thrills + From kissing cymbals made a merry din-- + 'Twas Bacchus and his kin! + + "Like to a moving vintage down they came, + Crowned with green leaves, and faces all on flame; + All madly dancing through the pleasant valley, + To scare thee, Melancholy!" + +The "Sacred and Profane Love" of the same painter, in the Borghese +Gallery at Rome, is an even more splendid example of colour and tone, +and is probably the finest of all Titian's works. + + [Paul Veronese] + +In Paul Veronese we find a cooler key of colour generally, with a +fondness for compositions of figures with classical architecture, the +rich patterned robes and varied heads contrasting pleasantly with the +severe verticals and smooth surfaces of the marble columns--a sumptuous +and dignified kind of picture-pattern, and fully adapted to the +decoration of Venetian churches and palaces of the Renaissance. + + [F. Madox Brown] + +Madox Brown's "Christ washing St. Peter's Feet," now in the Tate +Gallery, is a modern picture-pattern, and an extremely fine one. + +These are but a few instances out of many, and the subject of colour and +pattern, like the expression of line and form, of which it is a part, is +so large and its sides so multitudinous that to deal with the subject +fully and illustrate it adequately would need, not ten chapters, but +ten hundred, and could only be compassed by the history of art itself. + +[Illustration (f142): Madox Brown: "Christ Washing St. Peter's Feet" +(Tate Gallery).] + + [Conclusion] + +If anything I have said on the subject, or have been able to show by way +of illustration, has served in any way to clear away obscurities, or to +lighten the labours of students, or to suggest fresh ideas to the minds +of any of my readers in the theory, history, or practice of art, I shall +feel that my work has not been in vain, and, at all events, I can only +say that I have endeavoured to give here the results of my own thoughts +and experience in art. + +Some may look upon art as a means of livelihood only, a handmaid of +commerce, or as a branch of knowledge, to be acquired only so far as to +enable one to impart it to others; others may regard it as a polite +amusement; others, again, as an absorbing pursuit and passion, demanding +the closest devotion: but from whatever point of view we may regard it, +do not let us forget that the pursuit of beauty in art offers the best +of educations for the faculties, that its interest continually +increases, and its pleasures and successes are the most refined and +satisfying. + + + + + INDEX + +Adaptability in design, 124-126. + +Animal forms, use of in design, 106; + governed by inclosing boundaries, 104-106, 110-112. + +Architectural mouldings, relief in, 190. + +Architecture, spaces for sculpture in, 113-116. + +Ardebil, holy carpet of the mosque of, f126. + +Athens, the Tower of the Winds, 115-116. + + +Bari, 10; + the "Hundred Birds" of, f044. + +Birds, Japanese drawing of, 68, f044; + decorative treatment of, f115. + +Blake's Book of Job, "The Morning Stars," 19, f014, 152. + +Border motives, recurrence in, f031, f032, f062. + +Book decoration, 58, 59, 62; + example of page treatment, f041. + +Botticelli, frescoes in the Sistine Chapel, 226; + rendering of the "Primavera" in tapestry, 240; + his "Nativity," 272-275; + "Madonna and Child," 275-276. + +Boundaries, definition of, 2, 3; + use of in designing sprays, 38, f027; + in designing animal forms, f063a; + influence of, 108; + relation of design to, f064; + decorative spacing of figures in geometric, f063b, 152-156. + +Brush-work, 65-68. + + +Canterbury, St. Margaret Street, f086. + +Ceiling decoration, 136. + +Charcoal drawing, 68, 70. + +Chartres, carving on the Cathedral, 197, f108, f109. + +Chiaroscuro, 267-269. + +Chinese porcelain, 101. + +Colour, effect of texture on, 244; + in stained glass, 252; + expression of relief in line and form by, 256, 258; + radiation of, 258; + complements in, 260; + harmony in, 261; + colour sense, 261, 262; + colour proportions, 262; + importance of pure colour, 263. + +Composition, formal, 152-156; + informal, 157-164. + +Constantine, Arch of, sketch of, f069. + +Contrast in design, 101; + use of, in pattern design, 166, _et seq._; + principles of, in black and white, f111a. + +Corinthian order, Roman treatment of, 192, f105. + +Counterbalance, 43, 44, 95, f057, f058, 130. + +Counterchange, in heraldry, 171-174. + +Crivelli, "The Annunciation," 276-278. + +Cube, the, 73; + use of in architecture, f045b, 77, f048a; + in nature, 76. + + +Dado, use of the, 234. + +De Hooghe, Peter, 267. + +Desiderio di Settignano, relief work of, 202; + "Madonna and Child," at South Kensington, by, 202. + +Design, linear basis of, 35; + technical influence on, 58, 59, 62; + beauty in, 62, 63; + influence of material on, 64; + quantities in, 96-101; + contrast in, 101; + living tradition in, 126; + adaptability in, 124-126; + extension in, 126-131; + geometric structural plans in, 130; + essentials of, 138-139. + +De Wint, brush-work of, 68. + +Diaper, use of in Middle Ages, 171, 174-175. + +Donatello, relief work of, 202. + +Drapery, treatment of by the old masters, f099-186. + +Drawing in line, methods of, 6, 7; + calligraphic method, 8; + tentative method, 9; + Japanese method, 10; + oval and rectangular methods, f008, 12. + +Durer, Albert, his "Geometrica," 5; + roofs in his engravings, 148; + "The Prodigal Son," f083; + "St. Anthony," f084; + principle in the treatment of drapery, f099, f100. + + +Egyptian sculpture, 192, 194-196. + +Emotion, linear expression of, 18-21. + +Emphasis, 54; + value of, 56; + effects of different emphasis, f038, f039, f040; + in relief of form, 180. + +Equivalents in form, value of, 95, f057. + +Extension in design, 126-131. + + +Figure composition, 160; + expression of repose and action in, f090. + +Figure design, relief in, 204-207; + graphic and decorative treatment of, f114. + +Figure designs, controlled by geometric boundaries, 152-156. + +Flaxman's Homer, designs from, f015. + +Flowers, + lines of characterization in design of, 12, 13; + forms controlled by inclosing boundaries, 110-112. + +Foliage, principles of structure in, 143-146. + +Form, its relation to line, 27; + importance of knowledge of, 31; + choice of, 73, 79; + elementary forms and their relation to forms in nature and art, 73-77; + grouping of, 83-87; + analogies of, 89-91; + typical forms of ornament, 92-95; + equivalents in, 95, f057; + variation of allied forms, 103; + governed by shape of inclosing boundary, f063b, 106, f066; + relief of, 165, _et seq._; + expression of, by light and shade, 205, f112. + +Frieze, origin of the, 113, 133; + and field, 133-135; + use of the, 236; + treatment of, 240. + +Fruit forms, treatment of, f054, 89. + + +Gems, engraved, 200. + +Geometric forms, elementary, 73; + structural plans in surface design, 128-133. + +Ghirlandajo, 226. + +Giotto, "Chastity," f119. + +Gozzoli, Benozzo, 226. + +Graphic aim, the, in drawing, 29-31, 205, 208-211. + +Grouping of forms, 83-87. + + +Holbein, "The Ambassadors," f137. + +Human figure, use of the, + in design, 104-107; + decorative spacing of + within geometric boundaries, 105-106, 107; + governed by inclosing boundaries, 110, f066; + principles of line in, f081a. + + +Indian ornament, typical, 212, 216; + printed cotton designs, 246, f130. + +Inlay work, choice of forms for, 81-83. + + +Japanese method of drawing with the brush, 10, 68; + diagonal pattern, f053; + colour prints, 266. + + +Keene, Charles, 190. + + +Landscape, expression of storm and calm in, 158, f089. + +Lead pencil, 70. + +Letters, formation of, 4; + Durer's method, f005a. + +Line, methods of drawing in, 6-12; + quality of, 12-14; + the language of, 23; + comparison of style in, 24; + scale of degrees and qualities of, 24, 25; + its relation to form, 27; + question and answer in, 35, f025; + recurring, f031, f032; + radiating principle of, 46-50; + range and use of, 47-49; + choice of, 51; + degree and emphasis of, 54; + influence of technical conditions on, 58-62; + controlling influence of, as a boundary of design, 106, 108-113; + value of recurring, 119-124; + combinations of, 139; + principles of structural and ornamental line, 140-145; + selection of, f117a, f117b. + +Linear expression, of movement, 15, 16, 17; + of textures and surfaces, 18, 19; + of emotion, 19, 20, f015; + scale of, 21; + power of, 158, 160; + of fur and feathers, 208, f113. + +Linear motives and pattern bases, simple, 109-111. + +Lippi, Filippino, study of drapery by, f101. + +Lorenzo di Credi, 226. + +Lysicrates, monument of, 133. + + +Madox Brown, Ford, mural painting at Manchester, 226, 227; + "Christ washing Peter's feet," 280, f142. + +Mantling, treatment of, 170-173. + +Medals, 200, f110. + +Memory, importance of, in design, 39. + +Michael Angelo, ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, 225. + +Modelling, principle of relief in, 192. + +Montague, mantling from Garter plate of, f094b. + +Morris, William, tapestry of, 236, 240. + +Movement, linear expression of, 15-17; + lines of, in a procession, f091a; + in a dancing figure, f117a; + in water, f118b. + +Mural decoration, 224, 225; + diagram of systems of line governing, f121; + scale in, 230; + choice of line and form in, 236. + + +Nauplia, Gulf of, coast and mountain lines, f004, f118a. + +Nerva, Forum of, 192, f105. + +Nuremberg, ceiling in the Castle of, 136, 137. + + +Olive branch, study of from nature, f020; + decorative treatment of, f021. + +Ornament, typical forms of, 92-94. + +Ornamental purpose, the, in drawing, 29, 31-33, 210, _et seq._ + +Ornamental units, 94; + use of intervals in repeating, f065. + +Outline, origin and function of, 1. + + +Parthenon, the frieze of the, 46; + sketch of, f067. + +Pattern and picture, difference between, 265; + pattern-pictures, 272. + +Pen, the, compared with brush and pencil, 71. + +Pencil drawing, 70, 71. + +Persian carpets, principle of design in, 242; + treatment of borders in, f127; + white outline in, 260. + +Persian ornament, typical, 212, f116. + +Persian rugs, value of different quantities in, 98-101. + +Perugino, National Gallery triptych, f140. + +Photograph, influence of the, 55, 56; + principle of the, 187, 190. + +Picture writing, 27, f019. + +Pinturicchio, frescoes in the Sistine Chapel, 226; + mural painting at Siena, 226, f120; + frescoes in the Appartimenti Borgia, 238, f125. + +Pisano, Vittore, medals of, 198, f110. + +Poppy, horned study of, f022; + adaptation of for needlework, f023; + sketch of on different coloured grounds, f132, 258. + +Prints, principles of design for, 246-251. + +Procession, lines of movement in a, 160, 162-163. + +Pyramid, the, 73; + use of in architecture, f045b, f048a. + + +Radiating principle of line, the, 46-50. + +Raphael, study of drapery by, f102. + +Ravenna, S. Vitale, sketch of apse, f070. + +Recurring line and form, f031, f032; + value of in architecture, 119, 124. + +Relief, methods of expressing, 165; + use of contrast, 166; + decorative relief, 171; + on diapered ground, 174-175; + by simple linear contrasts, 174, 176-178; + by linear shading, 176, 178; + by diagonal shading, 176, 178-180; + value of emphasis in, 180; + by light and shade alone, 187-190; + principle of in architectural mouldings, 190; + modelled, 192; + in sculpture, 192-199, f109; + Florentine fifteenth-century work, 202; + natural principle of, 204, f111b; + by colour, 256, 258. + +Repeating patterns, 36, f026, f077b, f078; + method of testing, 38, f028. + +Rhythm of design, the, 32. + +Roofs, German, 146-148. + +Rothenburg, roof-lines in, f085. + + +St. David's Cathedral, carvings in, 122-124; + Gothic tile pattern in, f074, f076. + +Scale, importance of in mural decoration, 230, 232. + +Sculpture, relief in, 192; + Egyptian, 192, 194; + Grecian, 194, f107, 197; + Gothics, 197; + on mediaeval tombs, 198. + +Selection, the test of artistic treatment, 214. + +Shields, F. J., mural decoration, 228. + +Silhouette, 2, f010a. + +Skirting, the, 234. + +Spaces, decorative, in design, 113; + apparent depth or width increased by use of vertical or horizontal + lines, 232, f122. + +Spacing, mural, 230, f121, f123. + +Sphere, the, 73; + use of in architecture, f045b, f048a; + in nature, 76. + +Stained glass, principles of design for, 252, 255. + +Surfaces, linear expression of, 18. + + +Tapestry, 237; + Burgundian, 237, f124; + effect of texture on colour in, 244, f128. + +Technical influence, the, 58-62. + +Textile designing, 62; + examples of, f041b; + value of different qualities in, 97-101; + principles of, 241, 242; + colour in, 244. + +Textures, linear expression of, 18. + +Thebes, sculptured relief at, f106. + +Titian, "Bacchus and Ariadne," 278-280; + "Sacred and Profane Love," 280. + +Tivoli, Temple of the Sibyls at, 133. + +Trees, effect of wind upon, f011; + general principles of line and form in foliage, etc., 143-145. + +Typical treatment, 31; + ornament, 92-95. + + +Valence, Aymer de, tomb of, f094a. + +Van Eyck, "Jan Arnolfini and his Wife," 267, f134, 270, 271. + +Variation of allied forms, 103. + +Variety in design, 40. + +Ver Meer, "Lady at Spinet," f135, 270, 272. + +Veronese, Paul, 280. + +Visch, Martin de, brass of, f094b, f095. + + +Walberswick Church, f072. + +Walker, Frederick, 190. + +Wall, decorative spacing of the, 234, f123. + +Wall-paper, principles of design for, 36, f026, 246; + relation between frieze and field in, 133, 134. + +Water, lines of movement in, f118b. + +Watercourse, lines left by a, f091b. + +Wave lines, f011, f012. + +Westminster, vaulting of chapter house, f035. + +Winchelsea, tomb of Gervaise-Alard, f071. + + + + + CHISWICK PRESS: PRINTED BY CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO. + TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Line and Form (1900), by Walter Crane + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LINE AND FORM (1900) *** + +***** This file should be named 25290.txt or 25290.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/2/9/25290/ + +Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, David Cortesi, Jonathan +Ingram and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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